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who wants to be a millionaire top prize winners | List of who Wants to be a Millionaire? Top prize winners - wikipedia
Below is a list of the winners of the top prize for each international versions of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?.
Some players had answered the top prize question correctly, but did not actually win the prize because of ineligibility, legal issues, or elimination from a contest.
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tu hi tu female version download mr jatt | List of songs recorded by Sunidhi Chauhan - wikipedia
This is a list of songs recorded by Indian female playback singer Sunidhi Chauhan
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where did jumping over the broom come from | Jumping the broom - wikipedia
Jumping the broom is a phrase and custom relating to a wedding ceremony where the couple jumps over a broom. It has been suggested that the custom is based on an 18th - century idiomatic expression for "sham marriage '', "marriage of doubtful validity ''; it was popularized in the context of the introduction of civil marriage in Britain with the Marriage Act 1836.
There have also been suggestions that the expression may derive from an actual custom of jumping over a "broomstick '' (where "broom '' refers to the plant common broom rather than the household implement) associated with the gypsies (Romani) of the United Kingdom. especially those in Wales.
The custom of a marrying couple literally jumping over a broom is now most widespread among African Americans, popularized in the 1970s by the novel and miniseries Roots but originating in the mid 19th century as a practice in antebellum slavery in the United States.
References to "broomstick marriages '' emerged in England in the mid-to - late 18th century, always to describe a wedding ceremony of doubtful validity. The earliest use of the phrase is in the 1764 English edition of a French work: the French text, describing an elopement, refers to the runaway couple hastily making un mariage sur la croix de l'épée (literally ' marriage on the cross of the sword '), an expression the English translator freely renders as ' performed the marriage ceremony by leaping over a broomstick '.
A 1774 usage in the Westminster Magazine also describes an elopement. A man who had taken his under - age bride off to France discovered it was as hard to arrange a legal marriage there as in England, but declined a suggestion that a French sexton might simply read the marriage service through before the couple as "He had no inclination for a Broomstick - marriage ''. In 1789 the rumoured clandestine marriage between the Prince Regent and Maria Fitzherbert is similarly referred to in a satirical song in The Times: "Their way to consummation was by hopping o'er a broom, sir ''.
Despite these allusions, research by the legal historian Professor R. Probert of Warwick University has failed to find any proof of an actual contemporary practice of jumping over a broomstick as a sign of informal union. Probert also points out that the word broomstick was used in the mid-18th century in several contexts to mean ' something ersatz, or lacking the authority its true equivalent might possess. ' She therefore argues that because the expression broomstick marriage, meaning ' sham marriage ', was in circulation, folk etymology led to a belief that people must actually have once signified irregular marriage by jumping over a broom.
There are later examples of the term broomstick marriage being used in Britain, always with a similar implication that the ceremony so performed did not create a legally binding union. This meaning survived into the early nineteenth century: during a case heard in London in 1824 regarding the legal validity of a marriage ceremony consisting of nothing more than the groom placing a ring on the bride 's finger before witnesses, a court official commented that the ceremony "amounted to nothing more than a broomstick marriage, which the parties had it in their power to dissolve at will. ''
A decade later, the Marriage Act 1836, which introduced civil marriage, was contemptuously referred to as the ' Broomstick Marriage Act ' by those who felt that a marriage outside the Anglican church did not deserve legal recognition. Some also began to use the phrase to refer to non-marital unions: a man interviewed in Mayhew 's London Labour and the London Poor admitted: "I never had a wife, but I have had two or three broomstick matches, though they never turned out happy. ''
Tinkers were said to have a similar custom of marriage called "jumping the budget '', with the bride and groom jumping over a string or other symbolic obstacle.
Charles Dickens ' novel, Great Expectations (first published in serial form in the publication All the Year Round from 1 December 1860 to August 1861), contains a reference in chapter 48 to a couple having been married "over the broomstick. '' The ceremony is not portrayed, but the reference indicates that the readers would have recognized this as referring to an informal, not a legally valid, agreement.
It has often been assumed that, in England, jumping over the broom (or sometimes walking over a broom), always indicated an irregular or non-church union (as in the expressions "Married over the besom '', "living over the brush ''), but there are examples of the phrase being used in the context of legal weddings, both religious and civil.
Other sources have stepping over a broom as a test of chastity, while putting out a broom was also said to be a sign "that the housewife 's place is vacant '' and a way, therefore, of advertising for a wife.
In America the phrase could be used as slang describing the act of getting married legally, rather than as specifying an informal union not recognised by church or state.
In Wales, Romani couples would get married by eloping, when they would "jump the broom, '' or over a branch of flowering common broom or a besom made of broom. Welsh Kale and English Romanichal Gypsies and Romanichal populations in Scotland practised the ritual into the 1900s.
According to Alan Dundes (1996), the custom originated among Romani people in Wales (Welsh Kale) and England (Romanichal).
C.W. Sullivan III (1997) in a reply to Dundes argued that the custom originated among the Welsh people themselves, known as priodas coes ysgub ("besom wedding ''), Sullivan 's source is the Welsh folklorist Gwenith Gwynn (a.k.a. W. Rhys Jones), who assumed that the custom had once existed on the basis of conversations with elderly Welsh people during the 1920s, none of whom had ever seen such a practice. One had claimed that: "It must have disappeared before I was born, and I am seventy - three ''. Gwynn 's dating of the custom to the 18th century rested on the assumption that it must have disappeared before these elderly interviewees were born, and on his misreading of the baptism register of the parish of Llansantffraid Glyn Ceiriog.
Local variations of the custom were developed in different parts of England and Wales. Instead of placing the broom on the ground, and jumping together, the broom was placed in an angle by the doorway. The groom jumped first, followed by the bride. In southwest England, in Wales, and in the border areas between Scotland and England, "(while some) couples... agreed to marry verbally, without exchanging legal contracts (,)... (o) thers jumped over broomsticks placed across their thresholds to officialize their union and create new households '', indicating that contractless weddings and jumping the broomstick were different kinds of marriage.
In some African - American communities, marrying couples will end their ceremony by jumping over a broomstick, either together or separately. This practice is well attested for as a marriage ceremony for slaves in the Southern United States in the 1840s and 1850s who were often not permitted to wed legally. Its revival in 20th century African American culture is due to the novel and miniseries Roots (1976, 1977).
Dundes (1996) notes the unusual development of how "a custom which slaves were forced to observe by their white masters has been revived a century later by African Americans as a treasured tradition ''.
There have been occasional speculations to the effect that the custom may have origins in West Africa, but there is no direct evidence for this, although Dundes points to a custom of Ghana where brooms were waved above the heads of newlyweds and their parents. Among southern Africans, who were largely not a part of the Atlantic slave trade, it represented the wife 's commitment or willingness to clean the courtyard of the new home she had joined.
Slave - owners were faced with a dilemma regarding committed relationships between slaves. While some family stability might be desirable as helping to keep slaves tractable and pacified, anything approaching a legal marriage was not. Marriage gave a couple rights over each other which conflicted with the slave - owners ' claims. Most marriages between enslaved blacks were not legally recognized during American slavery, as in law marriage was held to be a civil contract, and civil contracts required the consent of free persons. In the absence of any legal recognition, the slave community developed its own methods of distinguishing between committed and casual unions. The ceremonial jumping of the broom served as an open declaration of settling down in a marriage relationship. Jumping the broom was always done before witnesses as a public ceremonial announcement that a couple chose to become as close to married as was then allowed.
Jumping the broom fell out of practice when blacks were free to marry legally. The practice did survive in some communities, however, and made a resurgence after the publication of Alex Haley 's Roots Danita Rountree Green describes the African American custom as it stood in the early 1990s in her book Broom Jumping: A Celebration of Love (1992).
American singer - songwriter, Brenda Lee, released the rockabilly song "Let 's Jump the Broomstick '' on Decca Records in 1959. Via its association with Wales and the popular association of the broom with witches, the custom has also been adopted by some Wiccans.
A film titled Jumping the Broom, directed by Salim Akil, and starring Paula Patton & Laz Alonso was released on 6 May 2011.
In a 2013 episode of Grey 's Anatomy, Miranda Bailey and Ben Warren jump over a broom at the conclusion of their wedding ceremony.
In the classic 1977 TV mini-series "Roots '', Kunta Kinte / "Toby '' (played by John Amos as adult Kunta Kinte - Levar Burton played the teenager Kunta Kinte) had a marriage ceremony where he and Belle (played by Madge Sinclair) jumped the broom.
In the 2016 film The Birth of a Nation, a couple getting betrothed is seen jumping a broom.
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where do you go to get power of attorney | Power of attorney - wikipedia
A power of attorney (POA) or letter of attorney is a written authorization to represent or act on another 's behalf in private affairs, business, or some other legal matter. The person authorizing the other to act is the principal, grantor, or donor (of the power). The one authorized to act is the agent or, in some common law jurisdictions, the attorney - in - fact.
Formerly, the term "power '' referred to an instrument signed under seal while a "letter '' was an instrument under hand, meaning that it was simply signed by the parties, but today a power of attorney need not be signed under seal. Some jurisdictions require that powers of attorney be notarized or witnessed, but others will enforce a power of attorney as long as it is signed by the grantor.
The term attorney - in - fact is used in many jurisdictions instead of the term agent. That term should be distinguished from the term attorney - at - law. In the United States, an attorney - at - law is a solicitor who is also licensed to be an advocate in a particular jurisdiction. An attorney - in - fact may be a layperson and is authorized to act pursuant to the powers granted by a power of attorney, but may not engage in acts that would constitute the unauthorized practice of law.
In the context of the unincorporated reciprocal inter-insurance exchange (URIE) the attorney - in - fact is a stakeholder / trustee who takes custody of the subscriber funds placed on deposit with him, and then uses those funds to pay insurance claims. When all the claims are paid, the attorney - in - fact then returns the leftover funds to the subscribers.
The Uniform Power of Attorney Act employs the term agent. As an agent, an attorney - in - fact is a fiduciary for the principal, so the law requires an attorney - in - fact to be completely honest with and loyal to the principal in their dealings with each other.
Care must be taken when selecting an attorney - in - fact, as some attorneys - in - fact have used their authority to steal the assets of vulnerable individuals such as the elderly (see elder abuse).
The person who creates a power of attorney, known as the grantor, can only do so when he / she has the requisite mental capacity. Suppose the grantor loses capacity to grant permission after the power of attorney has been created (for example, from Alzheimer 's disease or a head injury in a car crash); then the power will probably no longer be effective. In some powers of attorney the grantor states that he / she wishes the document to remain in effect even after he / she becomes incapacitated. This type of power is commonly referred to as a durable power of attorney. If someone is already incapacitated, it is not possible for that person to execute a valid power. If a person does not have the capacity to execute a power of attorney (and does not already have a durable power in place), often the only way for another party to act on their behalf is to have a court impose a conservatorship or a guardianship.
Depending on the jurisdiction, a power of attorney may be oral and, whether witnessed, will hold up in court, the same as if it were in writing. For some purposes, the law requires a power of attorney to be in writing. Many institutions, such as hospitals, banks and, in the United States, the Internal Revenue Service, require a power of attorney to be in writing before they will honor it, and they will usually keep a duplicate original or a copy for their records. Nursing homes often follow the same practice.
The equal dignity rule is a principle of law that requires an authorization for someone performing certain acts for another person to have been appointed with the same formality as required for the act the representative is going to perform. This means, for example, that if a principal authorizes someone to sell the principal 's house or other real property, and the law requires a contract for the sale of real property to be in writing (which is required under the Statute of Frauds in most U.S. jurisdictions), then the authorization for the other person to sign the sales contract and deed must be in writing too. Likewise, in common - law jurisdictions other than the U.S., a power of an attorney to execute a deed (i.e. instrument under seal or executed in presence of two witnesses) must be itself executed as a deed.
In order for a power of attorney to become a legally enforceable document, at a minimum it must be signed and dated by the principal. Some jurisdictions also require that a power of attorney be witnessed, notarized, or both. Even when not required, having the document reviewed and signed (and often stamped) by a notary public may increase the likelihood of withstanding a legal challenge.
If the attorney - in - fact is being paid to act on behalf of the principal, a contract for payment may be separate from the document granting power of attorney. If that separate contract is in writing, as a separate document it may be kept private between the principal and agent even when the power of attorney is presented to others for the purposes of carrying out the agent 's duties.
A power of attorney may be: special (also called limited), general, or temporary. A special power of attorney is one that is limited to a specified act or type of act. A general power of attorney is one that allows the agent to make all personal and business decisions A temporary power of attorney is one with a limited time frame. If ever required, a durable power of attorney can be revoked or changed as long as the principal is still mentally competent to act.
Under the common law, a power of attorney becomes ineffective if its grantor dies or becomes "incapacitated, '' meaning unable to grant such a power, because of physical injury or mental illness, for example, unless the grantor (or principal) specifies that the power of attorney will continue to be effective even if the grantor becomes incapacitated. This type of power of attorney is called "power of attorney with durable provisions '' in the United States or "enduring power of attorney '' elsewhere. In effect, under a durable power of attorney (DPA), the authority of the attorney - in - fact to act and / or make decisions on behalf of the grantor continues until the grantor 's death.
In some jurisdictions, a durable power of attorney can also be a "health care power of attorney. '' This particular affidavit gives the attorney - in - fact the authority to make health - care decisions for the grantor, up to and including terminating care and life support. The grantor can typically modify or restrict the powers of the agent to make end - of - life decisions. In many jurisdictions a health care power of attorney is also referred to as a "health care proxy '' and, as such, the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
Related to the health care power of attorney is a separate document known as an advance health care directive, also called a "living will ''. A living will is a written statement of a person 's health care and medical wishes but does not appoint another person to make health care decisions. Depending upon the jurisdiction, a health care power of attorney may or may not appear with an advance health care directive in a single, physical document. For example, the California legislature has adopted a standard power of attorney for health care and advance health care directive form that meets all of that state 's legal wording requirements for a power of attorney and advance health care directive in a single document. Compare this to New York State, which enacted a Health Care Proxy law that requires a separate document be prepared appointing one as your health care agent.
In some U.S. states and other jurisdictions, it is possible to grant a springing power of attorney; i.e., a power that takes effect only after the incapacity of the grantor or some other definite future act or circumstance. After such incapacitation the power is identical to a durable power, but can not be invoked before the incapacity. This power may be used to allow a spouse or family member to manage the grantor 's affairs in case illness or injury makes the grantor unable to act. If a springing power is used, the grantor should specify exactly how and when the power springs into effect. As the result of privacy legislation in the U.S., medical doctors will often not reveal information relating to capacity of the principal unless the power of attorney specifically authorizes them to do so.
Determining whether the principal is "disabled '' enough to initiate this type of representation is a formal process. Springing powers of attorney are not automatic, and institutions may refuse to work with the attorney - in - fact. Disputes are then resolved in court.
Unless the power of attorney has been made irrevocable by its own terms or by some legal principle, the grantor may revoke the power of attorney by telling the attorney - in - fact it is revoked. However, if the principal does not inform third parties and it is reasonable for the third parties to rely upon the power of attorney being in force, the principal might still be bound by the acts of the agent, though the agent may also be liable for such unauthorized acts.
Standardized forms are available for various kinds of powers of attorney, and many organizations provide them for their clients, customers, patients, employees, or members. However, the grantor should exercise caution when using a standardized POA form obtained from a source other than a lawyer because there is considerable variation in approved formats among the states. In some states statutory power of attorney forms are available. Examples include the California Statutory Form Power of Attorney, New York Form Power of Attorney and Wisconsin Form Power of Attorney.
Although a power of attorney grants the agent powers to perform acts in the absence of the grantor, the POA can not grant powers to the agent that conflict with rules and regulations governing people and companies that the agent deals with. For example, if a bank has regulations that require the grantor to be physically present in the bank to perform certain actions, the POA can not grant the agent power to perform those actions in the absence of the grantor.
Robert 's Rules of Order notes that proxy voting involves granting a power of attorney. The term "proxy '' refers to both the power of attorney itself and the person to whom it is granted.
In financial situations wherein a principal requests a securities broker to perform extensive investment functions on the principal 's behalf, independent of the principal 's advice, power of attorney must be formally granted to the broker to trade in the principal 's account. This rule also applies to principals who instruct their brokers to perform certain specific trades and principals who trust their brokers to perform certain trades in the principal 's best interest.
In Australia, anyone with capacity can grant a power of attorney. This can be done either for a pre-defined period of time, or in perpetuity ("enduring ''). The power of attorney can be granted to one individual, or to multiple individuals. When granted to multiple individuals, they may be authorised either to act jointly (all together) or to act severally (each can act individually).
In English and Welsh law, anyone with capacity can grant a power of attorney. These can be general (i.e., to do anything which can legally be done by an attorney), or relate to a specific act (e.g., to sell freehold property). A power of attorney is only valid while the donor has the capacity to ratify the attorney 's actions, unless it is made in the form of a lasting power of attorney and registered with the Office of the Public Guardian. This new form of power of attorney was introduced in 2007 under the Mental Capacity Act 2005 and replaced the former enduring power of attorney, although EPAs correctly made before the law changed are still valid. EPAs only need to be registered if the donor has since lost capacity.
The Office of the Public Guardian provides online process for registering power of attorney.
Many of the provisions in the earlier paragraphs above use terminology different from either common UK usage or terms used in the Mental Capacity Act 2005. Examples are enduring power of attorney, advance directive, and notary public.
In Irish law there are two forms of power of attorney:
The death of the donor ends both.
The relevant legislation is the Powers of Attorney Act 1996 and the Enduring Powers of Attorney Regulations 1996 (SI No. 196 / 1996) as amended by SI No. 287 / 1996. Part 7 of the Assisted Decision - Making (Capacity) Act 2015 provides for new arrangements for those who wish to make an Enduring Power of Attorney and once the 2015 act is commenced, no new powers of attorney will be created under the 1996 act.
A solicitor is not necessary when creating Power of Attorney - it can be created when signed by the donor in the presence of a witness.
Creating an Enduring Power of Attorney requires the following:
The courts play a general supervisory role in the implementation of the power.
Under Russian law, specifically art. 185 of the Russian Civil Code, a power of attorney may be executed under hand or in notarial form. The power of attorney to act must be notarially executed. Notarial execution is required for any power of attorney made for concluding a contract subject to special public recordation, namely those dealing with interests in immovable property.
A power of attorney, pursuant to art. 186 of the Russian Civil Code, must also be dated. Any POA without an express date of execution is void.
A power of attorney can not be irrevocable. The grantor may terminate the POA at any time at his or her sole discretion. Any waiver of this right is void, as provided by the Civil Code.
The Office of the Public Guardian in Scotland offers the eAttorney Electronic Power of Attorney (EPOAR) system for the submission and payment of powers of attorney registrations.
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where was the final scene of saving private ryan filmed | Saving Private Ryan - wikipedia
Saving Private Ryan is a 1998 American epic war film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Robert Rodat. Set during the Invasion of Normandy in World War II, the film is notable for its graphic portrayal of war, and for the intensity of its opening 27 minutes, which includes a depiction of the Omaha Beach assault during the Normandy landings. It follows United States Army Rangers Captain John H. Miller (Tom Hanks) and a squad (Tom Sizemore, Edward Burns, Barry Pepper, Giovanni Ribisi, Vin Diesel, Adam Goldberg, and Jeremy Davies) as they search for a paratrooper, Private First Class James Francis Ryan (Matt Damon), who is the last - surviving brother of four servicemen.
The film received widespread critical acclaim, winning several awards for film, cast, and crew, as well as earning significant returns at the box office. The film grossed $216.8 million domestically, making it the highest - grossing film of 1998 in the United States, and $481.8 million worldwide, making it the second - highest - grossing film of 1998 worldwide. The film was nominated for 11 Academy Awards, including Best Picture; Spielberg 's direction won his second Academy Award for Best Director, with four more awards going to the film. Saving Private Ryan was released on home video in May 1999, earning another $44 million from sales.
In 2014, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. ''
In the present day, an elderly veteran visits the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial with his family. Upon seeing one particular grave, he falls to his knees overcome with emotion. The scene then shifts to the morning of June 6, 1944, as American soldiers land on Omaha Beach as part of the Normandy Invasion. They suffer heavy losses in assaulting German defensive positions of artillery and machine guns raining down intense fire on the American forces. Captain John H. Miller of the 2nd Ranger Battalion assembles a group to penetrate the German defenses, leading to a breakout from the beach. Elsewhere on the beach, a dead soldier lies face - down in the bloody surf; his pack is stenciled Ryan, S.
In Washington, D.C., at the U.S. War Department, General George Marshall learns that three of the four brothers of the Ryan family were killed in action and that the fourth son, James, has been parachuted somewhere over Normandy but is currently unable to be located. He is also informed that their mother will receive all three telegrams notifying her of her three sons ' deaths on the same day. After reading Abraham Lincoln 's Bixby letter aloud for his staff, he orders that James Ryan be found and returned home immediately.
Three days after D - Day, Miller receives orders to find Ryan and bring him back from the front. He assembles six men from his company -- T / Sgt. Mike Horvath, Privates First Class Richard Reiben and Adrian Caparzo, Privates Stanley Mellish and Danny Jackson, medic Irwin Wade -- plus T / 5 Timothy Upham, a cartographer and interpreter borrowed from another unit. They move out to Neuville, where they meet a squad from the 101st Airborne Division, where Caparzo is killed by a German sniper, quickly taken out by Jackson. They locate a Private James Ryan but quickly learn he is not their man. They eventually encounter a friend of James Ryan, who tells them that he is defending an important bridge in the town of Ramelle.
On the way to Ramelle, Miller decides to neutralize a German machine gun position at a derelict radar station, despite his men 's misgivings; Wade is killed in the skirmish. Miller, at Upham 's urging, declines to execute a surviving German soldier (nicknamed "Steamboat Willie '') and sets him free on the condition that he surrender to the first Allied unit he encounters. Losing confidence in Miller 's leadership, Reiben declares his intention to desert, prompting a confrontation with Horvath, which Miller defuses by disclosing his civilian background as a teacher, about which his men had set up a betting pool. Reiben reluctantly decides to stay.
Outside Ramelle, Miller and the squad encounters a German half - track with troops and ambush them together with three paratroopers, one of whom is Ryan. In the town, Miller 's squad find a small group of paratroopers preparing to defend the key bridge, and where Miller tells Ryan about his brothers and their orders to bring him home, with two of his men having been lost in finding him. He is distressed at the loss of his brothers, but asks Miller to tell his mother that he intends to stay "with the only brothers (he has) left. '' Miller decides to join his unit with the paratroopers in defense of the bridge against the imminent German attack. Miller forms ambush positions throughout the ruined town, preparing to attack arriving tanks and infantry with mines, Molotov cocktails, detonation cords and "sticky bombs '' made from socks filled with Composition B smeared with thick grease.
Elements of the 2nd SS Panzer Division arrive with infantry and armor, comprising two Tiger I tanks and two Marder tank destroyers / light assault guns. Although they managed to inflict heavy casualties on the Germans, including destroying one Tiger tank and both Marders, most of the paratroopers, along with Jackson, Mellish and Horvath are killed, while Upham avoids fighting due to his jittery nerves and hides himself from his German foes. Miller attempts to blow up the bridge, but is shot and mortally wounded by Steamboat Willie, who had somehow rejoined the Germans. In confusion and supposed desperation after suffering intense German fire, Miller crawls to the middle of the bridge and attempts to open fire on the oncoming German tank and accompanying troops with his pistol. Just before the last Tiger tank reaches the bridge, an American P - 51 Mustang flies overhead and destroys the tank, followed by American armored units which rout the remaining Germans. Witnessing Miller 's shooting, Upham leaps out from his hiding and confronts Steamboat Willie and his group as they attempt to retreat. Steamboat Willie raises his hands in surrender and smiles, believing that Upham will accept because of their earlier encounter. Instead, Upham kills him, but lets the other Germans flee.
Reiben and Ryan are with Miller as he dies and utters his last words, "James... earn this. Earn it. ''
Back in the present day, the elderly veteran is revealed to be Ryan and the grave he is standing at is Miller 's. Ryan expresses his appreciation for what Miller and the others did for him. He then asks his wife if he is a "good man '' worthy of their sacrifices, to which she tells him he is. Ryan comes to attention and salutes Miller 's grave.
In 1994, Robert Rodat wrote the script for the film. Rodat 's script was submitted to producer Mark Gordon, who liked it and in turn passed it along to Spielberg to direct. The film is loosely based on the World War II life stories of the Niland brothers. A shooting date was set for June 27, 1997.
In casting the film Spielberg sought to create a cast that "looked '' the part, stating in an interview, "You know, the people in World War II actually looked different than people look today '', adding to this end that he cast partly based on wanting the cast "to match the faces I saw on the newsreels. ''
Before filming began, several of the film 's stars, including Edward Burns, Barry Pepper, Vin Diesel, Adam Goldberg, Giovanni Ribisi, and Tom Hanks, endured ten days of "boot camp '' training led by Marine veteran Dale Dye and Warriors, Inc., a California - based company that specializes in training actors for realistic military portrayals. Matt Damon was intentionally not brought into the camp, to make the rest of the group feel resentment towards the character. Spielberg had stated that his main intention in forcing the actors to go through the boot camp was not to learn the proper techniques but rather "because I wanted them to respect what it was like to be a soldier. ''
The film 's second scene is a 20 + minute sequence recounting the landing on the beaches of Normandy. Spielberg chose to include this particularly violent sequence in order "to bring the audience onto the stage with me '' specifically noting that he did not want the "audience to be spectators '' but rather he wanted to "demand them to be participants with those kids who had never seen combat before in real life, and get to the top of Omaha Beach together. ''
Spielberg had already demonstrated his interest in World War II themes with the films 1941, Empire of the Sun, Schindler 's List, and the Indiana Jones series. Spielberg later co-produced the World War II themed television miniseries Band of Brothers and its counterpart The Pacific with Tom Hanks. When asked about this by American Cinematographer, Spielberg said, "I think that World War II is the most significant event of the last 100 years; the fate of the baby boomers and even Generation X was linked to the outcome. Beyond that, I 've just always been interested in World War II. My earliest films, which I made when I was about 14 years old, were combat pictures that were set both on the ground and in the air. For years now, I 've been looking for the right World War II story to shoot, and when Robert Rodat wrote Saving Private Ryan, I found it. ''
Spielberg wanted an almost exact replica of the Omaha Beach landscape for the movie, including similar sand and a bluff similar to the one where German forces were stationed and a near match was found in Ireland. The D - Day scenes were shot in Ballinesker Beach, Curracloe Strand, Ballinesker, just east of Curracloe, County Wexford, Ireland. Hanks recalled to Roger Ebert that although he realized it was a movie, the experience still hit him hard, stating, "The first day of shooting the D - Day sequences, I was in the back of the landing craft, and that ramp went down and I saw the first 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 rows of guys just getting blown to bits. In my head, of course, I knew it was special effects, but I still was n't prepared for how tactile it was. '' Filming began June 27, 1997, and lasted for two months. Some shooting was done in Normandy, for the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in Colleville - sur - Mer and Calvados. Other scenes were filmed in England, such as a former British Aerospace factory in Hatfield, Hertfordshire, Thame Park, Oxfordshire and Wiltshire. Production was due to also take place in Seaham, County Durham, but government restrictions disallowed this.
Saving Private Ryan has received critical acclaim for its realistic portrayal of World War II combat. In particular, the sequence depicting the Omaha Beach landings was named the "best battle scene of all time '' by Empire magazine and was ranked number one on TV Guide 's list of the "50 Greatest Movie Moments ''. The scene cost US $12 million and involved up to 1,500 extras, some of whom were members of the Irish Reserve Defence Forces. Members of local reenactment groups such as the Second Battle Group were cast as extras to play German soldiers. In addition, twenty to thirty actual amputees were used to portray American soldiers maimed during the landing. Spielberg did not storyboard the sequence, as he wanted spontaneous reactions and for "the action to inspire me as to where to put the camera ''.
The historical representation of Charlie Company 's actions, led by its commander, Captain Ralph E. Goranson, was well maintained in the opening sequence. The sequence and details of the events are very close to the historical record, including the sea sickness experienced by many of the soldiers as the landing craft moved toward the shoreline, significant casualties among the men as they disembarked from the boats, and difficulty linking up with adjacent units on the shore.
The distinctive signature "ping '' of the US soldiers ' M1 Garand rifles ejecting their ammunition clips is heard throughout the battle sequence. The contextual details of the Company 's actions were well maintained, for instance, the correct code names for the sector Charlie Company assaulted, and adjacent sectors, were used. Included in the cinematic depiction of the landing was a follow - on mission of clearing a bunker and trench system at the top of the cliffs which was not part of the original mission objectives for Charlie Company, but which they did undertake after the assault on the beach.
The landing craft used included twelve actual World War II examples, 10 LCVPs and 2 LCMs, standing in for the British LCAs that the Ranger Companies rode in to the beach during Operation Overlord. The filmmakers used underwater cameras to better depict soldiers being hit by bullets in the water. Forty barrels of fake blood were used to simulate the effect of blood in the seawater. This degree of realism was more difficult to achieve when depicting World War II German armored vehicles, as few examples survive in operating condition. The Tiger I tanks in the film were copies built on the chassis of old, but functional, Soviet T - 34 tanks. The two vehicles described in the film as Panzers were meant to portray Marder III tank destroyers. One was created for the film using the chassis of a Czech - built Panzer 38 (t) tank similar to the construction of the original Marder III; the other was a cosmetically modified Swedish SAV m / 43 assault gun, which also used the 38 (t) chassis.
There are, however, historical inaccuracies in the film 's depiction of the Normandy campaign. At the time of the mission, American forces from the two American beach areas, Utah and Omaha, had not yet linked up. In reality, a Ranger team operating out of the Omaha beach area would have had to move through the heavily enemy - occupied city of Carentan, or swim or boat across the estuary linking Carentan to the channel, or transfer by boat to the Utah landing area. On the other hand, US forces moving out of Utah would have had direct and much shorter routes, relatively unencumbered by enemy positions, and were already in contact with some teams from both US airborne divisions landed in the area.
The Utah beach landings, however, were relatively uncontested, with assault units landing on largely unoccupied beaches and experiencing far less action than the landings at Omaha. The filmmakers chose to begin the narrative with a depiction of the more dramatic story of Omaha, despite the strategic inaccuracy of an impossible mission that could easily have been pursued from the other beach area. In addition, one of the most notable of the operational flaws is the depiction of the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich as the adversary during the fictional Battle of Ramelle. The 2nd SS was not engaged in Normandy until July, and then at Caen against the British and Canadians, 100 miles east. Furthermore, the Merderet River bridges were not an objective of the 101st Airborne Division but of the 82nd Airborne Division, part of Mission Boston.
Much has also been said about various "tactical errors '' made by both the German and American forces in the film 's climactic battle. Spielberg responded, saying that in many scenes he opted to replace sound military tactics and strict historical accuracy for dramatic effect. Some other technical errors were also made, often censored, including the mistaken reversed orientation of the beach barriers; the tripod obstructions with a mine at the apex.
To achieve a tone and quality that was true to the story as well as reflected the period in which it is set, Spielberg once again collaborated with cinematographer Janusz Kamiński, saying, "Early on, we both knew that we did not want this to look like a Technicolor extravaganza about World War II, but more like color newsreel footage from the 1940s, which is very desaturated and low - tech. '' Kamiński had the protective coating stripped from the camera lenses, making them closer to those used in the 1940s. He explains that "without the protective coating, the light goes in and starts bouncing around, which makes it slightly more diffused and a bit softer without being out of focus. '' The cinematographer completed the overall effect by putting the negative through bleach bypass, a process that reduces brightness and color saturation. The shutter timing was set to 90 or 45 degrees for many of the battle sequences, as opposed to the standard of 180 - degree timing. Kamiński clarifies, "In this way, we attained a certain staccato in the actors ' movements and a certain crispness in the explosions, which makes them slightly more realistic. ''
Saving Private Ryan was a critical and commercial success and is credited with contributing to a resurgence in America 's interest in World War II. Old and new films, video games, and novels about the war enjoyed renewed popularity after its release. The film 's use of desaturated colors, hand - held cameras, and tight angles has profoundly influenced subsequent films and video games. Saving Private Ryan was released in 2,463 theaters on July 24, 1998, and grossed $30.5 million on its opening weekend. The film grossed $216.5 million in the US and Canada. and $265.3 million in other territories, bringing its worldwide total to $481.8 million and making it the highest - grossing US film of the year. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 45.74 million tickets in the United States and Canada.
The film received critical acclaim and has a ' certified fresh ' rating of 92 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 132 reviews with an average score of 8.6 out of 10. The consensus states "Anchored by another winning performance from Hanks, Spielberg 's unflinchingly realistic war film virtually redefines the genre. '' The film also has a score of 90 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 35 critic reviews indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Much of the praise went for the realistic battle scenes and the actors ' performances. However, it did earn some criticism for ignoring the contributions of several other countries to the D - Day landings in general and at Omaha Beach specifically. The most direct example of the latter is that during the actual landing the 2nd Rangers disembarked from British ships and were taken to Omaha Beach by Royal Navy landing craft (LCAs). The film depicts them as being United States Coast Guard - crewed craft (LCVPs and LCMs) from an American ship, the USS Thomas Jefferson (APA - 30). This criticism was far from universal with other critics recognizing the director 's intent to make an "American '' film. The film was not released in Malaysia after Spielberg refused to cut the violent scenes; however, the film was finally released there on DVD with an 18SG certificate much later in 2005. Many critics associations, such as New York Film Critics Circle and Los Angeles Film Critics Association, chose Saving Private Ryan as Film of the Year. Roger Ebert gave it four stars out of four and called it "a powerful experience ''.
Filmmaker Robert Altman wrote a letter to Spielberg stating, "Private Ryan was awesome -- best I 've seen. '' Filmmaker Quentin Tarantino has expressed admiration for the film and has cited it as an influence on his 2009 film, Inglourious Basterds.
Many World War II veterans stated that the film was the most realistic depiction of combat they had ever seen. The film was so realistic that combat veterans of D - Day and Vietnam left theaters rather than finish watching the opening scene depicting the Normandy invasion. Their visits to posttraumatic stress disorder counselors rose in number after the film 's release, and many counselors advised "' more psychologically vulnerable ' '' veterans to avoid watching it. The Department of Veterans Affairs set up a nationwide hotline for veterans who were affected by the film, and less than two weeks after the film was released it had already received over 170 calls.
The film has gained criticism and negative reviews from war veterans and film critics. Film director and military veteran Oliver Stone has accused the film of promoting "the worship of World War II as the good war, '' and has placed it alongside films such as Gladiator and Black Hawk Down that he believes were well - made, but may have inadvertently contributed to Americans ' readiness for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In defense of the film 's portrait of warfare, Brian De Palma commented, "The level of violence in something like Saving Private Ryan makes sense because Spielberg is trying to show something about the brutality of what happened. '' Actor Richard Todd, who performed in The Longest Day and was amongst the first of the Allied soldiers to land in Normandy (Operation Tonga), said the film was "Rubbish. Overdone. '' American academic Paul Fussell, who saw combat in France during World War II, objected to what he described as, "the way Spielberg 's Saving Private Ryan, after an honest, harrowing, 15 - minute opening visualizing details of the unbearable bloody mess at Omaha Beach, degenerated into a harmless, uncritical patriotic performance apparently designed to thrill 12 - year - old boys during the summer bad - film season. Its genre was pure cowboys and Indians, with the virtuous cowboys of course victorious. ''
The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards, and won five including Best Cinematography, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Film Editing, and Best Director for Spielberg, but lost the Best Picture award to Shakespeare in Love, being one of a few that have won the Best Director award without also winning Best Picture. The Academy 's decision to not award the film with the Best Picture Oscar has resulted in much criticism in recent years, with many considering it as one of the biggest snubs in the ceremony 's history.
The film also won the Golden Globes for Best Motion Picture -- Drama and Director, the BAFTA Award for Special Effects and Sound, the Directors Guild of America Award, a Grammy Award for Best Film Soundtrack, the Producers Guild of America Golden Laurel Award, and the Saturn Award for Best Action, Adventure, or Thriller Film. The American Film Institute has included Saving Private Ryan in many of its lists, ranking it as the 71st greatest American movie in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition), as well as the 45th most thrilling film in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Thrills, the 10th most inspiring in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Cheers, and the eighth best epic film in "AFI 's 10 Top 10 ''.
On Veterans Day from 2001 -- 2004, the American Broadcasting Company aired the film uncut and with limited commercial interruption. The network airings were given a TV - MA rating, as the violent battle scenes and the profanity were left intact. The 2004 airing was marred by pre-emptions in many markets because of the language, in the backlash of Super Bowl XXXVIII 's halftime show controversy. However, critics and veterans ' groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars assailed those stations and their owners, including Hearst - Argyle Television (owner of 12 ABC affiliates); Scripps Howard Broadcasting (owner of six); and Belo (owner of four) for putting profits ahead of programming and honoring those who gave their lives at wartime, saying the stations made more money running their own programming instead of being paid by the network to carry the film, especially during a sweeps period.
A total of 65 ABC affiliates -- 28 % of the network -- did not clear the available timeslot for the film, even with the offer of The Walt Disney Company, ABC 's parent, to pay all fines for language to the Federal Communications Commission. In the end, however, no complaints were lodged against ABC affiliates who showed Ryan, perhaps because even conservative watchdogs like the Parents Television Council supported the unedited rebroadcast of the film. Additionally, some ABC affiliates in other markets that were near affected markets, such as Youngstown, Ohio, ABC affiliate WYTV (which is viewable in parts of the Columbus, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh markets, none of which aired the film) and Gainesville, Florida, ABC affiliate WCJB - TV (which is viewable in parts of the Orlando and Tampa markets), still aired the film and gave those nearby markets the option of viewing the film. TNT and Turner Classic Movies have also broadcast the film.
The film was released on home video in May 1999 with a VHS release that earned over $44 million. The DVD release became available in November of the same year, and was one of the best - selling titles of the year, with over 1.5 million units sold. The DVD was released in two separate versions: one with Dolby Digital and the other with DTS 5.1 surround sound. Besides the different 5.1 tracks, the two DVDs are identical. The film was also issued in a very limited 2 - disc LaserDisc release in November 1999, making it one of the very last feature films to ever be issued in this format, as LaserDiscs ceased manufacturing and distribution by the year 's end, due in part to the growing popularity of DVDs.
In 2004, a Saving Private Ryan special edition DVD was released to commemorate the 60th anniversary of D - Day. This two - disc edition was also included in a box set titled World War II Collection, along with two documentaries produced by Spielberg, Price For Peace (about the Pacific War) and Shooting War (about war photographers, narrated by Tom Hanks). The film was released on Blu - ray Disc on April 26, 2010 in the UK and on May 4, 2010 in the US, as part of Paramount Home Video 's premium Sapphire Series. However, only weeks after its release, Paramount issued a recall due to audio synchronization problems. The studio issued an official statement acknowledging the problem, which they attributed to an authoring error by Technicolor that escaped the quality control process, and that they had already begun the process of replacing the defective discs.
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bbc top 10 most popular songs of all time | List of best - selling Singles - wikipedia
According to Guinness World Records, "White Christmas '' (1942) by Bing Crosby is the best - selling single worldwide, with estimated sales of over 50 million copies. The song recognized as "the best - selling single of all time '' was released before the pop / rock singles - chart era and "was listed as the world 's best - selling single in the first - ever Guinness Book of Records (published in 1955) and -- remarkably -- still retains the title more than 50 years later. '' Guinness World Records states that double A-side charity single "Candle in the Wind 1997 '' / "Something About the Way You Look Tonight '' (1997) by Elton John, a tribute to the late Diana, Princess of Wales, is "the biggest - selling single since UK and US singles charts began in the 1950s, having accumulated worldwide sales of 33 million copies, '' making it the second - best - selling single of all time.
The list is split between physical (mainly CD and vinyl) singles and digitally downloaded tracks which first became available to purchase in the early 2000s.
The sales of singles that are italicized are the compilation of sales in available markets instead of a worldwide sales figure. These sales figures are therefore neither complete nor definitive.
The charts of the best - selling singles by year in the world are compiled by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry annually since 2007. These charts are published in their two annual reports, the Digital Music Report and the Recording Industry in Numbers.
Units sold include single - track downloads, audio and video mastertones, ringback tones, full track downloads to mobile and, starting in 2013, track - equivalent streams. All versions of the same song are combined in these charts.
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who is the vice president of gram panchayat | Gram panchayat - Wikipedia
-- -- -- -- -- -- --
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Executive:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Legislature:
Judiciary:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Political parties
National coalitions:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- State governments
Legislatures:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Local governments: Rural bodies:
Urban bodies:
A gram panchayat (village council) is the only grassroots - level of panchayati raj formalised local self - governance system in India at the village or small - town level, and has a sarpanch as its elected head.
The failed attempts to deal with local matters at the national level caused, in 1992, the reintroduction of panchayats for their previously used purpose as an organisation for local self - governance. There are about 250,000 gram panchayats in India, that are being gigabit - broadband enabled under the BharatNet and Digital India initiative.
Gram panchayats are panchayats at base level in panchayat raj institutions (or PRIs), governed by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment, which is concerned with rural local governments.
The gram panchayat is divided into wards and each ward is represented by a Ward Member or Commissioner, also referred to as a Panch or Panchayat Member, who is directly elected by the villagers. The panchayat is chaired by the president of the village, known as a Sarpanch. The term of the elected representatives is five years. The Secretary of the panchayat is a non-elected representative, appointed by the state government, to oversee panchayat activities.
According to Section. 6 (3) of the Andhra Pradesh Panchayat Raj Act of 1994, that state 's gram sabha has to conduct a meeting at least twice a year.
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what is the name of the president of malta | President of Malta - wikipedia
The President of Malta (Maltese: President ta ' Malta) is the constitutional head of state of Malta. The President is appointed by a resolution of the House of Representatives of Malta for a five - year term, taking an oath to "preserve, protect and defend '' the Constitution. The President of Malta also resides directly or indirectly in all three branches of the state. They are part of Parliament and responsible for the appointment of the judiciary. Executive authority is nominally vested in the President, but is in practice exercised by the Prime Minister..
The office of the President of Malta (Maltese: President ta ' Malta), came into being on 13 December 1974, when Malta became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations. Queen Elizabeth II ceased to be head of state and Queen of Malta (Maltese: Reġina ta ' Malta), and the last Governor - General, Sir Anthony Mamo, became the first President of Malta.
A person shall not be qualified to be appointed President if:
Before assuming office the nominee must take the oath of office before the House of Representatives of Malta.
The oath reads: I, (name of nominee), solemnly swear / affirm that I will faithfully execute the office of President (perform the functions of the President) of Malta, and will, to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of Malta. (So help me God).
Whenever the office of President is temporarily vacant; until a new President is appointed; and whenever the holder of the office is absent from Malta, on vacation, or is for any reason unable to perform the functions conferred upon them by the Constitution, those functions are performed by an individual appointed by the Prime Minister, after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition, or by the Chief Justice.
Among the powers of the President:
The role of the President is detailed in a publication (in Maltese) called Il - Manwal tal - President tar - Repubblika written by former President Ugo Mifsud Bonnici.
The official office of the president is the Grandmaster 's Palace in Valletta. Other presidential residences include:
The Presidents of Malta used the national flag as their presidential standard prior to 12 December 1998, when a proclamation established the Presidential Flag of Malta. The flag is flown on the President 's official residences and offices and on all occasions at which they are present.
The office of President shall become vacant:
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who starred in war of the planet of the apes | List of Planet of the apes characters - wikipedia
The Planet of the Apes franchise contains many characters that appear in one or more works.
Walker Edmiston (voice in Escape)
Caesar (birth name: Milo) is a fictional character in the Planet of the Apes franchise. He is the leader and later ruler of the apes in both the original and the 2011 reboot series. He does not appear in the 2001 film.
Caesar is the son of talking chimpanzees Cornelius and Zira. Originally named Milo after Dr. Milo, who travelled back in time with Cornelius and Zira to the Earth of Taylor 's era, he was reared by his human foster father Armando, a traveling circus owner who gave Cornelius and Zira sanctuary when Zira went into labor in the final act of Escape from the Planet of the Apes. Before departing, Zira switched the infant Milo with a young chimpanzee recently born to Armando 's primitive chimpanzee, Heloise. Heloise 's baby was killed, along with Zira, by the human Dr. Otto Hasslein. After Cornelius kills Hasslein, he is shot by a Marine Corps sniper. Milo speaks his first word, "Mama '', at the very end of the film. His false identity secure, Milo grew up as a mute acrobat.
Armando addresses Milo by the name Caesar in the next film. In the opening minutes of Conquest, he and Armando are visiting a large city for the first time, and Armando leads him around on a chain. In private, though, Caesar stands nearly erect, and he chats back and forth with Armando like a father and son. Armando critiques Caesar 's "act '' of behaving like a primitive chimpanzee, then gives him an idea of what to expect: In the years Caesar has been growing up in the provinces, many of the events his parents warned humanity about (before they were murdered, in an attempt to prevent their occurrence) have taken place -- the most significant being the space - borne plague that killed virtually all of Earth 's dogs and cats, leaving humanity without pets. Monkeys at first took their place, then gradually apes, who progressed from companions to household helpers, and eventually to a state of slavery.
Caesar tries to take what he sees (groups of apes being dispersed, chimps and orangutans being scolded or punished for honest mistakes or for exhibiting apelike behavior) in stride, but when he sees a chimp beaten by police, then shocked with a cattle prod, he impulsively cries out "Lousy human bastards! '' When the police turn their attention his way, Armando insists that he was the one who spoke, but nearby witnesses report differently. Caesar panics and runs away, leading them to suspect he understands what has occurred -- and perhaps is able to speak.
Armando is arrested, but is later released and rejoins Caesar momentarily. He knows now their charade (that Caesar is a mute, primitive ape) might have failed, and instructs Caesar to hide among his own and join a shipment of apes brought in by boat, if Armando can not convince the authorities that Caesar is harmless and only ran away because of the commotion. Armando goes downtown, to try to bluff his way out of trouble. When he fails to return, Caesar infiltrates a shipment of apes.
Passing his conditioning with flying colors, Caesar is next sold to Governor Breck, supervised by his assistant Mr. MacDonald, ironically an African - American descended from slaves. When Breck decides to formally name him, he takes out a reference book, turns to a page and points to a name at random, then bids Caesar to do likewise. Caesar chooses his adopted name, pretending to do so randomly, and is so registered. Next he is assigned to the city 's "command post '' -- the communications center for Ape Management, and its lockup for disobedient apes. (He is also selected to mate with Lisa, presumably resulting in the birth of their son Cornelius, who appears in the next movie.)
When Caesar learns that Armando died while in custody, he decides enough is enough, and he begins plotting an ape revolt, conspiring with other apes and driving them to turn on their masters. When Caesar is belatedly traced and discovered not to have been part of any ape shipment, he is captured and tortured by Breck, to see if he is indeed the talking offspring of two talking apes. MacDonald excuses himself from the scene and changes the breaker settings for the electroshock table Caesar is wired to. He can not prevent Caesar from being shocked to the point that he finally chokes out the words "Have pity! '', but he does prevent Caesar from being electrocuted to death.
Believed dead, Caesar kills the handler assigned to dispose of him, then throws the switch that opens all the cages in the ape lockup, and the revolt begins. Hours later, much of the city is in flames, the police and military have been beaten down, and the apes are in control, as Caesar predicts will follow around the world when word spreads. MacDonald tries to dissuade Caesar from further violence, while Lisa becomes the next ape to speak, telling Caesar "No! '' when he condemns all humanity.
In the fifth film, Battle, human and ape children gather around a statue of Caesar, now a legend who has been dead for over 600 years, as the Lawgiver tells them the story of how Caesar fought a battle that both solidified his position as ape leader and convinced him to give a joint ape - human society a chance, instead of one species dominating the other. Screenwriter Paul Dehn stated that the tear on Caesar 's statue at the end of the film was to tell the audience that Caesar 's efforts ultimately failed.
In Rise of the Planet of the Apes, Caesar (Andy Serkis) is the main protagonist. Will Rodman (James Franco) is working on a cure for Alzheimer 's by performing tests on apes for a pharmaceutical company in the San Francisco Bay Area. One of the first test subjects is Caesar 's mother, Bright Eyes, who is captured in Africa at the beginning of the film (also depicted in an online comic strip shortly before the movie 's release). Rodman 's "cure '', ALZ - 112, genetically increases Bright Eyes ' intelligence, and this is passed on to Caesar in the womb. After Bright Eyes is killed trying to protect her newborn child (an action mistaken by lab security as her having run amok), all other test apes are ordered destroyed; however, the sympathetic ape handler, Franklin, rescues Caesar and gives him to Will, who smuggles the baby chimp out of the lab and takes him to his home. Caesar spends years living with Rodman as his father and, from his time as an infant, shows intelligence that far surpasses humans at his age. After an incident where he attacks their aggressive neighbor who was being threatening to Will 's dementia - suffering father, he is eventually taken and forced into an ape "sanctuary '' where he is often tormented by one of the caretakers. Caesar eventually proves smart enough to break free from his cage, even yelling his first word of "No! '' in a confrontation with one of the caretakers; he steals Will 's new, stronger version of the intelligence - enhancing formula, ALZ - 113, and releases it among the other captive apes. Unlike the original virus, ALZ - 112, which is injected, ALZ - 113 is inhaled (therefore, airborne). They escape the sanctuary and are joined by other captive apes from the zoo and the lab, rallying to escape San Francisco, violently clashing with police. Like his appearance in the fourth and fifth films, Caesar is shown to be compassionate, forbidding his followers from killing innocent humans and those who do n't seek to harm them. This clashes with the mindset of another ape, Koba, who is shown to be somewhat maniacal in his resistance. At the film 's conclusion, the apes escape to the redwood forest outside the city, with Rodman and Caesar sharing an emotional farewell as Caesar decides to live free among his own kind, telling Rodman "Caesar is home '' before they part.
The threat of retribution by humans - mentioned by Will as he says farewell -- is put to rest in a mid-credits scene. Will 's neighbor, a pilot, nose dripping blood and apparently infected with the ALZ - 113 virus, arrives at San Francisco International Airport for his flight. While ominous music plays, a graphic traces the spread of the humanity - killing virus to Paris and around the globe via airline flight routes.
After 10 years of living in peace and safety, Caesar still reigns strongly over the apes. Now middle - aged and raising a teenage son, Caesar leads his apes on a hunting expedition. He attempts to teach his son, Blue Eyes how to hunt without getting hurt but this does n't go to plan. Blue Eyes, who continuously ignores his father 's orders, wanders off and is attacked by a bear. Caesar, seeing his son in trouble rushes to help him but he too struggles with the bear. He calls for his friend Koba who spears the bear in the back, between the shoulder blades, killing it. Caesar emerges from under the bear 's corpse and attempts to check Blue Eyes ' injuries only to be brushed off.
Arriving back in the village, Caesar is summoned home by his wife Cornelia 's midwives. Hurrying home, the Ape king joins his wife just as she gives birth to their second son. Overjoyed by the reality of having a second son, Caesar summons Blue Eyes over, telling him, "Come meet your new brother ''. Together, the family celebrates the birth.
Later, Caesar sits looking out over the village with his long - time friend Maurice. Maurice congratulates Caesar over the birth of his new son. Caesar, taking his best friend 's comments in stride, smiles. The conversation steers away from the boys and turns to the humans. Maurice asks if Caesar misses the humans in which Caesar replies that he does sometimes. Maurice then recounts everything that has happened in the last ten years as the human appearances have become less and less.
Caesar awakens in the middle of the night by the sound of gunfire. Hurrying outside, he sees that the entire colony has heard it. Rushing out into the forest with Rocket and Maurice and various others, Caesar sees that his honorary nephew, Ash, the son of Rocket has been shot. Rocket begins to panic. Caesar tells Rocket to calm down and shouts in English at the humans to leave before ordering Koba to follow them.
Back in the village, Caesar sits listening as his council argues over what is to be done about the humans. Koba and Blue Eyes argue with Ash and Rocket about Ash 's shooting while Maurice sits silently, looking through the bag one of the humans dropped in the rush. Caesar shouts to make the council go silent. Caesar tells them that he will have a decision by morning. Afterwards, Koba approaches Caesar and tells him the apes need to make a show of strength to the humans.
The next morning the apes march into the remnants of San Francisco, on horseback and armed with spears. It is there, to the shock of most humans, that Caesar speaks and states that the apes have no interest in a war, but they will fight to protect themselves. He then tells the humans to not come back into the ape 's territory and has his son give Malcolm his son 's satchel and the ape army leaves back to their homes having given the message to the humans.
The next day, a single human, Malcolm comes to Caesar to explain why they came. On the condition of surrendering their weapons, Caesar allows a small group of humans to repair a dam near the apes. While the human - hating Koba and Blue Eyes disagree, Caesar fears the humans may attack if refused. After one human smuggles a shotgun and threatens Caesar 's sons, he demands that they leave. After Malcolm 's girlfriend Ellie saves Cornelia, Caesar allows them to stay and orders the apes to help. This act pushes Koba and Caesar to a brutal fight that almost kills Koba. In revenge, Koba steals a human gun and shoots Caesar, leading the apes to war in retaliation.
Caesar survives the gunshot and is nursed back to health by Malcolm and Ellie. With Blue Eyes ' help, he gathers loyal apes to him and confronts Koba, finally killing him. But Caesar considers the damage already done, as the coming human army will not forgive the apes for their actions. Wishing Malcolm goodbye, Caesar prepares to lead the remaining apes to war against the humans.
Two years later, Caesar 's clan is at war with the human military faction known as Alpha - Omega. The apes have captured four soldiers led by Preacher, and the gorilla named Red (a follower of Koba), who have joined the humans along with the other apes, after being disillusioned with Caesar 's leadership, in fear of retaliation from Caesar due to their betrayal. Caesar 's clan hides in Muir Woods, and Caesar offers the humans peace if the apes are left alone. Learning that Alpha - Omega follows the leadership of a mysterious Colonel, Caesar makes plans to relocate the clan across the desert, not wanting to suffer any more ape casualties after Koba 's wrath on San Francisco. The night before their journey, Alpha - Omega launches an assault on the ape home and Caesar 's wife Cornelia and eldest son Blue Eyes are slaughtered by the Colonel, leaving only Caesar 's youngest son Cornelius alive.
Leaving Cornelius in the care of Lake, the mate of his deceased son, Caesar departs to confront the Colonel, accompanied only by Maurice, Luca and Rocket, while the other apes head for the desert. Confronting traitorous albino gorilla Winter, they learn that the Colonel has departed for a location called the "border ''. During their journey, they are forced to kill a human living alone in an abandoned village, but when they discover his young daughter, apparently unable to speak, Maurice insists that they take her with them. Further along, they discover that some Alpha - Omega soldiers that have been shot and abandoned. They examine a survivor reveals that he, like the girl, can not speak. In an abandoned souvenir shop, the group meets Bad Ape, an ape hermit who lived in a zoo before he was exposed to the Simian Flu virus. Bad Ape is able to direct them to the border, a former weapons depot that was turned into a containment facility when the virus began to spread.
When the group arrives at the border facility, they were ambushed by an Alpha - Omega patrol, in which Luca was fatally stabbed, prompting Caesar to enter the facility alone. However, he is captured shortly after learning that the rest of his ape family have been caught by the Colonel. Witnessing his fellow apes being forced to build a wall, Caesar confronts the Colonel, who reveals that the Simian Flu virus has evolved further and is now causing some surviving humans to become mute and regress back to a primitive mentality. The Colonel is barricading himself into the facility to fend off rival military forces coming to execute him, as he favors killing any infected humans -- including his own son - while others believe that a cure is still possible.
While Caesar is tortured with starvation, the mute girl, whom Maurice names Nova, sneaks into the facility to give him food and water, although Rocket is forced to allow himself to be captured to create a distraction so that Nova can escape. Together, Caesar and Rocket are able to work out a means of accessing the ape cage via an underground tunnel that leads out of the facility, with Bad Ape and Maurice digging their way into the cage. After rescuing the children, Caesar sends his followers away while he confronts the Colonel, but the facility is subsequently attacked by the external military forces. When Caesar reaches the Colonel, he discovers that the Colonel has succumbed to the infection and is regressing to a primitive state. Caesar fights but ultimately spares the Colonel, who takes his own life rather than become a primitive. In a massive battle among Caesar 's apes, Alpha - Omega and the rival militants, Caesar attempts to throw the grenade to the facility 's fuel supplies, but he gets shot by Preacher. Red, a donkey - captured apes who give up freedom to work for humans against Caesar 's ape colony - redeems and sacrifices himself by killing Preacher, and saving Caesar 's life, helping to destroy the fuel tank. As the apes fall in numbers, an oncoming avalanche arrives, and wipes out the remaining Alpha - Omega soldiers, as well as the opposing militant forces, while the apes and Nova retreat to the safety of the trees.
Departing the facility, the remaining apes cross the desert and find a park that is rich in natural resources. Caesar reveals to Maurice that he is dying of his wounds. Before Caesar dies, Maurice assures Caesar that Cornelius will know who his father was, what he stood for and what he did to protect the apes.
Also (portrayed by Claude Akins) emerges as the villain in Battle for the Planet of the Apes. He is the general of the Gorilla militia, which mostly guards the outskirts of Ape City, and practices with mock weapons. He is both jealous of his human advisors and of Caesar (and his son, Cornelius, who bests him in the school that all apes must attend) and would like to take his place as leader. Humans live alongside apes in the city, but as second class citizens.
Discovering a large number of (irradiated) humans still alive underground in the bomb - destroyed city they escaped, as he is discovered during a trip to the ruins, Caesar implores the apes to prepare themselves, in case those humans emerge to attack. Aldo uses the alarm as an excuse to corral all the humans of Ape City, break into the armory to seize guns and other weapons, and declare martial law. Meanwhile, Cornelius has been injured falling from a tree branch (purposely cut by Aldo), and Caesar does n't want to leave his son 's side, therefore Aldo can do as he pleases. Caesar only remembers his duty toward the other apes when an attack comes.
Caesar and Aldo fight together, but with the enemy driven back, Aldo ignores Caesar 's order to stand down, and leads his forces to catch and massacre the retreating mutant humans. Caesar discovers Aldo 's usurpation of power, his treatment of the humans, and Aldo 's role in his son 's death. Upon Aldo 's return from the slaughter, the two battle it out, from the ground to the trees, and for ultimate control of the ape / human society. According to ape lore, an ape had never killed another; the population, aghast at Aldo 's sin, mournfully chant "ape has killed ape '' while Aldo and Caesar fight in the tree. Caesar avenges Cornelius, knocking Aldo from the tree to his death.
Aldo is first referenced in the third Apes movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, when the chimpanzee Cornelius describes him as the first ape to acquire the power of speech -- and the first to say "No! '' to his human captors. Portrayed by David Chow, he appears in the next film, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, as a Chimpanzee whose beating at the hands of human guards is witnessed by Armando and Caesar, the son of Cornelius and Zira, who later leads the ape revolt.
Armando is a circus owner, a human friend of Cornelius and Zira, and foster - father of Caesar in the Planet of the Apes movie series. He was portrayed by Ricardo Montalbán.
A believer in Saint Francis of Assisi, "who loved all animals '', the jovial, warm - hearted Armando readily comes to the aid of Cornelius and his pregnant wife Zira during Escape from the Planet of the Apes, when most of humanity has rejected them, and even the United States Government plans to prevent their ever having children, since they someday "may constitute a threat to the human race. '' Armando states that if the human race is ever dominated by another species, he 'd like most of all for it to be the chimpanzee. While Armando does his best to help the pair, and conceal their newly born son Milo (later called Caesar), he ca n't prevent their murder at the hands of Dr. Otto Hasslein. He takes responsibility for Caesar, raising him publicly as a circus chimpanzee, while privately teaching him human knowledge and introducing him to human habits.
In the fourth Apes movie, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, Armando brings Caesar to a large city for the first time, after raising him mostly in "the provinces '' and remote areas, where Caesar has been unaware of apes ' adoption as pets (to replace the dogs and cats lost to a spaceborn plague), which has led gradually to their present enslavement. Armando keeps Caesar on a short leash in public, while coaching him on apelike mannerisms when nobody 's looking. All the same, fate gets the better of them; when Caesar sees an ape (a chimpanzee named Aldo) mistreated, he swears his frustration -- bringing himself and Armando to the attention of the police.
Slipping away, Armando and Caesar try to formulate a plan to prevent further trouble. Armando already claimed to be the one who cried out, and plans to tell the authorities that Caesar is frightened of cities, and ran away because of the public commotion. He tells Caesar to wait for him near the docks where shipments of apes arrive nightly for "conditioning '' and training as servants, and to infiltrate a shipment if Armando fails to return. Caesar does so, finding himself by degrees sold to Governor Breck, and assigned to Ape Management 's command post.
Armando undergoes a lengthy, tense interrogation at the hands of the state 's authorities, who ultimately believe his alibi, and that Caesar is mute and not the son of "the talking apes ''. They insist, though, that he pass a screening by the "Authenticator '' -- a hypnotic device which compels its subjects to tell the complete truth -- before he is released. Armando first refuses to submit on gentlemanly grounds, then when he sees no other way out, he throws himself through a window (falling to his death) rather than reveal what he knows about Caesar.
When Caesar learns of Armando 's death, it becomes the last straw for him. Wanting revenge he begins to perpetrate an Ape revolt, executed over the rest of Conquest.
Governor Breck is the main antagonist in the fourth film Conquest of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Academy Award - nominated actor Don Murray.
In 1991, the United States has gone from its original form of government to a system of provinces headed by governors, who rule in an authoritarian manner, with many curfews and restrictions imposed, and surveillance an everyday event. Protests and demonstrations are discouraged, or given time limits.
After the death of Earth 's dogs and cats (caused by a plague brought back by a space probe), apes took their place as pets -- and were genetically engineered to increase their intelligence. Progressing from performing tricks to doing household chores, apes have now become humanity 's slaves. The government supports this occurrence, since ape servants seem to lessen public discontent. Nobody considers the apes ' feelings or best interests, though, and tension is brewing. Governor Breck is n't fond of apes, but he does enjoy bossing them around, even more than the humans in his charge.
Breck witnesses an ape auction one day, and on a whim bids on a young chimpanzee (through his assistant Mr. MacDonald). His bid wins, and he shows the chimp how to choose a name from a book. The name he chooses is "Caesar '', pretending to just point randomly. While he is bright, and everyone suspects he was previously "conditioned '' and not a wild ape, he makes a mistake in the chore given him (mixing a cocktail for the governor). Breck decides to assign Caesar to his command post, as a messenger.
What Breck does not know, but comes to suspect, is that Caesar is actually an evolved ape, whose parents Cornelius and Zira came from Earth 's future, when apes are the dominant species. Caesar was brought up by Armando, a human circus owner, who taught him about humanity, and how to be a leader.
Armando dies in police custody, to protect Caesar 's secret. Angry and mournful, Caesar begins to set up an ape revolt, using his job at the command post to stay one step ahead of Breck, and his attempts to control the apes. Another assistant, Kolp, double - checks on recent ape shipments to Ape Management, and discovers that Caesar was the lone chimpanzee in a shipment from Borneo -- where chimps are not native. He reports this to Breck, who now wants to know exactly what Caesar knows. He also wonders if Caesar can tell him by speaking.
Breck orders MacDonald to turn Caesar over the minute he returns from an errand, but instead MacDonald, who learns Caesar can indeed speak, gives him the chance to escape. Caesar is captured by police, taken to Ape Management, and brought to an interrogation room resembling a torture chamber. Strapped to an electroshock table, Caesar is jolted with higher and higher amounts of electricity, while Breck commands him again and again, "Talk! '' In agony, Caesar gasps "Have pity! '' and slumps back on the table, exhausted. MacDonald leaves, showing no stomach for what Breck is doing.
Satisfied, Breck departs, and Kolp orders Caesar to be electrocuted immediately. MacDonald finds the room 's breaker box, and cuts off the electrical flow to the table. Caesar pretends to die, and everyone else leaves. Killing the handler sent to dispose of his body, Caesar decides the time has come to begin the revolt.
Caesar sets the Ape Management building on fire, then seizes the intercom system and pretends to be the governor 's spokesman, ordering the guards to release all the apes in custody -- even the dangerous ones. With the apes loose, panic begins to spread, and apes around the Ape Management complex begin to riot. More and more fires begin to break out, all over the city.
From his command post, Breck declares martial law, and issues one simple order concerning the rioting apes: "Shoot to kill! '' His troops are overwhelmed by the hundreds of apes they find in the streets, though, and nobody can believe the apes have acquired weapons -- and the skills to use them, or at least try them out. The apes smash the command post as they take control of Ape Management, seizing Breck, MacDonald and others.
Several Gorillas handle Breck as Caesar was once handled by Breck 's policemen; Caesar asks him the final question: Why was Breck so hateful toward apes, and toward himself most of all? With nothing left to lose, Breck admits to Caesar that enslaving wild apes was a way of dealing with his own human impulses, and so with other humans. Breck is taken away, presumably to be imprisoned by the apes. In the fifth film, it is revealed that Breck died in the nuclear war.
Brent is an American astronaut and a main protagonist in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by James Franciscus.
Brent is the copilot of a rescue mission, sent after George Taylor 's ship was determined to have gone awry, in its flight to another star. Brent 's ship follows the same trajectory, and runs into the same problems, crash - landing in the Forbidden Zone, only this time on land. His pilot, Maddox, is blinded, and suffers fatal injuries, dying soon after the crash.
Once Brent has finished burying Maddox near their crash site, he is wondering if Taylor underwent a similar fate. It turns out he 's closer to meeting Taylor than he could have imagined, as he comes across a woman on horseback -- Taylor 's companion Nova, alone since Taylor disappeared. Discovering Nova is mute, but wearing Taylor 's dog tags, he climbs onto the horse also, demanding she take him to Taylor.
Not knowing what else to do, and unable to explain Taylor 's absence, Nova takes Brent to Ape City, to look for Zira. Brent overhears an anti-human speech by General Ursus, and his mind reels with mounting horror at the place he 's come to: "If this place has a name, it 's the Planet Nightmare! '' Wounded by a gorilla soldier, Brent takes refuge with Nova at the home of Zira and Cornelius.
Cornelius and Zira (who tends to Brent 's wound) help Brent and Nova get out of Ape City, but gorilla soldiers follow them into the Forbidden Zone. Hiding in a cave, they discover an old subway tunnel, and follow it deep underground to the ruins of New York City, and its mutant inhabitants. Brent is tested by the mutants, through their psychic abilities, forcing him to try to kill Nova, and to go where they want him. They interrogate him telepathically.
After Brent and Nova witness a mutant religious service (where mutants both worship an unexploded doomsday bomb, and reveal themselves to be hideously disfigured, from lingering radiation inside the zone), Brent is reunited with Taylor, who was taken prisoner. Their pleasure at meeting each other is broken by the sudden realisation of the mutants ' final plans for them both; as their jailer explains: "We do n't kill our enemies. We get our enemies to kill each other. '' Taylor and Brent are then forced by the jailer 's mental powers to fight one another.
Nova, who was separated from Brent after the worship service, gets loose from her guard, and finds Taylor and Brent fighting to the death. She is so stirred by the sight that she speaks for the first time in her life, crying "Taylor! '' and bringing the fight to a sudden stop. The jailer 's concentration broken, Brent and Taylor act, killing him but inadvertently locking themselves in the cell with Nova.
The three break the cell 's lock just as the gorilla army invades the underground city. A random shot kills Nova, demoralising Taylor, but Brent urges him to join the oncoming fight. Hurrying to the cathedral, Brent and Taylor take rifles and try to stop the apes from setting off the bomb and destroying everything. After killing General Ursus and several of his soldiers, Brent runs out of ammunition, and he is killed by the gorilla troops. A moment later the bomb detonates, triggered by Taylor as he falls in death, and Earth is destroyed.
In early versions of the script the character is given the first and middle names ' John Christopher ', but the names are not in the final film or in the film 's credits.
Dr. Cornelius is a chimpanzee archaeologist and historian who appears in the original novel of Planet of the Apes (La Planète des singes), and also the first three installments of the classic movie series of the same name, from the 1960s and 1970s. He was portrayed by Roddy McDowall and, in the second movie, by David Watson.
In 1968 's Planet of the Apes, Cornelius is introduced as the fiancé of Dr. Zira, an animal psychologist and veterinarian (who specializes in working with humans), both of whom are on the scientific staff of Dr. Zaius. While supporting the status quo, Cornelius has begun to question the infallibility of the Sacred Scrolls, which give the religious and mythological history of the ape society, and is considering the validity of evolution (specifically, from human to ape) to explain the scientific gaps in the scrolls.
When Zira brings Taylor, an injured astronaut who is mistaken for a primitive human, home from the zoo for Cornelius to see, Taylor begins to communicate with them, first through gestures and then through writing on paper. While Cornelius dismisses Taylor 's story that he flew through the stars to their world (since he has no proof), he agrees that Taylor is worthy of consideration as an intelligent being. When Taylor recovers his voice, he tries to plead his own case before a council session called to arrange his "disposition ''. When the ape leaders wo n't allow Taylor to speak, Cornelius defends him.
With Taylor marked for elimination, and at risk of their own careers, Cornelius and Zira escape with Taylor to the Forbidden Zone -- the wasteland where humans are said to come from, to a site where Cornelius had been digging the year before. When Dr. Zaius pursues them, Taylor turns the tables, first capturing Dr. Zaius, and then forcing him to examine Cornelius 's evidence for a human society predating their own. Cornelius marvels at Taylor 's explanations of the artifacts found, accepts that apes did n't evolve from humans, and those humans invented the technology that apes were rediscovering. Taylor departs from the apes (after kissing Zira goodbye, to Cornelius 's consternation), who return to their city.
Between the first movie and its follow up, Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius and Zira first undergo a show trial for heresy at Zaius 's instigation (who then pleads for clemency on their behalf), then are married and continue their careers. Another astronaut, Brent, appears at their doorstep in the second movie. Zira tends to a gunshot wound he suffered at a gorilla 's hands, and Cornelius first shows Brent a map leading to where they left Taylor, then gives him the best possible advice: Never speak if he 's captured, or "they will dissect you, and they will kill you -- in that order. '' Zaius also visits to announce that he 's accompanying an expedition to the Forbidden Zone, and asks for Cornelius and Zira 's promise not to cause trouble in his absence, which they give him. (In the novelization of the movie, though, they lead a chimpanzee revolt after he departs.)
In the third movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius and Zira themselves become astronauts, escaping their world in Taylor 's spacecraft that was found and restored by their friend Dr. Milo, and traveling back in time to a few months after Taylor 's departure. They discover a world run by humans, and deduce (correctly) that this is not only where Taylor came from, but is their own planet from the apes ' prehistory. Cornelius has learned the truth about how the apes rose, from reading secret scrolls Dr. Zaius had kept under lock and key, and is able to answer questions put to him by the human leaders -- and offer tantalizing clues to both Taylor 's fate, and the planet 's.
Discovering Zira is pregnant by Cornelius, and fearing a possible ape takeover, scientist Dr. Otto Hasslein takes it upon himself to make sure the baby is never born, and the pair 's arrival will not spark a human downfall -- inadvertently setting that downfall in motion. Milo, the son of Cornelius and Zira, is born and taken into hiding, while the two try to escape with another ape baby as a decoy. They and the baby are murdered, but their own son (played in the next two movies, again by McDowall) grows up, given the name Caesar by his human foster - father, and leads the apes as the human society destroys itself.
Cornelius and Zira have no roles in Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, except in references to Caesar 's "real parents '' and their prophecies of the origins of the ape takeover coming true, but appear in video stills examined by Caesar and two companions in the final film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes, as Caesar tries to learn what they knew about Earth 's future. Caesar also gives his son -- by wife Lisa -- the name Cornelius, after his father. This Cornelius was killed by Aldo when he cut the branch on which Cornelius was.
In War for the Planet of the Apes, the third film in the 2011 reboot series, Cornelius is the name of Caesar 's youngest child.
In the Planet of the Apes movie series, Dr. Otto Hasslein is a physicist attached to the space flight project that sends astronauts Taylor, Dodge, Landon, and Brent to the world of the apes. He was portrayed by German American actor Eric Braeden. He serves as the main antagonist of the third Apes film Escape from the Planet of the Apes. In the novelization of the film, his first name is Victor.
Even before appearing onscreen, Hasslein 's name is part of the series storyline, as the scientist who proposed the "Hasslein curve '' -- a form of time dilation possible with the craft used in the movies.
When he does appear in Escape, he explains to a television news presenter his theories of time, and his belief that changing the future may be possible. He analogizes time to be a highway with an infinite number of lanes, all going from the past to the future; by changing lanes, one can change destiny. The theory, known as "many - worlds interpretation, '' was first advanced in 1957 as "relative state formation '' by Hugh Everett, and was popularised in the 1960s and 70s by Bryce Seligman DeWitt who applied its lasting name. Hasslein mentions neither real - life scientist in the film.
Hasslein learns that talking chimpanzees, Doctors Cornelius, Zira and Milo (who was killed by a primitive gorilla shortly after arriving), have actually arrived in the present day (1973 in the movie) from Earth 's own future, where humanity has fallen to the level of beasts while apes rose to power and intellect. While the other members of the Presidential Commission appointed to deal with "alien visitors '' are initially skeptical of the time - travel story, Hasslein sees confirmation of his theories -- and becomes afraid that the pair 's presence may somehow set humanity 's downfall in motion. As the President 's science advisor, he expresses his concerns, resulting in Cornelius and Zira first being taken into custody, then interrogated at length.
Provoked by Zira 's drugged admissions of her experimentation on humans, and Cornelius giving details of his historical research into humanity 's decline, the Presidential Commission concludes (in a reflection of Taylor 's fate before the Ape council in the first movie, with Hasslein in the place of Dr. Zaius) that the couple 's unborn child should be "prevented '' from birth, and that Zira and Cornelius should be "humanely rendered incapable '' of conceiving again, with their ultimate fate to be decided later -- at Hasslein 's determination, though it appears likely they will be handed over either to scientists or the military for study.
When Cornelius and Zira escape military custody (at the beginnings of Zira 's labor pains), Hasslein mounts a full - scale hunt, including searches of all local circuses and zoos. Days later, a carpet bag abandoned by Zira turns up, near the derelict shipyard where they have been hiding, and the pair are spotted soon afterward, with Zira carrying a baby chimp, so Hasslein knows she has given birth.
Boarding their ship, Hasslein approaches Zira, pistol in hand, and demands she give him the baby, as the authorities approach. Before they arrive, he shoots Zira, and fires several shots into the swaddling blankets.
Cornelius had earlier asked Dr. Lewis Dixon, who had told the couple about the shipyard as a hiding place, for the means "to kill ourselves '' to avoid being captured, and was given a pistol. Heretofore a pacifist, Cornelius now uses the pistol to avenge his wife, shooting at Hasslein from a crow 's nest on the ship. As the authorities arrive, Hasslein and Cornelius trade gunfire. Cornelius kills Hasslein, but is himself killed by sharpshooters, falling to the deck.
Despite Hasslein 's intentions, the baby he killed was not the offspring of Zira and Cornelius -- and his treatment of their arrival may have just set in motion everything Hasslein hoped to prevent.
Kolp is a government official and later Governor of a band of mutants, in the Planet of the Apes movie series, and the main antagonist of the fifth film Battle for the Planet of the Apes. He was played onscreen by Severn Darden. An early draft script of Conquest gives Kolp the first name of Arthur, but the comic book miniseries Revolution on the Planet of the Apes, from Mr. Comics, calls him Vernon. However, the Revolution comic is not considered canon.
Kolp was a ruling secret police official on Governor Breck 's staff in Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, displaying himself as sinister, but in a detached, matter - of - fact manner. Kolp supervised the interrogation of Armando, which Armando ended by throwing himself through a high window, rather than confess what he knew about Caesar under hypnosis. Later Kolp tracked down the originating shipment that had carried Caesar to Ape Management; he deduced that Caesar had sneaked himself into the shipment, to appear to have wild origins. Kolp was also present when Breck interrogated Caesar, strapped to an electroshock table, and he gave the order for Caesar to be electrocuted, once it was proven that Caesar could speak and reason.
Kolp survived the Night of the Fires, when the apes revolted and took over, and also the nuclear war humanity then unleashed, all but destroying themselves in doing so, while the apes escaped to the wilderness. Much of the city 's governing staff were relatively safe in underground fallout shelters and bunkers; nonetheless, lingering background radiation began to cause physical mutations in the survivors. After Breck 's death, Kolp took the few remaining reins of leadership himself.
Several years after the end of the war (in Battle for the Planet of the Apes), Caesar, Virgil and Mr. MacDonald revisit Ape Management (now called the Forbidden City by the apes), in hopes of finding old video recordings of Caesar 's parents. Kolp 's agents discover their presence, and Kolp assumes they have come scouting for things to loot or reconquer. Shots are exchanged as Caesar, MacDonald and Virgil flee, and more scouts track them back to Ape City. With the city 's location known, and jealous of the relative health and prosperity of the apes and the humans living with them, Kolp decides to marshal his forces and conquer Ape City. At this point, Kolp is not only mad, but also vengeful. When his second - in - command Méndez points out to him that attacking the Ape city would constitute a direct violation of years of ceasefire peace, Kolp answer is one of a deranged state - of - mind: "Yes, well things have gotten rather boring around here now, has n't it. ''
Kolp supervises the attack, telling his troops to leave Ape City looking "like the city we came from '' and to do their worst. When it appears Caesar is defeated, Kolp personally taunts him with a revolver, until a cry from Caesar 's wife Lisa destract him, allowing Caesar to launch a counterattack. Kolp is killed while retreating by Aldo and his Gorilla troops.
John Landon, more commonly known as Landon, was a human astronaut, who joined the NASA program some time in the 1960s. According to his colleague, George Taylor, Landon was an ambitious scientist who "wanted to live forever ''. Along with Taylor and fellow astronaut Dodge, Landon participated in a mission to journey to another star.
The crew launched out of Cape Kennedy in 1972 and spent over six months in outer space. Taylor, commander of the mission, placed the crew into a state of suspended animation, in preparation for the second leg of their journey. While they slept, the vessel was propelled two - thousand years into the future, confirming Dr. Hasslein 's theory of time in a vehicle travelling near the speed of light. The ship crash - landed back on Earth in the year 3978. Splashing down into a stagnant salt lake, the crew revived and scurried to freedom.
After crash landing on the planet, Landon and his fellow astronaut Taylor bicker as they explore the planet. Landon was an adventurer and a patriot. As such, he found it hardest of the three to come to terms with their fate and argued strongly with Taylor after their crash - landing. Taylor maintained a rigid attitude, while Dodge committed himself towards finding a means to survive on this new world. Landon meanwhile, found himself the target of Taylor 's acerbic wit. Taylor laughs as Landon plants a tiny U.S. flag on the surface of the planet near the lake where they crashed.
Later, Landon and Taylor (along with another astronaut named Dodge) are captured by a group of apes and taken to a city populated by apes. During Taylor 's subsequent trial, he discovers that Landon has been lobotomized by an ape scientist (which Dr. Zaius ordered) and left a mere shell of his former self. Landon is taken back to his cage, while Zaius later admits he knew Landon could talk, and had him operated on.
When Brent visited Zira and Cornelius in Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius told him that Taylor nearly ended up a museum specimen "like his two friends '', which suggests that Landon is also dead and displayed alongside Dodge by that point. It 's possible that during a skirmish involving gorilla soldiers, Landon was shot and killed.
John Landon is a different version of the character from the original film; now Landon runs the San Bruno Primate Shelter where Caesar was incarcerated following his attack on Hunsiker. The apes inside the facility were treated cruelly by his son, Dodge, who worked as a guard there. Landon was handed an envelope full of cash in perhaps hundreds or thousands of dollars by Will Rodman and he permitted Will to take Caesar home. However, Caesar realized that if he left the facility the other apes would continue to be abused by Dodge, so he shut the cage door and refused to come home with Will. This prompted Landon to say that Caesar perhaps preferred to stay with the other apes at the facility rather than go home. Caesar later led an escape from the shelter which resulted in Dodge 's death. Landon watched the video from a CCTV camera that recorded the death of his son.
The Lawgiver is an orangutan character in the science fiction movie series Planet of the Apes. While mentioned and quoted in the first two installments of the series, the Lawgiver only appears in the final Apes film, 1973 's Battle for the Planet of the Apes, played by actor - director John Huston.
The Lawgiver is to the ape society in Planet of the Apes and Beneath the Planet of the Apes a figure much like Moses or Confucius -- his writings and quotes form the basis of the apes ' system of laws and customs, particularly with regard to humans, whom the Lawgiver declared "the devil 's pawn '', to be shunned and driven out, if not destroyed outright. Statues of the Lawgiver are common around Ape City; when the gorilla army sees a vision of such a statue bleeding, they panic, showing their regard for this icon.
While the Lawgiver 's works were used and quoted daily by the apes, they were n't the only ape writings; secret scrolls told the details of the apes ' rise to dominance, but were kept from the masses. Dr. Zaius, the Chief Defender of the Faith in the ape world some 1200 years after the Lawgiver, kept a copy of the Lawgiver 's essential decrees in his coat pocket, but kept the secret scrolls under lock and key.
Through the course of the series, the chimpanzee Caesar becomes leader of the apes, and attempts to change the timeline that led to the world abandoned by his parents, Zira and Cornelius, who travelled to Earth 's past. By the time the Lawgiver appears in Battle, the children he addresses (as he tells them about Caesar) are a mix of both humans and apes. However, in the book Planet of the Apes Revisited, the original screenwriter, Paul Dehn, stated that the tear on the statue of Caesar at the end of the film is meant as an indication to the audience that Caesar 's efforts ultimately failed. Roddy McDowall conversely asserts (in Behind the Planet of the Apes, a 1998 documentary made for the thirtieth anniversary of the original film), that the tear was meant to be totally ambiguous, leaving it up to audience members to decide for themselves whether or not Caesar had succeeded in altering the future.
Lisa is a chimpanzee character, and the wife of Caesar, from the later installments of the Planet of the Apes movie series. She was played by actress Natalie Trundy, then - wife of Planet of the Apes original film series producer Arthur P. Jacobs.
In Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, Lisa and Caesar meet first in a bookstore, where she is collecting a book for her owner, and then in the City 's Command Center where both serve as slaves. Later, when Caesar launches an ape revolt, he makes a speech to the gathered apes (and a few captured humans, including Governor Breck and Mr. MacDonald), and condemns humanity. Lisa, heretofore mute, speaks for the first time, telling Caesar "No! '' Listening to her, Caesar modifies his stand, telling the apes to leave their onetime human captors to their fate, and begin a world of their own.
In Battle for the Planet of the Apes, Caesar and Lisa are married, and have a son, named Cornelius after Caesar 's own father Cornelius. Lisa is Caesar 's counsel, who reminds him of his duties toward the other apes, and also of the humans now in his charge. She also discourages her son Cornelius from playing "war '' with his friends.
After winning the battle when human mutants attack, Lisa supports Caesar 's decision to free the humans who live with the apes, and try to live together with them as equals.
Mr. MacDonald is the character name of two African - American brothers who appear in later installments of the Planet of the Apes movie series, as companions of Caesar. While their first names are never given in the Apes movies, they are called Malcolm and Bruce in the Marvel Comics adaptations. Both men are of similar character.
The first, played by Hari Rhodes, appears in the fourth movie, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes as the personal assistant to Governor Breck, and a descendant of slaves who ironically commands slave apes, including Caesar, who later leads an ape revolt. MacDonald does not believe Caesar is the descendant of talking apes Cornelius and Zira, or that Caesar is capable of speech -- until Caesar admits otherwise.
First giving Caesar the chance to escape when the authorities are onto him, then sabotaging the electroshock table Caesar is placed on to force him to speak, MacDonald helps Caesar to launch his revolt -- which turns into a night of fires and carnage, as apes around the city turn on their masters. He then takes Caesar on verbally at the movie 's end, when Caesar wants to fully punish humanity for its treatment of apes.
In the novelization of the fifth film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes, set several years after the events of Conquest, MacDonald appears as Caesar 's human liaison and advisor. However, as Rhodes was unable to take part in the filming due to a prior commitment, his role was rewritten into MacDonald 's younger brother, played by Austin Stoker. The younger MacDonald speaks with his authority around Ape City, though he and the other humans otherwise have little authority over themselves, and mostly serve the apes. When Caesar wonders after his parents, and what they knew about right and wrong and the future, MacDonald suggests that old video recordings of Cornelius and Zira might have survived, under the wreckage of Central City (now called the Forbidden City, after it was destroyed in a nuclear war), with answers to some of his questions.
MacDonald and the orangutan Virgil journey with Caesar back to the Forbidden City, carrying a Geiger counter and small arms for protection. Discovering the intact (though dilapidated) archives, they scarcely have time to play back a short passage of the "Alien Visitors '' (namely, Zira and Cornelius) tape before realising that they have also been discovered -- by mutant human survivors of the war. The three barely escape with their lives, but Caesar now has some insight into who his parents were, and what they knew about future events.
Knowing that there are survivors under the city, who might someday want to wage war against them, Caesar prepares the apes to defend their city, but the head of the ape militia, General Aldo, does n't allow the humans of Ape City to help or to defend themselves. When an attack does come, Aldo corrals the humans to keep them from getting involved. The mutants are beaten back, and MacDonald and the other humans are released -- but they refuse to leave the corral, until their role in the city is redefined. Caesar then decrees that all apes must stop treating humans as second - class citizens, and they then work towards peaceful coexistence among the apes and the humans.
Maddox is an American astronaut in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Tod Andrews.
Maddox commanded the rescue mission sent to find astronauts Taylor, Dodge, Landon and Stewart, who went missing in the events of the previous film, Planet of the Apes. Maddox was accompanied on this mission by John Brent.
Following a tradition practiced in both the navy and the air force, Brent sometimes addressed the commander of the craft as "Skipper '', just as Landon had sometimes addressed Taylor in the previous film.
Maddox and Brent 's spaceship passed through a "Hasslein Curve '', sending them two - thousand years into the future. The ship made a crash - landing, badly injuring and blinding Maddox in the process. Brent helped Maddox out of the ship, provided him with medical attention and made him as comfortable as possible.
Brent reported the current year to him (the year 3955 A.D., according to their clocks). Maddox was horrified to hear that they had traveled two - thousand years forward in time. He spoke of his wife and two daughters being long since dead. Maddox himself died shortly afterwards and was buried by Brent.
Although only referred to as "Skipper '' in the film and the credits, the name Maddox appears on the character 's uniform.
Mandemus is an evolved orangutan character in Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original Apes movie, from 1973. He was portrayed by Lew Ayres.
Elderly and an avowed pacifist, Mandemus appears to bear no grudges toward his former human captors, and wants everyone to simply live in peace. The nuclear war that destroyed much of the planet (including the city which the apes narrowly escaped) proved the futility of weapons and fighting to Mandemus. With such an attitude, the ape leader Caesar appointed him keeper of Ape City 's small armory, "and of Caesar 's conscience '', reasoning that Mandemus would talk him out of anything impulsive or unwise.
Besides his other duties, Mandemus also became a teacher in Ape City 's first school. One of his students was the genius orangutan Virgil, who also became a teacher, and an advisor of Caesar.
While Mandemus 's appearance in Battle is brief, the Marvel Comics graphic novel adaptation of the Apes storyline provided a longer backstory to the relationship between Mandemus and Caesar.
Dr. Maximus was a character in the original Planet of the Apes film. An orangutan, the highest caste of apes portrayed in the movie, Dr. Maximus is the Commissioner for Animal Affairs ("Animal '' meaning "Human '' in the apes ' lexicon).
Dr. Zaius brings Dr. Maximus to the laboratory where the scientists Cornelius and Zira have given safe haven to human astronaut Taylor. As Commissioner of Animal Affairs, Dr. Maximus notes that the chimpanzees are breaking the leash law and orders that Taylor be removed from the area, which is restricted to apes.
Dr. Maximus appears as part of the National Academy tribunal that presides over the hearing that accuses the two scientists of surgically enabling Taylor to speak. As Dr. Maximus explains, the purpose of the hearing is "to settle custodial and jurisdictional questions concerning this beast, and determine what 's to be done with him. '' As the first seated judge, Dr. Maximus covers his eyes when the three orangutans mime the "See No Evil, Hear No Evil, Speak No Evil '' adage in one of the film 's many satirical flourishes. (According to the film 's star, Charlton Heston, director Franklin Schaffner conceived the idea but was reluctant to film it, fearing it would be perceived as lowbrow and incongruous with the seriousness of the scene.)
Dr. Maximus is played by Woodrow Parfrey, who also appeared in the first episode of the TV series based on the film. Appearing in the first installments of both the film and TV series is a distinction he shares with Roddy McDowall.
Méndez is the name of a successive dynasty of mutant, human leaders in the Planet of the Apes movie universe. Paul Richards played Méndez XXVI in 1970 's Beneath the Planet of the Apes, while Paul Stevens played his predecessor in 1973 's Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original movie.
In the second movie, Méndez XXVI is a figure much like a Pope or other lineal authority, with his leadership basically spiritual in nature. His people are the descendants of survivors of a nuclear war, which destroyed most of humanity and allowed the apes to rise to power. Living underground for centuries among irradiated ruins has transformed them physically; their psychic powers increased, as their appearance became disfigured through severe genetic mutation. The underground mutant people wear masks and wigs to resemble their ancestors more closely, and speak through telepathy, saving their voices for worship. They also regard their severe physical mutation as a true blessing of "the divine bomb ''. During their worship ceremonies, the mutants put down their contrived masks, revealing their "inmost selves '' unto their god, and much of their speech and daily rituals are stylized around terms used within the nuclear industry.
Their object of worship is an ancient Alpha - Omega nuclear missile left over from the 20th century and still operational, though its original controls have long been replaced by carefully crafted jewel and crystal workings. They have installed the bomb in the former St. Patrick 's Cathedral before the organ pipes, in place of the crucifix. They see their life 's purpose as to guard the Divine Bomb, and to keep watch on the apes; should the apes become a threat to their underground life, the Bomb will be used to destroy them. However, what is little understood is that the Alpha - Omega Device, which possesses a cobalt casing around its warhead, was designed to ignite the Earth 's atmosphere, and extinguish all life on the planet, not just the apes. Méndez XXVI wears a large gold rendering of the bomb as a pendant, much like a crucifix.
When Taylor and Brent are captured, Méndez XXVI oversees their interrogations, and decides what is to be done with them, and about the apes, who are planning to invade the underground city to seize its food sources. When the apes arrive, Méndez XXVI tries to reason with their leader # General Ursus, but is shot down after arming the missile. Taylor later detonates the missile 's warhead, ending the battle between human and ape once and for all by destroying the entire planet.
In Battle for the Planet of the Apes, set almost 2,000 years earlier, Méndez is the first of the underground humans to bear the name, and is a subordinate to Kolp, who became governor after Governor Breck 's death, following the nuclear war. When Kolp goes to battle with Ape City with his mutant army, Méndez remains behind, supervising the team who safeguard their "secret weapon '', the Alpha - Omega bomb.
When Kolp loses the battle, the default order is to fire the missile at Ape City. Méndez instead rejects the order, reminding everyone that using the missile will not just destroy the apes. If they instead revere its power and preserve the missile through time, they will never lose hope or a sense of purpose. He becomes the new human leader, and his attitude toward the missile becomes the code of the underground humans, who build their society to reflect that code. His successors in turn carry his name, as a reminder of their purpose.
In the Planet of the Apes movie series, Dr. Milo is a genius chimpanzee scientist who spurns the intellectual and technological limits placed on the ape society. He was portrayed in Escape from the Planet of the Apes by Sal Mineo, in one of his last roles.
Dr. Milo was added to the storyline developed in Beneath the Planet of the Apes, in the interstitial period between Beneath and Escape. Whether Milo was an outcast from Ape City, or self - exiled from it, is not known. Unafraid of "the beast Man '' and of human technology (forbidden under Ape law) as he is of reading banned books or visiting the Forbidden Zone, he is a friend of Cornelius and Zira, who also hold liberal views.
In the Forbidden Zone, Dr. Milo is able to raise the spacecraft that carried the astronaut Taylor and is able to repair it well enough to relaunch. (It is never revealed how he learned of the ship -- possibly in a conversation with Zira and Cornelius -- or of electronics or any other technique used in space flight; his advanced intelligence would have provided some insight, possibly augmented by caches of old human books, or technological data found aboard the craft.)
While Milo never completely fathoms the technology or the purpose of Taylor 's ship (and of course its crew are unavailable), he does come far enough to be able to attempt a flight. Cornelius and Zira join him, the three donning spacesuits and climbing aboard, after they become convinced the latest anti-human campaign will spell disaster. Once in space, they learn how true this becomes, as the Earth is destroyed.
Whether Taylor 's ship followed a preprogrammed flight path, was affected by shock waves from the blast that destroyed Earth, or was flown by Dr. Milo is never revealed. (From the attitudes shown in Escape, it is probable the apes knew very little about flying the ship, and simply let it follow its programming.) In any case, their trip takes the apes back in time to the year 1973, nearly two years after Taylor 's ship originally departed, and makes another water landing, this time floating off the California coast.
Startling their human finders, Dr. Milo, Zira and Cornelius are taken to the local zoo while the US Government ponders what to do with them. Finding themselves in the reverse situation of what astronauts Taylor and Brent went through coming to their world, the three chimpanzees agree to make no sounds around humans, but talk furtively in private, and try to decide how to handle what has happened. (Zira spoils this by openly declaring her dislike of bananas when the apes are fed, heightening the tension.)
As Dr. Milo paces, he draws the attention of a primitive gorilla from the next cage over, who grabs Dr. Milo at a vulnerable moment and strangles him to death. Mournful over the loss, Cornelius and Zira name their son (born toward the end of Escape) Milo, after their friend. To hide his identity, Milo 's foster father Armando gives him the name Caesar. Caesar becomes the main character in the next two Apes movies, and the leader of a new ape society.
Nova is a fictional character in the novel Planet of the Apes by Pierre Boulle. In the first two Planet of the Apes films, she is played by Linda Harrison.
In Planet of the Apes (1968), Nova is a primitive girl who is captured by the intelligent and warlike apes during one of their hunting expeditions. American astronaut George Taylor is also captured. They are taken to Ape City where they are paired up in a cell. Taylor, having been shot through the throat by a gorilla, is unable to speak, but when his speech returns he befriends the chimpanzees Zira and Cornelius. They eventually help Taylor and Nova escape to the Forbidden Zone where Taylor learns the truth about the planet.
In the sequel Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970), she and Taylor journey through the Forbidden Zone where Taylor mysteriously disappears. Meanwhile, a second astronaut, Brent, has arrived on the planet in search of Taylor. Brent is brought by Nova to Zira and Cornelius, but they are captured and held prisoner. Escaping, they head for the Forbidden Zone where they discover that beneath the surface of the planet is a forgotten city, peopled by mutants who worship a massive nuclear bomb. Under the mutants ' mind control, Brent attempts to drown Nova. Later, as Brent and Taylor stand in a cell, she watches in horror as the two men, under the control of mutant Ograna, try to kill each other. Fearing for the lives of her friend and the man she loves, she speaks for the first time, crying out Taylor 's name. The sound of her voice breaks the mutant 's mind control and frees Brent and Taylor, who kill Ograna and then leave the cell with Nova. As the three navigate around the corridors, General Ursus ' army invades the cathedral, killing any mutant they encounter; the trio are ambushed by an armed gorilla soldier, who fatally shoots Nova, before Brent and Taylor manage to kill him. A devastated Taylor holds Nova in his hands before Brent convinces him that they must continue. The film ends with a mortally wounded Taylor detonating the bomb, destroying the planet.
Variations on the character appeared in other interpretations of the Planet of the Apes mythos. Daena, from Tim Burton 's 2001 remake, was based on Harrison 's character from the earlier film series. Harrison also appeared in the film (as an unnamed woman in a cart) and a separate character named Nova (a chimp, played by Lisa Marie) also appeared in the film.
In the film War for the Planet of the Apes, Nova is a young girl, portrayed by Amiah Miller.
George Taylor, more commonly known as Taylor, is the main protagonist of the original Planet of the Apes film and a supporting character of Beneath the Planet of the Apes. Taylor is an American astronaut and the leader of a space expedition. He is played by Charlton Heston. Taylor 's first name is never spoken in dialog; the sources for it are the closing credits of the film and the 1998 documentary Behind the Planet of the Apes. While the character is never given a first name during the film, the end credits of Planet of the Apes identify him as George Taylor. Although no rank other than "Skipper '' is given to the character in the two films in which he appears, the character is referred to as Colonel Taylor in Escape from the Planet of the Apes the third film in the series.
In the opening minutes of the movie, Taylor is watching his crewmates enter a state of hibernation aboard their ship (known noncanonically as the Icarus or the Liberty 1), which is accelerating to nearly the speed of light, as he records his final report before joining them. Taylor muses about the fact that hundreds of years have already passed on Earth, in the six months the ship 's clock has recorded, and hopes that whoever is receiving his report on Earth belongs to a better breed than they left behind, when their ship launched in 1972. He then climbs into his bunk, passing into hibernation, as the ship continues on auto - pilot to a faraway star.
When Taylor and two of his crewmates awake (discovering that a fourth, a woman named Stewart, died from an air leak while they were hibernating) the ship has crash - landed in a lake, on what they take to be an Earth - like, but largely barren, planet orbiting a Sun - like star in the constellation Orion. The ship begins to take on water, then sinks rapidly, barely leaving the three astronauts time to break out survival kits and a life raft, and take an Earth - time reading; the year is 3978, leaving them just over two thousand years away from their starting point.
Rowing the raft to dry land, Taylor assumes command of what they now know will be a no - return mission, but it pulls him and his companions, Dodge and Landon, together and they begin a search for life on this new planet. They also discuss their motivations for joining the mission; Taylor 's is his quest to find someone or something wiser than humanity. As they leave their crash site behind, the astronauts first find a flowering plant, then a row of what appear to be scarecrows or a boundary line, then finally a lush valley with a waterfall and pool, where they peel off their uniforms and go swimming.
Their equipment and clothing vanishes. The astronauts follow footprints leading away from the pool and discover primitive mute humans destroying everything the astronauts brought with them. The astronauts assess the possibility of taking command of these humans, but they are interrupted by the sound of gunfire. This planet has another dominant species: evolved apes. The apes hunt the humans, capturing many in nets. Dodge is killed outright, Landon suffers a head wound, and Taylor receives a bullet wound in his throat, preventing him from speaking.
Taken to Ape City and caged, Taylor and a mute female (whom he later calls Nova) share a laboratory cell, and chimpanzee psychologist Dr. Zira hopes the two will mate. When Zira discovers that Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she has ever seen, she takes him out of the laboratory to meet her fiancé Dr. Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor 's assertion that he 's actually a visitor from a faraway planet, but they think he might be living proof of human intelligence -- if not a missing link between humans and their "evolved superiors '', the apes.
Learning also of Taylor 's intelligence, and of his ability to speak as his throat recovers, Dr. Zaius wants Taylor first gelded, then put to death -- but first he wants to know where Taylor "really comes from '' in the Forbidden Zone, and information about his "tribe ''. Taylor of course ca n't tell Zaius anything he wants to know, and states that he learned how to read and write in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Taylor also blames Zaius for what happened to Landon -- who is brought to Taylor in a lobotomised, animal - like state. When Zira 's nephew Lucius breaks Taylor out of the laboratory, and he joins Cornelius and Zira as they flee to the Forbidden Zone (under charges of heresy brought by Zaius), Taylor deliberately takes a rifle for himself, and declares nobody else is in charge of him, from here on. He also brings Nova, despite the apes ' objections.
Dr. Zaius tracks the fleeing party down, but Taylor captures him, forcing Zaius to promise both to let him and Nova escape, and to drop the charges he 's made against Zira and Cornelius. Zaius agrees, but nonetheless condemns Taylor and all humans as doomed to folly. After Taylor and Nova depart, Zaius destroys the cave holding the evidence that would exonerate Cornelius and Zira, and takes them back to Ape City under escort.
Finally free of the apes, Taylor discovers that he has n't been on a faraway planet at all, but has returned to Earth in its distant future, as he and Nova encounter the ruins of the Statue of Liberty along the shoreline. He was devastated to learn that humanity indeed had destroyed themselves, as Zaius asserted.
Heston returned as Taylor for a brief appearance in the second Apes movie, Beneath the Planet of the Apes, as he and Nova encounter strange sights and sounds in what should be an empty landscape. When Taylor discovers a wall where there was none before, he tries to tear into it - and disappears, leaving the horrified Nova alone on their horse.
Later in the movie, another astronaut named Brent, sent on a doomed mission to rescue Taylor and his companions, is fleeing with Nova from a squad of gorilla soldiers into the Forbidden Zone, when they come upon an entryway to the underground remains of New York City, and its mutant human inhabitants, whom as it turns out led them in deliberately -- as they earlier had Taylor, through the illusory wall. After probing both Taylor and Brent for what they know about the apes and their intentions, they force the two men to fight to the death, but Nova 's sudden reappearance breaks their jailer 's control. All three nearly escape, when Nova is shot and dies as the apes attack the underground city. Taylor loses hope, but he and Brent each grab weapons and fight against the apes.
Taylor is shot trying to reach the console that controls the Alpha - Omega (ΑΩ) missile the mutants worship. Rising, he attempts to dismantle its nuclear warhead before either the mutants can trigger it, and destroy the whole planet, or the apes can set it off by their carelessness. Desperate, he calls out to Dr. Zaius for help, who flatly refuses him on the grounds that humans are "capable of nothing but destruction ''. Taylor falls for the last time, his hand plunging the trigger mechanism with his last breath, and the Earth is destroyed.
Taylor appears in references during the third Apes movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, (where he is given the rank of Colonel which was never mentioned in the two previous films) and a few times in flashbacks, but his (and Heston 's) role in the series was complete after the first two installments. Heston had n't wanted to come back, but the studio held him to his contract; he agreed to appear if his salary were donated to charity, and if the original storyline (which had Taylor and Nova surviving, to found a new human breed) were changed to keep him from having to return for another sequel.
General Ursus is a gorilla character in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes, serving as the main antagonist of the film. He was portrayed by veteran actor James Gregory.
General Ursus is very much the stereotyped "mad general '', on top of being a brutish gorilla. He sees little past the end of his own nose, and is interested mainly in his own dreams of conquest, glory and power. At a meeting of the ape council, Ursus uses the recent crop failures, drought, and raids by wild humans as the basis for a call to invade the Forbidden Zone, where no ape has trodden (with rare exception) since the beginning of their world. Suggesting that another tribe of humans lives there (a belief based on Dr. Zaius ' encounter with Taylor in the previous film), and the disappearances of gorilla scouts (save one who returned delirious) sent into the zone to investigate, Ursus stirs the apes up to invade, and claim their food source ("If they live, then they must eat! '') for themselves.
Successful in persuading the apes to declare "a holy war '' against the unknown, General Ursus assembles a gorilla army, and marches toward the Forbidden Zone, accompanied by Minister of Science Dr. Zaius -- who has his misgivings about the whole adventure, but goes along for the sake of science, and "the faith '' of the apes.
Indeed, a small group of intelligent mutant humans do dwell in the Forbidden Zone, underground among the ruins of New York City. While their physical features have been mutated by generations living in the irradiated area, they have advanced psychic powers, which are their only line of defense against "enemies '', i.e. any outsiders. Learning that the gorilla army is on its way, the mutants plant terrifying visions in their minds, of crucified and tortured apes surrounded by fire, and finally the familiar statue of the Lawgiver, prophet of the apes, beginning to crack and bleed. Ursus is frightened as are his soldiers. Having gone too far with their exposition, the mutants ' vision backfires by instilling rage in Dr. Zaius, and he rides into the heart of the vision, remaining unharmed. It grates Ursus that Zaius has shown him up, but he orders the army to advance, and they soon find the entrance to the mutant city.
With their mental powers useless against the "thick - skulled '' apes, the mutants have only one other weapon available -- their "god '' or idol, a 20th - century nuclear missile with a cobalt casing capable of igniting the atmosphere and extinguishing all life on Earth. While the weapon has been passed down through generations, and forms the basis of the mutant culture, left unsaid (but implied by the mutants calling it the "Divine Bomb '') is whether the mutants know of its true destructive power.
Leading the gorilla army into the heart of the mutant world (the former cathedral which now houses the Divine Bomb), Ursus and the other apes are taken back momentarily when first a mutant (their leader Méndez) speaks, declaring "This is the instrument of my god! '' then the bomb rises into launch position. Recovering quickly, Ursus orders his sergeant to take Méndez into custody, but the sergeant shoots Méndez instead. Ursus taunts "Your god did n't save you, did he?! '' as he falls. Thinking the missile is little more than a worshiped idol, Ursus orders a block and tackle be set up, to pull it down.
Zaius pleads with General Ursus not to touch the missile, knowing only "That weapon was built by Man! '' and "It 'll kill us all! '', but Ursus ignores him, even when the missile shell cracks open and propellant escapes, waylaying the nearby gorillas. Ursus is finally killed by a rifle shot, as humans Taylor and Brent vainly try to stop the gorilla army, only moments before Brent is killed by Ursus ' army and a mortally wounded Taylor detonates the bomb, putting an end to the gorilla 's ambitions -- along with everything else on the planet.
Virgil is a genius orangutan character from Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original Apes movie from 1973. He was played onscreen by actor / musician Paul Williams.
A former student of orangutan pacifist Mandemus, Virgil went on to become Ape City 's resident scientist and theoretical thinker, and an advisor and friend of Caesar. Apes and humans are both among his students, and he feels sorry for the humans ' second - class status in Ape City.
Caesar calls Virgil away from his teaching work, to accompany him and Mr. MacDonald on a trip back to the Forbidden City, to search for recordings of his parents Cornelius and Zira, and information about Earth 's future. Carrying a Geiger counter into the Forbidden City, Virgil warns Caesar plainly about the radioactivity and accompanying dangers. (He also authorizes MacDonald to bring a pistol, in case he may "wish to shoot, cook, and eat a rabbit '' during the trip; something humans were normally not allowed to do.)
Returning from the Forbidden City (after barely escaping with their lives, from mutated human survivors who stayed underground), Caesar and Virgil reluctantly prepare Ape City for a possible attack. General Aldo, called to action, sees the chance to take power instead. When Caesar 's son Cornelius is gravely injured in a fall from a tree, MacDonald discovers the ends of the broken branch, determining they were cut, and he and Virgil deduce Aldo was the culprit.
Virgil fights and leads apes when the mutant humans do attack, calling Caesar out to take charge. After the battle, he is the one who must tell Caesar that Cornelius was murdered by Aldo. Later, he helps to rebuild Ape City, with its new status of apes and humans as equals.
Dr. Zaius is a fictional character in the Pierre Boulle novel Planet of the Apes, and the film series and television series based upon it. (In Boulle 's novel, his honorific was "Mi '', a term in the Ape language.) He is an orangutan and although given a minor role devoid of dialogue in the novel, he becomes the main antagonist of the story in the subsequent film adaptation. Zaius was portrayed in the first and second films of the series by Maurice Evans, in the later television series by Booth Colman, and voiced in the animated series by Richard Blackburn. Prior to that, acting legend Edward G. Robinson also gave life to the character in a short film used to pitch the story _́ s concept to executives at 20th Century Fox.
Zaius serves a dual role in Ape society, as Minister of Science in charge of advancing ape knowledge, and also as Chief Defender of the Faith. In the latter role, he has access to ancient scrolls and other information not given to the ape masses. Zaius knows the true origins of the ape society, how humanity fell as the dominant species, and the reasons why the Forbidden Zone is so regarded, and he blames human nature for it all. Zaius seems to prefer an imperfect, ignorant ape culture that keeps humans in check, to the open, scientific, human - curious one posed by Cornelius and Zira 's generation (this is due to his fear of a war of self - destruction). The idea of an intelligent human (such as Taylor) threatening the balance of things frightens him deeply. Knowing the destruction that humanity (with the aid of technology) caused in its downfall, he does n't want even the possibility of a human resurgence. At the end of Planet of the Apes, Zaius has Cornelius 's archaeological findings (human artifacts, predating the Ape society) destroyed, and Cornelius and Zira arrested on heresy charges.
Although cast as the antagonist in the film, Zaius 's actions are nonetheless driven by his deep belief that he is protecting the world (at whatever cost) from the "walking pestilence '' of humanity, even if his actions cause undue harm to his ape brethren. And despite his animosity towards Taylor, Zaius nevertheless demonstrates a grudging respect for his adversary, calling him by his proper name, and even advising Taylor near the end of the film against delving into the mystery as to how the apes evolved from humans because as he cryptically warns the marooned astronaut: "Do n't look for it, Taylor. You may not like what you find. '' The film 's final startling image of the corroded head of the Statue of Liberty by the sea shore can be seen as a vindication of Zaius 's views as to the destructive, genocidal nature of humanity and the means which Zaius is compelled to employ, even against his own colleagues, from the existential threat of a resurgent human race.
Only once near the end does Zaius truly make what he knows and thinks known:
"I have always known about man. From the evidence, I believe his wisdom must walk hand and hand with his idiocy. His emotions must rule his brain. He must be a warlike creature who gives battle to everything around him, even himself... The Forbidden Zone was once a paradise. (Man) made a desert of it ''
By the second movie Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius recalls how Zaius brought them to trial, but then acted on their behalf. When Zaius leaves on a military expedition with General Ursus to invade the Forbidden Zone, Zaius trusts them both to continue his work. (In the novelization of Beneath, they instead begin a revolt, once the gorilla army is gone.) Zaius meets Taylor once more, in a showdown between the gorillas and a mutant human race living underground in the Zone. Taylor was trying to keep the mutant humans from activating a doomsday bomb, and was shot several times in the process by gorilla troops. Wounded and dying, Taylor begs Zaius to help him stop the bomb; when Zaius refuses (declaring "Man is evil -- capable of nothing but destruction! ''), Taylor deliberately activates the bomb in his last moments, ironically realizing Zaius 's worst fears, as the Earth is destroyed.
During the third movie (Escape from the Planet of the Apes) Cornelius relates how he learned the truth about humans and apes from reading secret scrolls. Cornelius presumably had access to these while working for Dr. Zaius (or after his departure), or perhaps was granted access by Zaius as a consolation for the loss of his archaeological work.
In the television series, Councillor Zaius serves as a government official, with authority over all the humans in his district. The young chimpanzee Galen becomes his new assistant, but becomes a fugitive with two human astronauts Virdon and Burke, fleeing from Zaius and his enforcer, General Urko.
In the animated series, Zaius again serves as a government official, who holds influence within the Ape Senate, and has authority over both Cornelius and Zira, and their scientific enterprises, as well as General Urko and his military.
Dr. Zira is a chimpanzee psychologist and veterinarian, who specializes in the study of humans, in the novel and subsequent movie series Planet of the Apes. Zira was played in the first three Apes movies by actress Kim Hunter. Unique among the Apes characters, Zira has blue eyes.
Zira is the fiancée (later wife) of Cornelius, and both are ultimately responsible to the Minister of Science, Dr. Zaius. Zira 's character and role are essentially the same in both the novel and the movies, though some story details differ. Her work in each involves both working with humans under laboratory conditions (e.g. learning and behavioural experiments), and working on them physically (lobotomy and other brain surgeries, vivisection, physical endurance and tolerance experiments, and subsequent autopsies). Zira is an outspoken liberal by nature, deploring war and militancy (and despising the gorillas, who seem to make both a way of life), and eager to seek and develop intelligence anywhere it can be found. Zira literally stands for her principles -- or refuses to stand, as the case may be.
In the original novel, Zira discovers that her charge Ulysse Mérou (caged in the laboratory where she works) is n't a native - born, mute human of her planet, but a space traveller capable of speech, and she secretly teaches him the language of the apes, in hopes of eventually making a public demonstration, with Mérou 's consent. Cornelius also becomes involved, helping prepare Mérou to meet ape society, and vice versa.
In the first movie, Zira meets American astronaut George Taylor, who was shot in the throat when he was captured by gorillas, and can not speak, as the native humans of her world can not. She tends to his throat wound, discovers Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she 's seen, and pairs him with Nova, also intelligent, hoping the two will breed. When Taylor steals Zira 's notepad and writes his own name on it, Zira abruptly drops the nickname "Bright Eyes '' she 'd given him, and takes Taylor to meet Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor 's story that he 's from another planet, but suppose that he might be a missing link, to explain the similarities between ape and human behaviour and anatomy... and the strange artifacts Cornelius found at an archaeological dig the year before. She seems to be fond of the humans that she works with and gives them nicknames, such as an old one she named "Old Timer ''.
In both novel and movie, Zira ultimately helps Mérou / Taylor and Nova to escape the world of the apes, coming to appreciate each as thinking creatures like herself, as well as having a plain fondness for them. In the movie, she and Taylor kiss goodbye -- even though, as she tells him, "You 're so damned ugly. ''
Beneath the Planet of the Apes shows Zira and Cornelius married and at home (after Zira makes a political spectacle of herself at an ape gathering), when another human enters their lives; the astronaut Brent, sent to rescue Taylor but now needing help himself. Zira treats a bullet wound Brent sustained, and she and Cornelius send him and Nova (who met Brent when she sought Zira, after Taylor vanished) back out of the city, to spare them from the latest human roundup. When Dr. Zaius visits, he tells Cornelius and Zira he plans to appoint them as his proxies, while he is away on a military campaign with General Ursus (Zira left her medical gear in sight; covering part of her face, she pretends to Zaius that Cornelius hit her for upsetting the ape council). Zaius admonishes them both to maintain the status quo, and keep their more liberal values in check. Zira and Cornelius promise to do so, and Zaius departs. In the novel adaptation of the movie, they subsequently begin a chimpanzee revolt, with Zaius and the gorilla army gone.
Escape from the Planet of the Apes has the pregnant Zira (with Cornelius and their friend Dr. Milo) making a different kind of experiment -- this time space flight, in Taylor 's restored craft, the Icarus, when they realize their world is doomed. In a reverse of Taylor 's experience, the spaceship travels back in time to a few months after his mission began, splashing down off the California coast. The movie follows Zira and Cornelius (after the accidental death of Dr. Milo) through their discovery, and eventual rejection, by and of human society. A large portion of the rejection comes from Zira 's drugged confessions of the details of her human experiments, to the shock of the reactionary Presidential Commission, who declare them atrocities since they were done to humans. Zira was glad she told the truth and understands why Taylor called them savages when Taylor was treated badly. Zira 's and Cornelius 's account of their origins, and of humanity 's coming downfall, further stigmatises the couple. Their baby is born (named Milo after their friend, but later called Caesar), but Zira and Cornelius are murdered a few days afterward. Circus owner Armando took them in when the baby came; Zira switched her newborn baby with a circus chimp when she and Cornelius had to go into hiding, leaving Armando a clue in case they did n't return.
Zira makes no further appearances in the Apes movies, although she is mentioned by name in the following sequels, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes and Battle for the Planet of the Apes and appears in video stills (while her recorded voice tells the story of their space flight, and of the Earth 's destruction) the adult Caesar plays back, to learn more about his parents, in Battle for the Planet of the Apes.
Veska is a character in the first episode of the TV series Planet of the Apes. He is a pragmatic chimpanzee and prefect of the ape village known as Chalo.
In the episode, titled "Escape From Tomorrow, '' in 3085, his inquisitive young son Arno discovers the downed spacecraft called the Icarus some distance away from the prefecture that has delivered the human protagonists to their planet. Veska is shaken by the realization that humans have constructed and flown the ship, which is considerably more advanced than the primitive level of invention on his own planet. Veska 's fierce reaction to his son 's declaration that the humans must have come from a superior culture introduces a core theme present throughout the franchise, that the apes fear the human astronauts will threaten their dominion over the species. "If humans could build and fly a (spaceship) like this, '' he tells Arno, "they 'd begin to think they 're as good as we are! '' Veska alerts the other ape leaders to the two surviving humans ' escape from the vehicle, which starts the hunt that drives almost all episodes of the short - lived series.
Veska is played by Woodrow Parfrey, who along with appearing in this first series episode also appeared in the first Apes movie, a distinction he shares only with Roddy McDowall. (Interestingly, their two characters in the series pilot are cousins.) Veska 's eyepatch was a last - minute wardrobe solution to mask a visible eye infection Parfrey contracted after falling asleep while wearing the dark contact lenses that all blue - eyed actors wore to help the ape makeup appear more natural. The large patch, apparently shorn from the same material used to make his costume, enhances Veska 's frightening countenance.
General Thade is the main antagonist of Tim Burton 's 2001 remake of Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Tim Roth.
Thade is an ambitious and brutal leader (along with his gorilla friend Attar) of the Ape armies, who passionately hated all things human and wanted them exterminated. His father Zaius, who had instilled this hatred in him, knew that humans were once in charge, and Thade vowed to wipe out any resistance to ape rule and being direct descendants of the ape god Semos. He schemed to be given absolute power by the Ape Senate. General Thade pursued Ari romantically but never seemed to progress. Thade branded Ari with the mark of human slaves after she was found gathering with human rebels in the forbidden area of Calima. Thade ruled with cruelty and lived by a Machiavellian outlook on life. Any means justified the ends to Thade. When news of a crashed spacecraft reached him he personally killed those who told him, to ensure the information remained a secret. While willing to get a pet human child for his niece, Thade himself believed the world would be a better place if all humans were killed. When the ape army was halted by the appearance of a spacepod piloted by a chimp, Thade alone rejected the idea of the second coming of Semos. He chased the chimp and was eventually locked into the control room of the deserted space station.
He was shown again in the closing scene, where Leo had returned to Earth in his own time only to find technologically advanced apes in charge and a large statue of Thade in place of Abraham Lincoln on the Lincoln Memorial.
Thade is the only villain in the series to survive the events of his film, unlike previous and later ape and human villains.
Capt. Leo Davidson is the protagonist of Tim Burton 's 2001 remake Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Mark Wahlberg.
Leo Davidson is a United States Air Force astronaut who accidentally opens a portal to another world inhabited by talking human - like apes and is captured by them. After he escapes from slavery and freeing some humans, he plans to go back to his space station Oberon through Calima (the temple of "Semos ''), a forbidden, but holy, site for the apes. Along the way, he develops romantic feelings to Ari, a female chimpanzee who senses that there is cruelty with humans, and Daena, a female human slave. According to the computer logs, the station has been there for thousands of years. Leo deduces that when he entered the vortex, he was pushed forward in time while the Oberon, searching after him, was not, crashing on the planet long before he did. The Oberon 's log reveals that the apes on board, led by Semos, the first ape, organized a mutiny and took control of the vessel after it crashed.
The human and ape survivors of the struggle left the ship and their descendants are the people Leo has encountered since landing. Realizing that General Thade will be coming after him with an army, he leads a human rebellion against the apes. As the battle between humans and apes goes on, a familiar vehicle descends from the sky and is identified immediately by Leo as the pod piloted by Pericles, the chimp astronaut who was pushed in time as Leo does. When Pericles lands, the apes interpret his landing as the return arrival of Semos, who is their god. They bow, and hostilities between humans and apes disappear. Pericles then runs into the Oberon and Leo runs after him, while being followed by General Thade. Inside, Thade and Leo wrestle, with Pericles trying to help Leo, only to be thrown hard against a wall. Seeing that Thade is in the pilot 's deck, Leo closes the automatic door of the entrance, trapping Thade as he shoots the gun, the bullets ricocheting off the door harmlessly.
After the battle was finished, Leo decides that it is time for him to leave the Planet of the Apes, so he gives Pericles to Ari, with her promising to look after him, also saying farewell to Daena. Leo climbs aboard Pericles 's undamaged pod and uses it to travel back in time through the same electromagnetic storm. Leo ends up crashing in front of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. on Earth in his own time. He looks up at the Memorial, and in shock, sees it is now a monument in honor of General Thade. A swarm of police officers, firefighters, and news reporters descend on Leo, but on closer inspection, they are all apes.
Ari was the daughter of Senator Sandar, a high - ranking member of the Ape Senate. She was portrayed by Helena Bonham Carter
She had a passion for life and thrived for a world where apes and humans lived as equals. She was idealistic and despised the way the humans were treated. Ari spoke publicly about her outrageous beliefs, and used her father as a shield from the authorities. When Ari spotted astronaut Leo Davidson in a cage, she just had to have him. She bought him and the female Daena, whom he particularly liked, because she saw their rebelliousness. From there she became captivated by Leo whom she viewed as unique. Ari helped Leo and a band of others escape Ape City and followed them into the Forbidden Zone. General Thade, a suitor for her affections, explained this escape as a kidnapping of Ari and used this to justify his absolute power under martial law. Thade 's army marched on humanity, and Ari and her human friends waited in Calima for their arrival. She may have struggled to live up to her ideals but was the vital link between the human rebels and the more sympathetic members of ape society.
Attar was the commander of the Ape Armies. He was the loyal lieutenant of General Thade and enjoyed the thrill of hunting humans. He was portrayed by Michael Clarke Duncan.
Attar demanded that everyone bow their heads before dinner so a prayer to Semos could be delivered. He even went into a rage after Leo deliberately set the tent where Attar kept his personal shrine of Semos on fire. Attar learned the art of fighting under his teacher Krull, whom he had to fight and kill in the ultimate battle. When the spacepod piloted by Pericles landed on the battle field, he and the other ape soldiers dropped their weapons believing it was the return of their god. He realised that Thade, Thade 's father, and the elders of ape society had been misleading the population for centuries and he took the side of Leo, Ari and the humans.
Dreyfus is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as the secondary antagonist. He is portrayed by Gary Oldman.
He is a former Army soldier and police officer who is appointed as the leader of the human resistance. Having experienced personal loss, Dreyfus sees Caesar and his colony as a threat after discovering an ape encampment at a local power station. Seeing no other solution, Dreyfus has one goal; wipe them out. His plan was foiled by Caesar in War for the Planet of the Apes.
Steven Jacobs is a fictional character and the main antagonist in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by David Oyelowo. His last name is a reference to Arthur P. Jacobs, the producer of the original Planet of the Apes series.
He ran the Gen - Sys Laboratories where Dr. Will Rodman was researching a cure to Alzheimer 's disease. After two years in charge of the lab, Jacobs shut down research on the ' ALZ - 112 ' drug after one of Rodman 's chimps went berserk. It was only eight years later, when Rodman revealed he had used the drug on his own father with limited results, that Jacobs approved development of a refined version.
However, Jacobs ordered further testing of the "ALZ - 113 '' virus despite Rodman 's warnings, caring only for the profits to be made on the success of the virus. Later on, Caesar escaped the San Bruno Primate Shelter along with all the other apes housed there, having first infected them with the ALZ - 113. Caesar then went on to stage an attack on Gen - Sys and rescue the apes being held captive there by Jacobs and his staff. After the attack, Jacobs flagged down a San Francisco Police helicopter being commanded by Police Chief John Hamil, and directed them to attack and attempt to destroy the ape rebellion now taking place on the Golden Gate Bridge, in hopes of avoiding bad publicity for Gen - Sys and himself. Once the helicopter arrived at the bridge, Caesar and the other apes were already in the process of defeating the police force opposing them. The helicopter began firing on the apes, killing several, until Jacobs spotted Caesar and attempted to have the chopper pilot gun him down. Buck, a silverback gorilla, tossed Caesar aside and caused the helicopter to crash on to the very edge of the bridge by jumping on it and attacking Hamil and the pilot, which resulted in Buck 's death. Jacobs was the only survivor from the crash and pleaded for Caesar to help him out of the helicopter before it tipped over the side of the bridge. However, Caesar turned his back on Jacobs because of all the pain and suffering he 'd caused the apes for his own greed, as well as for Buck 's death. Just as Caesar turned away, Koba, an ape that Jacobs ordered testing on earlier, walked up to the crashed helicopter and, despite Jacobs asking for help, callously pushed it -- and a screaming Jacobs -- over the side of the bridge and into the water far below, presumably killing him.
Koba is a scar - faced bonobo who has spent most of his life in laboratories and holds a grudge against humans in Rise of the Planet of the Apes. Koba is portrayed by Christopher Gordon in Rise and Toby Kebbell in Dawn.
Koba was tested with the ALZ - 113 drug by Will Rodman. Koba has a strong hatred of humans because of his past as a test subject. When Caesar freed all of the apes at the lab including Koba, Koba respected Caesar for freeing him. When Buck died at the Golden Gate Bridge, Caesar allowed Koba to kill Steven Jacobs. Koba killed Steven Jacobs by pushing him off the bridge into the water. While Will was looking for Caesar in the Muir Woods, Koba attacked him and was about to kill him. Instead, Caesar stopped Koba from killing Will, which left Koba very angry.
Koba returns in the Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as the main antagonist. He is now a lieutenant and close friend of Caesar, who treats him like a brother. However, when surviving humans appear, Koba 's darker nature reemerges and he begins pushing for open war against the humans, considering them a threat and remembering all the torture he suffered at their hands. Caesar wants peace with the humans, putting him and Koba at odds, and eventually leading to a brutal brawl between the two which nearly kills Koba. Despite being spared and forgiven for his insolence, Koba decides to overthrow Caesar and shoots him with a human rifle under cover of darkness, causing him to fall off a cliff. Framing the humans for Caesar 's "death '', Koba leads the ape colony in a vicious attack against the humans. Despite heavy casualties, Koba and the apes win, killing many humans and imprisoning the rest to show them what it feels like to be in a cage. However, Caesar is revealed to have survived Koba 's assassination attempt, and the two fight for leadership of the tribe. Caesar eventually manages to overpower Koba and tackles him, leaving him clinging for dear life on the top of a pit in the centre of an unfinished tower. Koba begs for mercy, but Caesar disowns him as an ape and lets him fall to his death.
In War for the Planet of the Apes, Koba appears twice as a hallucination to Caesar, who was mentally scarred by his decision to kill him.
Dodge Landon is the secondary antagonist of Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He worked as a guard at the primate detention facility where he abused the apes. He was portrayed by Tom Felton. His first and last name are references to two of the astronauts Dodge and Landon in the original Planet of the Apes.
Dodge made Caesar 's life miserable at the facility, including hosing him down in his cage to "show him who 's the boss ''. When Dodge finds Caesar in the facility 's common area alone a struggle ensues and Caesar speaks for the first time - yelling "No! '' and then cages him. Dodge escapes - and wielding his cattle - prod - threatens to "skin each and every one of you apes ''. Caesar uses the water hose on Dodge in defense, electrocuting him.
Malcolm is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Jason Clarke.
He is a leader of a small group that forms a strong bond with Caesar - to the extent that Caesar compares him to Will - and is also the father of Alexander.
Nova, portrayed by Amiah Miller, is a bold and kind war orphan whom Maurice adopts as his daughter.
Nova is a victim of a mutated version of the Simian Flu virus that killed most of the human population while making the apes intelligent; this new strain of the virus robs humans of the ability to speak, and causes them to regress to a more primitive mentality. The initially unnamed Nova is discovered living in an isolated house, with only a man presumed to be her father for company; when her house is discovered by a small ape patrol consisting of Caesar, Maurice, Rocket and Luca, her father is killed when he attempts to shoot the apes, and Maurice encourages Caesar to take the girl with them as she will die on her own. The girl accompanies the apes as they travel, winning them over with her simple compassion, as well as demonstrating the ability to learn some elements of sign language. When the apes discover the facility where the ruthless Colonel is keeping the rest of their pack prisoner, Caesar is captured during an attempted raid, and learns about the Colonel 's plans to wipe out any humans infected with the new virus. While Caesar is held in a cage, deprived of food and water, the girl sneaks into the camp to give him water from a bucket and grain provided by the other apes, as well as her old doll for comfort. Rocket subsequently allows himself to be captured to give the girl a chance to escape. While helping Maurice dig a tunnel into the apes ' cage from an existing underground path, the girl asks if she can be an ape, but Maurice tells her instead that she is "Nova '', after a novelty item she received from a gift shop. After the apes escape and the Colonel 's facility is destroyed in an avalanche, Nova accompanies the apes to their new home, and is last shown playing with Caesar 's son Cornelius.
Charles Rodman is a fictional character in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by John Lithgow.
He was the father of scientist Dr. Will Rodman and the adoptive grandfather of Caesar. Once a talented pianist and professional music teacher who earned an honorary certificate, Charles began to suffer from Alzheimer 's disease, which his son (either through coincidence or design) researched a cure for at the Gen - Sys Laboratories. He had been cared for during his illness by a nurse named Irena, who could n't stand Charles ' behavior due to Alzheimer 's disease and wished that he would leave the house to stay at a shelter. Although trials of the ' ALZ - 112 ' were called off, Will adopted the baby chimp Caesar, who had been exposed to the drug. Three years later, noticing its effects on Caesar, he administered the drug to Charles, who immediately recovered his mental abilities and was once again able to play the piano. For five years they lived a happy life, with Charles taking care of Caesar when the chimpanzee was a newborn.
Charles was on bad terms with his neighbor Hunsiker on two occasions. The first time was when Hunsiker used a baseball bat in an attempt to strike Caesar when he entered his garage to ride a bicycle, with Charles stating, "He just wanted to play ''. The second and worst time was when Charles, having become immune to the drug and suffering once again from Alzheimer 's, got into Hunsiker 's car and tried to drive it, damaging the front and back of the car by bumping into the cars it was parked between. Hunsiker grabbed Charles out of his car and decided to get out his phone to call the police. Charles tried to grab the cell phone away from Hunsiker. Caesar saw the situation through a window and although not aware of why Hunsiker was angry at Charles, was aware that his grandfather figure was being threatened. To save him, Caesar attacked Hunsiker, refusing to let him run off to his house. After Caesar bit Hunsiker 's finger, Charles yelled at Caesar to stop. Their last moment together was when Caesar and Charles hugged each other, fearing what consequences awaited Caesar with Charles trying to comfort him.
Dr. Will Rodman is a fictional character in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by James Franco.
Dr. Will Rodman is a young scientist working at Gen - Sys Industries, a pharmaceutical company in San Francisco. He has been working over five years on a cure for Alzheimer 's disease, which his father Charles Rodman (played by John Lithgow), a former music teacher, is suffering from. An ape from Africa is captured and taken to the company, and is given the drug codenamed ALZ - 112; which experiments have shown allows the brain to repair itself by recreating its cells, with the only known side - effect being a change in the eyes iris to green. He and Steven Jacobs (played by David Oyelowo), the executive overseeing the progress, decides to present it to the Board to move the testing to the next phase of clinical trials on humans. The captured ape that was given the drug, Chimp 9 a.k.a. "Bright Eyes '' is seen attacking the handlers and goes on a rampage which ends with her getting shot. Too late, Franklin the ape handler, and Will realized that it was n't the drug that made her attack, but her newborn baby chimp whom her maternal primal instincts felt she needed to protect against the humans. The project is scrapped and all the other apes tested with the drug are ordered to be put down. However, Franklin can not bring himself to kill the baby chimp and pleas with Will to take the baby chimp home instead.
Will adopts the baby chimp and names him "Caesar ''. 3 years later, Will is witnessing the severe side effects of his father 's disease, while Caesar grows more intelligent -- this convinces him to steal some of the drugs from the lab and use it on his father. His father is shown to have made an instant recovery; moving five more years forward Charles has been receiving routine doses via injection of ALZ - 112. In the five years past, Caesar is also displaying great intellectual prowess and is now an adult chimp, who yearns to explore beyond his surrounding and starts questioning his identity after he sees a German Shepherd on a collared leash like the one he has on. He signs to Will if he 's a pet, which Will adamantly states no. He then signs to Will what he is, and Will says, "I 'm your father '', which he follows with a sign, "What is Caesar? '' Will decides to tell Caesar the truth and takes him to Gen - Sys and tells him that he works there, and that Caesar was born there, and his mother was given medicine along with other chimps. He explains to him that the medicine that was given to his mother passed through to him in - vitro, and that 's why his intelligence is so high. He also tells Caesar that his mother is dead.
Will 's father (whose body is fighting the artificial virus with antibodies being naturally created by the immune system), attempts to drive the neighbor 's car in one of his states of dementia; the angered neighbor is being confrontational to Charles, and Caesar attacks the neighbor, biting off the finger that he was poking Charles repeatedly with. Caesar is taken to the San Bruno primate facility by animal control, and is kept there, when a concerned Will says that "he has n't spent any time with other chimps ''. Heartbroken, Caesar is treated violently by the staff and other ape inmates. Will has been working on a stronger viral strain since he realizes that the immune system will eventually built an immunity to ALZ - 112 (just like when someone is injected with a vaccination). After meeting with Jacobs and revealing he 's given his father the drug (there - by already having a human trial phase), Jacobs gives him the okay to test the new strain, named ALZ - 113.
The new drug is given on an ape named Koba, who in a moment of fit during the administering knocks a gas mask off of Franklin. The ALZ - 113, unlike the 112, is not injected but inhaled instead (which also means that the virus is airborne). The new drug seems to work on Koba, but Will quits after he realizes that he 's unable to change the mind of the greedy Jacobs. Will tried to test the ALZ - 113 on Charles, but he refused and died the next morning from Alzheimer 's. Franklin is later approaching the Rodman house for help realizing that he 's been infected by the virus, but sneezes blood on the neighbor.
Will tries to take Caesar home by bribing the owner of the primate facility, who takes the bribe, but is refused by Caesar himself to go, believing he belongs there more so than with Will. Caesar realizes after befriending another ape, who also knows how to sign from being in the circus, that he needs to make the apes more intelligent if they are to break from their bondage. Caesar manages to escape and return to his former home, where he knows that Will use to keep stolen tubes of the original ALZ - 112 in the refrigerator. However, he finds the new 113 instead, and upon accidentally pressing the cap, a little bit of the virus is released on to the window pane and absorbed, letting the intelligent Caesar realize that the virus can be absorbed as it 's a gas. He releases the 113 down the corridor of where the apes are held in cages, and the virus fills the air with its gas. The next day, Caesar inspects every ape passing through to see if its eyes are green, thereby knowing if that ape has the virus or not. He leads a revolution against their captors and heads towards Gen - Sys, and proceeds to break out all the lab chimps and all the apes at the zoo. After fighting their way towards the Golden Gate and towards the Redwood Grove, Will calls for Caesar, but is attacked by Koba, but stopped by Caesar. Will tries to reason with him by trying to take him home. Caesar speaks to him, "Caesar is home '', and they part as the apes are overlooking San Francisco. Caesar appears to take on more human characteristic, like walking upright, riding a horse, and now speaking.
In a post credits scene, Will 's neighbor, Douglas Hunsiker (David Hewlett) who has been unknowingly infected with the virus, later boards a plane to Paris, spreading the humanity - killing virus to France and then around the globe via airline flight routes.
Will reappears in a cameo during Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, which takes place ten years later with the virus having become a global disaster, which Will is believed to have succumbed. A wounded Caesar and the group retreat to the Rodman house, which has fallen into disarray and neglect. Caesar and the group see a framed photo of Will interacting with Caesar, who also finds a video camera showing Will teaching Caesar sign language. When asked by human ally Malcolm as to who Will was, an emotional Caesar says that Will was a good man like Malcolm.
Werner is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Jocko Sims. He is an ally of Dreyfus.
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• what are the two main mechanisms for regulating metabolic activity | Metabolism - wikipedia
Metabolism (from Greek: μεταβολή metabolē, "change '') is the set of life - sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of organisms. The three main purposes of metabolism are the conversion of food / fuel to energy to run cellular processes, the conversion of food / fuel to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates, and the elimination of nitrogenous wastes. These enzyme - catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells, in which case the set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism.
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories: catabolism, the breaking down of organic matter for example, the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate, by cellular respiration, and anabolism, the building up of components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids. Usually, breaking down releases energy and building up consumes energy.
The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, by a sequence of enzymes. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts that allow the reactions to proceed more rapidly. Enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cell 's environment or to signals from other cells.
The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, the metabolic rate, influences how much food an organism will require, and also affects how it is able to obtain that food.
A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants. These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history, and their retention because of their efficacy.
Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from three basic classes of molecule: amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids (often called fats). As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or by breaking them down and using them as a source of energy, by their digestion. These biochemicals can be joined together to make polymers such as DNA and proteins, essential macromolecules of life.
Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined together by peptide bonds. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape. Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle. Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle), especially when a primary source of energy, such as glucose, is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress.
Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external, such as the cell membrane, or as a source of energy. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform. The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is called a triacylglyceride. Several variations on this basic structure exist, including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids. Steroids such as cholesterol are another major class of lipids.
Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways.
The two nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base. Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis. This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication. Many viruses have an RNA genome, such as HIV, which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome. RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions. Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar. These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen, classified as purines or pyrimidines. Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic - group - transfer reactions.
Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules. This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions. These group - transfer intermediates are called coenzymes. Each class of group - transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled.
One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day. ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions.
A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that can not be made in cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water - soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), a derivative of vitamin B (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to reduce their substrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD / NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP / NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.
Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99 % of a mammal 's mass is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur. Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water.
The abundant inorganic elements act as ionic electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH. Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell 's fluid, the cytosol. Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels. For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T - tubules.
Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms, with zinc and iron being most abundant of those. These metals are used in some proteins as cofactors and are essential for the activity of enzymes such as catalase and oxygen - carrier proteins such as hemoglobin. Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed. Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use.
Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions which build molecules. The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy and carbon (their primary nutritional groups), as shown in the table below. Organic molecules are used as a source of energy by organotrophs, while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates, and phototrophs capture sunlight as chemical energy. However, all these different forms of metabolism depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, water, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to acceptor molecules such as oxygen, nitrate or sulfate. In animals, these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules, such as carbon dioxide and water. In photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and cyanobacteria, these electron - transfer reactions do not release energy but are used as a way of storing energy absorbed from sunlight.
The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first stage, large organic molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids, are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl - CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on the CoA is oxidised to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing the energy that is stored by reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) into NADH.
Macromolecules such as starch, cellulose or proteins can not be rapidly taken up by cells and must be broken into their smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Several common classes of enzymes digest these polymers. These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides.
Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings, while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and salivary glands. The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins.
Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells once they have been digested into monosaccharides. Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated. Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl - CoA through aerobic (with oxygen) glycolysis and fed into the citric acid cycle. Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle, the most important product is NADH, which is made from NAD as the acetyl - CoA is oxidized. This oxidation releases carbon dioxide as a waste product. In anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces lactate, through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re-oxidizing NADH to NAD+ for re-use in glycolysis. An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway, which reduces the coenzyme NADPH and produces pentose sugars such as ribose, the sugar component of nucleic acids.
Fats are catabolised by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl - CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates because carbohydrates contain more oxygen in their structures. Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation, and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl - CoA, propionyl - CoA, and pyruvate, which can all be used by the cell for energy. M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol use pathway (s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis.
Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase. The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example the deamination of glutamate forms α - ketoglutarate. The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis (discussed below).
In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the protagon acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell 's inner membrane. These proteins use the energy released from passing electrons from reduced molecules like NADH onto oxygen to pump protons across a membrane.
Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient. This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate -- turning it into ATP.
Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. These organisms can use hydrogen, reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate), ferrous iron (FeII) or ammonia as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds with electron acceptors such as oxygen or nitrite. These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility.
The energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria and some protists. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can however operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds.
In many organisms the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis. The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light - gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres or rhodopsins. Reaction centers are classed into two types depending on the type of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two.
In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then either be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP, for use in the Calvin cycle, which is discussed below, or recycled for further ATP generation.
Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step - by - step from small and simple precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages. First, the production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.
Organisms differ according to the number of constructed molecules in their cells. Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from inorganic oxidation reactions.
Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO into glycerate 3 - phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon - fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin -- Benson cycle. Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions.
In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin -- Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle, or the carboxylation of acetyl - CoA. Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO through the Calvin -- Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction.
In carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch. The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3 - phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose - 6 - phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis. However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle.
Although fat is a common way of storing energy, in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores can not be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms can not convert acetyl - CoA into pyruvate; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery. As a result, after long - term starvation, vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that can not metabolize fatty acids. In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle, which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl - CoA to oxaloacetate, where it can be used for the production of glucose.
Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar - phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP - glucose) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide. As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures. The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases.
Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl - CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups: in animals and fungi, all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein, while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway.
Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products. These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. These precursors can be made in different ways. In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl - CoA, while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate as substrates. One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis. Here, the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol. Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol.
Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food. Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae, lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts. All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha - keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid.
Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined together in a chain of peptide bonds. Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues: this is its primary structure. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins. Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl - tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP - dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This aminoacyl - tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a messenger RNA.
Nucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy. Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides. Purines are synthesized as nucleosides (bases attached to ribose). Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate. Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate.
All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they can not use as foods and would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics. Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic - metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases, UDP - glucuronosyltransferases, and glutathione S - transferases. This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water - soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water - soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills. Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds.
A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress. Here, processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases.
Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any closed system, the amount of entropy (disorder) can not decrease. Although living organisms ' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Thus living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments. The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism. In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder.
As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis. Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway). For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.
There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation. In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self - regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate. This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway. Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells. These signals are usually in the form of soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface. These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins.
A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels. Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen. The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase, the enzyme that breaks down glycogen, and glycogen synthase, the enzyme that makes it. These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase. Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes.
The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal common ancestor. This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps. The first pathways of enzyme - based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism, while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world.
Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve. These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway. The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step - by - step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway. An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins ' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic. A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as "modules '' that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules.
As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions. For example, in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host. Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms.
Classically, metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway. Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole - organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products. The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated. A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome. Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell.
An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 45,000 genes. However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior. These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies. Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research. These models are now used in network analysis, to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites.
Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow - tie organization, an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies.
A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1, 3 - propanediol and shikimic acid. These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes.
The term metabolism is derived from the Greek Μεταβολισμός -- "Metabolismos '' for "change '', or "overthrow ''.
Aristotle 's The Parts of Animals sets out enough details of his views on metabolism for an open flow model to be made. He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the classical element of fire, and residual materials being excreted as urine, bile, or faeces.
Ibn al - Nafis described metabolism in his 1260 AD work titled Al - Risalah al - Kamiliyyah fil Siera al - Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet 's Biography) which included the following phrase "Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change. '' The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry. The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medicina. He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called "insensible perspiration ''.
In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue. In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called "ferments ''. He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells. '' This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea, and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors. This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry.
It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of biochemistry. The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century. One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism. He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle. Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labelling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells.
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which of the following is not a description of an interest group | Anonymous (group) - wikipedia
Anonymous is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. A website nominally associated with the group describes it as "an Internet gathering '' with "a very loose and decentralized command structure that operates on ideas rather than directives ''. The group became known for a series of well - publicized distributed denial - of - service (DDoS) attacks on government, religious, and corporate websites.
Anonymous originated in 2003 on the imageboard 4chan, representing the concept of many online and offline community users simultaneously existing as an anarchic, digitized global brain. Anonymous members (known as "Anons '') can be distinguished in public by the wearing of Guy Fawkes masks in the style portrayed in the graphic novel and film V for Vendetta. However this may not always be the case, as some of the collective prefer to instead cover their face without using the well - known mask as a disguise.
In its early form, the concept was adopted by a decentralized online community acting anonymously in a coordinated manner, usually toward a loosely self - agreed goal, and primarily focused on entertainment, or often referred to as "lulz ''. Beginning with 2008 's Project Chanology -- a series of protests, pranks, and hacks targeting the Church of Scientology -- the Anonymous collective became increasingly associated with collaborative hacktivism on a number of issues internationally. Individuals claiming to align themselves with Anonymous undertook protests and other actions (including direct action) in retaliation against copyright - focused campaigns by motion picture and recording industry trade associations. Later targets of Anonymous hacktivism included government agencies of the U.S., Israel, Tunisia, Uganda, and others; the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant; child pornography sites; copyright protection agencies; the Westboro Baptist Church; and corporations such as PayPal, MasterCard, Visa, and Sony. Anons have publicly supported WikiLeaks and the Occupy movement. Related groups LulzSec and Operation AntiSec carried out cyberattacks on U.S. government agencies, media, video game companies, military contractors, military personnel, and police officers, resulting in the attention of law enforcement to the groups ' activities. Some actions by members of the group have been described as being anti-Zionist. It has threatened to cyber-attack Israel and engaged in the "# OpIsrael '' cyber-attacks of Israeli websites on Yom HaShoah (Holocaust Remembrance Day) in 2013.
Dozens of people have been arrested for involvement in Anonymous cyberattacks, in countries including the US, UK, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, India and Turkey. Evaluations of the group 's actions and effectiveness vary widely. Supporters have called the group "freedom fighters '' and digital Robin Hoods while critics have described them as "a cyber lynch - mob '' or "cyber terrorists ''. In 2012, Time called Anonymous one of the "100 most influential people '' in the world.
Long - standing political question that has gone unanswered with often tragic consequences for social movements. This is an Internet - based, non-extremist, socialist community movement that looks for answers to questions that are unanswered.
Internal dissent is also a regular feature of the group. A website associated with the group describes it as "an Internet gathering '' with "a very loose and decentralized command structure that operates on ideas rather than directives ''. Gabriella Coleman writes of the group, "In some ways, it may be impossible to gauge the intent and motive of thousands of participants, many of who do n't even bother to leave a trace of their thoughts, motivations, and reactions. Among those that do, opinions vary considerably. ''
Broadly speaking, Anons oppose Internet censorship and control, and the majority of their actions target governments, organizations, and corporations that they accuse of censorship. Anons were early supporters of the global Occupy movement and the Arab Spring. Since 2008, a frequent subject of disagreement within Anonymous is whether members should focus on pranking and entertainment or more serious (and, in some cases, political) activism.
We (Anonymous) just happen to be a group of people on the Internet who need -- just kind of an outlet to do as we wish, that we would n't be able to do in regular society... That 's more or less the point of it. Do as you wish... There 's a common phrase: ' we are doing it for the lulz. '
Because Anonymous has no leadership, no action can be attributed to the membership as a whole. Parmy Olson and others have criticized media coverage that presents the group as well - organized or homogeneous; Olson writes, "There was no single leader pulling the levers, but a few organizational minds that sometimes pooled together to start planning a stunt. '' Some members protest using legal means, while others employ illegal measures such as DDoS attacks and hacking. Membership is open to anyone who wishes to state they are a member of the collective; British journalist Carole Cadwalladr of The Observer compared the group 's decentralized structure to that of al - Qaeda: "If you believe in Anonymous, and call yourself Anonymous, you are Anonymous. '' Olson, who formerly described Anonymous as a "brand '', stated in 2012 that she now characterized it as a "movement '' rather than a group: "anyone can be part of it. It is a crowd of people, a nebulous crowd of people, working together and doing things together for various purposes. ''
The group 's few rules include not disclosing one 's identity, not talking about the group, and not attacking media. Members commonly use the tagline "We are Anonymous. We are Legion. We do not forgive. We do not forget. Expect us. '' Brian Kelly writes that three of the group 's key characteristics are "(1) an unrelenting moral stance on issues and rights, regardless of direct provocation; (2) a physical presence that accompanies online hacking activity; and (3) a distinctive brand. ''
Journalists have commented that Anonymous ' secrecy, fabrications, and media awareness pose an unusual challenge for reporting on the group 's actions and motivations. Quinn Norton of Wired writes that "Anons lie when they have no reason to lie. They weave vast fabrications as a form of performance. Then they tell the truth at unexpected and unfortunate times, sometimes destroying themselves in the process. They are unpredictable. '' Norton states that the difficulties in reporting on the group cause most writers, including herself, to focus on the "small groups of hackers who stole the limelight from a legion, defied their values, and crashed violently into the law '' rather than "Anonymous 's sea of voices, all experimenting with new ways of being in the world ''.
The name Anonymous itself is inspired by the perceived anonymity under which users post images and comments on the Internet. Usage of the term Anonymous in the sense of a shared identity began on imageboards, particularly the / b / board of 4chan, dedicated to random content. A tag of Anonymous is assigned to visitors who leave comments without identifying the originator of the posted content. Users of imageboards sometimes jokingly acted as if Anonymous was a single individual. The concept of the Anonymous entity advanced in 2004 when an administrator on the 4chan image board activated a "Forced_Anon '' protocol that signed all posts as Anonymous. As the popularity of imageboards increased, the idea of Anonymous as a collective of unnamed individuals became an Internet meme.
Users of 4chan 's / b / board would occasionally join into mass pranks or raids. In a raid on July 12, 2006, for example, large numbers of 4chan readers invaded the Finnish social networking site Habbo Hotel with identical avatars; the avatars blocked regular Habbo members from accessing the digital hotel 's pool, stating it was "closed due to fail and AIDS ''. Future LulzSec member Topiary became involved with the site at this time, inviting large audiences to listen to his prank phone calls via Skype. Due to the growing traffic on 4chan 's boards, users soon began to plot pranks offline using Internet Relay Chat (IRC). These raids resulted in the first mainstream press story on Anonymous, a report by Fox station KTTV in Los Angeles, California in the U.S. The report called the group "hackers on steroids '', "domestic terrorists '', and an "Internet hate machine ''.
Encyclopedia Dramatica was founded in 2004 by Sherrod DiGrippo, initially as a means of documenting gossip related to livejournal, but it quickly was adopted as a major platform by Anonymous for satirical and other purposes. The not safe for work site celebrates a subversive "trolling culture '', and documents Internet memes, culture, and events, such as mass pranks, trolling events, "raids '', large - scale failures of Internet security, and criticism of Internet communities that are accused of self - censorship in order to gain prestige or positive coverage from traditional and established media outlets. Journalist Julian Dibbell described Encyclopædia Dramatica as the site "where the vast parallel universe of Anonymous in - jokes, catchphrases, and obsessions is lovingly annotated, and you will discover an elaborate trolling culture: Flamingly racist and misogynist content lurks throughout, all of it calculated to offend. '' The site also played a role in the anti-Scientology campaign of Project Chanology.
On April 14, 2011, the original URL of the site was redirected to a new website named Oh Internet that bore little resemblance to Encyclopedia Dramatica. Parts of the ED community harshly criticized the changes. In response, Anonymous launched "Operation Save ED '' to rescue and restore the site 's content. The Web Ecology Project made a downloadable archive of former Encyclopedia Dramatica content. The site 's reincarnation was initially hosted at encyclopediadramatica.ch on servers owned by Ryan Cleary, who later was arrested in relation to attacks by LulzSec against Sony.
Anonymous first became associated with hacktivism in 2008 following a series of actions against the Church of Scientology known as Project Chanology. On January 15, 2008, the gossip blog Gawker posted a video in which celebrity Scientologist Tom Cruise praised the religion; and the Church responded with a cease - and - desist letter for violation of copyright. 4chan users organized a raid against the Church in retaliation, prank - calling its hotline, sending black faxes designed to waste ink cartridges, and launching DDoS attacks against its websites.
The DDoS attacks were at first carried out with the Gigaloader and JMeter applications. Within a few days, these were supplanted by the Low Orbit Ion Cannon (LOIC), a network stress - testing application allowing users to flood a server with TCP or UDP packets. The LOIC soon became a signature weapon in the Anonymous arsenal; however, it would also lead to a number of arrests of less experienced Anons who failed to conceal their IP addresses. Some operators in Anonymous IRC channels incorrectly told or lied to new volunteers that using the LOIC carried no legal risk.
During the DDoS attacks, a group of Anons uploaded a YouTube video in which a robotic voice speaks on behalf of Anonymous, telling the "leaders of Scientology '' that "For the good of your followers, for the good of mankind -- for the laughs -- we shall expel you from the Internet. '' Within ten days, the video had attracted hundreds of thousands of views.
On February 10, thousands of Anonymous joined simultaneous protests at Church of Scientology facilities around the world. Many protesters wore the stylized Guy Fawkes masks popularized by the graphic novel and film V for Vendetta, in which an anarchist revolutionary battles a totalitarian government; the masks soon became a popular symbol for Anonymous. In - person protests against the Church continued throughout the year, including "Operation Party Hard '' on March 15 and "Operation Reconnect '' on April 12. However, by mid-year, they were drawing far fewer protesters, and many of the organizers in IRC channels had begun to drift away from the project.
By the start of 2009, Scientologists had stopped engaging with protesters and had improved online security, and actions against the group had largely ceased. A period of infighting followed between the politically engaged members (called "moralfags '' in the parlance of 4chan) and those seeking to provoke for entertainment (trolls). By September 2010, the group had received little publicity for a year and faced a corresponding drop in member interest; its raids diminished greatly in size and moved largely off of IRC channels, organizing again from the chan boards, particularly / b /.
In September 2010, however, Anons became aware of Aiplex Software, an Indian software company that contracted with film studios to launch DDoS attacks on websites used by copyright infringers, such as The Pirate Bay. Coordinating through IRC, Anons launched a DDoS attack on September 17 that shut down Aiplex 's website for a day. Primarily using LOIC, the group then targeted the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), successfully bringing down both sites. On September 19, future LulzSec member Mustafa Al - Bassam (known as "Tflow '') and other Anons hacked the website of Copyright Alliance, an anti-infringement group, and posted the name of the operation: "Payback Is A Bitch '', or "Operation Payback '' for short. Anons also issued a press release, stating:
Anonymous is tired of corporate interests controlling the internet and silencing the people 's rights to spread information, but more importantly, the right to SHARE with one another. The RIAA and the MPAA feign to aid the artists and their cause; yet they do no such thing. In their eyes is not hope, only dollar signs. Anonymous will not stand this any longer.
As IRC network operators were beginning to shut down networks involved in DDoS attacks, Anons organized a group of servers to host an independent IRC network, titled AnonOps. Operation Payback 's targets rapidly expanded to include the British law firm ACS: Law, the Australian Federation Against Copyright Theft, the British nightclub Ministry of Sound, the Spanish copyright society Sociedad General de Autores y Editores, the U.S. Copyright Office, and the website of Gene Simmons of Kiss. By October 7, 2010, total downtime for all websites attacked during Operation Payback was 537.55 hours.
In November 2010, the organization WikiLeaks began releasing hundreds of thousands of leaked U.S. diplomatic cables. In the face of legal threats against the organization by the U.S. government, Amazon.com booted WikiLeaks from its servers, and PayPal, MasterCard, and Visa cut off service to the organization. Operation Payback then expanded to include "Operation Avenge Assange '', and Anons issued a press release declaring PayPal a target. Launching DDoS attacks with the LOIC, Anons quickly brought down the websites of the PayPal blog; PostFinance, a Swiss financial company denying service to WikiLeaks; EveryDNS, a web - hosting company that had also denied service; and the website of U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman, who had supported the push to cut off services.
On December 8, Anons launched an attack against PayPal 's main site. According to Topiary, who was in the command channel during the attack, the LOIC proved ineffective, and Anons were forced to rely on the botnets of two hackers for the attack, marshaling hijacked computers for a concentrated assault. Security researcher Sean - Paul Correll also reported that the "zombie computers '' of involuntary botnets had provided 90 % of the attack. Topiary states that he and other Anons then "lied a bit to the press to give it that sense of abundance '', exaggerating the role of the grassroots membership. However, this account was disputed.
The attacks brought down PayPal.com for an hour on December 8 and another brief period on December 9. Anonymous also disrupted the sites for Visa and MasterCard on December 8. Anons had announced an intention to bring down Amazon.com as well, but failed to do so, allegedly because of infighting with the hackers who controlled the botnets. PayPal estimated the damage to have cost the company US $5.5 million. It later provided the IP addresses of 1,000 of its attackers to the FBI, leading to at least 14 arrests. On Thursday, December 5, 2013, 13 of the PayPal 14 pleaded guilty to taking part in the attacks.
In the years following Operation Payback, targets of Anonymous protests, hacks, and DDoS attacks continued to diversify. Beginning in January 2011, Anons took a number of actions known initially as Operation Tunisia in support of Arab Spring movements. Tflow created a script that Tunisians could use to protect their web browsers from government surveillance, while fellow future LulzSec member Hector Xavier Monsegur (alias "Sabu '') and others allegedly hijacked servers from a London web - hosting company to launch a DDoS attack on Tunisian government websites, taking them offline. Sabu also used a Tunisian volunteer 's computer to hack the website of Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi, replacing it with a message from Anonymous. Anons also helped Tunisian dissidents share videos online about the uprising. In Operation Egypt, Anons collaborated with the activist group Telecomix to help dissidents access government - censored websites. Sabu and Topiary went on to participate in attacks on government websites in Bahrain, Egypt, Libya, Jordan, and Zimbabwe.
Tflow, Sabu, Topiary, and Ryan Ackroyd (known as "Kayla '') collaborated in February 2011 on a cyber-attack against Aaron Barr, CEO of the computer security firm HBGary Federal, in retaliation for his research on Anonymous and his threat to expose members of the group. Using a SQL injection weakness, the four hacked the HBGary site, used Barr 's captured password to vandalize his Twitter feed with racist messages, and released an enormous cache of HBGary 's e-mails in a torrent file on Pirate Bay. The e-mails stated that Barr and HBGary had proposed to Bank of America a plan to discredit WikiLeaks in retaliation for a planned leak of Bank of America documents, and the leak caused substantial public relations harm to the firm as well as leading one U.S. congressman to call for a congressional investigation. Barr resigned as CEO before the end of the month.
Several attacks by Anons have targeted organizations accused of homophobia. In February 2011, an open letter was published on AnonNews.org threatening the Westboro Baptist Church, an organization based in Kansas in the U.S. known for picketing funerals with signs reading "God Hates Fags ''. During a live radio current affairs program in which Topiary debated church member Shirley Phelps - Roper, Anons hacked one of the organization 's websites. After the church announced its intentions in December 2012 to picket the funerals of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting victims, Anons published the names, phone numbers, and e-mail and home addresses of church members and brought down GodHatesFags.com with a DDoS attack. Hacktivists also circulated petitions to have the church 's tax - exempt status investigated. In August 2012, Anons hacked the site of Ugandan Prime Minister Amama Mbabazi in retaliation for the Parliament of Uganda 's consideration of an anti-homosexuality law permitting capital punishment.
In April 2011, Anons launched a series of attacks against Sony in retaliation for trying to stop hacks of the PlayStation 3 game console. More than 100 million Sony accounts were compromised, and the Sony services Qriocity and PlayStation Network were taken down for a month apiece by cyberattacks.
In August 2011, Anons launched an attack against BART in San Francisco, which they dubbed # OpBart. The attack, made in response to the killing of Charles Hill a month prior, resulted in customers ' personal information leaked onto the group 's website.
When the Occupy Wall Street protests began in New York City in September 2011, Anons were early participants and helped spread the movement to other cities such as Boston. In October, some Anons attacked the website of the New York Stock Exchange while other Anons publicly opposed the action via Twitter. Some Anons also helped organize an Occupy protest outside the London Stock Exchange on May 1, 2012.
Anons launched Operation Darknet in October 2011, targeting websites hosting child pornography. In particular, the group hacked a child pornography site called "Lolita City '' hosted by Freedom Hosting, releasing 1,589 usernames from the site. Anons also said that they had disabled forty image - swapping pedophile websites that employed the anonymity network Tor. In 2012, Anons leaked the names of users of a suspected child pornography site in OpDarknetV2. Anonymous launched the # OpPedoChat campaign on Twitter in 2012 as a continuation of Operation Darknet. In attempt to eliminate child pornography from the internet, the group posted the emails and IP addresses of suspected pedophiles on the online forum PasteBin.
In 2011, the Koch Industries website was attacked following their attack upon union members, resulting in their website being made inaccessible for 15 minutes. In 2013, one member, a 38 - year - old truck driver, pleaded guilty when accused of participating in the attack for a period of one minute, and received a sentence of two years federal probation, and ordered to pay $183,000 restitution, the amount Koch stated they paid a consultancy organisation, despite this being only a denial of service attack.
On January 19, 2012, the U.S. Department of Justice shut down the file - sharing site Megaupload on allegations of copyright infringement. Anons responded with a wave of DDoS attacks on U.S. government and copyright organizations, shutting down the sites for the RIAA, MPAA, Broadcast Music, Inc., and the FBI.
In 2012, Anonymous launched Operation Anti-Bully: Operation Hunt Hunter in retaliation to Hunter Moore 's revenge porn site, "Is Anyone Up? '' Anonymous crashed Moore 's servers and publicized much of his personal information online, including his social security number. The organization also published the personal information of Andrew Myers, the proprietor of "Is Anyone Back '', a copycat site of Mr. Moore 's "Is Anyone Up? ''
In response to Operation Pillar of Defense, a November 2012 Israeli military operation in the Gaza Strip, Anons took down hundreds of Israeli websites with DDoS attacks. Anons pledged another "massive cyberassault '' against Israel in April 2013 in retaliation for its actions in Gaza, promising to "wipe Israel off the map of the Internet ''. However, its DDoS attacks caused only temporary disruptions, leading cyberwarfare experts to suggest that the group had been unable to recruit or hire botnet operators for the attack.
On 5 November 2013, Anonymous protesters gathered around the world for the Million Mask March. Demonstrations were held in 400 cities around the world to coincide with Guy Fawkes Night. This has n't been the only march and there were quite a few others over the years such as the 2015 march which formed into a riot and went out of control in London, UK.
Operation Oklahoma was a Mutual Aid effort responding to the 2013 flash floods and wind storms in the United States.
Operation Safe Winter was an effort to raise awareness about homelessness through the collection, collation, and redistribution of resources. This program began on 7 November 2013 after an online call to action from Anonymous UK. Three missions using a charity framework were suggested in the original global spawning a variety of direct actions from used clothing drives to pitch in community potlucks feeding events in the UK, US and Turkey.
The # OpSafeWinter call to action quickly spread through the mutual aid communities like Occupy Wall Street and its offshoot groups like the open - source - based OccuWeather. With the addition of the long - term mutual aid communities of New York City and online hacktivists in the US, it took on an additional three suggested missions. Encouraging participation from the general public, this operation has raised questions of privacy and the changing nature of the Anonymous community 's use of monikers. The project to support those living on the streets while causing division in its own online network has been able to partner with many efforts and organizations not traditionally associated with Anonymous or online activists.
In the wake of the fatal police shooting of unarmed African - American Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, "Operation Ferguson '' -- a hacktivist organization that claimed to be associated with Anonymous -- organized cyberprotests against police, setting up a website and a Twitter account to do so. The group promised that if any protesters were harassed or harmed, they would attack the city 's servers and computers, taking them offline. City officials said that e-mail systems were targeted and phones died, while the Internet crashed at the City Hall. Prior to August 15, members of Anonymous corresponding with Mother Jones said that they were working on confirming the identity of the undisclosed police officer who shot Brown and would release his name as soon as they did. On August 14, Anonymous posted on its Twitter feed what it claimed was the name of the officer involved in the shooting. However, police said the identity released by Anonymous was incorrect. Twitter subsequently suspended the Anonymous account from its service.
It was reported on 19 November 2014 that Anonymous had declared cyber war on the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) the previous week, after the KKK had made death threats following the Ferguson riots. They hacked the KKK 's Twitter account, attacked servers hosting KKK sites, and started to release the personal details of members.
On November 24, 2014, Anonymous shut down the Cleveland city website and posted a video after Tamir Rice, a twelve - year - old boy armed only with a BB gun, was shot to death by a police officer in a Cleveland park. Anonymous also used BeenVerified to uncover phone number and address of a policeman involved in the shooting.
In January 2015, Anonymous released a video and a statement via Twitter condemning the attack on Charlie Hebdo, in which 12 people, including eight journalists, were fatally shot. The video, claiming that it is "a message for al - Qaeda, the Islamic State and other terrorists '', was uploaded to the group 's Belgian account. The announcement stated that "We, Anonymous around the world, have decided to declare war on you, the terrorists '' and promises to avenge the killings by "shut (ting) down your accounts on all social networks. '' On January 12, they brought down a website that was suspected to belong to one of these groups. Critics of the action warned that taking down extremists ' websites would make them harder to monitor.
Anonymous opposed Anti-Islamic Reclaim Australia rallies and described it as "an extreme right - wing group inciting religious hatred. '' It also promised to organize counter-rallies on April 4, 2015.
On June 17, 2015, Anonymous claimed responsibility for a Denial of Service attack against Canadian government websites in protest of the passage of bill C - 51 -- an anti-terror legislation that grants additional powers to Canadian intelligence agencies. The attack temporarily affected the websites of several federal agencies.
On 28 October 2015, Anonymous announced that it would reveal the names of up to 1,000 members of the Ku Klux Klan and other affiliated groups, stating in a press release, "You are terrorists that hide your identities beneath sheets and infiltrate society on every level. The privacy of the Ku Klux Klan no longer exists in cyberspace. '' On November 2, a list of 57 phone numbers and 23 email addresses (that allegedly belong to KKK members) was reportedly published and received media attention. However, a tweet from the "@ Operation_KKK '' Twitter account the same day denied it had released that information: "# ICYMI # OpKKK was in no way involved with today 's release of information that incorrectly outed several politicians. '' The group stated it plans to reveal the names on November 5.
Since 2013, Saudi Arabian hacktivists have been targeting government websites protesting the actions of the regime. These actions have seen attacks supported by the possibly Iranian backed Yemen Cyber Army.
In 2015, an offshoot of Anonymous self - described as Ghost Security or GhostSec started targeting Islamic State - affiliated websites and social media handles.
In November 2015, Anonymous announced a major, sustained operation against ISIS following the November 2015 Paris attacks, declaring, "Anonymous from all over the world will hunt you down. You should know that we will find you and we will not let you go. '' ISIS responded on Telegram by calling them "idiots '', and asking "What they gon na to (sic) hack? '' By the next day, however, Anonymous claimed to have taken down 3,824 pro-ISIS Twitter accounts, and by the third, more than 5,000, and to have doxxed recruiters. A week later, Anonymous increased their claim to 20,000 accounts and released a list of the accounts. The list included the Twitter accounts of Barack Obama, Hillary Clinton, The New York Times and BBC News. The BBC reported that most of the accounts on the list appeared to be still active. A spokesman for Twitter told The Daily Dot that the company is not using the lists of accounts being reported by Anonymous, as they have been found to be "wildly inaccurate '' and include accounts used by academics and journalists.
In 2015, a group that claims affiliation with Anonymous group, calling themselves as AnonSec, claimed to have hacked and gathered almost 276 GB of data from NASA servers including NASA flight and radar logs and videos, and also multiple documents related to ongoing research. AnonSec group also claimed gaining access of a Global Hawk Drone of NASA, and released some video footage purportedly from the drone 's cameras. A part of the data was released by AnonSec on Pastebin service, as an Anon Zine. NASA has denied the hack, asserting that the control of the drones were never compromised, but has acknowledged that the photos released along with the content are real photographs of its employees, but that most of these data are already available in the public domain.
The Blink Hacker Group, associating themselves with the Anonymous group, claimed to have hacked the Thailand prison websites and servers. The compromised data has been shared online, with the group claiming that they give the data back to Thailand Justice and the citizens of Thailand as well. The hack was done in response to news from Thailand about the mistreatment of prisoners in Thailand.
In March 2016, Anonymous was reported to have declared war on Donald Trump. However, the "Anonymous Official '' YouTube channel released a video denouncing # OpTrump as an operation that "goes against everything Anonymous stands for '' in reference to censorship and added "we are for everyone letting their voices be heard, even, if the person at hand... is a monster. ''
Anonymous was also reported to have declared war on Hillary Clinton. Various outlets claiming to represent Anonymous have released attacks on the Clinton campaign.
A group calling themselves Anonymous Africa launched a number of DDoS attacks on websites associated with the controversial South African Gupta family in mid-June 2016. Gupta - owned companies targeted included the websites of Oakbay Investments, The New Age, and ANN7. The websites of the South African Broadcasting Corporation and a political parties Economic Freedom Fighters and Zimbabwe 's Zanu - PF were also attacked for "nationalist socialist rhetoric and politicising racism. ''
In May 2011, the small group of Anons behind the HBGary Federal hack -- including Tflow, Topiary, Sabu, and Kayla -- formed the hacker group "Lulz Security '', commonly abbreviated "LulzSec ''. The group 's first attack was against Fox.com, leaking several passwords, LinkedIn profiles, and the names of 73,000 X Factor contestants. In May 2011, members of Lulz Security gained international attention for hacking into the American Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) website. They stole user data and posted a fake story on the site that claimed that rappers Tupac Shakur and Biggie Smalls were still alive and living in New Zealand. LulzSec stated that some of its hacks, including its attack on PBS, were motivated by a desire to defend WikiLeaks and its informant Chelsea Manning.
In June 2011, members of the group claimed responsibility for an attack against Sony Pictures that took data that included "names, passwords, e-mail addresses, home addresses and dates of birth for thousands of people. '' In early June, LulzSec hacked into and stole user information from the pornography website www.pron.com. They obtained and published around 26,000 e-mail addresses and passwords. On June 14, 2011, LulzSec took down four websites by request of fans as part of their "Titanic Take - down Tuesday ''. These websites were Minecraft, League of Legends, The Escapist, and IT security company FinFisher. They also attacked the login servers of the multiplayer online game EVE Online, which also disabled the game 's front - facing website, and the League of Legends login servers. Most of the takedowns were performed with DDoS attacks.
LulzSec also hacked a variety of government - affiliated sites, such as chapter sites of InfraGard, a non-profit organization affiliated with the FBI. The group leaked some of InfraGard member e-mails and a database of local users. On June 13, LulzSec released the e-mails and passwords of a number of users of senate.gov, the website of the U.S. Senate. On June 15, LulzSec launched an attack on cia.gov, the public website of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, taking the website offline for several hours with a distributed denial - of - service attack. On December 2, an offshoot of LulzSec calling itself LulzSec Portugal attacked several sites related to the government of Portugal. The websites for the Bank of Portugal, the Assembly of the Republic, and the Ministry of Economy, Innovation and Development all became unavailable for a few hours.
On June 26, 2011, the core LulzSec group announced it had reached the end of its "50 days of lulz '' and was ceasing operations. Sabu, however, had already been secretly arrested on June 7 and then released to work as an FBI informant. His cooperation led to the arrests of Ryan Cleary, James Jeffery, and others. Tflow was arrested on July 19, 2011, Topiary was arrested on July 27, and Kayla was arrested on March 6, 2012. Topiary, Kayla, Tflow, and Cleary pleaded guilty in April 2013 and were scheduled to be sentenced in May 2013. In April 2013, Australian police arrested Cody Kretsinger, whom they alleged to be self - described LulzSec leader Aush0k.
Beginning in June 2011, hackers from Anonymous and LulzSec collaborated on a series of cyber attacks known as "Operation AntiSec ''. On June 23, in retaliation for the passage of the immigration enforcement bill Arizona SB 1070, LulzSec released a cache of documents from the Arizona Department of Public Safety, including the personal information and home addresses of many law enforcement officers. On June 22, LulzSecBrazil took down the websites of the Government of Brazil and the President of Brazil. Later data dumps included the names, addresses, phone numbers, Internet passwords, and Social Security numbers of police officers in Arizona, Missouri, and Alabama. Antisec members also stole police officer credit card information to make donations to various causes.
On July 18, LulzSec hacked into and vandalized the website of British newspaper The Sun in response to a phone - hacking scandal. Other targets of AntiSec actions have included FBI contractor ManTech International, computer security firm Vanguard Defense Industries, and defense contractor Booz Allen Hamilton, releasing 90,000 military e-mail accounts and their passwords from the latter.
In December 2011, AntiSec member "sup_g '' (alleged by the U.S. government to be Jeremy Hammond) and others hacked Stratfor, a U.S. - based intelligence company, vandalizing its web page and publishing 30,000 credit card numbers from its databases. AntiSec later released millions of the group 's e-mails to Wikileaks.
Since 2009, dozens of people have been arrested for involvement in Anonymous cyberattacks, in countries including the U.S., UK, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and Turkey. Anons generally protest these prosecutions and describe these individuals as martyrs to the movement. The July 2011 arrest of LulzSec member Topiary became a particular rallying point, leading to a widespread "Free Topiary '' movement.
The first person to be sent to jail for participation in an Anonymous DDoS attack was Dmitriy Guzner, an American 19 - year - old. He pleaded guilty to "unauthorized impairment of a protected computer '' in November 2009 and was sentenced to 366 days in U.S. federal prison.
On June 13, 2011, officials in Turkey arrested 32 individuals that were allegedly involved in DDoS attacks on Turkish government websites. These members of Anonymous were captured in different cities of Turkey including Istanbul and Ankara. According to PC Magazine, these individuals were arrested after they attacked these websites as a response to the Turkish government demand to ISPs to implement a system of filters that many have perceived as censorship.
Chris Doyon (alias "Commander X ''), a self - described leader of Anonymous, was arrested in September 2011 for a cyberattack on the website of Santa Cruz County, California. He jumped bail in February 2012 and fled across the border into Canada.
On September 2012, journalist and Anonymous associate Barrett Brown, known for speaking to media on behalf of the group, was arrested hours after posting a video that appeared to threaten FBI agents with physical violence. Brown was subsequently charged with 17 offenses, including publishing personal credit card information from the Stratfor hack.
Several law enforcement agencies took action after Anonymous ' Operation Avenge Assange. In January 2011, the British police arrested five male suspects between the ages of 15 and 26 with suspicion of participating in Anonymous DDoS attacks. During July 19 -- 20, 2011, as many as 20 or more arrests were made of suspected Anonymous hackers in the US, UK, and Netherlands. According to the statements of U.S. officials, suspects ' homes were raided and suspects were arrested in Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, Washington DC, Florida, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Mexico, and Ohio. Additionally, a 16 - year - old boy was held by the police in south London on suspicion of breaching the Computer Misuse Act 1990, and four were held in the Netherlands.
AnonOps admin Christopher Weatherhead (alias "Nerdo ''), a 22 - year - old who had reportedly been intimately involved in organising DDoS attacks during "Operation Payback '', was convicted by a UK court on one count of conspiracy to impair the operation of computers in December 2012. He was sentenced to 18 months ' imprisonment. Ashley Rhodes, Peter Gibson, and another male had already pleaded guilty to the same charge for actions between August 2010 and January 2011.
Evaluations of Anonymous ' actions and effectiveness vary widely. In a widely shared post, blogger Patrick Gray wrote that private security firms "secretly love '' the group for the way in which it publicises cyber security threats. Anonymous is sometimes stated to have changed the nature of protesting, and in 2012, Time called it one of the "100 most influential people '' in the world.
In 2012, Public Radio International reported that the U.S. National Security Agency considered Anonymous a potential national security threat and had warned the president that it could develop the capability to disable parts of the U.S. power grid. In contrast, CNN reported in the same year that "security industry experts generally do n't consider Anonymous a major player in the world of cybercrime '' due the group 's reliance on DDoS attacks that briefly disabled websites rather than the more serious damage possible through hacking. One security consultant compared the group to "a jewelry thief that drives through a window, steal jewels, and rather than keep them, waves them around and tosses them out to a crowd... They 're very noisy, low - grade crimes. '' In its 2013 Threats Predictions report, McAfee wrote that the technical sophistication of Anonymous was in decline and that it was losing supporters due to "too many uncoordinated and unclear operations ''.
Graham Cluley, a security expert for Sophos, argued that Anonymous ' actions against child porn websites hosted on a darknet could be counterproductive, commenting that while their intentions may be good, the removal of illegal websites and sharing networks should be performed by the authorities, rather than Internet vigilantes. Some commentators also argued that the DDoS attacks by Anonymous following the January 2012 Stop Online Piracy Act protests had proved counterproductive. Molly Wood of CNET wrote that "(i) f the SOPA / PIPA protests were the Web 's moment of inspiring, non-violent, hand - holding civil disobedience, # OpMegaUpload feels like the unsettling wave of car - burning hooligans that sweep in and incite the riot portion of the play. '' Dwight Silverman of the Houston Chronicle concurred, stating that "Anonymous ' actions hurt the movement to kill SOPA / PIPA by highlighting online lawlessness. '' The Oxford Internet Institute 's Joss Wright wrote that "In one sense the actions of Anonymous are themselves, anonymously and unaccountably, censoring websites in response to positions with which they disagree. ''
Gabriella Coleman has compared the group to the trickster archetype and said that "they dramatize the importance of anonymity and privacy in an era when both are rapidly eroding. Given that vast databases track us, given the vast explosion of surveillance, there 's something enchanting, mesmerizing and at a minimum thought - provoking about Anonymous ' interventions ''. When asked what good Anonymous had done for the world, Parmy Olson replied:
In some cases, yes, I think it has in terms of some of the stuff they did in the Middle East supporting the pro-democracy demonstrators. But a lot of bad things too, unnecessarily harassing people -- I would class that as a bad thing. DDOSing the CIA website, stealing customer data and posting it online just for shits and giggles is not a good thing.
Quinn Norton of Wired wrote of the group in 2011:
I will confess up front that I love Anonymous, but not because I think they 're the heroes. Like Alan Moore 's character V who inspired Anonymous to adopt the Guy Fawkes mask as an icon and fashion item, you 're never quite sure if Anonymous is the hero or antihero. The trickster is attracted to change and the need for change, and that 's where Anonymous goes. But they are not your personal army -- that 's Rule 44 -- yes, there are rules. And when they do something, it never goes quite as planned. The internet has no neat endings.
Furthermore, Landers assessed the following in 2008:
Anonymous is the first internet - based super-consciousness. Anonymous is a group, in the sense that a flock of birds is a group. How do you know they 're a group? Because they 're travelling in the same direction. At any given moment, more birds could join, leave, peel off in another direction entirely.
Sam Esmail, the creator of the USA Network show Mr. Robot, said in an interview with Motherboard that he was inspired by Anonymous when creating the hacktivist drama. Furthermore, Wired calls the "Omegas '', a fictitious hacker group in the show, "a clear reference to the Anonymous offshoot known as LulzSec. '' A member of Anonymous called Mr. Robot "the most accurate portrayal of security and hacking culture ever to grace the screen. '' In the TV series Elementary a hacktivist collective called "Everyone '' plays a recurring role, there are several hints and similarities to Anonymous.
Composition
Activism
Other related articles
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how can i get a gun permit in nyc | Gun laws in New York - wikipedia
Gun laws in New York regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the U.S. state of New York, outside of New York City which has separate licensing regulations.
New York Civil Rights Law art. II, § 4 provides that "A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms can not be infringed. ''
New York state law does not require a license to own or possess long guns, but does require a permit to legally possess or own a pistol. However, all firearms must comply with the NY SAFE Act, which bans assault weapons from ownership by private citizens, unless they were owned prior to the ban.
The City of New York has its own set of laws, and requires permits to own any long gun or pistol.
The U.S. Supreme Court in the case District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008) ruled that "the right to bear arms '' is an individual right and a right to arms in common use are protected under the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Court further ruled that this right applies against the states in McDonald v. Chicago, 561 U.S. 742 (2010).
In a 2012 ruling, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit upheld New York 's law requiring gun owners who seek a concealed weapon permit to prove a special need for protection; the decision in Kachalsky v. County of Westchester, 701 F. 3d 81, held that New York 's laws do not violate the right to keep and bear arms. The Supreme Court declined to review this ruling.
In 2013, the Second Circuit asked the New York Court of Appeals whether part - time state residents are eligible for a pistol permit under New York law. In Osterweil v. Bartlett, 999 N.E. 2d 516, the New York Court of Appeals answered that certified question in the affirmative.
New York is generally perceived to be a highly restrictive state for purchasing, possessing, or carrying firearms, as most firearms regulations are defined at the local level. This is especially the case for New York City and its surrounding suburbs, and larger urban centers throughout the state where most New York State residents live and work. In contrast, most rural areas in New York State have relatively permissive firearms policies, particularly with respect to concealed carry.
Most of New York State 's gun laws are covered in two sections of New York Penal Law: Article 265 - Firearms and Other Dangerous Weapons, and Article 400 - Licensing and Other Provisions Relating to Firearms. These laws ban handgun possession and provide exemptions, including individuals licensed to carry handguns or to possess them for other reasons, including sports, repair, or disposal. As the law 's title indicates, New York 's restrictive laws also apply to other items regarded as deadly weapons, such as certain chemical sprays, clubs, explosives, fireworks, knives, rockets, slingshots, stun guns, and throwing stars.
Statewide, New York enforces various firearm related prohibitions, many proscriptions similarly listed in the now - expired Federal Assault Weapons Ban. On January 15, 2013, the state assault weapons ban was made more restrictive by the NY SAFE Act. Specified rifle magazines are banned: a) manufactured after 1994; and b) the magazine holds in excess of 10 rounds (handguns included). In December 2013, a federal judge ruled the seven - round magazine limitation is "' tenuous, straitened, and unsupported, ' and therefore unconstitutional. '' Any semi-automatic rifle (with a detachable magazine) or shotgun (non-pump) with just one of these features are banned: 1) pistol grip; 2) bayonet lug; 3) telescoping or folding stock; 4) flash suppressor; 5) threaded barrel; or 6) grenade launcher. The SAFE Act expanded the ban to add the following features: 7) muzzle brake (Dec 2014 Federal court All references to muzzle "brake '' be stricken); 8) muzzle compensator; 9) thumbhole stock; and 10) foregrip. All semi-automatic versions of assault - style rifles and shotguns purchased prior to January 15, 2013 are grandfathered, but must be registered within one year of the SAFE Act passage.
Permits issued in New York are valid statewide, except in NYC, unless validated by the NYC police commissioner. A NYC concealed carry license is valid throughout the state. NY Penal Code 400 (6).
For example, regardless of license, all New York residents with a concealed carry permit must still obtain a New York State Pistol Permit, apply for a purchase document for each handgun purchased, and may possess only those handguns the license holder has registered with the state.
NOTE: Different laws in New York City (see below)
The purchase of a handgun in New York is limited to only those individuals who hold a valid pistol permit issued by a county or major city within New York, and present to the seller a purchase document issued by the licensing authority, with the specific make, model, caliber, and serial number of the handgun indicated on the document. The possession of a handgun in New York is limited only to those individuals who hold a valid pistol license and are in possession of a registered handgun (one that appears on the license, indicating the specific make, model, caliber, and serial number of the handgun). The carry of a handgun in New York is limited only to those individuals who hold a valid pistol license, possess a registered handgun, and are carrying said handgun in compliance with the restrictions as they appear on the license and other applicable state and federal law.
New York State Pistol Permits are not issued to out - of - state residents, although New York will issue pistol licenses to part - time residents. New York does not honor licenses or permits from any other states, although some states will recognize New York licenses without a formal agreement.
Application for a handgun license is made through an individual 's county or major city of primary residence, usually the police or sheriff 's department, or a separate licensing authority. In NYC, the licensing authority is the police commissioner. In Nassau and Suffolk counties on Long Island, the licensing officer is the county police commissioner or county sheriff, depending on where one resides. The licensing authority is a county court judge, or more rarely, a supreme court judge. State and FBI criminal records, along with state mental health records, are checked as part of the licensing process. In addition, applicants are required to supply four personal references from individuals unrelated to them by blood or marriage. These individuals may be required to fill out forms, varying in length by county, attesting to the applicant 's "good character ''. Pistol license approvals can take from less than four months to more than six months, even though the law allows the licensing authorities no more than six months to process a license.
Two types of pistol permits can be issued: possess on premises and concealed carry. Concealed carry permits may be restricted, but restrictions do not have the force of law. Permits issued outside of NYC are not valid in NYC unless a special license is issued granting validity.
In addition to laws pertaining to the entire state, there are additional laws and statutes pertaining to licensing and permits in some of the major cities of the state. However, NYC is the only place where an individual holding a valid New York State firearm license, obtained outside of NYC, who is traveling through NYC with a firearm must make no stops and must keep the firearm and ammo in separate locked containers that are not immediately accessible by the driver or any passengers during travel.
In New York State, pistol licenses are generally of two types: carry or premises - only. "Premises - only '' is the most common license issued in NYC and is supposed to be "Shall - Issue. '' Restrictions can be placed on either of the above types of licenses; for example, many jurisdictions allow handgun license holders to carry handguns only while hunting (i.e., sportsman 's license) and / or traveling to and from the range (i.e., target license).
Restrictions on handgun licenses in New York vary greatly from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In contrast to "no carry '' New York City, and some counties which only issue "to and from target shooting and hunting '' licenses, many upstate counties issue unrestricted pistol licenses that allow unrestricted concealed carry of a loaded handgun (except at schools, court houses or courtrooms, and secure areas of airports).
This dichotomy in New York 's handgun license policies (upstate rural vs. downstate urban) is an outgrowth of two specific cultural forces: the strength of home rule in the state and the tradition of the various hunting seasons in the rural counties.
State law defines an assault weapon as:
"Large capacity feeding device '' is any belt, drum, strip, magazine, or similar instrument used to feed ammunition into a firearm that has a capability of holding more than ten rounds.
The first exception for the previous assault weapons ban is that anything classified above is not an assault weapon if manufactured before September 13, 1994. However, with the new laws the only exception is for antique assault weapons that were manufactured 50 years prior to the current date. These firearms can still be continued to be purchased and sold so long as one registers them after purchasing them. This exemption also applies to high capacity magazines, although these must be specifically registered to the antique assault weapon. This loophole is the only way an ordinary citizen can still obtain assault weapons and high capacity magazines, such as G43 's, older AR - 15 's, and M1 carbines (with bayonet lugs).
Police officers who are residents of the state may still own assault weapons and high capacity magazines. Retired police officers may also own assault weapons and high capacity magazines if they acquired them during the course of their career.
Federally licensed firearms dealers that are licensed as a dealer or gunsmith under New York law may continue to possess assault weapons and high capacity magazines.
Military members stationed within the state may still bring assault weapons into the state provided the military member has approval from his or her command.
Residents of NYC who wish to obtain a pistol license must apply through the New York Police Department License Bureau at One Police Plaza in Lower Manhattan. The choice of licenses are: Unrestricted Concealed Carry License, Restricted Business Carry License, and Restricted Premises - only License. NYC Unrestricted Concealed Carry Licenses are valid throughout the rest of the state. Security guards and business people who regularly carry valuables may be issued a Restricted Business Carry License which is valid only while conducting the business specifically as it was described, in great detail, on the application for the license. NYC premises - only licenses are the licenses issued to average citizens who can not show a need for self - defense greater than any another average citizen. They are clearly marked: RESTRICTED - NOT FOR CARRY and require the licensee to obtain special permission from the NYPD License Bureau to leave the city with the handgun, unless hunting with a valid hunter authorization card. Most licenses issued in NYC are for on - premises possession only, for self - defense within the home or business. Transporting the handgun to and from a target range is permitted, but the firearm must be unloaded and in a locked container directly to and from a range within city limits. Traveling through NYC with a license issued from another jurisdiction within the state must be done in accordance to law (locked box, in vehicle 's trunk, no unnecessary stops).
A person carrying a firearm without a valid permit in NYC could be charged with "criminal Possession of a Weapon in the Second Degree, '' a felony. Unlawfully carrying a firearm in NYC is typically punishable by a prison term of 3 1 / 2 years. A high - profile example of the penalties associated with New York 's restrictive gun laws is the 2 - year prison sentence served by former New York Giants wide receiver Plaxico Burress, after pleading guilty to a charge of Unlawful Possession of a Weapon, stemming from his accidentally shooting himself in the leg at an NYC nightclub with a concealed handgun, at which he did not have a valid NYC concealed carry permit. At the time of the accidental shooting, Burress had a Florida concealed carry license, which is not valid in New York.
NYC 's firearms policies require that special permission must be obtained from City Hall for military members to carry weapons while performing their official duties within the city limits. For example, in November 2012, then - mayor Michael Bloomberg denied a request by the New York National Guard for its members to carry service weapons to help maintain order in devastated parts of the city in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, calling the presence of armed service members in Brooklyn "a bad idea, '' and further stating, "The NYPD is the only people we want on the street with guns. '' NYC 's gun laws are currently being challenged by the New York State Rifle and Pistol Association in Federal Court, claiming the laws infringe on their Second Amendment rights.
City ordinances and New York 's state laws also require medical facilities to notify the police within a specified period of time after admitting anyone with gunshot wounds. Hospitals or clinics that fail to comply with this requirement face fines and other penalties.
Prior to January 15, 2013, rifles deemed assault - style did not have to be registered in any jurisdiction within New York except for NYC. Since enactment of the NY SAFE Act, all grandfathered operable assault - style rifles purchased prior to January 15, 2013 must now be registered. The deadline to register these weapons was on or before January 14, 2014. NYC requires registration and has additional restrictions such as they can not take a detachable magazine having a capacity greater than five rounds. Laws pertaining to the handling of rifles are in sharp contrast to those of handguns. For example, licensed carry of a handgun on one 's person allows the handgun to be fully loaded, including within an automobile, while visiting a place of business or while crossing a public road while hunting. A rifle or shotgun can not be kept loaded in any of the above circumstances except for a self - defense emergency. Antiques and replica handguns must be registered to be legally loaded and fired.
State law provides restricted exceptions for interstate transportation of firearms by non-residents. Non-residents may transport any lawful firearm through the state to any place outside of it where an individual may lawfully possess and carry such firearm.
The firearm must be unloaded while in transit within the state. The firearm and any ammunition for it must not be easily accessible by anyone in the vehicle 's driver or passenger area. For example, the gun and ammunition must be kept in the storage area of the vehicle, such as a car 's "trunk. '' In vehicles without a storage area separate from the driver or passenger compartment, the firearm or ammunition shall be contained in a locked container other than the glove compartment or console. '' You may also transport a firearm for target competition purposes, "by a person who is a member or coach of an accredited college or university target pistol team '' and "while attending or traveling to or from, an organized competitive pistol match or league competition under auspices of, or approved by, the National Rifle Association and in which he is a competitor, within 48 hours of such event or by a person who is a non-resident of the state while attending or traveling to or from an organized match sanctioned by the International Handgun Metallic Silhouette Association and in which he is a competitor, within 48 hours of such event. ''
The state of New York is of particular concern to interstate motorists who travel with firearms because it separates all six New England states from the rest of the United States. This means that under the Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA), all people traveling through the state with firearms are protected by federal law, however they must have their firearms unloaded and locked in a hard case where they are not readily accessible (e.g. in the trunk of a vehicle).
Gun shows: New York requires anyone who buys a gun at a gun show to pass a background check.
Youth and firearms: Youths between ages 14 and 21 may shoot a handgun at a range only if they are under the supervision of a military officer or licensed professional, have not been convicted of a felony, and do not seem to be a danger to themselves or others. Youths between 12 and 15 may only possess to load or fire an firearm when supervised by an adult with specific qualifications. Children under the age of 12 are not permitted to possess a firearm with the intention to load or fire it.
State assault weapons ban: New York 's ban is one of the most restrictive in the country.
Cross registration of handguns: Some counties limit who can register a handgun on their license, with some allowing cross registration of a handgun from any other licensee, to licensed family members only, to no handgun can be cross registered. State law does not address this issue. Sharing use of a handgun not listed on your license is only allowed at a certified range with the licensed handgun owner present.
Examples of local laws: NYC, for example, limits the color of all guns and bans all BB guns, paintball guns and pellet guns. Yonkers requires a handgun license before one may ask for a license to own a BB or pellet handgun.
Renewal fees: There are periodic renewal fees, including on restricted carry licenses, like NYC 's $340 for a three - year license. Nassau, Suffolk, Westchester and several other suburban counties allow a "to and from the range only '' form of concealed carry. However this restriction carries no weight of law and penalties for violating such are administrative in nature and not criminal. "A State can not impose a license, tax, or fee on a Constitutionally protected Right, '' see, Murdock v. Penn 319 US 105 (1942); Further, "The SCOTUS has held that licensing and registration of any Constitutional Right is itself unconstitutional, '' 321 US 573 (1944) (emphasis added for clarification). The Right to self - defense is a "central component '' of the 2d Amendment, see, McDonald v. City of Chicago (SC 2010). The Right to "keep and bear arms '' is both a "fundamental '' and "individual right '' and no State may abrogate these rights nor infringe upon them. California v. Ramos, 463US 992, 1014, 103 SCt 3446, 77 Led 2d 1171 (1983) supra., "State Law can not reduce... a State can not restrict the Right guaranteed in ' full incorporation ' and the Bill of Rights is binding on Government. '' McDonald, supra.
Periodic renewal of licenses: Most counties in the state issue "lifetime '' licenses. Elsewhere than in the City of New York and the counties of Nassau, Suffolk and Westchester, any license to carry or possess a pistol or revolver shall be in force and effect until revoked. Renewable licenses vary in cost and last from the 3 - year New York City license to five years in the other counties, with New York City 's license costing $340 every three years and by contrast, a renewal charge of $10.00 in Suffolk County every 5 years.
In the wake of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting and the 2012 Webster, New York shooting, New York became the first U.S. state to enact stricter gun control laws when it passed the NY SAFE Act on January 15, 2013. New measures included the redefining of what is considered an assault weapon, assault weapon registration, prohibition of sales of assault weapons, the prevention of selling or passing on registered assault weapons to friends or family, reducing the maximum allowed magazine capacity from ten rounds to seven rounds, (however part of the SAFE act was redacted in court to allow loading 10 rounds into your magazine) background checks on almost all gun sales including private sales, background checks on all ammunition sales (has yet to go into effect), additional requirements for reporting of persons with mental health issues, and increased penalties for certain gun crimes. The SAFE Act also includes provisions allowing law enforcement to pre-emptively seize a person 's firearms without a warrant or court order if they have probable cause that the person in question may be mentally unstable or intends to use the weapons to commit a crime.
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where is the memory stored in a laptop | Computer memory - wikipedia
In computing, memory refers to the computer hardware integrated circuits that store information for immediate use in a computer; it is synonymous with the term "primary storage ''. Computer memory operates at a high speed, for example random - access memory (RAM), as a distinction from storage that provides slow - to - access information but offers higher capacities. If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred to secondary storage, through a memory management technique called "virtual memory ''. An archaic synonym for memory is store.
The term "memory '', meaning "primary storage '' or "main memory '', is often associated with addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting of silicon - based transistors, used for example as primary storage but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices. There are two main kinds of semiconductor memory, volatile and non-volatile. Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory (used as secondary memory) and ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM memory (used for storing firmware such as BIOS). Examples of volatile memory are primary storage, which is typically dynamic random - access memory (DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory, which is typically static random - access memory (SRAM) that is fast but energy - consuming, offering lower memory areal density than DRAM.
Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells or bistable flip - flops, each storing one bit (0 or 1). Flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and multiple bits per cell (called MLC, Multiple Level Cell). The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed word length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bit. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bit, making it possible to store 2 raised by N words in the memory. This implies that processor registers normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one word and do not include an addressing mechanism.
Typical secondary storage devices are hard disk drives and solid - state drives.
In the early 1940s, memory technology often permitted a capacity of a few bytes. The first electronic programmable digital computer, the ENIAC, using thousands of octal - base radio vacuum tubes, could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits which were held in the vacuum tube accumulators.
The next significant advance in computer memory came with acoustic delay line memory, developed by J. Presper Eckert in the early 1940s. Through the construction of a glass tube filled with mercury and plugged at each end with a quartz crystal, delay lines could store bits of information in the form of sound waves propagating through mercury, with the quartz crystals acting as transducers to read and write bits. Delay line memory would be limited to a capacity of up to a few hundred thousand bits to remain efficient.
Two alternatives to the delay line, the Williams tube and Selectron tube, originated in 1946, both using electron beams in glass tubes as means of storage. Using cathode ray tubes, Fred Williams would invent the Williams tube, which would be the first random - access computer memory. The Williams tube would prove more capacious than the Selectron tube (the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while the Williams tube could store thousands) and less expensive. The Williams tube would nevertheless prove to be frustratingly sensitive to environmental disturbances.
Efforts began in the late 1940s to find non-volatile memory. Jay Forrester, Jan A. Rajchman and An Wang developed magnetic - core memory, which allowed for recall of memory after power loss. Magnetic core memory would become the dominant form of memory until the development of transistor - based memory in the late 1960s.
Developments in technology and economies of scale have made possible so - called Very Large Memory (VLM) computers.
The term "memory '' when used with reference to computers generally refers to random - access memory (RAM).
Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either static RAM (SRAM) or dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and is easy for interfacing, but uses six transistors per bit. Dynamic RAM is more complicated for interfacing and control, needing regular refresh cycles to prevent losing its contents, but uses only one transistor and one capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and much cheaper per - bit costs.
SRAM is not worthwhile for desktop system memory, where DRAM dominates, but is used for their cache memories. SRAM is commonplace in small embedded systems, which might only need tens of kilobytes or less. Forthcoming volatile memory technologies that aim at replacing or competing with SRAM and DRAM include Z - RAM and A-RAM.
Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read - only memory (see ROM), flash memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disk drives, floppy disks and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards.
Forthcoming non-volatile memory technologies include FeRAM, CBRAM, PRAM, STT - RAM, SONOS, RRAM, racetrack memory, NRAM, 3D XPoint, and millipede memory.
A third category of memory is "semi-volatile ''. The term is used to describe a memory which has some limited non-volatile duration after power is removed, but then data is ultimately lost. A typical goal when using a semi-volatile memory is to provide high performance / durability / etc. associated with volatile memories, while providing some benefits of a true non-volatile memory.
For example, some non-volatile memory types can wear out, where a "worn '' cell has increased volatility but otherwise continues to work. Data locations which are written frequently can thus be directed to use worn circuits. As long as the location is updated within some known retention time, the data stays valid. If the retention time "expires '' without an update, then the value is copied to a less - worn circuit with longer retention. Writing first to the worn area allows a high write rate while avoiding wear on the not - worn circuits.
As a second example, an STT - RAM can be made non-volatile by building large cells, but the cost per bit and write power go up, while the write speed goes down. Using small cells improves cost, power, and speed, but leads to semi-volatile behavior. In some applications the increased volatility can be managed to provide many benefits of a non-volatile memory, for example by removing power but forcing a wake - up before data is lost; or by caching read - only data and discarding the cached data if the power - off time exceeds the non-volatile threshold.
The term semi-volatile is also used to describe semi-volatile behavior constructed from other memory types. For example, a volatile and a non-volatile memory may be combined, where an external signal copies data from the volatile memory to the non-volatile memory, but if power is removed without copying, the data is lost. Or, a battery - backed volatile memory, and if external power is lost there is some known period where the battery can continue to power the volatile memory, but if power is off for an extended time, the battery runs down and data is lost.
Proper management of memory is vital for a computer system to operate properly. Modern operating systems have complex systems to properly manage memory. Failure to do so can lead to bugs, slow performance, and at worst case, takeover by viruses and malicious software.
Nearly everything a computer programmer does requires him or her to consider how to manage memory. Even storing a number in memory requires the programmer to specify how the memory should store it.
Improper management of memory is a common cause of bugs, including the following types:
In early computer systems, programs typically specified the location to write memory and what data to put there. This location was a physical location on the actual memory hardware. The slow processing of such computers did not allow for the complex memory management systems used today. Also, as most such systems were single - task, sophisticated systems were not required as much.
This approach has its pitfalls. If the location specified is incorrect, this will cause the computer to write the data to some other part of the program. The results of an error like this are unpredictable. In some cases, the incorrect data might overwrite memory used by the operating system. Computer crackers can take advantage of this to create viruses and malware.
Virtual memory is a system where all physical memory is controlled by the operating system. When a program needs memory, it requests it from the operating system. The operating system then decides what physical location to place the memory in.
This offers several advantages. Computer programmers no longer need to worry about where the memory is physically stored or whether the user 's computer will have enough memory. It also allows multiple types of memory to be used. For example, some memory can be stored in physical RAM chips while other memory is stored on a hard drive (e.g. in a swapfile), functioning as an extension of the cache hierarchy. This drastically increases the amount of memory available to programs. The operating system will place actively used memory in physical RAM, which is much faster than hard disks. When the amount of RAM is not sufficient to run all the current programs, it can result in a situation where the computer spends more time moving memory from RAM to disk and back than it does accomplishing tasks; this is known as thrashing.
Virtual memory systems usually include protected memory, but this is not always the case.
Protected memory is a system where each program is given an area of memory to use and is not permitted to go outside that range. Use of protected memory greatly enhances both the reliability and security of a computer system.
Without protected memory, it is possible that a bug in one program will alter the memory used by another program. This will cause that other program to run off of corrupted memory with unpredictable results. If the operating system 's memory is corrupted, the entire computer system may crash and need to be rebooted. At times programs intentionally alter the memory used by other programs. This is done by viruses and malware to take over computers.
Protected memory assigns programs their own areas of memory. If the operating system detects that a program has tried to alter memory that does not belong to it, the program is terminated. This way, only the offending program crashes, and other programs are not affected by the error.
Protected memory systems almost always include virtual memory as well.
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where is the tv show cannon ball filmed | Cannonball (Australian game show) - wikipedia
Cannonball is an Australian reality television game show that premiered on the Seven Network on 27 September 2017. It is hosted by Tim Ross and Ben Mingay, along with Rachael Finch and features contestants competing with celebrities. The water - based game show involves 15 couples competing on a lake attempting to jump the highest, slide the furthest and fly the highest.
The format for the show is a franchise that originated in the Netherlands by Talpa. The four - episode series is produced by ITV Studios Australia and filmed at the Penrith Whitewater Stadium in Penrith, New South Wales, in Sydney 's western suburbs.
The competition involves a total of 36 teams of two competing in high level water games for a chance to win two new Suzuki Vitaras and over $35,000 in cash. The top two team in each episode will go to the finals with the best team of the day getting a prize of $5,000
Several celebrity participants competed including former My Kitchen Rules contestants Ash Pollard, Luciano Ippoliti, Alex Ebert and Gareth Cochran. Two celebrities appear on each episode doing the same challenges, and what ever team there score get the close to that team get $500.
The premiere episode was met with disappointing ratings. As a result, subsequent episodes of the series were rescheduled to late Friday nights.
Official Website
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who owns the rights to smokey the bear | Smokey Bear - wikipedia
Smokey Bear is an American advertising icon created by the U.S. Forest Service with artist Albert Staehle, possibly in collaboration with writer and art critic Harold Rosenberg. In the longest - running public service advertising campaign in United States history, the Ad Council, the United States Forest Service (USFS), and the National Association of State Foresters (NASF) employ Smokey Bear to educate the public about the dangers of unplanned human - caused wildfires.
A campaign featuring Smokey and the slogan "Smokey Says -- Care Will Prevent 9 out of 10 Forest Fires '' began in 1944. His later slogan, "Remember... Only YOU Can Prevent Forest Fires '' was created in 1947 and was associated with Smokey Bear for more than five decades. In April 2001, the message was officially updated to "Only You Can Prevent Wildfires. '' in response to a massive outbreak of wildfires in natural areas other than forests (such as grasslands), and to clarify that Smokey is promoting the prevention of unplanned outdoor fire versus prescribed fires. According to the Ad Council, 80 % of outdoor recreationists correctly identified Smokey Bear 's image and 8 in 10 recognized the campaign PSAs.
In 1952, the songwriters Steve Nelson and Jack Rollins had a successful song named "Smokey the Bear '' which was performed by Eddie Arnold. The pair said "the '' was added to Smokey 's name to keep the song 's rhythm. During the 1950s, that variant of the name became widespread both in popular speech and in print, including at least one standard encyclopedia, though Smokey Bear 's name never officially changed. A 1955 book in the Little Golden Books series was called Smokey the Bear and he calls himself by this name in the book. It depicted him as an orphaned cub rescued in the aftermath of a forest fire, which loosely follows Smokey Bear 's true story. From the beginning, his name was intentionally spelled differently from the adjective "smoky ''.
Smokey Bear 's name and image are protected by U.S. federal law, the Smokey Bear Act of 1952 (16 U.S.C. 580 (p - 2); 18 U.S.C. 711).
Although the U.S. Forest Service fought wildfires long before World War II, the war brought a new importance and urgency to the effort. At the time, most able - bodied men were already serving in the armed forces and none could be spared to fight forest fires. The Forest Service began using colorful posters to educate Americans about the dangers of forest fires in the hope that local communities, with the most accurate information, could prevent them from starting in the first place.
On August 13, 1942, Disney 's fifth full - length animated motion picture Bambi premiered in New York City. Soon after, Walt Disney allowed his characters to appear in fire prevention public service campaigns. However, Bambi was only loaned to the government for a year, so a new symbol was needed. After much discussion, a bear was chosen. His name was inspired by "Smokey '' Joe Martin, a New York City Fire Department hero who suffered burns and blindness during a bold 1922 rescue.
Smokey 's debut poster was released on August 9, 1944, which is considered the character 's birthday. Overseen by the Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention Campaign (CFFP), the first poster was illustrated by Albert Staehle. In it Smokey was depicted wearing jeans and a campaign hat, pouring a bucket of water on a campfire. The message underneath reads, "Smokey says -- Care will prevent 9 out of 10 forest fires! '' Knickerbocker Bears gained the license to produce Smokey Bear dolls in 1944. Also in 1949, Forest Service worker Rudy Wendelin became the full - time campaign artist and he was considered Smokey Bear 's "manager '' until Wendelin retired in 1973.
In addition, during World War II, the Empire of Japan considered wildfires as a possible weapon. During the spring of 1942, Japanese submarines surfaced near the coast of Santa Barbara, California, and fired shells that exploded on an oil field, very close to the Los Padres National Forest. U.S. planners hoped that if Americans knew how wildfires would harm the war effort, they would work with the Forest Service to eliminate the threat. The Japanese military renewed their wildfire strategy late in the war: from November 1944 to April 1945, launching some 9,000 fire balloons into the jet stream, with an estimated 11 % reaching the U.S. In the end the balloon bombs caused a total of six fatalities: five school children and their teacher, Elsie Mitchell, who were killed by one of the bombs near Bly, Oregon, on May 5, 1945. A memorial was erected at what today is called the Mitchell Recreation Area.
In 1947, the slogan associated with Smokey Bear for more than five decades was finally coined: "Remember... only YOU can prevent forest fires. '' In 2001, it was officially amended to replace "forest fires '' with "wildfires '', as a reminder that other areas (such as grasslands) are also in danger of burning.
The living symbol of Smokey Bear was a five - pound, three month old American black bear cub who was found in the spring of 1950 after the Capitan Gap fire, a wildfire that burned in the Capitan Mountains of New Mexico. Smokey had climbed a tree to escape the blaze, but his paws and hind legs had been burned. Local crews who had come from New Mexico and Texas to fight the blaze removed the cub from the tree.
At first he was called Hotfoot Teddy, but he was later renamed Smokey, after the icon. New Mexico Department of Game and Fish Ranger Ray Bell heard about the cub and took him to Santa Fe, where he, his wife Ruth, and their children Don and Judy cared for the little bear with the help of local veterinarian Dr Edwin J. Smith. The story was picked up by the national news services and Smokey became a celebrity. Many people wrote and called asking about the cub 's recovery. The state game warden wrote to the chief of the Forest Service, offering to present the cub to the agency as long as the cub would be dedicated to a conservation and wildfire prevention publicity program. According to the New York Times obituary for Homer C. Pickens, then assistant director of the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, he kept the cub on his property for a while, as Pickens would be flying with the bear to D.C. Soon after, Smokey was flown in a Piper PA - 12 Super Cruiser airplane to the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. A special room was prepared for him at the St. Louis zoo for an overnight fuel stop during the trip, and when he arrived at the National Zoo, several hundred spectators, including members of the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, photographers, and media, were there to welcome him.
Smokey Bear lived at the National Zoo for 26 years. During that time he received millions of visitors as well as so many letters addressed to him (more than 13,000 a week) that in 1964 the United States Postal Service gave him his own ZIP code (20252). He developed a love for peanut butter sandwiches, in addition to his daily diet of bluefish and trout.
Upon his death on November 9, 1976, Smokey 's remains were returned by the government to Capitan, New Mexico, and buried at what is now the Smokey Bear Historical Park, operated by New Mexico State Forestry. This facility is now a wildfire and Smokey interpretive center. In the garden adjacent to the interpretive center is the bear 's grave. The plaque at his grave reads, "This is the resting place of the first living Smokey Bear... the living symbol of wildfire prevention and wildlife conservation. ''
The Washington Post ran a semi-humorous obituary for Smokey, labeled "Bear '', calling him a transplanted New Mexico native who had resided for many years in Washington, D.C., with many years of government service. It also mentioned his family, including his wife, Goldie Bear, and "adopted son '' Little Smokey. The obituary noted that Smokey and Goldie were not blood - relatives, despite the fact that they shared the same "last name '' of "Bear ''. The Wall Street Journal included an obituary for Smokey Bear on the front page of the paper, on November 11, 1976, and so many newspapers included articles and obituaries that the National Zoo archives include four complete scrapbooks devoted to them (Series 12, boxes 66 - 67).
In 1962, Smokey was paired with a female bear, "Goldie Bear '', with the hope that perhaps Smokey 's descendants would take over the Smokey Bear title. In 1971, when the pair still had not produced any young, the zoo added "Little Smokey '', another orphaned bear cub from the Lincoln Forest, to their cage -- announcing that the pair had "adopted '' this cub.
On May 2, 1975, Smokey Bear officially "retired '' from his role as living icon, and the title, "Smokey Bear II '', was bestowed upon Little Smokey in an official ceremony. Little Smokey died August 11, 1990.
It is always fire season somewhere in the United States and every region of the country can experience unplanned wildfires. Nearly nine out of every 10 wildfires in the United States are human - caused, which underscores a main part of Smokey Bear 's message: most of our wildfires can be prevented.
In recent years, Smokey Bear has expanded his digital presence, cultivating robust communities to communicate his wildfire prevention messaging. He provides education and tips on his website, SmokeyBear.com, and social media channels (Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, and Instagram). Some include:
Campfire Safety: Including how to pick a campfire spot, how to prepare your campfire pit, how to build your campfire and how to maintain and extinguish your campfire.
Equipment Use and Maintenance: Proper use and maintenance of outdoor equipment and vehicles can help prevent sparks that can cause a wildfire. Smokey shares lawn care and vehicle safety tips, as well as how to prepare your home for wildfire.
Backyard Debris Burning: Get information on the proper conditions for burning, what (and what not) to burn, clearance tips, preparing your pile, and other at - home safety tips. To learn whether there are burn restrictions in place near you, check local ordinances.
The character became a notable part of American popular culture in the 1950s. He appeared on radio programs, in comic strips, and in cartoons.
In 1952, after Smokey Bear attracted considerable commercial interest, the Smokey Bear Act, an act of Congress, was passed to remove the character from the public domain and place it under the control of the Secretary of Agriculture. The act provided for the use of Smokey 's royalties for continued education on the subject of forest wildfire prevention.
A Smokey Bear doll was produced by Ideal Toys beginning in 1952; the doll included a mail - in card for children to become Junior forest rangers. Children could also apply by writing the U.S. Forest Service or Smokey Bear at his zip code. Within three years half a million children had applied.
In 1955, the first children 's book was published, followed by many sequels and coloring books. Soon thousands of dolls, toys, and other collectibles were on the market.
During the 1950s and 1960s, the Ad Council sponsored radio advertisements, featuring Smokey Bear "in conversation '' with prominent American celebrities such as Bing Crosby, Art Linkletter, Dinah Shore, and Roy Rogers.
Smokey 's name and image are used for the Smokey Bear Awards, which are awarded by the U.S. Forest Service, the National Association of State Foresters (NASF), and the Ad Council, to "recognize outstanding service in the prevention of human - caused wildfires and to increase public recognition and awareness of the need for continuing fire prevention efforts. ''
The Beach Boys bring a reminder of Smokey the Bear on their 1964 album "All Summer Long '' in the song "Drive - In '' in the lines "If you say you watch the movie you 're a couple of liars and ' Remember only you can prevent forest fires ' ''.
Though Smokey was originally drawn wearing the campaign hat of the U.S. Forest Service, the hat itself later became famous by association with the Smokey cartoon character. As such, it is sometimes today called a "Smokey Bear '' hat by both the military service branches and state police who still employ it.
For Smokey 's 40th anniversary in 1984, he was honored with a U.S. postage stamp that pictured a cub hanging onto a burned tree. It was illustrated by Rudy Wendelin. The commercial for his 50th anniversary portrayed woodland animals about to have a surprise birthday party for Smokey, with a cake with candles. When Smokey comes blindfolded, he smells smoke, not realizing it is birthday candles for his birthday. He uses his shovel to destroy the cake. When he takes off his blindfold, he sees that it was a birthday cake for him and apologizes. That same year, a poster of the bear with a cake full of extinguished candles was issued. It reads, ' Make Smokey 's Birthday Wish Come True. '
In 2004, Smokey 's 60th anniversary was celebrated in several ways, including a Senate resolution designating August 9, 2004, as "Smokey Bear 60th Anniversary '', calling upon the President to issue a proclamation "calling upon the people of the United States to observe the day with appropriate ceremonies and activities. ''
According to Richard Earle, author of The Art of Cause Marketing, the Smokey Bear campaign is among the most powerful and enduring of all public service advertising: "Smokey is simple, strong, straightforward. He 's a denizen of those woods you 're visiting, and he cares about preserving them. Anyone who grew up watching Bambi realizes how terrifying a forest fire can be. But Smokey would n't run away. Smokey 's strong. He 'll stay and fight the fire if necessary, but he 'd rather have you douse it and cover it up so he does n't have to. ''
On the anniversary of finding Smokey Bear in the Capitan Gap fire, Marianne Gould from the Smokey Bear Ranger District, Eddie Tudor from the Smokey Bear Museum and Neal Jones from the local Ruidoso, New Mexico radio station created "Smokey Bear Days '' starting in 2004. The event celebrates the fire prevention message from the Smokey Bear campaign as well as wilderness environment conservation with music concerts, chainsaw carving contests, a firefighter 's "muster '' competition, food, vendors and a parade. The "Smokey Bear Days '' celebration is held in Smokey 's hometown of Capitan, New Mexico the first weekend of May every year.
In 2008 through 2011, new public service announcements (PSAs) featuring Smokey rendered in CGI were released. In 2010, the PSAs encouraged young adults to "Get Your Smokey On '' -- that is, to become like Smokey and speak up appropriately when others are acting carelessly. In 2011, the campaign launched its first mobile application, or app, to provide critical information about wildfire prevention, including a step - by - step guide to safely building and extinguishing campfires, as well as a map of current wildfires across America.
In 2012, NASA, the U.S. Forest Service, the Texas Forest Service, and Smokey Bear teamed up to celebrate Smokey 's 68th birthday at NASA 's Johnson Space Center in Houston. The popular mascot toured the center and recorded a promotional announcement for NASA Television. NASA astronaut Joe Acaba and the Expedition 31 crew chose a plush Smokey doll to be the team 's launch mascot, celebrating their trip to the International Space Station. During his tour about 250 miles above Earth, Smokey turned 68 years old.
In 2014, the campaign celebrated Smokey 's 70th birthday, with new birthday - themed television, radio, print, outdoor, and digital PSAs that continued the 2013 campaign "Smokey Bear Hug. '' The campaign depicted Smokey rewarding his followers with a hug, in acknowledgement of using the proper actions to prevent wildfires. In return, outdoor -- loving individuals across the nation were shown reciprocating with a birthday bear hug in honor of his 70 years of service. Audiences were encouraged to join in by posting their own # SmokeyBearHug online. The campaign also did a partnership with Disney 's Planes that same year.
In 2016, the campaign launched a new series of PSAs that aimed to increase awareness about less commonly known ways that wildfires can start. The new "Rise from the Ashes '' campaign featured art by Bill Fink, who used wildfire ashes as an artistic medium to illustrate the devastation caused by wildfires and highlight less obvious wildfire causes.
In 2017, the campaign launched new socially - optimized videos and artwork inspired by beloved Smokey Bear posters to continue to raise awareness of lesser known wildfire starts. The new artwork was created by Brian Edward Miller, Evan Hecox, Janna Mattia, and Victoria Ying, portraying Smokey Bear in each of their unique styles.
Washington, D.C., radio station WMAL personality Jackson Weaver served as the primary voice representing Smokey until Weaver 's death in October 1992. In June 2008, the Forest Service launched a new series of public service announcements voiced by actor Sam Elliott, simultaneously giving Smokey a new visual design intended to appeal to young adults. Patrick Warburton provides the voice of an anonymous park ranger.
Smokey Bear -- and parodies of the character -- have been appearing in animation for more than fifty years. In 1956, he made a cameo appearance in the Walt Disney short film In the Bag with a voice provided by Jackson Weaver.
Rankin / Bass Productions, in cooperation with Tadahito Mochinaga 's MOM Production in Japan, produced an "Animagic '' stop motion animated television special, called The Ballad of Smokey the Bear, narrated by James Cagney. It aired on Thanksgiving Day, November 24, 1966 as part of the General Electric Fantasy Hour on NBC. This same day, a Smokey Bear balloon was featured in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade, so it was advertised as "Thanksgiving is Smokey Bear Day on NBC TV. '' During the 1969 -- 1970 television season, Rankin / Bass also produced a weekly Saturday Morning cartoon series for ABC, called The Smokey Bear Show. This series is animated by Toei Animation in Japan.
Despite his real name being Smokey Bear, the name "Smokey the Bear '' has been perpetuated in popular culture. Steve Nelson and Jack Rollins 's song "Smokey the Bear '' has been covered by the group Canned Heat, among others. The track is on their CD The Boogie House Tapes 1969 - 1999.
The Smokey Bear campaign has been criticized by wildfire policy experts in cases where decades of fire suppression and the indigenous fire ecology were not taken into consideration, contributing to unnaturally dense forests with too many dead standing and downed trees, brush, and shrubs often referred to as "fuel ''. Periodic low - intensity wildfires are an integral component of certain ecosystems that evolved to depend on natural fires for vitality, rejuvenation, and regeneration. Examples are chaparral and closed - cone pine forest habitats, which need fire for cones to open and seeds to sprout. Wildfires also play a role in the preservation of pine barrens, which are well adapted to small ground fires and rely on periodic fires to remove competing species.
When a brushland, woodland, or forested area is not impacted by fire for a long period, large quantities of flammable leaves, branches and other organic matter tend to accumulate on the forest floor and above in brush thickets. When a forest fire eventually does occur, the increased fuel creates a crown fire, which destroys all vegetation and affects surface soil chemistry. Frequent and small ' natural ' ground fires prevent the accumulation of fuel and allow large, slow - growing vegetation (e.g. trees) to survive.
Although the goal of reducing human - caused wildfires has never changed, the tagline of the Smokey Bear campaign was adjusted in the 2000s, from "Only you can prevent forest fires '' to "Only you can prevent wildfires ''. The main reason was to accurately expand the category beyond just forests to include all wildlands, including grasslands. Another reason was to respond to the criticism, and to distinguish ' bad ' intentional or accidental wildfires from the needs of sustainable forests via natural ' good ' fire ecology.
SmokeyBear. com 's current site has a section on "Benefits of Fire '' that includes this information: "Fire managers can reintroduce fire into fire - dependent ecosystems with prescribed fire. Under specific, controlled conditions, the beneficial effects of natural fire can be recreated, fuel buildup can be reduced, and we can prevent the catastrophic losses of uncontrolled, unwanted wildfire. '' Prescribed or controlled fire is an important resource management tool. It is a way to efficiently and safely provide for fire 's natural role in the ecosystem. However, the goal of Smokey Bear will always be to reduce the number of human - caused wildfires and reduce the loss of resources, homes and lives.
Media related to Smokey Bear at Wikimedia Commons
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how many dogs were used in the movie big jake | Big Jake - wikipedia
Big Jake is a 1971 Technicolor Western. It was the final film for George Sherman in a directing career of more than 30 years. It grossed $7.5 million in the US.
In 1909, there is a raid on the McCandles family ranch by a gang of ruthless outlaws led by John Fain. They massacre the ranch hands and kidnap Little Jake, the grandson, leaving a ransom note and heading back for Mexico, where they have been hiding out. Martha, the head of the family, is offered the help of both the army and the Texas Rangers in hunting the gang. She replies that this will be "a harsh and unpleasant kind of business and will require an extremely harsh and unpleasant kind of person to see it through. '' In consequence, she sends for her estranged husband, the aging Jacob "Big Jake '' McCandles, a near - legendary gunfighter who wanders the west with his Rough Collie, simply named Dog.
When Jake arrives by train, he and Martha discuss a plan to take the ransom to the kidnappers, a million dollars in a big red strongbox, although Jake warns that, "Pay or not, we run the risk of never seeing the boy again ''. Then his son Michael rides up on a motorcycle, bringing word that he has seen the kidnappers in the Chilicothe Canyon. The Texas Ranger captain is present and offers the services of his men, equipped with three REO touring cars. They, however, are ambushed and their cars put out of action. Jake, preferring the old ways, has followed on horseback, accompanied by an old Apache associate, Sam Sharpnose. He is now joined by his sons, Michael and James, with whom his relations are tense because of his desertion of the family ten years before. Michael turns out to be incompetent with a handgun but shows that he is an expert marksman with a rifle.
That night, Fain rides into their camp to make arrangements for the handover, telling Jake that they will "send the boy 's body back in a basket '' if anything should go wrong. Both men deny any personal stake in the business, each claiming to be "just a messenger boy ''. The family party crosses into Mexico the next day and checks into a hotel. Knowing that they have been followed by another gang intent on stealing the strongbox, Jake sets a trap for them and they are all killed. During the attack, the chest is blasted open, revealing clipped bundles of newspaper instead of money. Michael and James become suspicious of Jake and the three slug it out. Although the sons both land a first blow, Jake knocks them both out cold. After reviving them, Jake assures them that it was both his and Martha 's idea. James fears for Little Jake 's life, but Jake tells them they 'll have to go in anyway.
A thunderstorm breaks and Pop Dawson, one of the outlaws, arrives to give them the details of the exchange. He warns them that a sniper will have a gun trained on the boy in case of a double - cross. Jake arranges for Michael to follow after them to take care of the sharp shooter and convinces Dawson that he had been killed in the fight. At the hideout, Jake is led in alone to where Fain and four other gang members are waiting, one of them holding a shotgun on the boy. Jake tosses the key of the chest to Fain, who opens it up to discover that he has been tricked.
Fain orders his brother Will to kill the boy but he is shot by Jake. Dog is wounded by the sniper and Jake is wounded in the leg before Michael kills the sniper with his second shot. Jake tells the boy to escape but Little Jake is hunted by the machete wielding John Goodfellow, who has already hacked Sam to death. Dog comes to the rescue and is himself killed before Big Jake arrives and impales Goodfellow on a pitchfork. Fain rides up and is preparing to finish off the two of them when Michael arrives from where he had been waiting in ambush and blasts him off his horse. Before he dies, Fain asks, "Who are you? '' When Jake answers, "Jacob McCandles, '' Fain says, "I thought you was dead, '' as have other characters during the course of the film. "Not hardly, '' Jake replies.
With Little Jake rescued, and the broken family bonded, they prepare to head home.
Written as The Million Dollar Kidnapping, which was used as the shooting title, it was filmed from early October to early December 1970, in the Mexican states of Durango and Zacatecas, including scenes shot at the El Saltito waterfall and Sierra De Organos (in the municipality of Sombrerete, Zacatecas).
John Wayne 's real - life son, Patrick Wayne, portrays James McCandles in the film, while Robert Mitchum 's son, Christopher Mitchum plays Michael McCandles. Wayne 's youngest son Ethan Wayne is seen as his grandson, Little Jake, in the movie.
This was the last of five films in which John Wayne and Maureen O'Hara appeared together. The previous four were
Big Jake was released to DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment on April 29, 2003 as a Region 1 widescreen DVD and on May 31, 2011 as a Region 1 widescreen Blu - ray DVD.
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when does new season of south park start 2018 | List of South Park episodes - wikipedia
South Park is an American animated television sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone for Comedy Central that debuted on August 13, 1997. The series originated from a pair of animated shorts titled The Spirit of Christmas, and the first episode of South Park originally aired on August 13, 1997 on Comedy Central. Intended for mature audiences, the show has become infamous for its crude language and dark, surreal humor that lampoons a wide range of topics. The story revolves around four boys -- Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick -- and their bizarre adventures in and around the eponymous Colorado town.
Episodes of South Park have been nominated for a variety of different awards, including 3 Annie Awards (with one win), 2 Critics ' Choice Television Award (with zero wins), 17 Emmy Awards (with five wins), 3 TCA Awards (with zero wins), and received a Peabody Award. Several compilation DVDs have been released. In addition, the first twenty seasons have been released on DVD and Blu - ray.
The show remains Comedy Central 's highest rated program and second - longest - running, behind The Daily Show. A feature film, South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, was released on June 30, 1999. Comedy Central has renewed South Park through 2019, which will bring the show to 23 seasons. The twenty - first season, consisting of 10 episodes, premiered on September 13, 2017, and concluded on December 6, 2017. As of December 6, 2017, 287 episodes of South Park have aired.
Seasons: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Future seasons Home media Shorts, sketches, and other appearances References
In July 2015, it was announced that South Park would continue through season 23 in 2019. Parker and Stone have expressed interest in continuing the series until Comedy Central cancels it.
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first african american athlete to play a professional sport | List of African - American Sports firsts - wikipedia
Origins of the civil rights movement Civil rights movement Black Power movement
African Americans are a demographic minority in the United States. The first achievements by African Americans in various fields historically marked footholds, often leading to more widespread cultural change. The shorthand phrase for this is "breaking the color barrier ''.
The world of sports is commonly invoked in the frequently cited example of Jackie Robinson, who was the first African American of the modern era to become a Major League Baseball player, ending 60 years of segregated Negro Leagues.
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when was the law of definite proportions developed | Law of definite proportions - wikipedia
In chemistry, the law of definite proportion, sometimes called Proust 's law or the law of definite composition, or law of constant composition states that a given chemical compound always contains its component elements in fixed ratio (by mass) and does not depend on its source and method of preparation. For example, oxygen makes up about / of the mass of any sample of pure water, while hydrogen makes up the remaining / of the mass. Along with the law of multiple proportions, the law of definite proportions forms the basis of stoichiometry.
This observation was first made by the English theologian and chemist Joseph Priestley, and Antoine Lavoisier, a French nobleman and chemist centered on the process of combustion.
I shall conclude by deducing from these experiments the principle I have established at the commencement of this memoir, viz. that iron like many other metals is subject to the law of nature which presides at every true combination, that is to say, that it unites with two constant proportions of oxygen. In this respect it does not differ from tin, mercury, and lead, and, in a word, almost every known combustible.
The law of definite proportions might seem obvious to the modern chemist, inherent in the very definition of a chemical compound. At the end of the 18th century, however, when the concept of a chemical compound had not yet been fully developed, the law was novel. In fact, when first proposed, it was a controversial statement and was opposed by other chemists, most notably Proust 's fellow Frenchman Claude Louis Berthollet, who argued that the elements could combine in any proportion. The existence of this debate demonstrates that, at the time, the distinction between pure chemical compounds and mixtures had not yet been fully developed.
The law of definite proportions contributed to, and was placed on a firm theoretical basis by, the atomic theory that John Dalton promoted beginning in 1803, which explained matter as consisting of discrete atoms, that there was one type of atom for each element, and that the compounds were made of combinations of different types of atoms in fixed proportions.
A related early idea was Prout 's hypothesis, formulated by English chemist William Prout, who proposed that the hydrogen atom was the fundamental atomic unit. From this hypothesis was derived the whole number rule, which was the rule of thumb that atomic masses were whole number multiples of the mass of hydrogen. This was later rejected in the 1820s and 30s following more refined measurements of atomic mass, notably by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, which revealed in particular that the atomic mass of chlorine was 35.45, which was incompatible with the hypothesis. Since the 1920s this discrepancy has been explained by the presence of isotopes; the atomic mass of any isotope is very close to satisfying the whole number rule, with the mass defect caused by differing binding energies being significantly smaller.
Although very useful in the foundation of modern chemistry, the law of definite proportions is not universally true. There exist non-stoichiometric compounds whose elemental composition can vary from sample to sample. Such compounds follow the law of multiple proportion. An example is the iron oxide wüstite, which can contain between 0.83 and 0.95 iron atoms for every oxygen atom, and thus contain anywhere between 23 % and 25 % oxygen by mass. The ideal formula is FeO, but due to crystallographic vacancies it is reduced to about Fe O. In general, Proust 's measurements were not accurate enough to detect such variations.
In addition, the isotopic composition of an element can vary depending on its source, hence its contribution to the mass of even a pure stoichiometric compound may vary. This variation is used in geochemical dating since astronomical, atmospheric, oceanic, crustal and deep Earth processes may concentrate lighter or heavier isotopes preferentially. With the exception of hydrogen and its isotopes, the effect is usually small, but is measurable with modern instrumentation.
An additional note: many natural polymers vary in composition (for instance DNA, proteins, carbohydrates) even when "pure ''. Polymers are generally not considered "pure chemical compounds '' except when their molecular weight is uniform (monodisperse) and their stoichiometry is constant. In this unusual case, they still may violate the law due to isotopic variations.
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when does the new death wish movie come out | Death Wish (2017 film) - wikipedia
Death Wish is an upcoming American vigilante action film directed by Eli Roth, a remake of the 1974 film of the same name which starred Charles Bronson in the lead, based on the 1972 novel written by Brian Garfield. The remake will star Bruce Willis as main character Paul Kersey, and is scheduled to be released on November 22, 2017, by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer.
A doctor in Chicago becomes a vigilante when his wife is murdered and his daughter brutally attacked by robbers.
Development for the film began in 2006, when Sylvester Stallone announced that he would be directing and starring in a remake of Death Wish. Stallone stated, "Instead of the Charles Bronson character being an architect, my version would have him as a very good cop who had incredible success without ever using his gun. So when the attack on his family happens, he 's really thrown into a moral dilemma in proceeding to carry out his revenge. '' On December 20, 2006, however, Stallone officially announced that he will not be doing the Death Wish remake, due to "creative differences ''.
In late January 2012, The Hollywood Reporter stated that a remake was confirmed and would be written and directed by Joe Carnahan. the film was originally set to star Liam Neeson and Frank Grillo. However, Carnahan left the film in 2013 and director Gerardo Naranjo was then attached to the project, he was interested in casting Benicio Del Toro in the lead role, but this version also never came into fruition.
After 4 years in development, in March 2016, Paramount and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer announced that Aharon Keshales & Navot Papushado will direct the remake, with Bruce Willis starring. Willis was chosen from a shortlist include Russell Crowe, Matt Damon, Will Smith and Brad Pitt. In May, Keshales and Papushado quit the project after the studio failed to allow their script rewrites. In June, Eli Roth signed on to direct. On August 25, 2016, Vincent D'Onofrio was cast alongside Bruce Willis to play Paul Kersey 's brother, Breaking Bad actor Dean Norris also joined Willis in the film. On October 7, 2016, Kimberly Elise and Camila Morrone were cast in the film to play Detective Jackson and Jordan Kersey. Later on October 17, 2016, Ronnie Gene Blevins was cast in the film.
Principal photography on the film began in late - September 2016 in Chicago, Illinois. Later in October 2016, it began filming in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
In June 2017, it was announced Annapurna Pictures would distribute the film on behalf of Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and release it on November 22, 2017.
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who stars in diary of a wimpy kid | Diary of a Wimpy Kid - wikipedia
Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a satirical realistic fiction comedy novel for children and teenagers written and illustrated by Jeff Kinney. It is the first book in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series. The book is about a boy named Greg Heffley and his struggles to fit in as he begins middle school.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid first appeared on FunBrain in 2004, where it was read 20 million times. The abridged hardcover adaptation was released on April 1, 2007. The book was named New York Times bestseller among other awards and praise. A film of the same name was released on March 19, 2010. The sequel to the film is Rodrick Rules, followed by Dog Days and The Long Haul.
As Greg Heffley is getting ready for his first day of middle school, he is teased by his teenage brother Rodrick, because his mom bought him his supplies for school. He has a little brother, a toddler named Manny, who is "spoiled rotten '' because he gets everything he wants and also gets away with everything he does wrong. His father, named Frank Heffley, does not encourage Greg 's way of life - playing video games all day - rather than going outside and playing sports.
During the first day of school, Greg is immediately rejected and is forced to sit with another outcast named Fregley, from whom Greg tries to keep "a safe distance ''. He is initially unsure whether his best friend Rowley Jefferson will be able to fit in, as he considers Rowley to be immature. However, Greg strongly believes that he can become popular. He and Rowley decide to take part in wrestling at school, although Greg quits after losing a match against Fregley.
On Halloween, Greg and Rowley go trick - or - treating, but are challenged by teens who spray Greg and Rowley with a water - filled fire extinguisher. Greg tries to threaten them by saying he 's going to call the police, but the teenagers start to chase them. The two friends escape and go to Greg 's grandmother 's house until the teens leave.
After getting few presents for Christmas, Greg decides to play a game with Rowley in which Rowley must ride a bike while Greg tries to knock him off. On one of Greg 's tries, the ball gets under the front wheel, which causes Rowley to fall off and break his arm. When Rowley goes to school with a plaster cast, the girls take care of him (carrying his books, feeding him food) which makes Greg jealous. After Rowley 's arm heals, he and Greg decide to enroll in the safety patrol program in which they walk younger kids to their homes.
One day, as Greg is walking the kids by himself he chases the young children after scaring them with a stick with worms on it. A neighbour contacts the school and tells them about Greg 's unusual behavior. The principal suspects Rowley, as Greg was wearing Rowley 's jacket. Rowley is suspended from the safety patrol. Greg later decides to confess the truth, but Rowley has already informed on him, resulting in their friendship breaking off.
Greg tries to befriend Fregley to make Rowley jealous, although he is uncomfortable around Fregley. Resorting to auditioning for the school play (based on The Wizard of Oz) Greg lands the role as a tree, while Patty Farrel is cast as Dorothy, the protagonist of the novel. During the show 's opening performance, Rodrick brings a camera to film the play. Greg becomes too nervous to sing, confusing the other "trees '' who also fail to sing. Patty gets frustrated and angers Greg, who throws props at Patty, and then everyone gets in the fight, ending the play in chaos.
Feeling desolate from being blatantly rejected by everyone, Greg is surprised and a little happy to see Rowley approaching him at recess, until, he discovers that he 's only there to demand back a CD he 'd left with Greg. They get into an awkward fist - fight. While they are fighting, the teens who chased them at halloween are drawn to the chaos crowding around Greg and Rowley tumbling around in the dirt. When the leader of the teen gang scares away the rest of the students, they force Greg and Rowley to eat a moldy piece of cheese that has been left on the school grounds for years. Rowley is the first to eat the cheese - except when it comes to Greg 's turn, he claims that he 's lactose intolerant and that eating cheese will kill him. The principal turns up and the teens disappear. The other students see the cheese in front of Rowley and believe he has eaten from it. Greg takes the blame and claims he ate the cheese. Greg and Rowley mend their friendship.
In 2005, FunBrain and Jeff Kinney released an online version of Diary of a Wimpy Kid. The website made daily entries until June 2005. The book became an instant hit and the online version received about 20 million views as of 2007. Many online readers requested a printed version. At the 2006 New York Comic - Con Kinney proposed Diary to Charles Kochman, Editorial Director of the ComicArts division of Abrams Books, who purchased the rights to the book. According to Kochman, the two initially conceived it as a book for adults, believing it would appeal to audiences similar to that of the TV series The Wonder Years. Kochman brought it before the Abrams publishing board, which convinced Kinney and Kochman that it would be better aimed toward children. In 2007, Diary of a Wimpy Kid, an abridged version of the original online book, was published.
The main character, Greg, has trouble with family, friends, and his local middle school. He is very concerned about how popular he is at school, and he daydreams a lot about being rich and famous when he grows up. He tries to fit in at his school, but usually he does not succeed. Facing many challenges, Greg attempts to handle them very creatively, but unfortunately his antics often backfire on him.
Greg 's best friend has a larger than average frame. He is always willing to do what Greg tells him, including dangerous stunts. Rowley goes on vacations all the time, which annoys Greg. Rowley is a loyal friend, but he sometimes behaves in an immature or childish manner. He also dresses in an unusual way.
Greg 's "spoiled '' little brother, a three - year - old toddler. He never gets in trouble no matter what, even when he really deserves it. Manny is just getting toilet trained.
Rodrick is Greg 's teenage brother and he never misses a chance to be cruel to Greg. He is known for sleeping excessively in the morning and for his rebellious attitude. Rodrick is part of a garage band called "The Löded Diper ''. Rodrick will do anything to embarrass Greg and will even cause problems for Manny to make everyone 's life miserable.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid is the first book in an ongoing book franchise. The second, Rodrick Rules was released February 1, 2008 and was listed on the New York Times Best Sellers list for 117 weeks. The Last Straw, the third book in the series, released on January 13, 2009 was on the New York Times Best Sellers list for 65 weeks, peaking at number one. Dog Days was released October 12, 2009 with 217 pages. The book was ranked at number one on the New York Times Best Sellers List for all 25 weeks of inclusion, making Dog Days the # 1 Best Selling Book of 2009. The Ugly Truth was released November 9, 2010 with 217 pages. The sixth, Cabin Fever was released November 15, 2011. The seventh, The Third Wheel was released on November 13, 2012. The eighth, Hard Luck was released on November 5, 2013 in the United States and on November 6 in the United Kingdom. The ninth, The Long Haul was released on November 4, 2014 in the US and November 5, 2014 in the UK. The tenth, Old School, was released globally on November 3, 2015. The eleventh, Double Down, was published on November 1, 2016.
The book won the Blue Peter Book Award 2012, revealed live on British kids channel CBBC on March 1, 2012.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a 2010 American comedy directed by Thor Freudenthal and based on Jeff Kinney 's book. The film was released on March 19, 2010. It was released on DVD, iTunes, and Blu - ray on August 3, 2010. The movie stars Zachary Gordon as Greg Heffley, Robert Capron as Rowley Jefferson, Steve Zahn as Frank Heffley (Dad), Rachael Harris as Susan Heffley (Mom), Devon Bostick as Rodrick Heffley, Chloë Grace Moretz as Angie Steadman, and Connor & Owen Fielding as Manny Heffley, Greg 's brother.
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when did china start the one child policy | One - child policy - wikipedia
The one - child policy, a part of the family planning policy, was a population planning policy of China. It was introduced in 1979 and began to be formally phased out in 2015. The policy allowed exceptions for many groups, including ethnic minorities. In 2007, 36 % of China 's population was subject to a strict one - child restriction, with an additional 53 % being allowed to have a second child if the first child was a girl. Provincial governments imposed fines for violations, and the local and national governments created commissions to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to the Chinese government, 400 million births were prevented. This claim has been called "false '' by scholars, because "three - quarters of the decline in fertility since 1970 occurred before the launching of the one - child policy; and most of the further decline in fertility since 1980 can be attributed to economic development. '' Thailand and Iran, along with the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, have had similar declines of fertility without a one - child policy. Although 76 % of Chinese people supported the policy in a 2008 survey, it was controversial outside of China.
On October 29, 2015, it was reported that the existing law would be changed to a two - child policy, citing a statement from the Communist Party of China. The new law became effective on January 1, 2016, following its passage in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on December 27, 2015.
During the period of Mao Zedong 's leadership in China, the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand. Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the government encouraged families to have as many children as possible because of Mao 's belief that population growth empowered the country, preventing the emergence of family planning programs earlier in China 's development. The population grew from around 540 million in 1949 to 940 million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens were encouraged to marry at later ages and have only two children.
Although the fertility rate began to decline, the Chinese government observed the global debate over a possible overpopulation catastrophe suggested by organizations such as Club of Rome and Sierra Club. While visiting Europe in 1979, one of the top Chinese officials, Song Jian, read two influential books of the movement, The Limits to Growth and A Blueprint for Survival. With a group of mathematicians, Song determined the correct population of China to be 700 million. A plan was prepared to reduce China 's population to the desired level by 2080, with the one - child policy as one of the main instruments of social engineering. In spite of some criticism inside the party, the plan (also referred to as the Family Planning Policy) was officially adopted in 1979. The plan called for families to have one child each in order to curb a then - surging population and limit the demands for water and other resources, as well as to alleviate social, economic and environmental problems in China. The policy was formally implemented as a temporary measure on September 18, 1980.
The one - child policy was originally designed to be a One - Generation Policy. It was enforced at the provincial level and enforcement varied; some provinces had more relaxed restrictions. The one - child limit was most strictly enforced in densely populated urban areas.
Beginning in 1980, official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of "practical difficulties '' (such as cases in which the father is a disabled serviceman) or when both parents are single children, and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies as well. In most areas, families were allowed to apply to have a second child if their first - born is a daughter. Furthermore, families with children with disabilities have different policies and families whose first child suffers from physical disability, mental illness, or intellectual disability were allowed to have more children. However, second children were sometimes subject to birth spacing (usually 3 or 4 years). Children born in overseas countries were not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship. Chinese citizens returning from abroad were allowed to have a second child. Sichuan province allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds. By one estimate there were at least 22 ways in which parents could qualify for exceptions to the law towards the end of the one - child policy 's existence. As of 2007, only 35.9 % of the population were subject to a strict one - child limit. 52.9 % were permitted to have a second child if their first was a daughter; 9.6 % of Chinese couples were permitted two children regardless of their gender; and 1.6 % -- mainly Tibetans -- had no limit at all.
Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan province for parents who had lost children in the earthquake. Similar exceptions had previously been made for parents of severely disabled or deceased children. People have also tried to evade the policy by giving birth to a second child in Hong Kong, but at least for Guangdong residents, the one - child policy was also enforced if the birth was given in Hong Kong or abroad.
In accordance with China 's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities, all non-Han ethnic groups are subjected to different laws and were usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in rural areas. Han Chinese living in rural towns were also permitted to have two children. Because of couples such as these, as well as who simply pay a fine (or "social maintenance fee '') to have more children, the overall fertility rate of mainland China was close to 1.4 children per woman as of 2011.
The Family Planning Policy was enforced through a financial penalty in the form of the "social child - raising fee '', sometimes called a "family planning fine '' in the West, which was collected as a fraction of either the annual disposable income of city dwellers or of the annual cash income of peasants, in the year of the child 's birth. For instance, in Guangdong, the fee is between 3 and 6 annual incomes for incomes below the per capita income of the district, plus 1 to 2 times the annual income exceeding the average. Both members of the couple need to pay the fine.
As part of the policy, women were required to have a contraceptive intrauterine device (IUD) surgically installed after having a first child, and to be sterilized by tubal ligation after having a second child. From 1980 to 2014, 324 million Chinese women were fitted with IUDs in this way and 107 million were sterilized. Women who refused these procedures -- which many resented -- could lose their government employment and their children could lose access to education or health services. The IUDs installed in this way were modified such that they could not be removed manually, but only through surgery. In 2016, following the abolition of the one - child policy, the Chinese government announced that IUD removals would now be paid for by the government.
In 2013, Deputy Director Wang Peian of the National Health and Family Planning Commission said that "China 's population will not grow substantially in the short term ''. A survey by the commission found that only about half of eligible couples wish to have two children, mostly because of the cost of living impact of a second child.
In November 2013, following the Third Plenum of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, China announced the decision to relax the one - child policy. Under the new policy, families could have two children if one parent, rather than both parents, was an only child. This mainly applied to urban couples, since there were very few rural only children due to long - standing exceptions to the policy for rural couples. The coastal province of Zhejiang, one of China 's most affluent, became the first area to implement this "relaxed policy '' in January 2014. The relaxed policy has been implemented in 29 out of the 31 provinces, with the exceptions of Xinjiang and Tibet. Under this policy, approximately 11 million couples in China are allowed to have a second child; however, only "nearly one million '' couples applied to have a second child in 2014, less than half the expected number of 2 million per year. By May 2014, 241,000 out of 271,000 applications had been approved. Officials of China 's National Health and Family Planning Commission claimed that this outcome was expected, and that "second - child policy '' would continue progressing with a good start.
In October 2015, the Chinese news agency Xinhua announced plans of the government to abolish the one - child policy, now allowing all families to have two children, citing from a communiqué issued by the Communist Party "to improve the balanced development of population '' -- an apparent reference to the country 's female - to - male sex ratio -- and to deal with an aging population according to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The new law took effect 1 January 2016 after it was passed in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on 27 December 2015.
The rationale for the abolition is summarized by former Wall Street Journal reporter Mei Fong: "The reason China is doing this right now is because they have too many men, too many old people, and too few young people. They have this huge crushing demographic crisis as a result of the one - child policy. And if people do n't start having more children, they 're going to have a vastly diminished workforce to support a huge aging population. '' China 's ratio is about five working adults to one retiree; the huge retiree community must be supported, and that will dampen future growth, according to Fong.
Since the citizens of China are living longer and having fewer children, the growth of the population imbalance is expected to continue, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation which referred to a United Nations projections forecast that "China will lose 67 million working - age people by 2030, while simultaneously doubling the number of elderly. That could put immense pressure on the economy and government resources. '' The longer term outlook is also pessimistic, based on an estimate by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, revealed by Cai Fang, deputy director. "By 2050, one - third of the country will be aged 60 years or older, and there will be fewer workers supporting each retired person. ''
Although many critics of China 's reproductive restrictions approve of the policy 's abolition, an Amnesty International spokesperson said that the move to the two - child policy would not end forced sterilizations, forced abortions, or government control over birth permits. Others also state that the abolition is not a sign of the relaxation of authoritarian control in China. A reporter for CNN said, "It was not a sign that the party will suddenly start respecting personal freedoms more than it has in the past. No, this is a case of the party adjusting policy to conditions... The new policy, raising the limit to two children per couple, preserves the state 's role. '' The abolition may not achieve a significant benefit, as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation analysis indicates: "Repealing the one - child policy may not spur a huge baby boom, however, in part because fertility rates are believed to be declining even without the policy 's enforcement. Previous easings of the one - child policy have spurred fewer births than expected, and many people among China 's younger generations see smaller family sizes as ideal. '' The CNN reporter adds that China 's new prosperity is also a factor in the declining birth rate, saying, "Couples naturally decide to have fewer children as they move from the fields into the cities, become more educated, and when women establish careers outside the home. ''
The one - child policy was managed by the National Population and Family Planning Commission under the central government since 1981. The Ministry of Health of the People 's Republic of China and the National Health and Family Planning Commission were made defunct and a new single agency National Health and Family Planning Commission took over national health and family planning policies in 2013. The agency reports to the State Council.
The policy was enforced at the provincial level through fines that were imposed based on the income of the family and other factors. "Population and Family Planning Commissions '' existed at every level of government to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, it is complicated to evaluate the effects of the one - child policy on family outcomes because the Chinese government had already enacted aggressive family planning policy before the introduction of the one - child policy; seen a sharp drop in fertility rates before the enactment of the one - child policy; the one - child policy coincided with Chinese economic reform which would have contributed to reduced fertility rates; and other developing East Asian countries also experienced sharp declines in fertility rates. According to the study, "In general, very different views exist on how the one - child policy affected fertility: one group of studies argued that the one - child policy had a significant or decisive effect on fertility in China, while another group argued that socioeconomic development played a key role in China 's fertility decline. A plausible reconciliation of these views is that the one - child policy accelerated the already - occurring drop in fertility for a few years, but in the longer term, economic development played a more fundamental role in leading to and maintaining China 's low fertility level. To put it more bluntly, China 's fertility might well have dropped to the current low level with rapid economic development, even without the one - child policy, although the timeline of the decline would not appear quite the same. ''
The fertility rate in China continued its fall from 2.8 births per woman in 1979 (already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s) to 1.5 in 2010. This is similar to demographic transition seen in Thailand, Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu which have undergone similar changes in fertility rates without a one child policy. The One - child policy has also created an aging population where there is an increase in the elderly population.
The sex ratio of a newborn infant (between male and female births) in mainland China reached 117: 100, and stabilized between 2000 and 2013, substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103: 100 and 107: 100. It had risen from 108: 100 in 1981 -- at the boundary of the natural baseline -- to 111: 100 in 1990. According to a report by the National Population and Family Planning Commission, there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentially leading to social instability, and courtship - motivated emigration.
The disparity in the gender ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth, for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority of couples appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether it is a boy or a girl. If the first child is a girl, and they are able to have a second child, then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child is a boy. If a couple already has two or more boys, the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a feminine direction. This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring, a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play. Zeng 1993 reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births in families that already had two or more boys. A study by Anderson & Silver (1995) found a similar pattern among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong preference for girls in high parity births in families that had already borne two or more boys. This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was later also noted by Coale and Banister, who suggested as well that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males, it was also much more likely to engage in "stopping behavior '', i.e., to stop having more children.
The long - term disparity has led to a significant gender imbalance or skewing of the sex ratio. As reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, China has between 32 million and 36 million more males than would be expected naturally, and this has led to social problems. "Because of a traditional preference for baby boys over girls, the one - child policy is often cited as the cause of China 's skewed sex ratio... Even the government acknowledges the problem and has expressed concern about the tens of millions of young men who wo n't be able to find brides and may turn to kidnapping women, sex trafficking, other forms of crime or social unrest. '' The situation will not improve in the near future. According to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, there will be 24 million more men than women of marriageable age by 2020.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, "existing studies indicate either a modest or minimal effect of the fertility change induced by the one - child policy on children education ''.
The one - child policy of China made it more expensive for parents with children to adopt, which may have had an effect upon the numbers of children living in state - sponsored orphanages. However, in the 1980s and early 1990s, poor care and high mortality rates in some state institutions generated intense international pressure for reform.
In the 1980s, adoptions accounted for half of the so - called "missing girls ''. Through the 1980s, as the one - child policy came into force, parents who desired a son but had a daughter often failed to report or delayed reporting female births to the authorities. Some parents may have offered up their daughters for formal or informal adoption. A majority of children who went through formal adoption in China in the later 1980s were girls, and the proportion who were girls increased over time.
In an interview with National Public Radio on October 30, 2015, Adam Pertman, president and CEO of the National Center on Adoption and Permanency, indicated that many young girls were adopted by citizens of other countries, particularly the United States, a trend which has been declining for some years. "The infant girls of yesteryear have not been available, if you will, for five, seven years. China has been... trying to keep the girls within the country... And the consequence is that, today, rather than those young girls who used to be available -- primarily girls -- today, it 's older children, children with special needs, children in sibling groups. It 's very, very different. ''
Since there are no penalties for multiple births, it is believed that an increasing number of couples are turning to fertility medicines to induce the conception of twins. According to a 2006 China Daily report, the number of twins born per year was estimated to have doubled.
The one - child policy has played a major role in improving the quality of life for women in China. For thousands of years, girls have held a lower status in Chinese households. However, the one - child policy 's limit on the number of children has prompted parents of women to start investing money in their well - being. As a result of being an only child, women have increased opportunity to receive an education, and support to get better jobs.
It is reported that the focus of China on population planning helps provide a better health service for women and a reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive free contraception and pre-natal classes that contributed to the policy 's success in two respects. First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in terms of time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese people more money with which to invest. Second, since Chinese adults can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for the future.
As the first generation of law - enforced only - children came of age for becoming parents themselves, one adult child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the "4 - 2 - 1 Problem '', this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If personal savings, pensions, or state welfare fail, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If, for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue, all provinces have decided that couples are allowed to have two children if both parents were only children themselves: By 2007, all provinces in the nation except Henan had adopted this new policy; Henan followed in 2011.
Heihaizi (Chinese: 黑 孩子; pinyin: hēiháizi) or "black child '' is a term denoting children born outside the one - child policy, or generally children who are not registered in the Chinese national household registration system.
Being excluded from the family register (in effect, a birth certificate), they do not legally exist and as a result can not access most public services, such as education and health care, and do not receive protection under the law.
Some parents may over-indulge their only child. The media referred to the indulged children in one - child families as "little emperors ''. Since the 1990s, some people have worried that this will result in a higher tendency toward poor social communication and cooperation skills amongst the new generation, as they have no siblings at home. No social studies have investigated the ratio of these over-indulged children and to what extent they are indulged. With the first generation of children born under the policy (which initially became a requirement for most couples with first children born starting in 1979 and extending into the 1980s) reaching adulthood, such worries were reduced.
However, the "little emperor syndrome '' and additional expressions, describing the generation of Chinese singletons are very abundant in the Chinese media, Chinese academia and popular discussions. Being over-indulged, lacking self - discipline and having no adaptive capabilities are traits that are highly associated with Chinese singletons.
Some 30 delegates called on the government in the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference in March 2007 to abolish the one - child rule, citing "social problems and personality disorders in young people ''. One statement read, "It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and be spoiled by them: it is not right to limit the number to two children per family, either. '' The proposal was prepared by Ye Tingfang, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, who suggested that the government at least restore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children. According to a scholar, "The one - child limit is too extreme. It violates nature 's law. And in the long run, this will lead to mother nature 's revenge. ''
Reports surfaced of Chinese women giving birth to their second child overseas, a practice known as birth tourism. Many went to Hong Kong, which is exempt from the one - child policy. Likewise, a Hong Kong passport differs from China mainland passport by providing additional advantages. Recently though, the Hong Kong government has drastically reduced the quota of births set for non-local women in public hospitals. As a result, fees for delivering babies there have surged. As further admission cuts or a total ban on non-local births in Hong Kong are being considered, mainland agencies that arrange for expectant mothers to give birth overseas are predicting a surge in those going to North America.
As the United States practises birthright citizenship, most children born in the US will automatically have US citizenship. The closest US location from China is Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands, a US dependency in the western Pacific Ocean that allows Chinese visitors without visa restrictions. The island is currently experiencing an upswing in Chinese births. This option is used by relatively affluent Chinese who often have secondary motives as well, wishing their children to be able to leave mainland China when they grow older or bring their parents to the US. Canada is less achievable as their government denies many visa requests.
The policy is controversial outside China for many reasons, including accusations of human rights abuses in the implementation of the policy, as well as concerns about negative social consequences.
The Chinese government, quoting Zhai Zhenwu, director of Renmin University 's School of Sociology and Population in Beijing, estimates that 400 million births were prevented by the one - child policy as of 2011, while some demographers challenge that number, putting the figure at perhaps half that level, according to CNN. Zhai clarified that the 400 million estimate referred not just to the one - child policy, but includes births prevented by predecessor policies implemented one decade before, stating that "there are many different numbers out there but it does n't change the basic fact that the policy prevented a really large number of births ''.
This claim is disputed by Wang Feng, director of the Brookings - Tsinghua Center for Public Policy, and Cai Yong from the Carolina Population Center at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Wang claims that "Thailand and China have had almost identical fertility trajectories since the mid 1980s '', and "Thailand does not have a one - child policy. '' China 's Health Ministry has also disclosed that at least 336 million abortions were performed on account of the policy.
According to a report by the US Embassy, scholarship published by Chinese scholars and their presentations at the October 1997 Beijing conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population seemed to suggest that market - based incentives or increasing voluntariness is not morally better but that it is in the end more effective. In 1988, Zeng Yi and Professor T. Paul Schultz of Yale University discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinese fertility, arguing that the introduction of the contract responsibility system in agriculture during the early 1980s weakened family planning controls during that period. Zeng contended that the "big cooking pot '' system of the People 's Communes had insulated people from the costs of having many children. By the late 1980s, economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmers wanted.
A long - term experiment in a county in Shanxi Province, in which the family planning law was suspended, suggested that families would not have many more children even if the law were abolished. A 2003 review of the policy - making process behind the adoption of the one - child policy shows that less intrusive options, including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births, were known but not fully considered by China 's political leaders.
Corrupted government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines. Filmmaker Zhang Yimou had three children and was subsequently fined 7.48 million yuan ($1.2 million). For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in central China 's Hunan province were found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed by the commission were 21 national and local lawmakers, 24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6 senior intellectuals.
Some of the offending officials did not face penalties, although the government did respond by raising fines and calling on local officials to "expose the celebrities and high - income people who violate the family planning policy and have more than one child ''. Also, people who lived in the rural areas of China were allowed to have two children without punishment, although the family is required to wait a couple of years before having another child.
The one - child policy has been challenged for violating a human right to determine the size of one 's own proper family. According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children. ''
According to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations was set for Huaiji County in Guangdong Province in one year due to reported disregard of the one - child policy. According to the article local officials were being pressured into purchasing portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages. The article also reported that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were forced to abort, usually by an injection of saline solution. A 1993 book by social scientist Steven W. Mosher reported that women in their ninth month of pregnancy, or already in labour, were having their children killed whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth.
According to a 2005 news report by Australian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent John Taylor, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization in 2002 but ineffectively enforces the measure. In 2012, Feng Jianmei, a villager from central China 's Shaanxi province was forced into an abortion by local officials after her family refused to pay the fine for having a second child. Chinese authorities have since apologized and two officials were fired, while five others were sanctioned.
In the past China promoted eugenics as part of its population planning policies, but the government has backed away from such policies, as evidenced by China 's ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which compels the nation to significantly reform its genetic testing laws. Recent research has also emphasized the necessity of understanding a myriad of complex social relations that affect the meaning of informed consent in China. Furthermore, in 2003, China revised its marriage registration regulations and couples no longer have to submit to a pre-marital physical or genetic examination before being granted a marriage license.
The United Nations Population Fund 's (UNFPA) support for family planning in China, which has been associated with the One - Child policy in the United States, led the United States Congress to pull out of the UNFPA during the Reagan administration, and again under George W. Bush 's presidency, citing human rights abuses and stating that the right to "found a family '' was protected under the Preamble in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. President Obama resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009, intending to "work collaboratively to reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV / AIDS and provide family planning assistance to women in 154 countries ''.
Sex - selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in China. Nevertheless, the United States Department of State, the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that infanticide still exists. A writer for the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs wrote, "The ' one - child ' policy has also led to what Amartya Sen first called ' Missing Women ', or the 100 million girls ' missing ' from the populations of China (and other developing countries) as a result of female infanticide, abandonment, and neglect ''.
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation offered the following summary as to the long term effects of sex - selective abortion and abandonment of female infants: "Multiple research studies have also found that sex - selective abortion -- where a woman undergoes an ultrasound to determine the sex of her baby, and then aborts it if it 's a girl -- was widespread for years, particularly for second or subsequent children. Millions of female fetuses have been aborted since the 1970s. China outlawed sex selective abortions in 2005, but the law is tough to enforce because of the difficulty of proving why a couple decided to have an abortion. The abandonment, and killing, of baby girls has also been reported, though recent research studies say it has become rare, in part due to strict criminal prohibitions. ''
Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California, Davis and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have claimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s.
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the closed shop form of union security means that the | Closed shop - wikipedia
A pre-entry closed shop (or simply closed shop) is a form of union security agreement under which the employer agrees to hire union members only, and employees must remain members of the union at all times in order to remain employed. This is different from a post-entry closed shop (US: union shop), which is an agreement requiring all employees to join the union if they are not already members. In a union shop, the union must accept as a member any person hired by the employer.
International Labour Organization covenants do not address the legality of closed shop provisions, leaving the question up to each individual nation. The legal status of closed shop agreements varies widely from country to country, ranging from bans on the agreement, to extensive regulation of the agreement to not mentioning it at all.
The Taft -- Hartley Act outlawed the closed shop in the United States in 1947. The union shop was ruled illegal by the Supreme Court. States that have passed right - to - work laws go further by not allowing employers to require employees to pay the agency fee. An employer may not lawfully agree with a union to hire only union members, but it may agree to require employees to join the union or pay the equivalent of union dues to it, within a set period after starting employment. Similarly, while a union could require an employer that had agreed to a closed shop contract prior to 1947 to fire an employee who had been expelled from the union for any reason, it can not demand that an employer fire an employee under a union shop contract for any reason other than failure to pay those dues that are uniformly required of all employees.
The United States Government does not permit the union shop in any federal agency regardless of state law allowing for such.
Construction unions and unions in other industries with similar employment patterns have coped with the prohibition of closed shops by using exclusive hiring halls as a means of controlling the supply of labor. While such exclusive hiring halls do not, in a strictly formal sense, require union membership as a condition of employment, they do so in practical terms, in that an employee seeking to be dispatched to work through the union 's hiring hall must either pay union dues or pay a roughly equivalent hiring hall fee. So long as the hiring hall is run on a non-discriminatory basis and adheres to clearly stated eligibility and dispatch standards, it is lawful. The Taft -- Hartley Act also bars unions from requiring unreasonably high initiation fees as a condition of membership in order to prevent unions from using initiation fees as a device to keep non-union employees out of a particular industry. Also, the National Labor Relations Act permits construction employers to enter into pre-hire agreements, in which they agree to draw their workforces from a pool of employees dispatched by the union. The NLRA prohibits pre-hire agreements outside the construction industry.
For the entertainment industry, unions representing performers have as their first rule one banning any represented performer from working on any non-union production. Penalties are imposed on the union member, not on the employer, and can lead to loss of union membership. Most major productions are union productions, and non-members join the Screen Actors Guild through performing as extras and earning three union vouchers, or by being given a speaking line and entering that way. The other performance unions do not have minimum membership standards, but joining the union bars one from working on non-union productions.
All four major sports leagues are union shops, even though a franchise may be located in a state that has a right - to - work law or constitutional provision.
The status of closed shops varies from province to province within Canada. The Supreme Court has ruled that, while Section Two of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms guaranteed both the freedom to associate and the freedom not to associate, employees in a work - environment largely dominated by a union were beneficiaries of union policies, and as such should pay union fees, regardless of membership status. However, religious and conscientious objectors were allowed the option of paying the amount to a registered charity instead.
Dunn and Gennard found 111 United Kingdom cases of dismissals on the introduction of a closed shop, involving 325 individuals. They state "While proponents of the closed shop may argue that an estimated minimum 325 dismissals is a relatively small number compared with the total population covered by closed shops, critics would see the figure as substantial arguing that one dismissal is one too many. '' In relation to the pre-entry closed shop, they state "Its raison d'être is to exclude people from jobs by denying them union membership ''.
All forms of closed shops in the UK are illegal following the introduction of the Employment Act 1990. They were further curtailed under section 137 (1) (a) of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 (c. 52) passed by the Conservative government at the time. The Labour Party, then in opposition, had supported closed shops until December 1989, when it abandoned the policy in accordance with European legislation. However, Labour shadow arts minister Thangam Debbonaire announced to an Equity conference in May 2016 that she favoured the introduction of a "limited '' closed shop for actors, as part of Jeremy Corbyn 's pledge to strengthen and introduce a new package of employment rights beneficial to employees. Equity was one of the last trade unions in the United Kingdom to offer a pre-entry closed shop until the 1990 act.
All forms of closed shops in the Commonwealth are illegal under Workplace Relations Act 1996. There was an attempt by the Howard Government to change the definition of what constituted a closed shop under the Workplace Relations Legislation Amendment (More Jobs, More Pay) Bill 1999. However the bill was subsequently defeated.
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who played pam shipman in gavin and stacey | List of Gavin & Stacey characters - wikipedia
Gavin & Stacey is an award winning British television comedy series, following the lives of the title characters Gavin (Mathew Horne) and Stacey (Joanna Page), who, before marrying, live on opposite sides of the country, Gavin in Billericay, Essex, and Stacey in Barry, Vale of Glamorgan. During the first two series Gavin lives with his parents Mick (Larry Lamb) and Pam (Alison Steadman) but in the third series he has moved, with Stacey, to Barry and lives with Stacey 's mum. He has a best friend Neil "Smithy '' Smith (James Corden). For most of the episodes Stacey lives in Barry with her mum Gwen (Melanie Walters), with an extended family of Uncle Bryn (Rob Brydon) across the street, and best friend Vanessa Shanessa "Nessa '' Jenkins (Ruth Jones), but for a short while during series two she lived with Gavin, Pam and Mick in Essex.
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who played young vito corleone in godfather ii | Vito Corleone - wikipedia
Vito Andolini Corleone (December 7, 1891 -- July 29, 1955) is a fictional character in Mario Puzo 's novel The Godfather and in the first two of Francis Ford Coppola 's three Godfather films, in which, in later life, he is portrayed by Marlon Brando in The Godfather and then, as a young man, by Robert De Niro in The Godfather Part II. He is an orphaned Sicilian immigrant who builds an American Mafia empire. Upon his death, Michael, his youngest son, succeeds him as the don of the Corleone crime family.
He has two other sons, Santino ("Sonny '') and Frederico ("Fredo ''), and one daughter Constanzia ("Connie ''). Vito informally adopts Sonny 's friend, Tom Hagen, who becomes his lawyer and consigliere.
Vito oversees a business founded on gambling, bootlegging, and union corruption, but he is known as a kind, generous man who lives by a strict moral code of loyalty to friends and, above all, family. He is also known as a traditionalist who demands respect commensurate with his status; even his closest friends refer to him as "Godfather '' or "Don Corleone '' rather than "Vito ''.
Vito Andolini 's story starts in Corleone, Sicily. He was born on April 27, 1891. In 1901, the local mafia chieftain, Don Ciccio, murders Vito 's father Antonio when he refuses to pay him tribute. Paolo, Vito 's older brother, swears revenge, but Ciccio 's men kill him too. Ciccio then sends his men to fetch nine - year - old Vito. However, Vito 's mother insists on going as well and begs Ciccio to spare Vito. Ciccio refuses, reasoning the boy will seek revenge as a grown man. Upon Ciccio 's refusal, Vito 's mother holds a knife to Ciccio 's throat, allowing her son to escape while Ciccio 's men kill her. Family friends smuggle Vito out of Sicily, putting him on a ship with immigrants traveling to America. Ellis Island immigration officials rename him Vito Corleone, using his village for his surname. He later uses Andolini as his middle name in acknowledgement of his family heritage.
Vito is taken in by the Abbandando family, who are distant relations of his, in Little Italy on New York 's Lower East Side. Vito grows very close to the Abbadandos, particularly their son, Genco, who is like a brother to him. Vito earns an honest living at the Abbandandos ' grocery store, but the elder Abbandando is forced to fire him when Don Fanucci, a blackhander and the local neighborhood padrone, demands that the grocery hire his nephew.
In 1920, Vito is befriended by Peter Clemenza and Salvatore Tessio, who teach him how to survive by fencing stolen dresses and performing favors in return for loyalty. Fanucci learns of Vito 's operation and demands a cut of his illegal profits or he will report Vito and his partners to the police. Vito then devises a plan to kill Fanucci. During the festival of Saint Rocco, Vito trails Fanucci from Little Italy 's rooftops, jumping from one building to the next, as Fanucci walks home. Vito enters Fanucci 's building and fatally shoots him as Fanucci is unlocking his apartment door. Vito then takes over the neighborhood and treats it with far greater respect than Fanucci did.
Vito and Genco start an olive oil importing business, Genco Pura, or Genco Olive Oil. It eventually becomes the nation 's largest olive oil importing company, and the main legal front for Vito 's growing organized crime syndicate. Between Genco Pura and his illegal operations, Vito becomes a wealthy man. In 1923, he returns to Sicily for the first time since fleeing as a child. He and his partner Don Tommasino systematically eliminate Don Ciccio 's men who were involved in murdering Vito 's family and arrange a meeting with Ciccio himself. Vito carves open the elderly Don 's stomach, thus avenging his family. Tommasino takes over the town and is the family 's staunchest ally in the old country for over half a century.
By the early 1930s, Vito has organized his criminal operations as the Corleone crime family, one of the most powerful in the nation. Genco Abbandando is his consigliere, and Clemenza and Tessio are caporegimes. At the same time Vito has his personal family; his wife, Carmela, four sons (one adopted) and a daughter. As a boy, Vito 's oldest son, Sonny, brings his homeless friend, Tom Hagen, to stay with the Corleones and Vito unofficially adopts him. As an adult, Sonny becomes a capo, Vito 's heir apparent and de facto underboss. Fredo, Vito 's second - born son, is deemed too dim witted to handle important family business and takes on only minor responsibilities. Vito has a difficult relationship with his youngest son, Michael, who wants nothing to do with the family business and becomes a war hero while fighting in World War II. Vito 's only daughter, Connie, is prohibited from participating in the family business because of her gender.
Around 1939, Vito moves his home and base of operations to Long Beach, New York on Long Island where Genco serves as Vito 's most trusted adviser until he is stricken with cancer and can no longer fulfill his duties. Tom, who by now has become a practicing attorney, takes Genco 's place.
Vito prides himself on being careful and reasonable, but does not completely forsake violence. In 1945, when his godson, singer Johnny Fontane, wants to be released from his contract with a bandleader, Vito offers to buy him out, but the bandleader refuses. Vito then makes the bandleader an "offer he ca n't refuse '': he threatens to kill him unless he releases Fontane for a much smaller sum. Later, when movie mogul Jack Woltz refuses to cast Fontane in a film role that could rejuvenate his waning career, Vito 's men kill Woltz 's champion racehorse and place the severed head in Woltz 's bed as he sleeps.
Heroin trafficker Virgil Sollozzo asks Vito to invest in his operation. Sollozzo is backed by the rival Tattaglia family, and wants Vito 's political influence and legal protection. Vito declines, believing the politicians and judges on his payroll would turn against him if he engaged in drug trafficking. During the meeting, Sonny expresses interest in the deal. After the meeting, Vito reprimands his son for letting an outsider know what he was thinking. Around Christmas, as Vito crosses a street to buy oranges from a vendor, Sollozzo 's hitmen emerge with guns drawn. Vito bounds for his Cadillac, but is shot five times. Fredo fumbles with his gun and is unable to return fire as the assassins escape.
Vito survives, and Sollozzo makes a second assassination attempt at the hospital. Mark McCluskey -- a corrupt police captain on Sollozzo 's payroll -- has removed Vito 's bodyguards, leaving him unprotected. However, Michael arrives moments before the imminent attack. Realizing his father is in danger, Michael and a nurse move Vito to another room. Michael affirms his loyalty at Vito 's bedside.
While Vito recuperates, Sonny serves as acting head of the family. Michael, knowing his father will never be safe while Sollozzo lives, convinces Sonny that he can murder Sollozzo and McCluskey. Michael kills both men and is smuggled to Sicily under Don Tommasino 's protection. The deaths of Sollozzo and McCluskey ignite a war between the Corleone and the Tattaglia families, with the other New York families backing the latter. After Sonny is killed by Barzini 's men, Vito resumes control and brokers a peace accord among the families, during which he realizes that Barzini masterminded the attempt on his life and Sonny 's murder.
Michael returns home to become Vito 's heir apparent. Michael marries his longtime girlfriend Kay Adams, and Vito semi-retires, making Michael the operating head of the family -- something Vito had never wanted for his favorite son. Vito becomes his informal consigliere, displacing Hagen. Michael persuades Vito that it is time to remove the family from the Mafia. At the same time, Michael and Vito secretly continue Sonny 's plan to eliminate the other New York dons, while allowing the Barzinis and Tattaglias to whittle away the Corleone interests to lull them into inaction.
Vito warns Michael that Barzini will set Michael up to be killed under the guise of a meeting; Barzini will use one of the Corleone Family 's most trusted members as an intermediary. Shortly afterwards, on July 29, 1955, Vito dies of a heart attack in his garden while playing with his grandson, Michael 's son Anthony. In the novel, his last words are, "Life is so beautiful. ''
At Vito 's funeral, Tessio inadvertently reveals that he is the traitor when he tells Michael that Barzini wants a meeting and that he can set it up on his territory in Brooklyn, where Michael would be safe. Days later, Michael carries out Sonny and Vito 's plan to eliminate the other New York dons. Tessio and Connie 's abusive husband, Carlo Rizzi, are also murdered for conspiring with Barzini. In one stroke, the Corleone family regains its status as the most powerful criminal organization in the country.
Vito appears in both The Godfather Returns, Mark Winegardner 's 2004 sequel to Puzo 's novel and The Family Corleone, a 2012 novel by Ed Falco. His rise to power in the 1920s and 1930s and his early relationships with his wife and children are explored.
In The Godfather, Don Vito Corleone was portrayed by Marlon Brando. He was portrayed as a younger man in The Godfather Part II by Robert De Niro. Both performances won Academy Awards -- Best Actor for Brando, Best Supporting Actor for De Niro. Vito Corleone is the only motion picture character played by two different actors to be awarded an Oscar for both portrayals. Brando declined his Oscar, having Sacheen Littlefeather state his reasons during the awards show.
Premiere Magazine listed Vito Corleone as the greatest film character in history. He was also selected as the 53rd greatest film character by Empire.
The character has also had a major influence on entertainment, most notably: the movie The Freshman, where Marlon Brando 's character is a parody of Corleone; the Only Fools and Horses episode "Miami Twice '', where the primary antagonist is Don Vincenzo "Vinny the Chain '' Ochetti, another parody of Corleone. In the 1993 Mel Brooks ' parody of Robin Hood Robin Hood: Men in Tights the Sheriff of ' Rottingham ' meets with Don Giovanni (played by Dom DeLuise) who is a parody Marlon Brando 's performance of Vito Corleone, to arrange the assassination of Robin. The Disney animated film Zootopia, where the character of Mr. Big, an anthropomorphic arctic shrew, is a crime boss who shares mannerisms and a similar appearance with Corleone; and the comic book mini-series, Batman: Year One and Batman: The Long Halloween, where the character Carmine Falcone is loosely based on Vito Corleone. Goodfeathers, a segment of the cartoon show Animaniacs, features a character called "The Godpigeon '', a parody of Vito Corleone.
Vito Corleone is based on a composite of mid-20th century New York Mafia figures Carlo Gambino, Frank Costello, Vito Genovese, and Joe Profaci. Like Gambino, Vito Corleone is nicknamed "The Godfather '' and is greatly respected as the leading Mafia boss of his time. Like Costello, Vito Corleone has a raspy voice, political connections, and disapproves of the drug trade. Brando apparently used tapes of Costello from the Kefauver hearings as the basis for the character 's accent. Like Profaci, Vito Corleone owns an olive oil importing business to conceal his criminal activities from the public and law enforcement.
Seized control of NYC crime family after murder of Don Fanucci
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which gene is responsible for dosage compensation in placental mammals | Dosage compensation - wikipedia
Dosage compensation is the process by which organisms equalize the expression of genes between members of different biological sexes. Across species, different sexes are often characterized by different types and numbers of sex chromosomes. In order to account for varying numbers of sex chromosomes, different organisms have acquired unique methods to equalize gene expression amongst the sexes. Because sex chromosomes contain different numbers of genes, different species of organisms have developed different mechanisms to cope with this inequality. Replicating the actual gene is impossible; thus organisms instead equalize the expression from each gene. For example, in humans, females (XX) silence the transcription of one X chromosome of each pair, and transcribe all information from the other, expressed X chromosome. Thus, human females have the same number of expressed X-linked genes as do human males (XY), both sexes having essentially one X chromosome per cell, from which to transcribe and express genes.
There are three main mechanisms of achieving dosage compensation which are widely documented in the literature and which are common to most species. These include random inactivation of one female X chromosome (as observed in Mus musculus), a two-fold increase in the transcription of a single male X chromosome (as observed in Drosophila melanogaster), and decreased transcription by half in both of the X chromosomes of a hermaphroditic organism (as observed in Caenorhabditis elegans). These mechanisms have been widely studied and manipulated in model organisms commonly used in the laboratory research setting. A summary of these forms of dosage compensation is illustrated below. However, there are also other less common forms of dosage compensation, which are not as widely researched and are sometimes specific to only one species (as observed in certain bird and monotreme species).
One logical way to equalize gene expression amongst males and females that follow a XX / XY sex differentiation scheme would be to decrease or altogether eliminate the expression of one of the X chromosomes in an XX, or female, homogametic individual, such that both males and females then express only one X chromosome. This is the case in many mammalian organisms, including humans and mice.
The evidence for this mechanism of dosage compensation was discovered prior to scientists ' understanding of what its implications were. In 1949, Murray Barr and Ewert Bertram published data describing the presence of "nucleolar satellites, which they observed were present in the mature somatic tissue of different female species. Further characterization of these satellites revealed that they were actually packages of condensed heterochromatin, but a decade would pass before scientists grasped the significance of this specialized DNA.
Then, in 1959 Susumu Ohno proved that these satellite - like structures found exclusively in female cells were actually derived from female X chromosomes. He called these structures Barr bodies after one of the investigators who originally documented their existence. Ohno 's studies of Barr bodies in female mammals with multiple X chromosomes revealed that such females used Barr bodies to inactivate all but one of their X chromosomes. Thus, Ohno described the "n - 1 '' rule to predict the number of Barr bodies in a female with n number of X chromosomes in her karyotype.
Simultaneously, Mary F. Lyon began investigating manipulations of X-linked traits that had phenotypically visible consequences, particularly in mice, whose fur color is a trait intimately linked to the X chromosome. Building on work done by Ohno and his colleagues, Lyon eventually proved that either the maternal or paternal X chromosome is randomly inactivated in every cell of the female body in the species she was studying, which explained the heterogeneous fur patterns she observed in her mosaic mice. This process is known as X-inactivation, and is sometimes referred to as "lyonization ''. This discovery can be easily extrapolated to explain the mixed color patterns observed in the coats of tortoiseshell cats. The fur patterns characteristic of tortoiseshell cats are found almost exclusively in females, because only they randomly inactivate one X chromosome in every somatic hair cell. Thus, presuming that hair color determining genes are X-linked, it makes sense that whether the maternal or paternal X chromosome is inactivated in a particular hair cell can result in differential fur color expression.
Compounding on Lyon 's discoveries, in 1962 Ernest Beutler used female fibroblast cell lineages grown in culture to demonstrate the heritability of lyonization or random X-inactivation. By analyzing the differential expression of two existing, viable alleles for the X-linked enzyme glucose - 6 - phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) gene, Beutler observed that the inactivation of the gene was heritable across passaged generations of the cells.
This pattern of dosage compensation, caused by random X-inactivation, is regulated across development in female mammals, following concerted patterns throughout development; for example, at the beginning of most female mammal development, both X chromosomes are initially expressed, but gradually undergo epigenetic processes to eventually achieve random inactivation of one X. In germ cells, inactivated X chromosomes are then once again activated to ensure their expression in gametes produced by female mammals.
Thus, dosage compensation in mammals is largely achieved through the silencing of one of two female X chromosomes via X-inactivation. This process involves histone tail modifications, DNA methylation patterns, and reorganization of large - scale chromatin structure encoded by the X-ist gene. In spite of these extensive modifications, not all genes along the X chromosome are subject to X-inactivation; active expression at some loci is required for homologous recombination with the pseudo-autosomal region (PAR) of the Y chromosome during meiosis. Additionally, 10 - 25 % of human X chromosome genes, and 3 - 7 % of mouse X chromosome genes outside of the PARs show weak expression from the inactive X chromosome.
Another mechanism common for achieving equal X-related genetic expression between males and females involves two-fold increased transcription of a single male X chromosome. Thus, heterogametic male organisms with one X chromosome may match the level of expression achieved in homogametic females with two active X chromosomes. This mechanism is observed in Drosophila.
The concept of dosage compensation actually originated from an understanding of organisms in which males upregulated X-linked genes two-fold, and was much later extended to account for the observation of the once mysterious Barr bodies. As early as 1932, H.J. Muller carried out a set of experiments which allowed him to track the expression of eye color in flies, which is an X-linked gene. Muller introduced a mutant gene that caused loss of pigmentation in fly eyes, and subsequently noted that males with only one copy of the mutant gene had similar pigmentation to females with two copies of the mutant gene. This led Muller to coin the phrase "dosage compensation '' to describe the observed phenomenon of gene expression equalization.
Despite these advances, it was not until Ardhendu Mukherjee and W. Beermann performed more advanced autoradiography experiments in 1965 that scientists could confirm that transcription of genes in the single male X chromosome was double that observed in the two female X chromosomes. Mukherjee and Beermann confirmed this by designing a cellular autoradiography experiment that allowed them to visualize incorporation of (3H) uridine into ribonucleic acid of the X chromosomes. Their studies showed equal levels of (3H) uridine incorporation in the single male X chromosome and the two female X chromosomes. Thus, the investigators concluded that the two-fold increase in the rate of RNA synthesis in the X chromosome of the male relative to those of the female could account for Muller 's hypothesized dosage compensation.
In the case of two-fold increased transcription of a single male X chromosome, there is no use for a Barr body, and the male organism must use different genetic machinery to increase the transcriptional output of their single X chromosome. It is common in such organisms for the Y chromosome to be necessary for male fertility, but not for it to play an explicit role in sex determination. In Drosophila, for example, the sex lethal (SXL) gene acts as a key regulator of sexual differentiation and maturation in somatic tissue; in XX animals, SXL is activated to repress increased transcription, while in XY animals SXL is inactive and allows male development to proceed via increased transcription of the single X. Several binding sites exist on the Drosophila X chromosome for the dosage compensation complex (DCC), a ribonucleoprotein complex; these binding sites have varying levels of affinity, presumably for varying expression of specific genes. The Male Specific Lethal complex, composed of protein and RNA binds and selectively modifies hundreds of X-linked genes, increasing their transcription to levels comparable to female D. melanogaster.
In organisms that use this method of dosage compensation, the presence of one or more X chromosomes must be detected early on in development, as failure to initiate the appropriate dosage compensation mechanisms is lethal. Male specific lethal proteins (MSLs) are a family of four proteins that bind to the X chromosome exclusively in males. The name "MSL '' is used because mutations in these genes cause inability to effectively upregulate X-linked genes appropriately, and are thus lethal to males only and not their female counterparts. SXL regulates pre-messenger RNA in males to differentially splice MSLs and result in the appropriate increase in X chromosome transcription observed in male Drosophila. The immediate target of SXL is male specific lethal - 2 (MSL - 2). Current dogma suggests that the binding of MSL - 2 at multiple sites along the SXL gene in females prevents proper MSL - 2 translation, and thus, as previously stated, represses the possibility for X-linked genetic upregulation in females. However, all other transcription factors in the MSL family -- maleless, MSL - 1, and MSL - 3 -- are able to act when SXL is not expressed, as in the case in males. These factors act to increase male X chromosome transcriptional activity. Histone acetylation and the consequent upregulation of X-linked genes in males is dictated by the MSL complex. Specifically, special roX non-coding RNAs on the MSL complexes facilitate binding to the single male X chromosome, and dictate acetylation of specific loci along the X chromosome as well as the formation of euchromatin. Though these RNAs bind at specific sites along the male X chromosome, their effects spread along the length of the chromosome and have the ability to influence large - scale chromatin modifications. The implications of this spreading epigenetic regulation along the male X chromosome is thought to have implications for understanding the transfer of epigenetic activity along long genomic stretches.
Other species that do not follow the previously discussed conventions of XX females and XY males must find alternative ways to equalize X-linked gene expression among differing sexes. For example, in Caenorhabditis elegans (or C. elegans), sex is determined by the ratio of X chromosomes relative to autosomes; worms with two X chromosomes (XX worms) develop as hermaphrodites, whereas those with only one X chromosome (XO worms) develop as males. This system of sex determination is unique, because there is no male specific chromosome, as is the case in XX / XY sex determination systems. However, as is the case with the previously discussed mechanisms of dosage compensation, failure to express X-linked genes appropriately can still be lethal.
In this XX / XO sex determination system, gene expression on the X chromosome is equalized by downregulating expression of genes on both X chromosomes of hermaphroditic XX organisms by half. In these XX organisms, the dosage compensation complex (DCC) is assembled on both X chromosomes to allow for this tightly regulated change in transcription levels. The DCC is often compared to the condensin complex, which is conserved across the mitotic and meiotic processes of many species. This complex is crucial to the condensation and segregation of chromosomes during both meiosis and mitosis. Because data substantiates the theory that dosage compensation in other species is caused by chromatin - wide modifications, many theorize that the DCC in particular functions similar to the condensin complex in its ability to condense or remodel the chromatin of the X chromosome.
The role of the DCC in this form of dosage compensation was postulated by Barbara J. Meyer in the 1980s, and its individual components and their cooperative function were later parsed out by her lab. Notably, in 1999, data from Meyer 's lab showed that SDC - 2 is a particularly important transcriptional factor for targeting the DCC to the X chromosome and for assembling DCC components onto the X chromosomes in XX embryos. More recently, Meyer 's lab has shown that proteins known as X-linked signal elements (XSEs) operate in concert with SDC - 2 to differentially repress and activate other genes in the dosage compensation pathway. By selectively mutating a panel of genes hypothesized to contribute to dosage compensation in worms, Meyer 's group demonstrated which XSEs specifically play a role in determining normal dosage compensation. They found that during embryonic development, several X-linked genes -- including sex - 1, sex - 2, fox - 1, and ceh - 39 -- act in a combinatorial fashion to selectively repress transcriptional activity of the xol - 1 gene in hermaphrodites. Xol - 1 expression is tightly regulated during early development, and is considered the most upstream gene in sex determination of C. elegans. In fact, xol - 1 is often referred to in the literature as the master sex regulatory gene of C. elegans. XX C. elegans embryos have much lower xol - 1 expression than their XO counterparts, resulting from overall increases in the amount of SEX - 1, SEX - 2, CEH - 39, and FOX - 1 transcription produced in the female embryos. This consequent decrease in xol - 1 expression then allows higher SDC - 2 expression levels, which aids in the formation and function of the DCC complex in the XX hermaphroditic worms, and in turn results in equalized expression of X-linked genes in the hermaphrodite.
Though all of the above mentioned XSEs act to reduce xol - 1 expression, experimentally reducing expression levels of these individual XSEs has been shown to have a minimal effect on sex determination and successful dosage compensation. This could be in part because these genes encode different proteins that act cooperatively rather than in an isolated fashion; for example, SEX - 1 is a nuclear hormone receptor, while FOX - 1 is an RNA - binding protein with properties capable of inducing post-transcriptional modifications in the xol - 1 target. However, reducing the level of more than one XSE in different combinational permutations seems to have an additive effect on ensuring proper sex determination and resultant dosage compensation mechanics. This supports the hypothesis that these XSEs act together to achieve the desired sex determination and dosage compensation fate. Thus, in this model organism, the achieved level of X-chromosome expression is directly correlated to the activation of multiple XSEs that ultimately function to repress xol - 1 expression in a developing worm embryo. A summary of this C. elegans mechanism of dosage compensation is illustrated below.
The ZZ / ZW sex system is used by most birds, as well as some reptiles and insects. In this system the Z is the larger chromosome so the males (ZZ) must silence some genetic material to compensate for the female 's (ZW) smaller W chromosome. Instead of silencing the entire chromosome as humans do, male chickens (the model ZZ organism) seem to engage in selective Z silencing, in which they silence only certain genes on the extra Z chromosome. Thus, male chickens express an average of 1.4 - 1.6 of the Z chromosome DNA expressed by female chickens. The Z chromosome expression of male zebra finches and chickens is higher than the autosomal expression rates, whereas X chromosome expression in female humans is equal to autosomal expression rates, illustrating clearly that both male chickens and male zebra finches practice incomplete silencing. Few other ZZ / ZW Systems have been analyzed as thoroughly as the chicken; however a recent study on silkworms revealed similar levels of unequal compensation across male Z chromosomes. Z - specific genes were over-expressed in males when compared to females, and a few genes had equal expression in both male and female Z chromosomes.
In chickens, most of the dosage compensated genes exist on the Zp, or short, arm of the chromosome while the non-compensated genes are on the Zq, or long, arm of the chromosome. The compensated (silenced) genes on Zp resemble a region on the primitive platypus sex chromosome, suggesting an ancestor to the XX / XY system.
The sex chromosomes of birds evolved separately from those of mammals and share very little sequence homology with the XY chromosomes. As such, scientists refer to bird sex chromosomes as a ZW sex - determining system, with males possessing two Z chromosomes, and females possessing one Z chromosome and one W. Thus, dosage compensation in birds could be hypothesized to follow a pattern similar to the random X-inactivation observed in most mammals. Alternatively, birds might show decreased transcription of the two Z chromosomes present in the male heterogametic sex, similar to the system observed in the two male X chromosomes of Drosophila. However, bird mechanisms of dosage compensation differ significantly from these precedents. Instead, male birds appear to selectively silence only a few genes along one of their Z chromosomes, rather than randomly silencing one entire Z chromosome. This type of selective silencing has led some people to label birds as "less effective '' at dosage compensation than mammals. However, more recent studies have shown that those genes on the Z chromosome which are not inactivated in birds may play an important role in recruiting dosage compensation machinery to the Z chromosome in ZZ organisms. In particular, one of these genes, ScII has been demonstrated to be an ortholog of xol - 1, the master sex regulator gene in C. elegans. Thus, the function of the selective silencing may be to spare dosage compensation of genes crucial for sex determination of homologous pairing.
While the epigenetic mechanisms behind dosage compensation in birds are poorly understood, especially in comparison to the well - studied mechanisms of dosage compensation in humans and Drosophila, several recent studies have revealed promising sequences. One example is MHM (male hypermethylated) RNA, an Xist - like long noncoding RNA that is expressed only in female chickens (ZW). It is associated with female - specific hyper - acetylation of lysine 16 on histone 4 near the MHM locus on the Z chromosome. This MHM locus is heavily studied as a site of dosage compensation because male Z chromosomes are hypermethylated and thus underexpress genes in this area in comparison to female Z chromosomes which are hyperacetylated and overexpress these genes. There has been debate on whether the MHM locus constitutes dosage compensation, however, since scientists claim that even if the MHM locus has been found to have significantly greater expression in females than in males, it could not even be considered to be a dosage compensation mechanism since it does not balance gene dose between the Z chromosome and autosomes in the heterogametic sex.
Similar to mammals, chickens seem to use CpG islands (segments of Cytosine - phosphate - Guanine that are more readily methylated and silenced than other DNA segments) to regulate gene expression. One study found that CpG islands were found primarily in compensated areas of the Z chromosome -- areas that are differentially expressed in male and female chickens. Thus it is likely that these CpG islands are locations where genes on the male Z chromosome are methylated and silenced, but which stay functional on the female Z chromosome.
Monotremes are a class of basal mammals that also lay eggs. They are an order of mammals that includes platypuses and four species of echidna, all of which are egg - laying mammals. While monotremes use an XX / XY system, unlike other mammals, monotremes have more than two sex chromosomes. The male short - beaked echidna, for example, has nine sex chromosomes -- 5 Xs and 4 Ys, and the male platypus has 5 Xs and 5 Ys.
Platypuses are a monotreme species whose mechanism of sex determination has been extensively studied. There is some contention in academia about the evolutionary origin and the proper taxonomy of platypuses. A recent study revealed that four platypus X chromosomes, as well as a Y chromosome, are homologous to some regions on the avian Z chromosome. Specifically, platypus X1 shares homology with the chicken Z chromosome, and both share homology with the human chromosome 9. This homology is important when considering the mechanism of dosage compensation in monotremes. In 50 % of female platypus cells, only one of the alleles on these X chromosomes is expressed while in the remaining 50 % multiple alleles are expressed. This, combined with the portions that are homologous to chicken Z and human 9 chromosomes imply that this level of incomplete silencing may be the ancestral form of dosage compensation.
Regardless of their ambiguous evolutionary history, platypuses have been empirically determined to follow an XY sex - determination system, with females possessing five pairs of X chromosomes as the homogametic sex, and males possessing five X and five Y chromosomes as the heterogametic sex. Because the entire genome of the platypus has yet to be completely sequenced (including one of the X chromosomes), there is still continued investigation as to the definitive mechanism of dosage compensation that Platypuses follow. Research from the laboratory of Jennifer Graves used qPCR and SNP analysis of BACs containing various genes from X chromosomes in order to find whether multiple alleles for particular X-linked genes were being expressed at once, or were otherwise being dosage compensated. Her group found that in female platypuses, some X-linked genes only expressed an allele from one X chromosomes, while other genes expressed multiple alleles. This appears to be a system similar to the selective silencing method of dosage compensation observed in birds. However, about half of all X-linked genes also seemed to stochastically express only one active copy of said gene, alluding to the system of random X-inactivation observed in humans. These findings suggest that platypuses may employ a hybrid form of dosage compensation that combines feature from mammals as well as birds. Understanding the evolution of such a system may have implications for solidifying the true ancestral lineage of monotremes.
In addition to humans and flies, some plants also make use of the XX / XY dosage compensation systems. Silene latifolia plants are also either male (XY) or female (XX), with the Y chromosome being smaller, with fewer genes expressed, than the X chromosome. Two separate studies have shown male S. latifolia expression of X-linked genes to be about 70 % of the expression in females. If the S. latifolia did not practice dosage compensation, the expected level of X-linked gene expression in males would be 50 % that of females, thus the plant practices some degree of dosage compensation but, because male expression is not 100 % that of females, it has been suggested that S. latiforia and its dosage compensation system is still evolving. Additionally, in plant species that lack dimorphic sex chromosomes, dosage compensation can occur when aberrant meiotic events or mutations result in either aneuploidy or polyploidy. Genes on the affected chromosome may be upregulated or down - regulated to compensate for the change in the normal number of chromosomes present.
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who was one of the few female pharaohs that ruled egypt | Hatshepsut - wikipedia
Hatshepsut (/ hætˈʃɛpsʊt /; also Hatchepsut; Egyptian: ḥ3. t - šps. wt "Foremost of Noble Ladies ''; 1507 -- 1458 BC) was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the second historically confirmed female pharaoh, the first being Sobekneferu. (Various other women may have also ruled as pharaohs regnant or at least regents before Hatshepsut, as early as Neithhotep around 1,600 years prior.) Hatshepsut came to the throne of Egypt in 1478 BC. Officially, she ruled jointly with Thutmose III, who had ascended to the throne the previous year as a child of about two years old. Hatshepsut was the chief wife of Thutmose II, Thutmose III 's father. She is generally regarded by Egyptologists as one of the most successful pharaohs, reigning longer than any other woman of an indigenous Egyptian dynasty. According to Egyptologist James Henry Breasted she is also known as "the first great woman in history of whom we are informed. ''
Hatshepsut was the daughter and only child of Thutmose I and his primary wife Ahmose. Her husband Thutmose II was the son of Thutmose I and a secondary wife named Mutnofret, who carried the title King 's daughter and was probably a child of Ahmose I. Hatshepsut and Thutmose II had a daughter named Neferure. After having their daughter, Hatshepsut could not birth anymore children. Unable to have a son, Thutmose II fathered Thutmose III with Iset, a secondary wife.
Although contemporary records of her reign are documented in diverse ancient sources, Hatshepsut was thought by early modern scholars as only having served as a co-regent from approximately 1479 to 1458 BC, during years seven to twenty - one of the reign previously identified as that of Thutmose III. Today Egyptologists generally agree that Hatshepsut assumed the position of pharaoh.
Hatshepsut was described as having a reign of about 22 years by ancient authors. Josephus and Julius Africanus both quote Manetho 's king list, mentioning a woman called Amessis or Amensis who has been identified (from the context) as Hatshepsut. In Josephus ' work, her reign is described as lasting 21 years and nine months, while Africanus stated it was twenty - two years. At this point in the histories, records of the reign of Hatshepsut end, since the first major foreign campaign of Thutmose III was dated to his 22nd year, which also would have been Hatshepsut 's 22nd year as pharaoh.
Dating the beginning of her reign is more difficult, however. Her father 's reign began in either 1526 or 1506 BC according to the high and low estimates of her reign, respectively. The length of the reigns of Tuthmosis I and Tuthmosis II, however, can not be determined with absolute certainty. With short reigns, Hatshepsut would have ascended the throne 14 years after the coronation of Tuthmosis I, her father. Longer reigns would put her ascension 25 years after Tuthmosis I 's coronation. Thus, Hatshepsut could have assumed power as early as 1512 BC, or, as late as 1479 BC.
The earliest attestation of Hatshepsut as pharaoh occurs in the tomb of Ramose and Hatnofer, where a collection of grave goods contained a single pottery jar or amphora from the tomb 's chamber -- which was stamped with the date Year 7. Another jar from the same tomb -- which was discovered in situ by a 1935 -- 36 Metropolitan Museum of Art expedition on a hillside near Thebes -- was stamped with the seal of the "God 's Wife Hatshepsut '' while two jars bore the seal of The Good Goddess Maatkare. The dating of the amphorae, "sealed into the (tomb 's) burial chamber by the debris from Senenmut 's own tomb, '' is undisputed, which means that Hatshepsut was acknowledged as king, and not queen, of Egypt by Year 7 of her reign.
Hatshepsut established the trade networks that had been disrupted during the Hyksos occupation of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, thereby building the wealth of the eighteenth dynasty. She oversaw the preparations and funding for a mission to the Land of Punt. This trading expedition to Punt was roughly during Hatshepsut 's ninth year of reign. It set out in her name with five ships, each measuring 70 feet (21 m) long bearing several sails and accommodating 210 men that included sailors and 30 rowers. Many trade goods were bought in Punt, notably frankincense and myrrh.
Hatshepsut 's delegation returned from Punt bearing 31 live myrrh trees, the roots of which were carefully kept in baskets for the duration of the voyage. This was the first recorded attempt to transplant foreign trees. It is reported that Hatshepsut had these trees planted in the courts of her mortuary temple complex. Egyptians also returned with a number of other gifts from Punt, among which was frankincense. Hatshepsut would grind the charred frankincense into kohl eyeliner. This is the first recorded use of the resin.
Hatshepsut had the expedition commemorated in relief at Deir el - Bahri, which is also famous for its realistic depiction of the Queen of the Land of Punt, Queen Ati. The Puntite Queen is portrayed as relatively tall and her physique was generously proportioned, with large breasts and rolls of fat on her body. Due to the fat deposits on her buttocks, it has sometimes been argued that she may have had steatopygia. However, according to the pathologist Marc Armand Ruffer, the main characteristic of a steatopygous woman is a disproportion in size between the buttocks and thighs, which was not the case with Ati. She instead appears to have been generally obese, a condition that was exaggerated by excessive lordosis or curvature of the lower spine. Hatshepsut also sent raiding expeditions to Byblos and Sinai shortly after the Punt expedition. Very little is known about these expeditions. Although many Egyptologists have claimed that her foreign policy was mainly peaceful, it is possible that she led military campaigns against Nubia and Canaan.
Hatshepsut was one of the most prolific builders in ancient Egypt, commissioning hundreds of construction projects throughout both Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Arguably, her buildings were grander and more numerous than those of any of her Middle Kingdom predecessors '. Later pharaohs attempted to claim some of her projects as theirs. She employed the great architect Ineni, who also had worked for her father, her husband, and for the royal steward Senemut. During her reign, so much statuary was produced that almost every major museum with Ancient Egyptian artefacts in the world has Hatshepsut statuary among their collections; for instance, the Hatshepsut Room in New York City 's Metropolitan Museum of Art is dedicated solely to some of these pieces.
Following the tradition of most pharaohs, Hatshepsut had monuments constructed at the Temple of Karnak. She also restored the original Precinct of Mut, the ancient great goddess of Egypt, at Karnak that had been ravaged by the foreign rulers during the Hyksos occupation. It later was ravaged by other pharaohs, who took one part after another to use in their pet projects and awaits restoration. She had twin obelisks, at the time the tallest in the world, erected at the entrance to the temple. One still stands, as the tallest surviving ancient obelisk on Earth; the other has broken in two and toppled.
Another project, Karnak 's Red Chapel, or Chapelle Rouge, was intended as a barque shrine and originally may have stood between her two obelisks. It was lined with carved stones that depicted significant events in Hatshepsut 's life.
She later ordered the construction of two more obelisks to celebrate her 16th year as pharaoh; one of the obelisks broke during construction and a third was therefore constructed to replace it. The broken obelisk was left at its quarrying site in Aswan, where it still remains. Known as The Unfinished Obelisk, it demonstrates how obelisks were quarried.
The Temple of Pakhet was built by Hatshepsut at Beni Hasan in the Minya Governorate south of Al Minya. The name, Pakhet, was a synthesis that occurred by combining Bast and Sekhmet, who were similar lioness war goddesses, in an area that bordered the north and south division of their cults. The cavernous underground temple, cut into the rock cliffs on the eastern side of the Nile, was admired and called the Speos Artemidos by the Greeks during their occupation of Egypt, known as the Ptolemaic Dynasty. They saw the goddess as akin to their hunter goddess Artemis. The temple is thought to have been built alongside much more ancient ones that have not survived. This temple has an architrave with a long dedicatory text bearing Hatshepsut 's famous denunciation of the Hyksos that has been translated by James P. Allen. They had occupied Egypt and cast it into a cultural decline that persisted until a revival brought about by her policies and innovations. This temple was altered later and some of its inside decorations were usurped by Seti I, in the nineteenth dynasty, attempting to have his name replace that of Hatshepsut.
Following the tradition of many pharaohs, the masterpiece of Hatshepsut 's building projects was a mortuary temple. She built hers in a complex at Deir el - Bahri. It was designed and implemented by Senenmut at a site on the West Bank of the Nile River near the entrance to what now is called the Valley of the Kings because of all the pharaohs who later chose to associate their complexes with the grandeur of hers. Her buildings were the first grand ones planned for that location.
The focal point was the Djeser - Djeseru or "the Sublime of Sublimes '', a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony nearly one thousand years before the Parthenon was built. Djeser - Djeseru sits atop a series of terraces that once were graced with lush gardens. Djeser - Djeseru is built into a cliff face that rises sharply above it. Djeser - Djeseru and the other buildings of Hatshepsut 's Deir el - Bahri complex are considered to be significant advances in architecture. Another one of her great accomplishments is the Hatshepsut needle (also known as the granite obelisks).
Although it was uncommon for Egypt to be ruled by a woman, the situation was not unprecedented. As a regent, Hatshepsut was preceded by Merneith of the first dynasty, who was buried with the full honors of a pharaoh and may have ruled in her own right. Nimaathap of the third dynasty may have been the dowager of Khasekhemwy, but certainly acted as regent for her son, Djoser, and may have reigned as pharaoh in her own right. Nitocris may have been the last pharaoh of the sixth dynasty. Her name is found in the Histories of Herodotus and writings of Manetho, but her historicity is uncertain. Queen Sobekneferu of the twelfth dynasty is known to have assumed formal power as ruler of "Upper and Lower Egypt '' three centuries earlier than Hatshepsut. Ahhotep I, lauded as a warrior queen, may have been a regent between the reigns of two of her sons, Kamose and Ahmose I, at the end of the seventeenth dynasty and the beginning of Hatshepsut 's own eighteenth dynasty. Amenhotep I, also preceding Hatshepsut in the eighteenth dynasty, probably came to power while a young child and his mother, Ahmose - Nefertari, is thought to have been a regent for him. Other women whose possible reigns as pharaohs are under study include Akhenaten 's possible female co-regent / successor (usually identified as either Nefertiti or Meritaten) and Twosre. Among the later, non-indigenous Egyptian dynasties, the most notable example of another woman who became pharaoh was Cleopatra VII, the last pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. Perhaps in an effort to ease anxiety over the prospect of a female pharaoh, Hatshepsut claimed a divine right to rule based on the authority of the god Amun.
In comparison with other female pharaohs, Hatshepsut 's reign was much longer and more prosperous. She was successful in warfare early in her reign, but generally is considered to be a pharaoh who inaugurated a long peaceful era. She re-established international trading relationships lost during a foreign occupation and brought great wealth to Egypt. That wealth enabled Hatshepsut to initiate building projects that raised the calibre of Ancient Egyptian architecture to a standard, comparable to classical architecture, that would not be rivaled by any other culture for a thousand years. She managed to rule for about 20 years. One of the most famous things that she did was build Hatshepsut 's temple (see above).
Hyperbole is common to virtually all royal inscriptions of Egyptian history. While all ancient leaders used it to laud their achievements, Hatshepsut has been called the most accomplished pharaoh at promoting her accomplishments. This may have resulted from the extensive building executed during her time as pharaoh, in comparison with many others. It afforded her many opportunities to laud herself, but it also reflected the wealth that her policies and administration brought to Egypt, enabling her to finance such projects. Aggrandizement of their achievements was traditional when pharaohs built temples and their tombs.
Women had a relatively high status in ancient Egypt and enjoyed the legal right to own, inherit, or will property. A woman becoming pharaoh was rare, however; only Sobekneferu, Khentkaus I and possibly Nitocris preceded her. The existence of this last ruler is disputed and is probably a mis - translation of a male king. Nefernferuaten and Twosret may have been the only women to succeed her among the indigenous rulers. In Egyptian history, there was no word for a "queen regnant '' as in contemporary history, "king '' being the Ancient Egyptian title regardless of gender, and by the time of her reign, pharaoh had become the name for the ruler. Hatshepsut is not unique, however, in taking the title of king. Sobekneferu, ruling six dynasties prior to Hatshepsut, also did so when she ruled Egypt. Hatshepsut had been well trained in her duties as the daughter of the pharaoh. During her father 's reign she held the powerful office of God 's Wife. She had taken a strong role as queen to her husband and was well experienced in the administration of her kingdom by the time she became pharaoh. There is no indication of challenges to her leadership and, until her death, her co-regent remained in a secondary role, quite amicably heading her powerful army -- which would have given him the power necessary to overthrow a usurper of his rightful place, if that had been the case.
Hatshepsut assumed all of the regalia and symbols of the pharaonic office in official representations: the Khat head cloth, topped with the uraeus, the traditional false beard, and shendyt kilt. Many existing statues alternatively show her in typically feminine attire as well as those that depict her in the royal ceremonial attire. Statues portraying Sobekneferu also combine elements of traditional male and female iconography and, by tradition, may have served as inspiration for these works commissioned by Hatshepsut. After this period of transition ended, however, most formal depictions of Hatshepsut as pharaoh showed her in the royal attire, with all of the pharaonic regalia.
At her mortuary temple, in Osirian statues that regaled the transportation of the pharaoh to the world of the dead, the symbols of the pharaoh as the deity Osiris were the reason for the attire and they were much more important to be displayed traditionally, her breasts are obscured behind her crossed arms holding the regal staffs of the two kingdoms she ruled. This became a pointed concern among writers who sought reasons for the generic style of the shrouded statues and led to misinterpretations. Understanding of the religious symbolism was required to interpret the statues correctly. Interpretations by these early scholars varied and often, were baseless conjectures of their own contemporary values. The possible reasons for her breasts not being emphasized in the most formal statues were debated among some early Egyptologists, who failed to understand the ritual religious symbolism, to take into account the fact that many women and goddesses portrayed in ancient Egyptian art often lack delineation of breasts, and that the physical aspect of the gender of pharaohs was never stressed in the art. With few exceptions, subjects were idealized.
Modern scholars, however, have theorized that by assuming the typical symbols of pharaonic power, Hatshepsut was asserting her claim to be the sovereign rather than a "King 's Great Wife '' or queen consort. The gender of pharaohs was never stressed in official depictions; even the men were depicted with the highly stylized false beard associated with their position in the society.
Moreover, the Osirian statues of Hatshepsut -- as with other pharaohs -- depict the dead pharaoh as Osiris, with the body and regalia of that deity. All of the statues of Hatshepsut at her tomb follow that tradition. The promise of resurrection after death was a tenet of the cult of Osiris. Since many statues of Hatshepsut depicted in this fashion have been put on display in museums and those images have been widely published, viewers who lack an understanding of the religious significance of these depictions have been misled. Aside from the face depicting Hatshepsut, these statues closely resemble those of other kings as Osiris, following religious traditions.
Most of the official statues commissioned of Hatshepsut show her less symbolically and more naturally, as a woman in typical dresses of the nobility of her day. Notably, even after assuming the formal regalia, Hatshepsut still described herself as a beautiful woman, often as the most beautiful of women, and although she assumed almost all of her father 's titles, she declined to take the title "The Strong Bull '' (the full title being, The Strong Bull of his Mother), which tied the pharaoh to the goddesses Isis, the throne, and Hathor, (the cow who gave birth to and protected the pharaohs) -- by being her son sitting on her throne -- an unnecessary title for her, since Hatshepsut became allied with the goddesses, herself, which no male pharaoh could. Rather than the strong bull, Hatshepsut, having served as a very successful warrior during the early portion of her reign as pharaoh, associated herself with the lioness image of Sekhmet, the major war deity in the Egyptian pantheon.
Religious concepts were tied into all of these symbols and titles. By the time of Hatshepsut 's reign, the merger of some aspects of these two goddesses provided that they would both have given birth to, and were the protectors of, the pharaohs. They became interchangeable at times. Hatshepsut also traced her lineage to Mut, a primal mother goddess of the Egyptian pantheon, which gave her another ancestor who was a deity as well as her father and grandfathers, pharaohs who would have become deified upon death.
While Hatshepsut was depicted in official art wearing regalia of a pharaoh, such as the false beard that male pharaohs also wore, it is most unlikely that she ever wore such ceremonial decorations, just as it is unlikely that the male pharaohs did. Statues such as those at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, depicting her seated wearing a tight - fitting dress and the nemes crown, are thought to be a more accurate representation of how she would have presented herself at court.
As a notable exception, only one male pharaoh abandoned the rigid symbolic depiction that had become the style of the most official artwork representing the ruler, Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (later Akhenaten) of the same eighteenth dynasty, whose wife, Nefertiti, also may have ruled in her own right following the death of her husband.
One of the most famous examples of the legends about Hatshepsut is a myth about her birth. In this myth, Amun goes to Ahmose in the form of Thutmose I and awakens her with pleasant odors. At this point Amun places the ankh, a symbol of life, to Ahmose 's nose, and Hatshepsut is conceived by Ahmose. Khnum, the god who forms the bodies of human children, is then instructed to create a body and ka, or corporal presence / life force, for Hatshepsut. Heket, the goddess of life and fertility, and Khnum then lead Ahmose along to a lioness ' bed where she gives birth to Hatshepsut. Reliefs depicting each step in these events are at Karnak and in her mortuary temple.
The Oracle of Amun proclaimed that it was the will of Amun that Hatshepsut be pharaoh, further strengthening her position. She reiterated Amun 's support by having these proclamations by the god Amun carved on her monuments:
Welcome my sweet daughter, my favorite, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare, Hatshepsut. Thou art the Pharaoh, taking possession of the Two Lands.
Hatshepsut claimed that she was her father 's intended heir and that he made her the heir apparent of Egypt. Almost all scholars today view this as historical revisionism, or prolepsis, on Hatshepsut 's part since it was Thutmose II -- a son of Thutmose I by Mutnofret -- who was her father 's heir. Moreover, Thutmose I could not have foreseen that his daughter Hatshepsut would outlive his son within his own lifetime. Thutmose II soon married Hatshepsut and the latter became both his senior royal wife and the most powerful woman at court. Biographer Evelyn Wells, however, accepts Hatshepsut 's claim that she was her father 's intended successor. Once she became pharaoh herself, Hatshepsut supported her assertion that she was her father 's designated successor with inscriptions on the walls of her mortuary temple:
Then his majesty said to them: "This daughter of mine, Khnumetamun Hatshepsut -- may she live! -- I have appointed as my successor upon my throne... she shall direct the people in every sphere of the palace; it is she indeed who shall lead you. Obey her words, unite yourselves at her command. '' The royal nobles, the dignitaries, and the leaders of the people heard this proclamation of the promotion of his daughter, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Maatkare -- may she live eternally.
American humorist Will Cuppy wrote an essay on Hatshepsut which was published after his death in the book The Decline and Fall of Practically Everybody. Regarding one of her wall inscriptions, he wrote,
For a general notion of Hatshepsut 's appearance at a certain stage of her career, we are indebted to one of those wall inscriptions. It states that "to look upon her was more beautiful than anything; her splendor and her form were divine. '' Some have thought it odd that the female Pharaoh should have been so bold, fiftyish as she was. Not at all. She was merely saying how things were about thirty - five years back, before she had married Thutmose II and slugged it out with Thutmose III. "She was a maiden, beautiful and blooming '', the hieroglyphics run, and we have no reason to doubt it. Surely there is no harm in telling the world how one looked in 1515 BCE.
Hatshepsut died as she was approaching what we would consider middle age given typical contemporary lifespans, in her twenty - second regnal year. The precise date of Hatshepsut 's death -- and the time when Thutmose III became the next pharaoh of Egypt -- is considered to be Year 22, II Peret day 10 of her reign, as recorded on a single stela erected at Armant or January 16, 1458 BC. This information validates the basic reliability of Manetho 's kinglist records since Hatshepsut 's known accession date was I Shemu day 4 (i.e.: Hatshepsut died nine months into her 22nd year as king, as Manetho writes in his Epitome for a reign of 21 years and nine months). No contemporary mention of the cause of her death has survived. If the recent identification of her mummy is correct, however, the medical evidence would indicate that she suffered from diabetes and died from bone cancer which had spread throughout her body while she was in her fifties. It also would suggest that she had arthritis and bad teeth.
Hatshepsut had begun construction of a tomb when she was the Great Royal Wife of Thutmose II, but the scale of this was not suitable for a pharaoh, so when she ascended the throne, preparation for another burial started. For this, KV20, originally quarried for her father, Thutmose I, and probably the first royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings, was extended with a new burial chamber. Hatshepsut also refurbished the burial of her father and prepared for a double interment of both Thutmose I and her within KV20. It is likely, therefore, that when she died (no later than the twenty - second year of her reign), she was interred in this tomb along with her father. During the reign of Thutmose III, however, a new tomb, (KV38), together with new burial equipment was provided for Thutmose I, who then was removed from his original tomb and re-interred elsewhere. At the same time Hatshepsut 's mummy might have been moved into the tomb of her nurse, Sitre In, in KV60. It is possible that Amenhotep II, son to Thutmose III by a secondary wife, was the one motivating these actions in an attempt to assure his own uncertain right to succession. Besides what was recovered from KV20 during Howard Carter 's clearance of the tomb in 1903, other funerary furniture belonging to Hatshepsut has been found elsewhere, including a lioness "throne '' (bedstead is a better description), a senet game board with carved lioness - headed, red - jasper game pieces bearing her pharaonic title, a signet ring, and a partial shabti figurine bearing her name. In the Royal Mummy Cache at DB320, a wooden canopic box with an ivory knob was found that was inscribed with the name of Hatshepsut and contained a mummified liver or spleen as well as a molar tooth. There was a royal lady of the twenty - first dynasty of the same name, however, and for a while it was thought possible that it could have belonged to her instead.
In 1903, Howard Carter had discovered a tomb (KV60) in the Valley of the Kings that contained two female mummies, one identified as Hatshepsut 's wetnurse, and the other unidentified. In the spring of 2007, the unidentified body was finally removed from the tomb by Dr. Zahi Hawass and brought to Cairo 's Egyptian Museum for testing. This mummy was missing a tooth, and the space in the jaw perfectly matched Hatshepsut 's existing molar, found in the DB320 "canopic box ''. Her death has since been attributed to a carcinogenic skin lotion found in possession of the Pharaoh, which led to her having bone cancer. "There is a lot that speaks for this hypothesis, '' according to Helmut Wiedenfeld of the University of Bonn 's pharmaceutical institute. "If you imagine that the queen had a chronic skin disease and that she found short - term improvement from the salve, she may have exposed herself to a great risk over the years. ''
Toward the end of the reign of Thutmose III and into the reign of his son, an attempt was made to remove Hatshepsut from certain historical and pharaonic records. This elimination was carried out in the most literal way possible. Her cartouches and images were chiselled off some stone walls, leaving very obvious Hatshepsut - shaped gaps in the artwork.
At the Deir el - Bahari temple, Hatshepsut 's numerous statues were torn down and in many cases, smashed or disfigured before being buried in a pit. At Karnak, there even was an attempt to wall up her obelisks. While it is clear that much of this rewriting of Hatshepsut 's history occurred only during the close of Thutmose III 's reign, it is not clear why it happened, other than the typical pattern of self - promotion that existed among the pharaohs and their administrators, or perhaps saving money by not building new monuments for the burial of Thutmose III and instead, using the grand structures built by Hatshepsut.
Amenhotep II, the son of Thutmose III, who became a co-regent toward the end of his father 's reign, is suspected by some as being the defacer during the end of the reign of a very old pharaoh. He would have had a motive because his position in the royal lineage was not so strong as to assure his elevation to pharaoh. He is documented, further, as having usurped many of Hatshepsut 's accomplishments during his own reign. His reign is marked with attempts to break the royal lineage as well, not recording the names of his queens and eliminating the powerful titles and official roles of royal women, such as God 's Wife of Amun.
For many years, presuming that it was Thutmose III acting out of resentment once he became pharaoh, early modern Egyptologists presumed that the erasures were similar to the Roman damnatio memoriae. This appeared to make sense when thinking that Thutmose might have been an unwilling co-regent for years. This assessment of the situation probably is too simplistic, however. It is highly unlikely that the determined and focused Thutmose -- not only Egypt 's most successful general, but an acclaimed athlete, author, historian, botanist, and architect -- would have brooded for two decades of his own reign before attempting to avenge himself on his stepmother and aunt. According to renowned Egyptologist Donald Redford:
Here and there, in the dark recesses of a shrine or tomb where no plebeian eye could see, the queen 's cartouche and figure were left intact... which never vulgar eye would again behold, still conveyed for the king the warmth and awe of a divine presence.
The erasures were sporadic and haphazard, with only the more visible and accessible images of Hatshepsut being removed; had it been more complete, we would not now have so many images of Hatshepsut. Thutmose III may have died before these changes were finished and it may be that he never intended a total obliteration of her memory. In fact, we have no evidence to support the assumption that Thutmose hated or resented Hatshepsut during her lifetime. Had that been true, as head of the army, in a position given to him by Hatshepsut (who was clearly not worried about her co-regent's loyalty), he surely could have led a successful coup, but he made no attempt to challenge her authority during her reign and, her accomplishments and images remained featured on all of the public buildings she built for twenty years after her death.
Writers such as Joyce Tyldesley hypothesized that it is possible that Thutmose III, lacking any sinister motivation, may have decided toward the end of his life, to relegate Hatshepsut to her expected place as the regent -- which was the traditional role of powerful women in Egypt 's court as the example of Queen Ahhotep attests -- rather than king. Tyldesley fashions her concept as, that by eliminating the more obvious traces of Hatshepsut 's monuments as pharaoh and reducing her status to that of his co-regent, Thutmose III could claim that the royal succession ran directly from Thutmose II to Thutmose III without any interference from his aunt.
The deliberate erasures or mutilations of the numerous public celebrations of her accomplishments, but not the rarely seen ones, would be all that was necessary to obscure Hatshepsut 's accomplishments. Moreover, by the latter half of Thutmose III 's reign, the more prominent high officials who had served Hatshepsut would have died, thereby eliminating the powerful religious and bureaucratic resistance to a change in direction in a highly stratified culture. Hatshepsut 's highest official and closest supporter, Senenmut, seems either to have retired abruptly or died around Years 16 and 20 of Hatshepsut 's reign and, was never interred in either of his carefully prepared tombs. According to Tyldesley, the enigma of Senenmut 's sudden disappearance "teased Egyptologists for decades '' given the lack of solid archaeological or textual evidence '' and permitted "the vivid imagination of Senenmut - scholars to run wild '' resulting in a variety of strongly held solutions "some of which would do credit to any fictional murder / mystery plot. '' In such a scenario, newer court officials, appointed by Thutmose III, also would have had an interest in promoting the many achievements of their master in order to assure the continued success of their own families.
Presuming that it was Thutmose III (rather than his co-regent son), Tyldesley also put forth a hypothesis about Thutmose suggesting that his erasures and defacement of Hatshepsut 's monuments could have been a cold, but rational attempt on his part to extinguish the memory of an "unconventional female king whose reign might possibly be interpreted by future generations as a grave offence against Ma'at, and whose unorthodox coregency '' could "cast serious doubt upon the legitimacy of his own right to rule. Hatshepsut 's crime need not be anything more than the fact that she was a woman. '' Tyldesley conjectured that Thutmose III may have considered the possibility that the example of a successful female king in Egyptian history could demonstrate that a woman was as capable at governing Egypt as a traditional male king, which could persuade "future generations of potentially strong female kings '' to not "remain content with their traditional lot as wife, sister and eventual mother of a king '' and assume the crown. Dismissing relatively recent history known to Thutmose III of another woman who was king, Sobekneferu of Egypt 's Middle Kingdom, she conjectured further that he might have thought that while she had enjoyed a short, approximately four - year reign, she ruled "at the very end of a fading (12th dynasty) Dynasty, and from the very start of her reign the odds had been stacked against her. She was, therefore, acceptable to conservative Egyptians as a patriotic ' Warrior Queen ' who had failed '' to rejuvenate Egypt 's fortunes. In contrast, Hatshepsut 's glorious reign was a completely different case: she demonstrated that women were as capable as men of ruling the two lands since she successfully presided over a prosperous Egypt for more than two decades. If Thutmose III 's intent was to forestall the possibility of a woman assuming the throne, as proposed by Tyldesley, it was a failure since Twosret and Neferneferuaten (possibly), a female co-regent or successor of Akhenaten, assumed the throne for short reigns as pharaoh later in the New Kingdom.
The erasure of Hatshepsut 's name -- whatever the reason or the person ordering it -- almost caused her to disappear from Egypt 's archaeological and written records. When nineteenth - century Egyptologists started to interpret the texts on the Deir el - Bahri temple walls (which were illustrated with two seemingly male kings) their translations made no sense. Jean - François Champollion, the French decoder of hieroglyphs, was not alone in feeling confused by the obvious conflict between words and pictures:
If I felt somewhat surprised at seeing here, as elsewhere throughout the temple, the renowned Moeris (Thutmose III), adorned with all the insignia of royalty, giving place to this Amenenthe (Hatshepsut), for whose name we may search the royal lists in vain, still more astonished was I to find upon reading the inscriptions that wherever they referred to this bearded king in the usual dress of the Pharaohs, nouns and verbs were in the feminine, as though a queen were in question. I found the same peculiarity everywhere...
The "Hatshepsut Problem '' was a major issue in late 19th century and early 20th century Egyptology, centering on confusion and disagreement on the order of succession of early 18th dynasty pharaohs. The dilemma takes its name from confusion over the chronology of the rule of Queen Hatshepsut and Thutmose I, II, and III. In its day, the problem was controversial enough to cause academic feuds between leading Egyptologists and created perceptions about the early Thutmosid family that persisted well into the 20th century, the influence of which still can be found in more recent works. Chronology-wise, the Hatshepsut problem was largely cleared up in the late 20th century, as more information about her and her reign was uncovered.
The 2006 discovery of a foundation deposit including nine golden cartouches bearing the names of both Hatshepsut and Thutmose III in Karnak may shed additional light on the eventual attempt by Thutmose III and his son Amenhotep II to erase Hatshepsut from the historical record and the correct nature of their relationships and her role as pharaoh.
Sphinx of Hatshepsut with unusual rounded ears and ruff that stress the lioness features of the statue, but with five toes - newel post decorations from the lower ramp of her tomb complex
These two statues once resembled each other, however, the symbols of her pharaonic power: the Uraeus, Double Crown, and traditional false beard have been stripped from the left image; many images portraying Hatshepsut were destroyed or vandalized within decades of her death, possibly by Amenhotep II at the end of the reign of Thutmose III, while he was his co-regent, in order to assure his own rise to pharaoh and then, to claim many of her accomplishments as his.
The image of Hatshepsut has been deliberately chipped away and removed - Ancient Egyptian wing of the Royal Ontario Museum
Dual stela of Hatshepsut (centre left) in the blue Khepresh crown offering wine to the deity Amun and Thutmose III behind her in the hedjet white crown, standing near Wosret - Vatican Museum
Hieroglyphs showing Thutmose III on the left and Hatshepsut on the right, she having the trappings of the greater role -- Red Chapel, Karnak
A Fallen obelisk of Hatshepsut - Karnak.
Hatshepsut has appeared as a fictional character in many novels. Some of them include:
The artwork The Dinner Party features a place setting for Hatshepsut.
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who wrote the famous song sare jahan se acha hindustan hamara | Sāre Jahan se Accha - wikipedia
"Sare Jahan se Accha '' (Urdu: سارے جہاں سے اچھا , Hindi: सारे जहां से अच्छा; Sāre Jahāṉ se Acchā), formally known as "Tarānah - i - Hindi '' (Urdu: ترانۂ ہندی , Hindi: तराना - ए - हिंदी; "Anthem of the People of India ''), is an Urdu language patriotic song written for children by poet Muhammad Iqbal in the ghazal style of Urdu poetry. The poem was published in the weekly journal Ittehad on 16 August 1904. Publicly recited by Iqbal the following year at Government College, Lahore, British India (now in Pakistan) it quickly became an anthem of opposition to the British Raj. The song, an ode to Hindustan -- the land comprising present - day Bangladesh, India and Pakistan, was later published in 1924 in the Urdu book Bang - i - Dara.
The song has remained popular, especially in India. An abridged version is sung and played frequently as a patriotic song and as a marching song of the Indian Armed Forces. A satirical version of the same from a 1958 Hindi movie also remains popular.
Iqbal was a lecturer at the Government College, Lahore at that time, and was invited by a student Lala Har Dayal to preside over a function. Instead of delivering a speech, Iqbal sang "Saare Jahan Se Achcha ''. The song, in addition to embodying yearning and attachment to the land of Hindustan, expressed "cultural memory '' and had an elegiac quality. In 1905, the 27 - year - old Iqbal viewed the future society of the subcontinent as both a pluralistic and composite Hindu - Muslim culture. Later that year he left for Europe for a three - year sojourn that was to transform him into an Islamic philosopher and a visionary of a future Islamic society.
In 1910, Iqbal wrote another song for children, "Tarana - e-Milli '' (Anthem of the Religious Community), which was composed in the same metre and rhyme scheme as "Saare Jahan Se Achcha '', but which renounced much of the sentiment of the earlier song. The sixth stanza of "Saare Jahan Se Achcha '' (1904), which is often quoted as proof of Iqbal 's secular outlook:
Maẕhab nahīṉ sikhātā āpas meṉ bair rakhnā Hindī haiṉ ham, wat̤an hai Hindūstāṉ hamārā
Religion does not teach us to bear ill - will among ourselves We are of Hind, our homeland is Hindustan.
contrasted significantly with the first stanza of Tarana - e-Milli (1910) reads:
Cīn o - ʿArab hamārā, Hindūstāṉ hamārā Muslim haiṉ ham, wat̤an hai sārā jahāṉ hamārā
Central Asia and Arabia are ours, Hindustan is ours We are Muslims, the whole world is our homeland.
Iqbal 's world view had now changed; it had become both global and Islamic. Instead of singing of Hindustan, "our homeland, '' the new song proclaimed that "our homeland is the whole world. '' Two decades later, in his presidential address to the Muslim League annual conference in Allahabad in 1930, he supported a separate nation - state in the Muslim majority areas of the sub-continent, an idea that inspired the creation of Pakistan.
سارے جہاں سے اچھا ہندوستاں ہمارا ہم بلبلیں ہیں اس کی ، یہ گلستاں ہمارا
غربت میں ہوں اگر ہم ، رہتا ہے دل وطن میں سمجھو وہیں ہمیں بھی دل ہو جہاں ہمارا
پربت وہ سب سے اونچا ، ہمسایہ آسماں کا وہ سنتری ہمارا ، وہ پاسباں ہمارا
گودی میں کھیلتی ہیں اس کی ہزاروں ندیاں گلشن ہے جن کے دم سے رشکِ جناں ہمارا
اے آبِ رودِ گنگا! وہ دن ہیں یاد تجھ کو ؟ اترا ترے کنارے جب کارواں ہمارا
مذہب نہیں سکھاتا آپس میں بیر رکھنا ہندی ہیں ہم ، وطن ہے ہندوستاں ہمارا
یونان و مصر و روما سب مٹ گئے جہاں سے اب تک مگر ہے باقی نام و نشاں ہمارا
کچھ بات ہے کہ ہستی مٹتی نہیں ہماری صدیوں رہا ہے دشمن دورِ زماں ہمارا
اقبال! کوئی محرم اپنا نہيں جہاں میں معلوم کیا کسی کو دردِ نہاں ہمارا!
सारे जहाँ से अच्छा हिन्दोसिताँ हमारा हम बुलबुलें हैं इसकी यह गुलसिताँ हमारा
ग़ुर्बत में हों अगर हम, रहता है दिल वतन में समझो वहीं हमें भी दिल हो जहाँ हमारा
परबत वह सबसे ऊँचा, हम्साया आसमाँ का वह संतरी हमारा, वह पासबाँ हमारा
गोदी में खेलती हैं इसकी हज़ारों नदियाँ गुल्शन है जिनके दम से रश्क - ए - जनाँ हमारा
ऐ आब - ए - रूद - ए - गंगा! वह दिन हैं याद तुझको? उतरा तिरे किनारे जब कारवाँ हमारा
मज़्हब नहीं सिखाता आपस में बैर रखना हिंदी हैं हम, वतन है हिन्दोसिताँ हमारा
यूनान - ओ - मिस्र - ओ - रूमा सब मिट गए जहाँ से अब तक मगर है बाक़ी नाम - ओ - निशाँ हमारा
कुछ बात है कि हस्ती मिटती नहीं हमारी सदियों रहा है दुश्मन दौर - ए - ज़माँ हमारा
इक़्बाल! कोई महरम अपना नहीं जहाँ में मालूम क्या किसी को दर्द - ए - निहाँ हमारा !
Sāre jahāṉ se acchā, Hindositāṉ hamārā Ham bulbuleṉ haiṉ is kī, yih gulsitāṉ hamārā
G̱ẖurbat meṉ hoṉ agar ham, rahtā hai dil wat̤an meṉ Samjho wuhīṉ hameṉ bhī dil ho jahāṉ hamārā
Parbat wuh sab se ūṉchā, hamsāyah āsmāṉ kā Wuh santarī hamārā, wuh pāsbāṉ hamārā
Godī meṉ kheltī haiṉ is kī hazāroṉ nadiyāṉ Guls̱ẖan hai jin ke dam se ras̱ẖk - i janāṉ hamārā
Ai āb - i rūd - i Gangā! wuh din haiṉ yād tujh ko? Utrā tire kināre jab kārwāṉ hamārā
Maẕhab nahīṉ sikhātā āpas meṉ bair rakhnā Hindī haiṉ ham, wat̤an hai Hindositāṉ hamārā
Yūnān o - Miṣr o - Rūmā, sab miṭ ga'e jahāṉ se Ab tak magar hai bāqī, nām o - nis̱ẖaṉ hamārā
Kuch bāt hai kih hastī, miṭtī nahīṉ hamārī Ṣadiyoṉ rahā hai dus̱ẖman daur - i zamāṉ hamārā
Iqbāl! ko'ī maḥram apnā nahīṉ jahāṉ meṉ Maʿlūm kyā kisī ko dard - i nihāṉ hamārā!
Better than the entire world, is our Hindustan, We are its nightingales, and it (is) our garden abode
If we are in an alien place, the heart remains in the homeland, Know us to be only there where our heart is.
That tallest mountain, that shade - sharer of the sky, It (is) our sentry, it (is) our watchman
In its lap where frolic thousands of rivers, Whose vitality makes our garden the envy of Paradise.
O the flowing waters of the Ganges, do you remember that day When our caravan first disembarked on your waterfront?
Religion does not teach us to bear animosity among ourselves We are of Hind, our homeland is Hindustan.
In a world in which ancient Greece, Egypt, and Rome have all vanished Our own attributes (name and sign) live on today.
There is something about our existence for it does n't get wiped Even though, for centuries, the time - cycle of the world has been our enemy.
Iqbal! We have no confidant in this world What does any one know of our hidden pain?
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who has which category in x factor 2017 | The X Factor (UK series 14) - wikipedia
The X Factor is a British television music competition to find new singing talent. The fourteenth series began airing on ITV on 2 September 2017, presented by Dermot O'Leary. For the first time in seven years, the judging panel will remain the same, with Simon Cowell, Sharon Osbourne, Nicole Scherzinger and Louis Walsh returning. This is the first series not to include companion show The Xtra Factor, after it was cancelled in January 2017. Its replacement is a programme called Xtra Bites presented by Becca Dudley on the ITV Hub. This is also the first series to be sponsored by Just Eat, with the show having being sponsored by TalkTalk since 2009. As well as the second time the show has premiered in September, rather than August, since the first series in 2004.
In December 2016, Louis Walsh confirmed he would continue to judge the series through 2018, stating he had signed through "the next two years ''. That same month, both Sharon Osbourne and Nicole Scherzinger cast doubt on their return, with Osbourne citing her dual - work on The Talk, and Scherzinger stating: "I ca n't confirm that I 'm going to (be back) but I think if I did return it would have to be with this panel because I 'm really close with this panel. (...) I 've really enjoyed myself and we 're really close. '' On 13 April 2017, Cowell announced his intentions to retain the same judging panel for the fourteenth series. In June 2017, it was announced that the judging panel would remain the same as the previous series.
Dermot O'Leary will return for his tenth series as presenter. On 23 June 2017, it was announced that Britain 's Got Talent judge Alesha Dixon would appear as a guest judge for the first day of Manchester auditions, due to Scherzinger having a "previous diary commitment ''. Five days later, on 28 June, it was announced that Dixon would once again appear as a guest judge, this time for Osbourne, who was unavailable due to a long - standing back injury. Cowell arrived late to 4 July 2017, auditions in London, due to an illness.
On 4 July, it was reported that there will be major changes to the show this year. Auditions are taking place in Thorpe Park, bootcamp will take place in front of an audience and there will be six weeks of live shows instead of the usual ten. Additionally, acts will be sent home on both Saturday and Sunday, as "tedious '' Saturday nights received lower viewing figures than Sunday.
The minimum age to audition this year was 14 after being reduced down from 16 the previous year. Contestants needed a "yes '' from at least three of the four judges to progress to Bootcamp.
The mobile auditions began on 11 May 2017, in Belfast and concluded on 23 May 2017, in Yeovil.
The auditions began on 20 June 2017, in Liverpool and concluded on 10 July 2017, in Surrey.
Bootcamp was filmed live at The SSE Arena, Wembley in front of a studio audience. Following the filming of bootcamp and prior to the filming of the six - chair challenge, the judges ' categories were revealed. Cowell was given the Groups, Scherzinger was given the Over 28s, Osbourne was given the Girls and Walsh was given the Boys. There are three different stages to Bootcamp.
The six - chair challenge took place over the course of two days, from 26 to 28 July 2017, at The SSE Arena, Wembley. Unlike previous years, where all four judges sat together, each judge was secluded on their own while their respective category performed. The three remaining judges sat together and gave their own critiques of the performance, before allowing the category 's judge to make the final decision. It was broadcast over three episodes, Sharon chose her Girls in episode 1, Cowell chose his Groups and Scherzinger chose her Over 28s in episode 2 and Walsh chose his Boys in episode 3.
The judges ' categories were announced in July 2017, with additional details of the judges ' houses announced in October 2017. Anthony Russell withdrew after the pre-recorded sections of the show and was replaced by Sam Black who was knocked out of the competition at the Bootcamp stage. Sam Black will be in Walsh 's Boys category. In a statement, Walsh stated, "Anthony has been fantastic across the series, a great singer and performer who we are really sad to see go. I had to think for a long time who could take the place. Sam had a great reaction from the British public when his Audition aired. So I re-watched it and realised we missed a trick not putting him through at Boot Camp. He has that retro 60s style viewers will love. He 's really likeable and talented and I ca n't wait to hear more. '' At the end of judges ' houses, it was announced that the public could vote for a wildcard from each category bringing the total amount of contestants for the live shows to 16.
The finalists were announced during the episode broadcast on 22 October 2017. However, at the end of the episode, it was announced by Dermot O'Leary that there would be a wildcard vote for each category. The winners of the wildcard vote will be revealed on 28 October 2017 at the start of the live show.
Key:
Liam Payne will be performing on the first live show, while Stormzy will be performing on the second live show.
Official episode viewing figures are from BARB. Both 7 - day and 28 - day figures are total counts including HD and ITV + 1.
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who does morgan freeman play in shawshank redemption | The Shawshank Redemption - wikipedia
The Shawshank Redemption is a 1994 American drama film written and directed by Frank Darabont, based on the 1982 Stephen King novella Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption. It tells the story of banker Andy Dufresne (Tim Robbins), who is sentenced to life in Shawshank State Penitentiary for the murder of his wife and her lover, despite his claims of innocence. Over the following two decades, he befriends a fellow prisoner, contraband smuggler Ellis "Red '' Redding (Morgan Freeman), and becomes instrumental in a money laundering operation led by the prison warden Samuel Norton (Bob Gunton). William Sadler, Clancy Brown, Gil Bellows, and James Whitmore appear in supporting roles.
Darabont purchased the film rights to King 's story in 1987, but development did not begin until five years later when he wrote the script over an eight - week period. Two weeks after submitting his script to the Castle Rock Entertainment film studio, Darabont secured a $25 million budget to produce The Shawshank Redemption, which started pre-production in January 1993. While the film is set in Maine, principal photography took place from June to August 1993 almost entirely in Mansfield, Ohio, with the Ohio State Reformatory serving as the eponymous penitentiary. The project attracted many stars of the time for the lead roles including Tom Hanks, Tom Cruise, and Kevin Costner. Thomas Newman provided the film 's score.
While The Shawshank Redemption received positive reviews on its release, particularly for its story and the performances of Robbins and Freeman, it was a box office disappointment, earning only $16 million during its initial theatrical run. Many reasons were cited for its failure at the time, including competition from films such as Pulp Fiction and Forrest Gump, to the general unpopularity of prison films, lack of female characters, and even the title, which was considered to be confusing for audiences. Even so, it went on to receive multiple award nominations, including seven Academy Award nominations, and a theatrical re-release that, combined with international takings, increased the film 's box office gross to $58.3 million.
Over 320,000 VHS copies were shipped throughout the United States, and based on its award nominations and word of mouth, it became one of the top rented films of 1995. The broadcast rights were acquired following the purchase of Castle Rock by the Turner Broadcasting System, and it was shown regularly on the TNT network starting in 1997, further increasing its popularity. The film is now considered to be one of the greatest films of the 1990s. As of 2017, the film is still broadcast regularly, and is popular in several countries, with audience members and celebrities citing it as a source of inspiration, and naming the film as a favorite in various surveys. In 2015, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
In 1947 Portland, Maine, banker Andy Dufresne is convicted of murdering his wife and her lover, and sentenced to two consecutive life sentences at the Shawshank State Penitentiary. He is befriended by contraband smuggler, Ellis "Red '' Redding, an inmate serving a life sentence. Red procures a rock hammer, and later a large poster of Rita Hayworth for Andy. Working in the prison laundry, Andy is regularly assaulted and raped by "the Sisters '' and their leader, Bogs.
In 1949, Andy overhears the captain of the guards, Byron Hadley, complaining about being taxed on an inheritance and offers to help him shelter the money legally. After an assault by the Sisters nearly kills Andy, Hadley beats Bogs severely. Left crippled, Bogs is transferred to another prison, and Andy is not attacked again. Warden Samuel Norton meets Andy and reassigns him to the prison library to assist elderly inmate Brooks Hatlen. Andy 's new job is a pretext for him to begin managing financial matters for the prison employees. As time passes, the warden begins using him to handle matters for himself and a variety of people, including guards from other prisons. Andy begins writing weekly letters to the state legislature requesting funds to improve the prison 's decaying library.
Brooks is paroled in 1954 after serving 50 years, but he can not adjust to the outside world, and he commits suicide by hanging himself. Andy receives a library donation that includes a recording of The Marriage of Figaro. He plays an excerpt over the public address system, and is punished with solitary confinement. After his release from solitary, Andy explains that hope is what gets him through his time, a concept that Red dismisses. In 1963, Norton begins exploiting prison labor for public works, profiting by undercutting skilled labor costs and receiving bribes. Andy launders the money using the alias Randall Stephens.
Tommy Williams is incarcerated for burglary in 1965. Andy and Red befriend him, and Andy helps him pass his GED exam. A year later, Tommy reveals to Red and Andy that an inmate at another prison claimed responsibility for the murders for which Andy was convicted. Andy approaches Norton with this information, but he refuses to listen and sends him back to solitary confinement when he mentions the money laundering. Norton has Hadley murder Tommy under the guise of an escape attempt. Andy declines to continue the laundering, but he relents after Norton threatens to burn the library, remove Andy 's protection from the guards, and move him to worse conditions. After two months, Andy is released from solitary confinement, and he tells Red of his dream of living in Zihuatanejo, a Mexican coastal town. Red feels Andy is being unrealistic, but promises him that if he is ever released, he will visit a specific hayfield near Buxton, Maine, and retrieve a package Andy buried there. He worries about Andy 's well - being, especially when he learns Andy asked fellow inmate Heywood to supply him with six feet (1.8 meters) of rope.
The next day at roll call, the guards find Andy 's cell empty. An irate Norton throws a rock at the poster of Raquel Welch hanging on the cell wall, revealing a tunnel that Andy dug with his rock hammer over the last 19 years. The previous night, Andy escaped through the tunnel and prison sewage pipe, using the rope to bring with him Norton 's suit, shoes, and the ledger containing details of the money laundering. While guards search for him, Andy poses as Randall Stephens and visits several banks to withdraw the laundered money, then mails the ledger and evidence of the corruption and murders at Shawshank to a local newspaper. State police arrive at Shawshank and take Hadley into custody, while Norton commits suicide to avoid arrest.
After serving 40 years, Red is paroled. He struggles to adapt to life outside prison and fears that he never will. Remembering his promise to Andy, he visits Buxton and finds a cache containing money, and a letter asking him to come to Zihuatanejo. Red violates his parole and travels to Fort Hancock, Texas, to cross the border into Mexico, admitting he finally feels hope. On a beach in Zihuatanejo he finds Andy, and the two friends are happily reunited.
The cast also includes: Mark Rolston as Bogs Diamond, the head of "The Sisters '' gang and a prison rapist; Jeffrey DeMunn as the prosecuting attorney in Dufresne 's trial; Alfonso Freeman as Fresh Fish Con; Ned Bellamy and Don McManus as, respectively, prison guards Youngblood and Wiley; and Dion Anderson as Head Bull Haig. Renee Blaine portrays Andy 's wife, and Scott Mann portrays her golf - instructor lover Glenn Quentin. Frank Medrano plays Fat Ass, one of Andy 's fellow new inmates who is beaten to death by Hadley, and Bill Bolender plays Elmo Blatch, a convict who may actually be responsible for the crimes of which Andy is accused. James Kisicki portrays a bank manager.
The film has been interpreted as being grounded in Christian mysticism. Andy is offered as a messianic, Christ - like figure, with Red describing him early in the film as having an aura that engulfs and protects him from Shawshank. The scene in which Andy and several inmates tar the prison roof can be seen as a recreation of the Last Supper, with Andy obtaining beer / wine for the twelve inmates / disciples as Freeman describes them as the "lords of all creation '' invoking Jesus ' blessing. Director Frank Darabont responded that this was not his deliberate intention, but he wanted people to find their own meaning in the film. The discovery of The Marriage of Figaro record is described in the screenplay as akin to finding the Holy Grail, bringing the prisoners to a halt, and causing the sick to rise up in their beds.
Early in the film, Warden Norton quotes Jesus Christ to describe himself to Andy, saying, "I am the light of the world '', declaring himself Andy 's savior. But this description can also reference Lucifer, the bearer of light. Indeed, the warden does not enforce the general rule of law, but chooses to enforce his own rules and punishments as he sees fit, becoming a law unto himself, like the behavior of Satan. The warden has also been compared to former United States President Richard Nixon. Norton 's appearance and public addresses can be seen to mirror Nixon 's. Similarly, Norton projects an image of a Holy man, speaking down sanctimoniously to the servile masses while running corrupt scams, like those which made Nixon infamous.
Zihuatanejo has been interpreted as an analogue for heaven or paradise. In the film, Andy describes it as a place with no memory, offering absolution from his sins by forgetting about them or allowing them to be washed away by the Pacific Ocean, whose name means "peace ''. The possibility of escaping to Zihuatanejo is only raised following Andy 's admission of guilt over his wife 's death. Similarly, Red 's freedom is only earned once he accepts he can not save himself or atone for his sins. Freeman has described Red 's story as one of salvation as he is not innocent of his crimes, unlike Andy who finds redemption. While some Christian viewers interpret Zihuatanejo as heaven, it can also be interpreted as a Nietzschean form of guiltlessness achieved outside traditional notions of good and evil, where the amnesia offered is the destruction rather than forgiveness of sin, meaning Andy 's aim is secular and atheistic. Just as Andy can be interpreted as a Christ - like figure, he can be seen as a Zarathustra - like prophet offering escape through education and the experience of freedom. Ebert argued that The Shawshank Redemption is an allegory for maintaining one 's feeling of self - worth when placed in a hopeless position. Andy 's integrity is an important theme in the story line, especially in prison, where integrity is lacking.
Robbins himself believes that the concept of Zihuatanejo resonates with audiences because it represents a form of escape that can be achieved after surviving for many years within whatever "jail '' someone finds themselves, from a bad relationship, job, or environment. Robbins said that it is important that such a place exists for us. Isaac M. Morehouse suggests that the film provides a great illustration of how characters can be free, even in prison, or unfree, even in freedom, based on their outlooks on life. Philosopher Jean - Paul Sartre described freedom as an ongoing project that requires attention and resilience, without which a person begins to be defined by others or institutions, mirroring Red 's belief that inmates become dependent on the prison to define their lives. Andy displays resilience through rebellion, by playing music over the prison loudspeaker, and refusing to continue with the money laundering scam.
Many elements can be considered as tributes to the power of cinema. In the prison theater, the inmates watch the film Gilda (1946), but this scene was originally intended to feature The Lost Weekend (1945). The interchangeability of the films used in the prison theater suggests that it is the cinematic experience and not the subject which is key to the scene, allowing the men to escape the reality of their situation. Immediately following this scene, Andy is assaulted by the Sisters in the projector room and uses a film reel to help fight them off. Then in the end of the film, Andy passes through a hole in his cell hidden by a movie poster to escape both his cell and ultimately Shawshank.
Andy 's and Red 's relationship has been described as a non-sexual love story between two men, that few other films offer, where the friendship is not built on conducting a caper, car chases, or developing a relationship with women. Philosopher Alexander Hooke argued that Andy 's and Red 's true freedom is their friendship, being able to share joy and humor with each other.
Darabont first collaborated with author Stephen King in 1983 on the short film adaptation of "The Woman in the Room '', buying the rights from him for $1 -- a Dollar Deal that King used to help new directors build a résumé by adapting his short stories. After receiving his first screenwriting credit in 1987 for A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors, Darabont returned to King with $5,000 to purchase the rights to adapt Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption, a 96 - page novella from King 's 1982 collection Different Seasons, written to explore genres other than the horror stories for which he was commonly known. Although King did not understand how the story, largely focused on Red contemplating his fellow prisoner Andy, could be turned into a feature film, Darabont believed it was "obvious ''.
Five years later, Darabont wrote the script over an eight - week period. He expanded on elements of King 's story. Brooks, who in the novella is a minor character who dies in a retirement home, became a tragic character who eventually hanged himself. Tommy, who in the novella trades his evidence exonerating Andy for transfer to a nicer prison, in the screenplay is murdered on the orders of Warden Norton, who is a composite of several warden characters in King 's story. Darabont opted to create a single warden character to serve as the primary antagonist. Among his inspirations, Darabont listed the works of director Frank Capra, including Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) and It 's a Wonderful Life (1946), describing them as tall tales; Darabont likened The Shawshank Redemption to a tall tale more than a prison movie. He also cited Goodfellas (1990) as an inspiration on the use of dialogue to illustrate the passage of time in the script. King never cashed the $5,000 cheque from Darabont for the rights to The Shawshank Redemption; he later framed it and returned it to Darabont accompanied by a note which read: "In case you ever need bail money. Love, Steve. ''
At the time, prison - based films were not considered likely box office successes, but Darabont 's script was read by then - Castle Rock Entertainment producer Liz Glotzer, whose interest in prison stories, and reaction to the script, led her to threaten to quit if Castle Rock did not produce The Shawshank Redemption. Director and Castle Rock co-founder Rob Reiner also liked the script. He offered Darabont between $2.4 million and $3 million to allow him to direct it himself. Reiner, who had previously adapted King 's 1982 novella The Body into the 1986 film Stand by Me, planned to cast Tom Cruise as Andy and Harrison Ford as Red.
Castle Rock offered to finance any other film Darabont wanted to develop. Darabont seriously considered the offer, citing growing up poor in Los Angeles, believing it would elevate his standing in the industry, and that Castle Rock could have contractually fired him and given the film to Reiner anyway. But, he chose to remain the director, saying in a 2014 Variety interview, "you can continue to defer your dreams in exchange for money and, you know, die without ever having done the thing you set out to do ''. Reiner served as Darabont 's mentor on the project instead. Within two weeks of showing the script to Castle Rock, Darabont had a $25 million budget to make his film (taking a $750,000 screenwriting and directing salary plus a percentage of the net profits), and pre-production began in January 1993.
Freeman was cast at the suggestion of producer Liz Glotzer, who ignored the novella 's character description of a white Irishman, nicknamed "Red ''. Freeman 's character alludes to the choice when queried by Andy on why he is called Red, replying "Maybe it 's because I 'm Irish. '' Freeman opted not to research his role, saying "acting the part of someone who 's incarcerated does n't require any specific knowledge of incarceration... because men do n't change. Once you 're in that situation, you just toe whatever line you have to toe. ''
Darabont looked initially at some of his favorite actors like Gene Hackman and Robert Duvall for the role of Andy Dufresne, but they were unavailable; Clint Eastwood and Paul Newman were also considered. Tom Cruise, Tom Hanks, and Kevin Costner were offered, and passed on the role -- Hanks due to his starring role in Forrest Gump, and Costner because he had the lead in Waterworld. Johnny Depp, Nicolas Cage, and Charlie Sheen were also considered for the role at different stages. Cruise attended table readings of the script, but refused to work for the inexperienced Darabont. Darabont said he cast Robbins after seeing his performance in the 1990 psychological horror Jacob 's Ladder. When Robbins was cast, he insisted that Darabont use experienced cinematographer Roger Deakins, who had worked with him on The Hudsucker Proxy. To prepare for the role, Robbins observed caged animals at a zoo, spent an afternoon in solitary confinement, spoke with prisoners and guards, and had his arms and legs shackled for a few hours.
Cast initially as young convict Tommy, Brad Pitt dropped out following his success in Thelma & Louise (the role went to a debuting Gil Bellows); James Gandolfini passed on portraying prison rapist Bogs. Bob Gunton was filming Demolition Man (1993) when he went to audition for the role of Warden Norton. To convince the studio that Gunton was right for the part, Darabont and producer Niki Marvin arranged for him to record a screen test on a day off from Demolition Man. They had a wig made for him as his head was shaved for his Demolition Man role. Gunton wanted to portray Norton with hair as this could then be grayed to convey his on - screen aging as the film progressed. Gunton performed his screen test with Robbins, which was filmed by Deakins. After being confirmed for the role, he used the wig in the film 's early scenes until his hair re-grew. Gunton said that Marvin and Darabont saw that he understood the character which went in his favor, as did the fact his height was similar to Robbins ' allowing Andy to believably use the warden 's suit.
Portraying the head guard Byron Hadley, Clancy Brown was given the opportunity to speak with former guards by the production 's liaison officer, but declined believing it would not be a good thing to say that his brutal character was in any way inspired by Ohio state correctional officers. William Sadler, who portrays Heywood, said that Darabont had approached him in 1989 on the set of the Tales from the Crypt television series where he was a writer, about starring in the adaptation he was intending to make. Freeman 's son Alfonso has a cameo as a young Red in mug shot photos, and as a prisoner shouting "fresh fish '' as Andy arrives at Shawshank. Among the extras used in the film were the former warden and former inmates of the Reformatory, and active guards from a nearby incarceration facility. The novella 's original title attracted several people to audition for the non-existent role of Rita Hayworth, including a man in drag clothing.
On a $25 million budget, principal photography took place over three months between June and August 1993. Filming regularly required up to 18 - hour workdays, six days a week. Freeman described filming as tense, saying, "Most of the time, the tension was between the cast and director. I remember having a bad moment with the director, had a few of those. '' Freeman referred to Darabont 's requiring multiple takes of scenes which he considered had no discernible differences. For example, the scene where Andy first approaches Red to procure a rock hammer took nine hours to film, and featured Freeman throwing and catching a baseball with another inmate throughout it. The number of takes that were shot resulted in Freeman turning up to filming the following day with his arm in a sling. Freeman sometimes simply refused to do the additional takes. Robbins said that the long days were difficult. Darabont felt that making the film taught him a lot, "A director really needs to have an internal barometer to measure what any given actor needs. '' He found his most frequent struggles were with Deakins. Darabont favored more scenic shots, while Deakins felt that not showing the outside of the prison added a sense of claustrophobia, and it meant that when a wide scenic shot was used, it had more impact.
Marvin spent five months scouting prisons across the United States and Canada, looking for a site that had a timeless aesthetic, and was completely abandoned, hoping to avoid the complexity of filming the required footage, for hours each day, in an active prison with the security difficulties that would entail. Marvin eventually chose the Ohio State Reformatory in Mansfield, Ohio to serve as the fictional Shawshank State Penitentiary in Maine, citing its Gothic - style stone and brick buildings. After nearly a century of use, the facility had been closed three years earlier on New Year 's Eve, 1990, due to inhumane living conditions.
The 15 - acre reformatory, housing its own power plant and farm, was partially torn down shortly after filming was completed, leaving the main administration building and two cell blocks. Several of the interior shots of the specialized prison facilities, such as the admittance rooms and the warden 's office, were shot in the reformatory. The interior of the boarding room used by Brooks and Red was in the administration building; exterior shots of the boarding house were taken elsewhere. Internal scenes in the prison cellblocks were filmed on a soundstage built inside a nearby shuttered Westinghouse Electric factory. Since Darabont wanted the inmates ' cells to face each other, almost all the cellblock scenes were shot on a purpose - built set housed in the Westinghouse factory except for the scene featuring Elmo Blatch 's admission of guilt for the crimes for which Andy was convicted. It was filmed in one of the actual prison 's more confined cells. Scenes were also filmed in Mansfield, as well as neighboring Ashland, Ohio. The oak tree under which Andy buries his letter to Red was located near Malabar Farm State Park, in Lucas, Ohio; it was destroyed by winds in 2016.
Just as a prison in Ohio stood in for a fictional one in Maine, the beach scene showing Andy and Red 's reunion in Zihuatanejo, Mexico, was actually shot in the Caribbean on the island of Saint Croix, one of the U.S. Virgin Islands. The beach at ' Zihuatanejo ' is the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge, a protected area for leatherback sea turtles. Scenes shot in Upper Sandusky included the prison wood shop scene where Red and his fellow inmates hear "The Marriage of Figaro '' (the woodshop is now called the Shawshank Woodshop), and the opening court scene which was shot at the Wyandot County Courthouse. Other shooting locations included Pugh Cabin in Malabar Farm State Park, where Andy sits outside as his wife engages in an affair, Butler, Ohio which stood in for Buxton, Maine, and The Bissman Building in Mansfield, which served as the hotel where Brooks stayed following his release.
While the film portrays Andy escaping to freedom through a sewer pipe described as a "river of shit '', Robbins crawls through a mixture of water, chocolate syrup, and sawdust. The stream into which Robbins emerges was actually certified toxic by a chemist according to production designer Terence Marsh. Of the scene, Robbins said, "when you 're doing a film, you want to be a good soldier -- you do n't want to be the one that gets in the way. So you will do things as an actor that are compromising to your physical health and safety. '' As for the scene where Andy rebelliously plays music over the prison announcement system, it was Robbins ' idea for Andy to turn the music up and not shut it off. While in the finished film the inmates watch Rita Hayworth in Gilda (1946), they were originally intended to be watching Billy Wilder 's The Lost Weekend (1945), a film about the dangers of alcohol. As the footage was too costly to procure from Paramount Pictures, producer Niki Marvin approached The Shawshank Redemption 's domestic distribution rights - holder Columbia Pictures, who offered a list of lower - priced titles, one of which was Gilda.
The final cut of the theatrically released film runs for 142 minutes, and was dedicated to Allen Greene, Darabont 's former agent who died during filming from AIDS. The film 's first edit ran for nearly two and a half hours, which Glotzer considered "long '', and several scenes were cut including a longer sequence of Red adjusting to life post incarceration; Darabont said that in test screenings the audience seemed to be getting impatient with the scene as they were already convinced that Red would not make it. Another scene cut for time showed a prison guard investigating Andy 's escape tunnel; it was thought this slowed down the action. The film originally had a cold open that played out Andy 's crime, with his trial playing throughout the opening credits, but these scenes were edited together to create a more "punchy '' opening. One scripted scene, which Darabont described as his best work, was left unfilmed because of the shooting schedule. In the scene, a dreaming Red is sucked into the poster of Rita Hayworth to find himself alone and insignificant on the Pacific shore, saying "I am terrified, there is no way home. '' Darabont said that he regretted being unable to capture the scene.
In Darabont 's original vision for the end of the film Red is seen riding a bus towards the Mexican border, leaving his fate ambiguous. Glotzer insisted on including the scene of Red and Andy reuniting in Zihuatanejo. She said Darabont felt this was a "commercial, sappy '' ending, but Glotzer wanted the audience to see them together. Castle Rock agreed to finance filming for the scene without requiring its inclusion, guaranteeing Darabont the final decision. The scene originally featured a longer reunion in which Andy and Red recited dialogue from their first meeting, but Darabont said it had a "golly - gee - ai n't - we - cute '' quality and excised it. The beach reunion was test audiences ' favorite scene; both Freeman and Robbins felt it provided the necessary closure. Darabont agreed to include the scene after seeing the test audience reactions, saying: "I think it 's a magical and uplifting place for our characters to arrive at the end of their long saga... ''
The film 's score was composed by Thomas Newman. He felt that it already elicited such strong emotions without music that he found it difficult to compose one that would elevate scenes without distracting from them. The piece, "Shawshank Redemption '', plays during Andy 's escape from Shawshank and originally had a three - note motif, but Darabont felt it had too much of a "triumphal flourish '' and asked that it be toned down to a single - note motif. "So Was Red '', played following Red 's release from prison, and leading to his discovery of Andy 's cache, became one of Newman 's favorite pieces. The piece was initially written for a solo oboe, until Newman reluctantly agreed to add harmonica -- a reference to the harmonica Red receives from Andy to continue his message of hope. According to Darabont, harmonica player Tommy Morgan "casually delivered something dead - on perfect on the first take '', and this is heard in the finished film. Newman 's score was so successful that excerpts from it were used in movie trailers for years afterwards.
Leading up to its release, the film was test screened with the public. These were described as "through the roof '', and Glotzer said they were some of the best she had seen. It was decided to mostly omit Stephen King 's name from any advertising, as the studio wanted to attract a "more prestigious audience '' who might reject a film from a writer known mostly for pulp fiction works like The Shining and Cujo.
Following early September premieres at the Renaissance Theatre in Mansfield, and the Toronto International Film Festival, The Shawshank Redemption began a limited North American release on September 23, 1994. During its opening weekend, the film earned $727,000 from 33 theaters -- an average of $22,040 per theater. Following a Hollywood tradition of visiting different theaters on opening night to see the audiences view their film live, Darabont and Glotzer went to the Cinerama Dome, but found no one there. Glotzer claimed that the pair actually sold two tickets outside the theater with the promise that if the buyers did not like the film, they could ask Castle Rock for a refund. While critics praised the film, Glotzer believed that a lackluster review from the Los Angeles Times pushed crowds away. It received a wide release on October 14, 1994, expanding to a total of 944 theaters to earn $2.4 million -- an average of $2,545 per theater -- finishing as the number nine film of the weekend, behind sex - comedy Exit to Eden ($3 million), and just ahead of the historical drama Quiz Show ($2.1 million), which was in its fifth week at the cinemas. The Shawshank Redemption closed in late November 1994, after 10 weeks with an approximate total gross of $16 million. It was considered a box office bomb, failing to recoup its $25 million budget, not including marketing costs and the cinema exhibitors ' cuts.
The film was also competing with Pulp Fiction ($108 million), which also premiered October 14 following its Palme d'Or award win, and Forrest Gump ($330 million) which was in the middle of a successful 42 - week theatrical run. Both films would become quotable cultural phenomena. A general audience trend towards action films starring the likes of Bruce Willis and Arnold Schwarzenegger was also considered to work against the commercial success of The Shawshank Redemption. Freeman blamed the title, saying it was unmemorable, while Robbins recalled fans asking: "What was that Shinkshonk Reduction thing? ''. Several alternative titles had been posited before the release due to concerns that it was not a marketable title. The low box office was also blamed on a lack of female characters to broaden the audience demographic, and the general unpopularity of prison films.
After being nominated for several Oscars in early 1995, the film was re-released between February and March. In total, the film made about $28.3 million in North American theaters, and about $30 million from other markets for a worldwide total of $58.3 million. In the United States, it became the 51st - highest - grossing film of 1994, and the 21st - highest grossing R - rated film of 1994.
Despite its disappointing box - office returns, in what was then considered a risky move, Warner Home Video shipped 320,000 rental video copies throughout the United States in 1995. It went on to become one of the top rented films of the year. Positive recommendations and repeat customer viewings, and being well - received by both male and female audiences, were considered key to the film 's rental success.
Ted Turner 's Turner Broadcasting System had acquired Castle Rock in 1993, which enabled his TV channel, TNT, to obtain the cable - broadcast rights to the film. According to Glotzer, because of the low box office numbers, TNT could air the film at a very low cost, but still charge premium advertising rates. The film began airing regularly on the network in June 1997. TV airings of the film accrued record - breaking numbers, and its repeated broadcast was considered essential to turning the film into a cultural phenomenon after its poor box office performance. Darabont felt the turning point for the film 's success was the Academy Award nominations, saying "nobody had heard of the movie, and that year on the Oscar broadcast, they were mentioning this movie seven times ''. In 1996, the rights to The Shawshank Redemption were passed to Warner Bros., following the merger of its parent company Time Warner with the Turner Broadcasting System.
By 2013, The Shawshank Redemption had aired on fifteen basic cable networks, and in that year occupied 151 hours of airtime, rivaling Scarface (1983), and behind only Mrs. Doubtfire (1993). It was in the top 15 percent of movies among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 on the Spike, Up, SundanceTV, and Lifetime channels. Despite its mainly male cast it was the most watched movie on the female - targeted OWN network. In a 2014 Wall Street Journal article, it was estimated that based on the margins studios take from box office returns, home media sales, and television licensing, The Shawshank Redemption had made $100 million. Jeff Baker, then - executive vice president and general manager of Warner Bros. Home Entertainment, said that the home video sales had earned about $80 million. While Warner Bros. does not report what it earns in licensing the film for TV, in 2014 current and former executives at the studio confirmed that it was one of the highest valued assets in Warner Bros. $1.5 billion library. That same year, Gunton said that by its tenth anniversary in 2004, he was still earning six - figure residual payments, and was still earning a "substantial income '' from it, which was considered unusual so many years after its release.
The Shawshank Redemption opened to generally positive reviews. Some reviewers compared the film to other well - received prison dramas, including: Birdman of Alcatraz, One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, Cool Hand Luke, and Riot in Cell Block 11. Gene Siskel said that like One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, The Shawshank Redemption is an inspirational drama about overcoming overbearing authority.
Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman said that Freeman makes the Red character feel genuine and "lived - in ''. Janet Maslin of The New York Times said that Freeman was quietly impressive, but lamented that Red 's role in the film had limited range, restricted to observing Andy. She considered Freeman 's commanding performance made him a much stronger figure than simply an observer. Maslin said that Freeman 's performance was especially moving when describing how dependent Red had become on living within the prison walls. Variety 's Leonard Klady suggested that Freeman had the "showier '' role, allowing him "a grace and dignity that come naturally '', without ever becoming banal, and The Washington Post 's Desson Howe called Freeman a "master '' of comedic and poignant cadence. Even Kenneth Turan 's Los Angeles Times review, which Glotzer credited with derailing the film 's box office success, praised Freeman, saying his "effortless screen presence lends Shawshank the closest thing to credibility it can manage ''.
Of Robbins ' performance, Gleiberman said that in his "laconic - good - guy, neo-Gary Cooper role, (Robbins) is unable to make Andy connect with the audience ''. Conversely, Maslin said that Andy has the more subdued role, but that Robbins portrays him intensely, and effectively depicts the character as he transitions from new prisoner to aged father figure, and Klady stated that his "riveting, unfussy... precise, honest, and seamless '' performance anchors the film. Howe said that while the character is "cheesily messianic '' for easily charming everyone to his side, comparing him to "Forrest Gump goes to jail '', Robbins exudes the perfect kind of innocence to sell the story. The Hollywood Reporter stated that both Freeman and Robbins gave outstanding, layered performances that imbued their characters with individuality, and Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers said that the pair create something "undeniably powerful and moving ''. Gunton and Brown were cited as "extremely credible '' as villains, Howe countered that Gunton 's warden was a clichéd character who extols religious virtues while having people murdered.
Maslin called the film an impressive directorial debut that tells a gentle tale with a surprising amount of loving care, and Klady saying the only failings came when Darabont focused for too long on supporting characters, or embellished a secondary story. The Hollywood Reporter said that both the directing and writing were crisp, while criticizing the film 's long running time. Klady said that the length and tone, while tempered by humor and unexpected events, would dampen the film 's mainstream appeal, but the story offered a fascinating portrait of the innate humanity of the inmates. Gleiberman disliked that the prisoners ' crimes were overlooked to portray them more as good guys. Turan similarly objected to what he perceived as extreme violence and rape scenes, and making most of the prisoners seem like a "bunch of swell and softhearted guys '' to cast the prison experience in a "rosy glow ''. Klady summarized the film as "estimable and haunting entertainment '', comparing it to a rough diamond with small flaws, but Howe criticized it for deviating with multiple subplots, and pandering by choosing to resolve the story with Andy 's and Red 's reunion, rather than leaving the mystery. Ebert noted that the story works because it is not about Andy as the hero, but how Red perceives him.
Deakins cinematography was routinely praised, with The Hollywood Reporter calling it "foreboding '' and "well - crafted '', and Travers saying "the everyday agonies of prison life are meticulously laid out... you can almost feel the frustration and rage seeping into the skin of the inmates ''. Gleiberman praised the choice of scenery, writing that the "moss - dark, saturated images have a redolent sensuality '' that makes the film very realistic. The Hollywood Reporter said of Newman 's score, "at its best moments, alights with radiant textures and sprightly grace notes, nicely emblematic of the film 's central theme '', and Klady describing it as "the right balance between the somber and the absurd ''.
The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards in 1995, the most for a Stephen King film adaptation: Best Picture (Marvin), Best Actor (Freeman), Best Adapted Screenplay (Darabont), Best Cinematography (Deakins), Best Editing (Richard Francis - Bruce), Best Sound Mixing (Robert J. Litt, Elliot Tyson, Michael Herbick, and Willie D. Burton), and Best Original Score (Newman, his first Academy Award nomination). It did not win in any category. It received two Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture for Freeman, and Best Screenplay for Darabont.
Robbins and Freeman were both nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role at the inaugural Screen Actors Guild Awards in 1995. Darabont was nominated for a Directors Guild of America award in 1994 for Best Director of a feature film, and a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Deakins won the American Society of Cinematographers award for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography, while producer Niki Marvin was nominated for a 1994 Golden Laurel Award by the Producers Guild of America.
Darabont later adapted and directed two other King stories, The Green Mile (1999) and The Mist (2007). In a 2016 interview, King said that The Shawshank Redemption was his favorite adaptation of his work, alongside Stand by Me.
The oak tree, under which Andy leaves a note for Red directing him to Zihuatanejo, became a symbol of hope for its role in the film, and is considered iconic. In 2016, The New York Times reported that the tree attracted thousands of visitors annually. The tree was partially destroyed on July 29, 2011, when it was split by lightning; news of the damage was reported across the United States on newscasts, in newspapers, and on websites as far away as India. The tree was completely felled by strong winds on or around July 22, 2016, and its vestiges were cut down in April 2017. The remains were turned into The Shawshank Redemption memorabilia including rock hammers and magnets.
The prison site became a tourist attraction, with many of the rooms and props remaining including the false pipe through which Andy escapes, and a portion of the oak tree from the finale, after it was damaged in 2011. The surrounding area is also visited by fans, while local businesses market "Shawshanwiches '' and Bundt cakes in the shape of the prison. The prison itself was to be torn down completely following filming, but was eventually sold to enthusiasts for $1. According to the Mansfield / Richland County Convention and Visitors Bureau (later renamed Destination Mansfield), tourism in the area had increased every year since The Shawshank Redemption premiered, and in 2013 drew in 18,000 visitors and over $3 million to the local economy. In late August that year, a series of events were held in Mansfield to celebrate the film 's 20th anniversary including a screening of the film at the Renaissance Theatre, a bus tour of certain filming locations, and a cocktail party at the Reformatory. Cast from the film attended some of the events including Gunton, Scott Mann, Renee Blaine, and James Kisicki. As of 2017, Destination Mansfield operates the Shawshank Trail, a series of 15 marked stops around locations related to the film across Mansfield, Ashland, Upper Sandusky, and St. Croix.
Contemporary review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes offers a 91 % approval rating from 66 critics, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The consensus reads, "The Shawshank Redemption is an uplifting, deeply satisfying prison drama with sensitive direction and fine performances. '' The film also has a score of 80 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 20 critics indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In 1999, film critic Roger Ebert listed Shawshank on his list of The Great Movies. The film has been nominated for, or appeared on, the American Film Institute 's lists celebrating the top 100 film or film - related topics. In 1998, it was nominated for AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies list, and was No. 72 on the 2007 revised list, outranking Forrest Gump (No. 76) and Pulp Fiction (No. 94). It was also No. 23 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Cheers (2006) list charting inspiring films. The characters of Andy and Warden Norton received nominations for AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Heroes & Villains list; AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes list for "Get busy livin ', or get busy dyin ' ''; AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs list for "Duettino -- Sull'Aria '' (from The Marriage of Figaro); and AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores for Newman 's work. In 2005, the Writers Guild of America listed Darabont 's screenplay at No. 22 on its list of the 101 Greatest Screenplays, and in 2014, The Shawshank Redemption was named Hollywood 's fourth favorite film, based on a survey of 2,120 Hollywood - based entertainment industry members; entertainment lawyers skewed the most towards the film. In 2017, The Daily Telegraph named it the seventeenth - best prison film ever made. The Shawshank Redemption appeared on several lists of the greatest films of the 1990s, by outlets including: Paste and NME (2012), Complex (2013), CHUD.com (2014), MSN (2015), TheWrap, Maxim, and Rolling Stone (2017).
In November 2014, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences celebrated the film 's 20th anniversary with a special one - night screening at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California. In 2015, the film was selected by the United States Library of Congress to be preserved in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. Darabont responded: "I can think of no greater honor than for The Shawshank Redemption to be considered part of our country 's cinematic legacy. '' Variety said that the word "Shawshank '' could be used to instantly convey images of a prison.
Critics have sometimes struggled to define the immense public appreciation for the film. In an interview, Freeman said, "About everywhere you go, people say, ' The Shawshank Redemption -- greatest movie I ever saw ' '' and that such praise "Just comes out of them ''. Robbins said, "I swear to God, all over the world -- all over the world -- wherever I go, there are people who say, ' That movie changed my life ' ". In a separate interview, Stephen King said, "If that is n't the best (adaptation of my works), it 's one of the two or three best, and certainly, in moviegoers ' minds, it 's probably the best because it generally rates at the top of these surveys they have of movies... I never expected anything to happen with it. '' In a 2014 Variety article, Robbins claimed that South African politician Nelson Mandela told him about his love for the film, while it has been cited as a source of inspiration by several sportsmen including Jonny Wilkinson (UK), Agustín Pichot (Argentina), Al Charron (Canada), and Dan Lyle (USA), and Sarah Ferguson, the Duchess of York. Gunton said he had encountered fans in Morocco, Australia, South America, Germany, France, and Bora Bora. Director Steven Spielberg said that the film was "a chewing - gum movie -- if you step on it, it sticks to your shoe ''.
It has been the number 1 film on IMDb 's user - generated Top 250 since 2008, when it surpassed The Godfather, having remained at or near the top since the late 1990s. In the United Kingdom, readers of Empire magazine voted the film as the best of the 1990s, the greatest film of all time in 2006, and it placed number four on Empire 's 2008 list of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' and their 2017 list of "The 100 Greatest Movies ''. In March 2011, the film was voted by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra listeners as their favorite film of all time. It regularly appears on Empire 's top 100 films, was named the greatest film to not win the Academy Award for Best Picture in a 2013 poll by Sky UK (it lost to Forrest Gump), and ranked as Britain 's favorite film in a 2015 YouGov poll. When the British Film Institute analyzed the demographic breakdown of the YouGov poll, it noted that The Shawshank Redemption was not the top - ranked film in any group, but was the only film to appear in the top 15 of every age group, suggesting it is able to connect with every polled age group, unlike Pulp Fiction which fared better with younger voters, and Gone with the Wind (1939) with older voters. A 2017 poll conducted by Gatwick Airport also identified the film as the fourth - best to watch while in flight. When film critic Mark Kermode interviewed a host of United States moviegoers, they compared it to a "religious experience ''. It was also voted as New Zealand 's favorite film in a 2015 poll.
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what were the three demands made by the montgomery improvement association to the bus company | Montgomery Improvement Association - wikipedia
The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) was formed on December 5, 1955 by black ministers and community leaders in Montgomery, Alabama. Under the leadership of Ralph Abernathy, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Edgar Nixon, the MIA was instrumental in guiding the Montgomery bus boycott, a successful campaign that focused national attention on racial segregation in the South and catapulted King into the national spotlight.
Following Rosa Parks ' arrest on 1 December 1955 for failing to vacate her seat for a white passenger on a Montgomery city bus, Jo Ann Robinson of the Women 's Political Council and E.D. Nixon of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) launched plans for a one - day boycott of Montgomery buses on December 5, 1955, the following Monday.
According to Jo Ann Robinson, "Regular bus routes had to be followed so that workers who "walked along '' the streets could be picked up. This committee, headed by Alfonso Campbell and staffed by volunteer workers, worked all night Friday to complete this phase of the program. The pickup system was so effectively planned that many writers described it as comparable in precision to a military operation. What the ministers failed to do at that meeting was to select one person who would head the boycott. Those present discussed it, pointing out the leadership preparation of various individuals, but no definite decision was made. That had to wait until Monday afternoon, when the ministers realized that the one day boycott was going to be successful. Then they met again, and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., agreed to accept the leadership post. "(National Humanities Center "The Montgomery Buy Boycott and the Women Women Who Started It: The Memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson, ed. David J. Garrow, 1987, Ch. 2.)
Since no one knew what to expect, the empty buses were a complete surprise. The success of the boycott on December 5, and the excitement on the mass meeting on the evening of that day, removed any doubt about the strong motivation to continue the boycott. As King put it, "(t) he question of calling off the protest was now academic. The enthusiasm of these thousands of people swept everything along like an onrushing tidal wave. '' On the afternoon of December 5, the black leadership, consisting of civic and religious leaders of Montgomery, established the Montgomery Improvement Association. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was chosen to lead the MIA at the age of 26, with Ralph Abernathy, Jo Ann Robinson, E.D. Nixon, Rufus Lewis and other prominent figures at his side.
At a meeting that evening attended by several thousand community members, the MIA was established to oversee the continuation and maintenance of the boycott, and King, a young minister new to Montgomery, was elected its chairman president. According to Rosa Parks, "Dr. King was chosen in part because he was relatively new to the community and so did not have any enemies. '' The organization 's overall mission, extended beyond the boycott campaign, as it sought to "improve the general status of Montgomery, to improve race relations, and to uplift the general tenor of the community. ''
After the MIA 's initial meeting, the executive committee drafted the demands of the boycott and agreed that the campaign would continue until demands were met. Their demands included courteous treatment by bus operators, first - come, first - served seating, and employment of African American bus drivers.
Thus, despite the Supreme Court 's decision in Brown v. Board of Education, the MIA was initially willing to accept a compromise that was consistent with separate but equal rather than complete integration. In this respect, it followed the pattern of earlier boycott campaigns in the Deep South during the 1950s. A prime example was the successful boycott of service stations in Mississippi for refusing to provide restrooms for blacks. The organizer of that campaign, T.R.M. Howard of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership, had spoken in Montgomery as King 's guest at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church only days before Parks 's arrest.
Over the next year, the MIA organized carpools and held weekly gatherings with sermons and music to keep the black community mobilized. Also during this time period, officers of the organization negotiated with Montgomery city leaders, coordinated legal challenges with the NAACP to the city 's bus segregation ordinance, and supported the boycott financially, raising money by passing the plate at meetings and soliciting support from northern and southern civil rights organizations.
Following its success in Montgomery, the MIA became one of the founding organizations of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in January 1957. The MIA lost some vital momentum after King moved from Montgomery to Atlanta in 1960, but the organization continued campaigns throughout the 1960s, focusing on voter registration, local school integration, and the integration of Montgomery city parks. Although it lost momentum, it did however improve the life of black people living in Montgomery after the boycott.
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why was the battle of lake erie fought | Battle of Lake Erie - wikipedia
East Coast
Great Lakes / Saint Lawrence River
West Indies / Gulf Coast
Pacific Ocean
The Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes called the Battle of Put - in - Bay, was fought on 10 September 1813, in Lake Erie off the coast of Ohio during the War of 1812. Nine vessels of the United States Navy defeated and captured six vessels of the British Royal Navy. This ensured American control of the lake for the rest of the war, which in turn allowed the Americans to recover Detroit and win the Battle of the Thames to break the Indian confederation of Tecumseh. It was one of the biggest naval battles of the War of 1812.
When the war broke out, the British immediately seized control of Lake Erie. They already had a small force of warships there: the sloop - of - war Queen Charlotte and the brig General Hunter. The schooner Lady Prevost was under construction and was put into service a few weeks after the outbreak of war. These vessels were controlled by the Provincial Marine, which was a military transport service and not a naval service. Nevertheless, the Americans lacked any counter to the British armed vessels. The only American warship on Lake Erie, the brig Adams, was not ready for service at the start of the war, and when the American army of Brigadier General William Hull abandoned its invasion of Canada, Adams was pinned down in Detroit by the British batteries at Sandwich on the Canadian side of the Detroit River. The British Major - General Isaac Brock used his control of the lake to defeat Hull 's army at the Siege of Detroit, by cutting the American supply lines and rapidly transferring himself and some reinforcements to Amherstburg from where they launched a successful landing on the American side of the Detroit River.
The British took Adams when Detroit was surrendered, renaming her Detroit. Together with the brig Caledonia, which had been commandeered from the Canadian North West Company, she was boarded and captured near Fort Erie on 9 October, by American sailors and soldiers led by Lieutenant Jesse Elliot. Detroit ran aground on an island in the middle of the Niagara River and was set on fire to prevent her being recaptured. Caledonia was taken to the navy yard at Black Rock and commissioned into the United States Navy. Also present at Black Rock were the schooners Somers and Ohio and the sloop - rigged Trippe, which had all been purchased by the United States Navy and were being converted into gunboats. While the British held Fort Erie and the nearby batteries which dominated the Niagara River, all these vessels were pinned down and unable to leave Black Rock.
Late in 1812, Paul Hamilton, the United States Secretary of the Navy had received long - time American lake mariner Daniel Dobbins, who had escaped capture at Detroit and brought information on the British forces on Lake Erie. Dobbins recommended the bay of Presque Isle in Erie, Pennsylvania as a naval base on the lake. ("Presqu'isle '' is French for "peninsula '', literally "almost an island ''). Dobbins was dispatched to build four gunboats there, although Lieutenant Elliot objected to the lack of facilities. Commodore Isaac Chauncey had been appointed to command of the United States naval forces on the Great Lakes in September 1812. He made one brief visit to Erie on 1 January 1813 where he approved Dobbins 's actions and recommended collecting materials for a larger vessel, but then returned to Lake Ontario where he afterwards concentrated his energies.
In January 1813, William Jones (who had replaced Hamilton as the United States Secretary of the Navy) ordered the construction of two brig - rigged corvettes at Presque Isle, and transferred shipwright Noah Brown there from Sackets Harbor on Lake Ontario to take charge of construction. Other than their rig and crude construction (such as using wooden pegs instead of nails because of shortages of the latter), the two brigs were close copies of the contemporary USS Hornet. The heaviest armament for the ships came from foundries on Chesapeake Bay, and were moved to Presque Isle only with great difficulty. (The Americans were fortunate in that some of their largest cannon had been dispatched shortly before raiding parties under Rear - Admiral George Cockburn destroyed a foundry at Frenchtown on the eastern seaboard.) However, the Americans could get other materials and fittings from Pittsburgh, which was expanding as a manufacturing center, and smaller guns were borrowed from the Army.
Master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry had earlier been appointed to command on Lake Erie, through lobbying by Jeremiah B. Howell, the Senior Senator from Rhode Island, supplanting Lieutenant Elliot. He arrived at Presque Isle to take command at the end of March. Having arranged for the defense of Presque Isle, he proceeded to Lake Ontario to obtain reinforcements of seamen from Commodore Isaac Chauncey. After commanding the American schooners and gunboats at the Battle of Fort George, he then went to Black Rock where the American vessels had been released when the British abandoned Fort Erie at the end of May. Perry had them towed by draft oxen up the Niagara, an operation which took six days, and sailed with them along the shore to Presque Isle.
Meanwhile, Commander Robert Heriot Barclay was appointed to command the British squadron on Lake Erie. Another British officer had already endangered his career by refusing the appointment as success appeared unlikely. Barclay missed a rendezvous with Queen Charlotte at Point Abino and was forced to make the tedious journey to Amherstburg overland, arriving on 10 June. He brought with him only a handful of officers and seamen. When he took command of his squadron, the crews of his vessels numbered only seven British seamen, 108 officers and men of the Provincial Marine (whose quality Barclay disparaged), 54 men of the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles and 106 soldiers, effectively landsmen, from the 41st Foot. Nevertheless, he immediately set out in Queen Charlotte and Lady Prevost. He first reconnoitred Perry 's base at Presque Isle and determined that it was defended by 2,000 Pennsylvania militia, with batteries and redoubts. He then cruised the eastern end of Lake Erie, hoping to intercept the American vessels from Black Rock. The weather was hazy, and he missed them.
During July and August, Barclay received two small vessels, the schooner Chippeway and the sloop Little Belt, which had been reconstructed at Chatham on the Thames River and attempted to complete the ship - rigged corvette HMS Detroit at Amherstburg. Because the Americans controlled Lake Ontario and occupied the Niagara Peninsula in early 1813, supplies for Barclay had to be carried overland from York. The American victory earlier in the year at the Battle of York resulted in the guns (24 - pounder carronades) intended for Detroit falling into American hands. Detroit had to be completed with a miscellany of guns from the fortifications of Amherstburg. Barclay claimed at his court martial that these guns lacked flintlock firing mechanisms and matches, and that they could be fired only by snapping flintlock pistols over powder piled in the vent holes.
Barclay repeatedly requested men and supplies from Commodore James Lucas Yeo, commanding on Lake Ontario, but received very little. The commander of the British troops on the Detroit frontier, Major - General Henry Procter, was similarly starved of soldiers and munitions by his superiors. He declined to make an attack on Presque Isle unless he was reinforced, and instead he incurred heavy losses in an unsuccessful attack on Fort Stephenson, which he mounted at the urgings of some of his Indian warriors.
By mid-July, the American squadron was almost complete, although not yet fully manned (Perry claimed to have only 120 men fit for duty). The British squadron maintained a blockade of Presque Isle for ten days from 20 July to 29 July. The harbour had a sandbar across its mouth, with only 5 feet (1.5 m) of water over it, which prevented Barclay sailing in to attack the American ships (although Barclay briefly skirmished with the defending batteries on 21 July), but also prevented the Americans leaving in fighting order. Barclay had to lift the blockade on 29 July because of shortage of supplies and bad weather. It has also been suggested that Barclay left to attend a banquet in his honour, or that he wished the Americans to cross the bar and hoped to find them in disarray when he returned. Perry immediately began to move his vessels across the sandbar. This was an exhausting task. The guns had to be removed from all the boats, and the largest of them had to be raised between "camels '' (barges or lighters which were then emptied of ballast). When Barclay returned four days later, he found that Perry had nearly completed the task. Perry 's two largest brigs were not ready for action, but the gunboats and smaller brigs formed a line so confidently that Barclay withdrew to await the completion of Detroit.
Chauncey had dispatched 130 extra sailors under Lieutenant Jesse Elliot to Presque Isle. Although Perry described some of them as "wretched '', at least 50 of them were experienced sailors drafted from USS Constitution, then undergoing a refit in Boston. Perry also had a few volunteers from the Pennsylvania militia.
His vessels first proceeded to Sandusky, where they received further contingents of volunteers from Major General William Henry Harrison 's Army of the Northwest. After twice appearing off Amherstburg, Perry established an anchorage at Put - in - Bay, Ohio. For the next five weeks, Barclay was effectively blockaded and unable to move supplies to Amherstburg. His sailors, Procter 's troops, and the very large numbers of Indian warriors and their families there quickly ran out of supplies. After receiving a last - minute reinforcement of two naval officers, three warrant officers and 36 sailors transferred from a transport temporarily laid up in Quebec under Lieutenant George Bignall, Barclay had no choice but to put out again and seek battle with Perry.
In the days preceding the battle, Perry told his friend, Purser Samuel Hambleton, that he wanted a signal flag, or battle flag, to signal to his fleet when to engage the enemy. Hambleton suggested using the dying words of Perry 's friend Captain James Lawrence of the frigate USS Chesapeake, "Do n't Give up the Ship ''. Hambleton had the flag sewn by women of Erie, and presented it to Perry the day before the battle. The flag would become an icon in American naval history.
On the morning of 10 September, the Americans saw Barclay 's vessels heading for them, and got under way from their anchorage at Put - in - Bay. The wind was light. Barclay initially held the weather gauge, but the wind shifted and allowed Perry to close and attack. Both squadrons were in line of battle, with their heaviest vessels near the centre of the line.
The first shot was fired, from Detroit, at 11: 45. Perry hoped to get his two largest brigs, his flagship Lawrence and Niagara, into carronade range quickly, but in the light wind his vessels were making very little speed and Lawrence was battered by the assortment of long guns mounted in Detroit for at least 20 minutes before being able to reply effectively. When Lawrence was finally within carronade range at 12: 45, her fire was not as effective as Perry hoped, her gunners apparently having overloaded the carronades with shot.
Astern of Lawrence, Niagara, under Elliot, was slow to come into action and remained far out of effective carronade range. It is possible that Elliott was under orders to engage his opposite number, Queen Charlotte, and that Niagara was obstructed by Caledonia, but Elliot 's actions would become a matter of dispute between him and Perry for many years. Aboard Queen Charlotte, the British ship opposed to Niagara, the commander (Robert Finnis) and First Lieutenant were both killed. The next most senior officer, Lieutenant Irvine of the Provincial Marine, found that both Niagara and the American gunboats were far out of range, and passed the brig General Hunter to engage Lawrence at close range.
Although the American gunboats at the rear of the American line of battle steadily pounded the British ships in the centre of the action with raking shots from their long guns from a distance, Lawrence was reduced by the two British ships to a wreck. Four - fifths of Lawrence 's crew were killed or wounded. Both of the fleet 's surgeons were sick with lake fever, so the wounded were taken care of by the assistant, Usher Parsons. When the last gun on Lawrence became unusable, Perry decided to transfer his flag. He was rowed a half mile (1 km) through heavy gunfire to Niagara while Lawrence was surrendered. (It was later alleged that he left Lawrence after the surrender, but Perry had actually taken down only his personal pennant, in blue bearing the motto, "Do n't give up the ship ''.)
When Lawrence surrendered, firing died away briefly. Detroit collided with Queen Charlotte, both ships being almost unmanageable with damaged rigging and almost every officer killed or severely wounded. Barclay was severely wounded and his first lieutenant was killed, leaving Lieutenant Inglis in command. Most of the smaller British vessels were also disabled and drifting to leeward. The British nevertheless expected Niagara to lead the American schooners away in retreat. Instead, once aboard Niagara, Perry dispatched Elliot to bring the schooners into closer action, while he steered Niagara at Barclay 's damaged ships, helped by the strengthening wind.
Niagara broke through the British line ahead of Detroit and Queen Charlotte and luffed up to fire raking broadsides from ahead of them, while Caledonia and the American gunboats fired from astern. Although the crews of Detroit and Queen Charlotte managed to untangle the two ships they could no longer offer any effective resistance. Both ships surrendered at about 3: 00 pm. The smaller British vessels tried to flee but were overtaken and also surrendered.
Although Perry won the battle on Niagara, he received the British surrender on the deck of the recaptured Lawrence to allow the British to see the terrible price his men had paid.
The British lost 41 killed and 94 wounded. The surviving crews, including the wounded, numbered 306. Captain Barclay, who had previously lost his left arm in 1809, lost a leg and part of his thigh in the action while his remaining arm was rendered "permanently motionless ''. The Americans lost 27 killed and 96 wounded, of whom 2 later died. The heaviest American casualties were suffered aboard Lawrence, which had 2 officers and 20 men killed, and 6 officers and 55 men wounded.
Of the vessels involved, the three most battered (the American brig Lawrence and the British ships Detroit and Queen Charlotte) were converted into hospital ships. A gale swept the lake on 13 September and dismasted Detroit and Queen Charlotte, further shattering the already battered ships. Once the wounded had been ferried to Erie, Lawrence was restored to service for 1814, but the two British ships were effectively reduced to hulks.
Perry 's vessels and prizes were anchored and hasty repairs were underway near West Sister Island when Perry composed his now famous message to Harrison. Scrawled in pencil on the back of an old envelope, Perry wrote:
Dear General:
We have met the enemy and they are ours. Two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop.
Yours with great respect and esteem, O.H. Perry
Perry next sent the following message to the Secretary of the Navy, William Jones:
Brig Niagara, off the Western Sister, Head of Lake Erie, September 10, 1813, 4 P.M.
Sir: - It has pleased the Almighty to give to the arms of the United States a signal victory over their enemies on this lake. The British squadron, consisting of two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop, have this moment surrendered to the force under my command after a sharp conflict.
I have the honor to be, Sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, O.H. Perry
Once his usable vessels and prizes were patched up, Perry ferried 2,500 American soldiers to Amherstburg, which was captured without opposition on 27 September. Meanwhile, 1,000 mounted troops led by Richard Mentor Johnson moved by land to Detroit, which also was recaptured without fighting on or about the same day. The British army under Procter had made preparations to abandon its positions even before Procter knew the result of the battle. In spite of exhortations from Tecumseh, who led the confederation of Indian tribes allied to Britain, Procter had already abandoned Amherstburg and Detroit and began to retreat up the Thames River on 27 September. Lacking supplies, Tecumseh 's Indians had no option but to accompany him. Harrison caught up with Procter 's retreating force and defeated them on 5 October at the Battle of the Thames, where Tecumseh was killed, as was his second - in command and most experienced warrior, Wyandot Chief Roundhead.
The victory on Lake Erie had disproportionate strategic import. The Americans controlled Lake Erie for the remainder of the war. This accounted for much of the Americans ' successes on the Niagara peninsula in 1814 and also removed the threat of a British attack on Ohio, Pennsylvania, or Western New York.
However, an expedition in 1814 to recover Mackinac Island on Lake Huron failed, and the Americans lost eight of their smaller vessels and prizes. (Four were destroyed when the British captured Black Rock, where they were laid up, following the Battle of Buffalo at the end of 1813, and four were boarded and captured in separate incidents on Lake Erie and Lake Huron.)
After the war, there was a bitter quarrel between Perry and Elliot over their respective parts in the action, mostly fought at second hand in the press. On the British side, Barclay was exonerated of any blame by a court - martial but was too badly injured to see service again for several years.
In 1820 Lawrence and Niagara were intentionally sunk near Misery Bay in Lake Erie, as they had "went to rot. '' In 1875, Lawrence was raised and moved to Philadelphia, where she was displayed at the 1876 Centennial Exposition. Later that year, the ship burned when the pavilion that housed it caught fire. Although Niagara was raised and restored in 1913, she subsequently fell into disrepair. She was eventually disassembled, and portions of her were used in a reconstructed Niagara, which is now on view in Erie, Pennsylvania.
The 352 - foot (107 m) high Perry Monument within Perry 's Victory and International Peace Memorial now stands at Put - in - Bay, commemorating the men who fought in the battle.
Another 101 - foot (31 m) high Perry Monument is located at the eastern end of Presque Isle in Erie Pennsylvania. It stands next to Presque Isle Bay, where Niagara and Lawrence were built, stationed along with the rest of the American Squadron, and then scuttled after the war.
Most historians attribute the American victory to what Theodore Roosevelt described as, "Superior heavy metal ''. Perry 's leadership, particularly in the latter stages of the action, is also mentioned as a factor. The British historian C.S. Forester commented, "... it was as fortunate for the Americans that the Lawrence still possessed a boat that would float, as it was that Perry was not hit. ''
On the British side, William Bell served as constructor and built Detroit, which was the best - built ship on the lake. However, Detroit was built slowly, in part due to Bell 's perfectionism, and indeed it was the only purpose - built British warship constructed on Lake Erie during the war. The guns intended for Detroit were seized by the Americans at the time of their raid on Fort York the year before. This building imbalance, given the fact that six American ships were built in the same time frame, was another important cause of the American victory (although it might be argued that, even if Barclay had possessed more hulls, he would have been unable to obtain armament and crews for them).
The court - martial of Captain Barclay and his surviving officers determined that the Captain, his officers and men had "conducted themselves in the most gallant manner '' and found that the defeat was the result of American superiority, an insufficient number of able seamen and the early fall of superior officers in the action.
Listed in order of sailing:
Coordinates: 41 ° 39 ′ 44 '' N 82 ° 49 ′ 30 '' W / 41.66222 ° N 82.82500 ° W / 41.66222; - 82.82500
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what is the temperament of a newfoundland dog | Newfoundland dog - wikipedia
The Newfoundland dog is a large working dog. They can be either black, brown, or white - and - black (called Landseer). However, in Canada, the country of their origin, the only correct colours are either black or Landseer. They were originally bred and used as a working dog for fishermen in the Dominion of Newfoundland (which is now part of Canada). They are known for their giant size, intelligence, tremendous strength, calm dispositions, and loyalty. Newfoundland dogs excel at water rescue / lifesaving because of their muscular build, thick double coat, webbed feet, and innate swimming abilities.
The Newfoundlands (' Newfs ' or ' Newfies ') have webbed feet and a water - resistant coat. Males normally weigh 65 -- 80 kg (143 -- 176 lb), and females 55 -- 65 kg (121 -- 143 lb), placing them in the "Giant '' weight range; but some Newfoundland dogs have been known to weigh over 90 kg (200 lb) -- and the largest on record weighed 120 kg (260 lb) and measured over 1.8 m (6 ft) from nose to tail, ranking it among the biggest Molossers. They may grow up to 56 -- 76 cm (22 -- 30 in) tall at the shoulder.
The American Kennel Club (AKC) standard colors of the Newfoundland dogs are black, brown, grey, and white - and - black (sometimes referred to as Landseer). Other colors are possible but are not considered rare or more valuable. The Kennel Club (KC) permits only black, brown, and white / black; the Canadian Kennel Club (CKC) permits only black and white / black. The "Landseer '' pattern is named after the artist, Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, who featured them in many of his paintings. Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) consider the ECT Landseer ("European Continental Type '') to be a separate breed. It is a taller, more narrow white dog with black markings not bred with a Newfoundland.
The Newfoundland 's extremely large bones give it mass, while its large musculature gives it the power it needs to take on rough ocean waves and powerful tides. These dogs have huge lung capacity for swimming extremely long distances and a thick, oily, and waterproof double coat which protects them from the chill of icy waters. The double coat makes the dog hard to groom, and also causes a lot of shedding to occur. The droopy lips and jowls make the dog drool, especially in high heat.
In the water, the dog 's massive webbed paws give it maximum propulsion. The swimming stroke is not an ordinary dog paddle. Unlike other dogs, the Newfoundland moves its limbs in a down - and - out motion giving more power to every stroke.
The Newfoundland dog is known for its calm and docile nature and its strength. They are highly loyal and make ideal working dogs. It is for this reason that this breed is known as "the gentle giant ''. International kennel clubs generally describe the breed as having a sweet temper. It typically has a deep bark and is easy to train if started young. They are wonderfully good with children, but small children can get accidentally leaned on and knocked down. Newfoundlands are ideal companions in the world of therapy and are often referred to as the nanny dog. The breed was memorialized in "Nana '', the beloved guardian dog in J.M. Barrie 's Peter Pan. The Newfoundland, in general, is good with other animals, but its size can cause problems if it is not trained.
There are several health problems associated with Newfoundlands. Newfoundlands are prone to hip dysplasia (a malformed ball and socket in the hip joint). They also get Elbow dysplasia, and cystinuria (a hereditary defect that forms calculi stones in the bladder). Another genetic problem is subvalvular aortic stenosis (SAS). This is a common heart defect in Newfoundlands involving defective heart valves. SAS can cause sudden death at an early age. It is similar to having a heart attack. It is common that "Newfs '' live to be 8 to 10 years of age; 10 years is a commonly cited life expectancy. But, Newfoundlands can live up to 15 years old.
The Newfoundland shares many traits with other Mastiffs, such as the St. Bernard and English Mastiff, including stout legs, massive heads with very broad snouts, a thick bull neck, and a very sturdy bone structure. In fact, many St. Bernard Dogs have Newfoundland Dog ancestry. Newfoundlands were brought and introduced to the St. Bernard breed in the 18th century when the population was threatened by an epidemic of distemper. They share many characteristics of many mountain dog breeds such as the Great Pyrenees.
The Newfoundland breed originated on Newfoundland, and is descended from a breed indigenous to the island known as the lesser Newfoundland, or St. John 's dog. The Mastiff characteristics of the Newfoundland are likely a result of breeding with Portuguese Mastiffs brought to the island by Portuguese fishermen beginning in the 16th century.
By the time colonization was permitted in Newfoundland in 1610, the distinct physical characteristics and mental attributes had been established in the Newfoundland breed. In the early 1880s, fishermen and explorers from Ireland and England traveled to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, where they described two main types of working dog. One was heavily built, large with a longish coat, and the other medium - sized in build -- an active, smooth - coated water dog. The heavier breed was known as the Greater Newfoundland, or Newfoundland. The smaller breed was known as the Lesser Newfoundland, or St. John 's dog. The St. John 's dog became the founding breed of the modern retrievers. Both breeds were used as working dogs to pull fishnets, with the Greater Newfoundland also being used to haul carts and other equipment.
Because of that, they were part of the foundation stock of the Leonberger (which excelled at water rescue and was imported by the Canadian government for that purpose); and the now extinct Moscow Water Dog, a failed attempt at creating a lifesaving dog by the Russian state kennel -- the unfortunate outcross with the Caucasian Ovcharka begat a dog more adept at biting than rescuing.
Many tales have been told of the courage displayed by Newfoundlands in adventuring and lifesaving exploits. Over the last two centuries, this has inspired a number of artists, who have portrayed the dogs in paint, stone, bronze, and porcelain. One famous Newfoundland was a dog named Seaman, who accompanied American explorers Lewis and Clark on their expedition.
The breed 's working role was varied. Another famous all - black Newfoundland performed as the star attraction in Van Hare 's Magic Circus from 1862 and for many years thereafter in one of England 's founding circus acts, traveling throughout Europe. The circus dog was known as the "Thousand Guinea Dog Napoleon '' or "Napoleon the Wonder Dog. '' The circus owner, G. Van Hare, trained other Newfoundland dogs to perform a steeplechase routine with baboons dressed up as jockeys to ride them. Nonetheless, his "wizard dog '' Napoleon was his favorite and held a special position in the Magic Circus. Napoleon would compete at jumping against human rivals, leaping over horses from a springboard, and dancing to music.
Napoleon the Wonder Dog became a wildly popular act in London from his debut at the Pavilion Theatre on April 4, 1862, and onward until his untimely death many years later when he slipped and fell during a circus practice session. At the peak of his fame, his performance was described in London 's Illustrated Sporting News and Theatrical and Musical Review as follows: "Synopsis of his entertainment: -- He spells his own name with letters ' also that of the Prince of Wales; and when he is asked what he would say of her Most Gracious Majesty, he puts down letters to form "God save the Queen. '' He plays any gentleman a game of cards and performs the celebrated three - card trick upon which his master backs him at 100 to 1. Also "The Disappearance, '' a la Robin. He performs in a circus the same as a trick horse, en liberté, giving the Spanish trot to music, also leaping over bars, through balloons, with numerous other tricks of a most interesting character. ''
When Napoleon the Wonder Dog died, as a result of a circus accident at the age of 11 years old, his passing was announced in a number of British newspapers, including the Sheffield Daily Telegraph, which mentioned the loss on May 5, 1868, as follows: "DEATH OF A CELEBRATED FOUR - FOOTED ARTISTE. -- Mr. Van Hare 's renowned dog, Napoleon, designated ' The Wizard Dog, ' died on 24th ult., aged twelve years. He was a noble specimen of the Newfoundland breed (weighing near 200 lbs.) for which he took the prize at the first Agricultural Hall Dog Show. Besides his magnificent appearance and symmetry, he was the most extraordinary sagacious and highly - trained animal ever known. He is now being preserved and beautifully mounted by the celebrated naturalist, Mr. Edwin Ward. -- Era. ''
The breed prospered in the United Kingdom, until 1914 and again in 1939, when its numbers were almost fatally depleted by wartime restrictions. Since the 1950s there has been a steady increase in numbers and popularity, despite the fact that the Newfoundland 's great size and fondness for mud and water makes it unsuitable as a pet for many households.
William Withering, famous for his book on the use of Dropsy published in 1785, lived at Edgbaston Hall, Birmingham between 1786 and 1799. While there, he bred Newfoundland Dogs. There is very little else on his experiments with these dogs. His daughter Charlotte married a Beriah Botfield and they had a painting in Norton Hall by Samuel Cox of Daventry painted about 1830 - 1840 called "Portrait of Lion, a Newfoundland Dog, and Juba, a Pug Dog of Mrs. Botfield 's. This hung in the north front of Norton Hall. This painting would have been made around the same time that Landseer painted his portrait of Lion, the Newfoundland Dog. (See ' Catalogue of Pictures in the possession of Beriah Botfield esq.at Norton Hall ' published in London in 1848.
During the Discovery Channel 's second day of coverage of the AKC Eukanuba National Championship on December 3, 2006, anchor Bob Goen reported that Newfoundlands exhibit a very strong propensity to rescue people from water. Goen stated that one Newfoundland alone once aided the rescue of 63 shipwrecked sailors. Today, kennel clubs across the United States host Newfoundland Rescue Demonstrations, as well as offering classes in the field. Many harbor boat tours in St. John 's have a dog on board for local charm as well as for passenger safety.
Further evidence of Newfoundlands ' ability to rescue or support life - saving activities was cited in a recent article by the BBC. The breed continues in that role today, along with the Leonberger, Labrador Retriever and Golden Retriever dogs; they are used at the Italian School of Water Rescue Dogs, Scuola Italiana Cani Salvataggio, SICS, founded by Ferruccio Pilenga.
"The man they had got now was a jolly, light - hearted, thick - headed sort of a chap, with about as much sensitiveness in him as there might be in a Newfoundland puppy. You might look daggers at him for an hour and he would not notice it, and it would not trouble him if he did. '' Jerome K. Jerome Three Men in a Boat
"Newfoundland dogs are good to save children from drowning, but you must have a pond of water handy and a child, or else there will be no profit in boarding a Newfoundland. '' Josh Billings
"A man is not a good man to me because he will feed me if I should be starving, or warm me if I should be freezing, or pull me out of a ditch if I should ever fall into one. I can find you a Newfoundland dog that will do as much. '' Henry David Thoreau Walden
"Near this spot are deposited the remains of one who possessed Beauty without Vanity, Strength without Insolence, Courage without Ferocity, and all the Virtues of Man, without his Vices. This Praise, which would be unmeaning Flattery if inscribed over human ashes, is but a just tribute to the Memory of Boatswain, a Dog. '' George Gordon, Lord Byron, Epitaph to a Dog.
"That boat, Rover by name, which, though now in strange seas, had often pressed the beach of Captain Delano 's home, and, brought to its threshold for repairs, had familiarly lain there, as a Newfoundland dog; the sight of that household boat evoked a thousand trustful associations... '' Herman Melville Benito Cereno
"Your fatuous specialist is now beginning to rebuke "secondrate '' newspapers for using such phrases as "to suddenly go '' and "to boldly say ''. I ask you, Sir, to put this man out without interfering with his perfect freedom of choice between "to suddenly go '', "to go suddenly '' and "suddenly to go ''. Set him adrift and try an intelligent Newfoundland dog in his place. '' George Bernard Shaw, letter to the Chronicle newspaper (1892)
Brown Newfoundland
Landseer dog
Black Newfoundland
Newfoundland portrait
Notes
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when was the last time the washington capitals won a playoff series | List of Washington Capitals seasons - wikipedia
The Washington Capitals are a professional ice hockey team based in Washington, D.C. The team is a member of the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The Capitals played at the Capital Centre from their inaugural season in 1974 to 1997, when they moved to the MCI Center, now known as the Capital One Arena. In 42 completed seasons, the Capitals have qualified for the Stanley Cup playoffs 27 times but have never won the Stanley Cup.
The Capitals were founded in 1974 as an expansion team in the Prince of Wales Conference. The team had an 8 -- 67 -- 5 record and lost 37 straight road games in their inaugural season. The Capitals made their first playoffs in the 1982 -- 83 season and qualified for the playoffs for the following 13 seasons in a row. The Capitals won the Eastern Conference during their 1997 -- 98 season but were swept by the Detroit Red Wings in the 1998 Stanley Cup Finals.
The team moved to the Metropolitan Division in 2013 following divisional realignment. They were previously in the Southeast Division from 1998 to 2013. The Capitals have qualified for 8 of the last 9 playoffs, and won the Presidents ' Trophy in the 2009 -- 10, 2015 -- 16 and 2016 -- 17 seasons.
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where is new haven ct on a map | New Haven, Connecticut - wikipedia
New Haven (locally / nuː ˈheɪvən / noo - HAY - vən), in the U.S. state of Connecticut, is the principal municipality in Greater New Haven, which had a total population of 862,477 in 2010. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the northern shore of Long Island Sound in New Haven County, Connecticut, and is part of the New York metropolitan area. It is the second - largest city in Connecticut (after Bridgeport), with a population of 129,779 people as of the 2010 United States Census. According to a census of 1 July 2012, by the Census Bureau, the city had a population of 130,741.
New Haven was founded in 1638 by English Puritans, and a year later eight streets were laid out in a four - by - four grid, creating what is commonly known as the "Nine Square Plan ''. The central common block is the New Haven Green, a 16 - acre (6 ha) square, and the center of Downtown New Haven. The Green is now a National Historic Landmark and the "Nine Square Plan '' is recognized by the American Planning Association as a National Planning Landmark.
New Haven is the home of Yale University. The university is an integral part of the city 's economy, being New Haven 's biggest taxpayer and employer. Health care (hospitals and biotechnology), professional services (legal, architectural, marketing, and engineering), financial services, and retail trade also help to form an economic base for the city.
The city served as co-capital of Connecticut from 1701 until 1873, when sole governance was transferred to the more centrally located city of Hartford. New Haven has since billed itself as the "Cultural Capital of Connecticut '' for its supply of established theaters, museums, and music venues. New Haven is also the birthplace of George W. Bush, the 43rd President of the United States.
New Haven had the first public tree planting program in America, producing a canopy of mature trees (including some large elms) that gave New Haven the nickname "The Elm City ''.
Before Europeans arrived, the New Haven area was the home of the Quinnipiac tribe of Native Americans, who lived in villages around the harbor and subsisted off local fisheries and the farming of maize. The area was briefly visited by Dutch explorer Adriaen Block in 1614. Dutch traders set up a small trading system of beaver pelts with the local inhabitants, but trade was sporadic and the Dutch did not settle permanently in the area.
In 1637 a small party of Puritans reconnoitered the New Haven harbor area and wintered over. In April 1638, the main party of five hundred Puritans who had left the Massachusetts Bay Colony under the leadership of the Reverend John Davenport and London merchant Theophilus Eaton sailed into the harbor. It was their hope to set up a theological community with the government more closely linked to the church than the that in Massachusetts, and to exploit the area 's excellent potential as a port. The Quinnipiacs, who were under attack by neighboring Pequots, sold their land to the settlers in return for protection.
By 1640, "Qunnipiac 's '' theocratic government and nine - square grid plan were in place, and the town was renamed Newhaven. (However, the area to the north remained Quinnipiac until 1678, when it was renamed Hamden.) The settlement became the headquarters of the New Haven Colony, distinct from the Connecticut Colony previously established to the north centering on Hartford. Reflecting its theocratic roots, the New Haven Colony forbid the establishment of other churches, whereas the Connecticut Colony permitted them.
Economic disaster struck Newhaven in 1646, when the town sent its first fully loaded ship of local goods back to England. It never reached its destination, and its disappearance stymied New Haven 's development versus the rising trade powers of Boston and New Amsterdam.
In 1660, Colony founder John Davenport 's wishes were fulfilled, and Hopkins School was founded in New Haven with money from the estate of Edward Hopkins.
In 1661, the Regicides who had signed the death warrant of Charles I of England were pursued by Charles II. Two of them, Colonel Edward Whalley and Colonel William Goffe, fled to New Haven for refuge. Davenport arranged for them to hide in the West Rock hills northwest of the town. Later a third judge, John Dixwell, joined the others.
In 1664 New Haven became part of the Connecticut Colony when the two colonies were merged under political pressure from England, according to folklore as punishment for harboring the three judges (in reality, done in order to strengthen the case for the takeover of nearby New Amsterdam, which was rapidly losing territory to migrants from Connecticut). Some members of the New Haven Colony seeking to establish a new theocracy elsewhere went on to establish Newark, New Jersey.
It was made co-capital of Connecticut in 1701, a status it retained until 1873.
In 1716, the Collegiate School relocated from Old Saybrook to New Haven, establishing New Haven as a center of learning. In 1718, in response to a large donation from British East India Company merchant Elihu Yale, former Governor of Madras, the name of the Collegiate School was changed to Yale College.
For over a century, New Haven citizens had fought in the colonial militia alongside regular British forces, as in the French and Indian War. As the American Revolution approached, General David Wooster and other influential residents hoped that the conflict with the government in Britain could be resolved short of rebellion. On 23 April 1775, which is still celebrated in New Haven as Powder House Day, the Second Company, Governor 's Foot Guard, of New Haven entered the struggle against the governing British parliament. Under Captain Benedict Arnold, they broke into the powder house to arm themselves and began a three - day march to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Other New Haven militia members were on hand to escort George Washington from his overnight stay in New Haven on his way to Cambridge. Contemporary reports, from both sides, remark on the New Haven volunteers ' professional military bearing, including uniforms.
On July 5, 1779, 2,600 loyalists and British regulars under General William Tryon, governor of New York, landed in New Haven Harbor and raided the 3,500 - person town. A militia of Yale students had been preparing for battle, and former Yale president and Yale Divinity School professor Naphtali Daggett rode out to confront the Redcoats. Yale president Ezra Stiles recounted in his diary that while he moved furniture in anticipation of battle, he still could n't quite believe the revolution had begun. New Haven was not torched as the invaders did with Danbury in 1777, or Fairfield and Norwalk a week after the New Haven raid, so many of the town 's colonial features were preserved.
New Haven was incorporated as a city in 1784, and Roger Sherman, one of the signers of the Constitution and author of the "Connecticut Compromise '', became the new city 's first mayor.
The city struck fortune in the late 18th century with the inventions and industrial activity of Eli Whitney, a Yale graduate who remained in New Haven to develop the cotton gin and establish a gun - manufacturing factory in the northern part of the city near the Hamden town line. That area is still known as Whitneyville, and the main road through both towns is known as Whitney Avenue. The factory is now the Eli Whitney Museum, which has a particular emphasis on activities for children and exhibits pertaining to the A.C. Gilbert Company. His factory, along with that of Simeon North, and the lively clock - making and brass hardware sectors, contributed to making early Connecticut a powerful manufacturing economy; so many arms manufacturers sprang up that the state became known as "The Arsenal of America ''. It was in Whitney 's gun - manufacturing plant that Samuel Colt invented the automatic revolver in 1836. Many other talented machinists and firearms designers would go on to found successful firearms manufacturing companies in New Haven, including Oliver Winchester and O.F. Mossberg & Sons.
The Farmington Canal, created in the early 19th century, was a short - lived transporter of goods into the interior regions of Connecticut and Massachusetts, and ran from New Haven to Northampton, Massachusetts.
New Haven was home to one of the important early events in the burgeoning anti-slavery movement when, in 1839, the trial of mutineering Mende tribesmen being transported as slaves on the Spanish slaveship Amistad was held in New Haven 's United States District Court. There is a statue of Joseph Cinqué, the informal leader of the slaves, beside City Hall. See "Museums '' below for more information. Abraham Lincoln delivered a speech on slavery in New Haven in 1860, shortly before he secured the Republican nomination for President.
The American Civil War boosted the local economy with wartime purchases of industrial goods, including that of the New Haven Arms Company, which would later become the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. (Winchester would continue to produce arms in New Haven until 2006, and many of the buildings that were a part of the Winchester plant are now a part of the Winchester Repeating Arms Company Historic District.) After the war, population grew and doubled by the start of the 20th century, most notably due to the influx of immigrants from southern Europe, particularly Italy. Today, roughly half the populations of East Haven, West Haven, and North Haven are Italian - American. Jewish immigration to New Haven has left an enduring mark on the city. Westville was the center of Jewish life in New Haven, though today many have fanned out to suburban communities such as Woodbridge and Cheshire.
New Haven 's expansion continued during the two World Wars, with most new inhabitants being African Americans from the American South and Puerto Ricans. The city reached its peak population after World War II. The area of New Haven is only 17 square miles (44 km), encouraging further development of new housing after 1950 in adjacent, suburban towns. Moreover, as in other U.S. cities in the 1950s, New Haven began to suffer white flight of middle - class workers. One author suggested that aggressive redlining and rezoning made it difficult for residents to obtain financing for older, deteriorating urban housing stock, thereby condemning such structures to deterioration.
In 1954, then - mayor Richard C. Lee began some of the earliest major urban renewal projects in the United States. Certain sections of downtown New Haven were redeveloped to include museums, new office towers, a hotel, and large shopping complexes. Other parts of the city, particularly the Wooster Square and Fair Haven neighborhoods were affected by the construction of Interstate 95 along the Long Wharf section, Interstate 91, and the Oak Street Connector. The Oak Street Connector (Route 34), running between Interstate 95, downtown, and The Hill neighborhood, was originally intended as a highway to the city 's western suburbs but was only completed as a highway to the downtown area, with the area to the west becoming a boulevard (See "Redevelopment '' below).
In 1970, a series of criminal prosecutions against various members of the Black Panther Party took place in New Haven, inciting mass protests on the New Haven Green involving twelve thousand demonstrators and many well - known New Left political activists. (See "Political Culture '' below for more information).
From the 1960s through the late 1990s, central areas of New Haven continued to decline both economically and in terms of population despite attempts to resurrect certain neighborhoods through renewal projects. In conjunction with its declining population, New Haven experienced a steep rise in its crime rate.
Since approximately 2000, many parts of downtown New Haven have been revitalized with new restaurants, nightlife, and small retail stores. In particular, the area surrounding the New Haven Green has experienced an influx of apartments and condominiums. In recent years, downtown retail options have increased with the opening of new stores such as Urban Oufitters, J Crew, Origins, American Apparel, Gant Clothing, and an Apple Store, joining older stores such as Barnes & Noble and Raggs Clothing. In addition, two new supermarkets opened to serve downtown 's growing residential population. A Stop & Shop opened just west of downtown, while Elm City Market, located one block from the Green, opened in 2011. The recent turnaround of downtown New Haven has received positive press from various periodicals.
Major projects include the current construction of a new campus for Gateway Community College downtown, and also a 32 - story, 500 - unit apartment / retail building called 360 State Street. The 360 State Street project is now occupied and is the largest residential building in Connecticut. A new boathouse and dock is planned for New Haven Harbor, and the linear park Farmington Canal Trail is set to extend into downtown New Haven within the coming year. Additionally, foundation and ramp work to widen I - 95 to create a new harbor crossing for New Haven, with an extradosed bridge to replace the 1950s - era Q Bridge, has begun. The city still hopes to redevelop the site of the New Haven Coliseum, which was demolished in 2007.
In April 2009, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear a suit over reverse discrimination brought by 18 white firefighters against the city. The suit involved the 2003 promotion test for the New Haven Fire Department. After the tests were scored, no black firefighters scored high enough to qualify for consideration for promotion, so the city announced that no one would be promoted. In the subsequent Ricci v. DeStefano decision the court found 5 - 4 that New Haven 's decision to ignore the test results violated Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. As a result, a district court subsequently ordered the city to promote 14 of the white firefighters.
In 2010 and 2011, state and federal funds were awarded to Connecticut (and Massachusetts) to construct the Hartford Line, with a southern terminus at New Haven 's Union Station and a northern terminus at Springfield 's Union Station. According to the White House, "This corridor (currently) has one train per day connecting communities in Connecticut and Massachusetts to the Northeast Corridor and Vermont. The vision for this corridor is to restore the alignment to its original route via the Knowledge Corridor in western Massachusetts, improving trip time and increasing the population base that can be served. '' Set for construction in 2013, the "Knowledge Corridor high speed intercity passenger rail '' project will cost approximately $1 billion, and the ultimate northern terminus for the project is reported to be Montreal in Canada. Train speeds between will reportedly exceed 110 miles per hour (180 km / h) and increase both cities ' rail traffic exponentially.
The Greater New Haven Convention and Visitors Bureau has a more extensive list of New Haven firsts.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 20.1 square miles (52.1 km), of which 18.7 square miles (48.4 km) is land and 1.4 square miles (3.7 km), or 6.67 %, is water.
New Haven 's best - known geographic features are its large deep harbor, and two reddish basalt trap rock ridges which rise to the northeast and northwest of the city core. These trap rocks are known respectively as East Rock and West Rock, and both serve as extensive parks. West Rock has been tunneled through to make way for the east - west passage of the Wilbur Cross Parkway (the only highway tunnel through a natural obstacle in Connecticut), and once served as the hideout of the "Regicides '' (see: Regicides Trail). Most New Haveners refer to these men as "The Three Judges ''. East Rock features the prominent Soldiers and Sailors war monument on its peak as well as the "Great / Giant Steps '' which run up the rock 's cliffside.
The city is drained by three rivers; the West, Mill, and Quinnipiac, named in order from west to east. The West River discharges into West Haven Harbor, while the Mill and Quinnipiac rivers discharge into New Haven Harbor. Both harbors are embayments of Long Island Sound. In addition, several smaller streams flow through the city 's neighborhoods, including Wintergreen Brook, the Beaver Ponds Outlet, Wilmot Brook, Belden Brook, and Prospect Creek. Not all of these small streams have continuous flow year - round.
New Haven lies in the transition between a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfa) and humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), typical of much of the New York metropolitan area. Summers are very warm and often humid, with average temperatures exceeding 80 ° F (27 ° C) on 70 days per year. In summer, the Bermuda High creates as southern flow of warm and humid air, with frequent thundershowers. Fall and spring are normally mild and of equal length. Winters are moderately cold and both rain and snow fall in winter. The weather patterns that affect New Haven result from a primarily offshore direction, thus reducing the marine influence of Long Island Sound -- although, like other marine areas, differences in temperature between areas right along the coastline and areas a mile or two inland can be large at times. During summer heat waves, temperatures may reach 95 ° F (35 ° C) or higher on occasion with heat - index values of over 100 ° F (38 ° C).
New Haven has a long tradition of urban planning and a purposeful design for the city 's layout. The city could be argued to have some of the first preconceived layouts in the country. Upon founding, New Haven was laid out in a grid plan of nine square blocks; the central square was left open, in the tradition of many New England towns, as the city green (a commons area). The city also instituted the first public tree planting program in America. As in other cities, many of the elms that gave New Haven the nickname "Elm City '' perished in the mid-20th century due to Dutch Elm disease, although many have since been replanted. The New Haven Green is currently home to three separate historic churches which speak to the original theocratic nature of the city. The Green remains the social center of the city today. It was named a National Historic Landmark in 1970.
Downtown New Haven, occupied by nearly 7,000 residents, has a more residential character than most downtowns. The downtown area provides about half of the city 's jobs and half of its tax base and in recent years has become filled with dozens of new upscale restaurants, several of which have garnered national praise (such as Ibiza (now under new management as "Olea ''), recognized by Esquire and Wine Spectator magazines as well as the New York Times as the best Spanish food in the country), in addition to shops and thousands of apartments and condominium units which subsequently help overall growth of the city.
The city has many distinct neighborhoods. In addition to Downtown, centered on the central business district and the Green, are the following neighborhoods: the west central neighborhoods of Dixwell and Dwight; the southern neighborhoods of The Hill, historic water - front City Point (or Oyster Point), and the harborside district of Long Wharf; the western neighborhoods of Edgewood, West River, Westville, Amity, and West Rock - Westhills; East Rock, Cedar Hill, Prospect Hill, and Newhallville in the northern side of town; the east central neighborhoods of Mill River and Wooster Square, an Italian - American neighborhood; Fair Haven, an immigrant community located between the Mill and Quinnipiac rivers; Quinnipiac Meadows and Fair Haven Heights across the Quinnipiac River; and facing the eastern side of the harbor, The Annex and East Shore (or Morris Cove).
New Haven 's economy originally was based in manufacturing, but the postwar period brought rapid industrial decline; the entire Northeast was affected, and medium - sized cities with large working - class populations, like New Haven, were hit particularly hard. Simultaneously, the growth and expansion of Yale University further affected the economic shift. Today, over half (56 %) of the city 's economy is now made up of services, in particular education and health care; Yale is the city 's largest employer, followed by Yale -- New Haven Hospital. Other large employers include Southern Connecticut State University, Assa Abloy lock manufacturing, the Knights of Columbus headquarters, Higher One, Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Covidien and United Illuminating. Yale and Yale - New Haven are also among the largest employers in the state, and provide more $100,000 + - salaried positions than any other employer in Connecticut.
Industry sectors: Agriculture (. 6 %), Construction and Mining (4.9 %), Manufacturing (2.9 %), Transportation and Utilities (2.9 %), Trade (21.7 %), Finance and Real Estate (7.1 %), Services (55.9 %), Government (4.0 %)
The Knights of Columbus, the world 's largest Catholic fraternal service organization and a Fortune 1000 company, is headquartered in New Haven. Two more Fortune 1000 companies are based in Greater New Haven: the electrical equipment producers Hubbell, based in Orange, and Amphenol, based in Wallingford. Eight Courant 100 companies are based in Greater New Haven, with four headquartered in New Haven proper. New Haven - based companies traded on stock exchanges include NewAlliance Bank, the second largest bank in Connecticut and fourth - largest in New England (NYSE: NAL), Higher One Holdings (NYSE: ONE), a financial services firm United Illuminating, the electricity distributor for southern Connecticut (NYSE: UIL), Achillion Pharmaceuticals (NASDAQ: ACHN), Alexion Pharmaceuticals (ALXN), and Transpro Inc. (AMEX: TPR). Vion Pharmaceuticals is traded OTC (OTC BB: VIONQ. OB). Other notable companies based in the city include the Peter Paul Candy Manufacturing Company (the candy - making division of the Hershey Company), and the American division of Assa Abloy (one of the world 's leading manufacturers of locks). The Southern New England Telephone Company (SNET) began operations in the city as the District Telephone Company of New Haven in 1878; the company remains headquartered in New Haven as a subsidiary of Frontier Communications and provides telephone service for all but two municipalities in Connecticut. SeeClickFix was founded and has been headquartered in the city since 2007.
The U.S. Census Bureau reports a 2010 population of 129,779, with 47,094 households and 25,854 families within the city of New Haven. The population density is 6,859.8 people per square mile (2,648.6 / km2). There are 52,941 housing units at an average density of 2,808.5 per square mile (1,084.4 / km2). The racial makeup of the city is 42.6 % White, 35.4 % African American, 0.5 % Native American, 4.6 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 12.9 % from other races, and 3.9 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 27.4 % of the population. Non-Hispanic Whites were 31.8 % of the population in 2010, down from 69.6 % in 1970. The city 's demography is shifting rapidly: New Haven has always been a city of immigrants and the Latino population is growing rapidly. Previous influxes among ethnic groups have been African - Americans in the postwar era, and Irish, Italian and (to a lesser degree) Slavic peoples in the prewar period.
As of the 2010 census, of the 47,094 households, 29.3 % have children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.5 % include married couples living together, 22.9 % have a female householder with no husband present, and 45.1 % are non-families. 36.1 % of all households are made up of individuals and 10.5 % have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.40 and the average family size 3.19.
The ages of New Haven 's residents are 25.4 % under the age of 18, 16.4 % from 18 to 24, 31.2 % from 25 to 44, 16.7 % from 45 to 64, and 10.2 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age is 29 years, which is significantly lower than the national average. There are 91.8 males per 100 females. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $29,604, and the median income for a family is $35,950. Median income for males is $33,605, compared with $28,424 for females. The per capita income for the city is $16,393. About 20.5 % of families and 24.4 % of the population live below the poverty line, including 32.2 % of those under age 18 and 17.9 % of those age 65 or over.
It is estimated that 14 % of New Haven residents are pedestrian commuters, ranking it number four by highest percentage in the United States. This is primarily due to New Haven 's small area and the presence of Yale University.
New Haven is a predominantly Roman Catholic city, as the city 's Dominican, Irish, Italian, Mexican, Ecuadorian, and Puerto Rican populations are overwhelmingly Catholic. The city is part of the Archdiocese of Hartford. Jews also make up a considerable portion of the population, as do Black Baptists. There is a growing number of (mostly Puerto Rican) Pentecostals as well. There are churches for all major branches of Christianity within the city, multiple store - front churches, ministries (especially in working - class Latino and Black neighborhoods), a mosque, many synagogues (including two yeshivas), and other places of worship; the level of religious diversity in the city is high.
A study of the demographics of the New Haven metro area, based on age, educational attainment, and race and ethnicity, found that they were the closest of any American city to the national average.
New Haven is governed via the mayor - council system. Connecticut municipalities (like those of neighboring states Massachusetts and Rhode Island) provide nearly all local services (such as fire and rescue, education, snow removal, etc.), as county government has been abolished since 1960.
New Haven County merely refers to a grouping of towns and a judicial district, not a governmental entity. New Haven is a member of the South Central Connecticut Regional Council of Governments (SCRCOG), a regional agency created to facilitate coordination between area municipal governments and state and federal agencies, in the absence of county government.
Toni Harp is the mayor of New Haven. She was sworn in as the 50th mayor of New Haven on January 1, 2014 and is the first woman to hold that office.
The city council, called the Board of Alders, consists of thirty members, each elected from single - member wards. Each of the 30 wards consists of slightly over 4,300 residents; redistricting takes place every ten years.
The city is overwhelmingly Democratic. In 2015, of the town 's 68,555 voters, 70 % were registered as Democrats, and 3 % were registered as Republicans; 26 % were unaffiliated. The board of alders is dominated by Democrats; no Republican has been a New Haven alder since 2011.
New Haven is served by the New Haven Police Department, which had 443 sworn officers in 2011. The city is also served by the New Haven Fire Department.
New Haven lies within Connecticut 's 3rd congressional district and has been represented by Rosa DeLauro since 1991. Martin Looney and Gary Holder - Winfield represent New Haven in the Connecticut State Senate, and the city lies within six districts (numbers 92 through 97) of the Connecticut House of Representatives.
The Greater New Haven area is served by the New Haven Judicial District Court and the New Haven Superior Court, both headquartered at the New Haven County Courthouse. The federal District Court for the District of Connecticut has a New Haven facility, the Richard C. Lee United States Courthouse.
New Haven is the birthplace of former president George W. Bush, who was born when his father, former president George H.W. Bush, was living in New Haven while a student at Yale. In addition to being the site of the college educations of both Presidents Bush, as Yale students, New Haven was also the temporary home of former presidents William Howard Taft, Gerald Ford, and Bill Clinton, as well as Secretary of State John Kerry. President Clinton met his wife, former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, while the two were students at Yale Law School. Former vice presidents John C. Calhoun and Dick Cheney also studied in New Haven (although the latter did not graduate from Yale). Before the 2008 election, the last time there was not a person with ties to New Haven and Yale on either major party 's ticket was 1968. James Hillhouse, a New Haven native, served as President pro tempore of the United States Senate in 1801.
A predominantly Democratic city, New Haven voters overwhelmingly supported Al Gore in the 2000 election, Yale graduate John Kerry in 2004, and Barack Obama in 2008 and 2012. In the 2008 election, New Haven County was third among all Connecticut counties in campaign contributions, after Fairfield and Hartford counties. (Connecticut, in turn, was ranked 14th among all states in total campaign contributions.)
New Haven was the subject of Who Governs? Democracy and Power in An American City, a very influential book in political science by preeminent Yale professor Robert A. Dahl, which includes an extensive history of the city and thorough description of its politics in the 1950s. New Haven 's theocratic history is also mentioned several times by Alexis de Tocqueville in his classic volume on 19th - century American political life, Democracy in America. New Haven was the residence of conservative thinker William F. Buckley, Jr., in 1951, when he wrote his influential God and Man at Yale. William Lee Miller 's The Fifteenth Ward and the Great Society (1966) similarly explores the relationship between local politics in New Haven and national political movements, focusing on Lyndon Johnson 's Great Society and urban renewal.
George Williamson Crawford, a Yale Law School graduate, served as the city 's first black corporation counsel from 1954 to 1962, under Mayor Richard C. Lee.
In 1970, the New Haven Black Panther trials took place, the largest and longest trials in Connecticut history. Black Panther Party co-founder Bobby Seale and ten other party members were tried for murdering an alleged informant. Beginning on May Day, the city became a center of protest for 12,000 Panther supporters, college students, and New Left activists (including Jean Genet, Benjamin Spock, Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, and John Froines), who amassed on the New Haven Green, across the street from where the trials were being held. Violent confrontations between the demonstrators and the New Haven Police occurred, and several bombs were set off in the area by radicals. The event became a rallying point for the New Left and critics of the Nixon Administration.
During the summer of 2007, New Haven was the center of protests by anti-immigration groups who opposed the city 's program of offering municipal ID cards, known as the Elm City Resident Card, to illegal immigrants. In 2008, the country of Ecuador opened a consulate in New Haven to serve the large Ecuadorean immigrant population in the area. It is the first foreign mission to open in New Haven since Italy opened a consulate (now closed) in the city in 1910.
In April 2009, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear a suit over reverse discrimination brought by 20 white and Hispanic firefighters against the city. The suit involved the 2003 promotion test for the New Haven Fire Department. After the tests were scored, no blacks scored high enough to qualify for consideration for promotion, so the city announced that no one would be promoted. On 29 June 2009, the United States Supreme Court ruled in favor of the firefighters, agreeing that they were improperly denied promotion because of their race. The case, Ricci v. DeStefano, became highly publicized and brought national attention to New Haven politics due to the involvement of then - Supreme Court nominee (and Yale Law School graduate) Sonia Sotomayor in a lower court decision.
Garry Trudeau, creator of the political Doonesbury comic strip, attended Yale University. There he met fellow student and later Green Party candidate for Congress Charles Pillsbury, a long - time New Haven resident for whom Trudeau 's comic strip is named. During his college years, Pillsbury was known by the nickname "The Doones ''. A theory of international law, which argues for a sociological normative approach in regards to jurisprudence, is named the New Haven Approach, after the city. Connecticut US senator Richard Blumenthal is a Yale graduate, as is former Connecticut US Senator Joe Lieberman who also was a New Haven resident for many years, before moving back to his hometown of Stamford.
Crime increased in the 1990s, with New Haven having one of the ten highest violent crime rates per capita in the United States. In the late 1990s New Haven 's crime began to stabilize. The city, adopting a policy of community policing, saw crime rates drop during the 2000s.
Violent crime levels vary dramatically among New Haven 's neighborhoods, with some areas having crime rates in line with the state of Connecticut average, and others having extremely high rates of crime. A 2011 New Haven Health Department report identifies these issues in greater detail.
In 2010, New Haven ranked as the 18th most dangerous city in the United States (albeit below the safety benchmark of 200.00 for the second year in a row). However, according to a completely different analysis conducted by the "24 / 7 Wall Street Blog '', in 2011 New Haven had risen to become the fourth most dangerous city in the United States, and was widely cited in the press as such.
However, an analysis by the Regional Data Cooperative for Greater New Haven, Inc., has shown that due to issues of comparative denominators and other factors, such municipality - based rankings can be considered inaccurate. For example, two cities of identical population can cover widely differing land areas, making such analyses irrelevant. The research organization called for comparisons based on neighborhoods, blocks, or standard methodologies (similar to those used by Brookings, DiversityData, and other established institutions), not based on municipalities.
New Haven is a notable center for higher education. Yale University, at the heart of downtown, is one of the city 's best known features and its largest employer. New Haven is also home to Southern Connecticut State University, part of the Connecticut State University System, and Albertus Magnus College, a private institution. Gateway Community College has a campus in downtown New Haven, formerly located in the Long Wharf district; Gateway consolidated into one campus downtown into a new state - of - the - art campus (on the site of the old Macy 's building) and was open for the Fall 2012 semester.
There are several institutions immediately outside of New Haven, as well. Quinnipiac University and the Paier College of Art are located just to the north, in the town of Hamden. The University of New Haven is located not in New Haven but in neighboring West Haven.
New Haven Public Schools is the school district serving the city. Wilbur Cross High School and Hillhouse High School are New Haven 's two largest public secondary schools.
Hopkins School, a private school, was founded in 1660 and is the fifth - oldest educational institution in the United States. New Haven is home to a number of other private schools as well as public magnet schools, including Metropolitan Business Academy, High School in the Community, Hill Regional Career High School, Co-op High School, New Haven Academy, Edgewood Magnet School, ACES Educational Center for the Arts, the Foote School and the Sound School, all of which draw students from New Haven and suburban towns. New Haven is also home to two Achievement First charter schools, Amistad Academy and Elm City College Prep, and to Common Ground, an environmental charter school.
The city is home to New Haven Promise, a scholarship funded by Yale University for students who meet the requirements. Students must be enrolled in a public high school (charters included) for four years, be a resident of the city during that time, carry a 3.0 cumulative grade - point average, have a 90 - percent attendance rate and perform 40 hours of service to the city. The initiative was launched in 2010 and there are currently more than 500 scholars enrolled in qualifying Connecticut colleges and universities. There are more than 60 cities in the country that have a Promise - type program for their students.
Livability.com named New Haven as the Best Foodie City in the country in 2014. There are 56 Zagat - rated restaurants in New Haven, the most in Connecticut and the third most in New England (after Boston and Cambridge). More than 120 restaurants are located within two blocks of the New Haven Green. The city is home to an eclectic mix of ethnic restaurants and small markets specializing in various foreign foods. Represented cuisines include Malaysian, Ethiopian, Spanish, Belgian, French, Greek, Latin American, Mexican, Italian, Thai, Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, Korean, Indian, Jamaican, Cuban, Peruvian, Syrian / Lebanese, and Turkish.
New Haven 's greatest culinary claim to fame may be its pizza, which has been claimed to be among the best in the country, or even in the world. New Haven - style pizza, called "apizza '' (pronounced ah - BEETS, (aˈpitts) in the original Italian dialect), made its debut at the iconic Frank Pepe Pizzeria Napoletana (known as Pepe 's) in 1925. Apizza is baked in coal - or wood - fired brick ovens, and is notable for its thin crust. Apizza may be red (with a tomato - based sauce) or white (with a sauce of garlic and olive oil), and pies ordered "plain '' are made without the otherwise customary mozzarella cheese (originally smoked mozzarella, known as "scamorza '' in Italian). A white clam pie is a well - known specialty of the restaurants on Wooster Street in the Little Italy section of New Haven, including Pepe 's and Sally 's Apizza (which opened in 1938). Modern Apizza on State Street, which opened in 1934, is also well - known.
A second New Haven gastronomical claim to fame is Louis ' Lunch, which is located in a small brick building on Crown Street and has been serving fast food since 1895. Though fiercely debated, the restaurant 's founder Louis Lassen is credited by the Library of Congress with inventing the hamburger and steak sandwich. Louis ' Lunch broils hamburgers, steak sandwiches and hot dogs vertically in original antique 1898 cast iron stoves using gridirons, patented by local resident Luigi Pieragostini in 1939, that hold the meat in place while it cooks.
A third New Haven gastronomical claim to fame is Miya 's, the first sustainable sushi restaurant in the world. Miya 's, founded by Chef Yoshiko Lai in 1982, featured the first sustainable seafood - based sushi menu, the first plant - based sushi menu, and the first invasive species menu in the world. Second generation Miya 's chef, Bun Lai, is the 2016 White House Champions of Change for Sustainable Seafood and a James Beard Foundation Award nominee. Chef Bun Lai is credited as the first chef in the world for implementing a sustainability paradigm to the cuisine of sushi.
During weekday lunchtime, over 150 lunch carts and food trucks from neighborhood restaurants cater to different student populations throughout Yale 's campus. The carts cluster at three main points: by Yale -- New Haven Hospital in the center of the Hospital Green (Cedar and York streets), by Yale 's Trumbull College (Elm and York streets), and on the intersection of Prospect and Sachem streets by the Yale School of Management.
Popular farmers ' markets, managed by the local non-profit CitySeed, set up shop weekly in several neighborhoods, including Westville / Edgewood Park, Fair Haven, Upper State Street, Wooster Square, and Downtown / New Haven Green.
A large grocery store, the Elm City Market, opened on 360 State Street in New Haven in early fall 2011 and served local produce and groceries to the community. Originally, the market was a member - owned co-op, but debt defaults in August 2014 forced a sale of the business. It is now an employee - owned business; the co-op's previous owners received no equity in the new business.
In the past several years, two separate Downtown food tour companies have started offering popular restaurant tours on weekends. Taste of New Haven Tours offers several different weekly restaurant / bar tours and a popular pizza, bike, and pints tour. Culinary Walking Tours offers monthly restaurant tours and sponsors an annual Elm City Iron Chef competition.
The city hosts numerous theatres and production houses, including the Yale Repertory Theatre, the Long Wharf Theatre, and the Shubert Theatre. There is also theatre activity from the Yale School of Drama, which works through the Yale University Theatre and the student - run Yale Cabaret. Southern Connecticut State University hosts the Lyman Center for the Performing Arts. The shuttered Palace Theatre (opposite the Shubert Theatre) is being renovated and will reopen as the College Street Music Hall in May, 2015. Smaller theatres include the Little Theater on Lincoln Street. Cooperative Arts and Humanities High School also boasts a state - of - the - art theatre on College Street. The theatre is used for student productions, and is the home to weekly services to a local non-denominational church, the City Church New Haven.
The Shubert Theatre once premiered many major theatrical productions before their Broadway debuts. Productions that premiered at the Shubert include Oklahoma! (which was also written in New Haven), Carousel, South Pacific, My Fair Lady, The King and I, and The Sound of Music, and the Tennessee Williams play A Streetcar Named Desire.
Bow Tie Cinemas owns and operates the Criterion Cinemas, the first new movie theater to open in New Haven in over 30 years and the first luxury movie complex in the city 's history. The Criterion has seven screens and opened in November 2004, showing a mix of upscale first run commercial and independent film.
New Haven has a variety of museums, many of them associated with Yale. The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library features an original copy of the Gutenberg Bible. There is also the Connecticut Children 's Museum; the Knights of Columbus museum near that organization 's world headquarters; the Peabody Museum of Natural History; the Yale University Collection of Musical Instruments; the Eli Whitney Museum (across the town line in Hamden, Connecticut, on Whitney Avenue); the Yale Center for British Art, which houses the largest collection of British art outside the U.K., and the Yale University Art Gallery, the nation 's oldest college art museum. New Haven is also home to the New Haven Museum and Historical Society on Whitney Avenue, which has a library of many primary source treasures dating from Colonial times to the present.
Artspace on Orange Street is one of several contemporary art galleries around the city, showcasing the work of local, national, and international artists. Others include City Gallery and A. Leaf Gallery in the downtown area. Westville galleries include Kehler Liddell, Jennifer Jane Gallery, and The Hungry Eye. The Erector Square complex in the Fair Haven neighborhood houses the Parachute Factory gallery along with numerous artist studios, and the complex serves as an active destination during City - Wide Open Studios held yearly in October.
New Haven is the home port of a life - size replica of the historical Freedom Schooner Amistad, which is open for tours at Long Wharf pier at certain times during the summer. Also at Long Wharf pier is the Quinnipiack schooner, offering sailing cruises of the harbor area throughout the summer. The Quinnipiack also functions as a floating classroom for hundreds of local students.
The New Haven Green is the site of many free music concerts, especially during the summer months. These have included the New Haven Symphony Orchestra, the July Free Concerts on the Green in July, and the New Haven Jazz Festival in August. The Jazz Festival, which began in 1982, is one of the longest - running free outdoor festivals in the U.S., until it was canceled for 2007. Headliners such as The Breakfast, Dave Brubeck, Ray Charles and Celia Cruz have historically drawn 30,000 to 50,000 fans, filling up the New Haven Green to capacity. The New Haven Jazz Festival was revived in 2008 and has been sponsored since by Jazz Haven.
New Haven is home to the concert venue Toad 's Place, and a new venue, College Street Music Hall. The city has retained an alternative art and music underground that has helped to influence post-punk era music movements such as indie, college rock and underground hip - hop. Other local venues include Cafe Nine, BAR, Pacific Standard Tavern, Stella Blues, Three Sheets, Firehouse 12, and Rudy 's.
The Yale School of Music contributes to the city 's music scene by offering hundreds of free concerts throughout the year at venues in and around the Yale campus. Large performances are held in the 2,700 - seat Woolsey Hall auditorium, which contains the world 's largest symphonic organs, while chamber music and recitals are performed in Sprague Hall.
Hardcore band Hatebreed are from Wallingford, but got their start in New Haven under the name Jasta 14. The band Miracle Legion formed in New Haven in 1983.
In addition to the Jazz Festival (described above), New Haven serves as the home city of the annual International Festival of Arts and Ideas. New Haven 's Saint Patrick 's Day parade, which began in 1842, is New England 's oldest St. Patty 's Day parade and draws the largest crowds of any one - day spectator event in Connecticut. The St. Andrew the Apostle Italian Festival has taken place in the historic Wooster Square neighborhood every year since 1900. Other parishes in the city celebrate the Feast of Saint Anthony of Padua and a carnival in honor of St. Bernadette Soubirous. New Haven celebrates Powder House Day every April on the New Haven Green to commemorate the city 's entrance into the Revolutionary War. The annual Wooster Square Cherry Blossom Festival commemorates the 1973 planting of 72 Yoshino Japanese cherry blossom trees by the New Haven Historic Commission in collaboration with the New Haven Parks Department and residents of the neighborhood. The Festival now draws well over 5,000 visitors. The Film Fest New Haven has been held annually since 1995.
In the past decade downtown has seen an influx of new restaurants, bars, and nightclubs. Large crowds are drawn to the Crown Street area downtown on weekends where many of the restaurants and bars are located. Crown Street between State and High streets has dozens of establishments, as do nearby Temple and College streets. Away from downtown, Upper State Street has a number of restaurants and bars popular with local residents and weekend visitors.
New Haven is served by the daily New Haven Register, the weekly "alternative '' New Haven Advocate (which is run by Tribune, the corporation owning the Hartford Courant), the online daily New Haven Independent, and the monthly Grand News Community Newspaper. Downtown New Haven is covered by an in - depth civic news forum, Design New Haven. The Register also backs PLAY magazine, a weekly entertainment publication. The city is also served by several student - run papers, including the Yale Daily News, the weekly Yale Herald and a humor tabloid, Rumpus Magazine. WTNH Channel 8, the ABC affiliate for Connecticut, WCTX Channel 59, the MyNetworkTV affiliate for the state, Connecticut Public Television station WEDY channel 65, a PBS affiliate, and WTXX Channel 34, the IntrigueTV affiliate, broadcast from New Haven. All New York City news and sports team stations broadcast to New Haven County.
New Haven has a history of professional sports franchises dating back to the 19th century and has been the home to professional baseball, basketball, football, hockey, and soccer teams -- including the New York Giants of the National Football League from 1973 to 1974, who played at the Yale Bowl. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, New Haven consistently had minor league hockey and baseball teams, which played at the New Haven Arena (built in 1926, demolished in 1972), New Haven Coliseum (1972 -- 2002), and Yale Field (1928 -- present).
When John DeStefano, Jr., became mayor of New Haven in 1995, he outlined a plan to transform the city into a major cultural and arts center in the Northeast, which involved investments in programs and projects other than sports franchises. As nearby Bridgeport built new sports facilities, the brutalist New Haven Coliseum rapidly deteriorated. Believing the upkeep on the venue to be a drain of tax dollars, the DeStefano administration closed the Coliseum in 2002; it was demolished in 2007. New Haven 's last professional sports team, the New Haven County Cutters, left in 2009. The DeStefano administration did, however, see the construction of the New Haven Athletic Center in 1998, a 94,000 - square - foot (8,700 m) indoor athletic facility with a seating capacity of over 3,000. The NHAC, built adjacent to Hillhouse High School, is used for New Haven public schools athletics, as well as large - scale area and state sporting events; it is the largest high school indoor sports complex in the state.
New Haven was the host of the 1995 Special Olympics World Summer Games; then - President Bill Clinton spoke at the opening ceremonies. The city is home to the Pilot Pen International tennis event, which takes place every August at the Connecticut Tennis Center, one of the largest tennis venues in the world. New Haven biannually hosts "The Game '' between Yale and Harvard, the country 's second - oldest college football rivalry. Numerous road races take place in New Haven, including the USA 20K Championship during the New Haven Road Race.
Greater New Haven is home to a number of college sports teams. The Yale Bulldogs play Division I college sports, as do the Quinnipiac Bobcats in neighboring Hamden. Division II athletics are played by Southern Connecticut State University and the University of New Haven (actually located in neighboring West Haven), while Albertus Magnus College athletes perform at the Division III level.
New Haven is home to many New York Yankees fans due to the proximity of New York City.
Walter Camp, deemed the "father of American football, '' was a New Havener.
The New Haven Warriors rugby league team play in the AMNRL. They have a large number of Pacific Islanders playing for them. Their field is located at the West Haven High School 's Ken Strong Stadium. They won the 2008 AMNRL Grand Final.
New Haven has many architectural landmarks dating from every important time period and architectural style in American history. The city has been home to a number of architects and architectural firms that have left their mark on the city including Ithiel Town and Henry Austin in the 19th century and Cesar Pelli, Warren Platner, Kevin Roche, Herbert Newman and Barry Svigals in the 20th. The Yale School of Architecture has fostered this important component of the city 's economy. Cass Gilbert, of the Beaux - Arts school, designed New Haven 's Union Station and the New Haven Free Public Library and was also commissioned for a City Beautiful plan in 1919. Frank Lloyd Wright, Marcel Breuer, Alexander Jackson Davis, Philip C. Johnson, Gordon Bunshaft, Louis Kahn, James Gamble Rogers, Frank Gehry, Charles Willard Moore, Stefan Behnisch, James Polshek, Paul Rudolph, Eero Saarinen and Robert Venturi all have designed buildings in New Haven. Yale 's 1950s - era Ingalls Rink, designed by Eero Saarinen, was included on the America 's Favorite Architecture list created in 2007.
Many of the city 's neighborhoods are well - preserved as walkable "museums '' of 19th - and 20th - century American architecture, particularly by the New Haven Green, Hillhouse Avenue and other residential sections close to Downtown New Haven. Overall, a large proportion of the city 's land area is National (NRHP) historic districts. One of the best sources on local architecture is New Haven: Architecture and Urban Design, by Elizabeth Mills Brown.
The five tallest buildings in New Haven are:
Many historical sites exist throughout the city, including 59 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Of these, nine are among the 60 U.S. National Historic Landmarks in Connecticut. The New Haven Green, one of the National Historic Landmarks, was formed in 1638, and is home to three 19th - century churches. Below one of the churches (referred to as the Center Church on - the - Green) lies a 17th - century crypt, which is open to visitors. Some of the more famous burials include the first wife of Benedict Arnold and the aunt and grandmother of President Rutherford B. Hayes; Hayes visited the crypt while President in 1880. The Old Campus of Yale University is located next to the Green, and includes Connecticut Hall, Yale 's oldest building and a National Historic Landmark. The Hillhouse Avenue area, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is also a part of Yale 's campus, has been called a walkable museum, due to its 19th - century mansions and street scape; Charles Dickens is said to have called Hillhouse Avenue "the most beautiful street in America '' when visiting the city in 1868.
In 1660, Edward Whalley (a cousin and friend of Oliver Cromwell) and William Goffe, two English Civil War generals who signed the death warrant of King Charles I, hid in a rock formation in New Haven after having fled England upon the restoration of Charles II to the English throne. They were later joined by a third regicide, John Dixwell. The rock formation, which is now a part of West Rock Park, is known as Judges ' Cave, and the path leading to the cave is called the Regicides Trail.
After the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1776, the Connecticut colonial government ordered the construction of Black Rock Fort (to be built on top of an older 17th - century fort) to protect the port of New Haven. In 1779, during the Battle of New Haven, British soldiers captured Black Rock Fort and burned the barracks to the ground. The fort was reconstructed in 1807 by the federal government (on orders from the Thomas Jefferson administration), and rechristened Fort Nathan Hale, after the Revolutionary War hero who had lived in New Haven. The cannons of Fort Nathan Hale were successful in defying British war ships during the War of 1812. In 1863, during the Civil War, a second Fort Hale was built next to the original, complete with bomb - resistant bunkers and a moat, to defend the city should a Southern raid against New Haven be launched. The United States Congress deeded the site to the state in 1921, and all three versions of the fort have been restored. The site is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places and receives thousands of visitors each year.
Grove Street Cemetery, a National Historic Landmark which lies adjacent to Yale 's campus, contains the graves of Roger Sherman, Eli Whitney, Noah Webster, Josiah Willard Gibbs, Charles Goodyear and Walter Camp, among other notable burials. The cemetery is known for its grand Egyptian Revival gateway. The Union League Club of New Haven building, located on Chapel Street, is notable for not only being a historic Beaux - Arts building, but also is built on the site where Roger Sherman 's home once stood; George Washington is known to have stayed at the Sherman residence while President in 1789 (one of three times Washington visited New Haven throughout his lifetime).
Two sites pay homage to the time President and Chief Justice William Howard Taft lived in the city, as both a student and later Professor at Yale: a plaque on Prospect Street marks the site where Taft 's home formerly stood, and downtown 's Taft Apartment Building (formerly the Taft Hotel) bears the name of the former President who resided in the building for eight years before becoming Chief Justice of the United States.
Lighthouse Point Park, a public beach run by the city, was a popular tourist destination during the Roaring Twenties, attracting luminaries of the period such as Babe Ruth and Ty Cobb. The park remains popular among New Haveners, and is home to the Five Mile Point Lighthouse, constructed in 1847, and the Lighthouse Point Carousel, constructed in 1916. Five Mile Point Light was decommissioned in 1877 following the construction of Southwest Ledge Light at the entrance of the harbor, which remains in service to this day. Both of the lighthouses and the carousel are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Other historic sites in the city include the Soldiers and Sailors Monument, which stands at the summit of East Rock, the Marsh Botanical Garden, Wooster Square, Dwight Street, Louis ' Lunch, and the Farmington Canal, all of which date back to the 19th century. Other historic parks besides the Green include Edgerton Park, Edgewood Park, and East Rock Park, each of which is included on the National Register of Historic Places.
New Haven is connected to New York City by commuter rail, regional rail and inter-city rail, provided by Metro - North Railroad (commuter rail), Shore Line East (commuter rail), and Amtrak (regional and intercity rail) respectively, allowing New Haven residents to commute to work in New York City (just under two hours by train).
The city 's main railroad station is the historic Beaux - arts Union Station, which serves Metro - North trains to New York and Shore Line East commuter trains to New London. An additional station was opened in 2002, named State Street Station, to provide Shore Line East and a few peak - hour Metro - North passengers easier access to and from Downtown.
Union Station is further served by four Amtrak lines: the Northeast Regional and the high - speed Acela Express provide service to New York, Washington, D.C. and Boston, and rank as the first and second busiest routes in the country; the New Haven -- Springfield Line provides service to Hartford and Springfield, Massachusetts; and the Vermonter provides service to both Washington, D.C., and Vermont, 15 miles (24 km) from the Canada -- US border. Amtrak also codeshares with United Airlines for travel to any airport serviced by United Airlines, via Newark Airport (EWR) originating from or terminating at Union Station, (IATA: ZVE).
Metro - North has the third highest daily ridership among commuter rails in the country, with an average weekday ridership of 276,000 in 2009. Of the 276,000 Metro - North riders, 112,000 rode the New Haven Line each day, which would make the New Haven Line seventh in the country in daily ridership if it were alone an entire commuter rail system. Shore Line East ranked nineteenth in the country, with an average daily ridership of 2,000.
Additionally, the Connecticut Department of Transportation plans to add a new commuter service called the Hartford Line in collaboration with Amtrak and the federal government that will run between New Haven and Springfield, Massachusetts with a terminus at Union Station in Downtown New Haven. As of late 2015, funding had been secured and the service is scheduled to begin operation in early 2018.
The New Haven Division of Connecticut Transit (CT Transit), the state 's bus system, is the second largest division in the state with 24 routes. All routes originate from the New Haven Green, making it the central transfer hub of the city. Service is provided to 19 different municipalities throughout Greater New Haven.
CT Transit 's Union Station Shuttle provides free service from Union Station to the New Haven Green and several New Haven parking garages. Peter Pan and Greyhound bus lines have scheduled stops at Union Station, and connections downtown can be made via the Union Station Shuttle. A private company operates the New Haven / Hartford Express which provides commuter bus service to Hartford. The Yale University Shuttle provides free transportation around New Haven for Yale students, faculty, and staff.
The New Haven Division buses follow routes that had originally been covered by trolley service. Horse - drawn steetcars began operating in New Haven in the 1860s, and by the mid-1890s all the lines had become electric. In the 1920s and 1930s, some of the trolley lines began to be replaced by bus lines, with the last trolley route converted to bus in 1948. The City of New Haven is in the very early stages of considering the restoration of streetcar (light - rail) service, which has been absent since the postwar period.
The Farmington Canal Trail is a rail trail that will eventually run continuously from downtown New Haven to Northampton, Massachusetts. The scenic trail follows the path of the historic New Haven and Northampton Company and the Farmington Canal. Currently, there is a continuous 14 - mile (23 km) stretch of the trail from downtown, through Hamden and into Cheshire, making bicycle commuting between New Haven and those suburbs possible. The trail is part of the East Coast Greenway, a proposed 3,000 - mile (4,800 km) bike path that would link every major city on the East Coast from Florida to Maine.
In 2004, the first bike lane in the city was added to Orange Street, connecting East Rock Park and the East Rock neighborhood to downtown. Since then, bike lanes have also been added to sections of Howard Ave, Elm St, Dixwell Avenue, Water Street, Clinton Avenue and State Street. The city has created recommended bike routes for getting around New Haven, including use of the Canal Trail and the Orange Street lane. As of the end of 2012, bicycle lanes have also been added in both directions on Dixwell Avenue along most of the street from downtown to the Hamden town line, as well as along Howard Avenue from Yale New Haven Hospital to City Point.
The city has plans to create two additional bike lanes connecting Union Station with downtown, and the Westville neighborhood with downtown. The city has added dozens of covered bike parking spots at Union Station, in order to facilitate more bike commuting to the station.
New Haven lies at the intersection of Interstate 95 on the coast -- which provides access southwards and / or westwards to the western coast of Connecticut and to New York City, and eastwards to the eastern Connecticut shoreline, Rhode Island, and eastern Massachusetts -- and Interstate 91, which leads northward to the interior of Massachusetts and Vermont and the Canada -- US border. I - 95 is infamous for traffic jams increasing with proximity to New York City; on the east side of New Haven it passes over the Quinnipiac River via the Pearl Harbor Memorial, or "Q Bridge '', which often presents a major bottleneck to traffic. I - 91, however, is relatively less congested, except at the intersection with I - 95 during peak travel times.
The Oak Street Connector (Connecticut Route 34) intersects I - 91 at exit 1, just south of the I - 95 / I - 91 interchange, and runs northwest for a few blocks as an expressway spur into downtown before emptying onto surface roads. The Wilbur Cross Parkway (Connecticut Route 15) runs parallel to I - 95 west of New Haven, turning northwards as it nears the city and then running northwards parallel to I - 91 through the outer rim of New Haven and Hamden, offering an alternative to the I - 95 / I - 91 journey (restricted to non-commercial vehicles). Route 15 in New Haven is the site of the only highway tunnel in the state (officially designated as Heroes Tunnel), running through West Rock, home to West Rock Park and the Three Judges Cave.
The city also has several major surface arteries. U.S. Route 1 (Columbus Avenue, Union Avenue, Water Street, Forbes Avenue) runs in an east - west direction south of downtown serving Union Station and leading out of the city to Milford, West Haven, East Haven and Branford. The main road from downtown heading northwest is Whalley Avenue (partly signed as Route 10 and Route 63) leading to Westville and Woodbridge. Heading north towards Hamden, there are two major thoroughfares, Dixwell Avenue and Whitney Avenue. To the northeast are Middletown Avenue (Route 17), which leads to the Montowese section of North Haven, and Foxon Boulevard (Route 80), which leads to the Foxon section of East Haven and to the town of North Branford. To the west is Route 34, which leads to the city of Derby. Other major intracity arteries are Ella Grasso Boulevard (Route 10) west of downtown, and College Street, Temple Street, Church Street, Elm Street, and Grove Street in the downtown area.
Traffic safety is a major concern for drivers, pedestrians and cyclists in New Haven. In addition to many traffic - related fatalities in the city each year, since 2005, over a dozen Yale students, staff and faculty have been killed or injured in traffic collisions on or near the campus.
Tweed New Haven Regional Airport is located within the city limits 3 miles (5 km) east of the business district, and provides daily service to Philadelphia through American Eagle. Bus service between Downtown New Haven and Tweed is available via the CT Transit New Haven Division Bus "G ''. Taxi service and rental cars (including service by Hertz, Avis, Enterprise and Budget) are available at the airport. Travel time from Tweed to downtown takes less than 15 minutes by car.
New Haven Harbor is home to the Port of New Haven, a deep - water seaport with three berths capable of hosting vessels and barges as well as the facilities required to handle break bulk cargo. The port has the capacity to load 200 trucks a day from the ground or via loading docks. Rail transportation access is available, with a private switch engine for yard movements and private siding for loading and unloading. Approximately 400,000 square feet (40,000 m) of inside storage and 50 acres (200,000 m) of outside storage are available at the site. Five shore cranes with a 250 - ton capacity and 26 forklifts, each with a 26 - ton capacity, are also available.
In June 17, 2013, the city commissioned the Nathan Hale, a 36 foot (11 m) Port Security vessel capable of serving search and rescue, firefighting, and constabulary roles.
The New Haven area supports several medical facilities that are considered some of the best hospitals in the country. There are two major medical centers downtown: Yale -- New Haven Hospital has four pavilions, including the Yale -- New Haven Children 's Hospital and the Smilow Cancer Hospital; the Hospital of Saint Raphael is several blocks north, and touts its excellent cardiac emergency care program. Smaller downtown health facilities are the Temple Medical Center located downtown on Temple Street, Connecticut Mental Health Center / across Park Street from Y - NHH, and the Hill Health Center, which serves the working - class Hill neighborhood. A large Veterans Affairs hospital is located in neighboring West Haven. To the west in Milford is Milford Hospital, and to the north in Meriden is the MidState Medical Center.
Yale and New Haven are working to build a medical and biotechnology research hub in the city and Greater New Haven region, and are succeeding to some extent. The city, state and Yale together run Science Park, a large site three blocks northwest of Yale 's Science Hill campus. This multi-block site, approximately bordered by Mansfield Street, Division Street, and Shelton Avenue, is the former home of Winchester 's and Olin Corporation 's 45 large - scale factory buildings. Currently, sections of the site are large - scale parking lots or abandoned structures, but there is also a large remodeled and functioning area of buildings (leased primarily by a private developer) with numerous Yale employees, financial service and biotech companies.
A second biotechnology district is being planned for the median strip on Frontage Road, on land cleared for the never - built Route 34 extension. As of late 2009, a Pfizer drug - testing clinic, a medical laboratory building serving Yale -- New Haven Hospital, and a mixed - use structure containing parking, housing and office space, have been constructed on this corridor. A former SNET telephone building at 300 George Street is being converted into lab space, and has been so far quite successful in attracting biotechnology and medical firms.
Electricity for New Haven is generated by a 448 MW oil and gas - fired generating station located on the shore at New Haven Harbor. Pennsylvania Power and Light (PPL) Inc. operates a 220 MW peaking natural gas turbine plant in nearby Wallingford.
Near New Haven there is the static inverter plant of the HVDC Cross Sound Cable. There are three PureCell Model 400 fuel cells placed in the city of New Haven -- one at the New Haven Public Schools and newly constructed Roberto Clemente School, one at the mixed - use 360 State Street building, and one at City Hall. According to Giovanni Zinn of the city 's Office of Sustainability, each fuel cell may save the city up to $1 million in energy costs over a decade. The fuel cells were provided by ClearEdge Power, formerly UTC Power.
Several recent movies have been filmed in New Haven, including Mona Lisa Smile (2003), with Julia Roberts, The Life Before Her Eyes (2007), with Uma Thurman, and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008) directed by Steven Spielberg and starring Harrison Ford, Cate Blanchett and Shia LaBeouf. The filming of Crystal Skull involved an extensive chase sequence through the streets of New Haven. Several downtown streets were closed to traffic and received a "makeover '' to look like streets of 1957, when the film is set. 500 locals were cast as extras for the film. In Everybody 's Fine (2009), Robert De Niro has a close encounter in what is supposed to be the Denver train station; the scene was filmed in New Haven 's Union Station.
New Haven has seven sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International:
Some of these were selected because of historical connection -- Freetown because of the Amistad trial. Others, such as Amalfi and Afula - Gilboa, reflect ethnic groups in New Haven.
In 1990, the United Nations named New Haven a "Peace Messenger City ''.
* Consolidated borough and town
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which of these is not the full form of one of the sapta swaras in indian classical music | Svara - wikipedia
Svara or swara is a Sanskrit word that connotes a note in the successive steps of the octave. More comprehensively, it is the ancient Indian concept about the complete dimension of musical pitch.
The swara differs from the shruti concept in Indian music. A shruti is the smallest gradation of pitch that a human ear can detect and a singer or instrument can produce. A swara is the selected pitches from which the musician constructs the scales, melodies and ragas. The ancient Sanskrit text Natya Shastra identifies and discusses twenty two shruti and seven swara. The swara studies in ancient Sanskrit texts include the musical gamut and its tuning, categories of melodic models and the raga compositions.
The seven notes of the musical scale in Indian classical music are shadja (षड्ज), rishabha (ऋषभ), gandhara (गान्धार), madhyama (मध्यम), panchama (पञ्चम), dhaivata (धैवत) and nishada (निषाद). These seven swaras are shortened to Sa, Ri (Carnatic) or Re (Hindustani), Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni. Collectively these notes are known as the sargam (the word is an acronym of the consonants of the first four swaras). Sargam is the Indian equivalent to solfege, a technique for the teaching of sight - singing. The tone Sa is, as in Western moveable - Do solfège, the tonic of a piece or scale.
The word swara (Sanskrit: स्वर) is derived from the root svr which means "to sound ''.
The word is found in the Vedic literature, particularly the Samaveda, where it means accent and tone, or a musical note, depending on the context. The discussion there focusses on three accent pitch or levels: svarita (sounded, circumflex normal), udatta (high, raised) and anudatta (low, not raised). However, scholars question whether the singing of hymns and chants were always limited to three during the Vedic era. The word also appears in other texts. For example, it appears in Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana section 111.33, where the cyclic rise and setting of sun and world, is referred to as "the music of spheres '', and the sun is stated to be "humming the wheel of the world ''. According to Ananda Coomaraswamy, the roots "svar, meaning "to shine '' (whence surya or sun), and svr, meaning "to sound or resound '' (whence swara, "musical note '') and also in some contexts "to shine '', are all related in the ancient Indian imagination.
The swara concept is found in Chapter 28 of the ancient Natya Shastra, estimated to have been completed between 200 BCE to 200 CE. It calls the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as Śhruti, with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows,
तत्र स्वराः -- षड्जश्च ऋषभश्चैव गान्धारो मध्यमस्तथा । पञ्चमो धैवतश्चैव सप्तमोऽथ निषादवान् ॥ २१ ॥
These seven swaras are shared by both major raga systems of Indian classical music, that is the North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic).
In the general sense swara means tone, and applies to chanting and singing. The basic swaras of Vedic chanting are udatta, anudatta and svarita. The musical octave is said to have evolved from the elaborate and elongated chants of Sama Veda, based on these basic swaras. Siksha is the subject that deals with phonetics and pronunciation. Naradiya Siksha elaborately discusses the nature of swaras, both Vedic chants and the octave.
The solfege (sargam) is learnt in abbreviated form of swara: sa, ri (Carnatic) or re (Hindustani), ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Of these, the first that is "sa '', and the fifth that is "pa '', are considered anchors that are unalterable, while the remaining have flavors that differs between the two major systems.
Through svara, Īśvara (God) is realized.
-- A proverb among Indian musicians Translator: Guy Beck
A dot above a letter indicates that the note is sung one octave higher, and a dot below indicates one octave lower. Komal notes are indicated by an underscore, and the tívra Ma has a line on top which can be vertical or horizontal. (Or, if a note with the same name - Sa, for example - is an octave higher than the note represented by S, an apostrophe is placed to the right: S '. If it is an octave lower, the apostrophe is placed to the left: ' S. Apostrophes can be added as necessary to indicate the octave: for example, ` ` g would be the note komal Ga in the octave two octaves below that which begins on the note S (that is, two octaves below g).)
The basic mode of reference is that which is equivalent to the Western Ionian mode or major scale (called Bilaval thaat in Hindustani music, Dheerashankarabharanam in Carnatic). All relationships between pitches follow from this. In any seven - tone mode (starting with S), R, G, D, and N can be natural (shuddha, lit. ' pure ') or flat (komal, ' soft ') but never sharp, and the M can be natural or sharp (teevra) but never flat, making twelve notes as in the Western chromatic scale. If a swara is not natural (shuddha), a line below a letter indicates that it is flat (komal) and an acute accent above indicates that it is sharp (teevra, ' intense '). Sa and Pa are immovable (once Sa is selected), forming a just perfect fifth.
In some notation systems, the distinction is made with capital and lowercase letters. When abbreviating these tones, the form of the note which is relatively lower in pitch always uses a lowercase letter, while the form which is higher in pitch uses an uppercase letter. So komal Re / Ri uses the letter r and shuddha Re / Ri, the letter R, but shuddha Ma uses m because it has a raised form - teevra Ma - which uses the letter M. Sa and Pa are always abbreviated as S and P, respectively, since they can not be altered.
The swaras in Carnatic music are slightly different in the twelve - note system. There are three types each of Rishabha, Gandhara, Dhaivata and Nishada. There are two types of Madhyama, while Pancham and Shadja are invariant. In Carnatic Music, swaras have prakruti and vikruti swaras. The vikruti swaras are Ri, Ga, Ma, Da and Ni. The rest -- Sa and Pa -- are prakruti swaras.
As you can see above, Chatushruti Rishabha and Shuddha Gandhara share the same pitch (3rd key / position). Hence if C is chosen as Shadja, D would be both Chatushruti Rishabha and Shuddha Gandhara. Hence they will not occur in same raga together. Similarly for two swaras each at notes 4, 10 and 11.
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who were the first known inhabitants in louisiana | History of Louisiana - wikipedia
The history of the territory that is now Louisiana began roughly 10,000 years ago. The first traces of permanent settlement, ushering in the Archaic period, appear about 5,500 years ago (Mound Builders).
The area formed part of the Eastern Agricultural Complex. The Marksville culture emerged about 2,000 years ago out of the earlier Tchefuncte culture. It is considered ancestral to the Natchez and Taensa peoples. About 1,000 years ago, the Mississippian culture emerged from the Woodland period. The emergence of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex coincides with the adoption of maize agriculture and chiefdom - level complex social organization beginning in c. 1200 AD. The Mississippian culture mostly disappeared before the 16th century, with the exception of some Natchez communities that maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century.
European influence began in the 16th century, and La Louisiane (named after Louis XIV of France) became a colony of the Kingdom of France in 1682, before passing to Spain in 1763. It became part of the United States following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Antebellum Louisiana was a leading slave state; in 1860, 47 % of the population was enslaved. Louisiana seceded from the Union (American Civil War) on 26 January 1861. New Orleans, the largest city in the entire South and strategically important as a port city, was taken by Union troops on 25 April 1862.
During the Reconstruction Era, Louisiana was part of the Fifth Military District. In 1898, the white Democratic, planter - dominated legislature passed a new disfranchising constitution, whose effects were immediate and long - lasting. The disfranchisement of African Americans did not end until the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.
The Dalton Tradition is a Late Paleo - Indian and Early Archaic projectile point tradition, appearing in much of Southeast North America around 8500 -- 7900 BC.
During the Archaic period, Louisiana was home to the earliest mound complex in North America and one of the earliest dated complex constructions in the Americas. The Watson Brake site is an arrangement of human - made mounds located in the floodplain of the Ouachita River near Monroe in northern Louisiana. It has been dated to about 3400 BC. The site appears to have been abandoned about 2800.
By 2200, during the Late Archaic period the Poverty Point culture occupied much of Louisiana and was spread into several surrounding states. Evidence of this culture has been found at more than 100 sites, including the Jaketown Site near Belzoni, Mississippi. The largest and best - known site is near modern - day Epps, Louisiana at Poverty Point. The Poverty Point culture may have hit its peak around 1500, making it the first complex culture, and possibly the first tribal culture, not only in the Mississippi Delta but in the present - day United States. Its people were in villages that extended for nearly 100 miles across the Mississippi River. It lasted until approximately 700 BCE.
The Poverty Point culture was followed by the Tchefuncte and Lake Cormorant cultures of the Tchula period, local manifestations of Early Woodland period. These descendant cultures differed from Poverty Point culture in trading over shorter distances, creating less massive public projects, completely adopting ceramics for storage and cooking. The Tchefuncte culture were the first people in Louisiana to make large amounts of pottery. Ceramics from the Tchefuncte culture have been found in sites from eastern Texas to eastern Florida, and from coastal Louisiana to southern Arkansas. These cultures lasted until 200 AD.
The Middle Woodland period started in Louisiana with the Marksville culture in the southern and eastern part of the state and the Fourche Maline culture in the northwestern part of the state. The Marksville culture takes its name from the Marksville Prehistoric Indian Site in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana. These cultures were contemporaneous with the Hopewell cultures of Ohio and Illinois, and participated in the Hopewell Exchange Network.
At this time populations became more sedentary and began to establish semi-permanent villages and to practice agriculture, planting various cultigens of the Eastern Agricultural Complex. The populations began to expand, and trade with various non-local peoples also began to increase. Trade with peoples to the southwest brought the bow and arrow An increase in the hierarchical structuring of their societies began during this period, although it is not clear whether it was internally developed or borrowed from the Hopewell. The dead were treated in increasingly elaborate ways, as the first burial mounds are built at this time. Political power begins to be consolidated; the first platform mounds and ritual centers were constructed as part of the development of a hereditary political and religious leadership.
By 400 AD in the eastern part of the state, the Late Woodland period had begun with the Baytown and Troyville cultures (named for the Troyville Earthworks in Jonesville, Louisiana), and later the Coles Creek culture. Archaeologists have traditionally viewed the Late Woodland as a time of cultural decline after the florescence of the Hopewell peoples. Late Woodland sites, with the exception of sites along the Florida Gulf Coast, tend to be small when compared with Middle Woodland sites. Although settlement size was small, there was an increase in the number of Late Woodland sites over Middle Woodland sites, indicating a population increase. These factors tend to mark the Late Woodland period as an expansive period, not one of a cultural collapse. Where the Baytown peoples began to build more dispersed settlements, the Troyville people instead continued building major earthwork centers. The type site for the culture, the Troyville Earthworks, once had the second tallest precolumbian mound in North America and the tallest in Louisiana at 82 feet (25 m) in height.
The Coles Creek culture from 700 to 1200 AD marks a significant change in the cultural history of the area. Population increased dramatically, and there is strong evidence of a growing cultural and political complexity, especially by the end of the Coles Creek sequence. Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies are not yet manifested, by 1000 CE the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in present - day Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Texas. Many Coles Creek sites were erected over earlier Woodland period mortuary mounds, leading researchers to speculate that emerging elites were symbolically and physically appropriating dead ancestors to emphasize and project their own authority.
The Mississippian period in Louisiana saw the emergence of the Plaquemine and Caddoan Mississippian cultures. This was the period when extensive maize agriculture was adopted. The Plaquemine culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana began in 1200 AD and continued until about 1600 AD. Good examples of this culture are the Medora Site (the type site for the culture and period), Fitzhugh Mounds, Transylvania Mounds, and Scott Place Mounds in Louisiana and the Anna, Emerald, Winterville and Holly Bluff sites located in Mississippi. Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at the Cahokia site near St. Louis, Missouri. By 1000 AD in the northwestern part of the state the Fourche Maline culture had evolved into the Caddoan Mississippian culture. By 1400 AD Plaquemine had started to hybridize through contact with Middle Mississippian cultures to the north and became what archaeologist term Plaquemine Mississippian. These peoples are considered ancestral to historic groups encountered by the first Europeans in the area, the Natchez and Taensa peoples. The Caddoan Mississippians covered a large territory, including what is now eastern Oklahoma, western Arkansas, northeast Texas, and northwest Louisiana. Archaeological evidence that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present, and that the direct ancestors of the Caddo and related Caddo language speakers in prehistoric times and at first European contact and the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma is unquestioned today. Significant Caddoan Mississippian archaeological sites in Louisiana include Belcher Mound Site in Caddo Parish and Gahagan Mounds Site in Red River Parish.
The following groups are known to have inhabited the state 's territory when the Europeans began colonization:
Many current place names in the state, including Atchafalaya, Natchitouches (now spelled Natchitoches), Caddo, Houma, Tangipahoa, and Avoyel (as Avoyelles), are transliterations of those used in various Native American languages.
The first European explorers to visit Louisiana came in 1528 when a Spanish expedition led by Panfilo de Narváez located the mouth of the Mississippi River. In 1542, Hernando de Soto 's expedition skirted to the north and west of the state (encountering Caddo and Tunica groups) and then followed the Mississippi River down to the Gulf of Mexico in 1543. The expedition encountered hostile tribes all along river. Natives followed the boats in large canoes, shooting arrows at the soldiers for days on end as they drifted through their territory. The Spanish, whose crossbows had long ceased working, had no effective offensive weapons on the water and were forced to rely on their remaining armor and sleeping mats to block the arrows. About 11 Spaniards were killed along this stretch and many more wounded. Neither of the explorations made any claims to the territory for Spain.
European interest in Louisiana was dormant until the late 17th century, when French expeditions, which had imperial, religious and commercial aims, established a foothold on the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast. With its first settlements, France lay claim to a vast region of North America and set out to establish a commercial empire and French nation stretching from the Gulf of Mexico through Canada. It was also establishing settlements in Canada, from the Maritimes westward along the St. Lawrence River and into the region surrounding the Great Lakes.
The French explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle named the region Louisiana in 1682 to honor France 's King Louis XIV. The first permanent settlement, Fort Maurepas (at what is now Ocean Springs, Mississippi, near Biloxi), was founded in 1699 by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, a French military officer from Canada.
The French colony of Louisiana originally claimed all the land on both sides of the Mississippi River and north to French territory in Canada around the Great Lakes. A royal ordinance of 1722 -- following the transfer of the Illinois Country 's governance from Canada to Louisiana -- may have featured the broadest definition of the region: all land claimed by France south of the Great Lakes between the Rocky Mountains and the Alleghenies
A generation later, trade conflicts between Canada and Louisiana led to a more defined boundary between the French colonies; in 1745, Louisiana governor general Vaudreuil set the northern and eastern bounds of his domain as the Wabash valley up to the mouth of the Vermilion River (near present - day Danville, Illinois); from there, northwest to le Rocher on the Illinois River, and from there west to the mouth of the Rock River (at present day Rock Island, Illinois). Thus, Vincennes and Peoria were the limit of Louisiana'a reach; the outposts at Ouiatenon (on the upper Wabash near present - day Lafayette, Indiana), Chicago, Fort Miamis (near present - day Fort Wayne, Indiana) and Prairie du Chien operated as dependencies of Canada.
This boundary between Canada and Louisiana remained in effect until the Treaty of Paris in 1763, after which France surrendered its remaining territory east of the Mississippi -- except for New Orleans -- to Great Britain. (Although British forces had occupied the "Canadian '' posts in the Illinois and Wabash countries in 1761, they did not occupy Vincennes or the Mississippi River settlements at Cahokia and Kaskaskia until 1764, after the ratification of the peace treaty.) As part of a general report on conditions in the newly conquered lands, Gen. Thomas Gage, then commandant at Montreal, explained in 1762 that, although the boundary between Louisiana and Canada was n't exact, it was understood the upper Mississippi above the mouth of the Illinois was in Canadian trading territory. The French established an important and lucrative fur trade in the northern areas, which became increasingly important. It competed with the Dutch, and later English, across the northern tier for fur trade with the Native Americans. The fur trade also helped cement alliances between Europeans and Native American tribes.
The settlement of Natchitoches (along the Red River in present - day northwest Louisiana) was established in 1714 by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, making it the oldest permanent settlement in the territory that then composed the Louisiana colony. The French settlement had two purposes: to establish trade with the Spanish in Texas via the Old San Antonio Road (sometimes called El Camino Real, or Kings Highway) -- which ended at Nachitoches -- and to deter Spanish advances into Louisiana. The settlement soon became a flourishing river port and crossroads. Sugar cane plantations were developed first. In the nineteenth century, cotton plantations were developed along the river. Over time, planters developed large plantations but also lived in fine homes in a growing town, a pattern repeated in New Orleans and other places.
Louisiana 's French settlements contributed to further exploration and outposts. They were concentrated along the banks of the Mississippi and its major tributaries, from Louisiana to as far north as the region called the Illinois Country, in modern - day Indiana, Illinois and Missouri.
Initially Mobile, and (briefly) Biloxi served the capital of the colony. In 1722, recognizing the importance of the Mississippi River to trade and military interests, France made New Orleans the seat of civilian and military authority. The Illinois Country exported its grain surpluses down the Mississippi to New Orleans, which climate could not support their cultivation. The lower country of Louisiana (modern - day Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana) depended on the Illinois French for survival through much of the eighteenth century.
European settlement in the Louisiana colony was not exclusively French; in the 1720s, German immigrants settled along the Mississippi River in a region referred to as the German Coast.
In 1719, two French ships arrived in New Orleans, the Duc du Maine and the Aurore, carrying the first African slaves to Louisiana for labor. From 1718 to 1750, traders transported thousands of captive Africans to Louisiana from the Senegambian coast, the west African region of the interior of modern Benin, and from the coast of modern Democratic Republic of the Congo - Angola border. French shipping records contained much more details about slaves ' origins than did those in the English colonies. Researchers have found that approximately 2000 persons originated from the upper West African slave ports from Saint - Louis, Senegal to Cap Appolonia (present - day Ébrié Lagoon, Côte d'Ivoire) several hundred kilometers to the south; an additional 2000 were exported from the port of Whydah (modern Ouidah, Benin); and roughly 300 departed from Cabinda.
Gwendolyn Midlo - Hall has argued that, due to historical and administrative ties between France and Senegal, "Two - thirds of the slaves brought to Louisiana by the French slave trade came from Senegambia. '' This assertion is not universally accepted. This region between the Senegal and Gambia rivers had peoples who were closely related through history: three of the principal languages, Sereer, Wolof and Pulaar were related, and Malinke, spoken by the Mande people to the east, was "mutually intelligible '' with them. Midlo - Hall says that this concentration of peoples from one region of Africa strongly shaped Louisiana Creole culture.
Peter Caron says that the geographic and perhaps linguistic connection among many African captives did not necessarily imply developing a common culture in Louisiana. They likely differed in religions. Some slaves from Senegambia were Muslims while most followed their traditional spiritual practices. Many were likely captives taken in the Islamic jihads that engulfed the region from Futa Djallon to Futa Toro and Futa Bundu (modern Upper Niger River) in the early 18th century. The inland territories of the African continent from which slaves were captured, were enormous. Commentators may have attributed more similarities to slaves taken from among these areas than the Africans recognized among themselves at the time.
France was forced to cede most of its territory east of the Mississippi to the Kingdom of Great Britain after its defeat in the Seven Years ' War. The area around New Orleans and the parishes around Lake Pontchartrain, along with the rest of Louisiana, became a possession of Spain after the Seven Years ' War by the Treaty of Paris of 1763.
Spanish rule did not affect the pace of francophone immigration to the territory, which increased due to the English expulsion of the Acadians from Canada. Several thousand French - speaking refugees from Acadia (now Nova Scotia, Canada) migrated to Louisiana after expulsion by the newly ascendant British, after conflicts in Canada. The first group of around 200 arrived in 1765, led by Joseph Broussard (called "Beausoleil ''). They settled chiefly in the southwestern Louisiana region now called Acadiana. The Acadian refugees were welcomed by the Spanish as additions of Catholic population. Their descendants came to be called Cajuns.
Many Spanish - speaking immigrants arrived such as the Canary Islanders of Spain, which are known as the Isleños and Andalusians from the south of Spain called Malagueños. The Isleños and Malagueños immigrated to Louisiana between 1778 and 1783. The Isleños settled in southeast Louisiana mainly in St. Bernard Parish, just outside of New Orleans, as well as near the area just below Baton Rouge. The Malagueños settled mainly around New Iberia, but some spread to other parts of southern Louisiana.
Both free and enslaved populations increased rapidly during the years of Spanish rule, as new settlers and Creoles imported large numbers of slaves to work on plantations. Although some American settlers brought slaves with them who were native to Virginia or North Carolina, the Pointe Coupee inventories of the late eighteenth century showed that most slaves brought by traders came directly from Africa. In 1763 settlements from New Orleans to Pointe Coupee (north of Baton Rouge) included 3,654 free persons and 4,598 slaves. By the 1800 census, which included West Florida, there were 19,852 free persons and 24,264 slaves in Lower Louisiana. Although the censuses do not always cover the same territory, the slaves became the majority of the population during these years. Records during Spanish rule were not as well documented as with the French slave trade, making it difficult to trace African origins. The volume of slaves imported from Africa resulted in what historian Gwendolyn Midlo Hall called "the re-Africanization '' of Lower Louisiana, which strongly influenced the culture.
In 1800, France 's Napoleon Bonaparte reacquired Louisiana from Spain in the Treaty of San Ildefonso, an arrangement kept secret for some two years. Documents have revealed that he harbored secret ambitions to reconstruct a large colonial empire in the Americas. This notion faltered, however, after the French attempt to reconquer Saint - Domingue after its revolution ended in failure, with the loss of two - thirds of the more than 20,000 troops sent to the island to suppress the revolution. After French withdrawal in 1803, Haiti declared its independence in 1804 as the second republic in the Western Hemisphere.
As a result of his setbacks, Napoleon gave up his dreams of American empire and sold Louisiana (New France) to the United States. The U.S. divided the land into two territories: the Territory of Orleans, which became the state of Louisiana in 1812, and the District of Louisiana, which consisted of the vast lands not included in the Orleans Territory, extending west of the Mississippi River north to Canada. The Florida Parishes were annexed from the short - lived and strategically important Republic of West Florida, by proclamation of President James Madison in 1810.
The Haitian Revolution (1791 - 1804) resulted in a major emigration of refugees to Louisiana, where they settled chiefly in New Orleans. The thousands of Haitian immigrants included many free people of color, whites, and enslaved Africans. Some refugees had earlier gone to Cuba, and came from Cuba in another wave of immigration in 1809. The free people of color added substantially to the Creoles of color community in New Orleans and white Haitian immigrants added substantially to the French Creole community of New Orleans. These immigrants enlarged the French - speaking community.
In 1811, the largest slave revolt in American history, the German Coast Uprising, took place in the Orleans Territory. Between 64 and 500 slaves rose up on the "German Coast, '' forty miles upriver of New Orleans, and marched to within 20 miles (32 km) of the city gates. All of the limited number of U.S. troops were gathered to suppress the revolt, as well as citizen militias.
Louisiana became a U.S. state on April 30, 1812. The western boundary of Louisiana with Spanish Texas remained in dispute until the Adams - Onís Treaty of 1819, which was formally ratified in 1821, The area referred to as the Sabine Free State serving as a neutral buffer zone, as well as a haven for criminals. Also called "No Man 's Land, '' this part of central and southwestern Louisiana was settled in part by a mixed - race people known as Redbones.
With the growth of settlement in the Midwest (formerly the Northwest Territory) and Deep South during the early decades of the 19th century, trade and shipping increased markedly in New Orleans. Produce and products moved out of the Midwest down the Mississippi River for shipment overseas, and international ships docked at New Orleans with imports to send into the interior. The port was crowded with steamboats, flatboats, and sailing ships, and workers speaking languages from many nations. New Orleans was the major port for the export of cotton and sugar. The city 's population grew and the region became quite wealthy. More than the rest of the Deep South, it attracted immigrants for the many jobs in the city. The richest citizens imported fine goods of wine, furnishings, and fabrics.
By 1840 New Orleans had the biggest slave market in the United States, which contributed greatly to the economy. It had become one of the wealthiest cities and the third - largest city in the nation. The ban on importation of slaves had increased demand in the domestic market. During these decades after the American Revolutionary War, more than one million enslaved African Americans underwent forced migration from the Upper South to the Deep South, two thirds of them in the slave trade. Others were transported by slaveholders as they moved west for new lands.
With changing agriculture in the Upper South as planters shifted from tobacco to less labor - intensive mixed agriculture, planters had excess laborers. Many sold slaves to traders to take to the Deep South. Slaves were driven by traders overland from the Upper South or transported to New Orleans and other coastal markets by ship in the coastwise slave trade. After sales in New Orleans, steamboats operating on the Mississippi transported slaves upstream to markets or plantation destinations at Natchez and Memphis.
With its plantation economy, Louisiana was a state that generated wealth from the labor of and trade in enslaved Africans. It also had one of the largest free black populations in the United States, totaling 18,647 people in 1860. Most of the free blacks (or free people of color, as they were called in the French tradition) lived in the New Orleans region and southern part of the state. More than in other areas of the South, most of the free people of color were of mixed race. Many gens du couleur libre in New Orleans were middle class and educated; many were property owners. By contrast, according to the 1860 census, 331,726 people were enslaved, nearly 47 % of the state 's total population of 708,002.
Construction and elaboration of the levee system was critical to the state 's ability to cultivate its commodity crops of cotton and sugar cane. Enslaved Africans built the first levees under planter direction. Later levees were expanded, heightened and added to mostly by Irish immigrant laborers, whom contractors hired when doing work for the state. As the 19th century progressed, the state had an interest in ensuring levee construction. By 1860, Louisiana had built 740 miles (1,190 km) of levees on the Mississippi River and another 450 miles (720 km) of levees on its outlets. These immense earthworks were built mostly by hand. They averaged six feet in height, and up to twenty feet in some areas.
Enfranchised elite whites ' strong economic interest in maintaining the slave system contributed to Louisiana 's decision to secede from the Union in 1861. It followed other Southern states in seceding after the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States. Louisiana 's secession was announced on January 26, 1861, and it became part of the Confederate States of America.
The state was quickly defeated in the Civil War, a result of Union strategy to cut the Confederacy in two by seizing the Mississippi. Federal troops captured New Orleans on April 25, 1862. Because a large part of the population had Union sympathies (or compatible commercial interests), the Federal government took the unusual step of designating the areas of Louisiana under Federal control as a state within the Union, with its own elected representatives to the U.S. Congress.
Following the Civil War, much of the South, including Louisiana, was placed under the supervision of military governors under northern command. Louisiana was grouped with Texas in what was administered as the Fifth Military District. Under this period of Reconstruction Era, the slaves were freed and males were given suffrage. African Americans began to live as citizens with some measure of equality before the law. Both freedmen and people of color who had been free before the war began to make more advances in education, family stability and jobs. At the same time, there was tremendous social volatility in the aftermath of war, with many whites actively resisting defeat. White insurgents mobilized to enforce white supremacy, first in Ku Klux Klan chapters.
In the 1870s, whites accelerated their insurgency to regain control of political power in the state. The Red River area, where new parishes had been created by the Reconstruction legislature, was an area of conflict. On Easter Sunday 1873, an estimated 85 to more than 100 blacks were killed in the Colfax massacre, as white militias had gathered to challenge Republican officeholders after the disputed gubernatorial election of 1872.
Paramilitary groups such as the White League, formed in 1874, used violence and outright assassination to turn Republicans out of office, and intimidate African Americans and suppress black voting, control their work, and limit geographic movement in an effort to control labor. Among violent acts attributed to the White League in 1874 was the Coushatta massacre, where they killed six Republican officeholders, including four family members of the local state senator, and twenty freedmen as witnesses.
Later, 5,000 White Leaguers battled 3,500 members of the Metropolitan Police and state militia in New Orleans after demanding the resignation of Governor William Pitt Kellogg. They hoped to replace him with the Democratic candidate of the disputed 1872 elections, John McEnery. The White League briefly took over the statehouse and city hall before Federal troops arrived. In 1876, the white Democrats regained control of Louisiana.
Through the 1880s, white Democrats began to reduce voter registration of blacks and poor whites by making registration and elections more complicated. They imposed institutionalized forms of racial discrimination and also conducted voter intimidation and violence against black Republicans. The rate of lynchings of blacks increased through the century, reaching a peak in the late 1800s, but with lynchings continuing well into the 20th century. Blacks came out in force in the April 1896 elections, in areas where they could freely vote, to support a Republican - Populist fusion ticket that might overturn the conservative Democrats. Blacks were threatened by increasing talk about restricting their vote, and Mississippi had already passed a new constitution in 1890 that disenfranchised most blacks. Racial tensions and violence were high, and there were 21 lynchings of blacks in Louisiana that year, surpassing the total for any state. Returns from Democratic - controlled plantation parishes were doctored, and the Democrats won the race. The legislature "refused to investigate what everyone knew was a stolen election. ''
In 1898, the white Democratic, planter - dominated legislature passed a new disenfranchising constitution, with provisions for voter registration, such as poll taxes, residency requirements and literacy tests, to raise barriers to black voter registration, as Mississippi had successfully done. The effect was immediate and long lasting. In 1896, there were 130,334 black voters on the rolls and about the same number of white voters, in proportion to the state population, which was evenly divided.
The state population in 1900 was 47 % African - American: 652,013 citizens, of whom many in New Orleans were descendants of Creoles of color, the sizable population of blacks free before the Civil War. By 1900, two years after the new constitution, only 5,320 black voters were registered in the state. Because of disenfranchisement, by 1910 there were only 730 black voters (less than 0.5 percent of eligible African - American men), despite advances in education and literacy among blacks and people of color. White Democrats had established one - party rule, which they maintained in the state for decades deep into the 20th century until after the 1965 Voting Rights Act provided federal enforcement of the constitutional right to vote.
In the notable 19th - century U.S. Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), the Court ruled that "separate but equal '' facilities were constitutional. The lawsuit, based on restricted seating in interstate passenger trains, was brought from Louisiana with strong support from the Creoles of color community in New Orleans: Plessy was one. Separation through segregation, however, resulted everywhere in lesser services and facilities for blacks.
From July 24 - 27, 1900, New Orleans erupted in a white race riot after Robert Charles, an African - American laborer, fatally shot a white police officer during an altercation. He escaped and during and after the manhunt for him, whites rampaged through the city attacking other blacks and burning down two black schools. A total of 28 people died, including Charles, and more than 50 were wounded. Most of the casualties were black. The riot received national attention and ended only with intervention by state militia.
As a result of disfranchisement, African Americans in Louisiana essentially had no representation; as they could not vote, they could not participate in juries or in local, state or federal offices. As a result, they suffered inadequate funding for schools and services, and lack of attention to their interests and worse in the segregated state. They continued to build their own lives and institutions.
In 1915, the Supreme Court struck down the grandfather clause in its ruling in Guinn v. United States. Although the case originated in Oklahoma, Louisiana and other Southern states had used similar clauses to exempt white voters from literacy tests. State legislators quickly passed new requirements for potential voters to demonstrate "understanding, '' or reading comprehension, to official registrars. Administered subjectively by whites, in practice the understanding test was used to keep most black voters off the rolls. By 1923, Louisiana established the all - white primary, which effectively shut out the few black voters from the Democratic Party, the only competitive part of elections in the one - party state.
In the middle decades of the 20th century, thousands of African Americans left Louisiana in the Great Migration north to industrial cities. The boll weevil infestation and agricultural problems had cost sharecroppers and farmers their jobs, and continuing violence drove out many families. The mechanization of agriculture had reduced the need for many farm laborers. They sought skilled jobs in the burgeoning defense industry in California in the 1940s, better education for their children, and living opportunities in communities where they could vote, as well as an escape from southern violence.
During some of this period, Louisiana accepted Catholic orphans in an urban resettlement program organized in New York City. Opelousas was a destination for at least three of the Orphan Trains which carried orphan children out of New York from 1854 -- 1929. It was the heart of a traditional Catholic region of French, Spanish, Acadian, African and French West Indian heritage and traditions. Families in Louisiana took in more than 2,000 mostly Catholic orphans to live in rural farming communities. The city of Opelousas is constructing an Orphan Train Museum (second in the nation) in an old train depot located in Le Vieux Village in Opelousas. The first museum dedicated to the Orphan Train children is located in Kansas.
During some of the Great Depression, Louisiana was led by Governor Huey Long. He was elected to office on populist appeal. Though popular for his public works projects, which provided thousands of jobs to people in need, and for his programs in education and increased suffrage for poor whites, Long was criticized for his allegedly demogogic and autocratic style. He extended patronage control through every branch of Louisiana 's state government. Especially controversial were his plans for wealth redistribution in the state. Long 's rule ended abruptly with his assassination in the state capitol in 1935.
Mobilization for World War II created jobs in the state. Thousands of other workers, black and white alike, migrated to California for better jobs in its burgeoning defense industry. Most African Americans left the state in the Second Great Migration, from the 1940s through the 1960s. The mechanization of agriculture in the 1930s had sharply cut the need for laborers. They sought skilled jobs in the defense industry in California, better education for their children, and living opportunities in communities where they could vote.
Although Long removed the poll tax associated with voting, the all - white primaries were maintained through 1944, until the Supreme Court struck them down in Smith v. Allwright. Through 1948 black people in Louisiana continued to be essentially disfranchised, with only 1 % of those eligible managing to vote. Schools and public facilities continued to be segregated.
State legislators created other ways to suppress black voting, but from 1948 to 1952, it crept up to 5 % of those eligible. Civil rights organizations in New Orleans and southern parishes, where there had been a long tradition of free people of color before the Civil War, worked hard to register black voters.
In the 1950s the state created new requirements for a citizenship test for voter registration. Despite opposition by the States ' Rights Party, downstate black voters began to increase their rate of registration, which also reflected the growth of their middle classes. Gradually black voter registration and turnout increased to 20 % and more, but it was still only 32 % by 1964, when the first civil rights legislation of the era was passed. The percentage of black voters ranged widely in the state during these years, from 93.8 % in Evangeline Parish to only 1.7 % in Tensas Parish, for instance.
Patterns of Jim Crow segregation against African Americans still ruled in Louisiana in the 1960s. Because of the Great Migration of blacks to the north and west, and growth of other groups in the state, by 1960 the proportion of African Americans in Louisiana had dropped to 32 %. The 1,039,207 black citizens were adversely affected by segregation and efforts at disfranchisement. African Americans continued to suffer disproportionate discriminatory application of the state 's voter registration rules. Because of better opportunities elsewhere, from 1965 to 1970, blacks continued to migrate from Louisiana, for a net loss of more than 37,000 people. During the latter period, some people began to migrate to cities of the New South for opportunities.
The disfranchisement of African Americans did not end until their leadership and activism throughout the South during the Civil Rights Movement gained national attention and Congressional action. This led to securing passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965, with President Lyndon Johnson 's leadership as well. By 1968 almost 59 % of eligible - age African Americans had registered to vote in Louisiana. Contemporary rates for African - American voter registration and turnout in the state are above 70 %, demonstrating the value they give it, a higher rate of participation than for African - American voters outside the South.
In August 2005, New Orleans and many other low - lying parts of the state along the Gulf of Mexico were hit by the catastrophic Hurricane Katrina. It caused widespread damage due to breaching of levees and large - scale flooding of more than 80 % of the city. Officials issued warnings to evacuate the city and nearby areas, but tens of thousands of people, mostly African Americans, had stayed behind, some stranded, and suffered through the damage of the widespread flood waters.
Cut off in many cases from healthy food, medicine or water, or assembled in public spaces without functioning emergency services, more than 1500 people in New Orleans died in the aftermath. Government at all levels had failed to prepare adequately despite severe hurricane warnings, and emergency responses were slow. The state faced a humanitarian crisis stemming from conditions in many locations and the large tide of evacuating citizens, especially the city of New Orleans. Today, Louisiana is developing in several new industries including film and technology. New Orleans has recently gained the title of the fastest growing city in the United States and the Hollywood of the South. Louisiana has also been declared one of the happiest state 's due to the many festivals and customs of her citizens.
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what is the richest woman in the us | List of female billionaires - wikipedia
Forbes magazine annually ranks the world 's wealthiest female billionaires. This list uses the static rating published once a year by Forbes, usually in March. There were a record of 256 women listed on the world 's billionaires as of 6 March 2018. In March 2017, there were 227 female women billionaires, up from 187 in June 2015. Since Liliane Bettencourt died in 2017, her only child and heiress, Françoise Bettencourt Meyers has become listed by some sources as the world 's wealthiest female.
The top 10 women billionaires, using the Forbes static ranking as of 7 March 2018 are:
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when did the warriors win the finals 2015 | 2015 NBA Finals - wikipedia
The 2015 NBA Finals was the championship series of the 2014 -- 15 season of the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the conclusion of the season 's playoffs. The Western Conference champion Golden State Warriors defeated the Eastern Conference champion Cleveland Cavaliers in six games (4 -- 2) for the Warriors ' first title in 40 years and their fourth in franchise history, becoming the first team since the 1990 -- 91 Chicago Bulls to win a championship without any prior Finals experience from any player on their roster. Golden State 's Andre Iguodala was named the Finals Most Valuable Player (MVP).
The Warriors were led by 2014 -- 15 NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) Stephen Curry, while the Cavaliers featured four - time league MVP LeBron James. Both teams entered the series with title droughts of four decades, with the Cavaliers having never won a title since their 1970 -- 71 inception and the Warriors ' last title having been in 1975. This was also the first time that both participating teams had first - year head coaches since the inaugural league finals in 1947, when the NBA was known as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). It was the fifth consecutive finals appearance for James who played for the Miami Heat the previous four seasons, making him the first NBA player since the Boston Celtics dynasty of the 1960s to achieve this accomplishment.
James also became the first player in NBA Finals history to lead both teams in points, assists and rebounds for the entire series. He averaged 35.8 points, 13.3 rebounds and 8.8 assists for the series, although he shot 39.8 % throughout the series. Kevin Love missed the entire series due to an injury, and Kyrie Irving missed the final five games of the series due to an injury in Game 1. For the second straight year, the Finals was played in the 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format (Games 1, 2, and 5 were at Golden State, games 3, 4, and 6 were at Cleveland. Had it been necessary, Game 7 would have been held at Golden State). The series began on June 4, 2015, and it ended on June 16, 2015, and in the United States, it was televised on ABC and in Canada, it was televised on TSN.
The Cavaliers entered the 2014 -- 15 season after firing Mike Brown and replacing him with David Blatt as head coach, signing free agent forward LeBron James, and trading for forward Kevin Love. James previously played for Cleveland from 2003 to 2010, leading the Cavaliers to their only previous Finals appearance in 2007. James then played for the Miami Heat from 2010 to 2014, leading the Heat to two NBA championships in 2012 and 2013. During the 2014 NBA draft on June 26, 2014, Cleveland held the first overall pick and used it to select Andrew Wiggins. Later on August 23, a three - team trade was completed involving the Cavaliers, the Minnesota Timberwolves, and the Philadelphia 76ers. As part of the deal, Cleveland dealt Wiggins and Anthony Bennett and received Love.
James, Love, and guard Kyrie Irving became dubbed nationally as the "Big Three ''. The Cavaliers got off to a shockingly bad start that led to intense media scrutiny and caused many to question David Blatt 's job security. The team got off to a 19 -- 20 start in their first 39 games, which included a stretch where they were 2 -- 10 in 12 games that began with a road loss to the Miami Heat on December 25. Injuries to LeBron James and "chemistry issues, '' with James "still learning how to play with his new teammates and vice versa, '' were considered to be the primary reasons for the underwhelming start. However, a number of trades turned the season around. The Cavaliers acquired J.R. Smith and Iman Shumpert from the Knicks in exchange for draft picks while sending Dion Waiters to the Thunder. The Cavaliers then acquired Timofey Mozgov. James 's return to the Cavaliers ' lineup (following a 2 - week layoff) on January 12 completed the turnaround. The Cavaliers closed out the season on a high note, going 34 -- 9 as Cleveland compiled a 53 -- 29 regular season record to win the Central Division title, and the second best record in the Eastern Conference behind the Atlanta Hawks. The Cavaliers advanced to the Finals after sweeping the Boston Celtics in the first round of the playoffs, defeating the Chicago Bulls in six games during the second round, and sweeping the Hawks in the conference finals.
The Warriors entered the 2014 -- 15 season after replacing Mark Jackson with Steve Kerr as head coach. This was Kerr 's first ever head coaching job. After retiring as a player in 2003, he served as a broadcast analyst from 2003 to 2007 and 2010 to 2014, and as general manager of the Phoenix Suns from 2007 to 2010. Revamping Golden State 's offense, Kerr employed elements of the triangle offense from his playing days with the Chicago Bulls under Phil Jackson, the spacing and pace of Gregg Popovich from his playing days in San Antonio with the Spurs, and the uptempo principles Alvin Gentry used in Phoenix when Kerr was the GM.
In Kerr 's first year, the Warriors finished with the best regular season record at 67 -- 15, including an incredible 39 -- 2 mark in home games. Kerr became the winningest rookie head coach in NBA history, passing Tom Thibodeau and his 62 wins with the Chicago Bulls in 2010 -- 11. Point guard Stephen Curry set the NBA record for three - pointers made in a regular season with 286, eclipsing his own record that he set in 2012 -- 13. Curry also won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award for the 2014 -- 15 season. He and fellow guard Klay Thompson, together known as the Splash Brothers, finished first and second in the league in three - pointers made, respectively, and combined to make 525 threes, surpassing their previous league record for a duo by 41, while also converting an impressive 44 percent of those shots. During the season, the backcourt mates both started in the NBA All - Star Game and were each named to the All - NBA team, the first time in decades that either has been achieved by guards on the same team. Golden State advanced to the Finals after sweeping the New Orleans Pelicans in the first round of the playoffs, defeating the Memphis Grizzlies in six games during the second round, and eliminating the Houston Rockets in five games in the conference finals.
The Cavaliers and Warriors tied the regular season series 1 -- 1, with each team winning its home game.
For the first time in NBA Finals history, the first two games went into overtime. After Golden State fell behind 2 -- 1 in the series, Kerr gave swingman Andre Iguodala his first start of the season, replacing center Andrew Bogut in Game 4. The Warriors ' small lineup, which came to be known as the Death Lineup, helped turn the series around. Golden State won the series in six games, claiming their first title since 1975 and their fourth overall in franchise history. They played small ball in the Finals to a greater extent than any prior champion. Combining regular season and playoff games, the Warriors finished 83 -- 20, which was the third - best record ever behind the Chicago Bulls in 1995 -- 96 (87 -- 13) and 1996 -- 97 (84 -- 17).
Iguodala was named the Finals MVP, becoming the first to win the award without having started every game in the series. He finished the Finals averaging 16.3 points, 4 assists, and 5.8 rebounds. He was also tasked with guarding Cleveland 's LeBron James, who made only 38.1 percent of his shots when Iguodala was in the game, yet James still averaged 35.8 points, 13.3 rebounds, 8.8 assists per game. However, James received four of the 11 votes for Finals MVP despite his team losing by an average of 14 points in the final three games. Stephen Curry was just the sixth player to win his first league MVP and his first NBA title in the same season. Shaquille O'Neal was the last player to have accomplished the feat in 1999 -- 2000. Kerr became the first rookie coach to win a title since Pat Riley in 1981 -- 82.
The Warriors were the first team since the 1990 -- 91 Bulls to win a title with a roster that did not have any players with prior Finals experience. James and teammate James Jones made their fifth consecutive trip to the Finals, having qualified the previous four seasons while with the Miami Heat, though Jones did not play in the 2011 Finals. It was the first time since 1998 that none of the Finals participants were the Los Angeles Lakers, the San Antonio Spurs, or the Heat. This was also the first NBA Finals since then to not have featured either Kobe Bryant, Tim Duncan, or Dwyane Wade.
The Warriors defeated the Cavaliers 108 -- 100 in overtime, taking Game 1 and the 1 -- 0 series lead. The Cavaliers got off to a strong start, opening up a 29 -- 15 lead before settling for a 10 - point lead after the 1st quarter. In the 2nd quarter, the Warriors went on a big run and led 46 -- 41. However, the Cavaliers went on a 10 -- 2 run to close out the first half, capped off by a J.R. Smith three with. 7 seconds left in the first half. The Cavaliers led 51 -- 48 at halftime. The second half was a back and forth affair, with neither team able to gain separation. Late in the 4th, Timofey Mozgov hit two free throws to tie the game at 98. The Warriors ran a play for Stephen Curry out of a timeout. Curry beat Kyrie Irving to the basket and went for a go - ahead layup, but Irving blocked the shot, and the Cavaliers called timeout after Smith secured the rebound. The Cavaliers had two chances to win in the final seconds of regulation. However, LeBron James ' potential game winning jumper was off. Iman Shumpert got the offensive rebound and threw a shot at the buzzer, but he also missed, sending the game to overtime. In overtime, the Warriors dominated. They opened overtime on a 10 -- 0 run to seize control. The Warriors had 7 made free throws in the extra session, with Barnes ' three pointer being the Warriors ' lone made basket. Cleveland 's only score in the extra period was James ' layup with 9.5 seconds left as the Cavaliers shot 1 / 12 and committed 3 turnovers in the game 's final 5 minutes.
Only three players scored for the Cavaliers after halftime: James, Irving, and Mozgov. The trio combined for 83 of the Cavaliers ' 100 points. James had a career NBA Finals high of 44 points, while attempting a postseason career - high 38 shots, and Curry led Golden State with 26 points. The Warriors ' bench outplayed the Cavaliers ' bench, outscoring them 34 -- 9, with all 9 Cavaliers bench points coming from Smith. Andre Iguodala led the Warriors bench in scoring with 15 points. Irving suffered a knee injury in overtime and was forced to leave the game early. The following day, he was diagnosed with a fractured left kneecap that would require surgery and was ruled out for the rest of the Finals, joining Kevin Love, who suffered a dislocated shoulder against the Celtics in the first round of the playoffs, and Anderson Varejão.
The Cavaliers defeated the Warriors 95 -- 93 in overtime, tying the series at 1 -- 1 and stealing homecourt advantage heading into Cleveland. For the first time in NBA Finals history, the first two games were decided in overtime, with the Cavaliers winning their first Finals game in franchise history. LeBron James tallied his fifth Finals triple - double with 39 points, 16 rebounds, and 11 assists while moving solely into second all - time in Finals triple - doubles behind Magic Johnson 's 8. James, who shot 11 - for - 35 in the game, played 50 minutes and led all scorers. James either scored or assisted on 66 of Cleveland 's 95 points, and his 83 points in the first two games of a Finals was also second all - time to Jerry West 's 94 in the 1969 Finals. Klay Thompson led the Warriors with 34 points. Curry added 19, but he struggled mightily against the Cavaliers ' defense, shooting 5 - for - 23 from the floor, including 2 -- 15 from 3 - point range. Curry set an NBA record for most missed three - point attempts in an Finals game with 13. Matthew Dellavedova 's defense on Curry was huge as Curry was 0 -- for - 8 against him.
The margin was close through the first three quarters, with neither team leading by more than 8 points. The Warriors jumped out to a 20 -- 12 lead, but the Cavaliers closed the quarter on a 8 -- 0 run to tie the game at 20. The Warriors led 31 -- 25 early in the 2nd quarter, but the Cavaliers went on a 15 -- 2 run to take a 40 -- 33 lead. They settled for a 2 - point lead at halftime, leading 47 -- 45. The third quarter was low scoring, with the Cavaliers scoring 15 points and the Warriors 14 points. Heading into the 4th quarter, the Cavaliers led 62 -- 59. After three tight quarters, the Cavaliers began to pull away, building an 83 -- 72 lead with just over 3 minutes remaining in the fourth. However, the Cavaliers squandered the 11 point lead as the Warriors went on a 15 -- 4 run to tie the game at 87, capped off by a Curry finger roll layup with eight seconds remaining. Out of a timeout, James drove towards the basket as he went for a game winning layup, but he misfired, and the rebound tipback attempt by Tristan Thompson was unsuccessful.
In the overtime, Iman Shumpert hit a three pointer, and James made two free throws, giving the Cavaliers a 92 -- 87 lead. However, Draymond Green answered with back - to - back baskets, and Curry hit two free throws to give the Warriors a 93 -- 92 lead. Out of the timeout, James 's go - ahead layup was blocked by Green and recovered by Andre Igoudala, but he threw it out of bounds, giving possession back to the Cavaliers. The ensuing Cavaliers possession resulted in a three - point attempt by James Jones which missed, but Dellavedova grabbed the offensive rebound and was fouled. Dellavedova hit both free throws to give the Cavaliers a 94 -- 93 lead with 10.1 seconds remaining. After a timeout, the Warriors went to Curry, who airballed the potential go - ahead jumper. James rebounded the miss and was fouled.
James hit one of two at the line, giving the Cavaliers a 95 -- 93 lead with 4 seconds left in overtime. With no timeouts remaining, the Warriors had to go the length of the court to get off a game - tying or game - winning shot attempt. However, Curry 's pass near midcourt was stolen by Thompson, and the Cavaliers ran out the clock. After getting badly outplayed in Game 1, the Cavaliers ' bench outscored the Warriors 21 -- 17 in Game 2. The Cavaliers handed the Warriors their 4th home loss of the season (including the postseason) and were only the second Eastern Conference team to win at Oracle Arena (the Chicago Bulls also won in overtime on January 27). The victory for the Cleveland Cavaliers was their first ever single game Finals victory, having lost Game 1 of this series, and being swept in the 2007 Finals by the San Antonio Spurs.
Following the game, James had dubbed the undermanned Cavaliers as "The Grit Squad '', due to adopting a slower paced, more physical style of play in the absence of All - Stars Irving and Kevin Love. This new moniker was quickly embraced by Cavaliers fans, in hopes that this new tough style of play would be enough to offset the Warriors ' depth advantage.
The Cavaliers led wire to wire as they defeated the Warriors 96 -- 91 and took a 2 -- 1 series lead. The first half was close throughout, with the Cavaliers leading 24 -- 20 after the first quarter. They led 44 -- 37 at halftime. Stephen Curry 's struggles in Game 2 carried over to the first half of this game as he was held to 3 points in the first half. In the third quarter, the Cavaliers seized control, outscoring the Warriors 28 -- 18. They led by as many as 20 in the third quarter before taking a 72 -- 55 lead heading into the fourth quarter. The 55 points scored by the Warriors was their lowest scoring output through three quarters all season. However, the Warriors fought back, making it a 1 - point game as they cut the deficit to 81 -- 80 late in the fourth quarter. However, Matthew Dellavedova banked in a circus shot as he tumbled to the floor while being fouled by Curry. He made the free throw to put the Cavaliers up 84 -- 80. After Curry committed a turnover, LeBron James hit a three pointer to give the Cavs an 87 -- 80 lead. Curry hit a handful of three pointers down the stretch, but the Cavs made their free throws and closed out the win.
James led all scorers with 40 to go along with 12 rebounds, 8 assists, and 4 steals. Through 3 games, James scored 123 points, the most points scored by any player in the first three games of any NBA Finals series, surpassing Rick Barry 's 122 from the 1967 NBA Finals. Dellavedova scored 20, a playoff career high. Curry led the Warriors with 27 points, 17 of which came in the fourth quarter. This win marks the first time that the Cavaliers held a lead in a Finals series in their franchise history, as well as their first home win in a Finals series in their franchise history.
The Warriors routed the Cavaliers 103 -- 82 in Game 4, evening the series at 2 -- 2 and reclaiming homecourt advantage. Despite stating that there would be no changes to the starting lineup the morning of Game 4, Kerr inserted Andre Iguodala into the starting lineup in place of Andrew Bogut, while moving Draymond Green to the center position. The Cavaliers scored the first seven points of the game and led 16 -- 9, but the Warriors closed out the first quarter on a 22 -- 8 run to lead 31 -- 24. In the second quarter, the Cavaliers got a scare when LeBron James suffered a laceration on his head from a courtside photographer 's camera lens after a hard foul on Bogut, but he stayed in the game without any stitches. The Warriors outscored the Cavaliers 23 -- 18 in that period and led 54 -- 42 at halftime. The Cavaliers outscored the Warriors 28 -- 22 in the third quarter as they cut a 15 - point deficit down to 3 in two instances. The Cavaliers had it down to 65 -- 62, but Harrison Barnes hit a three pointer out of the timeout to stop the run.
With the Warriors leading 73 -- 70 late in the third quarter, Stephen Curry hit a three to give the Warriors a 76 -- 70 lead heading into the fourth quarter. The Warriors dominated the final period, leading by as many as 23 as they outscored the Cavaliers 27 -- 12. The Cavaliers shot 4 - for - 27 from behind the 3 - point line for the game and were 6 -- 45 outside the paint, a season worst. The 82 points that the Cavaliers scored were a postseason low while the Cavaliers ' bench scoring production (7 points) was also a postseason low. Curry and Igoudala led the Warriors in scoring with 22 apiece. Timofey Mozgov led the Cavaliers with 28. After averaging 41 points in the first three games of the Finals, James was held to 20 points on 7 -- 22 shooting. After the game, Kerr admitted to his deception regarding the starting lineup, quipping, "I do n't think they hand you the trophy based on morality. ''
Coming into this game with the series tied at 2 games apiece, the Game 5 winner had gone on to win the NBA championship in 20 of the previous 28 instances.
The Warriors defeated the Cavaliers 104 -- 91 and took a 3 -- 2 series lead heading back to Cleveland. The first three quarters were tight, with neither team leading by more 7. Both teams scored 22 points in the 1st quarter. The Warriors led 51 -- 50 at halftime on a Harrison Barnes ' three - point play following a dunk. They took a 6 - point lead into the 4th quarter, leading 73 -- 67. The Cavaliers opened the 4th quarter on a 13 -- 6 run. LeBron James ' deep three pointer gave the Cavaliers an 80 -- 79 lead with just over 7: 30 remaining in the 4th quarter. However, the Warriors responded with a huge run, outscoring the Cavaliers 25 -- 11 the rest of the way. Curry scored 37 points on 13 -- 23 shooting in the victory, including 7 -- 13 from 3 - point range. 17 of his 37 points came in the 4th quarter.
James had his second triple - double of this NBA Finals series, posting 40 points, 14 rebounds, and 11 assists. James led all players in points, rebounds and assists, and was responsible for 70 of 91 Cavaliers points (40 scored, 30 assisted). It was his sixth career finals triple double, second all - time behind only Magic Johnson with 8. James also tied Oscar Robertson for most 30 -- 10 -- 10 playoff games with 8. He became the second player in NBA Finals history to score 40 points in a triple double after Jerry West in 1969.
The Warriors finished off the Cavaliers 105 -- 97, winning the series 4 -- 2. The Warriors outscored the Cavaliers 28 -- 15 in the 1st quarter. However, the Cavaliers went on a big run to cut the deficit to 2 at halftime, trailing 45 -- 43. The Cavaliers led 47 -- 45 early in the third quarter, their only lead of the second half. However, the Warriors outscored the Cavaliers 28 -- 18 in the 3rd quarter, leading by as many 15 before taking a 12 - point lead into the 4th, leading 73 -- 61. In the 4th quarter, the Cavaliers cut the deficit down to 7, but the Warriors pushed the lead back to 15. The Cavaliers, led by J.R. Smith, made a late surge to cut it to 4 with under 40 seconds remaining. However, the Warriors hit their free throws and closed out the series, giving the franchise their first title since 1975, and the city of Oakland its first major league sports championship since the Oakland Athletics won the 1989 World Series. Andre Iguodala, who did not start for the Warriors until Game 4 of the Finals, was named the Finals MVP for his instrumental defense against LeBron James, who led the Cavaliers with 32 points. Iguodala had the third lowest scoring average of any Finals MVP in NBA history. James became the youngest player to score 5000 career points in the playoffs.
Roster Transactions
Roster Transactions
In the United States, the NBA Finals aired on ABC with Mike Breen as play - by - play commentator, and Jeff Van Gundy and Mark Jackson serving as color commentators. ESPN Radio aired it as well and had Mike Tirico and Hubie Brown as commentators. ESPN Deportes provided exclusive Spanish - language coverage of The Finals, with a commentary team of Álvaro Martín and Carlos Morales.
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who won the nhl stanley cup in 1993 | 1993 Stanley Cup Finals - wikipedia
The 1993 Stanley Cup Finals was the championship series of the National Hockey League 's (NHL) 1992 -- 93 season, and the culmination of the 1993 Stanley Cup playoffs. It was contested between the Los Angeles Kings and the Montreal Canadiens. It was the first appearance in the Final for the Kings and the first appearance since the 1920 Final for a team based on the west coast of the United States. It was also the 34th and (as of 2018) most recent appearance for Montreal, their first since the 1989 Final. The Canadiens won the series four games to one to win the team 's 24th Stanley Cup. The year 1993 was the 100th anniversary of the first awarding of the Stanley Cup in 1893, and the first Finals to start in the month of June. The 1993 Canadiens are also the last Stanley Cup championship team to be composed solely of North American - born players. To date, this is the last Stanley Cup finals won by a Canadian team.
The series is remembered for Kings defenceman Marty McSorley 's penalty late in the third period of game two for using an illegal stick, in what proved to be the turning point in the 1993 Cup Finals. When McSorley entered the penalty box, Los Angeles held a 1 -- 0 series lead, and a 2 -- 1 score in the contest. The Canadiens then went on to score the equalizer on the ensuing power play, won game two in overtime, and then defeated the Kings in the next three games to win the Cup.
From the moment that McSorley was called for the penalty, the Kings failed to win another postseason game from the remainder of the 20th century, losing all the remaining games of the Finals, failing to qualify for the playoffs in five of the next seven seasons, and being swept out in the first round the other two times. Their next postseason win would not come until 2001, against the Detroit Red Wings.
Los Angeles had started well but then went through a terrible run of form from December to February, though they managed to rebound and clinch a playoff spot. Superstar Wayne Gretzky sat out from October to January due to injury. Los Angeles did not have home ice advantage for all four rounds of the playoffs, and was the only club to face Canadian teams in every round. To reach the final, Los Angeles defeated the Calgary Flames 4 -- 2, the Vancouver Canucks 4 -- 2 and the Toronto Maple Leafs 4 -- 3.
Montreal defeated their in - province rivals, the Quebec Nordiques, 4 -- 2, the Buffalo Sabres 4 -- 0, and the New York Islanders 4 -- 1. The Canadiens initially lost the first two games in round one against the rival Nordiques, due in part to a couple of weak goals let in by star Montreal goaltender (and Quebec City native) Patrick Roy. Afterward, a newspaper in Roy 's hometown district suggested that he be traded, while Nordiques goaltending coach Dan Bouchard also proclaimed that his team had solved Roy. The Canadiens then responded by winning the next four games to eliminate the Nordiques, then swept the Sabres, and took the first three games against the Islanders, tying a record of 11 consecutive playoff wins.
Both conferences saw numerous upsets, with the top two teams in each conference being eliminated before the conference finals. The Campbell Conference saw last year 's Cup finalists, Chicago Blackhawks, get swept in the opening round by the St. Louis Blues. With their rivals the Boston Bruins being eliminated by the Sabres in the division semifinals, as well as the two - time defending Cup champions Pittsburgh Penguins being eliminated by the Islanders in the division final, Montreal 's path to their first final since 1989 became much easier. The Bruins had eliminated the Canadiens in the playoffs for three straight years, mainly due to Boston goaltender Andy Moog, who was often referred to as the "greatest Hab killer '' the Bruins ever had.
This was the last Stanley Cup Final series played in the Montreal Forum, and the last time Wayne Gretzky competed in the Finals. The Kings were appearing in the Finals for the first time in their 26 - year history. It was Montreal 's most recent appearance in the Stanley Cup, and its victory is the most recent championship won by a Canadian team.
In game one at the Montreal Forum, the Kings jumped out to a 1 -- 0 lead on Luc Robitaille 's power - play goal at 3: 03 of the first period. The Canadiens tied the game late in the first on Ed Ronan 's goal at 18: 09 (although it was merely a pass that Gretzky accidentally deflected into his own net). Robitaille would break the 1 -- 1 deadlock with his second power - play goal of the game at 17: 41 of the second period. Jari Kurri added an insurance marker off a Patrice Brisebois turnover at 1: 51 of the third, and Gretzky sealed the 4 -- 1 win for the Kings with an empty net goal at 18: 02.
The turning point of the series for the Canadiens came late in the third period of game two. With the Kings leading by a score of 2 -- 1, Canadiens coach Jacques Demers called for a measurement of the curve of Kings defenceman Marty McSorley 's stick. The stick was deemed illegal and McSorley was given a two - minute minor penalty for unsportsmanlike conduct. As it was late in the game and Montreal was facing the prospect of going to Los Angeles down two games to none, Demers pulled goalie Patrick Roy, producing a 6 - on - 4 advantage for the Canadiens. Montreal 's Éric Desjardins scored from the point to tie the game at two and force overtime. Desjardins then scored his third goal of the game 51 seconds into overtime to give Montreal the win and the momentum heading toward games three and four at the Great Western Forum. Desjardins is the first and only defenceman to get a hat trick in the Cup Finals; before this game he had scored just two playoff goals.
Reports suggested Canadiens coach Jacques Demers knew which of the Kings ' hockey sticks to challenge, thanks to a Montreal Forum employee assigned to the Kings ' locker room who temporarily moved the Kings ' portable stick rack to the Montreal 's locker room. Demers has denied this and credited captain Guy Carbonneau with spotting McSorley 's illegal stick.
In game three in Los Angeles, the Canadiens jumped out to a 1 -- 0 first period lead on a tip - in goal by Brian Bellows at 10: 26, and Gilbert Dionne and Mathieu Schneider increased that lead to 3 -- 0 at 2: 41 and 3: 02 of the second period. After a memorable check by long - time Kings defenceman Mark Hardy on Montreal 's Mike Keane, the Kings fired back to tie the game in the second period on goals by Robitaille, Tony Granato, and Gretzky. With time running out in the third period, Montreal captain Guy Carbonneau appeared to cover the puck in the goal crease, which with such little time remaining (12 seconds) would have resulted in a penalty shot for Los Angeles. But the referee ruled that the puck had been shot by a Kings player into Carbonneau 's equipment, and so the period remained scoreless. After the series, the referee admitted that he had made a mistake on the call. The game went into overtime and Montreal 's John LeClair scored the winner just 34 seconds into the extra period, giving the Canadiens their ninth consecutive overtime playoff victory.
Game four was a carbon copy of the previous game. Montreal bolted out to an early 2 -- 0 lead, but the Kings fought back in the second period with goals by Mike Donnelly at 6: 33 and McSorley on a power play at 19: 56. As was the case in game three, the third period in game four ended up scoreless. Once again, it was John LeClair who was the hero for Montreal as he netted the overtime winner 14: 37 into the extra period, banking the puck off the leg of sliding Los Angeles defenceman Darryl Sydor. In doing so, he became the first player since Montreal legend Maurice "Rocket '' Richard in 1951 to score playoff overtime goals in consecutive games, and giving Montreal an NHL - record ten consecutive overtime wins in the 1993 playoffs.
Leading the series three games to one, the Canadiens headed back home for game five. After Paul DiPietro gave Montreal a 1 -- 0 lead with a goal at 15: 10 of the first period, McSorley tied the game for the Kings at 2: 40 of the second period. The Canadiens ' response was swift as Kirk Muller scored just 71 seconds later, and then Stephane Lebeau scored a power - play goal at 11: 31 to give the Canadiens a 3 -- 1 lead after two periods. DiPietro scored again at 12: 06 to give Montreal a 4 -- 1 lead. That ended up being the final score, with Muller 's goal turning out to be the game winner. Gretzky did not manage a shot on net during the entire game.
With the win, the Canadiens won the series four games to one and clinched their 24th Stanley Cup championship. Montreal goaltender Patrick Roy won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the Stanley Cup Playoffs for the second time (he won it for the first time in 1986).
Included on the team picture, but left off Stanley Cup.
The 1993 Montreal Stanley Cup riot occurred in Montreal after the Montreal Canadiens won their 24th Stanley Cup. People poured into the streets of the city and some began to commit acts of vandalism and violence while the Canadiens were celebrating inside the Montreal Forum. In the epicentre of the riot on Saint Catherine Street, stores were looted and police cruisers were set ablaze. The riot caused $2.5 million in damage, $3.75 million in 2016 dollars.
At the high point of the riot 980 officers were dispatched and they made 115 arrests. The police reported 47 police cars damaged, 8 of those 47 cars were completely destroyed. Rioters were arrested after they broke windows, looted stores and set fires. Some of the rioters were suspected of planning to loot stores using the riot as a decoy. 168 were injured, including 49 police officers.
Due to the Kings being the Canadiens ' opponents, most of the Los Angeles news media, including the Los Angeles Times and the Daily News, also covered the riot; Times staff writer Helene Elliott was pressed into service as a news reporter minutes after the riot began.
In Canada, the series was televised in English on the CBC and in French on SRC. In the United States, the series was broadcast on ESPN. This was the ESPN 's first Cup Finals coverage since 1988. However, ESPN was blacked out in the Los Angeles market because of Prime Ticket 's local rights to the Kings games. ESPN also sent its broadcasts to a record 120 countries, for a potential audience of 285 million.
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who ruled europe after the fall of rome | Fall of the Western Roman Empire - wikipedia
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire (also called Fall of the Roman Empire or Fall of Rome) was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule, and its vast territory was divided into several successor polities. The Roman Empire lost the strengths that had allowed it to exercise effective control over its Western provinces; modern historians mention factors including the effectiveness and numbers of the army, the health and numbers of the Roman population, the strength of the economy, the competence of the Emperors, the internal struggles for power, the religious changes of the period, and the efficiency of the civil administration. Increasing pressure from barbarians outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse. The reasons for the collapse are major subjects of the historiography of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on state failure.
Relevant dates include 117 CE, when the Empire was at its greatest territorial extent, and the accession of Diocletian in 284. Irreversible major territorial loss, however, began in 376 with a large - scale irruption of Goths and others. In 395, after winning two destructive civil wars, Theodosius I died, leaving a collapsing field army and the Empire, still plagued by Goths, divided between his two incapable sons. By 476 when Odoacer deposed the Emperor Romulus, the Western Roman Emperor wielded negligible military, political, or financial power and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that could still be described as Roman. Invading barbarians had established their own power in most of the area of the Western Empire. While its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today, the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again.
The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse.
Since 1776, when Edward Gibbon published the first volume of his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Decline and Fall has been the theme around which much of the history of the Roman Empire has been structured. "From the eighteenth century onward, '' historian Glen Bowersock wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears. '' The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse.
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule. The loss of centralized political control over the West, and the lessened power of the East, are universally agreed, but the theme of decline has been taken to cover a much wider time span than the hundred years from 376. For Cassius Dio, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 CE marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron ''. Gibbon started his story in 98 and Theodor Mommsen regarded the whole of the imperial period as unworthy of inclusion in his Nobel Prize - winning History of Rome. Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that the entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in republican times. As one convenient marker for the end, 476 has been used since Gibbon, but other markers include the Crisis of the Third Century, the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 (or 405), the sack of Rome in 410, the death of Julius Nepos in 480, all the way to the Fall of New Rome in 1453.
Gibbon gave a classic formulation of reasons why the Fall happened. He began an ongoing controversy about the role of Christianity, but he gave great weight to other causes of internal decline and to attacks from outside the Empire.
The story of its ruin is simple and obvious; and, instead of inquiring why the Roman empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it had subsisted so long. The victorious legions, who, in distant wars, acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries, first oppressed the freedom of the republic, and afterwards violated the majesty of the purple. The emperors, anxious for their personal safety and the public peace, were reduced to the base expedient of corrupting the discipline which rendered them alike formidable to their sovereign and to the enemy; the vigour of the military government was relaxed, and finally dissolved, by the partial institutions of Constantine; and the Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians.
Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, and new ideas have emerged since. Historians still try to analyze the reasons for loss of political control over a vast territory (and, as a subsidiary theme, the reasons for the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire). Comparison has also been made with China after the end of the Han dynasty, which re-established unity under the Sui dynasty while the Mediterranean world remained politically disunited.
From at least the time of Henri Pirenne scholars have described a continuity of Roman culture and political legitimacy long after 476. Pirenne postponed the demise of classical civilization to the 8th century. He challenged the notion that Germanic barbarians had caused the Western Roman Empire to end, and he refused to equate the end of the Western Roman Empire with the end of the office of emperor in Italy. He pointed out the essential continuity of the economy of the Roman Mediterranean even after the barbarian invasions, and suggested that only the Muslim conquests represented a decisive break with antiquity. The more recent formulation of a historical period characterized as "Late Antiquity '' emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity. In recent decades archaeologically - based argument even extends the continuity in material culture and in patterns of settlement as late as the eleventh century. Observing the political reality of lost control, but also the cultural and archaeological continuities, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.
The Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent under Trajan (emperor 98 -- 117), who ruled a prosperous state that stretched from Armenia to the Atlantic. The Empire had large numbers of trained, supplied, and disciplined soldiers, as well as a comprehensive civil administration based in thriving cities with effective control over public finances. Among its literate elite it had ideological legitimacy as the only worthwhile form of civilization and a cultural unity based on comprehensive familiarity with Greek and Roman literature and rhetoric. The Empire 's power allowed it to maintain extreme differences of wealth and status (including slavery on a large scale), and its wide - ranging trade networks permitted even modest households to use goods made by professionals far away.
Its financial system allowed it to raise significant taxes which, despite endemic corruption, supported a large regular army with logistics and training. The cursus honorum, a standardized series of military and civil posts organised for ambitious aristocratic men, ensured that powerful noblemen became familiar with military and civil command and administration. At a lower level within the army, connecting the aristocrats at the top with the private soldiers, a large number of centurions were well - rewarded, literate, and responsible for training, discipline, administration, and leadership in battle. City governments with their own properties and revenues functioned effectively at a local level; membership of city councils involved lucrative opportunities for independent decision - making, and, despite its obligations, became seen as a privilege. Under a series of emperors who each adopted a mature and capable successor, the Empire did not require civil wars to regulate the imperial succession. Requests could be submitted directly to the better emperors, and the answers had the force of law, putting the imperial power directly in touch with even humble subjects. The cults of polytheist religion were hugely varied, but none claimed that theirs was the only truth, and their followers displayed mutual tolerance, producing a polyphonous religious harmony. Religious strife was rare after the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 136 (after which the devastated Judaea ceased to be a major centre for Jewish unrest). Heavy mortality in 165 -- 180 from the Antonine Plague seriously impaired attempts to repel Germanic invaders, but the legions generally held or at least speedily re-instated the borders of the Empire.
The Empire suffered from multiple, serious crises during the third century, including the rise of the Sassanid Empire, which inflicted three crushing defeats on Roman field armies and remained a potent threat for centuries. Other disasters included repeated civil wars, barbarian invasions, and more mass mortality in the Plague of Cyprian (from 250 onwards). Rome abandoned the province of Dacia on the north of the Danube (271), and for a short period the Empire split into a Gallic Empire in the West (260 -- 274), a Palmyrene Empire in the East (260 -- 273), and a central Roman rump state. The Rhine / Danube frontier also came under more effective threat from larger barbarian groupings, which had developed better agriculture and larger populations. The Empire survived the Crisis of the Third Century, directing its economy successfully towards defense, but survival came at the price of a more centralized and bureaucratic state. Under Gallienus the senatorial aristocracy ceased joining the ranks of the senior military commanders, its typical members lacking interest in military service and showing incompetence at command.
Aurelian reunited the empire in 274; and from 284 Diocletian and his successors reorganized it with more emphasis on the military. John the Lydian, writing over two centuries later, reported that Diocletian 's army at one point totaled 389,704 men, plus 45,562 in the fleets, and numbers may have increased later. With the limited communications of the time, both the European and the Eastern frontiers needed the attention of their own supreme commanders. Diocletian tried to solve this problem by re-establishing an adoptive succession with a senior (Augustus) and junior (Caesar) emperor in each half of the Empire, but this system of tetrarchy broke down within one generation; the hereditary principle re-established itself with generally unfortunate results, and thereafter civil war became again the main method of establishing new imperial regimes. Although Constantine the Great (in office 306 to 337) again re-united the Empire, towards the end of the fourth century the need for division was generally accepted. From then on, the Empire existed in constant tension between the need for two emperors and their mutual mistrust.
Until late in the fourth century the united Empire retained sufficient power to launch attacks against its enemies in Germania and in the Sassanid Empire. Receptio of barbarians became widely practiced: imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups into the Empire, split them up, and allotted to them lands, status, and duties within the imperial system. In this way many groups provided unfree workers (coloni) for Roman landowners, and recruits (laeti) for the Roman army. Sometimes their leaders became officers. Normally the Romans managed the process carefully, with sufficient military force on hand to ensure compliance, and cultural assimilation followed over the next generation or two.
The new supreme rulers disposed of the legal fiction of the early Empire (seeing the emperor as but the first among equals); emperors from Aurelian (reigned 270 -- 275) onwards openly styled themselves as dominus et deus, "lord and god '', titles appropriate for a master - slave relationship. An elaborate court ceremonial developed, and obsequious flattery became the order of the day. Under Diocletian, the flow of direct requests to the emperor rapidly reduced and soon ceased altogether. No other form of direct access replaced them, and the emperor received only information filtered through his courtiers.
Official cruelty, supporting extortion and corruption, may also have become more commonplace. While the scale, complexity, and violence of government were unmatched, the emperors lost control over their whole realm insofar as that control came increasingly to be wielded by anyone who paid for it. Meanwhile, the richest senatorial families, immune from most taxation, engrossed more and more of the available wealth and income, while also becoming divorced from any tradition of military excellence. One scholar identifies a great increase in the purchasing power of gold, two and a half fold from 274 to the later fourth century, which may be an index of growing economic inequality between a gold - rich elite and a cash - poor peasantry.
Within the late Roman military, many recruits and even officers had barbarian origins, and soldiers are recorded as using possibly - barbarian rituals such as elevating a claimant on shields. Some scholars have seen this as an indication of weakness; others disagree, seeing neither barbarian recruits nor new rituals as causing any problem with the effectiveness or loyalty of the army.
In 313 Constantine I declared official toleration of Christianity, followed over the ensuing decades by establishment of Christian orthodoxy and by official and private action against pagans and non-orthodox Christians. His successors generally continued this process, and Christianity became the religion of any ambitious civil official. Under Constantine the cities lost their revenue from local taxes, and under Constantius II (r. 337 -- 361) their endowments of property. This worsened the existing difficulty in keeping the city councils up to strength, and the services provided by the cities were scamped or abandoned. Public building projects became fewer, more often repairs than new construction, and now provided at state expense rather than by local grandees wishing to consolidate long - term local influence. A further financial abuse was Constantius 's increased habit of granting to his immediate entourage the estates of persons condemned of treason and other capital charges; this reduced future though not immediate income, and those close to the emperor gained a strong incentive to stimulate his suspicion of plots.
Constantine settled Franks on the lower left bank of the Rhine; their settlements required a line of fortifications to keep them in check, indicating that Rome had lost almost all local control. Under Constantius, bandits came to dominate areas such as Isauria well within the empire. The tribes of Germany also became more populous and more threatening. In Gaul, which did not really recover from the invasions of the third century, there was widespread insecurity and economic decline in the 300s, perhaps worst in Armorica. By 350, after decades of pirate attacks, virtually all villas in Armorica were deserted, and local use of money ceased about 360. Repeated attempts to economize on military expenditure included billeting troops in cities, where they could less easily be kept under military discipline and could more easily extort from civilians. Except in the rare case of a determined and incorruptible general, these troops proved ineffective in action and dangerous to civilians. Frontier troops were often given land rather than pay; as they farmed for themselves, their direct costs diminished, but so did their effectiveness, and there was much less economic stimulus to the frontier economy. However, except for the provinces along the lower Rhine, the agricultural economy was generally doing well. The average nutritional state of the population in the West suffered a serious decline in the late second century; the population of North - Western Europe did not recover, though the Mediterranean regions did.
The numbers and effectiveness of the regular soldiers may have declined during the fourth century: payrolls were inflated so that pay could be diverted and exemptions from duty sold, their opportunities for personal extortion were multiplied by residence in cities, and their effectiveness was reduced by concentration on extortion instead of drill. However, extortion, gross corruption, and occasional ineffectiveness were not new to the Roman army; there is no consensus whether its effectiveness significantly declined before 376. Ammianus Marcellinus, himself a professional soldier, repeats longstanding observations about the superiority of contemporary Roman armies being due to training and discipline, not to physical size or strength. Despite a possible decrease in its ability to assemble and supply large armies, Rome maintained an aggressive and potent stance against perceived threats almost to the end of the fourth century.
Julian (r. 360 -- 363) launched a drive against official corruption which allowed the tax demands in Gaul to be reduced to one - third of their previous amount, while all government requirements were still met. In civil legislation Julian was notable for his pro-pagan policies. All Christian sects were officially tolerated by Julian, persecution of heretics was forbidden, and non-Christian religions were encouraged. Some Christians continued to destroy temples, disrupt rituals, and break sacred images, seeking martyrdom and at times achieving it at the hands of non-Christian mobs or secular authorities; some pagans attacked the Christians who had previously been involved with the destruction of temples.
Julian won victories against Germans who had invaded Gaul. He launched an expensive campaign against the Persians, which ended in defeat and his own death. He succeeded in marching to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, but lacked adequate supplies for an assault. He burned his boats and supplies to show resolve in continuing operations, but the Sassanids began a war of attrition by burning crops. Finding himself cut off in enemy territory, he began a land retreat during which he was mortally wounded. His successor Jovian, acclaimed by a demoralized army, began his brief reign (363 -- 364) trapped in Mesopotamia without supplies. To purchase safe passage home, he had to concede areas of northern Mesopotamia and Kurdistan, including the strategically important fortress of Nisibis, which had been Roman since before the Peace of Nisibis in 299.
The brothers Valens (r. 364 -- 378) and Valentinian I (r. 364 -- 375) energetically tackled the threats of barbarian attacks on all the Western frontiers and tried to alleviate the burdens of taxation, which had risen continuously over the previous forty years; Valens in the East reduced the tax demand by half in his fourth year.
Both were Christians and confiscated the temple lands that Julian had restored, but were generally tolerant of other beliefs. Valentinian in the West refused to intervene in religious controversy; in the East, Valens had to deal with Christians who did not conform to his ideas of orthodoxy, and persecution formed part of his response. The wealth of the church increased dramatically, immense resources both public and private being used for ecclesiastical construction and support of the religious life. Bishops in wealthy cities were thus able to offer vast patronage; Ammianus described some as "enriched from the offerings of matrons, ride seated in carriages, wearing clothing chosen with care, and serve banquets so lavish that their entertainments outdo the tables of kings ''. Edward Gibbon remarked that "the soldiers ' pay was lavished on the useless multitudes of both sexes who could only plead the merits of abstinence and chastity '', though there are no figures for the monks and nuns nor for their maintenance costs. Pagan rituals and buildings had not been cheap either; the move to Christianity may not have had significant effects on the public finances. Some public disorder also followed competition for prestigious posts; Pope Damasus I was installed in 366 after an election whose casualties included a hundred and thirty - seven corpses in the basilica of Sicininus.
Valentinian died of an apoplexy while personally shouting at envoys of Germanic leaders. His successors in the West were children, his sons Gratian (r. 375 -- 383) and Valentinian II (r. 375 -- 392). Gratian, "alien from the art of government both by temperament and by training '' removed the Altar of Victory from the Senate House, and he rejected the pagan title of Pontifex Maximus.
In 376 the East faced an enormous barbarian influx across the Danube, mostly Goths who were refugees from the Huns. They were exploited by corrupt officials rather than effectively resettled, and they took up arms, joined by more Goths and by some Alans and Huns. Valens was in Asia with his main field army, preparing for an assault on the Persians, and redirecting the army and its logistic support would have required time. Gratian 's armies were distracted by Germanic invasions across the Rhine. In 378 Valens attacked the invaders with the Eastern field army, perhaps some 20,000 men -- possibly only 10 % of the soldiers nominally available in the Danube provinces -- and in the Battle of Adrianople, 9 August 378, he lost much of that army and his own life. All of the Balkan provinces were thus exposed to raiding, without effective response from the remaining garrisons who were "more easily slaughtered than sheep ''. Cities were able to hold their own walls against barbarians who had no siege equipment, and they generally remained intact although the countryside suffered.
Gratian appointed a new Augustus, a proven general from Hispania called Theodosius. During the next four years, he partially re-established the Roman position in the East. These campaigns depended on effective imperial coordination and mutual trust -- between 379 and 380 Theodosius controlled not only the Eastern empire, but also, by agreement, the diocese of Illyricum. Theodosius was unable to recruit enough Roman troops, relying on barbarian warbands without Roman military discipline or loyalty. In contrast, during the Cimbrian War, the Roman Republic, controlling a smaller area than the western Empire, had been able to reconstitute large regular armies of citizens after greater defeats than Adrianople, and it ended that war with the near - extermination of the invading barbarian supergroups, each recorded as having more than 100,000 warriors (with allowances for the usual exaggeration of numbers by ancient authors). Theodosius 's partial failure may have stimulated Vegetius to offer advice on re-forming an effective army (the advice may date from the 390s or from the 430s):
From the foundation of the city till the reign of the Emperor Gratian, the foot wore cuirasses and helmets. But negligence and sloth having by degrees introduced a total relaxation of discipline, the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on. They first requested leave from the Emperor to lay aside the cuirass and afterwards the helmet. In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the Goths were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows. Nor was the necessity of obliging the infantry to resume their cuirasses and helmets discovered, notwithstanding such repeated defeats, which brought on the destruction of so many great cities. Troops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot - archer without cuirass or helmet, who can not hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who can not at the same time carry a shield and the colors? The foot soldier finds the weight of a cuirass and even of a helmet intolerable. This is because he is so seldom exercised and rarely puts them on.
The final Gothic settlement was acclaimed with relief, even the official panegyrist admitting that these Goths could not be expelled or exterminated, nor reduced to unfree status. Instead they were either recruited into the imperial forces, or settled in the devastated provinces along the south bank of the Danube, where the regular garrisons were never fully re-established. In some later accounts, and widely in recent work, this is regarded as a treaty settlement, the first time that barbarians were given a home within the Empire in which they retained their political and military cohesion. No formal treaty is recorded, nor details of whatever agreement was actually made, and when "the Goths '' re-emerge in our records they have different leaders and are soldiers of a sort. In 391 Alaric, a Gothic leader, rebelled against Roman control. Goths attacked the emperor himself, but within a year Alaric was accepted as a leader of Theodosius 's Gothic troops and this rebellion was over.
Theodosius 's financial position must have been difficult, since he had to pay for expensive campaigning from a reduced tax base. The business of subduing barbarian warbands also demanded substantial gifts of precious metal. Nevertheless, he is represented as financially lavish, though personally frugal when on campaign. At least one extra levy provoked desperation and rioting in which the emperor 's statues were destroyed. He was pious, a Nicene Christian heavily influenced by Ambrose, and implacable against heretics. In 392 he forbade even private honor to the gods, and pagan rituals such as the Olympic Games. He either ordered or connived at the widespread destruction of sacred buildings.
Theodosius had to face a powerful usurper in the West; Magnus Maximus declared himself Emperor in 383, stripped troops from the outlying regions of Britannia (probably replacing some with federate chieftains and their war - bands) and invaded Gaul. His troops killed Gratian and he was accepted as Augustus in the Gallic provinces, where he was responsible for the first official executions of Christian heretics. To compensate the Western court for the loss of Gaul, Hispania, and Britannia, Theodosius ceded the diocese of Dacia and the diocese of Macedonia to their control. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing Valentinian II to flee to the East, where he accepted Nicene Christianity. Maximus boasted to Ambrose of the numbers of barbarians in his forces, and hordes of Goths, Huns, and Alans followed Theodosius. Maximus negotiated with Theodosius for acceptance as Augustus of the West, but Theodosius refused, gathered his armies, and counterattacked, winning the civil war in 388. There were heavy troop losses on both sides of the conflict. Later Welsh legend has Maximus 's defeated troops resettled in Armorica, instead of returning to Britannia, and by 400, Armorica was controlled by Bagaudae rather than by imperial authority.
Theodosius restored Valentinian II, still a very young man, as Augustus in the West. He also appointed Arbogast, a pagan general of Frankish origin, as Valentinian 's commander - in - chief and guardian. Valentinian quarreled in public with Arbogast, failed to assert any authority, and died, either by suicide or by murder, at the age of 21. Arbogast and Theodosius failed to come to terms and Arbogast nominated an imperial official, Eugenius (r. 392 -- 394), as emperor in the West. Eugenius made some modest attempts to win pagan support, and with Arbogast led a large army to fight another destructive civil war. They were defeated and killed at the Battle of the Frigidus, which was attended by further heavy losses especially among the Gothic federates of Theodosius. The north - eastern approaches to Italy were never effectively garrisoned again.
Theodosius died a few months later in early 395, leaving his young sons Honorius (r. 395 -- 423) and Arcadius (r. 395 -- 408) as emperors. In the immediate aftermath of Theodosius 's death, the magister militum Stilicho, married to Theodosius 's niece, asserted himself in the West as the guardian of Honorius and commander of the remains of the defeated Western army. He also claimed control over Arcadius in Constantinople, but Rufinus, magister officiorum on the spot, had already established his own power there. Henceforward the Empire was not under the control of one man, until much of the West had been permanently lost. Neither Honorius nor Arcadius ever displayed any ability either as rulers or as generals, and both lived as the puppets of their courts. Stilicho tried to reunite the Eastern and Western courts under his personal control, but in doing so achieved only the continued hostility of all of Arcadius 's successive supreme ministers.
The ineffectiveness of Roman military responses from Stilicho onwards has been described as "shocking '', with little evidence of indigenous field forces or of adequate training, discipline, pay, or supply for the barbarians who formed most of the available troops. Local defence was occasionally effective, but was often associated with withdrawal from central control and taxes; in many areas, barbarians under Roman authority attacked culturally - Roman "Bagaudae ''.
Corruption, in this context the diversion of public finance from the needs of the army, may have contributed greatly to the Fall. The rich senatorial aristocrats in Rome itself became increasingly influential during the fifth century; they supported armed strength in theory, but did not wish to pay for it or to offer their own workers as army recruits. They did, however, pass large amounts of money to the Christian Church. At a local level, from the early fourth century, the town councils lost their property and their power, which often became concentrated in the hands of a few local despots beyond the reach of the law.
The fifth - century Western emperors, with brief exceptions, were individuals incapable of ruling effectively or even of controlling their own courts. Those exceptions were responsible for brief, but remarkable resurgences of Roman power.
Without an authoritative ruler, the Balkan provinces fell rapidly into disorder. Alaric was disappointed in his hopes for promotion to magister militum after the battle of the Frigidus. He again led Gothic tribesmen in arms and established himself as an independent power, burning the countryside as far as the walls of Constantinople. Alaric 's ambitions for long - term Roman office were never quite acceptable to the Roman imperial courts, and his men could never settle long enough to farm in any one area. They showed no inclination to leave the Empire and face the Huns from whom they had fled in 376; indeed the Huns were still stirring up further migrations which often ended by attacking Rome in turn. Alaric 's group was never destroyed nor expelled from the Empire, nor acculturated under effective Roman domination.
Stilicho moved with his remaining mobile forces into Greece, a clear threat to Rufinus ' control of the Eastern empire. The bulk of Rufinus ' forces were occupied with Hunnic incursions in Asia Minor and Syria, leaving Thrace undefended. He opted to enlist Alaric and his men, and sent them to Thessaly to stave off Stilicho 's threat, which they did. No battle took place. Stilicho was forced to send some of his Eastern forces home. They went to Constantinople under the command of one Gainas, a Goth with a large Gothic following. On arrival, Gainas murdered Rufinus, and was appointed magister militum for Thrace by Eutropius, the new supreme minister and the only eunuch consul of Rome, who controlled Arcadius "as if he were a sheep ''. Stilicho obtained a few more troops from the German frontier and continued to campaign ineffectively against the Eastern empire; again he was successfully opposed by Alaric and his men. During the next year, 397, Eutropius personally led his troops to victory over some Huns who were marauding in Asia Minor. With his position thus strengthened he declared Stilicho a public enemy, and he established Alaric as magister militum per Illyricum. A poem by Synesius advises the emperor to display manliness and remove a "skin - clad savage '' (probably Alaric) from the councils of power and his barbarians from the Roman army. We do not know if Arcadius ever became aware of the existence of this advice, but it had no recorded effect. Synesius, from a province suffering the widespread ravages of a few poor but greedy barbarians, also complained of "the peacetime war, one almost worse than the barbarian war and arising from military indiscipline and the officer 's greed. ''
The magister militum in the Diocese of Africa declared for the East and stopped the supply of grain to Rome. Italy had not fed itself for centuries and could not do so now. In 398, Stilicho sent his last reserves, a few thousand men, to re-take the Diocese of Africa, and he strengthened his position further when he married his daughter Maria to Honorius. Throughout this period Stilicho, and all other generals, were desperately short of recruits and supplies for them. In 400, Stilicho was charged to press into service any "laetus, Alamannus, Sarmatian, vagrant, son of a veteran '' or any other person liable to serve. He had reached the bottom of his recruitment pool. Though personally not corrupt, he was very active in confiscating assets; the financial and administrative machine was not producing enough support for the army.
In 399, Tribigild 's rebellion in Asia Minor allowed Gainas to accumulate a significant army (mostly Goths), become supreme in the Eastern court, and execute Eutropius. He now felt that he could dispense with Alaric 's services and he nominally transferred Alaric 's province to the West. This administrative change removed Alaric 's Roman rank and his entitlement to legal provisioning for his men, leaving his army -- the only significant force in the ravaged Balkans -- as a problem for Stilicho. In 400, the citizens of Constantinople revolted against Gainas and massacred as many of his people, soldiers and their families, as they could catch. Some Goths at least built rafts and tried to cross the strip of sea that separates Asia from Europe; the Roman navy slaughtered them. By the beginning of 401, Gainas ' head rode a pike through Constantinople while another Gothic general became consul. Meanwhile, groups of Huns started a series of attacks across the Danube, and the Isaurians marauded far and wide in Anatolia.
In 401 Stilicho travelled over the Alps to Raetia, to scrape up further troops. He left the Rhine defended only by the "dread '' of Roman retaliation, rather than by adequate forces able to take the field. Early in spring, Alaric, probably desperate, invaded Italy, and he drove Honorius westward from Mediolanum, besieging him in Hasta Pompeia in Liguria. Stilicho returned as soon as the passes had cleared, meeting Alaric in two battles (near Pollentia and Verona) without decisive results. The Goths, weakened, were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum where the Western court again gave Alaric office, though only as comes and only over Dalmatia and Pannonia Secunda rather than the whole of Illyricum. Stilicho probably supposed that this pact would allow him to put Italian government into order and recruit fresh troops. He may also have planned with Alaric 's help to relaunch his attempts to gain control over the Eastern court.
However, in 405, Stilicho was distracted by a fresh invasion of Northern Italy. Another group of Goths fleeing the Huns, led by one Radagaisus, devastated the north of Italy for six months before Stilicho could muster enough forces to take the field against them. Stilicho recalled troops from Britannia and the depth of the crisis was shown when he urged all Roman soldiers to allow their personal slaves to fight beside them. His forces, including Hun and Alan auxiliaries, may in the end have totalled rather less than 15,000 men. Radagaisus was defeated and executed. 12,000 prisoners from the defeated horde were drafted into Stilicho 's service. Stilicho continued negotiations with Alaric; Flavius Aetius, son of one of Stilicho 's major supporters, was sent as a hostage to Alaric in 405. In 406 Stilicho, hearing of new invaders and rebels who had appeared in the northern provinces, insisted on making peace with Alaric, probably on the basis that Alaric would prepare to move either against the Eastern court or against the rebels in Gaul. The Senate deeply resented peace with Alaric; in 407, when Alaric marched into Noricum and demanded a large payment for his expensive efforts in Stilicho 's interests, the senate, "inspired by the courage, rather than the wisdom, of their predecessors, '' preferred war. One senator famously declaimed Non est ista pax, sed pactio servitutis ("This is not peace, but a pact of servitude ''). Stilicho paid Alaric four thousand pounds of gold nevertheless. Stilicho sent Sarus, a Gothic general, over the Alps to face the usurper Constantine III, but he lost and barely escaped, having to leave his baggage to the bandits who now infested the Alpine passes.
The empress Maria, daughter of Stilicho, died in 407 or early 408 and her sister Aemilia Materna Thermantia married Honorius. In the East, Arcadius died on 1 May 408 and was replaced by his son Theodosius II; Stilicho seems to have planned to march to Constantinople, and to install there a regime loyal to himself. He may also have intended to give Alaric a senior official position and send him against the rebels in Gaul. Before he could do so, while he was away at Ticinum at the head of a small detachment, a bloody coup against his supporters took place at Honorius 's court. It was led by Stilicho 's own creature, one Olympius.
Stilicho had news of the coup at Bononia (where he was probably waiting for Alaric). His small escort of barbarians was led by Sarus, who rebelled. His Gothic troops massacred the Hun contingent in their sleep, and then withdrew towards the cities in which their families were billeted. Stilicho ordered that these troops should not be admitted, but, now without an army, he was forced to flee for sanctuary, promised his life, and killed.
Alaric was again declared an enemy of the Emperor. The conspiracy then massacred the families of the federate troops (as presumed supporters of Stilicho, although they had probably rebelled against him), and the troops defected en masse to Alaric. The conspirators seem to have let their main army disintegrate, and had no policy except hunting down supporters of Stilicho. Italy was left without effective indigenous defence forces thereafter. Heraclianus, a co-conspirator of Olympius, became governor of the Diocese of Africa, where he controlled the source of most of Italy 's grain, and he supplied food only in the interests of Honorius 's regime.
As a declared ' enemy of the Emperor ', Alaric was denied the legitimacy that he needed to collect taxes and hold cities without large garrisons, which he could not afford to detach. He again offered to move his men, this time to Pannonia, in exchange for a modest sum of money and the modest title of Comes, but he was refused as a supporter of Stilicho. He moved into Italy, probably using the route and supplies arranged for him by Stilicho, bypassing the imperial court in Ravenna which was protected by widespread marshland and had a port, and he menaced the city of Rome itself. In 407, there was no equivalent of the determined response to the catastrophic Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, when the entire Roman population, even slaves, had been mobilized to resist the enemy.
Alaric 's military operations centred on the port of Rome, through which Rome 's grain supply had to pass. Alaric 's first siege of Rome in 408 caused dreadful famine within the walls. It was ended by a payment that, though large, was less than one of the richest senators could have produced. The super-rich aristocrats made little contribution; pagan temples were stripped of ornaments to make up the total. With promises of freedom, Alaric also recruited many of the slaves in Rome.
Alaric withdrew to Tuscany and recruited more slaves. Ataulf, a Goth nominally in Roman service and brother - in - law to Alaric, marched through Italy to join Alaric despite taking casualties from a small force of Hunnic mercenaries led by Olympius. Sarus was an enemy of Ataulf, and on Ataulf 's arrival went back into imperial service.
In 409 Olympius fell to further intrigue, having his ears cut off before he was beaten to death. Alaric tried again to negotiate with Honorius, but his demands (now even more moderate, only frontier land and food) were inflated by the messenger and Honorius responded with insults, which were reported verbatim to Alaric. He broke off negotiations and the standoff continued. Honorius 's court made overtures to the usurper Constantine III in Gaul and arranged to bring Hunnic forces into Italy, Alaric ravaged Italy outside the fortified cities (which he could not garrison), and the Romans refused open battle (for which they had inadequate forces). Late in the year Alaric sent bishops to express his readiness to leave Italy if Honorius would only grant his people a supply of grain. Honorius, sensing weakness, flatly refused.
Alaric moved to Rome and captured Galla Placidia, sister of Honorius. The Senate in Rome, despite its loathing for Alaric, was now desperate enough to give him almost anything he wanted. They had no food to offer, but they tried to give him imperial legitimacy; with the Senate 's acquiescence, he elevated Priscus Attalus as his puppet emperor, and he marched on Ravenna. Honorius was planning to flee to Constantinople when a reinforcing army of 4,000 soldiers from the East disembarked in Ravenna. These garrisoned the walls and Honorius held on. He had Constantine 's principal court supporter executed and Constantine abandoned plans to march to Honorius 's defence. Attalus failed to establish his control over the Diocese of Africa, and no grain arrived in Rome where the famine became even more frightful. Jerome reports cannibalism within the walls. Attalus brought Alaric no real advantage, failing also to come to any useful agreement with Honorius (who was offered mutilation, humiliation, and exile). Indeed, Attalus 's claim was a marker of threat to Honorius, and Alaric dethroned him after a few months.
In 410 Alaric took Rome by starvation, sacked it for three days (there was relatively little destruction, and in some Christian holy places Alaric 's men even refrained from wanton wrecking and rape), and invited its remaining barbarian slaves to join him, which many did. The city of Rome was the seat of the richest senatorial noble families and the centre of their cultural patronage; to pagans it was the sacred origin of the empire, and to Christians the seat of the heir of Saint Peter, Pope Innocent I, the most authoritative bishop of the West. Rome had not fallen to an enemy since the Battle of the Allia over eight centuries before. Refugees spread the news and their stories throughout the Empire, and the meaning of the fall was debated with religious fervour. Both Christians and pagans wrote embittered tracts, blaming paganism or Christianity respectively for the loss of Rome 's supernatural protection, and blaming Stilicho 's earthly failures in either case. Some Christian responses anticipated the imminence of Judgement Day. Augustine in his book "City of God '' ultimately rejected the pagan and Christian idea that religion should have worldly benefits; he developed the doctrine that the City of God in heaven, undamaged by mundane disasters, was the true objective of Christians. More practically, Honorius was briefly persuaded to set aside the laws forbidding pagans to be military officers, so that one Generidus could re-establish Roman control in Dalmatia. Generidus did this with unusual effectiveness; his techniques were remarkable for this period, in that they included training his troops, disciplining them, and giving them appropriate supplies even if he had to use his own money. The penal laws were reinstated no later than 25 August 410 and the overall trend of repression of paganism continued.
Procopius mentions a story in which Honorius, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished '', was shocked, thinking the news was in reference to his favorite chicken he had named "Roma ''. On hearing that Rome itself had fallen he breathed a sigh of relief:
At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Roma had perished. And he cried out and said, "And yet it has just eaten from my hands! '' For he had a very large cockerel, Roma by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it was the city of Roma which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: "But I thought that my fowl Roma had perished. '' So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed.
Alaric then moved south, intending to sail to Africa, but his ships were wrecked in a storm and he shortly died of fever. His successor Ataulf, still regarded as an usurper and given only occasional and short - term grants of supplies, moved north into the turmoil of Gaul, where there was some prospect of food. His supergroup of barbarians are called the Visigoths in modern works: they may now have been developing their own sense of identity.
The Crossing of the Rhine in 405 / 6 brought unmanageable numbers of German and Alan barbarians (perhaps some 30,000 warriors, 100,000 people) into Gaul. They may have been trying to get away from the Huns, who about this time advanced to occupy the Great Hungarian Plain. For the next few years these barbarian tribes wandered in search of food and employment, while Roman forces fought each other in the name of Honorius and a number of competing claimants to the imperial throne.
The remaining troops in Britannia elevated a succession of imperial usurpers. The last, Constantine III, raised an army from the remaining troops in Britannia, invaded Gaul and defeated forces loyal to Honorius led by Sarus. Constantine 's power reached its peak in 409 when he controlled Gaul and beyond, he was joint consul with Honorius and his magister militum Gerontius defeated the last Roman force to try to hold the borders of Hispania. It was led by relatives of Honorius; Constantine executed them. Gerontius went to Hispania where he may have settled the Sueves and the Asding Vandals. Gerontius then fell out with his master and elevated one Maximus as his own puppet emperor. He defeated Constantine and was besieging him in Arelate when Honorius 's general Constantius arrived from Italy with an army (possibly, mainly of Hun mercenaries). Gerontius 's troops deserted him and he committed suicide. Constantius continued the siege, defeating a relieving army. Constantine surrendered in 411 with a promise that his life would be spared, and was executed.
In 410, the Roman civitates of Britannia rebelled against Constantine and evicted his officials. They asked for help from Honorius, who replied that they should look to their own defence. While the British may have regarded themselves as Roman for several generations, and British armies may at times have fought in Gaul, no central Roman government is known to have appointed officials in Britannia thereafter.
In 411, Jovinus rebelled and took over Constantine 's remaining troops on the Rhine. He relied on the support of Burgundians and Alans to whom he offered supplies and land. In 413 Jovinus also recruited Sarus; Ataulf destroyed their regime in the name of Honorius and both Jovinus and Sarus were executed. The Burgundians were settled on the left bank of the Rhine. Ataulf then operated in the south of Gaul, sometimes with short - term supplies from the Romans. All usurpers had been defeated, but large barbarian groups remained un-subdued in both Gaul and Hispania.. The imperial government was quick to restore the Rhine frontier. The invading tribes of 407 had passed into Spain at the end of 409 but the Visigoths had exited Italy at the beginning of 412 and settled themselves in Narbo.
Heraclianus was still in command in the diocese of Africa, the last of the clique that overthrew Stilicho to retain power. In 413 he led an invasion of Italy, lost to a subordinate of Constantius, and fled back to Africa where he was murdered by Constantius 's agents.
In January 414 Roman naval forces blockaded Ataulf in Narbo, where he married Galla Placidia. The choir at the wedding included Attalus, a puppet emperor without revenues or soldiers. Ataulf famously declared that he had abandoned his intention to set up a Gothic empire because of the irredeemable barbarity of his followers, and instead he sought to restore the Roman Empire. He handed Attalus over to Honorius 's regime for mutilation, humiliation, and exile, and abandoned Attalus 's supporters. (One of them, Paulinus Pellaeus, recorded that the Goths considered themselves merciful for allowing him and his household to leave destitute, but alive, without being raped.) Ataulf moved out of Gaul, to Barcelona. There his infant son by Galla Placidia was buried, and there Ataulf was assassinated by one of his household retainers, possibly a former follower of Sarus. His ultimate successor Wallia had no agreement with the Romans; his people had to plunder in Hispania for food.
In 416 Wallia reached agreement with Constantius; he sent Galla Placidia back to Honorius and received provisions, six hundred thousand modii of wheat. From 416 to 418, Wallia 's Goths campaigned in Hispania on Constantius 's behalf, exterminating the Siling Vandals in Baetica and reducing the Alans to the point where the survivors sought the protection of the king of the Asding Vandals. (After retrenchment they formed another barbarian supergroup, but for the moment they were reduced in numbers and effectively cowed.) In 418, by agreement with Constantius, Wallia 's Goths accepted land to farm in Aquitania. Constantius also reinstituted an annual council of the southern Gallic provinces, to meet at Arelate. Although Constantius rebuilt the western field army to some extent -- the Notitia Dignitatum gives a list of the units of the western field army at this time -- he did so only by replacing half of its units (vanished in the wars since 395) by re-graded barbarians, and by garrison troops removed from the frontier.
Constantius had married the princess Galla Placidia (despite her protests) in 417. The couple soon had two children, Honoria and Valentinian III, and Constantius was elevated to the position of Augustus in 420. This earned him the hostility of the Eastern court, which had not agreed to his elevation. Nevertheless, Constantius had achieved an unassailable position at the Western court, in the imperial family, and as the able commander - in - chief of a partially restored army.
This settlement represented a real success for the Empire -- a poem by Rutilius Namatianus celebrates his voyage back to Gaul in 417 and his confidence in a restoration of prosperity. But it marked huge losses of territory and of revenue; Rutilius travelled by ship past the ruined bridges and countryside of Tuscany, and in the west the River Loire had become the effective northern boundary of Roman Gaul. In the east of Gaul the Franks controlled large areas; the effective line of Roman control until 455 ran from north of Cologne (lost to the Ripuarian Franks in 459) to Boulogne. The Italian areas which had been compelled to support the Goths had most of their taxes remitted for several years. Even in southern Gaul and Hispania large barbarian groups remained, with thousands of warriors, in their own non-Roman military and social systems. Some occasionally acknowledged a degree of Roman political control, but without the local application of Roman leadership and military power they and their individual subgroups pursued their own interests.
Constantius died in 421, after only seven months as Augustus. He had been careful to make sure that there was no successor in waiting, and his own children were far too young to take his place. Honorius was unable to control his own court and the death of Constantius initiated more than ten years of instability. Initially Galla Placidia sought Honorius 's favour in the hope that her son might ultimately inherit. Other court interests managed to defeat her, and she fled with her children to the Eastern court in 422. Honorius himself died, shortly before his thirty - ninth birthday, in 423. After some months of intrigue, the patrician Castinus installed Joannes as Western Emperor, but the Eastern Roman government proclaimed the child Valentinian III instead, his mother Galla Placidia acting as regent during his minority. Joannes had few troops of his own. He sent Aetius to raise help from the Huns. An Eastern army landed in Italy, captured Joannes, cut his hand off, abused him in public, and killed him with most of his senior officials. Aetius returned, three days after Joannes ' death, at the head of a substantial Hunnic army which made him the most powerful general in Italy. After some fighting, Placidia and Aetius came to an agreement; the Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of magister militum.
Galla Placidia, as Augusta, mother of the Emperor, and his guardian until 437, could maintain a dominant position in court, but women in Ancient Rome did not exercise military power and she could not herself become a general. She tried for some years to avoid reliance on a single dominant military figure, maintaining a balance of power between her three senior officers, Aetius (magister militum in Gaul), Count Boniface governor in the Diocese of Africa, and Flavius Felix magister militum praesentalis in Italy. Meanwhile, the Empire deteriorated seriously. Apart from the losses in the Diocese of Africa, Hispania was slipping out of central control and into the hands of local rulers and Suevic bandits. In Gaul the Rhine frontier had collapsed, the Visigoths in Aquitaine may have launched further attacks on Narbo and Arelate, and the Franks, increasingly powerful although disunited, were the major power in the north - east. Aremorica was controlled by Bagaudae, local leaders not under the authority of the Empire. Aetius at least campaigned vigorously and mostly victoriously, defeating aggressive Visigoths, Franks, fresh Germanic invaders, Bagaudae in Aremorica, and a rebellion in Noricum. Not for the first time in Rome 's history, a triumvirate of mutually distrustful rulers proved unstable. In 427 Felix tried to recall Boniface from Africa; he refused, and overcame Felix 's invading force. Boniface probably recruited some Vandal troops among others.
In 428 the Vandals and Alans were united under the able, ferocious, and long - lived king Genseric; he moved his entire people to Tarifa near Gibraltar, divided them into 80 groups nominally of 1,000 people, (perhaps 20,000 warriors in total), and crossed from Hispania to Mauretania without opposition. (The Straits of Gibraltar were not an important thoroughfare at the time, and there were no significant fortifications nor military presence at this end of the Mediterranean.) They spent a year moving slowly to Numidia, defeating Boniface. He returned to Italy where Aetius had recently had Felix executed. Boniface was promoted to magister militum and earned the enmity of Aetius, who may have been absent in Gaul at the time. In 432 the two met at the Battle of Ravenna which left Aetius 's forces defeated and Boniface mortally wounded. Aetius temporarily retired to his estates, but after an attempt to murder him he raised another Hunnic army (probably by conceding parts of Pannonia to them) and in 433 he returned to Italy, overcoming all rivals. He never threatened to become an Augustus himself and thus maintained the support of the Eastern court, where Valentinian 's cousin Theodosius II reigned until 450.
Aetius campaigned vigorously, somewhat stabilizing the situation in Gaul and in Hispania. He relied heavily on his forces of Huns. With a ferocity celebrated centuries later in the Nibelungenlied, the Huns slaughtered many Burgundians on the middle Rhine, re-establishing the survivors as Roman allies, the first Kingdom of the Burgundians. This may have returned some sort of Roman authority to Trier. Eastern troops reinforced Carthage, temporarily halting the Vandals, who in 435 agreed to limit themselves to Numidia and leave the most fertile parts of North Africa in peace. Aetius concentrated his limited military resources to defeat the Visigoths again, and his diplomacy restored a degree of order to Hispania. However, his general Litorius was badly defeated by the Visigoths at Toulouse, and a new Suevic king, Rechiar, began vigorous assaults on what remained of Roman Hispania. At one point Rechiar even allied with Bagaudae. These were Romans not under imperial control; some of their reasons for rebellion may be indicated by the remarks of a Roman captive under Attila who was happy in his lot, giving a lively account of
the vices of a declining empire, of which he had so long been the victim; the cruel absurdity of the Roman princes, unable to protect their subjects against the public enemy, unwilling to trust them with arms for their own defence; the intolerable weight of taxes, rendered still more oppressive by the intricate or arbitrary modes of collection; the obscurity of numerous and contradictory laws; the tedious and expensive forms of judicial proceedings; the partial administration of justice; and the universal corruption, which increased the influence of the rich, and aggravated the misfortunes of the poor.
A religious polemic of about this time complains bitterly of the oppression and extortion suffered by all but the richest Romans. Many wished to flee to the Bagaudae or even to foul - smelling barbarians.
Although these men differ in customs and language from those with whom they have taken refuge, and are unaccustomed too, if I may say so, to the nauseous odor of the bodies and clothing of the barbarians, yet they prefer the strange life they find there to the injustice rife among the Romans. So you find men passing over everywhere, now to the Goths, now to the Bagaudae, or whatever other barbarians have established their power anywhere... We call those men rebels and utterly abandoned, whom we ourselves have forced into crime. For by what other causes were they made Bagaudae save by our unjust acts, the wicked decisions of the magistrates, the proscription and extortion of those who have turned the public exactions to the increase of their private fortunes and made the tax indictions their opportunity for plunder?
From Britannia comes an indication of the prosperity which freedom from taxes could bring.
No sooner were the ravages of the enemy checked, than the island was deluged with a most extraordinary plenty of all things, greater than was before known, and with it grew up every kind of luxury and licentiousness.
Nevertheless, effective imperial protection from barbarian ravages was eagerly sought. About this time authorities in Britannia asked Aetius for help:
"To Aetius, now consul for the third time: the groans of the Britons. '' And again a little further, thus: -- "The barbarians drive us to the sea; the sea throws us back on the barbarians: thus two modes of death await us, we are either slain or drowned. '' The Romans, however, could not assist them...
The Visigoths passed another waymark on their journey to full independence; they made their own foreign policy, sending princesses to make (rather unsuccessful) marriage alliances with Rechiar of the Sueves and with Huneric, son of the Vandal king Genseric.
In 439 the Vandals moved eastward (temporarily abandoning Numidia) and captured Carthage, where they established an independent state with a powerful navy. This brought immediate financial crisis to the Western Empire; the diocese of Africa was prosperous, normally required few troops to keep it secure, contributed large tax revenues, and exported wheat to feed Rome and many other areas. Roman troops assembled in Sicily, but the planned counter-attack never happened. Huns attacked the Eastern empire, and
the troops, which had been sent against Genseric, were hastily recalled from Sicily; the garrisons, on the side of Persia, were exhausted; and a military force was collected in Europe, formidable by their arms and numbers, if the generals had understood the science of command, and the soldiers the duty of obedience. The armies of the Eastern empire were vanquished in three successive engagements... From the Hellespont to Thermopylae, and the suburbs of Constantinople, (Attila) ravaged, without resistance, and without mercy, the provinces of Thrace and Macedonia.
Attila 's invasions of the East were stopped by the walls of Constantinople, and at this heavily fortified Eastern end of the Mediterranean there were no significant barbarian invasions across the sea into the rich southerly areas of Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt. Despite internal and external threats, and more religious discord than the West, these provinces remained prosperous contributors to tax revenue; despite the ravages of Attila 's armies and the extortions of his peace treaties, tax revenue generally continued to be adequate for the essential state functions of the Eastern empire.
Genseric settled his Vandals as landowners and in 442 was able to negotiate very favourable peace terms with the Western court. He kept his latest gains and his eldest son Huneric was honoured by betrothal to Princess Eudocia, who carried the legitimacy of the Theodosian dynasty. Huneric 's Gothic wife was suspected of trying to poison her father - in - law Genseric; he sent her home without her nose or ears, and his Gothic alliance came to an early end. The Romans regained Numidia, and Rome again received a grain supply from Africa.
The losses of income from the Diocese of Africa were equivalent to the costs of nearly 40,000 infantry or over 20,000 cavalry. The imperial regime had to increase taxes. Despite admitting that the peasantry could pay no more, and that a sufficient army could not be raised, the imperial regime protected the interests of landowners displaced from Africa and allowed wealthy individuals to avoid taxes.
In 444, the Huns were united under Attila. His subjects included Huns, outnumbered several times over by other groups, predominantly Germanic. His power rested partly on his continued ability to reward his favoured followers with precious metals, and he continued to attack the Eastern Empire until 450, by when he had extracted vast sums of money and many other concessions.
Attila may not have needed any excuse to turn West, but he received one in the form of a plea for help from Honoria, the Emperor 's sister, who was being forced into a marriage which she resented. Attila claimed Honoria as his wife and half of the Western Empire 's territory as his dowry. Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul in 451 with a huge army. In the bloody battle of the Catalaunian Plains the invasion was stopped by the combined forces of the barbarians within the Western empire, coordinated by Aetius and supported by what troops he could muster. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome, but an outbreak of disease in his army, lack of supplies, reports that Eastern Roman troops were attacking his noncombatant population in Pannonia, and, possibly, Pope Leo 's plea for peace induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453) and his empire crumbled as his followers fought for power. The life of Severinus of Noricum gives glimpses of the general insecurity, and ultimate retreat of the Romans on the Upper Danube, in the aftermath of Attila 's death. The Romans were without adequate forces; the barbarians inflicted haphazard extortion, murder, kidnap, and plunder on the Romans and on each other.
So long as the Roman dominion lasted, soldiers were maintained in many towns at the public expense to guard the boundary wall. When this custom ceased, the squadrons of soldiers and the boundary wall were blotted out together. The troop at Batavis, however, held out. Some soldiers of this troop had gone to Italy to fetch the final pay to their comrades, and no one knew that the barbarians had slain them on the way.
In 454 Aetius was personally stabbed to death by Valentinian, who was himself murdered by the dead general 's supporters a year later.
(Valentinian) thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne.
A rich senatorial aristocrat, Petronius Maximus, who had encouraged both murders, then seized the throne. He broke the engagement between Huneric, prince of the Vandals, and Princess Eudocia, and had time to send Avitus to ask for the help of the Visigoths in Gaul before the Vandals sailed to Italy. Petronius was unable to muster any effective response and was killed by a mob as he tried to flee the city. The Vandals entered Rome, and plundered it for two weeks. Despite the shortage of money for the defence of the state, considerable private wealth had accumulated since the previous sack in 410. The Vandals sailed away with large amounts of treasure and also with the Princess Eudocia, who became the wife of one Vandal king and the mother of another.
The Vandals conquered Sicily, and their fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and to the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean.
Avitus, at the Visigothic court in Burdigala, declared himself Emperor. He moved on Rome with Visigothic support which gained his acceptance by Majorian and Ricimer, commanders of the remaining army of Italy. This was the first time that a barbarian kingdom had played a key role in the imperial succession. Avitus 's son - in - law Sidonius wrote propaganda to present the Visigothic king Theoderic II as a reasonable man with whom a Roman regime could do business. Theoderic 's payoff included precious metal from stripping the remaining public ornaments of Italy, and an unsupervised campaign in Hispania. There he not only defeated the Sueves, executing his brother - in - law Rechiar, but he also plundered Roman cities. The Burgundians expanded their kingdom in the Rhone valley and the Vandals took the remains of the Diocese of Africa. In 456 the Visigothic army was too heavily engaged in Hispania to be an effective threat to Italy, and Ricimer had just destroyed a pirate fleet of sixty Vandal ships; Majorian and Ricimer marched against Avitus and defeated him near Placentia. He was forced to become Bishop of Placentia, and died (possibly murdered) a few weeks later.
Majorian and Ricimer were now in control of Italy. Ricimer was the son of a Suevic king and his mother was the daughter of a Gothic one, so he could not aspire to an imperial throne. After some months, allowing for negotiation with the new emperor of Constantinople and the defeat of 900 Alamannic invaders of Italy by one of his subordinates, Majorian was acclaimed as Augustus. Majorian is described by Gibbon as "a great and heroic character ''. He rebuilt the army and navy of Italy with vigour and set about recovering the remaining Gallic provinces, which had not recognized his elevation. He defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Arelate, reducing them to federate status and obliging them to give up their claims in Hispania; he moved on to subdue the Burgundians, the Gallo - Romans around Lugdunum (who were granted tax concessions and whose senior officials were appointed from their own ranks) and the Suevi and Bagaudae in Hispania. Marcellinus, magister militum in Dalmatia and the pagan general of a well - equipped army, acknowledged him as emperor and recovered Sicily from the Vandals. Aegidius also acknowledged Majorian and took effective charge of northern Gaul. (Aegidius may also have used the title "King of the Franks ''.) Abuses in tax collection were reformed and the city councils were strengthened, both actions necessary to rebuild the strength of the Empire but disadvantageous to the richest aristocrats. Majorian prepared a fleet at Carthago Nova for the essential reconquest of the Diocese of Africa.
The fleet was burned by traitors, and Majorian made peace with the Vandals and returned to Italy. Here Ricimer met him, arrested him, and executed him five days later. Marcellinus in Dalmatia, and Aegidius around Soissons in northern Gaul, rejected both Ricimer and his puppets and maintained some version of Roman rule in their areas. Ricimer later ceded Narbo and its hinterland to the Visigoths for their help against Aegidius; this made it impossible for Roman armies to march from Italy to Hispania. Ricimer was then the effective ruler of Italy (but little else) for several years. From 461 to 465 the pious Italian aristocrat Libius Severus reigned. There is no record of anything significant that he even tried to achieve, he was never acknowledged by the East whose help Ricimer needed, and he died conveniently in 465.
After two years without a Western Emperor, the Eastern court nominated Anthemius, a successful general who had a strong claim on the Eastern throne. He arrived in Italy with an army, supported by Marcellinus and his fleet; he married his daughter to Ricimer, and he was proclaimed Augustus in 467. In 468, at vast expense, the Eastern empire assembled an enormous force to help the West retake the Diocese of Africa. Marcellinus rapidly drove the Vandals from Sardinia and Sicily, and a land invasion evicted them from Tripolitania. The commander in chief with the main force defeated a Vandal fleet near Sicily and landed at Cape Bon. Here Genseric offered to surrender, if he could have a five - day truce to prepare the process. He used the respite to prepare a full - scale attack preceded by fireships, which destroyed most of the Roman fleet and killed many of its soldiers. The Vandals were confirmed in their possession of the Diocese of Africa and they retook Sardinia and Sicily. Marcellinus was murdered, possibly on orders from Ricimer. The Praetorian prefect of Gaul, Arvandus, tried to persuade the new king of the Visigoths to rebel, on the grounds that Roman power in Gaul was finished anyway, but he refused.
Anthemius was still in command of an army in Italy. Additionally, in northern Gaul, a British army led by one Riothamus, operated in imperial interests. Anthemius sent his son over the Alps, with an army, to request that the Visigoths return southern Gaul to Roman control. This would have allowed the Empire land access to Hispania again. The Visigoths refused, defeated the forces of both Riothamus and Anthemius, and with the Burgundians took over almost all of the remaining imperial territory in southern Gaul.
Ricimer then quarreled with Anthemius, and besieged him in Rome, which surrendered in July 472 after more months of starvation. Anthemius was captured and executed (on Ricimer 's orders) by the Burgundian prince Gundobad. In August Ricimer died of a pulmonary haemorrhage. Olybrius, his new emperor, named Gundobad as his patrician, then died himself shortly thereafter.
After the death of Olybrius there was a further interregnum until March 473, when Gundobad proclaimed Glycerius emperor. He may have made some attempt to intervene in Gaul; if so, it was unsuccessful.
In 474 Julius Nepos, nephew and successor of the general Marcellinus, arrived in Rome with soldiers and authority from the eastern emperor Leo I. Gundobad had already left to contest the Burgundian throne in Gaul and Glycerius gave up without a fight, retiring to become bishop of Salona in Dalmatia.
In 475, Orestes, a former secretary of Attila, drove Julius Nepos out of Ravenna and proclaimed his own son Flavius Momyllus Romulus Augustus (Romulus Augustulus) to be Emperor, on October 31. His surname ' Augustus ' was given the diminutive form ' Augustulus ' by rivals because he was still a minor, and he was never recognized outside of Italy as a legitimate ruler.
In 476, Orestes refused to grant Odoacer and the Heruli federated status, prompting an invasion. Orestes fled to the city of Pavia on August 23, 476, where the city 's bishop gave him sanctuary. Orestes was soon forced to flee Pavia when Odoacer 's army broke through the city walls, and his army ravaged the city. Odoacer 's army chased Orestes to Piacenza, where they captured and executed him on August 28, 476.
On September 4, 476, Odoacer forced then 16 - year - old Romulus Augustulus, whom his father Orestes had proclaimed to be Rome 's Emperor, to abdicate. After deposing Romulus, Odoacer did not execute him. The Anonymus Valesianus wrote that Odoacer, "taking pity on his youth '', spared Romulus ' life and granted him an annual pension of 6,000 solidi before sending him to live with relatives in Campania. Odoacer then installed himself as ruler over Italy, and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople.
By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus and proclaimed himself ruler of Italy, but this convention is subject to many qualifications. In Roman constitutional theory, the Empire was still simply united under one emperor, implying no abandonment of territorial claims. In areas where the convulsions of the dying Empire had made organized self - defence legitimate, rump states continued under some form of Roman rule after 476. Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West and controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480. Syagrius son of Aegidius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487. The indigenous inhabitants of Mauretania developed kingdoms of their own, independent of the Vandals, with strong Roman traits. They again sought Imperial recognition with the reconquests of Justinian I, and they put up effective resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. While the civitates of Britannia sank into a level of material development inferior even to their pre-Roman Iron Age ancestors, they maintained identifiably Roman traits for some time, and they continued to look to their own defence as Honorius had authorized.
Odoacer began to negotiate with the East Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Zeno, who was busy dealing with unrest in the East. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer the status of patrician and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer never returned any territory or real power, but he did issue coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 (Glycerius may have been among the conspirators) prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy. In 488 the Eastern emperor authorized a troublesome Goth, Theoderic (later known as "the Great '') to take Italy. After several indecisive campaigns, in 493 Theoderic and Odoacer agreed to rule jointly. They celebrated their agreement with a banquet of reconciliation, at which Theoderic 's men murdered Odoacer 's, and Theoderic personally cut Odoacer in half.
The Roman Empire was not only a political unity enforced by violence. It was also the combined and elaborated civilization of the Mediterranean basin and beyond. It included manufacture, trade, and architecture, widespread secular literacy, written law, and an international language of science and literature. The Western barbarians lost much of these higher cultural practices, but their redevelopment in the Middle Ages by polities aware of the Roman achievement formed the basis for the later development of Europe.
Observing the cultural and archaeological continuities through and beyond the period of lost political control, the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.
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when does the new season of american idol come out | American Idol - wikipedia
American Idol is an American singing competition television series created by Simon Fuller, produced by FremantleMedia North America and 19 Entertainment, and distributed by FremantleMedia North America. It began airing on Fox on June 11, 2002, and ended its first - run on April 7, 2016. On March 11, 2018, the show will make its debut on ABC. It started off as an addition to the Idols format based on the British series Pop Idol, and became one of the most successful shows in the history of American television. The concept of the series involves discovering recording stars from unsigned singing talents, with the winner determined by the viewers in America through telephones, Internet, and SMS text voting. Winners chosen by viewers in its fifteen seasons were Kelly Clarkson, Ruben Studdard, Fantasia, Carrie Underwood, Taylor Hicks, Jordin Sparks, David Cook, Kris Allen, Lee DeWyze, Scotty McCreery, Phillip Phillips, Candice Glover, Caleb Johnson, Nick Fradiani, and Trent Harmon.
American Idol employed a panel of judges who critiqued the contestants ' performances. The original judges were record producer and music manager Randy Jackson, pop singer and choreographer Paula Abdul and music executive and manager Simon Cowell. The judging panel for the final seasons on Fox consisted of country singer Keith Urban, singer and actress Jennifer Lopez, and jazz singer Harry Connick, Jr. The first season was hosted by radio personality Ryan Seacrest and comedian Brian Dunkleman, with Seacrest as the sole master of ceremonies for the rest of the series.
The success of American Idol has been described as "unparalleled in broadcasting history ''. The series was also said by a rival TV executive to be "the most impactful show in the history of television ''. It became a recognized springboard for launching the career of many artists as bona fide stars. According to Billboard magazine, in its first ten years, "Idol has spawned 345 Billboard chart - toppers and a platoon of pop idols, including Kelly Clarkson, Carrie Underwood, Katharine McPhee, Chris Daughtry, Fantasia, Ruben Studdard, Jennifer Hudson, Clay Aiken, Adam Lambert and Jordin Sparks while remaining a TV ratings juggernaut. ''
For an unprecedented eight consecutive years, from the 2003 -- 04 television season through the 2010 -- 11 season, either its performance or result show had been ranked number one in U.S. television ratings.
American Idol was based on the British show Pop Idol created by Simon Fuller, which was in turn inspired by the New Zealand television singing competition Popstars. Television producer Nigel Lythgoe saw a version in Australia and helped bring it over to Britain. Fuller was inspired by the idea from Popstars of employing a panel of judges to select singers in audition. He then added other elements, including telephone voting by the viewing public (which, at the time, was already in use in shows, such as the Eurovision Song Contest), the drama of backstories, and real - life soap opera unfolding in real time. The show debuted in Britain in 2001 with Lythgoe as showrunner -- the executive producer and production leader -- and Simon Cowell as one of the judges, and was successful with the viewing public.
In 2001, Fuller, Cowell, and TV producer Simon Jones attempted to sell the Pop Idol format to the United States, but the idea was initially met with poor responses from the Fox television network. However, Rupert Murdoch, head of Fox 's parent company, was later persuaded to buy the series by his daughter, Elisabeth, who was a fan of the British show. The show was renamed American Idol: The Search for a Superstar and debuted in the summer of 2002. Cowell was initially offered the job of showrunner, but turned down the offer; Lythgoe then took over that position. Much to Cowell 's surprise, it became one of the biggest shows of the summer. The show grew into a phenomenon largely due to its personal engagement of the contestants, thereby prompting viewers to vote, and the presence of the acid - tongued Cowell as a judge. By 2004, it had become the most - watched show on U.S. television, a position it then held for seven consecutive seasons. However, after a few years of sharp declining ratings, the network announced that the fifteenth season would be its last, ending its run in April 2016. In May 2017, however, ABC acquired the rights to the series and announced that the program would return for the 2017 -- 18 television season.
The show had originally planned on having four judges following the Pop Idol format; however, only three judges had been found by the time of the audition round in the first season, namely Randy Jackson, Paula Abdul and Simon Cowell. A fourth judge, radio DJ Stryker, was originally chosen but he dropped out citing "image concerns ''. In the second season, New York radio personality Angie Martinez had been hired as a fourth judge but withdrew only after a few days of auditions due to not being comfortable with giving out criticism. The show decided to continue with the three judges format until season eight. All three original judges stayed on the judging panel for eight seasons.
In season eight, Latin Grammy Award - nominated singer - songwriter and record producer Kara DioGuardi was added as a fourth judge. She stayed for two seasons and left the show before season ten. Paula Abdul left the show before season nine after failing to agree terms with the show producers. Emmy Award - winning talk show host Ellen DeGeneres replaced Paula Abdul for that season, but left after just one season. On January 11, 2010, Simon Cowell announced that he was leaving the show to pursue introducing the American version of his show The X Factor to the USA for 2011.
Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler joined the judging panel in season ten, but both left after two seasons. They were replaced by three new judges, Mariah Carey, Nicki Minaj and Keith Urban, who joined Randy Jackson in season 12. However both Carey and Minaj left after one season, and Randy Jackson also announced that he would depart the show after twelve seasons as a judge but would return as a mentor. Urban was the only judge from season 12 to return in season 13. He was joined by previous judge Jennifer Lopez and former mentor Harry Connick, Jr. Lopez, Urban and Connick, Jr. all returned as judges for the show 's fourteenth and fifteenth seasons.
On May 16, 2017, it was announced that Katy Perry was the first to be chosen as a judge for the revival series. On September 24, 2017, country singer Luke Bryan was announced as the second judge to take the panel. On September 29, 2017, it was announced that Lionel Richie would be taking the third and final seat on the judges panel.
Guest judges may occasionally be introduced. In season two, guest judges such as Lionel Richie and Robin Gibb were used, and in season three Donna Summer, Quentin Tarantino and some of the mentors also joined as judges to critique the performances in the final rounds. Guest judges were used in the audition rounds for seasons four, six, nine, and fourteen such as Gene Simmons and LL Cool J in season four, Jewel and Olivia Newton - John in season six, Shania Twain in season eight, Neil Patrick Harris, Avril Lavigne and Katy Perry in season nine, and season eight runner - up, Adam Lambert, in season fourteen.
The first season was co-hosted by Ryan Seacrest and Brian Dunkleman following the format of Pop Idol of using two presenters. Dunkleman quit thereafter, making Seacrest the sole emcee of the show starting with season two. Dunkleman did, however, return in the series finale. Seacrest will also be returning for Season 16.
In a series of steps, the show selected the eventual winner out of many tens of thousands of contestants.
The eligible age - range for contestants was fifteen to twenty - eight years old. The initial age limit was sixteen to twenty - four in the first three seasons, but the upper limit was raised to twenty - eight in season four, and the lower limit was reduced to fifteen in season ten. The contestants had to be legal U.S. residents, could not have advanced to particular stages of the competition in previous seasons, and must not have held a current recording or talent representation contract by the semi-final stage (in previous years by the audition stage).
Contestants went through at least three sets of cuts. The first was a brief audition with a few other contestants in front of selectors which may include one of the show 's producers. Although auditions can exceed 10,000 in each city, only a few hundred of these made it past the preliminary round of auditions. Successful contestants then sang in front of producers, where more may be cut. Only then can they proceed to audition in front of the judges, which is the only audition stage shown on television. Those selected by the judges are sent to Hollywood. Between 10 -- 60 people in each city may make it to Hollywood.
Once in Hollywood, the contestants performed individually or in groups in a series of rounds. Until season ten, there were usually three rounds of eliminations in Hollywood. In the first round the contestants emerged in groups but performed individually. For the next round, the contestants put themselves in small groups and performed a song together. In the final round, the contestants performed solo with a song of their choice a cappella or accompanied by a band -- depending on the season. In seasons two and three, contestants were also asked to write original lyrics or melody in an additional round after the first round. In season seven, the group round was eliminated and contestants may, after a first solo performance and on judges approval, skip a second solo round and move directly to the final Hollywood round. In season twelve, the executive producers split up the females and males and chose the members to form the groups in the group round.
In seasons ten and eleven, a further round was added in Las Vegas, where the contestants performed in groups based on a theme, followed by one final solo round to determine the semi-finalists. At the end of this stage of the competition, 24 to 36 contestants were selected to move on to the semi-final stage. In season twelve the Las Vegas round became a Sudden Death round, where the judges had to choose five guys and five girls each night (four nights) to make the top twenty. In season thirteen, a new round called "Hollywood or Home '' was added, where if the judges were uncertain about some contestants, those contestants were required to perform soon after landing in Los Angeles, and those who failed to impress were sent back home before they reached Hollywood.
From the semi-finals onward, the fate of the contestants was decided by public vote. During the contestant 's performance as well as the recap at the end, a toll - free telephone number for each contestant was displayed on the screen. For a two - hour period after the episode ends (up to four hours for the finale) in each US time zone, viewers may call or send a text message to their preferred contestant 's telephone number, and each call or text message was registered as a vote for that contestant. Viewers were allowed to vote as many times as they can within the two - hour voting window. However, the show reserves the right to discard votes by power dialers. One or more of the least popular contestants may be eliminated in successive weeks until a winner emerges. Over 110 million votes were cast in the first season, and by season ten the seasonal total had increased to nearly 750 million. Voting via text messaging was made available in the second season when AT&T Wireless joined as a sponsor of the show, and 7.5 million text messages were sent to American Idol that season. The number of text messages rapidly increased, reaching 178 million texts by season eight. Online voting was offered for the first time in season ten. The votes are counted and verified by Telescope Inc.
In the first three seasons, the semi-finalists were split into different groups to perform individually in their respective night. In season one, there were three groups of ten, with the top three contestants from each group making the finals. In seasons two and three, there were four groups of eight, and the top two of each selected. These seasons also featured a wildcard round, where contestants who failed to qualify were given another chance. In season one, only one wildcard contestant was chosen by the judges, giving a total of ten finalists. In seasons two and three, each of the three judges championed one contestant with the public advancing a fourth into the finals, making 12 finalists in all.
From seasons four to seven and nine, the twenty - four semi-finalists were divided by gender in order to ensure an equal gender division in the top twelve. The men and women sang separately on consecutive nights, and the bottom two in each groups were eliminated each week until only six of each remained to form the top twelve.
The wildcard round returned in season eight, wherein there were three groups of twelve, with three contestants moving forward -- the highest male, the highest female, and the next highest - placed singer -- for each night, and four wildcards were chosen by the judges to produce a final 13. Starting season ten, the girls and boys perform on separate nights. In seasons ten and eleven, five of each gender were chosen, and three wildcards were chosen by the judges to form a final 13. In season twelve, the top twenty semifinalists were split into gender groups, with five of each gender advancing to form the final 10. In season thirteen, there were thirty semifinalists, but only twenty semifinalists (ten for each gender) were chosen by the judges to perform on the live shows, with five in each gender and three wildcards chosen by the judges composing the final 13.
The finals were broadcast in prime time from CBS Television City in Los Angeles, in front of a live studio audience. The finals lasted eight weeks in season one, eleven weeks in subsequent seasons until seasons ten and eleven which lasted twelve weeks except for season twelve, which lasted ten weeks, and season thirteen, which lasted for thirteen weeks. Each finalist performed songs based on a weekly theme which may be a musical genre such as Motown, disco, or big band, songs by artists such as Michael Jackson, Elvis Presley or The Beatles, or more general themes such as Billboard Number 1 hits or songs from the contestant 's year of birth. Contestants usually worked with a celebrity mentor related to the theme. In season ten, Jimmy Iovine was brought in as a mentor for the season. Initially the contestants sang one song each week, but this was increased to two songs from top four or five onwards, then three songs for the top two or three.
The most popular contestants were usually not revealed in the results show. Instead, typically the three contestants (two in later rounds) who received the lowest number of votes was called to the center of the stage. One of these three was usually sent to safety; however the two remaining were not necessarily the bottom two. The contestant with the fewest votes was then revealed and eliminated from the competition. A montage of the eliminated contestant 's time on the show was played and they gave their final performance. However, in season six, during the series ' first ever Idol Gives Back episode, no contestant was eliminated, but on the following week, two were sent home. Moreover, starting in season eight, the judges may overturn viewers ' decision with a "Judges ' Save '' if they unanimously agreed to. "The save '' could only be used once, and only up through the top five. In the eighth, ninth, tenth, and fourteenth seasons, a double elimination then took place in the week following the activation of the save, but in the eleventh and thirteenth seasons, a regular single elimination took place. The save was not activated in the twelfth season and consequently, a non-elimination took place in the week after its expiration with the votes then carrying over into the following week.
The "Fan Save '' was introduced in the fourteenth season. During the finals, viewers were given a five - minute window to vote for the contestants in danger of elimination by using their Twitter account to decide which contestant will move on to the next show, starting with the Top 8.
The finale was the two - hour last episode of the season, culminating in revealing the winner. For seasons one, three through six, fourteen, and fifteen it was broadcast from the Dolby Theatre, which has an audience capacity of approximately 3,400. The finale for season two took place at the Gibson Amphitheatre, which has an audience capacity of over 6,000. In seasons seven through thirteen, the venue was at the Microsoft Theater, which holds an audience of over 7,000.
The winner received a record deal with a major label, which may be for up to six albums, and secures a management contract with American Idol - affiliated 19 Management (which has the right of first refusal to sign all contestants), as well as various lucrative contracts. All winners prior to season nine reportedly earned at least $1 million in their first year as winner. All the runners - up of the first ten seasons, as well as some of other finalists, had also received record deals with major labels. However, starting in season 11, the runner - up may only be guaranteed a single - only deal. BMG / Sony (seasons 1 -- 9) and UMG (season 10 -- 15) had the right of first refusal to sign contestants for three months after the season 's finale. Starting in the fourteenth season, the winner was signed with Big Machine Records. Prominent music mogul Clive Davis also produced some of the selected contestants ' albums, such as Kelly Clarkson, Clay Aiken, Fantasia Barrino and Diana DeGarmo. All top 10 (11 in seasons 10 and 12) finalists earn the privilege of going on a tour, where the participants may each earn a six - figure sum.
Each season premiered with the audition round, taking place in different cities. The audition episodes typically feature a mix of potential finalists, interesting characters and woefully inadequate contestants. Each successful contestant received a golden ticket to proceed on to the next round in Hollywood. Based on their performances during the Hollywood round (Las Vegas round for seasons 10 onward), 24 to 36 contestants were selected by the judges to participate in the semifinals. From the semifinals onward the contestants performed their songs live, with the judges making their critiques after each performance. The contestants were voted for by the viewing public, and the outcome of the public votes was then revealed in the results show typically on the following night. The results shows featured group performances by the contestants as well as guest performers. The Top - three results show also featured the homecoming events for the Top 3 finalists. The season reaches its climax in a two - hour results finale show, where the winner of the season was revealed.
With the exception of seasons one and two, the contestants in the semifinals onward performed in front of a studio audience. They performed with a full band in the finals. From season four to season nine, and season thirteen onward, the American Idol band was led by Rickey Minor; from season ten to season twelve, Ray Chew. Assistance may also have been given by vocal coaches and song arrangers, such as Michael Orland and Debra Byrd to contestants behind the scene. Starting with season seven, contestants may perform with a musical instrument from the Hollywood rounds onward. In the first nine seasons, performances were usually aired live on Tuesday nights, followed by the results shows on Wednesdays in the United States and Canada, but moved to Wednesdays and Thursdays in season ten.
The first season of American Idol debuted as a summer replacement show in June 2002 on the Fox network. It was co-hosted by Ryan Seacrest and Brian Dunkleman.
In the audition rounds, 121 contestants were selected from around 10,000 who attended the auditions. These were cut to 30 for the semifinal, with ten going on to the finals. One semifinalist, Delano Cagnolatti, was disqualified for lying to evade the show 's age limit. One of the early favorites, Tamyra Gray, was eliminated at the top four, the first of several such shock eliminations that were to be repeated in later seasons. Christina Christian was hospitalized before the top six result show due to chest pains and palpitations, and she was eliminated while she was in the hospital. Jim Verraros was the first openly gay contestant on the show; his sexual orientation was revealed in his online journal, however it was removed during the competition after a request from the show producers over concerns that it might be unfairly influencing votes.
The final showdown was between Justin Guarini, one of the early favorites, and Kelly Clarkson. Clarkson was not initially thought of as a contender, but impressed the judges with some good performances in the final rounds, such as her performance of Aretha Franklin 's "Natural Woman '', and Betty Hutton 's "Stuff Like That There '', and eventually won the crown on September 4, 2002.
In what was to become a tradition, Clarkson performed the coronation song during the finale, and released the song immediately after the season ended. The single, "A Moment Like This '', went on to break a 38 - year - old record held by The Beatles for the biggest leap to number one on the Billboard Hot 100. Guarini did not release any song immediately after the show and remains the only runner - up not to do so. Both Clarkson and Guarini made a musical film, From Justin to Kelly, which was released in 2003 but was widely panned. Clarkson has since become the most successful Idol contestant internationally, with worldwide album sales of more than 23 million.
Starting September 30, 2006, this season was repackaged as "American Idol Rewind '' and syndicated directly to stations in the U.S.
Following the success of season one, the second season was moved up to air in January 2003. The number of episodes increased, as did the show 's budget and the charge for commercial spots. Dunkleman left the show, leaving Seacrest as the lone host. Kristin Adams was a correspondent for this season.
Corey Clark was disqualified during the finals for having an undisclosed police record; however, he later alleged that he and Paula Abdul had an affair while on the show and that this contributed to his expulsion. Clark also claimed that Abdul gave him preferential treatment on the show due to their affair. The allegations were dismissed by Fox after an independent investigation. Two semi-finalists were also disqualified that year -- Jaered Andrews for an arrest on an assault charge, and Frenchie Davis for having previously modelled for an adult website.
Ruben Studdard emerged as the winner, beating Clay Aiken by a small margin. Out of a total of 24 million votes, Studdard finished just 134,000 votes ahead of Aiken. This slim margin of victory was controversial due to the large number of calls that failed to get through. In an interview prior to season five, executive producer Nigel Lythgoe indicated that Aiken had led the fan voting from the wildcard week onward until the finale.
Both finalists found success after the show, but Aiken out - performed Studdard 's coronation song "Flying Without Wings '' with his single release from the show "This Is the Night '', as well as in their subsequent album releases. The fourth - place finisher Josh Gracin also enjoyed some success as a country singer.
Season three premiered on January 19, 2004. One of the most talked - about contestants during the audition process was William Hung whose off - key rendition of Ricky Martin 's "She Bangs '' received widespread attention. His exposure on Idol landed him a record deal and surprisingly he became the third best - selling singer from that season.
Much media attention on the season had been focused on the three black singers, Fantasia Barrino, LaToya London, and Jennifer Hudson, dubbed the Three Divas. All three unexpectedly landed on the bottom three on the top seven result show, with Hudson controversially eliminated. Elton John, who was one of the mentors that season, called the results of the votes "incredibly racist ''. The prolonged stays of John Stevens and Jasmine Trias in the finals, despite negative comments from the judges, had aroused resentment, so much so that John Stevens reportedly received a death threat, which he dismissed as a joke ' blown out of proportion '.
The performance of "Summertime '' by Barrino, later known simply as "Fantasia '', at Top 8 was widely praised, and Simon Cowell considered it as his favorite Idol moment in the nine seasons he was on the show. Fantasia and Diana DeGarmo were the last two finalists, and Fantasia was crowned as the winner. Fantasia released as her coronation single "I Believe '', a song co-written by season one finalist Tamyra Gray, and DeGarmo released "Dreams ''.
Season four premiered on January 18, 2005; this was the first season of the series to be aired in high definition, although the finale of season three was also aired in high definition. The number of those attending the auditions by now had increased to over 100,000 from the 10,000 of the first season. The age limit was raised to 28 in this season, and among those who benefited from this new rule were Constantine Maroulis and Bo Bice, the two rockers of the show.
The top 12 finalists originally included Mario Vazquez, but he dropped out citing ' personal reasons ' and was replaced by Nikko Smith. Later, an employee of Freemantle Media, which produces the show, sued the company for wrongful termination, claiming that he was dismissed after complaining about lewd behavior by Vazquez toward him during the show.
During the top 11 week, due to a mix - up with the contestants ' telephone number, voting was repeated on what was normally the result night, with the result reveal postponed until the following night.
In May 2005, Carrie Underwood was announced the winner, with Bice the runner - up. Both Underwood and Bice released the coronation song "Inside Your Heaven '', with Underwood 's version of the song making her the first country artist ever to debut at number - one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. As of 2015, Underwood has become the most successful Idol contestant in the U.S., selling 16 million albums in the country, while selling a total of 65 million records worldwide.
Season five began on January 17, 2006. It remains the highest - rated season in the show 's run so far. Two of the more prominent contestants during the Hollywood round were the Brittenum twins who were later disqualified for identity theft.
Chris Daughtry 's performance of Fuel 's "Hemorrhage (In My Hands) '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as Fuel 's new lead singer, an invitation he declined. His performance of Live 's version of "I Walk the Line '' was well received by the judges but later criticized in some quarters for not crediting the arrangement to Live. He was eliminated at the top four in a shocking result.
On May 30, 2006, Taylor Hicks was named American Idol, with Katharine McPhee the runner - up. "Do I Make You Proud '' was released as Hicks ' first single and McPhee 's was "My Destiny ''.
Despite being eliminated earlier in the season, Chris Daughtry (as lead of the band Daughtry) became the most successful recording artist from this season. Other contestants, such as Hicks, McPhee, Bucky Covington, Mandisa, Kellie Pickler, and Elliott Yamin have had varying levels of success.
Season six began on Tuesday, January 16, 2007. The premiere drew a massive audience of 37.3 million viewers, peaking in the last half hour with more than 41 million viewers.
Teenager Sanjaya Malakar was the season 's most talked - about contestant for his unusual hairdo, and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog Vote for the Worst and satellite radio personality Howard Stern, who both encouraged fans to vote for him. However, on April 18, Sanjaya was voted off.
This season saw the first Idol Gives Back telethon - inspired event, which raised more than $76 million in corporate and viewer donations. No contestant was eliminated that week, but two (Phil Stacey and Chris Richardson) were eliminated the next. Melinda Doolittle was eliminated in the final three.
In the May 23 season finale, Jordin Sparks was declared the winner with the runner - up being Blake Lewis. Sparks has had some success as a recording artist post-Idol.
This season also saw the launch of the American Idol Songwriter contest which allows fans to vote for the "coronation song ''. Thousands of recordings of original songs were submitted by songwriters, and 20 entries selected for the public vote. The winning song, "This Is My Now '', was performed by both finalists during the finale and released by Sparks on May 24, 2007.
Season seven premiered on January 15, 2008, for a two - day, four - hour premiere. The media focused on the professional status of the season seven contestants, the so - called ' ringers ', many of whom, including Kristy Lee Cook, Brooke White, Michael Johns, and in particular Carly Smithson, had prior recording contracts. Contestant David Hernandez also attracted some attention due to his past employment as a stripper.
For the finals, American Idol debuted a new state - of - the - art set and stage on March 11, 2008, along with a new on - air look. David Cook 's performance of "Billie Jean '' on top - ten night was lauded by the judges, but provoked controversy when they apparently mistook the Chris Cornell arrangement to be David Cook 's own even though the performance was introduced as Cornell 's version. Cornell himself said he was ' flattered ' and praised David Cook 's performance. David Cook was taken to the hospital after the top - nine performance show due to heart palpitations and high blood pressure.
David Archuleta 's performance of John Lennon 's "Imagine '' was considered by many as one of the best of the season. Jennifer Lopez, who was brought in as a judge in season ten, called it a beautiful song - moment that she will never forget. Jason Castro 's semi-final performance of "Hallelujah '' also received considerable attention, and it propelled Jeff Buckley 's version of the song to the top of the Billboard digital song chart. This was the first season in which contestants ' recordings were released onto iTunes after their performances, and although sales information was not released so as not to prejudice the contest, leaked information indicated that contestants ' songs frequently reached the top of iTunes sales charts.
Idol Gives Back returned on April 9, 2008, and raised $64 million for charity.
The finalists were Cook and Archuleta. David Cook was announced the winner on May 21, 2008, the first rocker to win the show. Both Cook and Archuleta had some success as recording artists with both selling over a million albums in the U.S.
The American Idol Songwriter contest was also held this season. From ten of the most popular submissions, each of the final two contestants chose a song to perform, although neither of their selections was used as the "coronation song ''. The winning song, "The Time of My Life '', was recorded by David Cook and released on May 22, 2008.
Season eight premiered on January 13, 2009. Mike Darnell, the president of alternative programming for Fox, stated that the season would focus more on the contestants ' personal life.
In the first major change to the judging panel, a fourth judge, Kara DioGuardi, was introduced. This was also the first season without executive producer Nigel Lythgoe who left to focus on the international versions of his show So You Think You Can Dance. The Hollywood round was moved to the Kodak Theatre for 2009 and was also extended to two weeks. Idol Gives Back was canceled for this season due to the global recession at the time.
There were 13 finalists this season, but two were eliminated in the first result show of the finals. A new feature introduced was the "Judges ' Save '', and Matt Giraud was saved from elimination at the top seven by the judges when he received the fewest votes. The next week, Lil Rounds and Anoop Desai were eliminated.
The two finalists were Kris Allen and Adam Lambert, both of whom had previously landed in the bottom three at the top five. Allen won the contest in the most controversial voting result since season two. It was claimed, and then later retracted, that 38 million of the 100 million votes cast on the night came from Allen 's home state of Arkansas alone, and that AT&T employees unfairly influenced the votes by giving lessons on power - texting at viewing parties in Arkansas.
Both Allen and Lambert released the coronation song, "No Boundaries '' which was co-written by DioGuardi. This is the first season in which the winner failed to achieve gold album status.
Season nine premiered on January 12, 2010. The upheaval at the judging panel continued. Ellen DeGeneres joined as a judge to replace Paula Abdul at the start of Hollywood Week.
One of the most prominent auditioners this season was General Larry Platt whose performance of "Pants on the Ground '' became a viral hit song.
Crystal Bowersox, who has Type - I diabetes, fell ill due to diabetic ketoacidosis on the morning of the girls performance night for the top 20 week and was hospitalized. The schedule was rearranged so the boys performed first and she could perform the following night instead; she later revealed that Ken Warwick, the show producer, wanted to disqualify her but she begged to be allowed to stay on the show.
Michael Lynche was the lowest vote getter at top nine and was given the Judges ' Save. The next week Katie Stevens and Andrew Garcia were eliminated. That week, Adam Lambert was invited back to be a mentor, the first Idol alum to do so. Idol Gives Back returned this season on April 21, 2010, and raised $45 million.
A special tribute to Simon Cowell was presented in the finale for his final season with the show. Many figures from the show 's past, including Paula Abdul, made an appearance.
The final two contestants were Lee DeWyze and Bowersox. DeWyze was declared the winner during the May 26 finale. No new song was used as coronation song this year; instead, the two finalists each released a cover song -- DeWyze chose U2 's "Beautiful Day '', and Bowersox chose Patty Griffin 's "Up to the Mountain ''. This is the first season where neither finalist achieved significant album sales.
Season ten of the series premiered on January 19, 2011. Many changes were introduced this season, from the format to the personnel of the show. Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler joined Randy Jackson as judges following the departures of Simon Cowell (who left to launch the U.S. version of The X Factor), Kara DioGuardi (whose contract was not renewed) and Ellen DeGeneres, while Nigel Lythgoe returned as executive producer. Jimmy Iovine, chairman of the Interscope Geffen A&M label group, the new partner of American Idol, acted as the in - house mentor in place of weekly guest mentors, although in later episodes special guest mentors such as Beyoncé, will.i.am and Lady Gaga were brought in.
Season ten is the first to include online auditions where contestants could submit a 40 - second video audition via Myspace. Karen Rodriguez was one such auditioner and reached the final rounds.
One of the more prominent contestants this year was Chris Medina, whose story of caring for his brain - damaged fiancée received widespread coverage. Medina was cut in the Top 40 round. Casey Abrams, who suffers from ulcerative colitis, was hospitalized twice and missed the Top 13 result show. The judges used their one save on Abrams on the Top 11, and as a result this was the first season that 11 finalists went on tour instead of 10. In the following week, Naima Adedapo and Thia Megia were both eliminated the following week.
Pia Toscano, one of the presumed favorites to advance far in the season, was unexpectedly eliminated on April 7, 2011, finishing in ninth place. Her elimination drew criticisms from some former Idol contestants, as well as actor Tom Hanks.
The two finalists in 2011 were Lauren Alaina and Scotty McCreery, both teenage country singers. McCreery won the competition on May 25, being the youngest male winner and the fourth male in a row to win American Idol. McCreery released his first single, "I Love You This Big '', as his coronation song, and Alaina released "Like My Mother Does ''. McCreery 's debut album, Clear as Day, became the first debut album by an Idol winner to reach No. 1 on the US Billboard 200 since Ruben Studdard 's Soulful in 2003, and he became the youngest male artist to reach No. 1 on the Billboard 200.
Season 11 premiered on January 18, 2012. On February 23, it was announced that one more finalist would join the Top 24 making it the Top 25, and that was Jermaine Jones. However, on March 14, Jones was disqualified in 12th place for concealing arrests and outstanding warrants. Jones denied the accusation that he concealed his arrests.
Finalist Phillip Phillips suffered from kidney pain and was taken to the hospital before the Top 13 results show, and later received medical procedure to alleviate a blockage caused by kidney stones. He was reported to have eight surgeries during his Idol run, and had considered quitting the show due to the pain. He underwent surgery to remove the stones and reconstruct his kidney soon after the season had finished.
Jessica Sanchez received the fewest number of votes during the Top 7 week, and the judges decided to use their "save '' option on her, making her the first female recipient of the save. The following week, unlike previous seasons, Colton Dixon was the only contestant sent home. Sanchez later made the final two, the first season where a recipient of the save reached the finale.
Phillips became the winner, beating Sanchez. Prior to the announcement of the winner, season five finalist Ace Young proposed marriage to season three runner - up Diana DeGarmo on stage -- which she accepted.
Phillips released "Home '' as his coronation song, while Sanchez released "Change Nothing ''. Phillips ' "Home '' has since become the best selling of all coronation songs.
Season 12 premiered on January 16, 2013. Judges Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler left the show after two seasons. This season 's judging panel consisted of Randy Jackson, along with Mariah Carey, Keith Urban and Nicki Minaj. This was the first season since season nine to have four judges on the panel. The pre-season buzz and the early episodes of the show were dominated by the feud between the judges Minaj and Carey after a video of their dispute was leaked to TMZ.
The top 10 contestants started with five males and five females, however, the males were eliminated consecutively in the first five weeks, with Lazaro Arbos the last male to be eliminated. For the first time in the show 's history, the top 5 contestants were all female. It was also the first time that the judges ' "save '' was not used, the top four contestants were therefore given an extra week to perform again with their votes carried over with no elimination in the first week.
23 - year - old Candice Glover won the season with Kree Harrison taking the runner - up spot. Glover is the first female to win American Idol since Jordin Sparks. She was also the final female to win the series. Glover released "I Am Beautiful '' as a single while Harrison released "All Cried Out '' immediately after the show. Glover sold poorly with her debut album, and this is also the first season that the runner - up was not signed by a music label.
Towards the end of the season, Randy Jackson, the last remaining of the original judges, announced that he would no longer serve as a judge to pursue other business ventures. Both judges Mariah Carey and Nicki Minaj also decided to leave after one season to focus on their music careers.
The thirteenth season premiered on January 15, 2014. Randy Jackson and Keith Urban returned, though Jackson moved from the judging panel to the role of in - mentor. Mariah Carey and Nicki Minaj left the panel after one season. Former judge Jennifer Lopez and former mentor Harry Connick, Jr. joined Urban on the panel. Also, Nigel Lythgoe and Ken Warwick were replaced as executive producers by Per Blankens, Jesse Ignjatovic and Evan Pragger. Bill DeRonde replaced Warwick as a director of the audition episodes, while Louis J. Horvitz replaced Gregg Gelfand as a director of the show.
This was the first season where the contestants were permitted to perform in the final rounds songs they wrote themselves. In the Top 8, Sam Woolf received the fewest votes, but he was saved from elimination by the judges. The 500th episode of the series was the Top 3 performance night.
Caleb Johnson was named the winner of the season, with Jena Irene as the runner - up. Johnson released "As Long as You Love Me '' as his coronation single while Irene released "We Are One ''.
The fourteenth season premiered on January 7, 2015. Jennifer Lopez, Keith Urban and Harry Connick, Jr. returned for their respective fourth, third and second seasons as judges. Eighth season runner - up Adam Lambert filled in for Urban during the New York City auditions. Randy Jackson did not return as the in - house mentor for this season.
Changes this season include only airing one episode a week during the final ten. Coca - Cola ended their longtime sponsorship of the show and Ford Motor Company maintained a reduced role. The winner of the season also received a recording contract with Big Machine Records.
Nick Fradiani won the season, defeating Clark Beckham. By winning, Fradiani became the first winner from the Northeast region. Fradiani released "Beautiful Life '' as his coronation single while Beckham released "Champion ''. Jax, the third place finalist, also released a single called "Forcefield ''.
Fox announced on May 11, 2015 that the fifteenth season would be the final season of American Idol; as such, the season was expected to have an additional focus on the program 's alumni. Ryan Seacrest returned as host, with Harry Connick Jr., Keith Urban, and Jennifer Lopez all returning as judges. The season was shortened by four weeks compared to previous years. During the finale episode, President Barack Obama praised the millions of young people that voted for contestants and pitched that they vote in the upcoming election. The farewell season concluded on April 7, 2016. Seacrest signed off by saying: "And one more time -- this is so tough -- we say to you from Hollywood, goodnight America '', and then he added, "for now. ''
Trent Harmon won the season against runner - up La'Porsha Renae. Harmon released "Falling '' co-written by Keith Urban as his coronation song. Renae 's "Battles '', third - place finisher Dalton Rapattoni 's "Strike A Match '' and fourth - place finisher MacKenzie Bourg 's "Roses '' were also released as singles.
At the end of this season, the show concluded its run on Fox.
In early 2017, Variety reported that FremantleMedia was in - talks to revive the show for NBC or for its original network, FOX. A dispute between Fremantle and Core Media Group derailed these plans. Then, in May 2017, it was announced that ABC was making a bid to revive the program. Later, ABC announced that it had acquired the rights to the series, and that American Idol would return for the 2017 -- 18 television season. On May 16, Katy Perry was the first judge to be announced by ABC. On July 20, 2017, it was announced on Live with Kelly and Ryan, that Ryan Seacrest would be returning as the host for the revival season. On September 24, 2017, Luke Bryan was the second judge to be announced for the revival season. On September 29, 2017, Lionel Richie was the third and final judge to be announced. On November 6, 2017, it was announced that the revival season would premiere on March 11, 2018.
Idol Gives Back was a special charity event started in season six featuring performances by celebrities and various fund - raising initiatives. This event was also held in seasons seven and nine and has raised nearly $185 million in total.
Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of American Idol. It holds the distinction of having the longest winning streak in the Nielsen annual television ratings; it became the highest - rated of all television programs in the United States overall for an unprecedented seven consecutive years, or eight consecutive (and total) years when either its performance or result show was ranked number one overall.
American Idol premiered in June 2002 and became the surprise summer hit show of 2002. The first show drew 9.9 million viewers, giving Fox the best viewing figure for the 8.30 pm spot in over a year. The audience steadily grew, and by finale night, the audience had averaged 23 million, with more than 40 million watching some part of that show. That episode was placed third amongst all age groups, but more importantly it led in the 18 -- 49 demographic, the age group most valued by advertisers.
The growth continued into the next season, starting with a season premiere of 26.5 million. The season attracted an average of 21.7 million viewers, and was placed second overall amongst the 18 -- 49 age group. The finale night when Ruben Studdard won over Clay Aiken was also the highest - rated ever American Idol episode at 38.1 million for the final hour. By season three, the show had become the top show in the 18 -- 49 demographic a position it has held for all subsequent years up to and including season ten, and its competition stages ranked first in the nationwide overall ratings. By season four, American Idol had become the most watched series amongst all viewers on American TV for the first time, with an average viewership of 26.8 million. The show reached its peak in season five with numbers averaging 30.6 million per episode, and season five remains the highest - rated season of the series.
Season six premiered with the series ' highest - rated debut episode and a few of its succeeding episodes rank among the most watched episodes of American Idol. During this time, many television executives begun to regard the show as a programming force unlike any seen before, as its consistent dominance of up to two hours two or three nights a week exceeded the 30 - or 60 - minute reach of previous hits such as NBC 's The Cosby Show. The show was dubbed "the Death Star '', and competing networks often rearranged their schedules in order to minimize losses. However, season six also showed a steady decline in viewership over the course of the season. The season finale saw a drop in ratings of 16 % from the previous year. Season six was the first season wherein the average results show rated higher than the competition stages (unlike in the previous seasons), and became the second - highest - rated of the series after the preceding season.
The loss of viewers continued into season seven. The premiere was down 11 % among total viewers, and the results show in which Kristy Lee Cook was eliminated delivered its lowest - rated Wednesday show among the 18 -- 34 demo since the first season in 2002. However, the ratings rebounded for the season seven finale with the excitement over the battle of the Davids, and improved over season six as the series ' third most watched finale. The strong finish of season seven also helped Fox become the most watched TV network in the country for the first time since its inception, a first ever in American television history for a non-Big Three major broadcast network. Overall ratings for the season were down 10 % from season six, which is in line with the fall in viewership across all networks due in part to the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike.
The declining trend however continued into season eight, as total viewers numbers fell by 5 -- 10 % for early episodes compared to season seven, and by 9 % for the finale. In season nine, Idol 's six - year extended streak of perfection in the ratings was broken, when NBC 's coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics on February 17 beat Idol in the same time slot with 30.1 million viewers over Idol 's 18.4 million. Nevertheless, American Idol overall finished its ninth season as the most watched TV series for the sixth year running, breaking the previous record of five consecutive seasons achieved by CBS ' All in the Family and NBC 's The Cosby Show.
In season ten, the total viewer numbers for the first week of shows fell 12 -- 13 %, and by up to 23 % in the 18 -- 49 demo compared to season nine. Later episodes, however, retained viewers better, and the season ended on a high with a significant increase in viewership for the finale -- up 12 % for the adults 18 -- 49 demo and a 21 % increase in total viewers from the season nine finale. While the overall viewer number has increased this season, its viewer demographics have continued to age year on year -- the median age this season was 47.2 compared to a median age of 32.1 in its first season. By the time of the 2010 -- 11 television season, Fox was in its seventh consecutive season of victory overall in the 18 -- 49 demographic ratings in the United States.
Season eleven, however, suffered a steep drop in ratings, a drop attributed by some to the arrival of new shows such as The Voice and The X-Factor. The ratings for the first two episodes of season eleven fell 16 -- 21 % in overall viewer numbers and 24 -- 27 % in the 18 / 49 demo, while the season finale fell 27 % in total viewer number and 30 % in the 18 -- 49 demo. The average viewership for the season fell below 20 million viewers the first time since 2003, a drop of 23 % in total viewers and 30 % in the 18 / 49 demo. For the first time in eight years, American Idol lost the leading position in both the total viewers number and the 18 / 49 demo, coming in second to NBC Sunday Night Football, although the strengths of Idol in its second year in the Wednesday - Thursday primetime slots helped Fox achieve the longest period of 18 -- 49 demographic victory in the Nielsen ratings, standing at 8 straight years from 2004 to 2012.
The loss of viewers continued into season 12, which saw the show hitting a number of series low in the 18 -- 49 demo. The finale had 7.2 million fewer viewers than the previous season, and saw a drop of 44 % in the 18 -- 49 demo. The season viewers averaged at 13.3 million, a drop of 24 % from the previous season. The thirteenth season suffered a huge decline in the 18 -- 49 demographic, a drop of 28 % from the twelfth season, and American Idol lost its Top 10 position in the Nielsen ratings by the end of the 2013 -- 14 television season for the first time since its entry to the rankings in 2003 as a result, and never regained its Top 10 position by the series ' end in 2016.
The continuing decline influenced further changes for season 14, including the loss of Coca - Cola as the show 's major sponsor, and a decision to only broadcast one, two - hour show per week during the top 12 rounds (with results from the previous week integrated into the performance show, rather than having a separate results show). On May 11, 2015, prior to the fourteenth - season finale, Fox announced that the fifteenth season of American Idol would be its last.
Despite these changes, the show 's ratings would decline more sharply. The fourteenth - season finale was the lowest - rated finale ever, with an average of only 8.03 million viewers watching the finale. The show 's ratings, however, rebounded in its final season, and ended its run in 2016 as Fox 's first ever program to conclude its run without dropping from the Nielsen Top 30 most watched television shows in each of its seasons.
Early reviews were mixed in their assessment. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly considered that "As TV, American Idol is crazily entertaining; as music, it 's dust - mote inconsequential ''. Others, however, thought that "the most striking aspect of the series was the genuine talent it revealed ''. It was also described as a "sadistic musical bake - off '', and "a romp in humiliation ''. Other aspects of the show have attracted criticisms. The product placement in the show in particular was noted, and some critics were harsh about what they perceived as its blatant commercial calculations -- Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union - Tribune charged that American Idol is "a conniving multimedia monster '' that has "absorbed the sin of our debauched culture and spit them out in a lump of reconstituted evil ''. The decision to send the season one winner to sing the national anthem at the Lincoln Memorial on the first anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2002 was also poorly received by many. Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post noted sarcastically that "The terrorists have won '' and, with a sideswipe at the show 's commercialism and voting process, that the decision as to who "gets to turn this important site into just another cog in the ' Great American Idol Marketing Mandala ' is in the hands of the millions of girls who have made American Idol a hit. Them and a handful of phone - redialer geeks who have been clocking up to 10,000 calls each week for their contestant of choice (but who, according to Fox, are in absolutely no way skewing the outcome). ''
Some of the later writers about the show were more positive, Michael Slezak, again of Entertainment Weekly, thought that "for all its bloated, synthetic, product - shilling, money - making trappings, Idol provides a once - a-year chance for the average American to combat the evils of today 's music business. '' Singer Sheryl Crow, who was later to act as a mentor on the show, however took the view that the show "undermines art in every way and promotes commercialism ''. Pop music critic Ann Powers nevertheless suggested that Idol has "reshaped the American songbook '', "led us toward a new way of viewing ourselves in relationship to mainstream popular culture '', and connects "the classic Hollywood dream to the multicentered popular culture of the future. '' Others focused on the personalities in the show; Ramin Setoodeh of Newsweek accused judge Simon Cowell 's cruel critiques in the show of helping to establish in the wider world a culture of meanness, that "Simon Cowell has dragged the rest of us in the mud with him. '' Some such as singer John Mayer disparaged the contestants, suggesting that those who appeared on Idol are not real artists with self - respect.
Some in the entertainment industry were critical of the star - making aspect of the show. Usher, a mentor on the show, bemoaning the loss of the "true art form of music '', thought that shows like American Idol made it seem "so easy that everyone can do it, and that it can happen overnight '', and that "television is a lie ''. Musician Michael Feinstein, while acknowledging that the show had uncovered promising performers, said that American Idol "is n't really about music. It 's about all the bad aspects of the music business -- the arrogance of commerce, this sense of ' I know what will make this person a star; artists themselves do n't know. ' '' That American Idol is seen to be a fast track to success for its contestants has been a cause of resentment for some in the industry. LeAnn Rimes, commenting on Carrie Underwood winning Best Female Artist in Country Music Awards over Faith Hill in 2006, said that "Carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award ''. It is a common theme that has been echoed by many others. Elton John, who had appeared as a mentor in the show but turned down an offer to be a judge on American Idol, commenting on talent shows in general, said that "there have been some good acts but the only way to sustain a career is to pay your dues in small clubs ''.
The success of the show 's alumni, however, has led to a more positive assessment of the show, and the show was described as having "proven it has a valid way to pick talent and a proven way to sell records ''. While the industry is divided on the show success, its impact is felt particularly strongly in the country music format. According to a CMT exec, reflecting on the success of Idol alumni in the country genre, "if you want to try and get famous fast by going to a cattle call audition on TV, Idol reasonably remains the first choice for anyone '', and that country music and Idol "go together well ''.
American Idol was nominated for the Emmy 's Outstanding Reality Competition Program for nine years but never won. Director Bruce Gower won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing For A Variety, Music Or Comedy Series in 2009, and the show won a Creative Arts Emmys each in 2007 and 2008, three in 2009, and two in 2011, as well as a Governor 's Award in 2007 for its Idol Gives Back edition. It won the People 's Choice Award, which honors the popular culture of the previous year as voted by the public, for favorite competition / reality show in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011 and 2012. It won the first Critics ' Choice Television Award in 2011 for Best Reality Competition.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked the series No. 48 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time.
Throughout the series, eleven of the fifteen Idol winners, including its first five, had come from the Southern United States. A large number of other finalists during the series ' run have also hailed from the American South, including Clay Aiken, Kellie Pickler, and Chris Daughtry, who are all from North Carolina. In 2012, an analysis of the 131 contestants who have appeared in the finals of all seasons of the show up to that point found that 48 % have some connection to the Southern United States.
The show itself was popular in the Southern United States, with households in the Southeastern United States 10 % more likely to watch American Idol during the eighth season in 2009, and those in the East Central region, such as Kentucky, were 16 percent more likely to tune into the series. Data from Nielsen SoundScan, a music - sales tracking service, showed that of the 47 million CDs sold by Idol contestants through January 2010, 85 percent were by contestants with ties to the American South.
Theories given for the success of Southerners on Idol have been: more versatility with musical genres, as the Southern U.S. is home to several music genre scenes; not having as many opportunities to break into the pop music business; text - voting due to the South having the highest percentage of cell - phone only households; and the strong heritage of music and singing, which is notable in the Bible Belt, where it is in church that many people get their start in public singing. Others also suggest that the Southern character of these contestants appeal to the South, as well as local pride. According to season five winner Taylor Hicks, who is from the state of Alabama, "People in the South have a lot of pride... So, they 're adamant about supporting the contestants who do well from their state or region. ''
For five consecutive seasons, starting in season seven, the title was given to a white male who plays the guitar -- a trend that Idol pundits call the "White guy with guitar '' or "WGWG '' factor. Just hours before the season eleven finale, where Phillip Phillips was named the winner, Richard Rushfield, author of the book American Idol: The Untold Story, said, "You have this alliance between young girls and grandmas and they see it, not necessarily as a contest to create a pop star competing on the contemporary radio, but as... who 's the nicest guy in a popularity contest '', he says, "And that has led to this dynasty of four, and possibly now five, consecutive, affable, very nice, good - looking white boys. ''
The show had been criticized in earlier seasons over the onerous contract contestants had to sign that gave excessive control to 19 Entertainment over their future career, and handed a large part of their future earnings to the management.
Individual contestants have generated controversy in this competition for their past actions, or for being ' ringers ' planted by the producers. A number of contestants had been disqualified for various reasons, such as for having an existing contract or undisclosed criminal records, although the show had been accused of double standard for disqualifying some but not others.
Voting results have been a consistent source of controversy. The mechanism of voting had also aroused considerable criticisms, most notably in season two when Ruben Studdard beat Clay Aiken in a close vote, and in season eight, when the massive increase in text votes fueled the texting controversy. Concerns about power voting have been expressed from the very first season. Since 2004, votes also have been affected to a limited degree by online communities such as DialIdol, and Vote for the Worst.
The enormous success of the show and the revenue it generated was transformative for the Fox Broadcasting Company. American Idol and fellow competing shows Survivor and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire were altogether credited for expanding reality television programming in the United States in the 1990s and 2000s, and Idol became the most watched non-scripted primetime television series for almost a decade, from 2003 to 2012, breaking records on U.S. television (dominated by drama shows and sitcoms in the preceding decades).
The show pushed Fox to become the number one U.S. TV network amongst adults 18 -- 49, the key demographic coveted by advertisers, for an unprecedented eight consecutive years by 2012. Its success also helped lift the ratings of other shows that were scheduled around it such as House and Bones, and Idol, for years, had become Fox 's strongest platform primetime television program for promoting eventual hit shows of the 2010s (of the same network) such as Glee and New Girl. The show, its creator Simon Fuller claimed, "saved Fox ''.
The show 's massive success in the mid-2000s to early 2010s spawned a number of imitating singing - competition shows, such as Rock Star, Nashville Star, The Voice, Rising Star, The Sing - Off, and The X Factor. The number of imitative singing shows on American television had reached 17 by its final year in 2016. Its format also served as a blueprint for non-singing TV shows such as Dancing with the Stars and So You Think You Can Dance, most of which contribute to the current highly competitive reality TV landscape on American television.
As one of the most successful shows on U.S. television history, American Idol had a strong impact not just on television, but also in the wider world of entertainment. It helped create a number of highly successful recording artists, such as Kelly Clarkson, Daughtry and Carrie Underwood, as well as others of varying notability. The alumni of the show had received between them 54 Grammy nominations and 13 Grammy awards by the end of the show in 2016, with Carrie Underwood winning seven.
Various American Idol alumni had success on various record charts around the world; in the U.S. they had achieved 345 number ones on the Billboard charts in its first 10 years, and 458 by its last year of broadcast in 2016, with 100 achieved by Kelly Clarkson alone. According to Fred Bronson, author of books on the Billboard charts, no other entity has ever created as many hit - making artists and best - selling albums and singles. In 2007, American Idol alums accounted for 2.1 % of all music sales. Its alumni have a massive impact on radio; in 2007, American Idol had become "a dominant force in radio '' according to the president of the research company Mediabase which monitors radio stations Rich Meyer. By 2010, four winners each had more than a million radio spins, with Kelly Clarkson leading the field with over four million spins.
At the end of the show 's run, Idol 's contestants have sold more than 60 million albums in the US, resulting in more than 80 Platinum records and 95 Gold records. Its participants have generated more than 450 Billboard No. 1 hits and sold more than 260 million digital downloads.
The impact of American Idol was also strongly felt in musical theatre, where many of Idol alumni have forged successful careers. The striking effect of former American Idol contestants on Broadway has been noted and commented on. The casting of a popular Idol contestant can lead to significantly increased ticket sales. Other alumni have gone on to work in television and films, the most notable being Jennifer Hudson who, on the recommendation of the Idol vocal coach Debra Byrd, won a role in Dreamgirls and subsequently received an Academy Award for her performance.
The dominance of American Idol in the ratings had made it the most profitable show in U.S. TV for many years. The show was estimated to generate $900 million for the year 2004 through sales of TV ads, albums, merchandise and concert tickets. By season seven, the show was estimated to earn around $900 million from its ad revenue alone, not including ancillary sponsorship deals and other income. One estimate puts the total TV revenue for the first eight seasons of American at $6.4 billion. Sponsors that bought fully integrated packages can expect a variety of promotions of their products on the show, such as product placement, adverts and product promotion integrated into the show, and various promotional opportunities. Other off - air promotional partners pay for the rights to feature "Idol '' branding on their packaging, products and marketing programs. American Idol also partnered with Disney in its theme park attraction The American Idol Experience.
American Idol became the most expensive series on broadcast networks for advertisers starting season four, and by the next season, it had broken the record in advertising rate for a regularly scheduled prime - time network series, selling over $700,000 for a 30 - seconds slot, and reaching up to $1.3 million for the finale. Its ad prices reached a peak in season seven at $737,000. Estimated revenue more than doubled from $404 million in season three to $870 million in season six. While that declined from season eight onwards, it still earned significantly more than its nearest competitor, with advertising revenue topping $800 million annually the next few seasons. However, the sharp drop in ratings in season eleven also resulted in a sharp drop in advertising rate for season twelve, and the show lost its leading position as the costliest show for advertisers. By 2014, ad revenue from had fallen to $427 million where a 30 - second spot went for less than $300,000.
Ford Motor Company and Coca - Cola were two of the first sponsors of American Idol in its first season. The sponsorship deal cost around $10 million in season one, rising to $35 million by season 7, and between $50 to $60 million in season 10. The third major sponsor AT&T Wireless joined in the second season but ended after season 12, and Coca - Cola officially ended its sponsorship after season 13 amidst the declining ratings of Idol in the mid-2010s. iTunes sponsored the show since season seven.
American Idol prominent display of its sponsors ' logo and products had been noted since the early seasons. By season six, Idol showed 4,349 product placements according to Nielsen Media Research. The branded entertainment integration proved beneficial to its advertisers -- promotion of AT&T text - messaging as a means to vote successfully introduced the technology into the wider culture, and Coca - Cola has seen its equity increased during the show.
Coca - Cola 's archrival PepsiCo declined to sponsor American Idol at the show 's start. What the Los Angeles Times later called "missing one of the biggest marketing opportunities in a generation '' contributed to Pepsi losing market share, by 2010 falling to third place from second in the United States. PepsiCo sponsored the American version of Cowell 's The X Factor in hopes of not repeating its Idol mistake until its cancellation.
The top ten (eleven in the tenth and twelfth seasons and five in the fourteenth season) toured at the end of every season except for the final season. In the season twelve tour a semi-finalist who won a sing - off was also added to the tour. Kellogg 's Pop - Tarts was the sponsor for the first seven seasons, and Guitar Hero was added for the season seven tour. M&M 's Pretzel Chocolate Candies was a sponsor of the season nine tour. The season five tour was the most successful tour with gross of over $35 million. However no concert tour was organized after the last season, the only season not to have an associated tour.
American Idol has traditionally released studio recordings of contestants ' performances as well as the winner 's coronation single for sale. For the first five seasons, the recordings were released as a compilation album at the end of the season. All five of these albums reached the top ten in Billboard 200 which made then American Idol the most successful soundtrack franchise of any motion picture or television program. Starting late in season five, individual performances were released during the season as digital downloads, initially from the American Idol official website only. In season seven the live performances and studio recordings were made available during the season from iTunes when it joined as a sponsor. In Season ten the weekly studio recordings were also released as compilation digital album straight after performance night.
19 Recordings, a recording label owned by 19 Entertainment, currently hold the rights to phonographic material recorded by all the contestants. 19 originally partnered with Bertelsmann Music Group (BMG) to promote and distribute the recordings through its labels RCA Records, Arista Records, J Records, Jive Records. In 2005 -- 2007, BMG partnered with Sony Music Entertainment to form a joint venture known as Sony BMG Music Entertainment. From 2008 to 2010, Sony Music handled the distribution following their acquisition of BMG. Sony Music was partnered with American Idol and distribute its music, and In 2010, Sony was replaced by as the music label for American Idol by UMG 's Interscope - Geffen - A&M Records.
American Idol video games
On February 14, 2009, The Walt Disney Company debuted "The American Idol Experience '' at its Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Florida. In this live production, co-produced by 19 Entertainment, park guests chose from a list of songs and auditioned privately for Disney cast members. Those selected then performed on a stage in a 1000 - seat theater replicating the Idol set. Three judges, whose mannerisms and style mimicked those of the real Idol judges, critiqued the performances. Audience members then voted for their favorite performer. There were several preliminary - round shows during the day that culminated in a "finals '' show in the evening where one of the winners of the previous rounds that day was selected as the overall winner. The winner of the finals show received a "Dream Ticket '' that granted them front - of - the - line privileges at any future American Idol audition. The attraction closed on August 30, 2014.
American Idol is broadcast to over 100 nations outside of the United States. In most nations these are not live broadcasts and may be tape delayed by several days or weeks. In Canada, the first thirteen seasons of American Idol were aired live by CTV and / or CTV Two, in simulcast with Fox. CTV dropped Idol after its thirteenth season and in August 2014, Yes TV announced that it had picked up Canadian rights to American Idol beginning in its 2015 season.
In Latin America, the show is broadcast and subtitled by Sony Entertainment Television. In southeast Asia, it is broadcast by STAR World every Thursday and Friday nine or ten hours after. In Philippines, it is aired every Thursday and Friday nine or ten hours after its United States telecast; from 2004 to 2007 on ABC 5; 2008 -- 11 on QTV, then GMA News TV; and since 2012 on ETC. On Philippine television history. In Australia, it aired a few hours after the U.S. telecast. It was aired on Network Ten from 2002 to 2008 and then again in 2013. Between 2008 and 2012 it aired on Fox8 and from season 13 to 14 (2014 -- 15) it aired on digital channel, Eleven, a sister channel to Network Ten. Its final season (2016) aired on Fox8 hours after the original U.S. broadcast. The show enjoyed a lot of popularity in Australia throughout the 2000s before declining in the ratings. In the United Kingdom, episodes are aired one day after the U.S. broadcast on digital channel ITV2. As of season 12, the episodes air on 5 *. It is also aired in Ireland on TV3 two days after the telecast. In Brazil and Israel, the show airs two days after its original broadcast. In the instances where the airing is delayed, the shows may sometimes be combined into one episode to summarize the results. In Italy, the twelfth season was broadcast by La3.
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how to play car town streets on facebook | Car Town - wikipedia
Car Town was a social network game developed by Cie Games (now Glu Mobile). It allowed users collect and modify virtual vehicles. The objective of the game was to win races and build a collection of vehicles. Car Town had many licenses for different brands, including the Indy Racing League, which allowed users to collect selected Indy cars, Universal Studios, which gave the game a license to include the DeLorean time machine from the Back to the Future series, and fully customized cars from The Fast and the Furious series. Pirelli World Challenge and the National Hot Rod Association gave the game licenses to include their racing cars such as Funny Cars. Top Gear also gave a license to include their shows and videos, as well as a few exclusive vehicles.
Aside from the aforementioned brands, the game also featured cars from famous motorsports around the world including 24 Hours of Le Mans, World Rally Championship, Formula D, Dakar Rally, FIA GT Series as well as one - make races such as Ferrari Challenge.
Cie Games announced on July 29, 2014 that it would close the game on August 29, 2014.
As of August 29, 2014, Car Town was discontinued.
Ini September 2011, exclusively to Japan, a version named Car Town Japan was released for mobile phones. Its gameplay was similar to the Adventures section of the Facebook version, even though the latter was added one year later.
On July 26, 2012, two years after the original 's release, Cie released another version of the game named Car Town EX to appeal to Asian users. It added new features that were not seen in the original release of the game. As of February 28, 2014, Car Town EX has been discontinued.
Also in 2012, a version of Car Town for iOS, called Car Town Streets, was released. The game 's graphics are similar to that of Car Town, but its gameplay is much different. In 2014, an Android OS port came out on the Google Play Store released by Miniclip. On December 23rd, 2015, Car Town Streets closed down.
Car Town received moderate critical praise. One reviewer from Autoblog said that the game made "non-car people become car people '', calling it inviting and accessible to newcomers. Bright Hub gave the game a rating of 3 / 5. Car Town was likened to the Forza Motorsport series in terms of customizing vehicles and liveries. Both Car and Driver and Motor Trend, well known automotive magazines, were sponsors of the game, often releasing promo codes and running contests.
Although they are similar, they have some differences in certain points. For example, the Volkswagen Golf is exclusively available only in Brazilian Portuguese version, and a Honda Prelude is exclusively available only in Car Town EX versions.
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who was the kid in kramer vs kramer | Justin Henry - wikipedia
Justin Henry (born May 25, 1971) is an American actor, known for playing the object of the titular custody battle in the 1979 film Kramer vs. Kramer, a debut role that earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, when he was eight years old. As of 2018, he is the youngest actor to be nominated in any category, and the only actor ever nominated in the same decade as his or her birth. The performance later earned him a spot (No. 80) on VH1 's list of 100 Greatest Kid Stars. Most of his film and television credits came as a child or teenager, although he has continued acting as an adult.
Justin Henry was born in Rye, New York, the son of Michele (née Andrews), a real estate agent, and Clifford Henry, an investment adviser. He was educated at Brunswick School, an all - boys college - preparatory private day school located in Greenwich, Connecticut, followed by Skidmore College, a private liberal arts college in Saratoga Springs, New York, where he earned a B.A. in psychology in 1993.
Henry began his acting career in Kramer vs. Kramer. For his performance in that film, he became the youngest person to ever be nominated for an Oscar or Golden Globe. His next role was in a 1983 episode of the American television series Fantasy Island. On the big screen, Henry appeared in the Brat Pack film Sixteen Candles (1984), as Mike Baker, one of Samantha Baker 's siblings. Henry also played the son of a married couple played by Don Johnson and Susan Sarandon in the film Sweet Hearts Dance (1988). In this role, critic Janet Maslin called him a "large and amusingly sullen teenager ''.
After graduation, Henry 's next widely seen performance was in 1997, as a medical student in a two - episode role during the fourth season of ER. He starred opposite Ally Sheedy, Jason David Frank and Brian O'Halloran in the mockumentary The Junior Defenders, which was filmed that same year but released direct - to - video in 2007.
Henry co-founded the Slamdunk Film Festival in 1998. Although he continues to make occasional appearances in film and television, he has been a Regional Director of Sales at Veoh since 2009. He is currently a platform director for AOL.
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which of the following describes a major difference between the jewish calendar | Hebrew calendar - wikipedia
The Hebrew or Jewish calendar (הַלּוּחַ הָעִבְרִי , Ha - Luah ha - Ivri) is a lunisolar calendar used today predominantly for Jewish religious observances. It determines the dates for Jewish holidays and the appropriate public reading of Torah portions, yahrzeits (dates to commemorate the death of a relative), and daily Psalm readings, among many ceremonial uses. In Israel, it is used for religious purposes, provides a time frame for agriculture and is an official calendar for civil purposes, although the latter usage has been steadily declining in favor of the Gregorian calendar.
The present Hebrew calendar is the product of evolution, including a Babylonian influence. Until the Tannaitic period (approximately 10 -- 220 CE), the calendar employed a new crescent moon, with an additional month normally added every two or three years to correct for the difference between twelve lunar months and the solar year. The year in which it was added was based on observation of natural agriculture - related events in Israel. Through the Amoraic period (200 -- 500 CE) and into the Geonic period, this system was gradually displaced by the mathematical rules used today. The principles and rules were fully codified by Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah in the 12th century. Maimonides ' work also replaced counting "years since the destruction of the Temple '' with the modern creation - era Anno Mundi.
The Hebrew lunar year is about eleven days shorter than the solar year and uses the 19 - year Metonic cycle to bring it into line with the solar year, with the addition of an intercalary month every two or three years, for a total of seven times per 19 years. Even with this intercalation, the average Hebrew calendar year is longer by about 6 minutes and 40 seconds than the current mean tropical year, so that every 216 years the Hebrew calendar will fall a day behind the current mean tropical year; and about every 231 years it will fall a day behind the mean Gregorian calendar year.
The era used since the Middle Ages is the Anno Mundi epoch (Latin for "in the year of the world ''; Hebrew: לבריאת העולם , "from the creation of the world ''). As with Anno Domini (A.D. or AD), the words or abbreviation for Anno Mundi (A.M. or AM) for the era should properly precede the date rather than follow it.
AM 5778 began at sunset on 20 September 2017 and will end at sunset on 9 September 2018.
The Jewish day is of no fixed length. The Jewish day is modeled on the reference to "... there was evening and there was morning... '' in the creation account in the first chapter of Genesis. Based on the classic rabbinic interpretation of this text, a day in the rabbinic Hebrew calendar runs from sunset (start of "the evening '') to the next sunset. Halachically, a day ends and a new one starts when three stars are visible in the sky. The time between true sunset and the time when the three stars are visible (known as ' tzait ha'kochavim ') is known as ' bein hashmashot ', and there are differences of opinion as to which day it falls into for some uses. This may be relevant, for example, in determining the date of birth of a child born during that gap.
There is no clock in the Jewish scheme, so that the local civil clock is used. Though the civil clock, including the one in use in Israel, incorporates local adoptions of various conventions such as time zones, standard times and daylight saving, these have no place in the Jewish scheme. The civil clock is used only as a reference point -- in expressions such as: "Shabbat starts at... ''. The steady progression of sunset around the world and seasonal changes results in gradual civil time changes from one day to the next based on observable astronomical phenomena (the sunset) and not on man - made laws and conventions.
In Judaism, an hour is defined as 1 / 12 of the time from sunrise to sunset, so, during the winter, an hour can be much less than 60 minutes, and during the summer, it can be much more than 60 minutes. This proportional hour is known as a sha'ah z'manit (lit. a timely hour). A Jewish hour is divided into 1080 halakim (singular: helek) or parts. A part is 31⁄3 seconds or / minute. The ultimate ancestor of the helek was a small Babylonian time period called a barleycorn, itself equal to / of a Babylonian time degree (1 ° of celestial rotation). These measures are not generally used for everyday purposes.
Instead of the international date line convention, there are varying opinions as to where the day changes. One opinion uses the antimeridian of Jerusalem. (Jerusalem is 35 ° 13 ' east of the prime meridian, so the antimeridian is at 144 ° 47 ' W, passing through eastern Alaska.) Other opinions exist as well. (See International date line in Judaism.)
The weekdays start with Sunday (day 1, or Yom Rishon) and proceed to Saturday (day 7), Shabbat. Since some calculations use division, a remainder of 0 signifies Saturday.
While calculations of days, months and years are based on fixed hours equal to / of a day, the beginning of each halachic day is based on the local time of sunset. The end of the Shabbat and other Jewish holidays is based on nightfall (Tzeth haKochabim) which occurs some amount of time, typically 42 to 72 minutes, after sunset. According to Maimonides, nightfall occurs when three medium - sized stars become visible after sunset. By the 17th century, this had become three - second - magnitude stars. The modern definition is when the center of the sun is 7 ° below the geometric (airless) horizon, somewhat later than civil twilight at 6 °. The beginning of the daytime portion of each day is determined both by dawn and sunrise. Most halachic times are based on some combination of these four times and vary from day to day throughout the year and also vary significantly depending on location. The daytime hours are often divided into Sha'oth Zemaniyoth or "Halachic hours '' by taking the time between sunrise and sunset or between dawn and nightfall and dividing it into 12 equal hours. The nighttime hours are similarly divided into 12 equal portions, albeit a different amount of time than the "hours '' of the daytime. The earliest and latest times for Jewish services, the latest time to eat chametz on the day before Passover and many other rules are based on Sha'oth Zemaniyoth. For convenience, the modern day using Sha'oth Zemaniyoth is often discussed as if sunset were at 6: 00 pm, sunrise at 6: 00 am and each hour were equal to a fixed hour. For example, halachic noon may be after 1: 00 pm in some areas during daylight saving time. Within the Mishnah, however, the numbering of the hours starts with the "first '' hour after the start of the day.
Shavua (שבוע) is a weekly cycle of seven days, mirroring the seven - day period of the Book of Genesis in which the world is created. The names for the days of the week, like those in the creation account, are simply the day number within the week, with Shabbat being the seventh day. Each day of the week runs from sunset to the following sunset and is figured locally.
The Hebrew calendar follows a seven - day weekly cycle, which runs concurrently with but independently of the monthly and annual cycles. The names for the days of the week are simply the day number within the week. In Hebrew, these names may be abbreviated using the numerical value of the Hebrew letters, for example יום א ׳ (Day 1, or Yom Rishon (יום ראשון )):
Yom Shabbat (יום שבת ) is also known as Yom Shabbat Kodesh -- יום שבת קודש meaning "holy rest day. ''
The names of the days of the week are modeled on the seven days mentioned in the creation story. For example, Genesis 1: 5 "... And there was evening and there was morning, one day ''. One day (יוֹם אֶחָד ) in Genesis 1: 15 is translated in JPS as first day, and in some other contexts (including KJV) as day one. In subsequent verses, the Hebrew refers to the days using ordinal numbers, e.g., ' second day ', ' third day ', and so forth, but with the sixth and seventh days the Hebrew includes the definite article ("the '').
The rest day, Shabbat, has a special role in the Jewish weekly cycle as being a special and set apart day, where no work is done. There are many special rules that relate to Shabbat, discussed more fully in the Talmudic tractate Shabbat.
In (Talmudic) Hebrew, the word Shabbat (שַׁבָּת ) can also mean "week '', so that in ritual liturgy a phrase like "Yom Reviʻi bəShabbat '' means "the fourth day in the week ''.
The period from 1 Adar (or Adar II, in leap years) to 29 Marcheshvan contains all of the festivals specified in the Bible -- Purim (14 Adar), Pesach (15 Nisan), Shavuot (6 Sivan), Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei), Yom Kippur (10 Tishrei), Sukkot (15 Tishrei), and Shemini Atzeret (22 Tishrei). This period is fixed, during which no adjustments are made.
There are additional rules in the Hebrew calendar to prevent certain holidays from falling on certain days of the week. (See Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, below.) These rules are implemented by adding an extra day to Marcheshvan (making it 30 days long) or by removing one day from Kislev (making it 29 days long). Accordingly, a common Hebrew calendar year can have a length of 353, 354 or 355 days, while a leap Hebrew calendar year can have a length of 383, 384 or 385 days.
The Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar, meaning that months are based on lunar months, but years are based on solar years. The calendar year features twelve lunar months of twenty - nine or thirty days, with an intercalary lunar month added periodically to synchronize the twelve lunar cycles with the longer solar year. (These extra months are added seven times every nineteen years. See Leap months, below.) The beginning of each Jewish lunar month is based on the appearance of the new moon. Although originally the new lunar crescent had to be observed and certified by witnesses, the moment of the true new moon is now approximated arithmetically as the molad, which is the mean new moon to a precision of one part.
The mean period of the lunar month (precisely, the synodic month) is very close to 29.5 days. Accordingly, the basic Hebrew calendar year is one of twelve lunar months alternating between 29 and 30 days:
In leap years (such as 5774) an additional month, Adar I (30 days) is added after Shevat, while the regular Adar is referred to as "Adar II. ''
The insertion of the leap month mentioned above is based on the requirement that Passover -- the festival celebrating the Exodus from Egypt, which took place in the spring -- always occurs in the (northern hemisphere 's) spring season. Since the adoption of a fixed calendar, intercalations in the Hebrew calendar have been assigned to fixed points in a 19 - year cycle. Prior to this, the intercalation was determined empirically:
The year may be intercalated on three grounds: ' aviv (i.e. the ripeness of barley), fruits of trees, and the equinox. On two of these grounds it should be intercalated, but not on one of them alone.
From very early times, the Mesopotamian lunisolar calendar was in wide use by the countries of the western Asia region. The structure, which was also used by the Israelites, was based on lunar months with the intercalation of an additional month to bring the cycle closer to the solar cycle, although there is no evidence of a thirteenth month mentioned anywhere in the Hebrew Bible.
Num 10: 10 stresses the importance in Israelite religious observance of the new month (Hebrew: ראש חודש , Rosh Chodesh, "beginning of the month ''): "... in your new moons, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt - offerings... '' Similarly in Num 28: 11. "The beginning of the month '' meant the appearance of a new moon, and in Exod 12: 2. "This month is to you ''.
According to the Mishnah and Tosefta, in the Maccabean, Herodian, and Mishnaic periods, new months were determined by the sighting of a new crescent, with two eyewitnesses required to testify to the Sanhedrin to having seen the new lunar crescent at sunset. The practice in the time of Gamaliel II (c. 100 CE) was for witnesses to select the appearance of the moon from a collection of drawings that depicted the crescent in a variety of orientations, only a few of which could be valid in any given month. These observations were compared against calculations.
At first the beginning of each Jewish month was signaled to the communities of Israel and beyond by fires lit on mountaintops, but after the Samaritans began to light false fires, messengers were sent. The inability of the messengers to reach communities outside Israel before mid-month High Holy Days (Succot and Passover) led outlying communities to celebrate scriptural festivals for two days rather than one, observing the second feast - day of the Jewish diaspora because of uncertainty of whether the previous month ended after 29 or 30 days.
In his work Mishneh Torah (1178), Maimonides included a chapter "Sanctification of the New Moon '', in which he discusses the calendrical rules and their scriptural basis. He notes,
"By how much does the solar year exceed the lunar year? By approximately 11 days. Therefore, whenever this excess accumulates to about 30 days, or a little more or less, one month is added and the particular year is made to consist of 13 months, and this is the so - called embolismic (intercalated) year. For the year could not consist of twelve months plus so - and - so many days, since it is said: throughout the months of the year (Num 28: 14), which implies that we should count the year by months and not by days. ''
Both the Syrian calendar, currently used in the Arabic - speaking countries of the Fertile crescent, and the modern Assyrian calendar share many of the names for months with the Hebrew calendar, such as Nisan, Iyyar, Tammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri and Adar, indicating a common origin. The origin is thought to be the Babylonian calendar. The modern Turkish calendar includes the names Şubat (February), Nisan (April), Temmuz (July) and Eylul (September). The former name for October was Tesrin.
Biblical references to the pre-exilic calendar include ten months identified by number rather than by name. In parts of the Torah portion Noach ("Noah '') (specifically, Gen 7: 11, 8: 3 -- 4, 8: 13 -- 14) it is implied that the months are thirty days long. There is also an indication that there were twelve months in the annual cycle (1 Kings 4: 7, 1 Chronicles 27: 1 -- 15). Prior to the Babylonian exile, the names of only four months are referred to in the Tanakh:
All of these are believed to be Canaanite names. These names are only mentioned in connection with the building of the First Temple. Håkan Ulfgard suggests that the use of what are rarely used Canaanite (or in the case of Ethanim perhaps Northwest - semitic) names indicates that "the author is consciously utilizing an archaizing terminology, thus giving the impression of an ancient story... ''.
In a regular (kesidran) year, Marcheshvan has 29 days and Kislev has 30 days. However, because of the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules (see below) Kislev may lose a day to have 29 days, and the year is called a short (chaser) year, or Marcheshvan may acquire an additional day to have 30 days, and the year is called a full (maleh) year. The calendar rules have been designed to ensure that Rosh Hashanah does not fall on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. This is to ensure that Yom Kippur does not directly precede or follow Shabbat, which would create practical difficulties, and that Hoshana Rabbah is not on a Shabbat, in which case certain ceremonies would be lost for a year. Hebrew names and romanized transliteration may somewhat differ, as they do for Marcheshvan / Cheshvan (חשוון ) or Kislev (כסלו ): the Hebrew words shown here are those commonly indicated, for example, in newspapers.
The solar year is about eleven days longer than twelve lunar months. The Bible does not directly mention the addition of "embolismic '' or intercalary months. However, without the insertion of embolismic months, Jewish festivals would gradually shift outside of the seasons required by the Torah. This has been ruled as implying a requirement for the insertion of embolismic months to reconcile the lunar cycles to the seasons, which are integral to solar yearly cycles.
When the observational form of the calendar was in use, whether or not an embolismic month was announced after the "last month '' (Adar) depended on ' aviv (i.e., the ripeness of barley), fruits of trees, and the equinox. On two of these grounds it should be intercalated, but not on one of them alone. It may be noted that in the Bible the name of the first month, Aviv, literally means "spring ''. Thus, if Adar was over and spring had not yet arrived, an additional month was observed.
Traditionally, for the Babylonian and Hebrew lunisolar calendars, the years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are the long (13 - month) years of the Metonic cycle. This cycle forms the basis of the Christian ecclesiastical calendar and the Hebrew calendar and is used for the computation of the date of Easter each year
During leap years Adar I (or Adar Aleph -- "first Adar '') is added before the regular Adar. Adar I is actually considered to be the extra month, and has 30 days. Adar II (or Adar Bet -- "second Adar '') is the "real '' Adar, and has the usual 29 days. For this reason, holidays such as Purim are observed in Adar II, not Adar I.
Chronology was a chief consideration in the study of astronomy among the Jews; sacred time was based upon the cycles of the Sun and the Moon. The Talmud identified the twelve constellations of the zodiac with the twelve months of the Hebrew calendar. The correspondence of the constellations with their names in Hebrew and the months is as follows:
Some scholars identified the 12 signs of the zodiac with the 12 sons of Jacob / twelve tribes of Israel. It should be noted that the 12 lunar months of the Hebrew calendar are the normal months from new moon to new moon: the year normally contains twelve months averaging 29.52 days each. The discrepancy compared to the mean synodic month of 29.53 days is due to Adar I in a leap year always having thirty days. This means that the calendar year normally contains 354 days.
The Hebrew calendar year conventionally begins on Rosh Hashanah. However, other dates serve as the beginning of the year for different religious purposes.
There are three qualities that distinguish one year from another: whether it is a leap year or a common year, on which of four permissible days of the week the year begins, and whether it is a deficient, regular, or complete year. Mathematically, there are 24 (2 × 4 × 3) possible combinations, but only 14 of them are valid. Each of these patterns is called a keviyah (Hebrew קביעה for "a setting '' or "an established thing ''), and is encoded as a series of two or three Hebrew letters. See Four gates.
In Hebrew there are two common ways of writing the year number: with the thousands, called לפרט גדול ("major era ''), and without the thousands, called לפרט קטן ("minor era ''). Thus, the current year is written as ה'תשע "ח (5778) using the "major era '' and תשע "ח (778) using the "minor era ''.
In 1178 CE, Maimonides wrote in the Mishneh Torah, Sanctification of the Moon (11.16), that he had chosen the epoch from which calculations of all dates should be as "the third day of Nisan in this present year... which is the year 4938 of the creation of the world '' (March 22, 1178). He included all the rules for the calculated calendar and their scriptural basis, including the modern epochal year in his work, and beginning formal usage of the anno mundi era. From the eleventh century, anno mundi dating became dominant throughout most of the world 's Jewish communities. Today, the rules detailed in Maimonides ' calendrical code are those generally used by Jewish communities throughout the world.
Since the codification by Maimonides in 1178, the Jewish calendar has used the Anno Mundi epoch (Latin for "in the year of the world, '' abbreviated AM or A.M., Hebrew לבריאת העולם ), sometimes referred to as the "Hebrew era '', to distinguish it from other systems based on some computation of creation, such as the Byzantine calendar.
There is also reference in the Talmud to years since the creation based on the calculation in the Seder Olam Rabbah of Rabbi Jose ben Halafta in about 160 CE. By his calculation, based on the Masoretic Text, Adam was created in 3760 BCE, later confirmed by the Muslim chronologist al - Biruni as 3448 years before the Seleucid era. An example is the c. 8th century Baraita of Samuel.
According to rabbinic reckoning, the beginning of "year 1 '' is not Creation, but about one year before Creation, with the new moon of its first month (Tishrei) to be called molad tohu (the mean new moon of chaos or nothing). The Jewish calendar 's epoch (reference date), 1 Tishrei AM 1, is equivalent to Monday, 7 October 3761 BC / BCE in the proleptic Julian calendar, the equivalent tabular date (same daylight period) and is about one year before the traditional Jewish date of Creation on 25 Elul AM 1, based upon the Seder Olam Rabbah. Thus, adding 3760 before Rosh Hashanah or 3761 after to a Julian year number starting from 1 CE (AD 1) will yield the Hebrew year. For earlier years there may be a discrepancy (see: Missing years (Jewish calendar)).
The Seder Olam Rabbah also recognized the importance of the Jubilee and Sabbatical cycles as a long - term calendrical system, and attempted at various places to fit the Sabbatical and Jubilee years into its chronological scheme.
Occasionally, Anno Mundi is styled as Anno Hebraico (AH), though this is subject to confusion with notation for the Islamic Hijri year.
Before the adoption of the current AM year numbering system, other systems were in use. In early times, the years were counted from some significant historic event. (e.g., 1 Kings 6: 1) During the period of the monarchy, it was the widespread practice in western Asia to use era year numbers according to the accession year of the monarch of the country involved. This practice was also followed by the united kingdom of Israel (e.g., 1 Kings 14: 25), kingdom of Judah (e.g., 2 Kings 18: 13), kingdom of Israel (e.g., 2 Kings 17: 6), Persia (e.g., Nehemiah 2: 1) and others. Besides, the author of Kings coordinated dates in the two kingdoms by giving the accession year of a monarch in terms of the year of the monarch of the other kingdom, (e.g., 2 Kings 8: 16) though some commentators note that these dates do not always synchronise. Other era dating systems have been used at other times. For example, Jewish communities in the Babylonian diaspora counted the years from the first deportation from Israel, that of Jehoiachin in 597 BCE, (e.g., Ezekiel 1: 1 -- 2). The era year was then called "year of the captivity of Jehoiachin ''. (e.g., 2 Kings 25: 27)
During the Hellenistic Maccabean period, Seleucid era counting was used, at least in the Greek - influenced area of Israel. The Books of the Maccabees used Seleucid era dating exclusively (e.g., 1 Maccabees 1: 54, 6: 20, 7: 1, 9: 3, 10: 1). Josephus writing in the Roman period also used Seleucid era dating exclusively. During the Talmudic era, from the 1st to the 10th century, the center of world Judaism was in the Middle East, primarily in the Talmudic Academies of Iraq and Palestine. Jews in these regions used Seleucid era dating (also known as the "Era of Contracts ''). The Avodah Zarah states:
Rav Aha b. Jacob then put this question: How do we know that our Era (of Documents) is connected with the Kingdom of Greece at all? Why not say that it is reckoned from the Exodus from Egypt, omitting the first thousand years and giving the years of the next thousand? In that case, the document is really post-dated! Said Rav Nahman: In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used. He (the questioner) thought that Rav Nahman wanted to dispose of him anyhow, but when he went and studied it thoroughly he found that it is indeed taught (in a Baraita): In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used.
The use of the era of documents (i.e., Seleucid era) continued till the 16th century in the East, and was employed even in the 19th century among the Jews of Yemen.
Occasionally in Talmudic writings, reference was made to other starting points for eras, such as destruction era dating, being the number of years since the 70 CE destruction of the Second Temple. In the 8th and 9th centuries, as the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to Europe, counting using the Seleucid era "became meaningless ''. There is indication that Jews of the Rhineland in the early Middle Ages used the "years after the destruction of the Temple '' (e.g., Mainz Anonymous).
Exodus 12: 2 and Deut 16: 1 set Aviv (now Nisan) as "the first of months '':
Nisan 1 is referred to as the ecclesiastical new year.
In ancient Israel, the start of the ecclesiastical new year for the counting of months and festivals (i.e., Nisan) was determined by reference to Passover. Passover is on 15 Nisan, (Leviticus 23: 4 -- 6) which corresponds to the full moon of Nisan. As Passover is a spring festival, it should fall on a full moon day around, and normally just after, the vernal (northward) equinox. If the twelfth full moon after the previous Passover is too early compared to the equinox, a leap month is inserted near the end of the previous year before the new year is set to begin. According to normative Judaism, the verses in Exodus 12: 1 -- 2 require that the months be determined by a proper court with the necessary authority to sanctify the months. Hence the court, not the astronomy, has the final decision.
According to some Christian and Karaite sources, the tradition in ancient Israel was that 1 Nisan would not start until the barley is ripe, being the test for the onset of spring. If the barley was not ripe, an intercalary month would be added before Nisan.
The day most commonly referred to as the "New Year '' is 1 Tishrei, which actually begins in the seventh month of the ecclesiastical year. On that day the formal New Year for the counting of years (such as Shmita and Yovel), Rosh Hashanah ("head of the year '') is observed. (see Ezekiel 40: 1, which uses the phrase "beginning of the year ''.) This is the civil new year, and the date on which the year number advances. Certain agricultural practices are also marked from this date.
In the 1st century, Josephus stated that while --
Moses... appointed Nisan... as the first month for the festivals... the commencement of the year for everything relating to divine worship, but for selling and buying and other ordinary affairs he preserved the ancient order (i.e. the year beginning with Tishrei). ''
Edwin Thiele has concluded that the ancient northern Kingdom of Israel counted years using the ecclesiastical new year starting on 1 Aviv (Nisan), while the southern Kingdom of Judah counted years using the civil new year starting on 1 Tishrei. The practice of the Kingdom of Israel was also that of Babylon, as well as other countries of the region. The practice of Judah is still followed.
In fact the Jewish calendar has a multiplicity of new years for different purposes. The use of these dates has been in use for a long time. The use of multiple starting dates for a year is comparable to different starting dates for civil "calendar years '', "tax or fiscal years '', "academic years '', "religious cycles '', etc. By the time of the redaction of the Mishnah, Rosh Hashanah 1: 1 (c. 200 CE), jurists had identified four new - year dates:
The 1st of Nisan is the new year for kings and feasts; the 1st of Elul is the new year for the tithe of cattle... the 1st of Tishri is the new year for years, of the years of release and jubilee years, for the planting and for vegetables; and the 1st of Shevat is the new year for trees -- so the school of Shammai; and the school of Hillel say: On the 15th thereof.
The month of Elul is the new year for counting animal tithes (ma'aser behemah). Tu Bishvat ("the 15th of Shevat '') marks the new year for trees (and agricultural tithes).
For the dates of the Jewish New Year see Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000 -- 2050 or calculate using the section "Conversion between Jewish and civil calendars ''.
The Jewish calendar is based on the Metonic cycle of 19 years, of which 12 are common (non-leap) years of 12 months and 7 are leap years of 13 months. To determine whether a Jewish year is a leap year, one must find its position in the 19 - year Metonic cycle. This position is calculated by dividing the Jewish year number by 19 and finding the remainder. For example, the Jewish year 5778 divided by 19 results in a remainder of 2, indicating that it is year 2 of the Metonic cycle. Since there is no year 0, a remainder of 0 indicates that the year is year 19 of the cycle.
Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 of the Metonic cycle are leap years. To assist in remembering this sequence, some people use the mnemonic Hebrew word GUCHADZaT "גוחאדז '' ט ", where the Hebrew letters gimel - vav - het aleph - dalet - zayin - tet are used as Hebrew numerals equivalent to 3, 6, 8, 1, 4, 7, 9. The keviyah records whether the year is leap or common: פ for peshuta (פשוטה), meaning simple and indicating a common year, and מ indicating a leap year (me'uberet, מעוברת).
Another memory aid notes that intervals of the major scale follow the same pattern as do Jewish leap years, with do corresponding to year 19 (or 0): a whole step in the scale corresponds to two common years between consecutive leap years, and a half step to one common year between two leap years. This connection with the major scale is more plain in the context of 19 equal temperament: counting the tonic as 0, the notes of the major scale in 19 equal temperament are numbers 0 (or 19), 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, the same numbers as the leap years in the Hebrew calendar.
A simple rule for determining whether a year is a leap year has been given above. However, there is another rule which not only tells whether the year is leap but also gives the fraction of a month by which the calendar is behind the seasons, useful for agricultural purposes. To determine whether year n of the calendar is a leap year, find the remainder on dividing ((7 × n) + 1) by 19. If the remainder is 6 or less it is a leap year; if it is 7 or more it is not. For example, the remainder on dividing ((7 × 5778) + 1) by 19 is 15, so the year 5778 is not a leap year. The remainder on dividing ((7 × 5779) + 1) by 19 is 3, so the year 5779 is a leap year. This works because as there are seven leap years in nineteen years the difference between the solar and lunar years increases by 7 / 19 - month per year. When the difference goes above 18 / 19 - month this signifies a leap year, and the difference is reduced by one month.
To calculate the day on which Rosh Hashanah of a given year will fall, it is necessary first to calculate the expected molad (moment of lunar conjunction or new moon) of Tishrei in that year, and then to apply a set of rules to determine whether the first day of the year must be postponed. The molad can be calculated by multiplying the number of months that will have elapsed since some (preceding) molad whose weekday is known by the mean length of a (synodic) lunar month, which is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts (there are 1080 "parts '' in an hour, so that one part is equal to 3 ⁄ seconds). The very first molad, the molad tohu, fell on Sunday evening at 11.11 ⁄, or in Jewish terms Day 2, 5 hours, and 204 parts.
In calculating the number of months that will have passed since the known molad that one uses as the starting point, one must remember to include any leap month (s) that falls within the elapsed interval, according to the cycle of leap years. A 19 - year cycle of 235 synodic months has 991 weeks 2 days 16 hours 595 parts, a common year of 12 synodic months has 50 weeks 4 days 8 hours 876 parts, while a leap year of 13 synodic months has 54 weeks 5 days 21 hours 589 parts.
The two months whose numbers of days may be adjusted, Marcheshvan and Kislev, are the eighth and ninth months of the Hebrew year, whereas Tishrei is the seventh month (in the traditional counting of the months, even though it is the first month of a new calendar year). Any adjustments needed to postpone Rosh Hashanah must be made to the adjustable months in the year that precedes the year of which the Rosh Hashanah will be the first day.
Just four potential conditions are considered to determine whether the date of Rosh Hashanah must be postponed. These are called the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, or deḥiyyot:
The first of these rules (deḥiyyah molad zaken) is referred to in the Talmud. Nowadays, molad zaken is used as a device to prevent the molad falling on the second day of the month. The second rule, (deḥiyyah lo ADU), is applied for religious reasons.
Another two rules are applied much less frequently and serve to prevent impermissible year lengths. Their names are Hebrew acronyms that refer to the ways they are calculated:
At the innovation of the sages, the calendar was arranged to ensure that Yom Kippur would not fall on a Friday or Sunday, and Hoshana Rabbah would not fall on Shabbat. These rules have been instituted because Shabbat restrictions also apply to Yom Kippur, so that if Yom Kippur were to fall on Friday, it would not be possible to make necessary preparations for Shabbat (such as candle lighting). Similarly, if Yom Kippur fell on a Sunday, it would not be possible to make preparations for Yom Kippur because the preceding day is Shabbat. Additionally, the laws of Shabbat override those of Hoshana Rabbah, so that if Hoshana Rabbah were to fall on Shabbat certain rituals that are a part of the Hoshana Rabbah service (such as carrying willows, which is a form of work) could not be performed.
To prevent Yom Kippur (10 Tishrei) from falling on a Friday or Sunday, Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei) can not fall on Wednesday or Friday. Likewise, to prevent Hoshana Rabbah (21 Tishrei) from falling on a Saturday, Rosh Hashanah can not fall on a Sunday. This leaves only four days on which Rosh Hashanah can fall: Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, which are referred to as the "four gates ''. Each day is associated with a number (its order in the week, beginning with Sunday as day 1). Numbers in Hebrew have been traditionally denominated by Hebrew letters. Thus the keviyah uses the letters ה, ג, ב and ז (representing 2, 3, 5, and 7, for Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday) to denote the starting day of the year.
The postponement of the year is compensated for by adding a day to the second month or removing one from the third month. A Jewish common year can only have 353, 354, or 355 days. A leap year is always 30 days longer, and so can have 383, 384, or 385 days.
Whether a year is deficient, regular, or complete is determined by the time between two adjacent Rosh Hashanah observances and the leap year. While the keviyah is sufficient to describe a year, a variant specifies the day of the week for the first day of Pesach (Passover) in lieu of the year length.
A Metonic cycle equates to 235 lunar months in each 19 - year cycle. This gives an average of 6939 days, 16 hours, and 595 parts for each cycle. But due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules (preceding section) a cycle of 19 Jewish years can be either 6939, 6940, 6941, or 6942 days in duration. Since none of these values is evenly divisible by seven, the Jewish calendar repeats exactly only following 36,288 Metonic cycles, or 689,472 Jewish years. There is a near - repetition every 247 years, except for an excess of about 50 minutes (905 parts).
The annual calendar of a numbered Hebrew year, displayed as 12 or 13 months partitioned into weeks, can be determined by consulting the table of Four gates, whose inputs are the year 's position in the 19 - year cycle and its molad Tishrei. The resulting type (keviyah) of the desired year in the body of the table is a triple consisting of two numbers and a letter (written left - to - right in English). The left number of each triple is the day of the week of 1 Tishrei, Rosh Hashanah (2 3 5 7); the letter indicates whether that year is deficient (D), regular (R), or complete (C), the number of days in Chesvan and Kislev; while the right number of each triple is the day of the week of 15 Nisan, the first day of Passover or Pesach (1 3 5 7), within the same Hebrew year (next Julian / Gregorian year). The keviyah in Hebrew letters are written right - to - left, so their days of the week are reversed, the right number for 1 Tishrei and the left for 15 Nisan. The year within the 19 - year cycle alone determines whether that year has one or two Adars.
This table numbers the days of the week and hours for the limits of molad Tishrei in the Hebrew manner for calendrical calculations, that is, both begin at 6 pm, thus 7d 18h 0p is noon Saturday. The years of a 19 - year cycle are organized into four groups: common years after a leap year but before a common year (1 4 9 12 15); common years between two leap years (7 18); common years after a common year but before a leap year (2 5 10 13 16); and leap years (3 6 8 11 14 17 19), all between common years. The oldest surviving table of Four gates was written by Saadia Gaon (892 -- 942). It is so named because it identifies the four allowable days of the week on which 1 Tishrei can occur.
Comparing the days of the week of molad Tishrei with those in the keviyah shows that during 39 % of years 1 Tishrei is not postponed beyond the day of the week of its molad Tishrei, 47 % are postponed one day, and 14 % are postponed two days. This table also identifies the seven types of common years and seven types of leap years. Most are represented in any 19 - year cycle, except one or two may be in neighboring cycles. The most likely type of year is 5R7 in 18.1 % of years, whereas the least likely is 5C1 in 3.3 % of years. The day of the week of 15 Nisan is later than that of 1 Tishrei by one, two or three days for common years and three, four or five days for leap years in deficient, regular or complete years, respectively.
See Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000 -- 2050
The Tanakh contains several commandments related to the keeping of the calendar and the lunar cycle, and records changes that have taken place to the Hebrew calendar.
It has been noted that the procedures described in the Mishnah and Tosefta are all plausible procedures for regulating an empirical lunar calendar. Fire - signals, for example, or smoke - signals, are known from the pre-exilic Lachish ostraca. Furthermore, the Mishnah contains laws that reflect the uncertainties of an empirical calendar. Mishnah Sanhedrin, for example, holds that when one witness holds that an event took place on a certain day of the month, and another that the same event took place on the following day, their testimony can be held to agree, since the length of the preceding month was uncertain. Another Mishnah takes it for granted that it can not be known in advance whether a year 's lease is for twelve or thirteen months. Hence it is a reasonable conclusion that the Mishnaic calendar was actually used in the Mishnaic period.
The accuracy of the Mishnah 's claim that the Mishnaic calendar was also used in the late Second Temple period is less certain. One scholar has noted that there are no laws from Second Temple period sources that indicate any doubts about the length of a month or of a year. This led him to propose that the priests must have had some form of computed calendar or calendrical rules that allowed them to know in advance whether a month would have 30 or 29 days, and whether a year would have 12 or 13 months.
Between 70 and 1178 CE, the observation - based calendar was gradually replaced by a mathematically calculated one. Except for the epoch year number, the calendar rules reached their current form by the beginning of the 9th century, as described by the Persian Muslim astronomer al - Khwarizmi (c. 780 -- 850 CE) in 823.
One notable difference between the calendar of that era and the modern form was the date of the epoch (the fixed reference point at the beginning of year 1), which at that time was one year later than the epoch of the modern calendar.
Most of the present rules of the calendar were in place by 823, according to a treatise by al - Khwarizmi. Al - Khwarizmi 's study of the Jewish calendar, Risāla fi istikhrāj taʾrīkh al - yahūd "Extraction of the Jewish Era '' describes the 19 - year intercalation cycle, the rules for determining on what day of the week the first day of the month Tishrī shall fall, the interval between the Jewish era (creation of Adam) and the Seleucid era, and the rules for determining the mean longitude of the sun and the moon using the Jewish calendar. Not all the rules were in place by 835.
In 921, Aaron ben Meïr proposed changes to the calendar. Though the proposals were rejected, they indicate that all of the rules of the modern calendar (except for the epoch) were in place before that date. In 1000, the Muslim chronologist al - Biruni described all of the modern rules of the Hebrew calendar, except that he specified three different epochs used by various Jewish communities being one, two, or three years later than the modern epoch.
There is a tradition, first mentioned by Hai Gaon (died 1038 CE), that Hillel b. R. Yehuda "in the year 670 of the Seleucid era '' (i.e., 358 -- 359 CE) was responsible for the new calculated calendar with a fixed intercalation cycle. Later writers, such as Nachmanides, explained Hai Gaon 's words to mean that the entire computed calendar was due to Hillel b. Yehuda in response to persecution of Jews. Maimonides, in the 12th century, stated that the Mishnaic calendar was used "until the days of Abaye and Rava '', who flourished c. 320 -- 350 CE, and that the change came when "the land of Israel was destroyed, and no permanent court was left. '' Taken together, these two traditions suggest that Hillel b. Yehuda (whom they identify with the mid-4th - century Jewish patriarch Ioulos, attested in a letter of the Emperor Julian, and the Jewish patriarch Ellel, mentioned by Epiphanius) instituted the computed Hebrew calendar because of persecution. H. Graetz linked the introduction of the computed calendar to a sharp repression following a failed Jewish insurrection that occurred during the rule of the Christian emperor Constantius and Gallus. A later writer, S. Lieberman, argued instead that the introduction of the fixed calendar was due to measures taken by Christian Roman authorities to prevent the Jewish patriarch from sending calendrical messengers.
Both the tradition that Hillel b. Yehuda instituted the complete computed calendar, and the theory that the computed calendar was introduced due to repression or persecution, have been questioned. Furthermore, two Jewish dates during post-Talmudic times (specifically in 506 and 776) are impossible under the rules of the modern calendar, indicating that its arithmetic rules were developed in Babylonia during the times of the Geonim (7th to 8th centuries). The Babylonian rules required the delay of the first day of Tishrei when the new moon occurred after noon.
The Talmuds do, however, indicate at least the beginnings of a transition from a purely empirical to a computed calendar. According to a statement attributed to Yose, an Amora who lived during the second half of the 3rd century, the feast of Purim, 14 Adar, could not fall on a Sabbath nor a Monday, lest 10 Tishrei (Yom Kippur) fall on a Friday or a Sunday. This indicates that, by the time of the redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud (c. 400 CE), there were a fixed number of days in all months from Adar to Elul, also implying that the extra month was already a second Adar added before the regular Adar. In another passage, a sage is reported to have counseled "those who make the computations '' not to set the first day of Tishrei or the Day of the Willow on the sabbath. This indicates that there was a group who "made computations '' and were in a position to control, to some extent, the day of the week on which Rosh Hashanah would fall.
Early Zionist pioneers were impressed by the fact that the calendar preserved by Jews over many centuries in far - flung diasporas, as a matter of religious ritual, was geared to the climate of their original country: the Jewish New Year marks the transition from the dry season to the rainy one, and major Jewish holidays such as Sukkot, Passover, and Shavuot correspond to major points of the country 's agricultural year such as planting and harvest.
Accordingly, in the early 20th century the Hebrew calendar was re-interpreted as an agricultural rather than religious calendar.
After the creation of the State of Israel, the Hebrew calendar became one of the official calendars of Israel, along with the Gregorian calendar. Holidays and commemorations not derived from previous Jewish tradition were to be fixed according to the Hebrew calendar date. For example, the Israeli Independence Day falls on 5 Iyar, Jerusalem Reunification Day on 28 Iyar, and the Holocaust Commemoration Day on 27 Nisan.
Nevertheless, since the 1950s usage of the Hebrew calendar has steadily declined, in favor of the Gregorian calendar. At present, Israelis -- except for the religiously observant -- conduct their private and public life according to the Gregorian calendar, although the Hebrew calendar is still widely acknowledged, appearing in public venues such as banks (where it is legal for use on cheques and other documents, though only rarely do people make use of this option) and on the mastheads of newspapers.
The Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah) is a two - day public holiday in Israel. However, since the 1980s an increasing number of secular Israelis celebrate the Gregorian New Year (usually known as "Silvester Night '' -- "ליל סילבסטר '') on the night between 31 December and 1 January. Prominent rabbis have on several occasions sharply denounced this practice, but with no noticeable effect on the secularist celebrants.
Wall calendars commonly used in Israel are hybrids. Most are organised according to Gregorian rather than Jewish months, but begin in September, when the Jewish New Year usually falls, and provide the Jewish date in small characters.
Outside of Rabbinic Judaism, evidence shows a diversity of practice.
Karaites use the lunar month and the solar year, but the Karaite calendar differs from the current Rabbinic calendar in a number of ways. The Karaite calendar is identical to the Rabbinic calendar used before the Sanhedrin changed the Rabbinic calendar from the lunar, observation based, calendar to the current, mathematically based, calendar used in Rabbinic Judaism today.
In the lunar Karaite calendar, the beginning of each month, the Rosh Chodesh, can be calculated, but is confirmed by the observation in Israel of the first sightings of the new moon. This may result in an occasional variation of a maximum of one day, depending on the inability to observe the new moon. The day is usually "picked up '' in the next month.
The addition of the leap month (Adar II) is determined by observing in Israel the ripening of barley at a specific stage (defined by Karaite tradition) (called aviv), rather than using the calculated and fixed calendar of rabbinic Judaism. Occasionally this results in Karaites being one month ahead of other Jews using the calculated rabbinic calendar. The "lost '' month would be "picked up '' in the next cycle when Karaites would observe a leap month while other Jews would not.
Furthermore, the seasonal drift of the rabbinic calendar is avoided, resulting in the years affected by the drift starting one month earlier in the Karaite calendar.
Also, the four rules of postponement of the rabbinic calendar are not applied, since they are not mentioned in the Tanakh. This can affect the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays in a particular year by one or two days.
In the Middle Ages many Karaite Jews outside Israel followed the calculated rabbinic calendar, because it was not possible to retrieve accurate aviv barley data from the land of Israel. However, since the establishment of the State of Israel, and especially since the Six Day War, the Karaite Jews that have made aliyah can now again use the observational calendar.
The Samaritan community 's calendar also relies on lunar months and solar years. Calculation of the Samaritan calendar has historically been a secret reserved to the priestly family alone, and was based on observations of the new crescent moon. More recently, a 20th - century Samaritan High Priest transferred the calculation to a computer algorithm. The current High Priest confirms the results twice a year, and then distributes calendars to the community.
The epoch of the Samaritan calendar is year of the entry of the Children of Israel into the Land of Israel with Joshua. The month of Passover is the first month in the Samaritan calendar, but the year number increments in the sixth month. Like in the Rabbinic calendar, there are seven leap years within each 19 - year cycle. However, the Rabbinic and Samaritan calendars ' cycles are not synchronized, so Samaritan festivals -- notionally the same as the Rabbinic festivals of Torah origin -- are frequently one month off from the date according to the Rabbinic calendar. Additionally, as in the Karaite calendar, the Samaritan calendar does not apply the four rules of postponement, since they are not mentioned in the Tanakh. This can affect the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays in a particular year by one or two days.
Many of the Dead Sea (Qumran) Scrolls have references to a unique calendar, used by the people there, who are often assumed to be Essenes.
The year of this calendar used the ideal Mesopotamian calendar of twelve 30 - day months, to which were added 4 days at the equinoxes and solstices (cardinal points), making a total of 364 days.
There was some ambiguity as to whether the cardinal days were at the beginning of the months or at the end, but the clearest calendar attestations give a year of four seasons, each having three months of 30, 30, and 31 days with the cardinal day the extra day at the end, for a total of 91 days, or exactly 13 weeks. Each season started on the 4th day of the week (Wednesday), every year. (Ben - Dov, Head of All Years, pp. 16 -- 17)
With only 364 days, it is clear that the calendar would after a few years be very noticeably different from the actual seasons, but there is nothing to indicate what was done about this problem. Various suggestions have been made by scholars. One is that nothing was done and the calendar was allowed to change with respect to the seasons. Another suggestion is that changes were made irregularly, only when the seasonal anomaly was too great to be ignored any longer. (Ben - Dov, Head of All Years, pp. 19 -- 20)
The writings often discuss the moon, but the calendar was not based on the movement of the moon any more than indications of the phases of the moon on a modern western calendar indicate that that is a lunar calendar. Recent analysis of one of the last scrolls remaining to be deciphered has revealed it relates to this calendar and that the sect used the word tekufah to identify each of the four special days marking the transitions between the seasons.
Calendrical evidence for the postexilic Persian period is found in papyri from the Jewish colony at Elephantine, in Egypt. These documents show that the Jewish community of Elephantine used the Egyptian and Babylonian calendars.
The Sardica paschal table shows that the Jewish community of some eastern city, possibly Antioch, used a calendrical scheme that kept Nisan 14 within the limits of the Julian month of March. Some of the dates in the document are clearly corrupt, but they can be emended to make the sixteen years in the table consistent with a regular intercalation scheme. Peter, the bishop of Alexandria (early 4th century CE), mentions that the Jews of his city "hold their Passover according to the course of the moon in the month of Phamenoth, or according to the intercalary month every third year in the month of Pharmuthi '', suggesting a fairly consistent intercalation scheme that kept Nisan 14 approximately between Phamenoth 10 (March 6 in the 4th century CE) and Pharmuthi 10 (April 5). Jewish funerary inscriptions from Zoar, south of the Dead Sea, dated from the 3rd to the 5th century, indicate that when years were intercalated, the intercalary month was at least sometimes a repeated month of Adar. The inscriptions, however, reveal no clear pattern of regular intercalations, nor do they indicate any consistent rule for determining the start of the lunar month.
In 1178, Maimonides included all the rules for the calculated calendar and their scriptural basis, including the modern epochal year in his work, Mishneh Torah. Today, the rules detailed in Maimonides ' code are those generally used by Jewish communities throughout the world.
A "new moon '' (astronomically called a lunar conjunction and, in Hebrew, a molad) is the moment at which the sun and moon are aligned horizontally with respect to a north - south line (technically, they have the same ecliptical longitude). The period between two new moons is a synodic month. The actual length of a synodic month varies from about 29 days 6 hours and 30 minutes (29.27 days) to about 29 days and 20 hours (29.83 days), a variation range of about 13 hours and 30 minutes. Accordingly, for convenience, a long - term average length, identical to the mean synodic month of ancient times (also called the molad interval) is used. The molad interval is 765433 25920 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (765433) (25920))) days, or 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 "parts '' (1 "part '' = / minute; 3 "parts '' = 10 seconds) (i.e., 29.530594 days), and is the same value determined by the Babylonians in their System B about 300 BCE and was adopted by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE and by the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy in the Almagest four centuries later (who cited Hipparchus as his source). Its remarkable accuracy (less than one second from the true value) is thought to have been achieved using records of lunar eclipses from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE.
This value is as close to the correct value of 29.530589 days as it is possible for a value to come that is rounded off to whole "parts ''. The discrepancy makes the molad interval about 0.6 seconds too long. Put another way, if the molad is taken as the time of mean conjunction at some reference meridian, then this reference meridian is drifting slowly eastward. If this drift of the reference meridian is traced back to the mid-4th century, the traditional date of the introduction of the fixed calendar, then it is found to correspond to a longitude midway between the Nile and the end of the Euphrates. The modern molad moments match the mean solar times of the lunar conjunction moments near the meridian of Kandahar, Afghanistan, more than 30 ° east of Jerusalem.
Furthermore, the discrepancy between the molad interval and the mean synodic month is accumulating at an accelerating rate, since the mean synodic month is progressively shortening due to gravitational tidal effects. Measured on a strictly uniform time scale, such as that provided by an atomic clock, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually longer, but since the tides slow Earth 's rotation rate even more, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually shorter in terms of mean solar time.
The mean year of the current mathematically based Hebrew calendar is 365 days 5 hours 55 minutes and 25 + / seconds (365.2468 days) -- computed as the molad / monthly interval of 29.530594 days × 235 months in a 19 - year metonic cycle ÷ 19 years per cycle. In relation to the Gregorian calendar, the mean Gregorian calendar year is 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes and 12 seconds (365.2425 days), and the drift of the Hebrew calendar in relation to it is about a day every 231 years.
Although the molad of Tishrei is the only molad moment that is not ritually announced, it is actually the only one that is relevant to the Hebrew calendar, for it determines the provisional date of Rosh Hashanah, subject to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules. The other monthly molad moments are announced for mystical reasons. With the moladot on average almost 100 minutes late, this means that the molad of Tishrei lands one day later than it ought to in (100 minutes) ÷ (1440 minutes per day) = 5 of 72 years or nearly 7 % of years.
Therefore, the seemingly small drift of the moladot is already significant enough to affect the date of Rosh Hashanah, which then cascades to many other dates in the calendar year and sometimes, due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, also interacts with the dates of the prior or next year. The molad drift could be corrected by using a progressively shorter molad interval that corresponds to the actual mean lunar conjunction interval at the original molad reference meridian. Furthermore, the molad interval determines the calendar mean year, so using a progressively shorter molad interval would help correct the excessive length of the Hebrew calendar mean year, as well as helping it to "hold onto '' the northward equinox for the maximum duration.
When the 19 - year intercalary cycle was finalised in the 4th century, the earliest Passover (in year 16 of the cycle) coincided with the northward equinox, which means that Passover fell near the first full moon after the northward equinox, or that the northward equinox landed within one lunation before 16 days after the molad of Nisan. This is still the case in about 80 % of years; but, in about 20 % of years, Passover is a month late by these criteria (as it was in AM 5765 and 5768, the 8th and 11th years of the 19 - year cycle = Gregorian 2005 and 2008 CE). Presently, this occurs after the "premature '' insertion of a leap month in years 8, 11, and 19 of each 19 - year cycle, which causes the northward equinox to land on exceptionally early Hebrew dates in such years. This problem will get worse over time, and so beginning in AM 5817 (2057 CE), year 3 of each 19 - year cycle will also be a month late. If the calendar is not amended, then Passover will start to land on or after the summer solstice around AM 16652 (12892 CE). (The exact year when this will begin to occur depends on uncertainties in the future tidal slowing of the Earth rotation rate, and on the accuracy of predictions of precession and Earth axial tilt.)
The seriousness of the spring equinox drift is widely discounted on the grounds that Passover will remain in the spring season for many millennia, and the text of the Torah is generally not interpreted as having specified tight calendrical limits. The Hebrew calendar also drifts with respect to the autumn equinox, and at least part of the harvest festival of Sukkot is already more than a month after the equinox in years 1, 9, and 12 of each 19 - year cycle; beginning in AM 5818 (2057 CE), this will also be the case in year 4. (These are the same year numbers as were mentioned for the spring season in the previous paragraph, except that they get incremented at Rosh Hashanah.) This progressively increases the probability that Sukkot will be cold and wet, making it uncomfortable or impractical to dwell in the traditional succah during Sukkot. The first winter seasonal prayer for rain is not recited until Shemini Atzeret, after the end of Sukkot, yet it is becoming increasingly likely that the rainy season in Israel will start before the end of Sukkot.
No equinox or solstice will ever be more than a day or so away from its mean date according to the solar calendar, while nineteen Jewish years average 6939d 16h 33m 03 ⁄ s compared to the 6939d 14h 26m 15s of nineteen mean tropical years. This discrepancy has mounted up to six days, which is why the earliest Passover currently falls on 26 March (as in AM 5773 / 2013 CE).
Given the length of the year, the length of each month is fixed as described above, so the real problem in determining the calendar for a year is determining the number of days in the year. In the modern calendar, this is determined in the following manner.
The day of Rosh Hashanah and the length of the year are determined by the time and the day of the week of the Tishrei molad, that is, the moment of the average conjunction. Given the Tishrei molad of a certain year, the length of the year is determined as follows:
First, one must determine whether each year is an ordinary or leap year by its position in the 19 - year Metonic cycle. Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are leap years.
Secondly, one must determine the number of days between the starting Tishrei molad (TM1) and the Tishrei molad of the next year (TM2). For calendar descriptions in general the day begins at 6 p.m., but for the purpose of determining Rosh Hashanah, a molad occurring on or after noon is treated as belonging to the next day (the first deḥiyyah). All months are calculated as 29d, 12h, 44m, 3 ⁄ s long (MonLen). Therefore, in an ordinary year TM2 occurs 12 × MonLen days after TM1. This is usually 354 calendar days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after 3: 11: 20 a.m. and before noon, it will be 355 days. Similarly, in a leap year, TM2 occurs 13 × MonLen days after TM1. This is usually 384 days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after noon and before 2: 27: 16 ⁄ p.m., TM2 will be only 383 days after TM1. In the same way, from TM2 one calculates TM3. Thus the four natural year lengths are 354, 355, 383, and 384 days.
However, because of the holiday rules, Rosh Hashanah can not fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, so if TM2 is one of those days, Rosh Hashanah in year 2 is postponed by adding one day to year 1 (the second deḥiyyah). To compensate, one day is subtracted from year 2. It is to allow for these adjustments that the system allows 385 - day years (long leap) and 353 - day years (short ordinary) besides the four natural year lengths.
But how can year 1 be lengthened if it is already a long ordinary year of 355 days or year 2 be shortened if it is a short leap year of 383 days? That is why the third and fourth deḥiyyahs are needed.
If year 1 is already a long ordinary year of 355 days, there will be a problem if TM1 is on a Tuesday, as that means TM2 falls on a Sunday and will have to be postponed, creating a 356 - day year. In this case, Rosh Hashanah in year 1 is postponed from Tuesday (the third deḥiyyah). As it can not be postponed to Wednesday, it is postponed to Thursday, and year 1 ends up with 354 days.
On the other hand, if year 2 is already a short year of 383 days, there will be a problem if TM2 is on a Wednesday. because Rosh Hashanah in year 2 will have to be postponed from Wednesday to Thursday and this will cause year 2 to be only 382 days long. In this case, year 2 is extended by one day by postponing Rosh Hashanah in year 3 from Monday to Tuesday (the fourth deḥiyyah), and year 2 will have 383 days.
The attribution of the fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar solely to Hillel II has, however, been questioned by a few authors, such as Sasha Stern, who claim that the calendar rules developed gradually over several centuries.
Given the importance in Jewish ritual of establishing the accurate timing of monthly and annual times, some futurist writers and researchers have considered whether a "corrected '' system of establishing the Hebrew date is required. The mean year of the current mathematically based Hebrew calendar has "drifted '' an average of 7 -- 8 days late relative to the equinox relationship that it originally had. It is not possible, however, for any individual Hebrew date to be a week or more "late '', because Hebrew months always begin within a day or two of the molad moment. What happens instead is that the traditional Hebrew calendar "prematurely '' inserts a leap month one year before it "should have been '' inserted, where "prematurely '' means that the insertion causes the spring equinox to land more than 30 days before the latest acceptable moment, thus causing the calendar to run "one month late '' until the time when the leap month "should have been '' inserted prior to the following spring. This presently happens in 4 years out of every 19 - year cycle (years 3, 8, 11, and 19), implying that the Hebrew calendar currently runs "one month late '' more than 21 % of the time.
Dr. Irv Bromberg has proposed a 353 - year cycle of 4366 months, which would include 130 leap months, along with use of a progressively shorter molad interval, which would keep an amended fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar from drifting for more than seven millennia. It takes about 3 ⁄ centuries for the spring equinox to drift an average of ⁄ th of a molad interval earlier in the Hebrew calendar. That is a very important time unit, because it can be cancelled by simply truncating a 19 - year cycle to 11 years, omitting 8 years including three leap years from the sequence. That is the essential feature of the 353 - year leap cycle ((9 × 19) + 11 + (9 × 19) = 353 years).
Religious questions abound about how such a system might be implemented and administered throughout the diverse aspects of the world Jewish community.
The list below gives a time which can be used to determine the day the Jewish ecclesiastical (spring) year starts over a period of nineteen years:
Every nineteen years this time is 2 days, 16 hours, 33 1 / 18 minutes later in the week. That is either the same or the previous day in the civil calendar, depending on whether the difference in the day of the week is three or two days. If 29 February is included fewer than five times in the nineteen -- year period the date will be later by the number of days which corresponds to the difference between the actual number of insertions and five. If the year is due to start on Sunday, it actually begins on the following Tuesday if the following year is due to start on Friday morning. If due to start on Monday, Wednesday or Friday it actually begins on the following day. If due to start on Saturday, it actually begins on the following day if the previous year was due to begin on Monday morning.
The table below lists, for a Jewish year commencing on 23 March, the civil date of the first day of each month. If the year does not begin on 23 March, each month 's first day will differ from the date shown by the number of days that the start of the year differs from 23 March. The correct column is the one which shows the correct starting date for the following year in the last row. If 29 February falls within a Jewish month the first day of later months will be a day earlier than shown.
For long period calculations, dates should be reduced to the Julian calendar and converted back to the civil calendar at the end of the calculation. The civil calendar used here (Exigian) is correct to one day in 44,000 years and omits the leap day in centennial years which do not give remainder 200 or 700 when divided by 900. It is identical to the Gregorian calendar between 15 October 1582 CE and 28 February 2400 CE (both dates inclusive).
To find how many days the civil calendar is ahead of the Julian in any year from 301 BCE (the calendar is proleptic (assumed) up to 1582 CE) add 300 to the year, multiply the hundreds by 7, divide by 9 and subtract 4. Ignore any fraction of a day. When the difference between the calendars changes the calculated value applies on and from March 1 (civil date) for conversions to Julian. For earlier dates reduce the calculated value by one. For conversions to the civil date the calculated value applies on and from February 29 (Julian date). Again, for earlier dates reduce the calculated value by one. The difference is applied to the calendar one is converting into. A negative value indicates that the Julian date is ahead of the civil date. In this case it is important to remember that when calculating the civil equivalent of February 29 (Julian), February 29 is discounted. Thus if the calculated value is − 4 the civil equivalent of this date is February 24. Before 1 CE use astronomical years rather than years BCE. The astronomical year is (year BCE) -- 1.
Up to the 4th century CE, these tables give the day of the Jewish month to within a day or so and the number of the month to within a month or so. From the 4th century, the number of the month is given exactly and from the 9th century the day of the month is given exactly as well.
In the Julian calendar, every 76 years the Jewish year is due to start 5h 47 14 / 18m earlier, and 3d 18h 12 4 / 18m later in the week.
On what civil date does the eighth month begin in CE 20874 - 5?
20874 = 2026 + (248x76). In (248x76) Julian years the Jewish year is due to start (248x3d 18h 12 4 / 18m) later in the week, which is 932d 2h 31 2 / 18m or 1d 2h 31 2 / 18m later after removing complete weeks. Allowing for the current difference of thirteen days between the civil and Julian calendars, the Julian date is 13 + (248x0d 5h 47 4 / 18m) earlier, which is 72d 21h 28 16 / 18m earlier. Convert back to the civil calendar by applying the formula.
So, in 20874 CE, the Jewish year is due to begin 87d 2h 31 2 / 18m later than in 2026 CE and 1d 2h 31 2 / 18m later in the week. In 20874 CE, therefore, the Jewish year is due to begin at 11.30 3 / 18 A.M. on Friday, 14 June. Because of the displacements, it actually begins on Saturday, 15 June. Odd months have 30 days and even months 29, so the starting dates are 2, 15 July; 3, 13 August; 4, 12 September; 5, 11 October; 6, 10 November; 7, 9 December, and 8, 8 January.
The rules are based on the theory that Maimonides explains in his book "Rabbinical Astronomy '' -- no allowance is made for the secular (centennial) decrease of 1⁄2 second in the length of the mean tropical year and the increase of about four yards in the distance between the earth and the moon resulting from tidal friction because astronomy was not sufficiently developed in the 12th century (when Maimonides wrote his book) to detect this.
723 -- 730.
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what are the stages of perception and in what order do they occur | Perception - wikipedia
Perception (from the Latin perceptio) is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information, or the environment.
All perception involves signals that go through the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sensory system. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, and hearing involves pressure waves.
Perception is not only the passive receipt of these signals, but it 's also shaped by the recipient 's learning, memory, expectation, and attention.
Perception can be split into two processes, (1) processing the sensory input, which transforms these low - level information to higher - level information (e.g., extracts shapes for object recognition), (2) processing which is connected with a person 's concepts and expectations (or knowledge), restorative and selective mechanisms (such as attention) that influence perception.
Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness.
Since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th Century, psychology 's understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the physical qualities of the sensory input and perception. Sensory neuroscience studies the neural mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process. Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver.
Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain 's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary.
The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. Human and animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these modules take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain 's surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other. For instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell.
The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, termed the distal stimulus or distal object. By means of light, sound or another physical process, the object stimulates the body 's sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the input energy into neural activity -- a process called transduction. This raw pattern of neural activity is called the proximal stimulus. These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and processed. The resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept.
An example would be a shoe. The shoe itself is the distal stimulus. When light from the shoe enters a person 's eye and stimulates the retina, that stimulation is the proximal stimulus. The image of the shoe reconstructed by the brain of the person is the percept. Another example would be a telephone ringing. The ringing of the telephone is the distal stimulus. The sound stimulating a person 's auditory receptors is the proximal stimulus, and the brain 's interpretation of this as the ringing of a telephone is the percept. The different kinds of sensation such as warmth, sound, and taste are called sensory modalities multi.
Psychologist Jerome Bruner has developed a model of perception. According to him, people go through the following process to form opinions:
According to Alan Saks and Gary Johns, there are three components to perception.
Stimuli are not necessarily translated into a percept and rarely does a single stimulus translate into a percept. An ambiguous stimulus may be translated into multiple percepts, experienced randomly, one at a time, in what is called multistable perception. And the same stimuli, or absence of them, may result in different percepts depending on subject 's culture and previous experiences. Ambiguous figures demonstrate that a single stimulus can result in more than one percept; for example the Rubin vase which can be interpreted either as a vase or as two faces. The percept can bind sensations from multiple senses into a whole. A picture of a talking person on a television screen, for example, is bound to the sound of speech from speakers to form a percept of a talking person. "Percept '' is also a term used by Leibniz, Bergson, Deleuze, and Guattari to define perception independent from perceivers.
In the case of visual perception, some people can actually see the percept shift in their mind 's eye. Others, who are not picture thinkers, may not necessarily perceive the ' shape - shifting ' as their world changes. The ' esemplastic ' nature has been shown by experiment: an ambiguous image has multiple interpretations on the perceptual level.
This confusing ambiguity of perception is exploited in human technologies such as camouflage, and also in biological mimicry, for example by European peacock butterflies, whose wings bear eyespots that birds respond to as though they were the eyes of a dangerous predator.
There is also evidence that the brain in some ways operates on a slight "delay '', to allow nerve impulses from distant parts of the body to be integrated into simultaneous signals.
Perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. The oldest quantitative laws in psychology are Weber 's law -- which states that the smallest noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is proportional to the intensity of the reference -- and Fechner 's law which quantifies the relationship between the intensity of the physical stimulus and its perceptual counterpart (for example, testing how much darker a computer screen can get before the viewer actually notices). The study of perception gave rise to the Gestalt school of psychology, with its emphasis on holistic approach.
Perceptual constancy is the ability of perceptual systems to recognize the same object from widely varying sensory inputs. For example, individual people can be recognized from views, such as frontal and profile, which form very different shapes on the retina. A coin looked at face - on makes a circular image on the retina, but when held at angle it makes an elliptical image. In normal perception these are recognized as a single three - dimensional object. Without this correction process, an animal approaching from the distance would appear to gain in size. One kind of perceptual constancy is color constancy: for example, a white piece of paper can be recognized as such under different colors and intensities of light. Another example is roughness constancy: when a hand is drawn quickly across a surface, the touch nerves are stimulated more intensely. The brain compensates for this, so the speed of contact does not affect the perceived roughness. Other constancies include melody, odor, brightness and words. These constancies are not always total, but the variation in the percept is much less than the variation in the physical stimulus. The perceptual systems of the brain achieve perceptual constancy in a variety of ways, each specialized for the kind of information being processed, with phonemic restoration as a notable example from hearing.
The principles of grouping (or Gestalt laws of grouping) are a set of principles in psychology, first proposed by Gestalt psychologists to explain how humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects. Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles exist because the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules. These principles are organized into six categories: proximity, similarity, closure, good continuation, common fate and good form.
The principle of proximity states that, all else being equal, perception tends to group stimuli that are close together as part of the same object, and stimuli that are far apart as two separate objects. The principle of similarity states that, all else being equal, perception lends itself to seeing stimuli that physically resemble each other as part of the same object, and stimuli that are different as part of a different object. This allows for people to distinguish between adjacent and overlapping objects based on their visual texture and resemblance. The principle of closure refers to the mind 's tendency to see complete figures or forms even if a picture is incomplete, partially hidden by other objects, or if part of the information needed to make a complete picture in our minds is missing. For example, if part of a shape 's border is missing people still tend to see the shape as completely enclosed by the border and ignore the gaps. The principle of good continuation makes sense of stimuli that overlap: when there is an intersection between two or more objects, people tend to perceive each as a single uninterrupted object. The principle of common fate groups stimuli together on the basis of their movement. When visual elements are seen moving in the same direction at the same rate, perception associates the movement as part of the same stimulus. This allows people to make out moving objects even when other details, such as color or outline, are obscured. The principle of good form refers to the tendency to group together forms of similar shape, pattern, color, etc. Later research has identified additional grouping principles.
A common finding across many different kinds of perception is that the perceived qualities of an object can be affected by the qualities of context. If one object is extreme on some dimension, then neighboring objects are perceived as further away from that extreme. "Simultaneous contrast effect '' is the term used when stimuli are presented at the same time, whereas "successive contrast '' applies when stimuli are presented one after another.
The contrast effect was noted by the 17th Century philosopher John Locke, who observed that lukewarm water can feel hot or cold, depending on whether the hand touching it was previously in hot or cold water. In the early 20th Century, Wilhelm Wundt identified contrast as a fundamental principle of perception, and since then the effect has been confirmed in many different areas. These effects shape not only visual qualities like color and brightness, but other kinds of perception, including how heavy an object feels. One experiment found that thinking of the name "Hitler '' led to subjects rating a person as more hostile. Whether a piece of music is perceived as good or bad can depend on whether the music heard before it was pleasant or unpleasant. For the effect to work, the objects being compared need to be similar to each other: a television reporter can seem smaller when interviewing a tall basketball player, but not when standing next to a tall building. In the brain, brightness contrast exerts effects on both neuronal firing rates and neuronal synchrony.
With experience, organisms can learn to make finer perceptual distinctions, and learn new kinds of categorization. Wine - tasting, the reading of X-ray images and music appreciation are applications of this process in the human sphere. Research has focused on the relation of this to other kinds of learning, and whether it takes place in peripheral sensory systems or in the brain 's processing of sense information. Empirical research show that specific practices (such as yoga, mindfulness, Tai Chi, meditation, Daoshi and other mind - body disciplines) can modify human perceptual modality. Specifically, these practices enable perception skills to switch from the external (exteroceptive field) towards a higher ability to focus on internal signals (proprioception). Also, when asked to provide verticality judgments, highly self - transcendent yoga practitioners were significantly less influenced by a misleading visual context. Increasing self - transcendence may enable yoga practitioners to optimize verticality judgment tasks by relying more on internal (vestibular and proprioceptive) signals coming from their own body, rather than on exteroceptive, visual cues.
A perceptual set, also called perceptual expectancy or just set is a predisposition to perceive things in a certain way. It is an example of how perception can be shaped by "top - down '' processes such as drives and expectations. Perceptual sets occur in all the different senses. They can be long term, such as a special sensitivity to hearing one 's own name in a crowded room, or short term, as in the ease with which hungry people notice the smell of food. A simple demonstration of the effect involved very brief presentations of non-words such as "sael ''. Subjects who were told to expect words about animals read it as "seal '', but others who were expecting boat - related words read it as "sail ''.
Sets can be created by motivation and so can result in people interpreting ambiguous figures so that they see what they want to see. For instance, how someone perceives what unfolds during a sports game can be biased if they strongly support one of the teams. In one experiment, students were allocated to pleasant or unpleasant tasks by a computer. They were told that either a number or a letter would flash on the screen to say whether they were going to taste an orange juice drink or an unpleasant - tasting health drink. In fact, an ambiguous figure was flashed on screen, which could either be read as the letter B or the number 13. When the letters were associated with the pleasant task, subjects were more likely to perceive a letter B, and when letters were associated with the unpleasant task they tended to perceive a number 13.
Perceptual set has been demonstrated in many social contexts. People who are primed to think of someone as "warm '' are more likely to perceive a variety of positive characteristics in them, than if the word "warm '' is replaced by "cold ''. When someone has a reputation for being funny, an audience is more likely to find them amusing. Individual 's perceptual sets reflect their own personality traits. For example, people with an aggressive personality are quicker to correctly identify aggressive words or situations.
One classic psychological experiment showed slower reaction times and less accurate answers when a deck of playing cards reversed the color of the suit symbol for some cards (e.g. red spades and black hearts).
Philosopher Andy Clark explains that perception, although it occurs quickly, is not simply a bottom - up process (where minute details are put together to form larger wholes). Instead, our brains use what he calls ' predictive coding '. It starts with very broad constraints and expectations for the state of the world, and as expectations are met, it makes more detailed predictions (errors lead to new predictions, or learning processes). Clark says this research has various implications; not only can there be no completely "unbiased, unfiltered '' perception, but this means that there is a great deal of feedback between perception and expectation (perceptual experiences often shape our beliefs, but those perceptions were based on existing beliefs). Indeed, predictive coding provides an account where this type of feedback assists in stabilizing our inference - making process about the physical world, such as with perceptual constancy examples.
Cognitive theories of perception assume there is a poverty of stimulus. This (with reference to perception) is the claim that sensations are, by themselves, unable to provide a unique description of the world. Sensations require ' enriching ', which is the role of the mental model. A different type of theory is the perceptual ecology approach of James J. Gibson. Gibson rejected the assumption of a poverty of stimulus by rejecting the notion that perception is based upon sensations -- instead, he investigated what information is actually presented to the perceptual systems. His theory "assumes the existence of stable, unbounded, and permanent stimulus - information in the ambient optic array. And it supposes that the visual system can explore and detect this information. The theory is information - based, not sensation - based. '' He and the psychologists who work within this paradigm detailed how the world could be specified to a mobile, exploring organism via the lawful projection of information about the world into energy arrays. "Specification '' would be a 1: 1 mapping of some aspect of the world into a perceptual array; given such a mapping, no enrichment is required and perception is direct perception.
An ecological understanding of perception derived from Gibson 's early work is that of "perception - in - action '', the notion that perception is a requisite property of animate action; that without perception, action would be unguided, and without action, perception would serve no purpose. Animate actions require both perception and motion, and perception and movement can be described as "two sides of the same coin, the coin is action ''. Gibson works from the assumption that singular entities, which he calls "invariants '', already exist in the real world and that all that the perception process does is to home in upon them. A view known as constructivism (held by such philosophers as Ernst von Glasersfeld) regards the continual adjustment of perception and action to the external input as precisely what constitutes the "entity '', which is therefore far from being invariant.
Glasersfeld considers an "invariant '' as a target to be homed in upon, and a pragmatic necessity to allow an initial measure of understanding to be established prior to the updating that a statement aims to achieve. The invariant does not and need not represent an actuality, and Glasersfeld describes it as extremely unlikely that what is desired or feared by an organism will never suffer change as time goes on. This social constructionist theory thus allows for a needful evolutionary adjustment.
A mathematical theory of perception - in - action has been devised and investigated in many forms of controlled movement, and has been described in many different species of organism using the General Tau Theory. According to this theory, tau information, or time - to - goal information is the fundamental ' percept ' in perception.
Many philosophers, such as Jerry Fodor, write that the purpose of perception is knowledge, but evolutionary psychologists hold that its primary purpose is to guide action. For example, they say, depth perception seems to have evolved not to help us know the distances to other objects but rather to help us move around in space. Evolutionary psychologists say that animals from fiddler crabs to humans use eyesight for collision avoidance, suggesting that vision is basically for directing action, not providing knowledge.
Building and maintaining sense organs is metabolically expensive, so these organs evolve only when they improve an organism 's fitness. More than half the brain is devoted to processing sensory information, and the brain itself consumes roughly one - fourth of one 's metabolic resources, so the senses must provide exceptional benefits to fitness. Perception accurately mirrors the world; animals get useful, accurate information through their senses.
Scientists who study perception and sensation have long understood the human senses as adaptations. Depth perception consists of processing over half a dozen visual cues, each of which is based on a regularity of the physical world. Vision evolved to respond to the narrow range of electromagnetic energy that is plentiful and that does not pass through objects. Sound waves provide useful information about the sources of and distances to objects, with larger animals making and hearing lower - frequency sounds and smaller animals making and hearing higher - frequency sounds. Taste and smell respond to chemicals in the environment that were significant for fitness in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. The sense of touch is actually many senses, including pressure, heat, cold, tickle, and pain. Pain, while unpleasant, is adaptive. An important adaptation for senses is range shifting, by which the organism becomes temporarily more or less sensitive to sensation. For example, one 's eyes automatically adjust to dim or bright ambient light. Sensory abilities of different organisms often coevolve, as is the case with the hearing of echolocating bats and that of the moths that have evolved to respond to the sounds that the bats make.
Evolutionary psychologists claim that perception demonstrates the principle of modularity, with specialized mechanisms handling particular perception tasks. For example, people with damage to a particular part of the brain suffer from the specific defect of not being able to recognize faces (prospagnosia). EP suggests that this indicates a so - called face - reading module.
A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, somatic sensation (touch), taste and olfaction (smell). It has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality. In short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind.
The receptive field is the specific part of the world to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. For instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field. Receptive fields have been identified for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory system, so far. Research attention is currently focused not only on external perception processes, but also to "Interoception '', considered as the process of receiving, accessing and appraising internal bodily signals. Maintaining desired physiological states is critical for an organism 's well being and survival. Interoception is an iterative process, requiring the interplay between perception of body states and awareness of these states to generate proper self - regulation. Afferent sensory signals continuously interact with higher order cognitive representations of goals, history, and environment, shaping emotional experience and motivating regulatory behavior.
In many ways, vision is the primary human sense. Light is taken in through each eye and focused in a way which sorts it on the retina according to direction of origin. A dense surface of photosensitive cells, including rods, cones, and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells captures information about the intensity, color, and position of incoming light. Some processing of texture and movement occurs within the neurons on the retina before the information is sent to the brain. In total, about 15 differing types of information are then forwarded to the brain proper via the optic nerve.
Hearing (or audition) is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations. Frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called audio or sonic. The range is typically considered to be between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Frequencies higher than audio are referred to as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic. The auditory system includes the outer ears which collect and filter sound waves, the middle ear for transforming the sound pressure (impedance matching), and the inner ear which produces neural signals in response to the sound. By the ascending auditory pathway these are led to the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe of the human brain, which is where the auditory information arrives in the cerebral cortex and is further processed there.
Sound does not usually come from a single source: in real situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are superimposed as they arrive at the ears. Hearing involves the computationally complex task of separating out the sources of interest, often estimating their distance and direction as well as identifying them.
Haptic perception is the process of recognizing objects through touch. It involves a combination of somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface (e.g., edges, curvature, and texture) and proprioception of hand position and conformation. People can rapidly and accurately identify three - dimensional objects by touch. This involves exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand. Haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch.
Gibson defined the haptic system as "The sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body ''. Gibson and others emphasized the close link between haptic perception and body movement: haptic perception is active exploration. The concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of extended physiological proprioception according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool.
Taste (or, the more formal term, gustation) is the ability to perceive the flavor of substances including, but not limited to, food. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or gustatory calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. The human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly ten thousand taste buds. There are five primary tastes: sweetness, bitterness, sourness, saltiness, and umami. Other tastes can be mimicked by combining these basic tastes. The recognition and awareness of umami is a relatively recent development in Western cuisine. The basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth -- other factors include smell, detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc.; and temperature, detected by thermoreceptors. All basic tastes are classified as either appetitive or aversive, depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial.
Social perception is the part of perception that allows people to understand the individuals and groups of their social world, and thus an element of social cognition.
Speech perception is the process by which spoken languages are heard, interpreted and understood. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how human listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language. The sound of a word can vary widely according to words around it and the tempo of the speech, as well as the physical characteristics, accent and mood of the speaker. Listeners manage to perceive words across this wide range of different conditions. Another variation is that reverberation can make a large difference in sound between a word spoken from the far side of a room and the same word spoken up close. Experiments have shown that people automatically compensate for this effect when hearing speech.
The process of perceiving speech begins at the level of the sound within the auditory signal and the process of audition. The initial auditory signal is compared with visual information -- primarily lip movement -- to extract acoustic cues and phonetic information. It is possible other sensory modalities are integrated at this stage as well. This speech information can then be used for higher - level language processes, such as word recognition.
Speech perception is not necessarily uni-directional. That is, higher - level language processes connected with morphology, syntax, or semantics may interact with basic speech perception processes to aid in recognition of speech sounds. It may be the case that it is not necessary and maybe even not possible for a listener to recognize phonemes before recognizing higher units, like words for example. In one experiment, Richard M. Warren replaced one phoneme of a word with a cough - like sound. His subjects restored the missing speech sound perceptually without any difficulty and what is more, they were not able to identify accurately which phoneme had been disturbed.
Facial perception refers to cognitive processes specialized for handling human faces, including perceiving the identity of an individual, and facial expressions such as emotional cues.
The somatosensory cortex encodes incoming sensory information from receptors all over the body. Affective touch is a type of sensory information that elicits an emotional reaction and is usually social in nature, such as a physical human touch. This type of information is actually coded differently than other sensory information. Intensity of affective touch is still encoded in the primary somatosensory cortex, but the feeling of pleasantness associated with affective touch activates the anterior cingulate cortex more than the primary somatosensory cortex. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data shows that increased blood oxygen level contrast (BOLD) signal in the anterior cingulate cortex as well as the prefrontal cortex is highly correlated with pleasantness scores of an affective touch. Inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the primary somatosensory cortex inhibits the perception of affective touch intensity, but not affective touch pleasantness. Therefore, the S1 is not directly involved in processing socially affective touch pleasantness, but still plays a role in discriminating touch location and intensity.
Other senses enable perception of body balance, acceleration, gravity, position of body parts, temperature, pain, time, and perception of internal senses such as suffocation, gag reflex, intestinal distension, fullness of rectum and urinary bladder, and sensations felt in the throat and lungs.
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where did the tradition of wearing black at funerals come from | Mourning - wikipedia
Mourning is, in the simplest sense, grief over someone 's death. The word is also used to describe a cultural complex of behaviours in which the bereaved participate or are expected to participate. Customs vary between cultures and evolve over time, though many core behaviors remain constant.
Wearing black clothes is one practice followed in many countries, though other forms of dress are seen. Those most affected by the loss of a loved one often observe a period of grieving, marked by withdrawal from social events and quiet, respectful behavior. People may follow religious traditions for such occasions.
Mourning may apply to the death of, or anniversary of the death of, an important individual like a local leader, monarch, religious figure, family etc. State mourning may occur on such an occasion. In recent years, some traditions have given way to less strict practices, though many customs and traditions continue to be followed.
Elisabeth Kübler - Ross has developed a well known model, not yet scientifically proven, the subject of many highly contested transpositions and adaptations. It is a theoretical cycle consisting of five steps:
The above five phases can be linear but often a mourner can flip back before starting to move forward. A good way to pass through grief is to understand what has happened and share the feelings and emotions with relatives or people who also are grieving. These steps do not necessarily follow each other. It is not an inevitable process.
Mourning is a personal and collective response which can vary depending on feelings and contexts. It starts with denial and ends with acceptance.
Grief can be defined as the period following the death of someone close. This is both psychological and social:
Death can be a release in the case of a tyrannical person or when death terminates a long, painful illness. However, this release may add remorse and guilt for the mourner.
In Ethiopia, an Edir (var. eddir, idir) is a traditional community organization whose members assist each other during the mourning process. Members make monthly financial contributions forming the Edir 's fund. They are entitled to receive a certain sum of money from this fund to help cover funeral and other expenses associated with deaths. Additionally, Edir members comfort the mourners: female members take turns doing housework, such as preparing food for the mourning family, while male members usually take the responsibility to arrange the funeral and erect a temporary tent to shelter guests who come to visit the mourning family. Edir members are required to stay with the mourning family and comfort them for three full days.
White is the traditional color of mourning in Chinese culture, with white clothes and hats formerly having been associated with death. In imperial China, Confucian mourning obligations required even the emperor to retire from public affairs upon the death of a parent. The traditional period of mourning was nominally 3 years, but usually 25 -- 27 lunar months in practice and even shorter in the case of necessary officers. (The emperor, for example, typically remained in seclusion only 27 days.)
The Japanese term for mourning dress is mofuku (喪服). The term refers to either primarily black Western - style formal wear or to black traditional Japanese clothing worn at funerals and Buddhist memorial services. Other colors, particularly reds and bright shades, are considered inappropriate for mourning dress. If wearing Western clothes, women may wear a single strand of white pearls.
Japanese - style mourning dress for women consists of a five - crested plain black silk kimono, black obi and black accessories worn over white undergarments, black sandals and white split - toe socks. Men 's mourning dress consists of clothing worn on extremely formal occasions: a plain black silk five - crested kimono and black and white or gray and white striped hakama trousers over white undergarments, black crested haori jacket with a white closure, white or black zori and white tabi.
It is customary for Japanese - style mourning dress to be worn only by the immediate family and very close friends of the deceased; other attendees wear Western - style mourning dress or subdued Western or Japanese formal clothes.
In Thailand people will wear black when attending a funeral. Black is considered the mourning color, although historically it was white. Widows may wear purple when mourning the death of their spouse.
The Filipino practices for mourning have influences from Chinese, Japanese and folk Catholic beliefs. People may wear white or black. The color red is frowned upon in the time of mourning, it is believed that those who wear red within 9 -- 40 days will die or suffer illness. The consumption of chicken during the wake and funeral is believed to bring death among the relatives.
There is an initial nine - day mourning practice called Pasiyam, a novena is to be prayed by those who are mourning. During those days the spirit of the deceased is believed to be roaming. 40 days is a Catholic practice of commemorating the dead after 40 days from their death date. A Mass and a small feast are held to commemorate the dead during the 40 - day period, the 40th day as their judgment day. The immediate family wear black. When the one - year period is over, the first death anniversary will signal the end of mourning celebrated by a feast.
The custom of wearing unadorned black clothing for mourning dates back at least to the Roman Empire, when the toga pulla, made of dark - colored wool, was worn during mourning.
Through the Middle Ages and Renaissance, distinctive mourning was worn for general as well as personal loss; after the St. Bartholomew 's Day Massacre of Huguenots in France, Elizabeth I of England and her court are said to have dressed in full mourning to receive the French Ambassador.
Women in mourning and widows wore distinctive black caps and veils, generally in a conservative version of the current fashion.
In areas of Russia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Greece, Mexico, Portugal, and Spain, widows wear black for the rest of their lives. The immediate family members of the deceased wear black for an extended time. Since the 1870s, mourning practices for some cultures, even those who have emigrated to the United States, are to wear black for at least two years, though lifelong black for widows remains in Europe.
In Belgium the Court went in public mourning after publication in the Moniteur Belge. In 1924 the court went in mourning after the death of Marie - Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, (10 days); The duke of Montpensier (5 days) and a full month for the death of Princess Louise of Belgium.
The color of deepest mourning among medieval European queens was white. In 1393, Parisians were treated to the unusual spectacle of a royal funeral carried out in white, for Leo V, King of Armenia, who died in exile. This royal tradition survived in Spain until the end of the fifteenth century. In 1934, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands reintroduced white mourning after the death of her husband prince Henry. It has remained a tradition in the Dutch royal family.
In 2004, the four daughters of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands all wore white to their mother 's funeral. In 1993, the Spanish - born Queen Fabiola introduced it in Belgium for the funeral of her husband, King Baudouin I of Belgium. The custom for the Queens of France to wear deuil blanc (white mourning) was the origin of the White Wardrobe created in 1938 by Norman Hartnell for Queen Elizabeth (later called Queen Mother). She was required to make a State visit to France while in mourning for her mother.
Today, no special dress or behaviour is obligatory for those in mourning in the general population, although ethnic and religious faiths have specific rituals, and black is typically worn at funerals. Traditionally, however, there were strict social rules to be observed.
By the 19th century, mourning behaviour in England had developed into a complex set of rules, particularly among the upper classes. For women, the customs involved wearing heavy, concealing, black clothing, and the use of heavy veils of black crêpe. The entire ensemble was colloquially known as "widow 's weeds '' (from the Old English waed, meaning "garment '').
Special caps and bonnets, usually in black or other dark colours, went with these ensembles. There was mourning jewelry, often made of jet. Jewelry was also occasionally made from the hair of the deceased. The wealthy would wear cameos or lockets designed to hold a lock of the deceased 's hair or some similar relic.
Widows were expected to wear special clothes to indicate that they were in mourning for up to four years after the death, although a widow could choose to wear such attire for the rest of her life. To change the costume earlier was considered disrespectful to the deceased and, if the widow was still young and attractive, suggestive of potential sexual promiscuity. Those subject to the rules were slowly allowed to re-introduce conventional clothing at specific times; such stages were known by such terms as "full mourning '', "half mourning '', and similar descriptions. For half mourning, muted colours such as lilac, grey and lavender could be introduced.
Friends, acquaintances, and employees wore mourning to a greater or lesser degree depending on their relationship to the deceased. Mourning was worn for six months for a sibling. Parents would wear mourning for a child for "as long as they feel so disposed ''. A widow was supposed to wear mourning for two years and was not supposed to enter society for twelve months. No lady or gentleman in mourning was supposed to attend social events while in deep mourning. In general, servants wore black armbands when there had been a death in the household. However, amongst polite company the wearing of a simple black armband was seen as appropriate only for military men, or others compelled to wear uniform in the course of their duties - a black arm band instead of proper mourning clothes was seen as a degradation of proper etiquette and to be avoided. In general, men were expected to wear mourning suits (not to be confused with morning suits) of black frock coats with matching trousers and waistcoats. In the later interbellum period between World War I and World War II, as the frock coat became increasingly rare, the mourning suit consisted of a black morning coat with black trousers and waistcoat, essentially a black version of the morning suit worn to weddings and other occasions, which would normally include colored waistcoats and striped or checked trousers.
Formal mourning culminated during the reign of Queen Victoria, whose long and conspicuous grief over the death of her husband, Prince Albert, may have had much to do with it. Although fashions began to be more functional and less restrictive for the succeeding Edwardians, appropriate dress for men and women -- including that for the period of mourning -- was still strictly prescribed and rigidly adhered to.
The rules were gradually relaxed, and it became acceptable practise for both sexes to dress in dark colours for up to a year after a death in the family. By the late 20th century, this no longer applied, and black had been widely adopted by women in cities as a fashionable colour.
Mourning generally followed English forms into the 20th century. Black dress is still considered proper etiquette for attendance at funerals, but extended periods of wearing black dress is no longer expected. However, attendance at social functions such as weddings when a family is in deep mourning is frowned upon. Men who share their father 's given name and use a suffix such as "Junior '' retain the suffix at least until the father 's funeral is complete.
In the antebellum South, with social mores that imitated those of England, mourning was just as strictly observed by the upper classes.
In the 19th century, mourning could be quite expensive, as it required a whole new set of clothes and accessories or, at the very least, overdying existing garments and taking them out of daily use. For a poorer family, this was a strain on the resources.
At the end of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Dorothy explains to Glinda that she must return home because her aunt and uncle can not afford to go into mourning for her because it was too expensive.
In Tonga, family members of deceased persons wear black for an extended time, with large plain Ta'ovala. Often, black bunting is hung from homes and buildings. In the case of the death of royalty, the entire country adopts mourning dress and black and purple bunting is displayed from most buildings.
State mourning or, in the case of a monarchy, court mourning refers to displays of mourning behavior on the death of a public figure or member of a royal family.
The degree and duration of public mourning is generally decreed by a protocol officer. It was not unusual for the British court to declare that all citizens should wear full mourning for a specified period after the death of the monarch or that the members of the court should wear full - or half - mourning for an extended time. On the death of Queen Victoria (January 22, 1901), the Canada Gazette published an "extra '' edition announcing that court mourning would continue until January 24, 1902. It directed the public to wear deep mourning until March 6, 1901 and half - mourning until April 17, 1901.
The black - and - white costumes designed by Cecil Beaton for the Royal Ascot sequence in My Fair Lady were inspired by the "Black Ascot '' of 1910, when the court was in mourning for Victoria 's son, Edward VII.
All over the world, states usually declare a period of ' official mourning ' after the death of a Head of State. The signs may vary but usually include the lowering or posting half - mast of flags on public buildings. (In contrast, the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom is not flown at half - mast, because there is always a monarch on the throne.)
In January 2006, on the death of Jaber Al - Ahmad Al - Jaber Al - Sabah, the Emir of Kuwait, a mourning period of 40 days was declared. In Tonga, the official mourning lasts for a year; only afterwards is the royal heir crowned the new king.
On the other hand, the principle of continuity of the State must be respected. The principle is reflected in the French saying "Le Roi est mort, vive le Roi! '' (The king is dead, long live the king!). Regardless of the formalities of mourning, power must be handed on; if the succession is uncontested, that is best done immediately. Yet, a short interruption of work in the civil service may result from one or more days of closing the offices, especially on the day of the State funeral.
There are five grades of mourning obligations in the Confucian Code. A man is expected to honor most of those descended from his great - great - grandfather, and most of their wives. One 's father (and mother) would merit 27 months. One 's grandfather on the male side, as well as one 's wife, would be grade two, or twelve months of austerities. A paternal uncle is grade three at nine months. Grade four is reserved for one 's father 's first cousin, maternal grandparents, siblings and sister 's children (five months). First cousins once removed, second cousins and a man 's wife 's parents were to get grade five (three months).
Orthodox Christians usually hold the funeral either the day after death or on the third day, and always during the daytime. In traditional Orthodox communities the body of the departed would be washed and prepared for burial by family or friends, and then placed in the coffin in the home. A house in mourning would be recognizable by the lid of the coffin, with a cross on it, and often adorned with flowers, set on the porch by the front door.
Special prayers are held on the third, seventh or ninth (number varies in different national churches), and 40th days after death; the third, sixth and ninth or twelfth month; and annually thereafter in a memorial service, for up to three generations. Kolyva is ceremoniously used to honor the dead.
Sometimes men in mourning will not shave for the 40 days. Forty seems to have recurring pre-Judaic origins e.g. in the Rites of Persephone. In Greece and other Orthodox countries, it is not uncommon for widows to remain in mourning dress for the rest of their lives.
When an Orthodox bishop dies, a successor is not elected until after the 40 days of mourning are completed, during which period his diocese is said to be "widowed ''.
The 40th day has great significance in Orthodox religion. That is the period during which soul of deceased wanders on earth. On the 40th day ascension of his soul occurs. Therefore, it 's the most important day in mourning period, when special prayers should be held on grave site of deceased. This custom originates from old Slavic pagan religion it was incorporated into Orthodox religion, during the Christianization of old Slavic nations.
As in the Roman Catholic rites, there can be symbolic mourning. During Holy Week, some temples in the Church of Cyprus draw black curtains across the icons. The services of Good Friday and Holy Saturday morning are patterned in part on the Orthodox Christian burial service, and funeral lamentations.
The European social forms are, in general, forms of Christian religious expression transferred to the greater community.
In the Roman Catholic Church, the Mass of Paul VI, adopted in 1969, allows several options for the liturgical color used in Masses for the Dead. Before the liturgical reform, black was the ordinary color for funeral Masses; in the revised use, several options are available. According to the General Instruction of the Roman Missal (§ 346d - e), violet, white, or black vestments may be worn at Offices and Masses for the dead.
Christian churches often go into mourning symbolically during the period of Lent to commemorate the sacrifice and death of Jesus. Customs vary among the denominations and include the covering or removal of statuary, icons and paintings, and use of special liturgical colors, such as violet / purple, during Lent and Holy Week.
In more formal congregations, parishioners also dress according to specific forms during Holy Week, particularly on Maundy Thursday and Good Friday, when it is common to wear black or sombre dress or, as mentioned, the liturgical color purple.
Death is not seen as the final "end '', but is seen as a turning point in the seemingly endless journey of the indestructible "atman '' or soul through innumerable bodies of animals and people. Hence, Hinduism prohibits excessive mourning or lamentation upon death, as this can hinder the passage of the departed soul towards its journey ahead: "As mourners will not help the dead in this world, therefore (the relatives) should not weep, but perform the obsequies to the best of their power. ''
Hindu mourning is described in dharma shastras. It begins immediately after the cremation of the body and ends on the morning of the thirteenth day. Traditionally the body is cremated within 24 hours after death; however, cremations are not held after sunset or before sunrise. Immediately after the death, an oil lamp is lit near the deceased, and this lamp is kept burning for three days.
Hinduism associates death with ritual impurity for the immediate blood family of the deceased, hence during these mourning days, the immediate family must not perform any religious ceremonies (except funerals), must not visit temples or other sacred places, must not serve the sages (holy men), must not give alms, must not read or recite from the sacred scriptures, nor can they attend social functions such as marriages, parties, etc. The family of the deceased is not expected to serve any visiting guests food or drink. It is customary that the visiting guests do not eat or drink in the house where the death has occurred. The family in mourning are required to bathe twice a day, eat a single simple vegetarian meal, and try to cope with their loss.
On the day on which the death has occurred, the family do not cook; hence usually close family and friends will provide food for the mourning family. White clothing (the color of purity) is the color of mourning, and many will wear white during the mourning period.
The male members of the family do not cut their hair or shave, and the female members of the family do not wash their hair until the 10th day after the death. On the morning of the 10th day, all male members of the family shave and cut their hair, and female members wash their hair. This day is called Dasai or Daswan. After "Daswan '', some vedic rituals are started. If the deceased was young and unmarried, the "Narayan Bali '' is performed by the Pandits. The Mantras of "Bhairon Paath '' are recited. This ritual is performed through the person who has given the Mukhagni (Ritual of giving fire to the dead body).
On the morning of the thirteenth day, a Śrāddha ceremony is performed. The main ceremony involves a fire sacrifice, in which offerings are given to the ancestors and to gods, to ensure the deceased has a peaceful afterlife. Pind Sammelan is performed to ensure the involvement of the departed soul with that of God. Typically after the ceremony, the family cleans and washes all the idols in the family shrine; and flowers, fruits, water and purified food are offered to the gods. Then, the family is ready to break the period of mourning and return to daily life.
In Shi'ah Islam, examples of mourning practices are held annually in the month of Muharram, i.e. the first month of Islamic Lunar calendar. This mourning is held in the commemoration of Imam Al Husayn ibn Ali, who was martyred along with his 72 companions by Yazid bin Muawiyah. Shi'ah Muslims wear black clothes and take out processions on road to mourn on the tragedy of Karbala.
Shi'ah Muslims also mourn the death of Fatima (the only daughter of Muhammad) and the Shi'ah Imams.
Mourning is observed in Islam by increased devotion, receiving visitors and condolences, and avoiding decorative clothing and jewelry.
Loved ones and relatives are to observe a three - day mourning period. Widows observe an extended mourning period (Iddah), four months and ten days long, in accordance with the Qur'an 2: 234. During this time, she is not to remarry, move from her home, or wear decorative clothing or jewelry.
Grief at the death of a beloved person is normal, and weeping for the dead is allowed in Islam. What is prohibited is to express grief by wailing ("bewailing '' refers to mourning in a loud voice), shrieking, tearing hair or clothes, breaking things, scratching faces, or uttering phrases that make a Muslim lose faith.
The Qur'an prohibits widows from engaging themselves for four lunar months and ten days after the death of their husbands. According to Qur'an:
Islamic scholars consider this directive a balance between mourning a husband 's death and protection of the widow from censure that she became interested in remarrying too soon after her husband 's death. This is also to ascertain whether or not she is pregnant.
Judaism looks upon mourning as a process by which the stricken can re-enter into society, and so provides a series of customs that make this process gradual. The first stage, observed as all the stages are by immediate relatives (parents, spouse, siblings and children) is the Shiva (literally meaning seven), which consists of the first seven days after the funeral. The second stage is the Shloshim (thirty), referring to the thirty days following the death. The period of mourning after the death of a parent lasts one year. Each stage places lighter demands and restrictions than the previous one in order to reintegrate the bereaved into normal life.
The most known and central stage is Shiva, which is a Jewish mourning practice in which people adjust their behaviour as an expression of their bereavement for the week immediately after the burial. In the West, typically, mirrors are covered and a small tear is made in an item of clothing to indicate a lack of interest in personal vanity. The bereaved dress simply and sit on the floor, short stools or boxes rather than chairs when receiving the condolences of visitors. In some cases relatives or friends take care of the bereaved 's house chores, as cooking and cleaning. English speakers use the expression "to sit shiva ''.
During the Shloshim the mourners are no longer expected to sit on the floor or be taken care of (cooking / cleaning). However, some customs still apply. There is a prohibition on getting married or attending any sort of celebrations and men refrain from shaving or cutting their hair.
Restrictions during the year of mourning include not wearing new clothes, not listening to music and not attending celebrations. In addition, the sons of the deceased recite the Kaddish prayer for the first eleven months of the year.
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how does hood rank on the scale of english speaking poets | Thomas Hood - wikipedia
Thomas Hood (23 May 1799 -- 3 May 1845) was an English poet, author and humorist, best known for poems such as "The Bridge of Sighs '' and "The Song of the Shirt ''. Hood wrote regularly for The London Magazine, the Athenaeum, and Punch. He later published a magazine largely consisting of his own works. Hood, never robust, lapsed into invalidism by the age of 41 and died at the age of 45. William Michael Rossetti in 1903 called him "the finest English poet '' between the generations of Shelley and Tennyson. Hood was the father of playwright and humourist Tom Hood (1835 -- 1874).
He was born in London to Thomas Hood and Elizabeth Sands in the Poultry (Cheapside) above his father 's bookshop. Hood 's paternal family had been Scottish farmers from the village of Errol near Dundee. The elder Hood was a partner in the business of Verner, Hood and Sharp, a member of the Associated Booksellers. Hood 's son, Tom Hood, claimed that his grandfather had been the first to open up the book trade with America and he had great success with new editions of old books.
"Next to being a citizen of the world, '' writes Thomas Hood in his Literary Reminiscences, "it must be the best thing to be born a citizen of the world 's greatest city. '' On the death of her husband in 1811, his mother moved to Islington, where Thomas Hood had a schoolmaster who appreciating his talents, "made him feel it impossible not to take an interest in learning while he seemed so interested in teaching. '' Under the care of this "decayed dominie '', he earned a few guineas -- his first literary fee -- by revising for the press a new edition of the 1788 novel Paul and Virginia.
Hood left his private schoolmaster at 14 years of age and was admitted soon after into the counting house of a friend of his family, where he "turned his stool into a Pegasus on three legs, every foot, of course, being a dactyl or a spondee. '' However, the uncongenial profession affected his health, which was never strong, and he began to study engraving. The exact nature and course of his study is unclear: various sources tell different stories. Reid emphasizes his work under his maternal uncle Robert Sands, but no deeds of apprenticeship exist and we also know from his letters that he studied with a Mr Harris. Hood 's daughter in her Memorials mentions her father 's association with the Le Keux brothers, who were successful engravers in the City.
The labour of engraving was no better for his health than the counting house had been, and Hood was sent to his father 's relations at Dundee, Scotland. There he stayed in the house of his maternal aunt, Jean Keay, for some months and then, on falling out with her, moved on to the boarding house of one of her friends, Mrs Butterworth, where he lived for the rest of his time in Scotland. In Dundee, Hood made a number of close friends with whom he continued to correspond for many years. He led a healthy outdoor life but also became a wide and indiscriminate reader. During his time there, Hood began seriously to write poetry and appeared in print for the first time, with a letter to the editor of the Dundee Advertiser.
Before long Hood was contributing humorous and poetical pieces to provincial newspapers and magazines. As a proof of his literary vocation, he would write out his poems in printed characters, believing that this process best enabled him to understand his own peculiarities and faults, and probably unaware that Samuel Taylor Coleridge had recommended some such method of criticism when he said he thought, "Print settles it. '' On his return to London in 1818 he applied himself to engraving, which enabled him later to illustrate his various humours and fancies.
In 1821, John Scott, editor of The London Magazine, was killed in a duel, and the periodical passed into the hands of some friends of Hood, who proposed to make him sub-editor. This post at once introduced him to the literary society of the time. In becoming an associate of John Hamilton Reynolds, Charles Lamb, Henry Cary, Thomas de Quincey, Allan Cunningham, Bryan Procter, Serjeant Talfourd, Hartley Coleridge, the peasant - poet John Clare and other contributors, he gradually developed his own powers.
Hood married in May 1824, and Odes and Addresses -- his first volume -- was written in conjunction with his brother - in - law J.H. Reynolds, a friend of John Keats. Coleridge wrote to Lamb averring that the book must be the latter 's work. Also from this period are The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies (1827) and a dramatic romance, Lamia, published later. The Plea was a book of serious verse, but Hood was known as a humorist and the book was ignored almost entirely.
Hood was fond of practical jokes, which he was said to have enjoyed perpetrating on members of his family. In the Memorials there is a story of Hood instructing his wife to purchase some fish for the evening meal from a woman who regularly came to the door selling her husband 's catch. But he warns her to watch for plaice that "has any appearance of red or orange spots, as they are a sure sign of an advanced stage of decomposition. '' Mrs Hood refused to purchase the fish - seller 's plaice, exclaiming, "My good woman... I could not think of buying any plaice with those very unpleasant red spots! '' The fish - seller was amazed at such ignorance of what plaice look like.
The series of the Comic Annual, dating from 1830, was a kind of publication popular at that time, which Hood undertook and continued almost unassisted for several years. Under that title he treated all the leading events of the day in caricature, without personal malice, and with an undercurrent of sympathy. Readers were also treated to an incessant use of puns, of which Hood had written in his own vindication, "However critics may take offence, / A double meaning has double sense '', but as he gained experience as a writer, his diction became simpler.
In another annual called the Gem appeared the verse story of Eugene Aram. Hood started a magazine in his own name, which was mainly sustained by his own activity. He conducted the work from a sick - bed from which he never rose, and there also composed well - known poems such as "The Song of the Shirt '', which appeared anonymously in the Christmas number of Punch, 1843 and was immediately reprinted in The Times and other newspapers across Europe. It was dramatised by Mark Lemon as The Sempstress, printed on broadsheets and cotton handkerchiefs, and was highly praised by many of the literary establishment, including Charles Dickens. Likewise "The Bridge of Sighs '' and "The Song of the Labourer '', which were also translated into German by Ferdinand Freiligrath. These are plain, solemn pictures of conditions of life, which appeared shortly before Hood 's own death in May 1845.
Hood was associated with the Athenaeum, started in 1828 by James Silk Buckingham, and he was a regular contributor for the rest of his life. Prolonged illness brought on straitened circumstances. Application was made by a number of Hood 's friends to Sir Robert Peel to place Hood 's name on the civil pension list with which the British state rewarded literary men. Peel was known to be an admirer of Hood 's work and in the last few months of Hood 's life he gave Jane Hood the sum of £ 100 without her husband 's knowledge to alleviate the family 's debts. The pension that Peel 's government bestowed on Hood was continued to his wife and family after his death. Jane Hood, who also suffered from poor health and had expended tremendous energy tending to her husband in his last year, died only 18 months later. The pension then ceased, but Lord John Russell, grandfather of the philosopher Bertrand Russell, made arrangements for a £ 50 pension for the maintenance of Hood 's two children, Frances and Tom.
Nine years later, a monument raised by public subscription in Kensal Green Cemetery was unveiled by Richard Monckton Milnes.
Thackeray, a friend of Hood 's, gave this assessment of him: "Oh sad, marvellous picture of courage, of honesty, of patient endurance, of duty struggling against pain!... Here is one at least without guile, without pretension, without scheming, of a pure life, to his family and little modest circle of friends tenderly devoted. ''
The house where Hood died, No. 28 Finchley Road, in the St. John 's Wood area of London, now has a blue plaque.
Hood wrote humorously on many contemporary issues. One of the most important issues in his time was grave robbing and selling of corpses to anatomists (see West Port murders). On this serious and perhaps cruel issue, he wrote wryly,
Do n't go to weep upon my grave, And think that there I be. They have n't left an atom there Of my anatomie.
November in London is usually cool and overcast, and in Hood 's day subject to frequent fog and smog. In 1844 he wrote,
No sun - no moon! No morn - no noon - No dawn - no dusk - no proper time of day. No warmth, no cheerfulness, no healthful ease, No comfortable feel in any member - No shade, no shine, no butterflies, no bees, No fruits, no flowers, no leaves, no birds - November!
An example of Hood 's reflective and sentimental verse is the famous "I Remember, I Remember '', excerpted here:
I remember, I remember The house where I was born, The little window where the sun Came peeping in at morn; He never came a wink too soon Nor brought too long a day; But now, I often wish the night Had borne my breath away.
I remember, I remember The roses, red and white, The violets, and the lily - cups Those flowers made of light! The lilacs where the robin built, And where my brother set The laburnum on his birth - day, The tree is living yet!
I remember, I remember Where I used to swing, And thought the air must rush as fresh To swallows on the wing; My spirit flew in feathers then That is so heavy now, And summer pools could hardly cool The fever on my brow.
I remember, I remember The fir trees dark and high; I used to think their slender tops Were close against the sky: It was childish ignorance, But now ' tis little joy To know I 'm farther off from Heaven Than when I was a boy.
Hood 's most widely known work during his lifetime was "The Song of the Shirt '', a verse lament for a London seamstress compelled to sell shirts she had made, the proceeds of which lawfully belonged to her employer, in order to feed her malnourished and ailing child. Hood 's poem appeared in one of the first editions of Punch in 1843 and quickly became a public sensation, being turned into a popular song and inspiring social activists in defence of countless industrious labouring women living in abject poverty. An excerpt:
With fingers weary and worn, With eyelids heavy and red, A woman sat, in unwomanly rags, Plying her needle and thread -- Stitch! stitch! stitch! In poverty, hunger, and dirt, And still with a voice of dolorous pitch She sang the "Song of the Shirt. ''
"Work! work! work! While the cock is crowing aloof! And work -- work -- work, Till the stars shine through the roof! It 's Oh! to be a slave Along with the barbarous Turk, Where woman has never a soul to save, If this is Christian work! ''
The list of Hood 's separately published works is as follows:
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which economic system relies on the interaction of buyers and sellers | Market system - wikipedia
A market system is any systematic process enabling many market players to bid and ask: helping bidders and sellers interact and make deals. It is not just the price mechanism but the entire system of regulation, qualification, credentials, reputations and clearing that surrounds that mechanism and makes it operate in a social context.
Because a market system relies on the assumption that players are constantly involved and unequally enabled, a market system is distinguished specifically from a voting system where candidates seek the support of voters on a less regular basis. However, the interactions between market and voting systems are an important aspect of political economy, and some argue they are hard to differentiate, e.g. systems like cumulative voting and runoff voting involve a degree of market - like bargaining and trade - off, rather than simple statements of choice.
In economics, market forms are studied. These look at the impacts of a particular form on larger markets, rather than technical characteristics of how bidders and sellers interact.
Heavy reliance on many interacting market systems and different forms of markets is a feature of capitalism, and advocates of socialism often criticize markets and aim to substitute markets with economic planning to varying degrees. Competition is the regulatory mechanism of the market system. This article does not discuss the political impact of any particular system nor applications of a particular mechanism to any particular problem in real life. For more on specific types of real - life markets, see commodity markets, insurance markets, bond markets, energy markets, flea markets, debt markets, stock markets, online auctions, media exchange markets, real estate market, each of which is explained in its own article with features of its application, referring to market systems as such if needed. One of the most important characteristics of a market economy, also called a free enterprise economy, is the role of a limited government (citation needed).
The market itself provides a medium of exchange for the contracts and coupons and cash to seek prices relative to each other, and for those to be publicized. This publication of current prices is a key feature of market systems, and is often relevant far beyond the current groups of buyers and sellers, affecting others ' supply and demand decisions, e.g. whether to produce more of a commodity whose price is now falling. Market systems are more abstract than their application to any one use, and typically a ' system ' describes a protocol of offering or requesting things for sale. Well - known market systems that are used in many applications include:
The term ' laissez - faire ' ("let alone '') is sometimes used to describe some specific compromise between regulation and black market, resulting in the political struggle to define or exploit "free markets ''. This is not an easy matter to separate from other debates about the nature of capitalism. There is no such thing as a "free '' market other than in the sense of a black market, and most free - market advocates favor at least some form of regulated market, e.g. to prevent outright fraud, theft, and retain some degree of credibility with the larger public. This political debate is out of the scope of this article, other than to note that the "free '' market is usually a "less regulated '' market, but not qualitatively different from other regulated markets, in any society with laws, and that what opponents of "free markets '' usually seek is some kind of moral purchasing rather than pure rationing.
As this debate suggests, key debates over market systems relate to their accessibility, safety, fairness, and ability to guarantee clearance and closure of all transactions in a reasonable period of time.
The degree of trust in a political or economic authority (such as a bank or central bank) is often critical in determining the success of a market. A market system depends inherently on a stable money system to ensure that units of account and standards of deferred payment are uniform across all players - and to ensure that the balance of contracts due within that market system are accepted as a store of value, i.e. as "collateral '' of the holder of the contract, which justifies "credit '' from a lender of cash.
Banks, themselves, are often described in terms of markets, as "transducers of trust '' between lenders (who deposit money) and borrowers (who take it out again). Trust in the bank to manage this process makes more economic activity possible. However, critics say, this trust is also quite easy to abuse, and has many times proven difficult to limit or control (see business cycle), resulting in ' runs on banks ' and other such ' crises of trust ' in ' the system '.
In The Economics of Innocent Fraud, Economist John Kenneth Galbraith criticized the concept of the "market system '' as nonsensical and as a weasel word intended to replace the term "capitalism '', but which does not specify anything specific.
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all i want for christmas is you 80's | All I Want for Christmas Is You - wikipedia
"All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is a Christmas song performed by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey. She wrote and produced the song alongside Walter Afanasieff. Columbia Records released it on November 1, 1994, as the lead single from her fourth studio album and first holiday album, Merry Christmas (1994). It is an uptempo love song that includes bell chimes, heavy back - up vocals, and synthesizers.
Two music videos were commissioned for the song: the song 's primary music video features grainy home - movie - style footage of Carey, her dogs and family during the holiday season, as well as Carey dressed in a Santa suit frolicking on a snowy mountainside. Carey 's then - husband Tommy Mottola makes a cameo appearance as Santa Claus, bringing Carey a gift and leaving on a red sleigh. The second video was filmed in black and white, and features Carey dressed in 1960s style in homage to The Ronettes, alongside back up singers and female dancers.
Carey has performed "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' in numerous live television appearances and tours throughout her career. In 2010, Carey re-recorded the song for her second holiday album, Merry Christmas II You, titled "All I Want for Christmas Is You (Extra Festive) ''. Carey also re-recorded the song as a duet with Canadian singer Justin Bieber for his 2011 album Under the Mistletoe, titled "All I Want for Christmas for You (SuperFestive!) ''. The song has also been covered by many artists over the years.
In the years since its original release, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' has been critically lauded; it was once called "one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon '' in The New Yorker. It has become established as a Christmas standard and continues to surge in popularity each holiday season. The song was commercially successful, topping the charts in the Czech Republic, Hungary, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Spain while reaching number two in Australia, Japan, and the United Kingdom, and the top 10 in several other countries. With global sales of over 16 million copies, the song remains Carey 's biggest international success and is the 11th best - selling single of all time. As of 2017, the song was reported to have earned $60 million in royalties.
Following the success of the singer 's 1993 career best - selling album Music Box, Carey and her management at Columbia Records began devising ideas and strategies for subsequent projects. Carey 's then - husband, Tommy Mottola, head of Columbia 's parent label Sony Music Entertainment, began mapping out possible follow ups for the singer during the pinnacle years of her career. During initial discussions regarding the thought of doing a Christmas - themed album with Carey and her writing partner of over four years, Walter Afanasieff, fear arose that it was not commercially expedient or wise to release holiday music at the peak of one 's career, as it was more often equated with a release towards the end of a musician 's waning career.
Afanasieff recalled his sentiments during initial discussions for a holiday record: "Back then, you did n't have a lot of artists with Christmas albums. It was n't a known science at all back then, and there was nobody who did new, big Christmas songs. So we were going to release it as kind of an everyday, ' Hey, you know, we 're putting out a Christmas album. No big deal. ' '' Ultimately, with Mottola 's persistence and Carey 's initiative to be a "risk - taker '' as Afanasieff put it, the song and its parent album, Merry Christmas, began taking form in early - mid 1994. Recording for the album began in June, while the Carey - Afanasieff songwriting duo penned "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' in late August.
Often referencing herself a festive person and demonstrating a usual penchant for her love of all things Christmas, Carey began decorating the home she shared with Mottola in upstate New York (which also came equipped with a personal recording studio) with Christmas ornaments and other holiday - inspired trinkets. In doing so, Carey felt she could capture the essence and spirit of what she was singing and make her vocal performance and delivery more emotive and authentic. The songwriting pair carved out the chords, structure and melody for the song in just a quarter of an hour: "It 's definitely not ' Swan Lake, ' ' admits Afanasieff. ' But that 's why it 's so popular -- because it 's so simple and palatable! ''.
At first, Afanasieff admitted that he was puzzled and "blanched '' as to where Carey wanted to take the melody and vocal scales, though she was "adamant '' in her direction for the song. In an interview with Billboard, Afanasieff described the type of relationship he and Carey shared in the studio and as songwriters for the song and in general:
It was always the same sort of system with us. We would write the nucleus of the song, the melody primary music, and then some of the words were there as we finished writing it. I started playing some rock ' n ' roll piano and started boogie woogie - ing my left hand, and that inspired Mariah to come up with the melodic (Sings.) ' I do n't want a lot for Christmas. ' And then we started singing and playing around with this rock ' n ' roll boogie song, which immediately came out to be the nucleus of what would end up being ' All I Want For Christmas Is You. ' That one went very quickly: It was an easier song to write than some of the other ones. It was very formulaic, not a lot of chord changes. I tried to make it a little more unique, putting in some special chords that you really do n't hear a lot of, which made it unique and special.
Then for the next week or two Mariah would call me and say, ' What do you think about this bit? ' We would talk a little bit until she got the lyrics all nicely coordinated and done. And then we just waited until the sessions began, which were in the summer of ' 94 where we got together in New York and started recording. And that 's when we first hear her at the microphone singing, and the rest is history.
Afanasieff flew back to California where he finished the song 's programming and production. Originally, he had a live band play the drums and other instruments with the thought of giving it a more raw and affective sound. He was unhappy with the results of the recording and subsequently scrapped the effort and used his original, personal arrangement and programmed all the instruments heard on the song (with the exception of the background vocals) including the piano, effects, drums and triangle. While Carey continued writing material in her rented home in The Hamptons, Afanasieff completed the song 's programming and awaited to rendezvous with her a final time in order to layer and harmonize the background vocals.
In touching on several aspects of what excited her to record and release a Christmas album, Carey went into detail on what writing and recording the song and album meant for her: "I 'm a very festive person and I love the holidays. I 've sung Christmas songs since I was a little girl. I used to go Christmas caroling. When it came to the album, we had to have a nice balance between standard Christian hymns and fun songs. It was definitely a priority for me to write at least a few new songs, but for the most part people really want to hear the standards at Christmas time, no matter how good a new song is. ''
"All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is an uptempo song, composed with pop, soul, R&B, gospel, dance - pop and rhythmic adult contemporary influences and stylings. By early August, Carey already had two original songs written alongside Afanasieff; the "sad and balld - y '' "Miss You Most (At Christmas Time) '' and the "Gospel - tinged and religious '' "Jesus Born on This Day ''. The third and final original song the pair planned to write was to be centered and inspired and in the vein of a "Phil Spector, old rock ' n roll, sixties - sounding Christmas song ''.
The song begins with a "sparking '' bit of percussion "that resembles an antique music box or a whimsical snow globe. '' After Carey 's a cappella style vocal introduction, the song introduces other seasonal percussive signifiers including; celebratory church - like bells, cheerful sleigh bells, and "an underlying rhythmic beat that sounds like the loping pace of a horse or reindeer. These sounds echo religious and secular musical touchstones, without veering blatantly too much in either direction, and give the song an upbeat, joyous tone. ''
In an interview in 1994, Carey described the song as "fun '', and continued: "It 's very traditional, old - fashioned Christmas. It 's very retro, kind of ' 60s. '' Afanasieff went further in breaking down the song 's musical elements: "A lush bed of keyboards, reminiscent of a small - scale Wall of Sound, cushions the song 's cheery rhythms, while a soulful vocal chorus adds robust oohs, tension - creating counter-melodies, and festive harmonies. Most notably, however, the song 's jaunty piano chords and melody keep the song merrily bouncing along. ''
Lyrically, the describes the yearning desire to be with a loved one for Christmas, regardless of whether they have to forgo the usual commercial aspect of the holiday season such as ornamental lights, trees, snow and presents. The song incorporates various instruments, including piano, drums, violin, oboe, flute, bell chimes, bass effect, and cowbells. The song layers background vocals throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge.
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is set in common time and in the key of G major. Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of G to the high note of G. Carey wrote the song 's lyrics and melody, while Afanasieff arranged and produced the piece with synthetically created computerized equipment.
Slate 's Ragusea counts "at least 13 distinct chords at work, resulting in a sumptuously chromatic melody. The song also includes what I consider the most Christmassy chord of all -- a minor subdominant, or ' iv, ' chord with an added 6, under the words ' underneath the Christmas tree, ' among other places. (You might also analyze it as a half - diminished ' ii ' 7th chord, but either interpretation seems accurate). '' According to Roch Parisien from AllMusic, the song contains "The Beach Boys - style harmonies, jangling bells, and a sleigh - ride pace, injecting one of the few bits of exuberant fun in this otherwise vanilla set. ''
Critics have noted the song 's 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s influences which, in conjunction with Carey 's voice and its simple melody, heralded its recipe for success. In discussing the song 's chord progression and stylistic approaches, Slate 's Adam Ragusea hailed the song as "the only Christmas song written in the last half - century worthy of inclusion in the Great American Songbook. '' The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski attributes the song 's enduring appeal to its ambiguity in being able to pin it down as belonging to a specific era.
Critics also noted the song a tad reminiscent of the works of Judy Garland and Nat King Cole, while also describing it as hearkening back to "' 60s and ' 70s Motown covers of prewar Christmas classics, such as The Jackson 5 's (and) Stevie Wonder ''. Slate 's Ragusea conceded that "All I Want For Christmas Is You '' "sounds like it could have been written in the ' 40s and locked in a Brill Building safe. '' In a piece on the song in Vogue, a writer felt the song 's lyrics helped solidify its status over two decades later: "those lyrics could have been sung by Frank Sinatra -- well, maybe not Frank, but another singer back then. I think that 's what gives it that timeless, classic quality. ''
"All I Want for Christmas Is You '' was lauded by music critics. Parisien called the song "a year - long banger '', complimenting its instrumentation and melody. Steve Morse, editor of The Boston Globe, wrote that Carey sang with a lot of soul. According to Barry Schwartz from Stylus Magazine, "to say this song is an instant classic somehow does n't capture its amazingicity; it 's a modern standard: joyous, exhilarating, loud, with even a hint of longing. '' Schwartz praised the song 's lyrics as well, describing them as "beautifully phrased, '' and calling Carey 's voice "gorgeous '' and "sincere. ''
Kyle Anderson from MTV labeled the track "a majestic anthem full of chimes, sleigh bells, doo - wop flourishes, sweeping strings and one of the most dynamic and clean vocal performances of Carey 's career ''. While reviewing the 2009 remix version, Becky Bain from Idolator called the song a "timeless classic '' and wrote, "We love the original song to pieces -- we blast it while decorating our Christmas tree and lighting our Menorah. ''
Shona Craven of Scotland 's The Herald, said, "(it 's) a song of optimism and joy that maybe, just maybe, hints at the real meaning of Christmas. '' Additionally, she felt the main reason it was so successful is the subject "you '' in the lyrics, explaining, "Perhaps what makes the song such a huge hit is the fact that it 's for absolutely everyone. '' Craven opened her review with a bold statement: "Bing Crosby may well be turning in his grave, but no child of the 1980s will be surprised to see Mariah Carey 's sublime All I Want For Christmas Is You bounding up the charts after being named the nation 's top festive song. ''
In his review for Carey 's Merry Christmas II You, Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun - Times called the song "a simple, well - crafted chestnut and one of the last great additions to the Christmas pop canon ''. In a 2006 retrospective look at Carey 's career, Sasha Frere - Jones of The New Yorker said, the "charming '' song was one of Carey 's biggest accomplishments, calling it "one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon ''. Dan Hancox, editor of The National, quoted and agreed with Jones ' statement, calling the song "perfection ''.
In the United States, in the first week of January 1995, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary and at No. 12 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart. The song placed on these two charts again in December 1995 and in December 1996. The song was ineligible for inclusion on the Billboard Hot 100 during its original release, because it was not released commercially as a single. This rule lapsed in 1998, however, allowing the song to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 (peaking at No. 83 in January 2000). The song topped the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart in December 2005, but it was unable to attain a new peak on the Billboard Hot 100 chart because it was considered a recurrent single and was thus ineligible for chart re-entry.
Every December from 2005 to 2008, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 Re-currents chart. In 2012, after the recurrent rule was revised to allow all songs in the top 50 onto the Billboard Hot 100 chart, the single re-entered the chart at No. 29 and peaked at number 21 for the week ending January 5, 2013. In December 2017, the song peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100, making it its highest peak since its original release. As of December 16, 2017, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' topped the Billboard Holiday 100 chart for a record - extending 27th cumulative week. No other song has spent more than two weeks at No. 1 on the Holiday 100 since the chart 's launch in 2011.
It has become the first holiday ringtone to be certified double - platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Additionally, of songs recorded before the year 2000, it is the best - selling digital single by a woman, as well as the overall best - selling holiday digital single. As of November 2016, Nielsen SoundScan estimated total sales of the digital track at 3,200,000 downloads.
In the United Kingdom, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 5 during the week of December 10, 1994. The following week, the song peaked at number 2, staying there for the final three weeks of December (held out of the coveted "Christmas No. 1 '' honor by East 17 's "Stay Another Day ''). As of January 27, 2017, it had spent seventy - eight weeks on the UK Singles Chart. As of December 19, 2013, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' has sold one million copies in the UK. On December 11, 2015, it was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipment of 1.2 million units (including streams) and remains Carey 's best - selling single in the UK. In 2010, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' was named the No. 1 holiday song of the decade in the United Kingdom. The song peaked at number 2 in the United Kingdom for a second time in December 2017 due to strong downloads and streaming.
The song peaked at No. 2 on the Australian Singles Chart and was certified triple - platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of over 210,000 units. In Denmark, it peaked at No. 4, staying in the chart for sixteen weeks and being certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' became Carey 's best - selling single in Japan. It was used as the theme song to the popular drama 29 - sai no Christmas (29 才 の クリスマス, lit. "Christmas in 29 Years, 29th Christmas ''), and was titled Koibito - tachi no Christmas (恋人 たち の クリスマス, lit. "Lovers ' Christmas ''). The single peaked at No. 2 for two weeks, blocked from the top spot by "Tomorrow Never Knows '' and "Everybody Goes '', both released by rock band Mr. Children. It sold in excess of 1.1 million units in Japan. Due to strong sales and airplay, the song re-charted in Japan in 2010, peaking at No. 6 on the Japan Hot 100. The single has been certified the Million award by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) on two different formats (compact disc and ringtone), in 1994 and 2008, respectively.
When the song was first released as a single in 1994, no remixes were commissioned except for the instrumental version; however, this version was not released on the single that year. Carey re-released the song commercially in Japan in 2000, with a new remix known as the So So Def remix. The remix contains new vocals and is played over a harder, more urban beat that contains a sample of Afrika Bambaataa & the Soulsonic Force 's "Planet Rock; '' it features guest vocals by Jermaine Dupri and Bow Wow. The remix appears on Carey 's compilation album Greatest Hits (2001) as a bonus track.
In 2009, a remix produced by Carey and Low Sunday, called "Mariah 's New Dance Mix '', was released. The mix laid the original 1994 vocals over new electronic instrumentation. The remix garnered a positive response. MTV 's Kyle Anderson wrote that "it 's difficult to improve perfection, '' but that the remix "does dress up the song in a disco thump that should make your office Christmas party 28 percent funkier than it was last year. '' Idolator 's Becky Bain praised the song 's catchiness.
In 2010, Carey re-recorded the song for her thirteenth studio and second holiday album, Merry Christmas II You. Titled "All I Want for Christmas Is You (Extra Festive) '', the new version featured re-recorded vocals, softer bell ringing and stronger drumming, and an orchestral introduction that replaced the slow vocal introduction. Steven J. Horowitz from Rap - Up wrote that the new version "sound (ed) just as enjoyable as it did in 1994. ''
While the song was praised, it drew criticism for being too similar to the original. Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun - Times wrote that the new version "just seems to add a few brassy backup singers to the exact same arrangement. '' Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone agreed, writing that it was "hard to figure out what 's ' extra festive ' '' about the new version. Dan Hancox, editor of The National, also felt the new version was unnecessary. In 2011, Justin Bieber also recorded a version of the song as a duet with Carey on his holiday album, Under the Mistletoe.
Carey has performed the song during concerts as well as live televised performances.
There are three music videos for "All I Want for Christmas Is You ''. The first, primary video was shot in the style of a home movie using Super-8mm film; it was directed and filmed by Carey during the Christmas season of 1993. The video begins with Carey placing holiday ornaments on a Christmas tree and frolicking through the snowy mountainside. Outdoor scenes were shot at the Fairy Tale Forest in New Jersey, where Carey 's then - husband Tommy Mottola made a cameo appearance as Santa Claus. It continues with scenes of Carey getting ready for her album cover photo shoot and spending time with her dog Jack. It concludes with Santa Claus leaving Carey with a bag of presents and waving goodbye. It has more than 400 million views on YouTube as of December 27, 2017. In the song 's alternate video, inspired by The Ronettes, Carey dances in a 1960s - influenced studio surrounded by go -- go dancers. For a 1960s look, the video was filmed in black and white, with Carey in white boots and teased up hair. This video was also directed by Carey. There are two edits to this version of the video.
Another video was created for the So So Def remix, but it does not feature Carey or the hip - hop musicians that perform in the song. Instead, the video is animated and based on a scene in the video from Carey 's "Heartbreaker '' (1999). It features cartoon cameo appearances by Carey, Jermaine Dupri, Bow Wow, Luis Miguel (Carey 's boyfriend at the time), Carey 's dog Jack, and Santa Claus. Kris Kringle is credited with directing the music video. Since 2009, the song has been included in a music video accompanying ESPN 's (and their sister station, ABC) Christmas Day coverage of the NBA. The music video for the duet featuring Bieber was filmed in Macy 's department store in New York City, and features Bieber shopping with his friends whilst Carey is seen singing in the background.
"All I Want for Christmas Is You '' charts every holiday season since its original release. In December 2017, the song peaked at # 9 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it the first holiday song to enter Hot 100 's Top 10 since Kenny G 's cover of "Auld Lang Syne '' in January 2000. It became Carey 's 28th Top 10 Hit in the Hot 100. With global sales of over 16 million copies, the song remains Carey 's biggest international success and the 11th best selling single of all time. As of 2017, the song was reported to have earned $60 million in royalties.
The Daily Telegraph hailed "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' as the most popular and most played Christmas song of the decade in the United Kingdom. Rolling Stone ranked it fourth on its Greatest Rock and Roll Christmas Songs list, calling it a "holiday standard. '' Due to the song 's lasting impact, Carey was dubbed the "Queen of Christmas '', a title she 's hesitant to accept. "I do n't accept that name because I feel like it 's (too much), '' she said. "I humbly thank them and I do have an extraordinary love for the holiday season, and it is the best time of the year. ''
Carey released a children 's book based on "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' on November 10, 2015, which went on to sell over 750,000 copies. She later released an animated family film based on the book and song on November 14, 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Works cited
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what do winners of the great british bake off | The Great British Bake Off - Wikipedia
The Great British Bake Off (often referred to as Bake Off or GBBO) is a British television baking competition produced by Love Productions, in which a group of amateur bakers compete against each other in a series of rounds, attempting to impress a group of judges with their baking skills, with a contestant being eliminated in each round, with the winner being selected from the remaining contestants that make it to the finals. The show 's first episode was aired on 17 August 2010, with its first four series broadcast on BBC Two, until its growing popularity led the BBC to move it to BBC One for the next three series. After its seventh series, Love Productions signed a three - year deal with Channel 4 to produce the show for the broadcaster.
The programme was originally presented by Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc, with Mary Berry and Paul Hollywood the judges. The current presenters are Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig with Hollywood and Prue Leith on the judging panel. In chronological order, the winners are Edd Kimber, Joanne Wheatley, John Whaite, Frances Quinn, Nancy Birtwhistle, Nadiya Hussain, Candice Brown and Sophie Faldo.
The show has become a significant part of British culture and is credited with reinvigorating interest in baking throughout the United Kingdom, with many of its participants, including winners, having gone on to start a career based on bakery, while the BAFTA award - winning programme has spawned a number of specials and spin - off shows -- a celebrity charity series in aid of Sport Relief or Comic Relief or Stand Up To Cancer; Junior Bake Off for young children (broadcast on the CBBC channel); after - show series An Extra Slice; and Bake Off: The Professionals for teams of pastry chefs. The show 's format was used as the basis for two BBC Two series, The Great British Sewing Bee and The Great Pottery Throw Down, and, in addition to the show being shown in other countries (in the United States and Canada, the show is referred to as The Great British Baking Show), the format has also been sold to many countries around the world where local versions of the show are produced.
The idea of the baking competition was conceived by producer Anna Beattie after she spoke to a friend who had seen ' bake - offs ' in America. Beattie was also inspired by the classic English village fête baking competitions; she said: "I loved that idea of village fetes and an old - fashioned baking competition with people who only wanted to bake a good cake. '' However, Beattie failed to interest any channel in the idea for four years. In early 2009, they pitched the idea to Janice Hadlow, the then controller of BBC Two. The pitch was successful, and Hadlow and the Commissioning Editor Charlotte Moore commissioned the programme, which was then developed over the next six months. The development team first selected Mary Berry as a judge, and following an audition Paul Hollywood was also appointed. Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc were approached to be presenters of the show. Reproducing the surroundings of the English village fête, the series is filmed in bunting - draped marquees in scenic gardens.
On 17 August 2010, the first episode of The Great British Bake Off was shown on BBC Two. It stayed on BBC Two for four years, grew in popularity and become the most popular programme on that channel. In its fifth series it was moved to BBC One where it stayed for three years. It was the most - watched programme on British television in 2015 and 2016. Following extended negotiations, Love Productions announced that the seventh series of the show would be the last broadcast by the BBC. On 12 September 2016, Love agreed to a three - year deal to broadcast the show on Channel 4. Giedroyc and Perkins subsequently announced that they would not be returning when the show moves to its new network. On 22 September, Berry announced that she would also be leaving the show when it moved to Channel 4, while Hollywood later announced he would stay. In March 2017, it was announced that Prue Leith would join Hollywood as judge, while Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig would take over as presenters.
The programme operates on a weekly elimination process to find the best all - around baker from the contestants, who are all amateurs. The applicants to the show are assessed by a researcher, followed by an audition in London with two of their bakes. They then undergo a screen test and an interview with a producer. A second audition involves the applicants baking two recipes for the judges in front of the cameras. Ten contestants were chosen for the first series, twelve for the following two series, thirteen for the fourth, and back to twelve from series five onwards.
In each episode, the amateur bakers are given three challenges: a signature bake, a technical challenge, and a show - stopper. The three challenges take place over two days, and the filming takes up to 16 hours a day. The contestants are assessed by the judges who then choose a "Star Baker '' for the week (introduced in series 2), and a contestant is also eliminated. In the final round, three bakers are left and a winner is chosen from the three.
In the first series, the location of the cast and crew moves from town to town each week, but starting from the second series, the competition is held in one location in a specially constructed marquee. Interspersed in the programme are the background of the contestants as well as video vignettes on the history of baking. What each baker intends to bake during a particular challenge is illustrated using animated graphics. These graphics have been created by illustrator Tom Hovey since the show 's inception in 2010.
Series 1 of The Great British Bake Off saw ten home bakers take part in a bake - off to test their baking skills as they battled to be crowned the Great British Bake Off 's best amateur baker. Each week the nationwide tour saw the bakers put through three challenges in a particular discipline. The rounds took place in various locations across the UK, with the final round being held at Fulham Palace, London.
The three finalists were Ruth Clemens, Miranda Gore Browne, and Edd Kimber. On 21 September 2010, Edd Kimber was crowned the best amateur baker.
The number of amateur baker contestants increased to twelve for the second series. Unlike Series 1, this year The Great British Bake Off stayed in one location -- Valentines Mansion, a 17th - century mansion house in Redbridge, London.
All the Series 2 finalists were female: Holly Bell, Mary - Anne Boermans, and the winning contestant Joanne Wheatley.
A third series of The Great British Bake Off began on 14 August 2012. The series was filmed at Harptree Court in East Harptree, Somerset.
In contrast to Season 2, there was an all - male final. The finalists were Brendan Lynch, James Morton and John Whaite, who won the final in a surprise result.
The fourth series of The Great British Bake Off started on 20 August 2013 on BBC Two. The series was again filmed at Harptree Court in East Harptree, Somerset. The all - female final was won by Frances Quinn, with Ruby Tandoh and Kimberley Wilson as runners up.
In the U.S., the fourth series was broadcast as season 2 on PBS.
The fifth series of The Great British Bake Off began airing on 6 August 2014 on BBC One. This series was filmed at Welford Park in Berkshire. There were twelve bakers taking part. Mary Berry and Paul Hollywood returned as judges, whilst Sue Perkins and Mel Giedroyc continued to present the series. Richard Burr was awarded the largest number of star baker designations of any series so far, but was beaten by Nancy Birtwhistle in the final.
A spin - off show The Great British Bake Off: An Extra Slice, hosted by comedian Jo Brand on BBC Two, was also launched as a companion series this year. Each episode was broadcast two days after the main show but later moved to the same night. The show includes interviews with eliminated contestants.
In the U.S., the fifth series was broadcast as season 1 on PBS.
The sixth series began on 5 August 2015 on BBC One, again from Welford Park in Berkshire. Spin - off show The Great British Bake Off: An Extra Slice returned for a second series, with Jo Brand as host. This series was won by Nadiya Hussain, with Ian Cumming and Tamal Ray as runners up.
In the U.S., the sixth series was broadcast as season 3 on PBS.
The seventh series began on 24 August 2016 on BBC One, once again from Welford Park in Berkshire, a later than usual start following the BBC 's coverage of the Olympic Games. This series was won by Candice Brown, with Jane Beedle and Andrew Smyth as runners up.
In the U.S., the seventh series was broadcast as season 4 on PBS.
The eighth series of The Great British Bake Off began airing on 29 August 2017. This is the first series of The Great British Bake Off to be broadcast on Channel 4 following its move from the BBC. The series features new hosts Noel Fielding and Sandi Toksvig, and new judge Prue Leith along with returning judge Paul Hollywood. This series was won by Sophie Faldo, with Kate Lyon and Steven Carter - Bailey finishing as runners - up.
As of the sixth series, there have been a number of incomplete bakes.
The early reviews for the first series were mixed. Lucy Mangan of The Guardian wondered if "competitive baking (is) a contradiction in terms '' and found the proceedings humourless. Iain Hollingshead of The Daily Telegraph was scathing, describing the presenters as "annoying '', the judge Paul Hollywood as looking "sinister without being interesting '', and that the audience would be so bored that they "could certainly forgive the cameraman if he were to commit hara - kiri in a giant pool of egg and flour. ''
However, reviews from the later series were more positive. Andrew Collins of The Guardian called it "the nicest show on television '' and judged it the best TV programme of 2012. Rachel Ward of The Daily Telegraph thought the programme "had just the right consistency of mouth - watering morsels, good humour, and fascinating history '', while Tom Sutcliffe of The Independent considered the contest "perfectly baked ''.
Bake Off was moved to Channel 4 in 2017, and reviews of the programme on the channel were largely positive, although a few felt that it did not compare well to the BBC version. Mark Lawson of The Guardian described the programme on Channel 4 as "both exactly the same but also just subtly different enough '', and that "only someone desperate to dislike the re-plated show could argued that (it) has soured, spoiled or binned its recipe ''. Michael Hogan of The Telegraph thought that "Mary, Mel and Sue might be gone but the show 's recipe remains as winning as ever. The four Cs -- chemistry, camaraderie, comedy, cakes -- were all present and correct. '' Anna Leszkiewicz of the New Statesman however considered that while the format had been left largely unchanged and the contestants "irresistibly likeable '', "every single change to the show has been for the worse ''.
The show has become a significant part of British culture and is credited with spurring an interest in home baking, with supermarkets and department stores in the UK reporting sharp rises in sales of baking ingredients and accessories. It was also credited with reviving the Women 's Institute, whose membership reached its highest level since the 1970s. The show also boosted the sales of bakery books and the number of baking clubs, and independent bakeries also showed an increase. According to one analyst, more than three - fifths of adults have baked at home at least once in 2013 compared with only a third in 2011.
The first series of The Great British Bake Off premiered in August 2010 with moderate ratings of just over 2 million viewers for its first episode. This was enough to place it in BBC Two 's top ten for that week, and over the series the audience grew to over three million, with the semi-final and final both achieving first place in BBC Two 's weekly ratings. During the second series, the ratings gradually increased, and it became a surprise hit with nearly 4 million watching each episode. Week two was the last time that the show was out - rated by another BBC Two programme in the same week (it came second to the drama Page Eight); from then until the show 's move to BBC One, every competition episode would be the channel 's number one rated programme of the week. By its final episode it had averaged 4.56 million viewers, peaking at 5.1 million in its last 15 minutes.
The ratings continued to strengthen in the third series, and the show began to beat its competition in its timeslot. The final of the series where John Whaite was crowned the winner saw its highest rating yet, with an average of 6.5 million viewers that peaked at 7.2 million, which made it the second highest - rated BBC Two - originated show after Top Gear since at least 2006. The fourth series achieved some of the highest ratings seen on BBC Two. The viewer count for its premiere episode was more than two million higher than that of the previous series, while the final episode was seen by 9.1 million viewers at its peak, more than twice the number of viewers on BBC One and ITV. The final episode is the most - watched show on BBC Two since the present ratings system was introduced in 2002, beating the previous record set by Top Gear. As a result of its high ratings, the show was moved to BBC One.
After its move to BBC One, the opening episode was watched by over 7 million viewers according to overnight figures, beating the figure of 5.6 million for the opening episode of the previous year. the Bingate controversy surrounding episode four helped the show gain its biggest ever audience of 10.3 million viewers, with 2 million people who watched it on BBC iPlayer. The final of the show gained an overnight viewing figure of 12.29 million, then the highest viewing figure of the year for a non-sporting event on UK TV. In the following year, the top ten ratings for 2015 was also dominated by The Great British Bake Off, with seven of the year 's ten most - watched television programmes being episodes of the show, topped by the final episode with 15.05 million viewers. In the last series on the BBC in 2016, nine of the top ten most - watched programmes of the year were episodes of the show, with 16.03 million viewers watching the finale.
The first series broadcast by Channel 4 opened with average viewing figures of 5.8 million, rising to 6.5 million to include those watching on Channel 4 + 1, and 9.46 million for the 7 - day rating. Although the overnight figure was the lowest for an opening episode since 2013, it was Channel 4 's biggest audience since the Opening Ceremony of the 2012 Paralympics. This series attracted an average audience of 9 million viewers on Channel 4.
In September 2012, production company Love Productions was sanctioned by the BBC for product placement of Smeg fridges. The issue came to light after a viewer wrote to the Radio Times complaining of "blatant product promotion ''. After an investigation, the BBC said Love Production 's loan agreement with Smeg did not meet editorial guidelines and was being revised for the third series, and that appropriate retrospective hire payments would be made. The BBC asked Smeg to remove a notice from its website promoting its association with the show, which it has since done.
During the fourth series, there were accusations of favouritism towards female contestants after the last man Glenn Cosby was eliminated from the show; however, similar claims were not made the previous year over the all - male final, or even the year before, when there was also an all - female quarter - final. The fourth series also suffered allegations of Paul Hollywood 's favouritism towards Ruby Tandoh, and personal attacks on Tandoh by various people including the chef Raymond Blanc. Both Paul Hollywood and Ruby Tandoh denied the accusation.
In the fourth episode of the fifth series, there was controversy around the elimination of contestant Iain Watters. During the final showstopper round contestants were tasked with producing a Baked Alaska. Iain 's ice cream was shown as having not set and in a show of frustration he threw his bake in the bin. The editing of the show suggested that another contestant, Diana Beard, had caused the failure by removing the ice cream from a freezer, and the perceived "sabotage '' resulted in a uproar on social media networks. However, unseen footage broadcast in the accompanying programme An Extra Slice shows Luis holding the large floor freezer that contained Iain 's ice cream open as he piped the sides of his own baked Alaska, while Mel warns him to pipe quickly and close the freezer. Later in the episode, when Iain removes his ice cream to begin the next step of his dish, it is still quite soft, indicating it went into the freezer he shared with Diana without being completely frozen. Various members of the cast posted comments in support of Diana and a BBC spokesman later issued a statement that "Diana removing Iain 's ice cream from the freezer for less than a minute was in no way responsible for Iain 's departure. ''
More than 800 complaints were lodged with the BBC over the incident and some also complained to the communication watchdog Ofcom.
A number of viewers complained to the BBC feedback show Points of View in the fifth series about the "constant smutty remarks '' from the presenters Mel and Sue. This series was seen as having more innuendos than previous ones; some reviewers noted the "extra pinch of saucy spice '' and "the increasingly filthy - minded hosts Mel Giedroyc and Sue Perkins '', while the Daily Mail argued that the "smutty '' innuendos made the show no longer fit for family entertainment. The series 3 winner John Whaite however argued that innuendo is part of what made the show a success, whilst judge Paul Hollywood described the innuendos as banter in the spirit of the Carry On films and is a part of British culture, a view shared by others.
The success of The Great British Bake Off led to the BBC commissioning many other series closely following the format from Love Productions for example The Great British Sewing Bee and The Great Pottery Throw Down. However the 2014 series Hair using the same format was produced in house by the BBC, Love Productions responded by making preparations to sue the BBC for infringing their copyright. Although the matter was kept quiet, with the BBC settling out of court and compensating Love Productions, the matter soured relations between the BBC and Love Productions. In September 2016, it was announced that the BBC had lost the broadcast rights of the show to Channel 4. Channel 4 offered £ 25 million for the show outbidding the £ 15 million offered by the BBC. In January 2017 the BBC waived its rights to keep the program off the air until 2018, and wished the programme "well for the future ''.
On 31 October 2017, judge Prue Leith accidentally revealed the winner of Series 8 on Twitter twelve hours before the finale was due to air. This caused uproar among many fans of the show. She quickly deleted the tweet and apologised to the fans who saw the tweet.
The Great British Bake Off was nominated for a Rose d'Or in the Lifestyle section of the 2012 competition and won. The programme has been nominated a number of times in various categories for the BAFTA awards and won in 2012, 2013, and 2016. It also won two 2015 National Television Award for Skills Challenge Show.
The UK version of The Great British Bake Off is broadcast in many countries and it has been sold to 196 territories as of 2015. The format has also been sold to 20 territories by 2015, making it the third most successful BBC format after Dancing with the Stars (Strictly Come Dancing) and The Weakest Link. Many of these shows have been successful. The Junior Bake Off format has also been sold to Thailand.
Beginning in 2014, the US broadcaster PBS has aired several series of the show under the name The Great British Baking Show. The change of name was necessary due to the fact that "Bake - Off '' is a registered trademark of Pillsbury in the United States. The fifth series was broadcast as Season 1 in Winter 2014 -- 2015; the fourth series was then broadcast as Season 2 in Fall 2015, the sixth series was broadcast as Season 3 in Summer 2016, and the seventh series was broadcast as Season 4 in Summer 2017.
The CBC began broadcasting The Great British Bake Off in Canada in August 2016, starting with the sixth series and also with the Great British Baking Show title. The seventh series aired the year after.
Current and upcoming versions include:
Legend: Airing or in production No longer airing
Episode viewing figures from BARB.
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mexico city is in which state of mexico | Mexico City - Wikipedia
Mexico City, or the City of Mexico (Spanish: Ciudad de México, American Spanish: (sjuˈða (ð) ðe ˈmehiko) (listen); abbreviated as CDMX), is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas. It is located in the Valley of Mexico (Valle de México), a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres (7,350 ft). The city consists of sixteen municipalities.
The 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres (573 sq mi). According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the Greater Mexico City population is 21.3 million people, making it the largest metropolitan area of the Western Hemisphere, the tenth - largest agglomeration, and the largest Spanish - speaking city in the world.
Greater Mexico City has a GDP of $411 billion in 2011, making Mexico City urban agglomeration one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world. The city was responsible for generating 15.8 % of Mexico 's GDP and the metropolitan area accounted for about 22 % of total national GDP. As a stand - alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth - largest economy in Latin America -- five times as large as Costa Rica and about the same size as Peru.
Mexico 's capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Native Americans, the other being Quito, Ecuador. The city was originally built on an island of Lake Texcoco by the Aztecs in 1325 as Tenochtitlan, which was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan, and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, and as of 1585 it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City). Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the federal district was created in 1824.
After years of demanding greater political autonomy, residents were given the right to directly elect a Head of Government and the representatives of the unicameral Legislative Assembly by popular vote in 1997. Ever since, the left - wing Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) has controlled both of them. In recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no - fault divorce, and same - sex marriage. On January 29, 2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F.). The former "Distrito Federal '' is now officially known as "Ciudad de México '' (or "CDMX ''). Mexico City is now in transition to become the country 's 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, unless the capital of the country is relocated elsewhere.
The city of Mexico - Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. The old Mexica city that is now simply referred to as Tenochtitlan was built on an island in the center of the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico, which it shared with a smaller city - state called Tlatelolco. According to legend, the Mexicas ' principal god, Huitzilopochtli, indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a nopal cactus with a snake in its beak.
Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city - states around Lake Texcoco and in the Valley of Mexico. When the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean.
After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the other native peoples, arriving there on November 8, 1519. Cortés and his men marched along the causeway leading into the city from Iztapalapa, and the city 's ruler, Moctezuma II, greeted the Spaniards; they exchanged gifts, but the camaraderie did not last long. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him.
Tensions increased until, on the night of June 30, 1520 -- during a struggle known as "La Noche Triste '' -- the Aztecs rose up against the Spanish intrusion and managed to capture or drive out the Europeans and their Tlaxcalan allies. Cortés regrouped at Tlaxcala. The Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died; the next king was Cuauhtémoc.
Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521. For three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island and slowly fought their way through the city. Cuauhtémoc surrendered in August 1521. The Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest.
Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order. He did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown. The first Spanish viceroy arrived in Mexico City fourteen years later. By that time, the city had again become a city - state, having power that extended far beyond its borders.
Although the Spanish preserved Tenochtitlan 's basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves. Tenochtitlan was renamed "Mexico '' because the Spanish found the word easier to pronounce.
The city had been the capital of the Aztec empire and in the colonial era, Mexico City became the capital of New Spain. The viceroy of Mexico or vice-king lived in the viceregal palace on the main square or Zócalo. The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, the seat of the Archbishopric of New Spain, was constructed on another side of the Zócalo, as was the archbishop 's palace, and across from it the building housing the City Council or ayuntamiento of the city.
A famous late seventeenth - century painting of the Zócalo by Cristóbal de Villalpando depicts the main square, which had been the old Aztec ceremonial center. The existing central place of the Aztecs was effectively and permanently transformed to the ceremonial center and seat of power during the colonial period, and remains to this day in modern Mexico, the central place of the nation.
The rebuilding of the city after the siege of Tenochtitlan was accomplished by the abundant indigenous labor in the surrounding area. Franciscan friar Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, one of the Twelve Apostles of Mexico who arrived in New Spain in 1524, described the rebuilding of the city as one of the afflictions or plagues of the early period:
The seventh plague was the construction of the great City of Mexico, which, during the early years used more people than in the construction of Jerusalem. The crowds of laborers were so numerous that one could hardly move in the streets and causeways, although they are very wide. Many died from being crushed by beams, or falling from high places, or in tearing down old buildings for new ones.
Preconquest Tenochtitlan was built in the center of the inland lake system, with the city reachable by canoe and by wide causeways to the mainland. The causeways were rebuilt under Spanish rule with indigenous labor.
Colonial Spanish cities were constructed on a grid pattern, if no geographical obstacle prevented it. In Mexico City, the Zócalo (main square) was the central place from which the grid was then built outward. The Spanish lived in the area closest to the main square in what was known as the traza, in orderly, well laid - out streets. Indian residences were outside that exclusive zone and houses were haphazardly located.
Spaniards sought to keep Indians separate from Spaniards but since the Zócalo was a center of commerce for Indians, they were a constant presence in the central area, so strict segregation was never enforced. At intervals Zócalo was where major celebrations took place as well as executions. It was also the site of two major riots in the seventeenth century, one in 1624, the other in 1692.
The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake 's waters. As the depth of the lake water fluctuated, Mexico City was subject to periodic flooding. A major labor draft, the desagüe, compelled thousands of Indians over the colonial period to work on infrastructure to prevent flooding. Floods were not only an inconvenience but also a health hazard, since during flood periods human waste polluted the city 's streets. By draining the area, the mosquito population dropped as did the frequency of the diseases they spread. However, draining the wetlands also changed the habitat for fish and birds and the areas accessible for Indian cultivation close to the capital.
The 16th century saw a proliferation of churches, many of which can still be seen today in the historic center. Economically, Mexico City prospered as a result of trade. Unlike Brazil or Peru, Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds. Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city, it had only partial success.
The concept of nobility flourished in New Spain in a way not seen in other parts of the Americas. Spaniards encountered a society in which the concept of nobility mirrored that of their own. Spaniards respected the indigenous order of nobility and added to it. In the ensuing centuries, possession of a noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power, for one 's power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not. The concept of nobility in Mexico was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family. Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes. The craze to build the most opulent residence possible reached its height in the last half of the 18th century. Many of these palaces can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City 's nickname of "The city of palaces '' given by Alexander Von Humboldt.
The Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores ''), also known as El Grito de la Independencia ("Cry of Independence ''), marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. The Battle of Guanajuato, the first major engagement of the insurgency, occurred four days later. After a decade of war, Mexico 's independence from Spain was effectively declared in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on September 27, 1821. Unrest followed for the next several decades, as different factions fought for control of Mexico.
The Mexican Federal District was established by the new government and by the signing of their new constitution, where the concept of a federal district was adapted from the United States Constitution. Before this designation, Mexico City had served as the seat of government for both the State of Mexico and the nation as a whole. Texcoco and then Toluca became the capital of the state of Mexico.
The Battle for Mexico City was the series of engagements from September 8 to 15, 1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the U.S. Mexican War. Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, culminating with the fall of Mexico City. The U.S. Army under Winfield Scott scored a major success that ended the war. The American invasion into the Federal District was first resisted during the Battle of Churubusco on August 8 where the Saint Patrick 's Battalion, which was composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants, but also Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexican people, fought for the Mexican cause repelling the American attacks. After defeating the Saint Patrick 's Battalion, the Mexican -- American War came to a close after the United States deployed combat units deep into Mexico resulting in the capture of Mexico City and Veracruz by the U.S. Army 's 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions. The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself.
During this battle, on September 13, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman, spearheaded the attack against Chapultepec and carried the castle. Future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack. Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as Los Niños Héroes (the "Boy Heroes ''). The Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city. Attacks on the Belén and San Cosme Gates came afterwards. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in what is now the far north of the city.
Events such as the Mexican -- American War, the French Intervention and the Reform War left the city relatively untouched and it continued to grow, especially during the rule of President Porfirio Díaz. During this time the city developed a modern infrastructure, such as roads, schools, transportation systems and communication systems. However the regime concentrated resources and wealth into the city while the rest of the country languished in poverty.
Under the rule of Porfirio Díaz, Mexico City experienced a massive transformation. Díaz 's goal was to create a city which could rival the great European cities. He and his government came to the conclusion that they would use Paris as a model, while still containing remnants of Amerindian and Hispanic elements. This style of Mexican - French fusion architecture became colloquially known as Porfirian Architecture. Porfirian architecture became very influenced by Paris ' Haussmannization.
During this era of Porfirian rule, the city underwent an extensive modernization. Many Spanish Colonial style buildings were destroyed, replaced by new much larger Porfirian institutions and many outlying rural zones were transformed into urban or industrialized districts with most having electrical, gas and sewage utilities by 1908. While the initial focus was on developing modern hospitals, schools, factories and massive public works, perhaps the most long - lasting effects of the Porfirian modernization were creation of the Colonia Roma area and the development of Reforma Avenue. Many of Mexico City 's major attractions and landmarks were built during this era in this style.
Diaz 's plans called for the entire city to eventually be modernized or rebuilt in the Porfirian / French style of the Colonia Roma; but the Mexican Revolution began soon afterward and the plans never came to fruition, with many projects being left half - completed. One of the best examples of this is the Monument to the Mexican Revolution. Originally the monument was to be the main dome of Diaz 's new senate hall, but when the revolution erupted only the dome of the senate hall and its supporting pillars were completed, this was subsequently seen as a symbol by many Mexicans that the Porfirian era was over once and for all and as such, it was turned into a monument to victory over Diaz.
The capital escaped the worst of the violence of the ten - year conflict of the Mexican Revolution. The most significant episode of this period for the city was the February 1913 la Decena Trágica ("The Ten Tragic Days ''), when forces counter to the elected government of Francisco I. Madero staged a successful coup. The center of the city was subjected to artillery attacks from the army stronghold of the ciudadela or citadel, with significant civilian casualties and the undermining of confidence in the Madero government. Victoriano Huerta, chief general of the Federal Army, saw a chance to take power, forcing Madero and Pino Suarez to sign resignations. The two were murdered later while on their way to Lecumberri prison. Huerta 's ouster in July 1914 saw the entry of the armies of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, but the city did not experience violence. Huerta had abandoned the capital and the conquering armies marched in. Venustiano Carranza 's Constitutionalist faction ultimately prevailed in the revolutionary civil war and Carranza took up residence in the presidential palace.
The history of the rest of the 20th century to the present focuses on the phenomenal growth of the city and its environmental and political consequences. In 1900, the population of Mexico City was about 500,000. The city began to grow rapidly westward in the early part of the 20th century and then began to grow upwards in the 1950s, with the Torre Latinoamericana becoming the city 's first skyscraper. The 1968 Olympic Games brought about the construction of large sporting facilities.
In 1969 the Metro system was inaugurated. Explosive growth in the population of the city started from the 1960s, with the population overflowing the boundaries of the Federal District into the neighboring state of Mexico, especially to the north, northwest and northeast. Between 1960 and 1980 the city 's population more than doubled to nearly 9 million.
In 1980 half of all the industrial jobs in Mexico were located in Mexico City. Under relentless growth, the Mexico City government could barely keep up with services. Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city 's problems. With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shantytowns that extended for many miles. This caused serious air pollution in Mexico City and water pollution problems, as well as subsidence due to overextraction of groundwater. Air and water pollution has been contained and improved in several areas due to government programs, the renovation of vehicles and the modernization of public transportation.
The autocratic government that ruled Mexico City since the Revolution was tolerated, mostly because of the continued economic expansion since World War II. This was the case even though this government could not handle the population and pollution problems adequately. Nevertheless, discontent and protests began in the 1960s leading to the massacre of an unknown number of protesting students in Tlatelolco.
Three years later, a demonstration in the Maestros avenue, organized by former members of the 1968 student movement, was violently repressed by a paramilitary group called "Los Halcones '', composed of gang members and teenagers from many sports clubs who received training in the U.S.
On Thursday, September 19, 1985, at 7: 19 am CST, Mexico City was struck by an earthquake of magnitude 8.1 on the Richter magnitude scale. Although this earthquake was not as deadly or destructive as many similar events in Asia and other parts of Latin America, it proved to be a disaster politically for the one - party government. The government was paralyzed by its own bureaucracy and corruption, forcing ordinary citizens to create and direct their own rescue efforts and to reconstruct much of the housing that was lost as well.
However, the last straw may have been the controversial elections of 1988. That year, the presidency was set between the P.R.I. 's candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and a coalition of left - wing parties led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of the former president Lázaro Cárdenas. The counting system "fell '' because coincidentally the light went out and suddenly, when it returned, the winning candidate was Salinas, even though Cárdenas had the upper hand.
As a result of the fraudulent election, Cárdenas became a member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution. Discontent over the election eventually led Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas to become the first elected mayor of Mexico City in 1997. Cárdenas promised a more democratic government, and his party claimed some victories against crime, pollution, and other major problems. He resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency.
Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, sometimes called the Basin of Mexico. This valley is located in the Trans - Mexican Volcanic Belt in the high plateaus of south - central Mexico. It has a minimum altitude of 2,200 meters (7,200 feet) above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 metres (16,000 feet). This valley has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the mountainsides, making the city vulnerable to flooding. Drainage was engineered through the use of canals and tunnels starting in the 17th century.
Mexico City primarily rests on what was Lake Texcoco. Seismic activity is frequent here. Lake Texcoco was drained starting from the 17th century. Although none of the lake waters remain, the city rests on the lake bed 's heavily saturated clay. This soft base is collapsing due to the over-extraction of groundwater, called groundwater - related subsidence. Since the beginning of the 20th century the city has sunk as much as nine metres (30 feet) in some areas. This sinking is causing problems with runoff and wastewater management, leading to flooding problems, especially during the rainy season. The entire lake bed is now paved over and most of the city 's remaining forested areas lie in the southern boroughs of Milpa Alta, Tlalpan and Xochimilco.
Mexico City has a subtropical highland climate (Köppen climate classification Cwb), due to its tropical location but high elevation. The lower region of the valley receives less rainfall than the upper regions of the south; the lower boroughs of Iztapalapa, Iztacalco, Venustiano Carranza and the east portion of Gustavo A. Madero are usually drier and warmer than the upper southern boroughs of Tlalpan and Milpa Alta, a mountainous region of pine and oak trees known as the range of Ajusco.
The average annual temperature varies from 12 to 16 ° C (54 to 61 ° F), depending on the altitude of the borough. The temperature is rarely below 3 ° C (37 ° F) or above 30 ° C (86 ° F). At the Tacubaya observatory, the lowest temperature ever registered was − 4.4 ° C (24.1 ° F) on February 13, 1960, and the highest temperature on record was 33.9 ° C (93.0 ° F) on May 9, 1998.
Overall precipitation is heavily concentrated in the summer months, and includes dense hail.
It does not snow in the city (only in nearby mountain tops), but in the past this was not the case. Throughout its history the Central Valley of Mexico used to have several snowfalls per decade (including a period between 1878 and 1895 in which every single year -- except 1880 -- recorded snowfalls) mostly by lake - effect snow, but the draining of Lake Texcoco and also global warming restricted the snowfalls after the snowstorm of February 11, 1907; following that year snow has only occurred on January 28, 1920, on March 5, 1940, and for the last time on January 12, 1967, coinciding with the operation of Deep Drainage System that resulted in the total draining of what was left of Lake Texcoco.
The region of the Valley of Mexico receives anti-cyclonic systems. The weak winds of these systems do not allow for the dispersion, outside the basin, of the air pollutants which are produced by the 50,000 industries and 4 million vehicles operating in and around the metropolitan area.
The area receives about 820 millimetres (32.3 in) of annual rainfall, which is concentrated from June through September / October with little or no precipitation the remainder of the year. The area has two main seasons. The rainy season runs from June to October when winds bring in tropical moisture from the sea, which the wettest month is July. The dry season runs from November to May, when the air is relatively drier, which the driest month is December. This dry season subdivides into a cold period and a warm period. The cold period spans from November to February when polar air masses push down from the north and keep the air fairly dry. The warm period extends from March to May when tropical winds again dominate but do not yet carry enough moisture for rain.
Originally much of the valley laid beneath the waters of Lake Texcoco, a system of interconnected salt and freshwater lakes. The Aztecs built dikes to separate the fresh water used to raise crops in chinampas and to prevent recurrent floods. These dikes were destroyed during the siege of Tenochtitlan, and during colonial times the Spanish regularly drained the lake to prevent floods. Only a small section of the original lake remains, located outside the Federal District, in the municipality of Atenco, State of Mexico.
Architects Teodoro González de León and Alberto Kalach along with a group of Mexican urbanists, engineers and biologists have developed the project plan for Recovering the City of Lakes. If approved by the government the project will contribute to the supply of water from natural sources to the Valley of Mexico, the creation of new natural spaces, a great improvement in air quality, and greater population establishment planning.
By the 1990s Mexico City had become infamous as one of the world 's most polluted cities; however, the city has become a model for dramatically lowering pollution levels. By 2014 carbon monoxide pollution had dropped dramatically, while levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide were nearly three times lower than in 1992. The levels of signature pollutants in Mexico City are similar to those of Los Angeles. Despite the cleanup, the metropolitan area is still the most ozone - polluted part of the country, with ozone levels 2.5 times beyond WHO - defined safe limits.
To clean up pollution, the federal and local governments implemented numerous plans including the constant monitoring and reporting of environmental conditions, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides. When the levels of these two pollutants reached critical levels, contingency actions were implemented which included closing factories, changing school hours, and extending the A day without a car program to two days of the week. The government also instituted industrial technology improvements, a strict biannual vehicle emission inspection and the reformulation of gasoline and diesel fuels. The introduction of Metrobús bus rapid transit and the Ecobici bike - sharing were among efforts to encourage alternate, greener forms of transportation.
The Acta Constitutiva de la Federación of January 31, 1824, and the Federal Constitution of October 4, 1824, fixed the political and administrative organization of the United Mexican States after the Mexican War of Independence. In addition, Section XXVIII of Article 50 gave the new Congress the right to choose where the federal government would be located. This location would then be appropriated as federal land, with the federal government acting as the local authority. The two main candidates to become the capital were Mexico City and Querétaro.
Due in large part to the persuasion of representative Servando Teresa de Mier, Mexico City was chosen because it was the center of the country 's population and history, even though Querétaro was closer to the center geographically. The choice was official on November 18, 1824, and Congress delineated a surface area of two leagues square (8,800 acres) centered on the Zocalo. This area was then separated from the State of Mexico, forcing that state 's government to move from the Palace of the Inquisition (now Museum of Mexican Medicine) in the city to Texcoco. This area did not include the population centers of the towns of Coyoacán, Xochimilco, Mexicaltzingo and Tlalpan, all of which remained as part of the State of Mexico.
In 1854 president Antonio López de Santa Anna enlarged the area of the Federal District almost eightfold from the original 220 to 1,700 km (80 to 660 sq mi), annexing the rural and mountainous areas to secure the strategic mountain passes to the south and southwest to protect the city in event of a foreign invasion. (The Mexican -- American War had just been fought.) The last changes to the limits of the Federal District were made between 1898 and 1902, reducing the area to the current 1,479 km (571 sq mi) by adjusting the southern border with the state of Morelos. By that time, the total number of municipalities within the Federal District was twenty - two.
While the Federal District was ruled by the federal government through an appointed governor, the municipalities within it were autonomous, and this duality of powers created tension between the municipalities and the federal government for more than a century. In 1903, Porfirio Díaz largely reduced the powers of the municipalities within the Federal District. Eventually, in December 1928, the federal government decided to abolish all the municipalities of the Federal District. In place of the municipalities, the Federal District was divided into one "Central Department '' and 13 delegaciones (boroughs) administered directly by the government of the Federal District. The Central Department was integrated by the former municipalities of Mexico City, Tacuba, Tacubaya and Mixcoac.
In 1941, the General Anaya borough was merged to the Central Department, which was then renamed "Mexico City '' (thus reviving the name, but not the autonomous municipality). From 1941 to 1970, the Federal District comprised twelve delegaciones and Mexico City. In 1970, Mexico City was split into four different delegaciones: Cuauhtémoc, Miguel Hidalgo, Venustiano Carranza and Benito Juárez, increasing the number of delegaciones to 16. Since then, the whole Federal District, whose delegaciones had by then almost formed a single urban area, began to be considered de facto a synonym of Mexico City.
The lack of a de jure stipulation left a legal vacuum that led to a number of sterile discussions about whether one concept had engulfed the other or if the latter had ceased to exist altogether. In 1993, the situation was solved by an amendment to the 44th article of the Constitution of Mexico; Mexico City and the Federal District were stated to be the same entity. The amendment was later introduced into the second article of the Statute of Government of the Federal District.
On January 29, 2016, Mexico City ceased to be called the Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F.). The former "Distrito Federal '' is now officially known as "Ciudad de México '' (or "CDMX ''). Mexico City is now in transition to become the country 's 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as it is the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, or the capital of the country has to be relocated elsewhere.
Mexico City, being the seat of the powers of the Union, belongs not to any particular state but to all of them. Therefore, the president, representing the federation, used to designate the head of government of the Federal District, sometimes called outside Mexico as the "Mayor '' of Mexico City. In the 1980s, the dramatic increase in population of the previous decades, the inherent political inconsistencies of the system, and dissatisfaction with the inadequate response of the federal government after the 1985 earthquake made residents begin to request political and administrative autonomy to manage their local affairs. Some political groups even proposed that the Federal District be converted into the 32nd state of the federation.
In response to the demands, the Federal District received a greater degree of autonomy, with the 1987 elaboration the first Statute of Government (Estatuto de Gobierno) and the creation of an Assembly of Representatives. In the 1990s, this autonomy was further expanded and since 1997, residents can directly elect the head of government of the Federal District and the representatives of a unicameral Legislative Assembly, which succeeded the previous assembly, by popular vote.
The first elected head of government was Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. He resigned in 1999 to run in the 2000 presidential elections and designated Rosario Robles to succeed him, who became the first woman, elected or otherwise, to govern Mexico City. In 2000, Andrés Manuel López Obrador was elected, and he resigned in 2005 to run in the 2006 presidential elections; Alejandro Encinas was designated by the Legislative Assembly to finish the term. In 2006, Marcelo Ebrard was elected to serve until 2012.
The Federal District does not have a constitution, unlike the states of the Union, but it has a Statute of Government. As part of the recent changes in autonomy, the budget is administered locally; it is proposed by the head of government and approved by the Legislative Assembly. Nonetheless, it is the Congress of the Union that sets the ceiling to internal and external public debt issued by the Federal District.
According to the 44th article of the Mexican Constitution, if the powers of the Union move to another city, the Federal District would become a new state, the "State of the Valley of Mexico '', with the new limits set by the Congress of the Union.
In 2012, elections were held for the post of head of government and the representatives of the Legislative Assembly. Heads of government are elected for a six - year period without the possibility of re-election. Traditionally, the position has been considered as the second most important executive office in the country.
The Legislative Assembly of the Federal District is formed, as it is the case for state legislatures in Mexico, by both single - seat and proportional seats, making it a system of parallel voting. The Federal District is divided into 40 electoral constituencies of similar population which elect one representative by the plurality voting system, locally called "uninominal deputies ''. The Federal District, as a whole, is a single constituency for the parallel election of 26 representatives, elected by proportional representation, with open - party lists, locally called "plurinominal deputies ''.
Even though proportionality is supposed to prevent a party from being overrepresented, several restrictions apply in the assignation of the seats. No party can have more than 63 % of all seats, both uninominal and plurinominal. In the 2006 elections, the PRD got the absolute majority in the direct uninominal elections, securing 34 of the 40 FPP seats. As such, the PRD was not assigned any plurinominal seat to comply with the law that prevents over-representation. The overall composition of the Legislative Assembly is:
The politics pursued by the administrations of heads of government in Mexico City since the second half of the 20th century have usually been more liberal than those of the rest of the country, whether with the support of the federal government, as was the case with the approval of several comprehensive environmental laws in the 1980s, or by laws that were since approved by the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Assembly expanded provisions on abortions, becoming the first federal entity to expand abortion in Mexico beyond cases of rape and economic reasons, to permit it at the choice of the mother before the 12th week of pregnancy. In December 2009, the Federal District became the first city in Latin America and one of very few in the world to legalize same - sex marriage.
For administrative purposes, the Federal District is divided into 16 "delegaciones '', or boroughs. While they are not fully equivalent to municipalities, the boroughs have gained significant autonomy, and since 2000, their heads of government have been elected directly by plurality (they had been appointed by the head of government of the Federal District). Since Mexico City is organized entirely as a Federal District, most of the city services are provided or organized by the Government of the Federal District, not by the boroughs themselves; in the constituent states, such services would be provided by the municipalities. The boroughs of the Federal District with their 2010 populations are:
1. Álvaro Obregón (pop. 727,034) 2. Azcapotzalco (pop. 414,711) 3. Benito Juárez (pop. 385,439) 4. Coyoacán (pop. 620,416) 5. Cuajimalpa (pop. 186,391) 6. Cuauhtémoc (pop. 531,831) 7. Gustavo A. Madero (pop. 1,185,772) 8. Iztacalco (pop. 384,326)
9. Iztapalapa (pop. 1,815,786) 10. Magdalena Contreras (pop. 239,086) 11. Miguel Hidalgo (pop. 372,889) 12. Milpa Alta (pop. 130,582) 13. Tláhuac (pop. 360,265) 14. Tlalpan (pop. 650,567) 15. Venustiano Carranza (pop. 430,978) 16. Xochimilco (pop. 415,007)
The boroughs are composed by hundreds of colonias or neighborhoods, which have no jurisdictional autonomy or representation. The Historic Center is the oldest part of the city (along with some other, formerly separate colonial towns such as Coyoacán and San Ángel), some of the buildings dating back to the 16th century. Other well - known central neighborhoods include Condesa, known for its Art Deco architecture and its restaurant scene; Colonia Roma, a beaux arts neighborhood and artistic and culinary hot - spot, the Zona Rosa, formerly the center of nightlife and restaurants, now reborn as the center of the LGBT and Korean - Mexican communities; and Tepito and La Lagunilla, known for their local working - class foklore and large flea markets. Santa María la Ribera and San Rafael are the latest neighborhoods of magnificent Porfiriato architecture seeing the first signs of gentrification.
West of the Historic Center (Centro Histórico) along Paseo de la Reforma are many of the city 's wealthiest neighborhoods such as Polanco, Lomas de Chapultepec, Bosques de las Lomas, Santa Fe, and (in the State of Mexico) Interlomas, which are also the city 's most important areas of class A office space, corporate headquarters, skyscrapers and shopping malls. Nevertheless, some areas of lower - income colonias are right next to rich neighborhoods, particularly in the case of Santa Fe.
The south of the city is home to some other high - income neighborhoods such as Colonia del Valle and Jardines del Pedregal and the formerly separate colonial towns of Coyoacán, San Ángel, and San Jerónimo. Along Avenida Insurgentes from Paseo de la Reforma, near the center, south past the World Trade Center and UNAM university towards the Periférico ring road, is another important corridor of corporate office space. The far - southern boroughs of Xochimilco and Tláhuac have a significant rural population, with Milpa Alta being entirely rural.
East of the center are mostly lower - income areas with some middle - class neighborhoods such as Jardín Balbuena. Urban sprawl continues further east for many miles into the State of Mexico, including Ciudad Nezahualcoyotl, now increasingly middle - class, but once full of informal settlements. Such slums are still found on the eastern edges of the metropolitan area in the Chalco area.
North of the Historic Center, Azcapotzalco and Gustavo A. Madero have important industrial centers and neighborhoods that range from established middle - class colonias such as Claveria and Lindavista to huge low - income housing areas that share hillsides with adjacent municipalities in the State of Mexico. In recent years, much of northern Mexico City 's industry has moved to nearby municipalities in the State of Mexico. Northwest of Mexico City itself is Ciudad Satélite, a vast middle to upper - middle - class residential and business area.
The Human Development Index report of 2005 shows that there were three boroughs with a very high Human Development Index, 12 with a high HDI value (9 above. 85) and one with a medium HDI value (almost high). Benito Juárez borough had the highest HDI of the country (0.9510) followed by Miguel Hidalgo which came up fourth nationally with a HDI of (0.9189) and Coyoacán was fifth nationally, with a HDI of (0.9169). Cuajimalpa (15th), Cuauhtémoc and Azcapotzalco (25th) also had very high values of respectively 0.8994, 0.8922, and 0.8915.
In contrast, the boroughs of Xochimilco (172th), Tláhuac (177th), and Iztapalapa (183th) presented the lowest HDI values of the Federal District with values of 0.8481, 0.8473, and 0.8464 respectively, which are still in the global high - HDI range. The only borough that did not have a high HDI was that of rural Milpa Alta, which had a "medium '' HDI of 0.7984, far below all of the other boroughs (627th nationally, the rest being in the top 200). Mexico City 's HDI for the 2005 report was of 0.9012 (very high), and its 2010 value of 0.9225 (very high), or (by newer methodology) 0.8307, was Mexico 's highest.
Greater Mexico City is formed by the Federal District, 60 municipalities from the State of Mexico and one from the state of Hidalgo. Greater Mexico City is the largest metropolitan area in Mexico and the area with the highest population density. As of 2009, 21,163,226 people live in this urban agglomeration, of which 8,841,916 live in Mexico City proper. In terms of population, the biggest municipalities that are part of Greater Mexico City (excluding Mexico City proper) are:
The above municipalities are located in the state of Mexico but are part of the Greater Mexico City area. Approximately 75 % (10 million) of the state of México 's population live in municipalities that are part of Greater Mexico City 's conurbation.
Greater Mexico City was the fastest growing metropolitan area in the country until the late 1980s. Since then, and through a policy of decentralization in order to reduce the environmental pollutants of the growing conurbation, the annual rate of growth of the agglomeration has decreased, and it is lower than that of the other four largest metropolitan areas (namely Greater Guadalajara, Greater Monterrey, Greater Puebla and Greater Toluca) even though it is still positive.
The net migration rate of Mexico City proper from 1995 to 2000 was negative, which implies that residents are moving to the suburbs of the metropolitan area, or to other states of Mexico. In addition, some inner suburbs are losing population to outer suburbs, indicating the continuing expansion of Greater Mexico City.
Mexico City is home to some of the best private hospitals in the country; Hospital Ángeles, Hospital ABC and Médica Sur to name a few. The national public healthcare institution for private - sector employees, IMSS, has its largest facilities in Mexico City -- including the National Medical Center and the La Raza Medical Center -- and has an annual budget of over 6 billion pesos. The IMSS and other public health institutions, including the ISSSTE (Public Sector Employees ' Social Security Institute) and the National Health Ministry (SSA) maintain large specialty facilities in the city. These include the National Institutes of Cardiology, Nutrition, Psychiatry, Oncology, Pediatrics, Rehabilitation, among others.
The World Bank has sponsored a project to curb air pollution through public transport improvements and the Mexican government has started shutting down polluting factories. They have phased out diesel buses and mandated new emission controls on new cars; since 1993 all new cars must be fitted with a catalytic converter, which reduces the emissions released. Trucks must use only liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Also construction of an underground rail system was begun in 1968 in order to help curb air pollution problems and alleviate traffic congestion. Today it has over 201 km (125 mi) of track and carries over 5 million people every day. Fees are kept low to encourage use of the system and during rush hours the crush is so great, that authorities have reserved a special carriage specifically for women. Due to these initiatives and others, the air quality in Mexico City has begun to improve, with the air becoming cleaner since 1991, when the air quality was declared to be a public health risk for 355 days of the year.
Mexico City is one of the most important economic hubs in Latin America. The city proper produces 15.8 % of the country 's gross domestic product. According to a study conducted by PwC, Mexico City had a GDP of $390 billion, ranking it as the eighth richest city in the world and the richest in Latin America. Mexico City alone would rank as the 30th largest economy in the world. Mexico City is the greatest contributor to the country 's industrial GDP (15.8 %) and also the greatest contributor to the country 's GDP in the service sector (25.3 %). Due to the limited non-urbanized space at the south -- most of which is protected through environmental laws -- the contribution of the Federal District in agriculture is the smallest of all federal entities in the country. Mexico City has one of the world 's fastest - growing economies and its GDP is set to double by 2020.
In 2002, Mexico City had a Human Development Index score of 0.915, identical to that of South Korea.
The top twelve percent of GDP per capita holders in the city had a mean disposable income of US $ 98,517 in 2007. The high spending power of Mexico City inhabitants makes the city attractive for companies offering prestige and luxury goods.
The economic reforms of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari had a tremendous effect on the city, as a number of businesses, including banks and airlines, were privatized. He also signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This led to decentralization and a shift in Mexico City 's economic base, from manufacturing to services, as most factories moved away to either the State of Mexico, or more commonly to the northern border. By contrast, corporate office buildings set their base in the city.
Historically, and since Pre-Columbian times, the Valley of Anahuac has been one of the most densely populated areas in Mexico. When the Federal District was created in 1824, the urban area of Mexico City extended approximately to the area of today 's Cuauhtémoc borough. At the beginning of the 20th century, the elites began migrating to the south and west and soon the small towns of Mixcoac and San Ángel were incorporated by the growing conurbation. According to the 1921 census, 54.78 % of the city 's population was considered Mestizo (Indigenous mixed with European), 22.79 % considered European, and 18.74 % considered Indigenous. This was the last Mexican Census which asked people to self - identify with an heritage other than Amerindian. However, the census had the particularity that, unlike racial / ethnic census in other countries, it was focused in the perception of cultural heritage rather than in a racial perception, leading to a good number of white people to identify with "Mixed heritage '' due cultural influence. In 1921, Mexico City had less than one million inhabitants.
Up to the 1990s, the Federal District was the most populous federal entity in Mexico, but since then its population has remained stable at around 8.7 million. The growth of the city has extended beyond the limits of the Federal District to 59 municipalities of the state of Mexico and 1 in the state of Hidalgo. With a population of approximately 19.8 million inhabitants (2008), it is one of the most populous conurbations in the world. Nonetheless, the annual rate of growth of the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City is much lower than that of other large urban agglomerations in Mexico, a phenomenon most likely attributable to the environmental policy of decentralization. The net migration rate of the Federal District from 1995 to 2000 was negative.
Representing around 18.74 % of the city 's population, indigenous peoples from different areas of Mexico have migrated to the capital in search of better economic opportunities. Nahuatl, Otomi, Mixtec, Zapotec and Mazahua are the indigenous languages with the greatest number of speakers in Mexico City.
According to a genetic study done in 2011, the average genetic composition of people from Mexico city is 65 % Native American, 31 % European, and 3 % African.
On the other hand, Mexico City is also home to large communities of expatriates and immigrants, most notably from the rest of North America (U.S. and Canada), from South America (mainly from Argentina and Colombia, but also from Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela), from Central America and the Caribbean (mainly from Cuba, Guatemala, El Salvador, Haiti and Honduras); from Europe (mainly from Spain, Germany and Switzerland, but also from Czech Republic, Hungary, France, Italy, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland and Romania), from the Middle East (mainly from Egypt, Lebanon and Syria); and recently from Asia - Pacific (mainly from China and South Korea). Historically since the era of New Spain, many Filipinos settled in the city and have become integrated in Mexican society. While no official figures have been reported, population estimates of each of these communities are quite significant.
Mexico City is home to the largest population of U.S. Americans living outside the United States. Current estimates are as high as 700,000 U.S. Americans living in Mexico City, while in 1999 the U.S. Bureau of Consular Affairs estimated over 440,000 Americans lived in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area.
The majority (82 %) of the residents in Mexico City are Roman Catholic, higher than the national percentage, though it has been decreasing over the last decades. Many other religions and philosophies are also practiced in the city: many different types of Protestant groups, different types of Jewish communities, Buddhist, Islamic and other spiritual and philosophical groups. There are also growing numbers of irreligious people, whether agnostic or atheist.
Mexico City has many modes of public transportation, from the metro (subway) system, to suburban rail, light rail, regular buses, BRT (bus rapid transit), ' pesero ' minibuses, and trolleybuses, to bike share.
Mexico City is served by the Sistema de Transporte Colectivo, a 225.9 km (140 mi) metro system, which is the largest in Latin America. The first portions were opened in 1969 and it has expanded to 12 lines with 195 stations. The metro transports 4.4 million people every day. It is the 8th busiest metro system in the world, behind Tokyo (10.0 million), Beijing (9.3 million), Shanghai (7.8 million), Seoul (7.3 million), Moscow (6.7 million), Guangzhou (6.2 million), and New York City (4.9 million). It is heavily subsidized, and has some of the lowest fares in the world, each trip costing 5.00 pesos (roughly 0.27 USD) from 05: 00 am to midnight. Several stations display pre-Columbian artifacts and architecture that were discovered during the metro 's construction. However, the metro covers less than half of the total urban area. The Metro stations are also differentiated by the use of icons and glyphs which were created for the illiterate, a unique system that has become iconic characteristic of Mexico City. Each icon was developed based on historical (characters, sites, pre-Hispanic motifs), linguistic, symbolic (glyphs) or geographic references. A complementary system of icons was used for the Metrobús (BRT) stops.
A suburban rail system, the Tren Suburbano serves the metropolitan area, beyond the reach of the metro, currently with only one line serving to municipalities such as Tlalnepantla and Cuautitlán Izcalli, but with future lines planned to serve e.g. Chalco and La Paz.
Peseros are typically half - length passenger buses (known as microbús) that sit 22 passengers and stand up to 28. As of 2007, the approximately 28,000 peseros carried up to 60 percent of the city 's passengers. In August 2016, Mayor Mancera announced that new pesero vehicle and concessions would be eliminated completely unless they were ecologically friendly vehicles, and in October 2011 the city 's Secretary of Mobility Héctor Serrano states that by the end of the current administration (2018) there would no longer by any peseros / microbuses circulating at all, and that new full - sized buses would take over the routes.
In 2014, the city launched so - called "Bus Rapid Service '', with mid-sized Mercedes - Benz Boxer buses carrying 75 - 85 passengers painted purple - on - white, replacing ' peseros ' on certain groups of routes. Operation is a concession to the private firms (SAUSA, COTOBUSA, TREPSA) instead of to individual vehicle operators.
City agency M1, formerly Red de Transporte de Pasajeros (RTP), operates various networks of large buses including regular, Ecobús, Circuito Bicentenario, Atenea, Express, school and night routes. In 2016, more bus routes were added to replace pesero routes.
In 2016, the SVBUS express bus service was launched, with limited stops and utilizing the city 's toll roads on the second - level of the Periférico ring road and Supervía Poniente and connecting Toreo / Cuatro Caminos with Santa Fe, San Jerónimo Lídice and Tepepan near Xochimilco in the southeast.
Suburban buses also leave from the city 's main intercity bus stations.
The city 's first bus rapid transit line, the Metrobús, began operation in June 2005, along Avenida Insurgentes. More and more lines opened and as of mid-2017 there are 6 routes with a 7th planned along Paseo de la Reforma to connect Santa Fe with the city center and points north. As each line opened, the ' pesero ' minibuses were removed from each route, in order to reduce pollution and commute times. As of mid-2017, there were 568 Metrobús buses. In late 2016 they transported an average of 1.1 million passengers daily.
Mexibús provides 3 bus rapid transit lines connecting Metro Ciudad Azteca and Metro Pantitlán with Cuautitlán, Ecatepec and other suburban areas in the State of Mexico.
Electric transport other than the metro also exists, in the form of several Mexico City trolleybus routes and the Xochimilco Light Rail line, both of which are operated by Servicio de Transportes Eléctricos. The central area 's last streetcar line (tramway, or tranvía) closed in 1979.
In the late 1970s many arterial roads were redesigned as ejes viales; high - volume one - way roads that cross, in theory, Mexico City proper from side to side. The eje vial network is based on a quasi-Cartesian grid, with the ejes themselves being called Eje 1 Poniente, Eje Central, and Eje 1 Oriente, for example, for the north - south roads, and Eje 2 Sur and Eje 3 Norte, for example, for east - west roads. Ring roads are the Circuito Interior (inner ring), Anillo Periférico; the Circuito Exterior Mexiquense ("State of Mexico outer loop '') toll road skirting the northeastern and eastern edges of the metropolitan area, the Chamapa - La Venta toll road skirting the northwestern edge, and the Arco Norte completely bypassing the metropolitan area in an arc from northwest (Atlacomulco) to north (Tula, Hidalgo) to east (Puebla). A second level (where tolls are charged) of the Periférico, colloquially called the segundo piso ("second floor ''), was officially opened in 2012, with sections still being completed. The Viaducto Miguel Alemán crosses the city east - west from Observatorio to the airport. In 2013 the Supervía Poniente opened, a toll road linking the new Santa Fe business district with southwestern Mexico City.
There is an environmental program, called Hoy No Circula ("Today Does Not Run '', or "One Day without a Car ''), whereby vehicles that have not passed emissions testing are restricted from circulating on certain days according to the ending digit of their license plates; this in an attempt to cut down on pollution and traffic congestion. While in 2003, the program still restricted 40 % of vehicles in the metropolitan area, with the adoption of stricter emissions standards in 2001 and 2006, in practice, these days most vehicles are exempt from the circulation restrictions as long as they pass regular emissions tests.
Street parking in urban neighborhoods is mostly controlled by the franeleros a.k.a. "viene vienes '' (lit. "come on, come on ''), who ask drivers for a fee to park, in theory to guard the car, but with the implicit threat that the franelero will damage the car if the fee is not paid. Double parking is common (with franeleros moving the cars as required), impeding on the available lanes for traffic to pass. In order to mitigate that and other problems and to raise revenue, 721 parking meters (as of October 2013), have been installed in the west - central neighborhoods Lomas de Chapultepec, Condesa, Roma, Polanco and Anzures, in operation from 8 AM to 8 PM on weekdays and charging a rate of 2 pesos per 15 minutes, with offenders ' cars booted, costing about 500 pesos to remove. 30 percent of the monthly 16 million - peso (as of October 2013) income from the parking - meter system (named "ecoParq '') is earmarked for neighborhood improvements. The granting of the license for all zones exclusively to a new company without experience in operating parking meters, Operadora de Estacionamientos Bicentenario, has generated controversy.
The local government continuously strives for a reduction of massive traffic congestion, and has increased incentives for making a bicycle - friendly city. This includes North America 's second - largest bicycle sharing system, EcoBici, launched in 2010, in which registered residents can get bicycles for 45 minutes with a pre-paid subscription of 300 pesos a year. There are, as of September 2013, 276 stations with 4,000 bicycles across an area stretching from the Historic center to Polanco. within 300 metres (980 feet) of one another and are fully automatic using a transponder based card. Bicycle - service users have access to several permanent Ciclovías (dedicated bike paths / lanes / streets), including ones along Paseo de la Reforma and Avenida Chapultepec as well as one running 59 kilometres (37 miles) from Polanco to Fierro del Toro, which is located south of Cumbres del Ajusco National Park, near the Morelos state line. The city 's initiative is inspired by forward thinking examples, such as Denmark 's Copenhagenization.
The city has four major bus stations (North, South, Observatorio, TAPO), which comprise one of the world 's largest transportation agglomerations, with bus service to many cities across the country and international connections. There are some intercity buses that leave directly from the Mexico City International Airport.
Mexico City is served by Mexico City International Airport (IATA Airport Code: MEX). This airport is Latin America 's busiest, with daily flights to United States and Canada, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, South America, Europe and Asia. Aeroméxico (Skyteam) is based at this airport, and provide codeshare agreements with non-Mexican airlines that span the entire globe. The airport is also a hub for Volaris, Interjet and Aeromar.
In 2016, the airport handled almost 42 million passengers, about 3.3 million more than the year before. This traffic exceeds the current capacity of the airport, which has historically centralized the majority of air traffic in the country. An alternate option is Lic. Adolfo López Mateos International Airport (IATA Airport Code: TLC) in nearby Toluca, State of Mexico, although due to several airlines ' decisions to terminate service to TLC, the airport has seen a passenger drop to just over 700,000 passengers in 2014 from over 2.1 million passengers just four years prior.
In the Mexico City airport, the government engaged in an extensive restructuring program that includes the addition of a new second terminal, which began operations in 2007, and the enlargement of four other airports (at the nearby cities of Toluca, Querétaro, Puebla and Cuernavaca) that, along with Mexico City 's airport, comprise the Grupo Aeroportuario del Valle de México, distributing traffic to different regions in Mexico. The city of Pachuca will also provide additional expansion to central Mexico 's airport network.
During his annual state - of - the - nation address on September 2, 2014, President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto unveiled plans for a new international airport to ease the city 's notorious air traffic congestion, tentatively slated for a 2018 opening. The new airport, which would have six runways, will cost $9.15 billion and would be built on vacant federal land east of Mexico City International Airport. Goals are to eventually handle 120 million passengers a year, which would make it the busiest airport in the world.
Mexico City is a destination for many foreign tourists. Wikipedia 's sister project Wikivoyage has useful information on tourism in Mexico City. The Historic center of Mexico City (Centro Histórico) and the "floating gardens '' of Xochimilco in the southern borough have been declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Famous landmarks in the Historic Center include the Plaza de la Constitución (Zócalo), the main central square with its epoch - contrasting Spanish - era Metropolitan Cathedral and National Palace, ancient Aztec temple ruins Templo Mayor ("Major Temple '') and modern structures, all within a few steps of one another. (The Templo Mayor was discovered in 1978 while workers were digging to place underground electric cables).
The most recognizable icon of Mexico City is the golden Angel of Independence on the wide, elegant avenue Paseo de la Reforma, modeled by the order of the Emperor Maximilian of Mexico after the Champs - Élysées in Paris. This avenue was designed over the Americas ' oldest known major roadway in the 19th century to connect the National Palace (seat of government) with the Castle of Chapultepec, the imperial residence. Today, this avenue is an important financial district in which the Mexican Stock Exchange and several corporate headquarters are located. Another important avenue is the Avenida de los Insurgentes, which extends 28.8 km (17.9 mi) and is one of the longest single avenues in the world.
Chapultepec Park houses the Chapultepec Castle, now a museum on a hill that overlooks the park and its numerous museums, monuments and the national zoo and the National Museum of Anthropology (which houses the Aztec Calendar Stone). Another piece of architecture is the Fine Arts Palace, a white marble theatre / museum whose weight is such that it has gradually been sinking into the soft ground below. Its construction began during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and ended in 1934, after being interrupted by the Mexican Revolution in the 1920s. The Plaza of the Three Cultures in the Tlatelolco neighbourhood, and the shrine and Basilicas of Our Lady of Guadalupe are also important sites. There is a double - decker bus, known as the "Turibus '', that circles most of these sites, and has timed audio describing the sites in multiple languages as they are passed.
In addition, the city has about 160 museums -- the world 's greatest single metropolitan concentration -- over 100 art galleries, and some 30 concert halls, all of which maintain a constant cultural activity during the whole year. It has either the third or fourth - highest number of theatres in the world after New York, London and perhaps Toronto. Many areas (e.g. Palacio Nacional and the National Institute of Cardiology) have murals painted by Diego Rivera. He and his wife Frida Kahlo lived in Coyoacán, where several of their homes, studios, and art collections are open to the public. The house where Leon Trotsky was initially granted asylum and finally murdered in 1940 is also in Coyoacán.
In addition, there are several restored haciendas that are now restaurants, such as the San Ángel Inn, the Hacienda de Tlalpan and the Hacienda de los Morales.
Having been capital of a vast pre-Hispanic empire, and also the capital of richest viceroyalty within the Spanish Empire (ruling over a vast territory in the Americas and Spanish West Indies), and, finally, the capital of the United Mexican States, Mexico City has a rich history of artistic expression. Since the mesoamerican pre-Classical period the inhabitants of the settlements around Lake Texcoco produced many works of art and complex craftsmanship, some of which are today displayed at the world - renowned National Museum of Anthropology and the Templo Mayor museum. While many pieces of pottery and stone - engraving have survived, the great majority of the Amerindian iconography was destroyed during the Conquest of Mexico.
Much of the early colonial art stemmed from the codices (Aztec illustrated books), aiming to recover and preserve some Aztec and other Amerindian iconography and history. From then, artistic expressions in Mexico were mostly religious in theme. The Metropolitan Cathedral still displays works by Juan de Rojas, Juan Correa and an oil painting whose authorship has been attributed to Murillo. Secular works of art of this period include the equestrian sculpture of Charles IV of Spain, locally known as El Caballito ("The little horse ''). This piece, in bronze, was the work of Manuel Tolsá and it has been placed at the Plaza Tolsá, in front of the Palacio de Mineria (Mining Palace). Directly in front of this building is the beautiful Museo Nacional de Arte (Munal) (the National Museum of Art).
During the 19th century, an important producer of art was the Academia de San Carlos (San Carlos Art Academy), founded during colonial times, and which later became the Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas (the National School of Arts) including painting, sculpture and graphic design, one of UNAM 's art schools. Many of the works produced by the students and faculty of that time are now displayed in the Museo Nacional de San Carlos (National Museum of San Carlos). One of the students, José María Velasco, is considered one of the greatest Mexican landscape painters of the 19th century. Porfirio Díaz 's regime sponsored arts, especially those that followed the French school. Popular arts in the form of cartoons and illustrations flourished, e.g. those of José Guadalupe Posada and Manuel Manilla. The permanent collection of the San Carlos Museum also includes paintings by European masters such as Rembrandt, Velázquez, Murillo, and Rubens.
After the Mexican Revolution, an avant - garde artistic movement originated in Mexico City: muralism. Many of the works of muralists José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera are displayed in numerous buildings in the city, most notably at the National Palace and the Palacio de Bellas Artes. Frida Kahlo, wife of Rivera, with a strong nationalist expression, was also one of the most renowned of Mexican painters. Her house has become a museum that displays many of her works.
The former home of Rivera muse Dolores Olmedo houses the namesake museum. The facility is in Xochimilco borough in southern Mexico City and includes several buildings surrounded by sprawling manicured lawns. It houses a large collection of Rivera and Kahlo paintings and drawings, as well as living Xoloizcuintles (Mexican Hairless Dog). It also regularly hosts small but important temporary exhibits of classical and modern art (e.g. Venetian Masters and Contemporary New York artists).
During the 20th century, many artists immigrated to Mexico City from different regions of Mexico, such as Leopoldo Méndez, an engraver from Veracruz, who supported the creation of the socialist Taller de la Gráfica Popular (Popular Graphics Workshop), designed to help blue - collar workers find a venue to express their art. Other painters came from abroad, such as Catalan painter Remedios Varo and other Spanish and Jewish exiles. It was in the second half of the 20th century that the artistic movement began to drift apart from the Revolutionary theme. José Luis Cuevas opted for a modernist style in contrast to the muralist movement associated with social politics.
Mexico City has numerous museums dedicated to art, including Mexican colonial, modern and contemporary art, and international art. The Museo Tamayo was opened in the mid-1980s to house the collection of international contemporary art donated by famed Mexican (born in the state of Oaxaca) painter Rufino Tamayo. The collection includes pieces by Picasso, Klee, Kandinsky, Warhol and many others, though most of the collection is stored while visiting exhibits are shown. The Museo de Arte Moderno (Museum of Modern Art) is a repository of Mexican artists from the 20th century, including Rivera, Orozco, Siqueiros, Kahlo, Gerzso, Carrington, Tamayo, among others, and also regularly hosts temporary exhibits of international modern art. In southern Mexico City, the Museo Carrillo Gil (Carrillo Gil Museum) showcases avant - garde artists, as does the University Museum / Contemporary Art (Museo Universitario Arte Contemporáneo -- or MUAC), designed by famed Mexican architect Teodoro González de León, inaugurated in late 2008.
The Museo Soumaya, named after the wife of Mexican magnate Carlos Slim, has the largest private collection of original Rodin sculptures outside Paris. It also has a large collection of Dalí sculptures, and recently began showing pieces in its masters collection including El Greco, Velázquez, Picasso and Canaletto. The museum inaugurated a new futuristic - design facility in 2011 just north of Polanco, while maintaining a smaller facility in Plaza de Loreto in southern Mexico City. The Colección Júmex is a contemporary art museum located on the sprawling grounds of the Jumex juice company in the northern industrial suburb of Ecatepec. It is said to have the largest private contemporary art collection in Latin America and hosts pieces from its permanent collection as well as traveling exhibits by leading contemporary artists. The new Museo Júmex in Nuevo Polanco was slated to open in November 2013. The Museo de San Ildefonso, housed in the Antiguo Colegio de San Ildefonso in Mexico City 's historic downtown district is a 17th - century colonnaded palace housing an art museum that regularly hosts world - class exhibits of Mexican and international art. Recent exhibits have included those on David LaChapelle, Antony Gormley and Ron Mueck. The National Museum of Art (Museo Nacional de Arte) is also located in a former palace in the historic center. It houses a large collection of pieces by all major Mexican artists of the last 400 years and also hosts visiting exhibits.
Jack Kerouac, the noted American author, spent extended periods of time in the city, and wrote his masterpiece volume of poetry Mexico City Blues here. Another American author, William S. Burroughs, also lived in the Colonia Roma neighborhood of the city for some time. It was here that he accidentally shot his wife.
Most of Mexico City 's more than 150 museums can be visited from Tuesday to Sunday from 10 am to 5 pm, although some of them have extended schedules, such as the Museum of Anthropology and History, which is open to 7 pm. In addition to this, entrance to most museums are free on Sunday. In some cases a modest fee may be charged.
Another major addition to the city 's museum scene is the Museum of Remembrance and Tolerance (Museo de la Memoria y Tolerancia), inaugurated in early 2011. The brainchild of two young Mexican women as a Holocaust museum, the idea morphed into a unique museum dedicated to showcasing all major historical events of discrimination and genocide. Permanent exhibits include those on the Holocaust and other large - scale atrocities. It also houses temporary exhibits; one on Tibet was inaugurated by the Dalai Lama in September 2011.
Mexico City is home to a number of orchestras offering season programs. These include the Mexico City Philharmonic, which performs at the Sala Ollin Yoliztli; the National Symphony Orchestra, whose home base is the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of the Fine Arts), a masterpiece of art nouveau and art decó styles; the Philharmonic Orchestra of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (OFUNAM), and the Minería Symphony Orchestra, both of which perform at the Sala Nezahualcóyotl, which was the first wrap - around concert hall of the world 's western hemisphere when inaugurated in 1976. There are also many smaller ensembles that enrich the city 's musical scene, including the Carlos Chávez Youth Symphony, the Cuarteto Latinoamericano, the New World Orchestra (Orquesta del Nuevo Mundo), the National Polytechnical Symphony and the Bellas Artes Chamber Orchestra (Orquesta de Cámara de Bellas Artes).
The city is also a leading center of popular culture and music. There are a multitude of venues hosting Spanish and foreign - language performers. These include the 10,000 - seat National Auditorium that regularly schedules the Spanish and English - language pop and rock artists, as well as many of the world 's leading performing arts ensembles, the auditorium also broadcasts Grand Opera performances from New York 's Metropolitan Opera on giant, high definition screens. In 2007 National Auditorium was selected world 's best venue by multiple genre media.
Other popular sites for pop - artist performances include the 3,000 - seat Teatro Metropolitan, the 15,000 - seat Palacio de los Deportes, and the larger 50,000 - seat Foro Sol Stadium, where popular international artists perform on a regular basis. The Cirque du Soleil has held several seasons at the Carpa Santa Fe, in the Santa Fe district in the western part of the city. There are numerous venues for smaller musical ensembles and solo performers. These include the Hard Rock Live, Bataclán, Foro Scotiabank, Lunario, Circo Volador and Voilá Acoustique. Recent additions include the 20,000 - seat Arena Ciudad de México, the 3,000 - seat Pepsi Center World Trade Center, and the 2,500 - seat Auditorio Blackberry.
The Centro Nacional de las Artes (National Center for the Arts has several venues for music, theatre, dance. UNAM 's main campus, also in the southern part of the city, is home to the Centro Cultural Universitario (the University Culture Center) (CCU). The CCU also houses the National Library, the interactive Universum, Museo de las Ciencias, the Sala Nezahualcóyotl concert hall, several theatres and cinemas, and the new University Museum of Contemporary Art (MUAC). A branch of the National University 's CCU cultural center was inaugurated in 2007 in the facilities of the former Ministry of Foreign Affairs, known as Tlatelolco, in north - central Mexico City.
The José Vasconcelos Library, a national library, is located on the grounds of the former Buenavista railroad station in the northern part of the city.
The Papalote children 's museum, which houses the world 's largest dome screen, is located in the wooded park of Chapultepec, near the Museo Tecnológico, and La Feria amusement park. The theme park Six Flags México (the largest amusement park in Latin America) is located in the Ajusco neighborhood, in Tlalpan borough, southern Mexico City. During the winter, the main square of the Zócalo is transformed into a gigantic ice skating rink, which is said to be the largest in the world behind that of Moscow 's Red Square.
The Cineteca Nacional (the Mexican Film Library), near the Coyoacán suburb, shows a variety of films, and stages many film festivals, including the annual International Showcase, and many smaller ones ranging from Scandinavian and Uruguayan cinema, to Jewish and LGBT - themed films. Cinépolis and Cinemex, the two biggest film business chains, also have several film festivals throughout the year, with both national and international movies. Mexico City tops the world in number of IMAX theatres, providing residents and visitors access to films ranging from documentaries to popular blockbusters on these especially large, dramatic screens.
Mexico City offers a variety of cuisines. Restaurants specializing in the regional cuisines of Mexico 's 31 states are available in the city. Also available are an array of international cuisines, including Canadian, French, Italian, Croatian, Spanish (including many regional variations), Jewish, Lebanese, Chinese (again with regional variations), Indian, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Vietnamese; and of course fellow Latin American cuisines such as Argentine, Brazilian, and Peruvian. Haute, fusion, kosher, vegetarian and vegan cuisines are also available, as are restaurants solely based on the concepts of local food and slow Food.
Mexico City is known for having some of the freshest fish and seafood in Mexico 's interior. La Nueva Viga Market is the second largest seafood market in the world after the Tsukiji fish market in Japan.
The city also has several branches of renowned international restaurants and chefs. These include Paris ' Au Pied de Cochon and Brasserie Lipp, Philippe (by Philippe Chow); Nobu, Morimoto; Pámpano, owned by Mexican - raised opera legend Plácido Domingo. There are branches of the exclusive Japanese restaurant Suntory, Rome 's famed Alfredo, as well as New York steakhouses Morton 's and The Palm, and Monte Carlo 's BeefBar. Three of the most famous Lima - based Haute Peruvian restaurants, La Mar, Segundo Muelle and Astrid y Gastón have locations in Mexico City.
For the 2014 list of World 's 50 Best Restaurants as named by the British magazine Restaurant, Mexico City ranked with the Mexican avant - garde restaurant Pujol (owned by Mexican chef Enrique Olvera) at 20th best. Also notable is the Basque - Mexican fusion restaurant Biko (run and co-owned by Bruno Oteiza and Mikel Alonso), which placed outside the list at 59th, but in previous years has ranked within the top 50.
Mexico 's award - winning wines are offered at many restaurants, and the city offers unique experiences for tasting the regional spirits, with broad selections of tequila and mezcal.
At the other end of the scale are working class pulque bars known as pulquerías, a challenge for tourists to locate and experience.
Association football is the country 's most popular and most televised franchised sport. Its important venues in Mexico City include the Azteca Stadium, home to the Mexico national football team and giants América, which can seat 91,653 fans, making it the biggest stadium in Latin America. The Olympic Stadium in Ciudad Universitaria is home to the football club giants Universidad Nacional, with a seating capacity of over 52,000. The Estadio Azul, which seats 33,042 fans, is near the World Trade Center Mexico City in the Nochebuena neighborhood, and is home to the giants Cruz Azul. The three teams are based in Mexico City and play in the First Division; they are also part, with Guadalajara - based giants Club Deportivo Guadalajara, of Mexico 's traditional "Big Four '' (though recent years have tended to erode the teams ' leading status at least in standings). The country hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1970 and 1986, and Azteca Stadium is the first stadium in World Cup history to host the final twice.
Mexico City is the first Latin American city to host the Olympic Games, having held the Summer Olympics in 1968, winning bids against Buenos Aires, Lyon and Detroit. The city hosted the 1955 and 1975 Pan American Games, the last after Santiago and São Paulo withdrew. The ICF Flatwater Racing World Championships were hosted here in 1974 and 1994. Lucha libre is a Mexican style of wrestling, and is one of the more popular sports throughout the country. The main venues in the city are Arena México and Arena Coliseo.
The Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez is the main venue for motorsport, and hosts the Formula 1 Mexican Grand Prix since its return to the sport in 2015, the event being held in the past from 1962 to 1970, and again from 1986 to 1992. From 1980 to 1981 and again from 2002 to 2007, the circuit hosted the Champ Car World Series Gran Premio de México. Beginning in 2005, the NASCAR Nationwide Series ran the Telcel - Motorola México 200. 2005 also marked the first running of the Mexico City 250 by the Grand - Am Rolex Sports Car Series. Both races were removed from their series ' schedules for 2009.
Baseball is another sport played professionally in the city. Mexico City is currently home of the Mexico City Red Devils of the Mexican League, which is considered a Triple - A league by Major League Baseball. The Devils play their home games at the Fray Nano Stadium, a temporary venue until their new ballpark is completed. Mexico City has some 10 Little Leagues for young baseball players.
In 2005, Mexico City became the first city to host an NFL regular season game outside of the United States, at the Azteca Stadium. The crowd of 103,467 people attending this game was the largest ever for a regular season game in NFL history until 2009. The city has also hosted several NBA pre-season games and has hosted international basketball 's FIBA Americas Championship, along with north - of - the - border Major League Baseball exhibition games at Foro Sol. In 2017, NBA commissioner Adam Silver expressed interest in placing an NBA G League expansion team in Mexico City as early as 2018.
Other sports facilities in Mexico City are the Palacio de los Deportes indoor arena, Francisco Márquez Olympic Swimming Pool, the Hipódromo de Las Américas, the Agustin Melgar Olympic Velodrome, and venues for equestrianism and horse racing, ice hockey, rugby, American - style football, baseball, and basketball.
Bullfighting takes place every Sunday during bullfighting season at the 50,000 - seat Plaza México, the world 's largest bullring.
Mexico City 's golf courses have hosted Women 's LPGA action, and two Men 's Golf World Cups. Courses throughout the city are available as private as well as public venues.
The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), located in Mexico City, is the largest university on the continent, with more than 300,000 students from all backgrounds. Three Nobel laureates, several Mexican entrepreneurs and most of Mexico 's modern - day presidents are among its former students. UNAM conducts 50 % of Mexico 's scientific research and has presence all across the country with satellite campuses, observatories and research centres. UNAM ranked 74th in the Top 200 World University Ranking published by Times Higher Education (then called Times Higher Education Supplement) in 2006, making it the highest ranked Spanish - speaking university in the world. The sprawling main campus of the university, known as Ciudad Universitaria, was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2007.
The second largest higher - education institution is the National Polytechnic Institute (IPN), which includes among many other relevant centers the Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados (Cinvestav), where varied high - level scientific and technological research is done. Other major higher - education institutions in the city include the Metropolitan Autonomous University (UAM), the National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH), the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM), the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (3 campuses), the Universidad Panamericana (UP), the Universidad La Salle, the Universidad del Valle de Mexico (UVM), the Universidad Anáhuac, Simon Bolivar University (USB), the Alliant International University, the Universidad Iberoamericana, El Colegio de México (Colmex), Escuela Libre de Derecho and the Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económica, (CIDE). In addition, the prestigious University of California maintains a campus known as "Casa de California '' in the city. The Universidad Tecnológica de México is also in Mexico City.
Unlike those of Mexican states ' schools, curricula of Mexico City 's public schools is managed by the federal Secretary of Public Education. The whole funding is allocated by the government of Mexico City (in some specific cases, such as El Colegio de México, funding comes from both the city 's government and other public and private national and international entities). The city 's public high school system is the Instituto de Educación Media Superior del Distrito Federal (IEMS - DF).
A special case is that of El Colegio Nacional, created during the district 's governmental period of Miguel Alemán Valdés to have, in Mexico, an institution similar to the College of France. The select and privileged group of Mexican scientists and artists belonging to this institution -- membership is for life -- include, among many, Mario Lavista, Ruy Pérez Tamayo, José Emilio Pacheco, Marcos Moshinsky (d. 2009), Guillermo Soberón Acevedo. Members are obligated to publicly disclose their works through conferences and public events such as concerts and recitals.
Among its many public and private schools (K -- 13), the city offers multi-cultural, multi-lingual and international schools attended by Mexican and foreign students. Best known are the Colegio Alemán (German school with three main campuses), the Liceo Mexicano Japonés (Japanese), the Centro Cultural Coreano en México (Korean), the Lycée Franco - Mexicain (French), the American School, The Westhill Institute (American School), the Edron Academy and the Greengates School (British).
Mexico City is Latin America 's leading center for the television, music and film industries. It is also Mexico 's most important for the printed media and book publishing industries. Dozens of daily newspapers are published, including El Universal, Excélsior, Reforma and La Jornada. Other major papers include Milenio, Crónica, El Economista and El Financiero. Leading magazines include Expansión, Proceso, Poder, as well as dozens of entertainment publications such as Vanidades, Quién, Chilango, TV Notas, and local editions of Vogue, GQ, and Architectural Digest.
It is also a leading center of the advertising industry. Most international ad firms have offices in the city, including Grey, JWT, Leo Burnett, Euro RSCG, BBDO, Ogilvy, Saatchi & Saatchi, and McCann Erickson. Many local firms also compete in the sector, including Alazraki, Olabuenaga / Chemistri, Terán, Augusto Elías, and Clemente Cámara, among others. There are 60 radio stations operating in the city and many local community radio transmission networks.
The two largest media companies in the Spanish - speaking world, Televisa and Azteca, are headquartered in Mexico City. Other local television channels include:
XEW 2, XHTV 4, XHGC 5, XHIMT 7, XEQ 9, XEIPN 11, XHDF 13, XHUNAM 20, XHCDM 21, XEIMT 22, XHTRES 28, XHTVM 40 and XHHCU 45.
Mexico City offers an immense and varied consumer retail market, ranging from basic foods to ultra high - end luxury goods. Consumers may buy in fixed indoor markets, mobile markets (tianguis), from street vendors, from downtown shops in a street dedicated to a certain type of good, in convenience stores and traditional neighborhood stores, in modern supermarkets, in warehouse and membership stores and the shopping centers that they anchor, in department stores, big - box stores and in modern shopping malls.
In addition, "tianguis '' or mobile markets set up shop on streets in many neighborhoods, depending on day of week. Sundays see the largest number of these markets.
The city 's main source of fresh produce is the Central de Abasto. This in itself is a self - contained mini-city in Iztapalapa borough covering an area equivalent to several dozen city blocks. The wholesale market supplies most of the city 's "mercados '', supermarkets and restaurants, as well as people who come to buy the produce for themselves. Tons of fresh produce are trucked in from all over Mexico every day.
The principal fish market is known as La Nueva Viga, in the same complex as the Central de Abastos. The world - renowned market of Tepito occupies 25 blocks, and sells a variety of products.
A staple for consumers in the city is the omnipresent "mercado ''. Every major neighborhood in the city has its own borough - regulated market, often more than one. These are large well - established facilities offering most basic products, such as fresh produce and meat / poultry, dry goods, tortillerías, and many other services such as locksmiths, herbal medicine, hardware goods, sewing implements; and a multitude of stands offering freshly made, home - style cooking and drinks in the tradition of aguas frescas and atole.
Street vendors ply their trade from stalls in the tianguis as well as at non-officially controlled concentrations around metro stations and hospitals; at plazas comerciales, where vendors of a certain "theme '' (e.g. stationery) are housed; originally these were organized to accommodate vendors formerly selling on the street; or simply from improvised stalls on a city sidewalk. In addition, food and goods are sold from people walking with baskets, pushing carts, from bicycles or the backs of trucks, or simply from a tarp or cloth laid on the ground. In the centre of the city informal street vendors are increasingly targeted by laws and prosecution. The weekly San Felipe de Jesús Tianguis is reported to be the largest in Latin America.
The Historic Center of Mexico City is widely known for specialized, often low - cost retailers. Certain blocks or streets are dedicated to shops selling a certain type of merchandise, with areas dedicated to over 40 categories such as home appliances, lamps and electricals, closets and bathrooms, housewares, wedding dresses, jukeboxes, printing, office furniture and safes, books, photography, jewelry, and opticians. The main department stores are also represented downtown.
Traditional markets downtown include the La Merced Market; the Mercado de Jamaica specializes in fresh flowers, the Mercado de Sonora in the occult, and La Lagunilla in furniture.
Ethnic shopping areas are located in Chinatown, downtown along Calle Dolores, but Mexico City 's Koreatown, or Pequeño Seúl, is located in the Zona Rosa.
Large, modern chain supermarkets, hypermarkets and warehouse clubs including Soriana, Comercial Mexicana, Chedraui, Bodega Aurrerá, Walmart and Costco, are located across the city. Many anchor shopping centers that contain smaller shops, services, a food court and sometimes cinemas.
Small "mom - and - pop '' corner stores ("abarroterías '' or more colloquially as "changarros '') abound in all neighborhoods, rich and poor. These are small shops offering basics such as soft drinks, packaged snacks, canned goods and dairy products. Thousands of C - stores or corner stores, such as Oxxo, 7 - Eleven and Extra are located throughout the city.
Chapultepec Park, the city 's most iconic public park, has history back to the Aztec emperors who used the area as a retreat. It is south of Polanco district, and houses the city 's zoo, several ponds, seven museums including the National Museum of Anthropology, and the oldest and most traditional amusement park, La Feria de Chapultepec Mágico, with its vintage Montaña Rusa rollercoaster.
Other iconic city parks include the Alameda Central, Mexico City historic center, a city park since colonial times and renovated in 2013; Parque México and Parque España in the hip Condesa district; Parque Hundido and Parque de los Venados in Colonia del Valle, and Parque Lincoln in Polanco. There are many smaller parks throughout the city. Most are small "squares '' occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts.
Several other larger parks such as the Bosque de Tlalpan and Viveros de Coyoacán, and in the east Alameda Oriente, offer many recreational activities. Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón. In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market, a World Heritage site. West of Santa Fe district are the pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park.
Amusement parks include Six Flags México, in Ajusco neighborhood which is the largest in Latin America. There are numerous seasonal fairs present in the city.
Mexico City has three zoos. Chapultepec Zoo, the San Juan de Aragon Zoo and Los Coyotes Zoo. Chapultepec Zoo is located in the first section of Chapultepec Park in the Miguel Hidalgo. It was opened in 1924. Visitors can see about 243 specimens of different species including kangaroos, giant panda, gorillas, caracal, hyena, hippos, jaguar, giraffe, lemur, lion, among others. Zoo San Juan de Aragon is near the San Juan de Aragon Park in the Gustavo A. Madero. In this zoo, opened in 1964, there are species that are in danger of extinction such as the jaguar and the Mexican wolf. Other guests are the golden eagle, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, caracara, zebras, African elephant, macaw, hippo, among others. Zoo Los Coyotes is a 27.68 - acre (11.2 ha) zoo located south of Mexico City in the Coyoacan. It was inaugurated on February 2, 1999. It has more than 301 specimens of 51 species of wild native or endemic fauna from the Mexico City. You can admire eagles, ajolotes, coyotes, macaws, bobcats, Mexican wolves, raccoons, mountain lions, teporingos, foxes, white - tailed deer.
Mexico City was traditionally known as La Ciudad de los Palacios ("the City of the Palaces ''), a nickname attributed to Baron Alexander von Humboldt when visiting the city in the 19th century, who, sending a letter back to Europe, said Mexico City could rival any major city in Europe.
During Andrés López Obrador 's administration a political slogan was introduced: la Ciudad de la Esperanza ("The City of Hope ''). This motto was quickly adopted as a city nickname, but has faded since the new motto Capital en Movimiento ("Capital in Movement '') was adopted by the administration headed by Marcelo Ebrard, though the latter is not treated as often as a nickname in media. Since 2013, to refer to the City particularly in relation to government campaigns, the abbreviation CDMX has been used (from Ciudad de México).
The city is colloquially known as Chilangolandia after the locals ' nickname chilangos. Chilango is used pejoratively by people living outside Mexico City to "connote a loud, arrogant, ill - mannered, loutish person ''. For their part those living in Mexico City designate insultingly those who live elsewhere as living in la provincia ("the provinces '', the periphery) and many proudly embrace the term chilango. Residents of Mexico City are more recently called defeños (deriving from the postal abbreviation of the Federal District in Spanish: D.F., which is read "De-Efe ''). They are formally called capitalinos (in reference to the city being the capital of the country), but "(p) erhaps because capitalino is the more polite, specific, and correct word, it is almost never utilized ''.
The Secretariat of Public Security of the Federal District (Secretaría de Seguridad Pública del Distrito Federal -- SSP) manages a combined force of over 90,000 officers in the Federal District (DF). The SSP is charged with maintaining public order and safety in the heart of Mexico City. The historic district is also roamed by tourist police, aiming to orient and serve tourists. These horse - mounted agents dress in traditional uniforms.
The investigative Judicial Police of the Federal District (Policía Judicial del Distrito Federal -- PJDF) is organized under the Office of the Attorney General of the DF (the Procuraduría General de Justicia del Distrito Federal). The PGJDF maintains 16 precincts (delegaciones) with an estimated 3,500 judicial police, 1,100 investigating agents for prosecuting attorneys (agentes del ministerio público), and nearly 1,000 criminology experts or specialists (peritos).
Between 2000 and 2004 an average of 478 crimes were reported each day in Mexico City; however, the actual crime rate is thought to be much higher "since most people are reluctant to report crime ''. Under policies enacted by Mayor Marcelo Ebrard between 2009 and 2011, Mexico City underwent a major security upgrade with violent and petty crime rates both falling significantly despite the rise in violent crime in other parts of the country. Some of the policies enacted included the installation of 11,000 security cameras around the city and a very large expansion of the police force. Mexico City has one of the world 's highest police officer - to - resident ratios, with one uniformed officer per 100 citizens. Since 1997 the prison population has increased by more than 500 %. Political scientist Markus - Michael Müller argues that mostly informal street vendors are hit by these measures. He sees punishment "related to the growing politicisation of security and crime issues and the resulting criminalisation of the people living at the margins of urban society, in particular those who work in the city 's informal economy. ''
Mexico City is twinned with:
Mexico is part of the Union of Ibero - American Capital Cities, which was founded on October 12, 1982, to establish and foster brotherly relations between the following cities:
1 Tokyo - Yokohama 2 Shanghai 3 Jakarta 4 Delhi 5 Seoul - Incheon
6 Karachi 7 Guangzhou 8 Beijing 9 Shenzhen 7 Mexico City
11 São Paulo 12 Lagos 13 Mumbai 14 Cairo 15 New York
16 Osaka 17 Moscow 18 Beijing 19 Chengdu 20 Dhaka
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what were the two sides of the chinese civil war | Chinese Civil war - wikipedia
Chinese Communist victory
The Chinese Civil War was a war fought between the Kuomintang (KMT) - led government of the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China (CPC). Although particular attention is paid to the four years of Chinese Communist Revolution from 1945 to 1949, the war actually started in August 1927, with the White Terror at the end of Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek 's Northern Expedition, and essentially ended when major hostilities between the two sides ceased in 1950. The conflict took place in two stages: the first between 1927 and 1937, and the second from 1946 to 1950, with the Second Sino - Japanese War in 1937 -- 1945 separating them. The war marked a major turning point in modern Chinese history, with the Communists gaining control of mainland China and establishing the People 's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the Republic of China (ROC) to retreat to Taiwan. It resulted in a lasting political and military standoff between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, with the ROC in Taiwan and the PRC on mainland China with both officially claiming to be the legitimate government of all China.
The war represented an ideological split between the communist CPC and the nationalist KMT. Conflict continued intermittently until late 1937, when the two parties came together to form the Second United Front to counter the Imperial Japanese Army threat and to prevent the country from crumbling. Full - scale civil war in China resumed in 1946, a year after the end of hostilities with the Empire of Japan in September 1945. Four years later came the cessation of major military activity, with the newly founded People 's Republic of China controlling mainland China (including the island of Hainan), and the Republic of China 's jurisdiction restricted to Taiwan, Penghu, Quemoy, Matsu and several outlying islands.
As of April 2018 no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed, and the debate continues as to whether the civil war has legally ended. Relations between both sides, officially called the Cross-Strait relations, have been hindered by military threats and political and economic pressure, particularly over Taiwan 's political status, with both governments officially adhering to the One - China policy. The PRC still actively claims Taiwan as part of its territory and continues to threaten the ROC with a military invasion if the ROC officially declares independence by changing its name to and gaining international recognition as the "Republic of Taiwan ''. The ROC, for its part, claims mainland China, and both parties continue the fight over diplomatic recognition. As of 2018 the war as such occurs on the political and economic fronts in the relations without actual military action. However, the two separate governments in China have close economic ties.
Following the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in the aftermath of the Xinhai Revolution, China fell into a brief period of civil war before Yuan Shikai assumed the presidency of the newly formed Republic of China. The administration became known as the Beiyang Government, with its capital in Peking. After the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, the following years were characterized by the power struggle between different cliques in the former Beiyang Army. In the meantime, the Kuomintang, led by Sun Yat - sen, created a new government in Guangzhou to resist the rule of Beiyang Government through a series of movements.
Sun 's efforts to obtain aid from the Western countries were ignored, thus he turned to the Soviet Union in 1921. For political expediency, the Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for both Sun and the newly established Communist Party of China, which would eventually found the People 's Republic of China. Thus the struggle for power in China began between the KMT and the CPC.
In 1923, a joint statement by Sun and Soviet representative Adolph Joffe in Shanghai pledged Soviet assistance to China 's unification. The Sun - Joffe Manifesto was a declaration of cooperation among the Comintern, KMT and CPC. Comintern agent Mikhail Borodin arrived in China in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CPC joined the KMT to form the First United Front.
In 1923, Sun sent Chiang Kai - shek, one of his lieutenants from his Tongmenghui days, for several months of military and political study in the Soviet capital Moscow. By 1924, Chiang became the head of the Whampoa Military Academy, and rose to prominence as Sun 's successor as head of the KMT.
The Soviets provided the academy with much educational material, organization and equipment, including munitions. They also provided education in many of the techniques for mass mobilization. With this aid, Sun was able to raise a dedicated "army of the party, '' with which he hoped to defeat the warlords militarily. CPC members were also present in the academy, and many of them became instructors, including Zhou Enlai, who was made a political instructor.
Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis. The CPC itself was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1,500 by 1925. As of 1923, the KMT had 50,000 members.
However, after Sun died in 1925, the KMT split into left - and right - wing movements. KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CPC. The CPC then began movements in opposition of the Northern Expedition, passing a resolution against it at a party meeting.
Then, in March 1927, the KMT held its second party meeting where the Soviets helped pass resolutions against the Expedition and curbing Chiang 's power. Soon, the KMT would be clearly divided.
Throughout this time the Soviet Union had a large impact on the Communist Party of China. They sent money and spies to support the Chinese Communist Party. Without their support the communist party would have failed. There are documents showing of other communist parties in China at the time, one with as many as 10,000 members, but they all failed without support from the Soviet Union.
In early 1927, the KMT - CPC rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CPC and the left wing of the KMT had decided to move the seat of the KMT government from Guangzhou to Wuhan, where communist influence was strong. However, Chiang and Li Zongren, whose armies defeated warlord Sun Chuanfang, moved eastward toward Jiangxi. The leftists rejected Chiang 's demand to eliminate Communist influence within KMT and Chiang denounced them for betraying Sun Yat - sen 's Three Principles of the People by taking orders from the Soviet Union. According to Mao Zedong, Chiang 's tolerance of the CPC in the KMT camp decreased as his power increased.
On April 7, Chiang and several other KMT leaders held a meeting, during which they proposed that Communist activities were socially and economically disruptive and had to be undone for the Nationalist revolution to proceed. On April 12, in Shanghai, many Communist members in the KMT were purged through hundreds of arrests and executions on the orders of General Bai Chongxi. The CPC referred to this as the April 12 Incident or Shanghai Massacre. This incident widened the rift between Chiang and Wang Jingwei, another warlord who controlled the city of Wuhan.
Eventually, the left wing of the KMT also expelled CPC members from the Wuhan government, which in turn was toppled by Chiang Kai - shek. The KMT resumed its campaign against warlords and captured Beijing in June 1928. Soon, most of eastern China was under the control of the Nanjing central government, which received prompt international recognition as the sole legitimate government of China. The KMT government announced, in conformity with Sun Yat - sen, the formula for the three stages of revolution: military unification, political tutelage, and constitutional democracy.
On 1 August 1927, the Communist Party launched an uprising in Nanchang against the Nationalist government in Wuhan. This conflict led to the creation of the Red Army. On August 4, the main forces of the Red Army left Nanchang and headed southwards for an assault on Guangdong. Nationalist forces quickly reoccupied Nanchang while the remaining members of the CPC in Nanchang went into hiding. A CPC meeting on August 7 confirmed the objective of the party is to seize the political power by force, but the CPC was quickly suppressed the next day on August 8 by the Nationalist government in Wuhan led by Wang Jingwei. On August 14, Chiang Kai - shek announced his temporary retirement, as the Wuhan faction and Nanjing faction of the Kuomintang were allied once again with common goal of suppressing the Communist Party after the earlier split.
Attempts were later made by the CPC to take the cities of Changsha, Shantou and Guangzhou. The Red Army consisting of mutinous former National Revolutionary Army (NRA) soldiers as well as armed peasants established control over several areas in southern China. KMT forces continued to attempt to suppress the rebellions. Then, in September, Wang Jingwei was forced out of Wuhan. September also saw an unsuccessful armed rural insurrection, known as the Autumn Harvest Uprising, led by Mao Zedong. Borodin then returned to the USSR in October via Mongolia. In November, Chiang Kai - shek went to Shanghai and invited Wang to join him. On December 11, the CPC started the Guangzhou Uprising, establishing a soviet there the next day, but lost the city by December 13 to a counter-attack under the orders of General Zhang Fakui. On December 16, Wang Jingwei fled to France. There were now three capitals in China: the internationally recognized republic capital in Beijing, the CPC and left - wing KMT at Wuhan and the right - wing KMT regime at Nanjing, which would remain the KMT capital for the next decade.
This marked the beginning of a ten - year armed struggle, known in mainland China as the "Ten - Year Civil War '' (十 年 内战) which ended with the Xi'an Incident when Chiang Kai - shek was forced to form the Second United Front against invading forces from Japan. In 1930 the Central Plains War broke out as an internal conflict of the KMT. It was launched by Feng Yuxiang, Yan Xishan and Wang Jingwei. The attention was turned to root out remaining pockets of Communist activity in a series of five encirclement campaigns. The first and second campaigns failed and the third was aborted due to the Mukden Incident. The fourth campaign (1932 -- 1933) achieved some early successes, but Chiang 's armies were badly mauled when they tried to penetrate into the heart of Mao 's Soviet Chinese Republic. During these campaigns, KMT columns struck swiftly into Communist areas, but were easily engulfed by the vast countryside and were not able to consolidate their foothold.
Finally, in late 1934, Chiang launched a fifth campaign that involved the systematic encirclement of the Jiangxi Soviet region with fortified blockhouses. Unlike previous campaigns in which they penetrated deeply in a single strike, this time the KMT troops patiently built blockhouses, each separated by about five miles, to surround the Communist areas and cut off their supplies and food sources.
In October 1934 the CPC took advantage of gaps in the ring of blockhouses (manned by the forces of a warlord ally of Chiang Kai - shek 's, rather than regular KMT troops) and broke out of the encirclement. The warlord armies were reluctant to challenge Communist forces for fear of losing their own men and did not pursue the CPC with much fervor. In addition, the main KMT forces were preoccupied with annihilating Zhang Guotao 's army, which was much larger than Mao 's. The massive military retreat of Communist forces lasted a year and covered what Mao estimated as 12,500 km (25,000 Li); it became known as the Long March. The Long March was a military retreat taken on by the Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong to evade the pursuit or attack of the Kuomintang army. It consisted of a series of marches, during which numerous Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west. Over the course of the march from Jiangxi the First Front Army, led by an inexperienced military commission, was on the brink of annihilation by Chiang Kai Shek 's troops as their stronghold was in Jiangxi. The Communists, under the command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, "escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed over 9,000 kilometers over 370 days ''. The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west, and then northwards towards Shaanxi. "In November 1935, shortly after settling in northern Shaanxi, Mao officially took over Zhou Enlai 's leading position in the Red Army. Following a major reshuffling of official roles, Mao became the chairman of the Military Commission, with Zhou and Deng Xiaoping as vice-chairmen. '' This marked Mao 's position as the pre-eminent leader of the Party, with Zhou in second position to him.
The march ended when the CPC reached the interior of Shaanxi. Zhang Guotao 's army, which took a different route through northwest China, was largely destroyed by the forces of Chiang Kai - shek and his Chinese Muslim allies, the Ma clique. Along the way, the Communist army confiscated property and weapons from local warlords and landlords, while recruiting peasants and the poor, solidifying its appeal to the masses. Of the 90,000 -- 100,000 people who began the Long March from the Soviet Chinese Republic, only around 7,000 -- 8,000 made it to Shaanxi. The remnants of Zhang 's forces eventually joined Mao in Shaanxi, but with his army destroyed, Zhang, even as a founding member of the CPC, was never able to challenge Mao 's authority. Essentially, the great retreat made Mao the undisputed leader of the Communist Party of China.
The Kuomintang used Khampa troops -- who were former bandits -- to battle the Communist Red Army as it advanced and to undermine local warlords who often refused to fight Communist forces to conserve their own strength. The KMT enlisted 300 "Khampa bandits '' into its Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan, where they were part of the effort of the central government to penetrate and destabilize local Han warlords such as Liu Wenhui. The government was seeking to exert full control over frontier areas against the warlords. Liu had refused to battle the Communists in order to conserve his army. The Consolatory Commission forces were used to battle the Red Army, but they were defeated when their religious leader was captured by the Communists.
In 1936, Zhou Enlai and Zhang Xueliang grew closer, with Zhang even suggesting that he join the CPC. However, this was turned down by the Comintern in the USSR. Later on, Zhou persuaded Zhang and Yang Hucheng, another warlord, to instigate the Xi'an Incident. Chiang was placed under house arrest and forced to stop his attacks on the Red Army, instead focusing on the Japanese threat.
The situation in China in 1929: After the Northern Expedition, the KMT had direct control over east and central China, while the rest of China proper as well as Manchuria was under the control of warlords loyal to the Nationalist government.
Map showing the communist - controlled Soviet Zones of China during and after the encirclement campaigns.
Route (s) taken by Communist forces during the Long March.
A Communist leader addressing survivors of the Long March.
During Japan 's invasion and occupation of Manchuria Chiang Kai - shek, who saw the CPC as a greater threat, refused to ally with them to fight against the Imperial Japanese Army. Chiang preferred to unite China by eliminating the warlords and CPC forces first. He believed that he was still too weak to launch an offensive to chase out Japan and that China needed time for a military build - up. Only after unification would it be possible for the KMT to mobilize a war against Japan. So he would rather ignore the discontent and anger among Chinese people at his policy of compromise with the Japanese, and ordered KMT generals Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng to carry out suppression of the CPC; however, their provincial forces suffered significant casualties in battles with the Red Army. ref
On 12 December 1936, the disgruntled Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng conspired to kidnap Chiang and force him into a truce with the CPC. The incident became known as the Xi'an Incident. Both parties suspended fighting to form a Second United Front to focus their energies and fighting against the Japanese. In 1937 Japan launched its full - scale invasion of China and its well - equipped troops overran KMT defenders in northern and coastal China.
The alliance of CPC and KMT was in name only. Unlike the KMT troops, CPC shunned conventional warfare and instead engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese. The level of actual cooperation and coordination between the CPC and KMT during World War II was at best minimal. In the midst of the Second United Front, the CPC and the KMT were still vying for territorial advantage in "Free China '' (i.e., areas not occupied by the Japanese or ruled by Japanese puppet governments such as Manchukuo and the Reorganized National Government of China).
The situation came to a head in late 1940 and early 1941 when clashes between Communist and KMT forces intensified. In December 1940 Chiang demanded that the CPC 's New Fourth Army evacuate Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces due to its provocation and harassment of KMT forces in this area. Under intense pressure, the New Fourth Army commanders complied. In 1941 they were ambushed by KMT forces during their evacuation, which led to several thousand deaths. It also ended the Second United Front, which had been formed earlier to fight the Japanese.
Despite the intensified clashes between the CPC and KMT, countries such as the US and the Soviet Union attempted to prevent a disastrous civil war. After the New Fourth Army incident, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt sent special envoy Lauchlin Currie to talk with Chiang Kai - shek and KMT party leaders to express their concern regarding the hostility between the two parties, with Currie stating that the only ones to benefit from a civil war would be the Japanese. In 1941 the Soviet Union, with its closer alliance to the CPC, also sent an imperative telegram to Mao warning that the civil war would also make the situation easier for the Japanese military. Due to the international community 's efforts, there was a temporary and superficial peace. In 1943 Chiang attacked the CPC with the propaganda piece China 's Destiny, which questioned the CPC 's power after the war, while the CPC strongly opposed Chiang 's leadership and referred to his regime as fascist in an attempt to generate a negative public image. Both leaders knew that a deadly battle had begun between themselves.
In general, developments in the Second Sino - Japanese War were to the advantage of the CPC, as its guerrilla war tactics had won them popular support within the Japanese - occupied areas, while the KMT 's had to defend the country against the main Japanese campaigns to take over the country, since it was the legal Chinese government, and this proved costly to Chiang Kai - shek and his troops. In 1944 Japan launched its last major offensive, Operation Ichi - Go, against the KMT that resulted in the severe weakening of Chiang 's forces. Also, the CPC suffered fewer losses through their guerrilla tactics. By the end of the war, the Red Army had grown to more than 1.3 million members, with a separate militia of over 2.6 million members. About one hundred million people lived in CPC - controlled zones.
Under the terms of the Japanese unconditional surrender dictated by the United States, Japanese troops were ordered to surrender to KMT troops and not to the CPC, which was present in some of the occupied areas. In Manchuria, however, where the KMT had no forces, the Japanese surrendered to the Soviet Union. Chiang Kai - shek ordered the Japanese troops to remain at their post to receive the Kuomintang and not surrender their arms to the Communists.
The first post-war peace negotiation was attended by both Chiang Kai - shek and Mao Zedong in Chongqing from 28 August 1945 and concluded on 10 October 1945 with the signing of Double Tenth Agreement. Both sides stressed the importance of a peaceful reconstruction, but the conference did not produce any concrete results. Battles between the two sides continued even as peace negotiations were in progress, until the agreement was reached in January 1946. However, large campaigns and full - scale confrontations between the CPC and Chiang 's troops were temporarily avoided.
In the last month of World War II in East Asia, Soviet forces launched the huge Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation to attack the Japanese 2 million strong Kwantung Army in Manchuria and along the Chinese - Mongolian border. This operation destroyed the fighting capability of Japan 's Kwantung Army in just 3 weeks and left the USSR occupying all of Manchuria by the end of the war in a total power vacuum of local Chinese forces. Consequently, the 700,000 Japanese troops stationed in the region surrendered. Later in the year Chiang Kai - shek realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CPC takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure. He therefore made a deal with the Russians to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of his best - trained men and modern material into the region; however, the Russians refused permission for the Nationalist troops to traverse its territory. KMT troops were then airlifted by the US to occupy key cities in North China, while the countryside was already dominated by the CPC. On 15 November 1945, an offensive began with the intent of preventing the CPC from strengthening its already strong base. The Soviets spent the extra time systematically dismantling the extensive Manchurian industrial base (worth up to $2 billion) and shipping it back to their war - ravaged country.
Yang Kuisong, a Chinese historian, said that in 1945 -- 46, during the Soviet Red Army Manchurian campaign, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin commanded Marshal Rodion Malinovsky to give Mao Zedong most Imperial Japanese Army weapons that were captured.
Chiang Kai - shek 's forces pushed as far as Chinchow (Jinzhou) by 26 November 1945, meeting with little resistance. This was followed by a Communist offensive on the Shantung (Shandong) Peninsula that was largely successful, as all of the peninsula, except what was controlled by the US, fell to the Communists. The truce fell apart in June 1946 when full - scale war between CPC and KMT forces broke out on June 26. China then entered a state of civil war that lasted more than three years.
By the end of the Second Sino - Japanese War, the power of the Communist Party grew considerably. Their main force grew to 1.2 million troops, backed with additional militia of 2 million, totalling 3.2 million troops. Mao was very pleased with the force and decided to go on full rampage against the Kuomintang which he viewed as ' western lapdogs ' that will sell out the country when requested by the Americans. Their "Liberated Zone '' in 1945 contained 19 base areas, including one - quarter of the country 's territory and one - third of its population; this included many important towns and cities. Moreover, the Soviet Union turned over all of its captured Japanese weapons and a substantial amount of their own supplies to the Communists, who received Northeastern China from the Soviets as well.
In March 1946, despite repeated requests from Chiang, the Soviet Red Army under the command of Marshal Malinovsky continued to delay pulling out of Manchuria while Malinovsky secretly told the CPC forces to move in behind them, which led to full - scale war for the control of the Northeast. These favorable conditions also facilitated many changes inside the Communist leadership: the more radical hard - line faction who wanted full military bloodshed and warfare to take - over China finally gained the upper hand and defeated the careful opportunists. Prior to giving control to Communist leaders, on March 27 Soviet diplomats requested a joint venture of industrial development with the Nationalist Party in Manchuria.
Although General Marshall stated that he knew of no evidence that the CPC was being supplied by the Soviet Union, the CPC was able to utilize a large number of weapons abandoned by the Japanese, including some tanks, but it was not until large numbers of well - trained KMT troops began surrendering and joining the Communist forces that the CPC was finally able to master the hardware. However, despite the disadvantage in military hardware, the CPC 's ultimate trump card was its land reform policy. The CPC continued to make the irresistible promise in the countryside to the massive number of landless and from hunger starving peasants that by fighting for the CPC they would be given their own land to grow crops once the victory was won.
This strategy enabled the CPC to access an almost unlimited supply of manpower for both combat and logistical purposes, despite suffering heavy casualties throughout many of the war 's campaigns, man power continued to pour in massively. For example, during the Huaihai Campaign alone the CPC was able to mobilize 5,430,000 peasants to fight against the KMT forces.
After the war with the Japanese ended, Chiang Kai - shek quickly moved KMT troops to newly liberated areas to prevent Communist forces from receiving the Japanese surrender. The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to the Northeast (Manchuria). President Harry Truman was very clear about what he described as "using the Japanese to hold off the Communists ''. In his memoirs he writes:
It was perfectly clear to us that if we told the Japanese to lay down their arms immediately and march to the seaboard, the entire country would be taken over by the Communists. We therefore had to take the unusual step of using the enemy as a garrison until we could airlift Chinese National troops to South China and send Marines to guard the seaports.
Using the pretext of "receiving the Japanese surrender '', business interests within the KMT government occupied most of the banks, factories and commercial properties, which had previously been seized by the Imperial Japanese Army. They also conscripted troops at a brutal pace from the civilian population and hoarded supplies, preparing for a resumption of war with the Communists. These hasty and harsh preparations caused great hardship for the residents of cities such as Shanghai, where the unemployment rate rose dramatically to 37.5 %.
The US strongly supported the Kuomintang forces. About 50,000 US soldiers were sent to guard strategic sites in Hupeh and Shandong. The US equipped and trained KMT troops, and transported Japanese and Koreans back to help KMT forces to occupy liberated zones as well as to contain Communist - controlled areas. American aid included substantial amounts of mostly surplus military supplies; loans were made to the KMT. Within less than two years after the Sino - Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43 billion from the US -- most of which was military aid.
Situation in 1947
Situation in the fall of 1948
Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949
Situation in April to October 1949
As postwar negotiations between the Nationalist government in Nanjing and the Communist Party failed, the civil war between these two parties resumed. This stage of war is referred to in mainland China and Communist historiography as the "War of Liberation '' (Chinese: 解放 战争; pinyin: Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng). On 20 July 1946, Chiang Kai - shek launched a large - scale assault on Communist territory in North China with 113 brigades (a total of 1.6 million troops). This marked the first stage of the final phase in the Chinese Civil War.
Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment, the CPC executed a "passive defense '' strategy. It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. The CPC also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible. This tactic seemed to be successful; after a year, the power balance became more favorable to the CPC. They wiped out 1.12 million KMT troops, while their strength grew to about two million men.
In March 1947 the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing the CPC capital of Yan'an. The Communists counterattacked soon afterwards; on 30 June 1947 CPC troops crossed the Yellow River and moved to the Dabie Mountains area, restored and developed the Central Plain. At the same time, Communist forces also began to counterattack in Northeastern China, North China and East China.
By late 1948, the CPC eventually captured the northern cities of Shenyang and Changchun and seized control of the Northeast after suffering numerous setbacks while trying to take the cities, with the decisive Liaoshen Campaign. The New 1st Army, regarded as the best KMT army, was forced to surrender after the CPC conducted a brutal six - month siege of Changchun that resulted in more than 150,000 civilian deaths from starvation.
The capture of large KMT units provided the CPC with the tanks, heavy artillery and other combined - arms assets needed to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall. By April 1948 the city of Luoyang fell, cutting the KMT army off from Xi'an. Following a fierce battle, the CPC captured Jinan and Shandong province on 24 September 1948. The Huaihai Campaign of late 1948 and early 1949 secured east - central China for the CPC. The outcome of these encounters were decisive for the military outcome of the civil war.
The Pingjin Campaign resulted in the Communist conquest of northern China. It lasted 64 days, from 21 November 1948, to 31 January 1949. The PLA suffered heavy casualties while securing Zhangjiakou, Tianjin along with its port and garrison at Dagu and Beiping. The CPC brought 890,000 troops from the northeast to oppose some 600,000 KMT troops. There were 40,000 CPC casualties at Zhangjiakou alone. They in turn killed, wounded or captured some 520,000 KMT during the campaign.
After achieving decisive victory at Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns, the CPC wiped out 144 regular and 29 non-regular KMT divisions, including 1.54 million veteran KMT troops, which significantly reduced the strength of Nationalist forces. Stalin initially favored a coalition government in postwar China, and tried to persuade Mao to stop the CPC from crossing the Yangtze and attacking the KMT positions south of the river. Mao rejected Stalin 's position and on 21 April, Communist began the Yangtze River Crossing Campaign. On 23 April they captured the KMT 's capital, Nanjing. The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until October 15, Chongqing until November 25, and then Chengdu before retreating to Taiwan on December 10. By late 1949 the People 's Liberation Army was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only Tibet was left. In addition, the Ili Rebellion was a Soviet - backed revolt by the Second East Turkestan Republic against the KMT from 1944 -- 49, as the Mongolians in the People 's Republic were in a border dispute with the Republic of China. A Chinese Muslim Hui cavalry regiment, the 14th Tungan Cavalry, was sent by the Chinese government to attack Mongol and Soviet positions along the border during the Pei - ta - shan Incident.
The Kuomintang made several last - ditch attempts to use Khampa troops against the Communists in southwest China. The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the Panchen Lama to oppose the Communists. Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.
On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People 's Republic of China with its capital at Beiping, which was returned to the former name Beijing. Chiang Kai - shek and approximately two million Nationalist soldiers retreated from mainland China to the island of Taiwan in December after the PLA advanced into the Sichuan province. Isolated Nationalist pockets of resistance remained in the area, but the majority of the resistance collapsed after the fall of Chengdu on 10 December 1949, with some resistance continuing in the far south.
A PRC attempt to take the ROC - controlled island of Quemoy was thwarted in the Battle of Kuningtou, halting the PLA advance towards Taiwan. In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.
The Communists ' other amphibious operations of 1950 were more successful: they led to the Communist conquest of Hainan Island in April 1950, capture of Wanshan Islands off the Guangdong coast (May -- August 1950), Zhoushan Island off Zhejiang (May 1950).
Most observers expected Chiang 's government to eventually fall to the imminent invasion of Taiwan by the People 's Liberation Army, and the US was initially reluctant in offering full support for Chiang in their final stand. US President Harry S. Truman announced on 5 January 1950 that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC. The situation quickly changed after the onset of the Korean War in June 1950. This led to changing political climate in the US, and President Truman ordered the United States Seventh Fleet to sail to the Taiwan Strait as part of the containment policy against potential Communist advance.
In June 1949 the ROC declared a "closure '' of all mainland China ports and its navy attempted to intercept all foreign ships. The closure was from a point north of the mouth of Min River in Fujian to the mouth of the Liao River in Liaoning. Since mainland China 's railroad network was underdeveloped, north - south trade depended heavily on sea lanes. ROC naval activity also caused severe hardship for mainland China fishermen.
After losing mainland China, a group of approximately 3,000 KMT Central soldiers retreated to Burma and continued launching guerrilla attacks into south China during the Kuomintang Islamic Insurgency in China (1950 -- 1958) and Campaign at the China -- Burma Border. Their leader, Gen. Li Mi, was paid a salary by the ROC government and given the nominal title of Governor of Yunnan. Initially, the US supported these remnants and the Central Intelligence Agency provided them with military aid. After the Burmese government appealed to the United Nations in 1953, the US began pressuring the ROC to withdraw its loyalists. By the end of 1954 nearly 6,000 soldiers had left Burma and General Li declared his army disbanded. However, thousands remained, and the ROC continued to supply and command them, even secretly supplying reinforcements at times to maintain a base close to China.
After the ROC complained to the United Nations against the Soviet Union for violating the Sino - Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance to support the CPC, the UN General Assembly Resolution 505 was adopted on 1 February 1952, condemning the Soviet Union.
Though viewed as a military liability by the US, the ROC viewed its remaining islands in Fujian as vital for any future campaign to defeat the PRC and retake mainland China. On 3 September 1954, the First Taiwan Strait Crisis began when the PLA started shelling Quemoy and threatened to take the Dachen Islands in Zhejiang. On 20 January 1955, the PLA took nearby Yijiangshan Island, with the entire ROC garrison of 720 troops killed or wounded defending the island. On January 24 of the same year, the United States Congress passed the Formosa Resolution authorizing the President to defend the ROC 's offshore islands. The First Taiwan Straits crisis ended in March 1955 when the PLA ceased its bombardment. The crisis was brought to a close during the Bandung conference.
The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis began on 23 August 1958 with air and naval engagements between PRC and ROC forces, leading to intense artillery bombardment of Quemoy (by the PRC) and Amoy (by the ROC), and ended on November of the same year. PLA patrol boats blockaded the islands from ROC supply ships. Though the US rejected Chiang Kai - shek 's proposal to bomb mainland China artillery batteries, it quickly moved to supply fighter jets and anti-aircraft missiles to the ROC. It also provided amphibious assault ships to land supplies, as a sunken ROC naval vessel was blocking the harbor. On September 7 the US escorted a convoy of ROC supply ships and the PRC refrained from firing.
The Third Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1995 -- 96 escalated tensions between both sides when the PRC tested a series of missiles not far from Taiwan, although, arguably, Beijing ran the test to shift the 1996 presidential election vote in favor of the KMT, already facing a challenge from the opposition Democratic Progressive Party which did not agree with the "One China Policy '' shared by the CPC and KMT.
On 25 October 1971, the United Nations General Assembly admitted the PRC and expelled the ROC, which had been a founding member of the United Nations and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Representatives of Chiang Kai - shek refused to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China and left the assembly. Recognition for the People 's Republic of China soon followed from most other member nations, including the United States.
By 1984 PRC and ROC began to de-escalate their diplomatic relations with each other, and cross-straits trade and investment has been growing ever since. The state of war was officially declared over by the ROC in 1991. Despite the end of the hostilities, the two sides have never signed any agreement or treaty to officially end the war. According to Mao Zedong, there were three ways of "staving off imperialist intervention in the short term '' during the continuation of the Chinese Revolution. The first was through a rapid completion of the military takeover of the country, and through showing determination and strength against "foreign attempts at challenging the new regime along its borders ''. The second was by "formalising a comprehensive military alliance with the Soviet Union '', which would dedicate Soviet power to directly defending China against its enemies; this aspect became extensively significant given the backdrop of the start of the Cold War. And finally the regime had to "root out its domestic opponents: the heads of secret societies, religious sects, independent unions, or tribal and ethic organisations. '' By destroying the basis of domestic reaction, Mao believed a safer world for the Chinese revolution to spread in would come into existence.
Under the new ROC president Lee Teng - hui, the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion was renounced in May 1991, thus ending the chances of the Kuomintang 's conquest to retake the mainland.
With the election in 2000 of Democratic Progressive Party candidate Chen Shui - bian, a party other than the KMT gained the presidency for the first time in Taiwan. The new president did not share the Chinese nationalist ideology of the KMT and CPC. This led to tension between the two sides, although trade and other ties such as the 2005 Pan-Blue visit continued to increase.
Since the election of President Ma Ying - jeou (KMT) in 2008, significant warming of relations has resumed between Taipei and Beijing, with high - level exchanges between the semi-official diplomatic organizations of both states such as the Chen - Chiang summit series. Although the Taiwan straits remain a potential flash point, regular direct air links were established in 2009.
Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai - shek and also because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists targeted different groups, such as peasants, and brought them to its corner.
Chiang wrote in his diary in June 1948 that the KMT had failed not because of external enemies but because of rot from within.
The USSR generally supported Chiang 's forces. Stalin distrusted Mao, tried to block him from leadership as late as 1942, and worried that Mao would become an independent rival force in world communism.
Strong American support for the Nationalists was hedged with the failure of the Marshall Mission, and then stopped completely mainly because of KMT corruption (such as the notorious Yangtze Development Corporation controlled by H.H. Kung and T.V. Soong 's family) and KMT 's military setback in Northeast China.
Communist land reform policy promised poor peasants farmland from their landlords, ensuring popular support for the PLA.
The main advantage of the Chinese Communist Party was the "extraordinary cohesion '' within the top level of its leadership. These skills were not only secured from defections that came about during difficult times but also coupled with "communications and top level debates over tactics ''. A big addition to this was the charismatic style of leadership of Mao Zedong which created a "unity of purpose '' and a "unity of command '' which the KMT lacked majorly. Apart from that the CPC had mastered the manipulation of local politics to their benefit, this was also derived from their propaganda skills that had also been decentralised successfully. By "portraying their opponents as enemies of all groups of Chinese '' and itself as "defenders of the nation '' and people (given the backdrop of the war with Japan).
In the Chinese Civil War after 1945, the economy in the ROC areas collapsed because of hyperinflation and the failure of price controls by the ROC government and financial reforms; the Gold Yuan devaluated sharply in late 1948 and resulted in the ROC government losing the support of the cities ' middle classes. In the meantime, the Communists continued their relentless land reform (land redistribution) programs to win the support of the population in the countryside.
During the war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949. Atrocities include deaths from forced conscription and massacres.
Communist Party / People 's Republic of China (Red Army → 8th Route Army, N4A, etc. → People 's Liberation Army)
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we are the dreamers of dreams willy wonka quote | Ode (poem) - wikipedia
Ode is a poem written by the English poet Arthur O'Shaughnessy and first published in 1873. It is often referred to by its first line We are the music makers.
The Ode is the first poem in O'Shaughnessy's collection Music and Moonlight (1874). It has nine stanzas, although it is commonly believed to be only three stanzas long. The opening stanza is:
The phrase "movers and shakers '' (now almost universally misunderstood as a reference to powerful and worldly individuals and groups) originates here.
The poem has been set to music, or alluded to, many times: Sir Edward Elgar set the ode to music in 1912 in his work entitled The Music Makers, Op 69. The work was dedicated to Elgar 's old friend Nicholas Kilburn and the first performance took place at the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival in 1912. Performances available include: The Music Makers, with Sir Adrian Boult conducting the London Philharmonic Orchestra in 1975 (reissued 1999), paired with Elgar 's Dream of Gerontius; and the 2006 album Sea Pictures paired with The Music Makers, Simon Wright conducting the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra. Zoltán Kodály (1882 -- 1967) also set the ode to music in his work Music Makers, dedicated to Merton College, Oxford on the occasion of its 700th anniversary in 1964.
The Hungarian composer Zoltán Kodály also made a setting for and dedicated to Merton College, Oxford on the occasion of its 700th anniversary in 1964.
South African band, Gimp, performed a rock anthem of the poem in 2005 at Woodstock South Africa
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where did the continental army settle after the battle of saratoga | Battles of Saratoga - wikipedia
Freeman 's Farm:
Bemis Heights:
United States
Great Britain
Horatio Gates Benedict Arnold Benjamin Lincoln Enoch Poor Ebenezer Learned Daniel Morgan
John Burgoyne Simon Fraser †
The Battles of Saratoga (September 19 and October 7, 1777) marked the climax of the Saratoga campaign, giving a decisive victory to the Americans over the British in the American Revolutionary War. British General John Burgoyne led a large invasion army southward from Canada in the Champlain Valley, hoping to meet a similar British force marching northward from New York City and another British force marching eastward from Lake Ontario; the southern and western forces never arrived, and Burgoyne was surrounded by American forces in upstate New York. He fought two small battles to break out which took place 18 days apart on the same ground, 9 miles (14 km) south of Saratoga, New York. They both failed.
Burgoyne found himself trapped by superior American forces with no relief in sight, so he retreated to Saratoga (now Schuylerville) and surrendered his entire army there on October 17. His surrender, says historian Edmund Morgan, "was a great turning point of the war because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory. ''
Burgoyne 's strategy to divide New England from the southern colonies had started well but slowed due to logistical problems. He won a small tactical victory over General Horatio Gates and the Continental Army in the September 19 Battle of Freeman 's Farm at the cost of significant casualties. His gains were erased when he again attacked the Americans in the October 7 Battle of Bemis Heights and the Americans captured a portion of the British defenses. Burgoyne was therefore compelled to retreat, and his army was surrounded by the much larger American force at Saratoga, forcing him to surrender on October 17. News of Burgoyne 's surrender was instrumental in formally bringing France into the war as an American ally, although it had previously given supplies, ammunition, and guns, notably the de Valliere cannon which played an important role in Saratoga. This battle also resulted in Spain joining France in the war against Britain.
The battle on September 19 began when Burgoyne moved some of his troops in an attempt to flank the entrenched American position on Bemis Heights. Benedict Arnold anticipated the maneuver and placed significant forces in his way. Burgoyne did gain control of Freeman 's Farm, but it came at the cost of significant casualties. Skirmishing continued in the days following the battle, while Burgoyne waited in the hope that reinforcements would arrive from New York City. Patriot militia forces continued to arrive, meanwhile, swelling the size of the American army. Disputes within the American camp led Gates to strip Arnold of his command.
British General Sir Henry Clinton moved up from New York City and attempted to divert American attention by capturing two forts in the Hudson River highlands on October 6, but his efforts were too late to help Burgoyne. Burgoyne attacked Bemis Heights again on October 7 after it became apparent that he would not receive relieving aid in time. This battle culminated in heavy fighting marked by Arnold 's spirited rallying of the American troops. Burgoyne 's forces were thrown back to the positions that they held before the September 19 battle and the Americans captured a portion of the entrenched British defenses.
The American Revolutionary War was approaching the two - year point, and the British changed their plans. They decided to split the Thirteen Colonies and isolate New England from what they believed to be the more Loyalist middle and southern colonies. The British command devised a plan to divide the colonies with a three - way pincer movement in 1777. The western pincer under the command of Barry St. Leger was to progress from Ontario through western New York, following the Mohawk River, and the southern pincer was to progress up the Hudson River valley from New York City. The northern pincer was to proceed southward from Montreal, and the three forces were to meet in the vicinity of Albany, New York, severing New England from the other colonies.
British General John Burgoyne moved south from the province of Quebec in June 1777 to gain control of the upper Hudson River valley. His campaign had become bogged down in difficulties following a victory at Fort Ticonderoga. Elements of the army had reached the upper Hudson as early as the end of July, but logistical and supply difficulties delayed the main army at Fort Edward. One attempt to alleviate these difficulties failed when nearly 1,000 men were killed or captured at the August 16 Battle of Bennington. Furthermore, news reached Burgoyne on August 28 that St. Leger 's expedition down the Mohawk River valley had turned back after the failed Siege of Fort Stanwix.
General William Howe had taken his army from New York City by sea on a campaign to capture Philadelphia instead of moving north to meet Burgoyne. Most of Burgoyne 's Indian support had fled following the loss at Bennington, and his situation was becoming difficult. He needed to reach defensible winter quarters, requiring either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany, and he decided to advance. He then deliberately cut communications to the north so that he would not need to maintain a chain of heavily fortified outposts between his position and Ticonderoga, and he decided to cross the Hudson River while he was in a relatively strong position. He ordered Baron Riedesel, who commanded the rear of the army, to abandon outposts from Skenesboro south, and then had the army cross the Hudson just north of Saratoga between September 13 and 15.
The Continental Army had been in a slow retreat since Burgoyne 's capture of Ticonderoga early in July, under the command of Major General Philip Schuyler, and was encamped south of Stillwater, New York. On August 19, Major General Horatio Gates assumed command from Schuyler, whose political fortunes had fallen over the loss of Ticonderoga and the ensuing retreat. Gates and Schuyler were from very different backgrounds and did not get along with each other; they had previously argued over command issues in the army 's Northern Department. The army was growing in size because of increased militia turnout following calls by state governors, the success at Bennington, and widespread outrage over the slaying of Jane McCrea, the fiancée of a Loyalist in Burgoyne 's army by Indians under Burgoyne 's command.
General George Washington 's strategic decisions also improved the situation for Gates ' army. Washington was most concerned about the movements of General Howe. He was aware that Burgoyne was also moving, and he took some risks in July. He sent aid north in the form of Major General Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive field commander, and Major General Benjamin Lincoln, a Massachusetts man noted for his influence with the New England militia. He ordered 750 men from Israel Putnam 's forces defending the New York highlands to join Gates ' army in August, before he was certain that Howe had indeed sailed south. He also sent some of the best forces from his own army: Colonel Daniel Morgan and the newly formed Provisional Rifle Corps, which comprised about 500 specially selected riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, chosen for their sharpshooting ability. This unit came to be known as Morgan 's Riflemen.
On September 7, Gates ordered his army to march north. A site was selected for its defensive potential that was known as Bemis Heights, just north of Stillwater and about 10 miles (16 km) south of Saratoga; the army spent about a week constructing defensive works designed by Polish engineer Tadeusz Kościuszko. The heights had a clear view of the area and commanded the only road to Albany, where it passed through a defile between the heights and the Hudson River. To the west of the heights lay more heavily forested bluffs that would present a significant challenge to any heavily equipped army.
Moving cautiously, since the departure of his Native American support had deprived him of reliable reports on the American position, Burgoyne advanced to the south after crossing the Hudson. On September 18 the vanguard of his army had reached a position just north of Saratoga, about 4 miles (6.4 km) from the American defensive line, and skirmishes occurred between American scouting parties and the leading elements of his army.
The American camp had become a bed of festering intrigue ever since Arnold 's return from Fort Stanwix. While he and Gates had previously been on reasonably good terms in spite of their prickly egos, Arnold managed to turn Gates against him by taking on officers friendly to Schuyler as staff, dragging him into the ongoing feud between the two. These conditions had not yet reached a boil on September 19, but the day 's events contributed to the situation. Gates had assigned the left wing of the defenses to Arnold, and assumed command himself of the right, which was nominally assigned to General Lincoln, whom Gates had detached in August with some troops to harass the British positions behind Burgoyne 's army.
Both Burgoyne and Arnold understood the importance of the American left, and the need to control the heights there. After the morning fog lifted around 10 am, Burgoyne ordered the army to advance in three columns. Baron Riedesel led the left column, consisting of the German troops and the 47th Foot, on the river road, bringing the main artillery and guarding supplies and the boats on the river. General James Inglis Hamilton commanded the center column, consisting of the 9th, 20th, 21st, and 62nd regiments, which would attack the heights, and General Simon Fraser led the right wing with the 24th Regiment and the light infantry and grenadier companies, to turn the American left flank by negotiating the heavily wooded high ground north and west of Bemis Heights.
Arnold also realized such a flanking maneuver was likely, and petitioned Gates for permission to move his forces from the heights to meet potential movements, where the American skill at woodlands combat would be at an advantage. Gates, whose preferred strategy was to sit and wait for the expected frontal assault, grudgingly permitted a reconnaissance in force consisting of Daniel Morgan 's men and Henry Dearborn 's light infantry. When Morgan 's men reached an open field northwest of Bemis Heights belonging to Loyalist John Freeman, they spotted British advance troops in the field. Fraser 's column was slightly delayed and had not yet reached the field, while Hamilton 's column had also made its way across a ravine and was approaching the field from the east through dense forest and difficult terrain. Riedesel 's force, while it was on the road, was delayed by obstacles thrown down by the Americans. The sound of gunfire to the west prompted Riedesel to send some of his artillery down a track in that direction. The troops Morgan 's men saw were an advance company from Hamilton 's column.
Morgan placed marksmen at strategic positions, who then picked off virtually every officer in the advance company. Morgan and his men then charged, unaware that they were headed directly for Burgoyne 's main army. While they succeeded in driving back the advance company, Fraser 's leading edge arrived just in time to attack Morgan 's left, scattering his men back into the woods. James Wilkinson, who had ridden forward to observe the fire, returned to the American camp for reinforcements. As the British company fell back toward the main column, the leading edge of that column opened fire, killing a number of their own men.
There was then a lull in the fighting around 1: 00 pm as Hamilton 's men began to form up on the north side of the field, and American reinforcements began to arrive from the south. Learning that Morgan was in trouble, Gates ordered out two more regiments (1st and 3rd New Hampshire) to support him, with additional regiments (2nd New York, 4th New York, the 1st Canadian, and Connecticut militia) from the brigade of Enoch Poor to follow. Burgoyne arrayed Hamilton 's men with the 21st on the right, the 20th on the left, and the 62nd in the center, with the 9th held in reserve.
The battle then went through phases alternating between intense fighting and breaks in the action. Morgan 's men had regrouped in the woods, and picked off officers and artillerymen. They were so effective at reducing the latter that the Americans several times gained brief control of British field pieces, only to lose them in the next British charge. At one point it was believed that Burgoyne himself had been taken down by a sharpshooter; it was instead one of Burgoyne 's aides, riding a richly dressed horse, who was the victim. The center of the British line was very nearly broken at one point, and only the intervention of General Phillips, leading the 20th, made it possible for the 62nd to reform. In Roger Lamb 's memoir, (a British soldier present at the battle), he wrote ' ' In this battle an unusual number of officers fell, as our army abounded with young men of respectability at this time, who after several years of general peace anterior to the American revolution, were attracted to the profession of arms. Three sulbalterns (officers) of the 20th regiment on this occasion, the oldest of whom did not exceed the age of seventeen years, were buried together ' '
The final stroke of the battle belonged to the British. Around 3 pm, Riedesel sent a messenger to Burgoyne for instructions. He returned two hours later with orders to guard the baggage train, but also to send as many men as he could spare toward the American right flank. In a calculated risk, Riedesel left 500 men to guard the vital supply train and marched off toward the action with the rest of his column. Two of his companies advanced on the double and opened vicious fire on the American right, and Fraser 's force threatened to turn the American left flank. In response to the latter threat, Arnold requested more forces, and Gates allowed him to dispatch Ebenezer Learned 's brigade (2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts). (If Arnold had been on the field, these forces might have instead faced the larger danger posed by Riedesel 's force.) Fortunately for the American right, darkness set in, bringing an end to the battle. The Americans retreated back to their defenses, leaving the British on the field.
Burgoyne had gained the field of battle, but suffered nearly 600 casualties. Most of these were to Hamilton 's center column, where the 62nd was reduced to the size of a single company, and three quarters of the artillerymen were killed or wounded. American losses were nearly 300 killed and seriously wounded.
It has been widely recounted in histories of this battle that General Arnold was on the field, directing some of the action. However, John Luzader, a former park historian at the Saratoga National Historical Park, carefully documents the evolution of this story and believes it is without foundation in contemporary materials, and that Arnold remained at Gates ' headquarters, receiving news and dispatching orders through messengers. Arnold biographer James Kirby Martin, however, disagrees with Luzader, arguing that Arnold played a more active role at Freeman 's Farm by directing patriot troops into position and possibly leading some charges before being ordered back to headquarters by Gates.
Burgoyne 's council discussed whether to attack the next day, and a decision was reached to delay further action at least one day, to September 21. The army moved to consolidate the position closer to the American line while some men collected their dead. The attack on the 21st was called off when Burgoyne received a letter dated September 12 from Henry Clinton, who was commanding the British garrison in New York City. Clinton suggested that he could "make a push at (Fort) Montgomery in about ten days. '' (Fort Montgomery was an American post on the Hudson River, in the New York Highlands south of West Point). If Clinton left New York on September 22, "about ten days '' after he wrote the letter, he still could not hope to arrive in the vicinity of Saratoga before the end of the month. Burgoyne, running low on men and food, was still in a very difficult position, but he decided to wait in the hope that Clinton would arrive to save his army. Burgoyne wrote to Clinton on September 23, requesting some sort of assistance or diversion to draw Gates ' army away. Clinton sailed from New York on October 3, and captured Forts Montgomery and Clinton on October 6. The furthest north any of his troops reached was Clermont, where they raided the estate of the prominent Patriot Livingston family on October 16.
Unknown to either side at Saratoga, General Lincoln and Colonel John Brown had staged an attack against the British position at Fort Ticonderoga. Lincoln had collected 2,000 men at Bennington by early September. Brown and a detachment of 500 men captured poorly defended positions between Ticonderoga and Lake George, and then spent several days ineffectually bombarding the fort. These men, and some of the prisoners they freed along the way, were back in the American camp by September 29.
In the American camp, the mutual resentment between Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold finally exploded into open hostility. Gates quickly reported the action of September 19 to the Congress and Governor George Clinton of New York, but he failed to mention Arnold at all. The field commanders and men universally credited Arnold for their success. Almost all the troops involved were from Arnold 's command and Arnold was the one directing the battle while Gates sat in his tent. Arnold protested, and the dispute escalated into a shouting match that ended with Gates relieving Arnold of his command and giving it to Benjamin Lincoln. Arnold asked for a transfer to Washington 's command, which Gates granted, but instead of leaving he remained in his tent. There is no documentary evidence for a commonly recounted anecdote that a petition signed by line officers convinced Arnold to stay in camp.
During this period there were almost daily clashes between pickets and patrols of the two armies. Morgan 's sharpshooters, familiar with the strategy and tactics of woodland warfare, constantly harassed British patrols on the western flank.
As September passed into October it became clear that Clinton was not coming to help Burgoyne, who put the army on short rations on October 3. The next day, Burgoyne called a war council in which several options were discussed, but no conclusive decisions were made. When the council resumed the next day, Riedesel proposed retreat, in which he was supported by Fraser. Burgoyne refused to consider it, insisting that retreat would be disgraceful. They finally agreed to conduct an assault on the American left flank with two thousand men, more than one - third of the army, on October 7. The army he was attacking, however, had grown in the interval. In addition to the return of Lincoln 's detachment, militiamen and supplies continued to pour into the American camp, including critical increases in ammunition, which had been severely depleted in the first battle. The army Burgoyne faced on October 7 was more than 12,000 men strong and was led by a man who knew how much trouble Burgoyne was in. Gates had received consistent intelligence from the stream of deserters leaving the British lines and had also intercepted Clinton 's response to Burgoyne 's plea for help.
While Burgoyne 's troop strength was nominally higher, he likely had only about 5,000 effective, battle - ready troops on October 7, as losses from the earlier battles in the campaign and desertions following the September 19 battle had reduced his forces. General Riedesel advised that the army retreat. Burgoyne decided to reconnoiter the American left flank to see if an attack was possible. As an escort, the generals took Fraser 's Advanced Corps, with light troops and the 24th Foot on the right and the combined British grenadiers on the left, and a force drawn from all the German regiments in the army in the center. There were eight British cannon under Major Williams and two Hesse - Hanau cannon under Captain Pausch. Leaving their camp between 10 and 11 am, they advanced about three - quarters of a mile (1 km) to Barber 's wheat field on a rise above Mill Brook, where they stopped to observe the American position. While the field afforded some room for artillery to work, the flanks were dangerously close to the surrounding woods.
Gates, following the removal of Arnold from the field command, assumed command of the American left and gave the right to General Lincoln. When American scouts brought news of Burgoyne 's movement to Gates, he ordered Morgan 's riflemen out to the far left, with Poor 's men (1st, 2nd, and 3rd New Hampshire on the left; the 2nd and 4th New York Regiments) on the right, and Learned 's (1st New York, 1st Canadian, 2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts Regiments, plus militia companies) in the center. A force of 1,200 New York militia under Brigadier General Abraham Ten Broeck was held in reserve behind Learned 's line. In all, more than 8,000 Americans took the field that day, including about 1,400 men from Lincoln 's command that were deployed when the action became particularly fierce.
The opening fire came between 2 and 2: 30 pm from the British grenadiers. Poor 's men held their fire, and the terrain made the British shooting largely ineffective. When Major Acland led the British grenadiers in a bayonet charge, the Americans finally began shooting at close range. Acland fell, shot in both legs, and many of the grenadiers also went down. Their column was a total rout, and Poor 's men advanced to take Acland and Williams prisoner and capture their artillery. On the American left, things were also not going well for the British. Morgan 's men swept aside the Canadians and Native Americans to engage Fraser 's regulars. Although slightly outnumbered, Morgan managed to break up several British attempts to move west. While General Fraser was mortally wounded in this phase of the battle, a frequently told story claiming it to be the work of Timothy Murphy, one of Morgan 's men, appears to be a 19th - century fabrication. The fall of Fraser and the arrival of Ten Broeck 's large militia brigade (which roughly equaled the entire British reconnaissance force in size), broke the British will, and they began a disorganized retreat toward their entrenchments. Burgoyne was also very nearly killed by one of Morgan 's marksmen; three shots hit his horse, hat, and waistcoat.
The first phase of the battle lasted about one hour and cost Burgoyne nearly 400 men, including the capture of most of the grenadiers ' command, and six of the ten field pieces brought to the action.
At this point, the Americans were joined by an unexpected participant. General Arnold, who was "betraying great agitation and wrath '' in the American camp, and may have been drinking, rode out to join the action. Gates immediately sent Major Armstrong after him with orders to return; Armstrong did not catch up with Arnold until the action was effectively over. (A letter, written by a witness to proceedings in the camp, suggests that Arnold did in fact have authorization from Gates to engage in this action.)
The defenses on the right side of the British camp were anchored by two redoubts. The outermost one was defended by about 300 men under the command of the Hessian Heinrich von Breymann, while the other was under the command of Lord Balcarres. A small contingent of Canadians occupied the ground between these two fortifications. Most of the retreating force headed for Balcarres ' position, as Breymann 's was slightly north and further away from the early action.
Arnold led the American chase, and then led Poor 's men in an attack on the Balcarres redoubt. Balcarres had set up his defenses well, and the redoubt was held, in action so fierce that Burgoyne afterwards wrote, "A more determined perseverance than they showed... is not in any officer 's experience ''. Seeing that the advance was checked, and that Learned was preparing to attack the Breymann redoubt, Arnold moved toward that action, recklessly riding between the lines and remarkably emerging unhurt. He led the charge of Learned 's men through the gap between the redoubts, which exposed the rear of Breymann 's position, where Morgan 's men had circled around from the far side. In furious battle, the redoubt was taken and Breymann was killed. Arnold 's horse was hit in one of the final volleys, and Arnold 's leg was broken by both shot and the falling horse. Major Armstrong finally caught up with Arnold to officially order him back to headquarters; he was carried back in a litter.
The capture of Breymann 's redoubt exposed the British camp, but darkness was setting in. An attempt by some Germans to retake the redoubt ended in capture as darkness fell and an unreliable guide led them to the American line.
Burgoyne 's failed campaign, as may be seen by the titles of some of the books that cover it in detail, marked a major turning point in the war. After the battle, he withdrew his men 10 -- 15 miles north, near present - day Schuylerville, New York. General Burgoyne returned to England and was never given another commanding position in the British Army.
Burgoyne lost 1,000 men in the two battles, leaving him outnumbered by roughly 3 to 1; American losses came to about 500 killed and wounded. Burgoyne had also lost several of his most effective leaders, his attempts to capture the American position had failed, and his forward line was now breached. That night he lit fires at his remaining forward positions and withdrew under the cover of darkness. On the morning of October 8, he was back in the fortified positions he had held on September 16. By October 13 he was surrounded at Saratoga, and on October 17 he surrendered his army. The remnants of his expedition retreated from Ticonderoga back to Quebec.
The British learned that the Americans would fight bravely and effectively. Said one British officer:
The courage and obstinacy with which the Americans fought were the astonishment of everyone, and we now became fully convinced that they are not that contemptible enemy we had hitherto imagined them, incapable of standing a regular engagement and that they would only fight behind strong and powerful works.
In recognition of his contribution to the battles at Saratoga, General Arnold had his seniority restored (he had lost it after being passed over for promotion earlier in 1777). His leg wound left Arnold bedridden for five months. Later, while still unfit for field service but serving as military governor of Philadelphia, Arnold entered into treasonous correspondence with the British. He received command of the fort at West Point and plotted to hand it over to the British, only to flee into the British lines when the capture of his contact John Andre led to the exposure of the plot. Arnold went on to serve under William Phillips, the commander of Burgoyne 's right wing, in a 1781 expedition into Virginia.
Although he left the direction of the battle to subordinates, General Gates received a great deal of credit as the commanding general for the greatest American victory of the war to date. He may have conspired with others to replace George Washington as the commander - in - chief. Instead, he received the command of the main American army in the South. He led it to a disastrous defeat at the 1780 Battle of Camden, where he was at the forefront of a panicked retreat. Gates never commanded troops in the field again.
In response to Burgoyne 's surrender, Congress declared December 18, 1777, as a national day "for solemn Thanksgiving and praise ''; it was the nation 's first official observance of a holiday with that name.
Once news of Burgoyne 's surrender reached France, King Louis XVI decided to enter into negotiations with the Americans that resulted in a formal Franco - American alliance and French entry into the war. This moved the conflict onto a global stage. As a consequence, Britain was forced to divert resources used to fight the war in North America to theaters in the West Indies and Europe, and rely on what turned out to be the chimera of Loyalist support in its North American operations. Being defeated by the British in the French and Indian War more than a decade earlier, France found an opportunity of revenge by aiding the colonists throughout the Revolutionary War. Prior to the Battle of Saratoga, France did n't fully aid the colonists. However, after the Battles of Saratoga were conclusively won by the colonists, France realized that the Americans had the hope of winning the war, and began fully aiding the colonists by sending soldiers, donations, loans, military arms, and supplies.
The battlefield and the site of Burgoyne 's surrender have been preserved, and are now administered by the National Park Service as the Saratoga National Historical Park, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The park preserves a number of the buildings in the area and contains a variety of monuments. The Saratoga Monument obelisk has four niches, three of which hold statues of American commanders: Gates and Schuyler and of Colonel Daniel Morgan. The fourth niche, where Arnold 's statue would go, is empty. A more dramatic memorial to Arnold 's heroism, that does not name him, is the Boot Monument. Donated by Civil War General John Watts de Peyster, it shows a boot with spurs and the stars of a major general. It stands at the spot where Arnold was shot on October 7 charging Breymann 's redoubt and is dedicated to "the most brilliant soldier of the Continental Army ''.
Six Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn, 102nd Inf, 125th QM Co, 181st Inf, 182nd Inf and 192nd MP Bn) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Saratoga. There are now only thirty units in the U.S. Army with lineages that go back to the colonial era.
There are a number of ships named after the battles including USS Saratoga (1842), USS Saratoga (CV - 3), and USS Saratoga (CV - 60)
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rdw in blood test what does it mean | Red blood cell distribution width - wikipedia
Red blood cell distribution width (RDW or RDW - CV or RCDW and RDW - SD) is a measure of the range of variation of red blood cell (RBC) volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Usually red blood cells are a standard size of about 6 - 8 μm in diameter. Certain disorders, however, cause a significant variation in cell size. Higher RDW values indicate greater variation in size. Normal reference range of RDW - CV in human red blood cells is 11.5 - 14.5 %. If anemia is observed, RDW test results are often used together with mean corpuscular volume (MCV) results to determine the possible causes of the anemia. It is mainly used to differentiate an anemia of mixed causes from an anemia of a single cause.
Deficiencies of Vitamin B or folate produce a macrocytic anemia (large cell anemia) in which the RDW is elevated in roughly two - thirds of all cases. However, a varied size distribution of red blood cells is a hallmark of iron deficiency anemia, and as such shows an increased RDW in virtually all cases. In the case of both iron and B deficiencies, there will normally be a mix of both large cells and small cells, causing the RDW to be elevated. An elevated RDW (red blood cells of unequal sizes) is known as anisocytosis.
An elevation in the RDW is not characteristic of all anemias. Anemia of chronic disease, hereditary spherocytosis, acute blood loss, aplastic anemia (anemia resulting from an inability of the bone marrow to produce red blood cells), and certain hereditary hemoglobinopathies (including some cases of thalassemia minor) may all present with a normal RDW.
The "width '' in RDW - CV is sometimes thought to be "misleading, '' since it in fact is a measure of deviation of the volume of RBCs, and not directly the diameter. However, "width '' refers to the width of the volume curve (distribution width, here presented as the Coefficient of Variation, or CV), not the width of the cells. Thus, it is a reasonably accurate term.
Mathematically, the RDW - CV is calculated with the following formula:
Anemia in the presence of a normal RDW may suggest thalassemia. A low Mentzer Index, calculated from CBC data, may suggest this disorder but a hemoglobin electrophoresis would be diagnostic.
Iron - deficiency anemia usually presents with high RDW and low MCV.
Folate - and vitamin B12 - deficiency anemia usually present with high RDW and high MCV.
Mixed - deficiency (iron + B12 or folate) anemia usually presents with high RDW and variable MCV.
Recent hemorrhages typically present with high RDW and normal MCV.
A false high RDW reading can occur if EDTA anticoagulated blood is used instead of citrated blood. See Pseudothrombocytopenia.
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what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Chinook wind - wikipedia
Chinook winds / ʃɪˈnʊk /, or simply Chinooks, are föhn winds in the interior West of North America, where the Canadian Prairies and Great Plains meet various mountain ranges, although the original usage is in reference to wet, warm coastal winds in the Pacific Northwest.
Chinook is claimed by popular folk - etymology to mean ' ice - eater ', but it is really the name of the people in the region where the usage was first derived. The reference to a wind or weather system, simply ' a Chinook ', originally meant a warming wind from the ocean into the interior regions of the Pacific Northwest of the USA (the Chinook people lived near the ocean, along the lower Columbia River).
A strong föhn wind can make snow one foot (30 cm) deep almost vanish in one day. The snow partly melts and partly evaporates in the dry wind. Chinook winds have been observed to raise winter temperature, often from below − 20 ° C (− 4 ° F) to as high as 10 -- 20 ° C (50 -- 68 ° F) for a few hours or days, then temperatures plummet to their base levels. The greatest recorded temperature change in 24 hours was caused by Chinook winds on 15 January 1972, in Loma, Montana; the temperature rose from − 48 to + 9 ° C (− 54 to + 49 ° F).
Chinooks are most prevalent over southern Alberta in Canada, especially in a belt from Pincher Creek and Crowsnest Pass through Lethbridge, which get 30 -- 35 Chinook days per year, on average. Chinooks become less frequent further south in the United States, and are not as common north of Red Deer, but they can and do occur annually as far north as High Level in northwestern Alberta and Fort St. John in northeastern British Columbia, and as far south as Albuquerque, New Mexico.
In southwestern Alberta, Chinook winds can gust in excess of hurricane force 120 km / h (75 mph). On 19 -- November 1962, an especially powerful Chinook in Lethbridge gusted to 171 km / h (106 mph).
In Pincher Creek, the temperature rose by 41 ° C (74 ° F), from − 19 to 22 ° C (− 2 to 72 ° F), in one hour in 1962. Trains have been known to be derailed by Chinook winds. During the winter, driving can be treacherous, as the wind blows snow across roadways, sometimes causing roads to vanish and snowdrifts to pile up higher than a metre. Empty semitrailer trucks driving along Highway 3 and other routes in southern Alberta have been blown over by the high gusts of wind caused by Chinooks.
Calgary, Alberta also gets many Chinooks -- the Bow Valley in the Canadian Rockies west of the city acts as a natural wind tunnel, funneling the chinook winds.
On 27 February 1992, Claresholm, Alberta a small city just south of Calgary; recorded a temperature of 24 ° C (75 ° F) again the next day 21 ° C (70 ° F) was recorded. These are some Canada 's highest February temperatures.
The Chinook can seem to do battle with the Arctic air mass at times. It is not unheard of for people in Lethbridge to complain of − 20 ° C (− 4 ° F) temperatures while those in Cardston, just 77 km (48 mi) down the road, enjoy 10 ° C (50 ° F) temperatures. This clash of temperatures can remain stationary, or move back and forth, in the latter case causing such fluctuations as a warm morning, a bitterly cold afternoon, and a warm evening. A curtain of fog often accompanies the clash between warm to the west and cold to the east.
One of its most striking features is the Chinook arch, which is a band of stationary stratus clouds caused by air rippling over the mountains due to orographic lifting. To those unfamiliar with it, the Chinook arch may look like a threatening storm cloud at times. However, they rarely produce rain or snow. They can also create stunning sunrises and sunsets.
The stunning colours seen in the Chinook arch are quite common. Typically, the colours will change throughout the day, starting with yellow, orange, red and pink shades in the morning as the sun comes up, grey shades at midday changing to pink / red colours, and then orange / yellow hues just before the sun sets.
Chinook arch over Calgary, 6 January 2003
The extreme colours of a Chinook arch
Chinook arch in Calgary, Alberta, 19 November 2005
Chinook arch over Calgary, March 2007
Chinook arch over Kelowna, BC, Canada, 2 October 2007
The Chinook is a föhn wind, a rain shadow wind which results from the subsequent adiabatic warming of air which has dropped most of its moisture on windward slopes (orographic lift). As a consequence of the different adiabatic rates of moist and dry air, the air on the leeward slopes becomes warmer than equivalent elevations on the windward slopes.
As moist winds from the Pacific (also called "Chinooks '') are forced to rise over the mountains, the moisture in the air is condensed and falls out as precipitation, while the air cools at the moist adiabatic rate of 5 ° C / 1000 m (3.5 ° F / 1000 ft). The dried air then descends on the leeward side of the mountains, warming at the dry adiabatic rate of 10 ° C / 1000 m (5.5 ° F / 1000 ft).
The turbulence of the high winds also can prevent the usual nocturnal temperature inversion from forming on the lee side of the slope, allowing night - time temperatures to remain elevated.
Quite often, when the Pacific Northwest coast is being drenched by rain, the windward side of the Rockies is being hammered by snow (as the air loses its moisture), and the leeward side of the Rockies in Alberta is basking in a föhn Chinook. The three different weather conditions are all caused by the same flow of air, hence the confusion over the use of the name "Chinook wind ''.
Two common cloud patterns seen during this time are a chinook arch overhead, and a bank of clouds (also referred to as a cloud wall) obscuring the mountains to the west. It appears to be an approaching storm, but does not advance any further east.
Often, a Chinook is preceded by a "Manyberries Chinook '' during the end of a cold spell. This southeast wind was named for the small village Manyberries, now a hamlet, in southeastern Alberta, from where the wind seems to originate. It can be fairly strong and cause bitter windchill and blowing snow. The wind will eventually swing around to the southwest and the temperature rises sharply as the real Chinook arrives.
The term Chinook wind is also used in British Columbia, and is the original usage, being rooted in the lore of coastal tribes and brought to Alberta by the fur - traders. Such winds are extremely wet and warm and arrive off the western coast of North America from the southwest. The winds are also known as the pineapple express, since they are of tropical origin, roughly from the area of the Pacific near Hawaii. The air associated with a west coast Chinook is stable; this minimizes wind gusts and often keeps winds light in sheltered areas. In exposed areas, fresh gales are frequent during a Chinook, but strong gale - or storm - force winds are uncommon (most of the region 's stormy winds come when a fast ' westerly ' jet stream lets air masses from temperate and subarctic latitudes clash).
When a Chinook comes in when an Arctic air mass is holding steady over the coast, the tropical dampness brought in suddenly cools, penetrating the frozen air and coming down in volumes of powder snow, sometimes to sea level. Snowfalls and the cold spells that spawned them only last a few days during a Chinook; as the warm Chinooks blow from the southwest, they push back east the cold Arctic air. The snow melts quickly and is gone within a week.
The effects on the Interior of British Columbia when a Chinook is in effect are the reverse. In a rainy spell, most of the heavy moisture will be soaked out by the ramparts of mountains before the air mass reaches the Fraser Canyon and the Thompson River - Okanagan area. The effects are similar to those of an Alberta Chinook, though not to the same extreme, in part because the Okanagan is relatively warmer than the Prairies, and because of the additional number of precipitation - catching mountain ranges between Kelowna and Calgary. When the Chinook brings snow to the coast during a period of coastal cold, bright but chilly weather in the interior will give way to a slushy melting of snow, more due to the warm spell than because of rain.
The resulting outflow wind is more or less the opposite of British Columbia / Pacific Northwest Chinook. These are called a squamish in certain areas, rooted in the direction of such winds coming down out of Howe Sound, home to the Squamish people, and in Alaska are called a williwaw. They consist of cold airstreams from the continental air mass pouring out of the interior plateau via certain river valleys and canyons penetrating the Coast Mountains towards the coast.
The word "Chinook '' is in common usage among local fishermen and people in communities along the British Columbia Coast and coastal Washington and Oregon. The term is also used in the Puget Sound area of Washington. "Chinook '' is not pronounced as it is east of the Cascades -- shinook -- but is in the original coastal pronunciation tshinook.
In British Columbia and other parts of the Pacific Northwest, the word Chinook was once often pronounced / tʃ ɪnʊk / chinuuk. Currently, the common pronunciation throughout most of the Pacific Northwest, Alberta, and the rest of Canada, is / ʃɪnʊk / shinuuk, as in French. This difference may be because it was the Métis employees of the Hudson 's Bay Company, who were familiar with the Chinook people and country, brought the name east of the Cascades and Rockies, along with their own ethnified pronunciation. Early records are clear that tshinook was the original pronunciation, before the word 's transmission east of the Rockies.
Native legend of the Lil'wat subgroup of the St'at'imc tells of a girl named Chinook - Wind, who married Glacier, and moved to his country, which was in the area of today 's Birkenhead River. She pined for her warm sea - home in the southwest, and sent a message to her people. They came to her in a vision in the form of snowflakes, and told her they were coming to get her. They came in great number and quarrelled with Glacier over her, but they overwhelmed him and she went home with them in the end.
While on the one hand this tale tells a tribal family - relations story, and family / tribal history as well, it also seems to be a parable of a typical weather pattern of a southwesterly wind at first bringing snow, then rain, and also of the melting of a glacier, namely the Place Glacier near Gates Lake at Birken. Thus, it also tells of a migration of people to the area -- or a war, depending on how the details of the legend might be read, with Chinook - Wind taking the part of Helen in a First Nations parallel to the Trojan War.
The frequent midwinter thaws in Great Plains Chinook country are more of a bane than a blessing to gardeners. Plants can be visibly brought out of dormancy by persistent Chinook winds, or have their hardiness reduced even if they appear to be remaining dormant. In either case, they become vulnerable to later cold waves. Many plants which do well at Winnipeg (where constant cold maintains dormancy all winter) are difficult to grow in the Alberta Chinook belt; examples include basswood, some apple, raspberry and Saskatoon varieties, and Amur maples. Trees in the Chinook - affected areas of Alberta are known to be small, with much less growth than trees in areas not affected by Chinooks. This is once again caused by the ' off - and - on ' dormancy throughout winter.
Chinook winds are said to sometimes cause a sharp increase in the number of migraine headaches suffered by the locals. At least one study conducted by the department of clinical neurosciences at the University of Calgary supports that belief. They are popularly believed to increase irritability and sleeplessness. In mid-winter over major centres such as Calgary, Chinooks can often override cold air in the city, trapping the pollutants in the cold air and causing inversion smog. At such times, it is possible for it to be cold at street level and much warmer at the tops of the skyscrapers and in higher terrain. In 1983, on the 45th floor (about 145 m (460 ft) above the street) of the Petro - Canada Center, carpenters worked shirtless in + 12 ° C, windy conditions (temperature reported to them by overhead crane operator), but were chagrined to find out the street temperature was still − 20 ° C as they left work at 3: 30 that afternoon.
Three especially famous Chinook folk tales are probably known in some form by most people in southern Alberta from childhood stories.
Loma, Montana, boasts having the most extreme recorded temperature change in a 24 - hour period. On 15 January 1972, the temperature rose from − 54 ° F to 49 ° F (− 48 ° C to 9 ° C), a 103 ° F (58 ° C) change in temperature, a dramatic example of the regional Chinook wind in action.
The Black Hills of South Dakota are home to the world 's fastest recorded rise in temperature. On 22 January 1943, at about 7: 30 am MST, the temperature in Spearfish, South Dakota, was − 4 ° F (− 20 ° C). The Chinook kicked in, and two minutes later, the temperature was 45 ° F (7 ° C). The 49 ° F (27 ° C) rise set a world record, yet to be exceeded. By 9: 00 am, the temperature had risen to 54 ° F (12 ° C). Suddenly, the Chinook died down and the temperature tumbled back to − 4& ° F (− 20 ° C). The 58 ° F (32 ° C) drop took only 27 minutes.
The aforementioned 107 mph (172 km / h) wind in Alberta and other local wind records west of the 100th meridian on the Great Plains of the United States and Canada, as well as instances of the record high and low temperature for a given day of the year being set on the same date, are largely the result of these winds.
On rare occasions, Chinook winds generated on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains have reached as far east as Wisconsin.
Chinooks are generally called föhn winds by meteorologists and climatologists, and, regardless of name, can occur in most places on the leeward side of a nearby mountain range. They are called "Chinook winds '' throughout most of inland western North America, particularly the Rocky Mountain region. Montana, in particular, has a significant amount of föhn winds across much of the state during the winter months, but particularly coming off the Rocky Mountain Front in the northern and west - central areas of the state.
One such wind occurs in the Cook Inlet region in Alaska as air moves over the Chugach Mountains between Prince William Sound and Portage Glacier. Anchorage residents often believe the warm winds which melt snow and leave their streets slushy and muddy are a midwinter gift from Hawaii, following a common mistake that the warm winds come from the same place as the similar winds near the coasts in southern British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon.
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when do season 4 of the flash come on | The Flash (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of the American television series The Flash, which is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, follows a crime scene investigator with superhuman speed who fights criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. It is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the other television series of the universe, and is a spin - off of Arrow. The season is produced by Berlanti Productions, Warner Bros. Television, and DC Entertainment, with Andrew Kreisberg and Todd Helbing serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in January 2017, and filming began that July. Grant Gustin stars as Barry, with principal cast members Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin also returning from previous seasons, and are joined by Neil Sandilands.
The fourth season began airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW.
Kevin Smith will direct an episode of the season.
The series was renewed for a fourth season on January 8, 2017, earlier than usual for the series. Executive producer Andrew Kreisberg said on this, "The great thing about our dear friends at The CW and Mark Pedowitz picking the shows up as early as they did has allowed us to start building the schedules for next season. '' In May 2017, it was announced that Aaron Helbing would not return as an executive producer for season four, with only Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, Sarah Schechter, and Todd Helbing returning from previous seasons.
In March 2017, Kreisberg confirmed that the main villain for the fourth season would not be a speedster, like the previous three seasons. Executive producers Aaron and Todd Helbing also mentioned that there would be less time travel in the season, with Aaron saying, "We like playing with the timelines and the different time periods and future and past. For now, I think we 're going to focus on the present. '' In June 2017, Clifford DeVoe / Thinker was reported to be the main antagonist of the season. He was first hinted in the third season episode "Abra Kadabra '' when the titular villain mentions him among the Flash 's greatest enemies, and again in the season finale "Finish Line '' when Savitar mentions facing DeVoe but states that the Flash has not dealt with him yet. At the series ' San Diego Comic - Con panel, the speculation was confirmed, with Todd Helbing saying, "With three Speedsters in a row, this year it 's the fastest man alive against the fastest mind alive. '' He added that the writers were "making a conscious effort this year to get the fun quotient back up ''.
Regarding the possibility of Wally West taking on the mantle of the Flash in Barry 's absence, Keiynan Lonsdale said that "It 's not something that 's on my radar. I feel as though there is so much story to tell and Wally has so much growing to do... We need to see how these character realistically get to where they are headed for. '' With the action picking up six months after season three, Kid Flash and Vibe are left to protect Central City, with Carlos Valdes saying "the team is sort of clutching at straws to keep the city together,... there is a unanimous feeling amongst the remaining members that it 's just not the same without Barry... So in light of that, Cisco does whatever it takes to get his friends back. '' Valdes also confirmed the return of Cisco 's more lighthearted joking manner. Candice Patton explained Iris West 's larger role within Team Flash as "a way of distracting herself, '' adding that "(Iris) is forced to deal with that anger and resentment and abandonment by kind of focusing on protecting Central City... We 're seeing a very different Iris, almost a very hardened Iris. '' Kreisberg also hinted at some major growth for Iris this season, and noted that "the season premiere is all about Iris and Cisco, not Barry ''.
In July 2017, Sterling Gates, DC Comics comic book writer, joined as a member of the fourth season 's writing staff. At the Television Critics Association press tour in August 2017, Pedowitz stated that the fourth season of The Flash is "going to try to find the lightness... of the Barry Allen of the first two seasons, '' and said that the show was likely "done with Speedster villains ''. Later in the month, Kreisberg confirmed the return of Harry Wells from Earth - 2, saying that "season 4 for Harry is really realizing what he 's missing in his life and what it is he needs to become a better, more complete person, and so he 's going to be going on a fairly epic emotional journey this season that is tied to the Thinker 's plan, '' in addition to confirming the introduction of a new version of the Wells character.
In September 2017, Helbing noted "There 's a lot of love in the air this season, '' and compared Barry and Iris ' reunion to "somebody going off to war for six months and coming back. There 's a lot that Iris experienced that Barry did n't when he was gone, and it 's really (about) the fun and the emotional component of making up that time when they were n't together. '' Helbing also explained that the Speed Force "let (Barry) deal with all of the baggage (from the past three seasons). When he comes out, he 's sort of left that all behind. '' That month, Kreisberg also confirmed that Barry and Iris will be getting married this season, while also revealing that the pair will be going to couples therapy since "(they) keep comically clashing inadvertently because (both are) used to being in charge, and so they wind up going... to work through it. '' He added, "The two of them with the therapist is some of the funniest stuff we have ever done on this show, but it also leads to a deepening of their relationship. ''
Main cast members Grant Gustin, Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin return from previous seasons as Barry Allen / The Flash, Iris West, Caitlin Snow / Killer Frost, Cisco Ramon / Vibe, Wally West / Kid Flash, Harrison Wells, and Joe West, respectively. Cavanagh will portray Harry Wells from Earth - 2 at the start of the season, without ruling out the possibility of introducing another incarnation of the Wells character later on. Teasing the arrival of a new Harrison Wells, Cavanagh said, "We 're going to start with Harry and then find a way, I think, to try and get a different version of Wells in there, be it some version of Harry or whatnot as the season 's gaps present themselves. '' Also returning from earlier in the series are Jessica Camacho as Gypsy, and Anne Dudek as Tracy Brand. Tom Felton, who joined the cast as Julian Albert in the third season, was revealed not to be returning to the series, although there is a possibility he could return if the storyline demanded it and Felton 's availability permits. Julian 's absence will be addressed "pretty quickly -- there 's a reason why he 's no longer with the team, '' said Helbing. In the season premiere, Julian is revealed to have returned to London. Kreisberg also confirmed that he had put on hold the planned return of Violett Beane as Jesse Quick due to the high number of speedsters on the show, but did not rule out a possible return in the future. Beane eventually appeared as Jesse on the episode "Luck Be a Lady ''. Britne Oldford, who previously appeared as Shawna Baez / Peek - a-Boo in the first season and the web series The Chronicles of Cisco, will reprise her role in the season premiere.
In July 2017, Neil Sandilands was announced to be cast as Clifford DeVoe, a metahuman genius who embarks on a seasonlong battle with the Flash in order to fix all that he deems wrong with humanity; while Kim Engelbrecht was announced as The Mechanic, Devoe 's right hand and a highly intelligent engineer who designs devices for him; and Danny Trejo as Breacher, a bounty hunter from Earth - 19 and the father of Gypsy. Also in June, the series was looking to cast a role that "should put the visual effects department to the test '', with the role later revealed to be Ralph Dibny / Elongated Man, a metahuman with the ability to stretch his body to superhuman lengths and sizes. Hartley Sawyer was cast in the recurring role that July as the fast - talking private investigator who after discovering his abilities will help Team Flash solve one of Central City 's greatest mysteries. The character was previously mentioned in the first season, as one of the fourteen people who seemingly died as a result of the particle accelerator explosion. The next month, Katee Sackhoff was announced in the recurring role of Amunet Black / Blacksmith, who operates an underground black market of supervillains.
Filming for the season began on July 4, 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and is set to conclude on April 21, 2018. Kevin Smith will return to direct an episode in January 2018.
In August 2017, series composer Blake Neely and Nathaniel Blume began to compose the music for the fourth season.
In May 2017, The CW president Mark Pedowitz officially announced plans for a four - show Arrowverse crossover event, crossing over episodes of the television series Supergirl, The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow, and Arrow. The crossover will begin with Supergirl and a special airing of Arrow on November 27, 2017, and conclude on The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow on November 28. In August 2017, Berlanti noted that it would be "a big life event for a few different people '' that would bring them all together for the crossover, adding "There are many life events that happen. '' Emily Bett Rickards will appear as Felicity Smoak in the fifth episode of the season.
The season began airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW in the United States, and on CTV in Canada.
In July 2017, cast from the series appeared at San Diego Comic - Con International to promote the season, where exclusive footage was shown. During the panel, a trailer for the season was shown, with James Whitbrook at io9 feeling that despite the "grim '' tone, there was "some fun signs of the team coming together to protect the city without (Barry),... Sprinkle in a few wacky things, like, say a goddamn Samuroid ripped straight from the comics, and ladies and gents, you 've got a good season of The Flash lined up. '' Ben Pearson with / Film felt seeing Iris West deal with the absence of Barry was "a nice change of pace for that character '', but anticipated that "Barry (would) be back two or three episodes in at the latest. '' Collider.com 's Allison Keene also noted Iris "getting an actual storyline '' with Barry gone, and similarly presumed that he "(would) be back in the fold by the end of the first episode '' alike to Flashpoint in the third season. She added, "There are some new foes, lots of action, plenty of tech -- it 's great! ''
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.36 / 10 based on 13 reviews.
Reviewing the first two episodes of the season, Allison Keene writing for Collider.com, felt the premiere "wipes the slate clean, fixing a lot of the issues that plagued the end of the last season, and setting up a much more toned - down storyline. Most importantly, it 's brought back some fun. '' She added that with a "streamlined team, '' the core characters now have time to interact and have meaningful plot lines. On the second episode, Keene described it as "truly a delight '' with the show taking "the time to focus on character relationships, and not just romantic relationships '' and each character "feeling like a refreshed version of themselves, with new narrative purpose ''. She also highlighted the setup of the Thinker "as an Alchemy - like villain who manipulates evil metas into the Flash 's path as part of some kind of masterplan '', saying "The Flash is a series that truly works best as a procedural, with the team finding creative ways to bring down Villains of the Week. ''
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where did the name black mamba come from | Black mamba - wikipedia
The black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) is an extremely venomous snake endemic to parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Skin colour varies from grey to dark brown. Juvenile black mambas tend to be paler than adults and darken with age. It is the longest species of venomous snake indigenous to the African continent; mature specimens generally exceed 2 meters (6.6 ft) and commonly attain 3 meters (9.8 ft). Specimens of 4.3 to 4.5 meters (14.1 to 14.8 ft) have been reported.
Although most mamba species are tree - dwelling snakes, the black mamba is not generally arboreal, preferring lairs in terrestrial habitats in a range of terrains. These include savannah, woodlands, rocky slopes and, in some regions, dense forest. It is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator, known to prey on hyrax, bushbabies and other small mammals, as well as birds. It is also a pursuit predator; in this it resembles other long, speedy, highly venomous species with well - developed vision. Over suitable surfaces it is possibly the fastest species of snake, capable of at least 11 km / h (6.8 mph) over short distances. Adult mambas have few natural predators.
In a threat display, the mamba usually opens its inky - black mouth, spreads its narrow neck - flap and sometimes hisses. It is capable of striking at considerable range and may occasionally deliver a series of bites in rapid succession. Its venom is primarily composed of potent neurotoxins that may cause a fast onset of symptoms. Despite its reputation as formidable and highly aggressive, it usually attempts to flee from humans unless threatened or cornered. The black mamba is rated as least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 's Red List of Endangered species.
The black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) is an elapid within the genus Dendroaspis. Although it had been known to missionaries and residents, before 1860, by the name "mamba '', which was already established in the vernacular and taken from the Zulu word "imamba '', the first formal description was made by German - British zoologist Albert Günther in 1864. A single specimen was one of many snake species collected by Dr John Kirk, a naturalist who accompanied Dr David Livingstone on the Second Zambesi expedition. The specific epithet polylepis is derived from the Ancient Greek poly (πολύ) meaning "many '' and lepis (λεπίς) meaning "scale ''.
In 1873, German naturalist Wilhelm Peters described Dendraspis Antinorii from a specimen in the museum of Genoa, which had been killed by Orazio Antinori in what is now northern Eritrea. This was subsequently regarded as a subspecies, and is no longer held to be distinct. In 1896, George Albert Boulenger combined the species (Dendroaspis polylepis) as a whole with the eastern green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps), a lumping diagnosis that remained in force until 1946, when FitzSimons split them again into separate species. A 2016 genetic analysis showed that the black and eastern green mambas were each others ' closest relatives, and more distantly related to Jameson 's mamba.
A local Ngindo name in Tanzania is ndemalunyayo "grass - cutter '' as it supposedly clips grass.
Dendroaspis polylepis is a large, round - bodied, slender, but powerful snake. It tapers smoothly towards the tail, and is of markedly more robust build than its distinctly gracile congeners Dendroaspis angusticeps and Dendroaspis viridis. The head is often said to be "coffin - shaped '' with a somewhat pronounced brow ridge and a medium - sized eye. It is a highly proteroglyphous snake, with fangs up to 6.5 millimeters (0.26 in) in length located at the front of the maxilla. The adult snake 's length ranges from 2 meters (6.6 ft) to 3 meters (9.8 ft) routinely but, according to some sources, specimens have grown to lengths of 4.3 to 4.5 meters (14.1 to 14.8 ft). Black mambas weigh about 1.6 kilograms (3.5 lb) on average. A specimen of 1.41 meters (4.6 ft) was found to have weighed 651.7 g (1.437 lb). Dendroaspis polylepis is the second longest venomous snake species, exceeded in length only by the king cobra.
Specimens vary considerably in color; some are olive - brown to khaki, many are grey, but none are black. Some individuals display dark mottling towards the posterior, which may appear in the form of oblique bars. They have cream colored underbellies and the eyes are dark brown to black with a silver or pale yellow corona surrounding the pupil. Juvenile snakes are lighter in color than adults, typically grey or olive green in appearance, and they darken with age.
The head, body and tail scalation of the black mamba:
The black mamba has a wide range within sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, it has been observed in north east Democratic Republic of the Congo, south western Sudan to Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, eastern Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, south to Mozambique, Swaziland, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana to KwaZulu - Natal in South Africa, and Namibia; then northeast across Angola to south eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The black mamba 's distribution contains gaps within the Central African Republic, Chad, Nigeria and Mali. These gaps may lead physicians to misidentify black mamba bites and administer an inappropriate antivenom. In 1954 the black mamba was recorded in, in the Dakar region of Senegal. However, this observation, and a subsequent observation that identified a second specimen in the region in 1956, has not been confirmed and thus the snake 's distribution in this area is inconclusive.
The black mamba is primarily terrestrial, but occasionally arboreal, especially where it occurs in forest. It prefers moderately dry environments such as light woodland and scrub, rocky outcrops, and semi-arid dry savannah. It also inhabits moist savanna and lowland forests. Typically it uses termite mounds, abandoned burrows and rock crevices as shelter. The black mamba is not commonly found at altitudes above 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), although its distribution does include 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) in Kenya and 1,650 metres (5,410 ft) in Zambia.
It is rated as a species of least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 's Red List of Endangered species, based on its huge range across sub-Saharan Africa and no documented decline.
The black mamba is graceful but skittish and often unpredictable. It is agile and can move quickly. When it senses a perceived threat, it retreats into brush or a hole. In the wild, a black mamba seldom tolerates humans approaching more closely than about 40 meters. When confronted it is likely to gape in a threat display, exposing its black mouth and flicking its tongue. It also is likely to form a narrow hood by spreading its neck - flap. The threat display may be accompanied by audible hissing.
During the threat display, any sudden movement by the intruder may provoke the mamba into a series of rapid strikes leading to severe envenomation. Also, the size of the black mamba, plus its ability to raise its head well off the ground, enable it to launch as much as 40 % of its body length upwards, so mamba bites in humans quite often are on the upper body. This behaviour also permits the snake to land a strike at unexpectedly long range. The black mamba 's reputed readiness to attack is often much exaggerated and usually is provoked by perceived threats, such as blocking its intended retreat, accidentally or otherwise.
For its slender body, the black mamba is deceptively powerful; it is the fastest moving snake indigenous to Africa, and perhaps the fastest anywhere. It does however, move rather clumsily over soft sand, a surface to which it is not adapted. There have been many unrealistic stories concerning the black mamba 's speed, perhaps partly because the slender body exaggerates the impression of speed. These stories include the myth that it can outrun a galloping horse or a running human. On 23 April 1906, on the Serengeti Plains, an intentionally provoked black mamba was recorded at a speed of 11 km / h (6.8 mph), over a distance of 43 m (141 ft). A black mamba would almost certainly not be able to exceed 16 km / h (9.9 mph), and like most reptiles it can maintain such relatively high speeds only for short distances.
The black mamba is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator, though it has been recorded as hunting partly by pursuit, such as catching pigeons at a watering hole before they can fly high enough to escape. It usually goes hunting from a permanent lair, to which it will regularly return, if the hunting is good and it is not disturbed. It hunts mainly by sight and in doing so it commonly will raise much of its length well off the ground. The black mamba does not typically hold onto prey after biting, instead releasing its quarry and waiting for it to succumb to paralysis and die. This however depends on the type of prey; for example, it typically will hold onto a bird till it stops struggling to escape. If prey tries to escape or defend itself, the black mamba often may follow up its initial bite with a rapid series of strikes to incapacitate and quickly kill its prey. The snake has been known to prey on hyrax and rock hyrax, bushbabies, and bats. The black mamba has a potent digestive system and has been observed to digest prey fully within eight to ten hours.
Not many predators challenge an adult black mamba although it does face a few threats such as birds of prey, particularly snake eagles. Although all species of snake eagle commonly prey on snakes, there are two species in particular that do so with high frequency, including preying on black mambas (though eagles have been killed during these attacks). These are the black - chested snake eagle (Circaetus pectoralis) and the brown snake eagle (Circaetus cinereus). The Cape file snake (Mehelya capensis), which is apparently immune to all African snake venoms and preys on other snakes including venomous ones, is a common predator of black mambas (limited only by the size it can swallow). Mongooses, which also are partially immune to venom, and are often quick enough to evade a bite, will sometimes tackle a young black mamba for prey. Humans do not usually consume black mambas, but they often kill them out of fear.
Black mambas breed annually and mating occurs in the early spring, when male mambas locate a female by following her scent trail. After finding a potential mate the male will inspect the female by flicking his tongue over her entire body. As in other species of snakes and many other reptiles, fertilization is internal and the intromittent organs of the males are in the form of hemipenes. Females lay clutches of eggs with an incubation period of some 80 to 90 days. Like most snakes female mambas are both oviparous and iteroparous. Egg - laying typically occurs during the middle of summer and egg clutches range from 6 to 17 eggs.
During the mating season rival males may compete by wrestling, not by biting. Opponents attempt to subdue each other by intertwining their bodies and raising their heads high off the ground. Observers have on occasion mistaken such wrestling for mating.
The black mamba is generally solitary, but not strictly so; as a rule they interact very little except in male rivalry during the mating season. However, black mambas are well known to share retreats occasionally, either with other mambas, or sometimes with other species of snakes.
In hatching, mambas break through the egg shell with an egg tooth and are born with fully developed venom glands; capable of inflicting a potentially lethal bite minutes after hatching. The body of the newly hatched snake contains the residues of the egg yolk, and assimilates them to sustain the young snake until it finds its first prey.
There is little information available concerning the lifespan of wild black mambas, but the longest surviving captive example had a recorded lifespan of 11 years. It is possible that wild black mambas live significantly longer than this.
The black mamba 's venom is composed of neurotoxins (dendrotoxin) and cardiotoxins as well as other toxins such as fasciculins. In an experiment, the most abundant toxin found in black mamba venom was observed to be able to kill a mouse in as little as 4.5 minutes. Based on the murine median lethal dose (LD) values, the black mamba 's toxicity from all published sources is as follows:
This venom is extremely toxic. A bite from a black mamba can deliver about 100 -- 120 mg of venom on average and the maximum dose recorded is 400 mg. It is reported that before antivenom was widely available, the mortality rate from a bite was nearly 100 %. The bite of a black mamba can potentially cause collapse in humans within 45 minutes, or less. Without effective antivenom therapy, death typically occurs in 7 -- 15 hours. Presently, there is a polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute for Medical Research to treat black mamba bites from many localities, and a new antivenom is currently being developed by the Universidad de Costa Rica 's Instituto Clodomiro Picado.
A bite from a black mamba causes initial neurological and neuromuscular symptoms that may commonly include headache and a metallic taste in the mouth, which may be accompanied by a triad of paresthesias, profuse perspiration and salivation. Other symptoms may include ptosis and gradual bulbar palsy. Localised pain or numbness around the bite site is common but not typically severe; therefore, application of a tourniquet proximal to the bite site is feasible and may assist in slowing the onset of prominent neurotoxicity. Without appropriate treatment, symptoms typically progress to more severe reactions such as tachydysrhythmias and neurogenic shock, leading to death by asphyxiation, cardiovascular collapse, or respiratory failure.
Peptides in black mamba venom have been found to be effective analgesics. These peptides, part of the ' three - finger ' family of snake venom toxins (mambalgins), act as inhibitors for acid - sensing ion channels in the central and peripheral nervous system, causing a pain - inihibiting effect. While this effect can be as strong as that of morphine, mambalgins do not have a resistance to naloxone, suffer less from induced tolerance, and cause no respiratory distress.
The black mamba is popularly regarded as the most dangerous and feared snake in Africa; to South African locals the black mamba 's bite is known as the "kiss of death ''. However, attacks on humans by black mambas are rare, as they usually try to avoid confrontation, and their occurrence in highly populated areas is not very common compared with some other species. Additionally, the ocellated carpet viper is responsible for more human fatalities due to snakebite than all other African species combined. A survey of snakebites in South Africa from 1957 to 1963 recorded over 900 venomous snakebites, but only seven of these were confirmed black mamba bites, at a time when effective antivenom was not widely available. Out of more than 900 bites, only 21 ended in fatalities, including all seven black mamba bites.
Danie Pienaar, now head of South African National Parks Scientific Services, survived the bite of a black mamba without antivenom in 1998. Although no antivenom was administered, Pienaar was in a serious condition, despite the hospital physicians having declared it a "moderate '' black mamba envenomation. At one point, Pienaar lapsed into a coma and his prognosis was declared "poor ''. Upon arrival at hospital Pienaar was immediately intubated, given supportive drug therapy, put on mechanical ventilation and placed on life support for three days, until the toxins were flushed out of his system. He was released from hospital on the fifth day. Pienaar believes he survived for several reasons. In an article in Kruger Park Times he said "Firstly, it was not my time to go. '' The article went on to state, "The fact that he stayed calm and moved slowly definitely helped. The tourniquet was also essential. ''
In another case, 28 - year - old British student Nathan Layton was bitten by a black mamba and died in March 2008. The black mamba had been found near a classroom at the Southern African Wildlife College in Hoedspruit, where Layton was training to be a safari guide. Layton was bitten by the snake on his index finger while it was being put into a jar, but he did n't realize he 'd been bitten. He thought the snake had only brushed his hand. Approximately 30 minutes after being bitten Layton complained of blurred vision. He collapsed and died of a heart attack, nearly an hour after being bitten. Attempts to revive him failed, and he was pronounced dead at the scene.
In a rare case of survival without treatment, American professional photographer Mark Laita was bitten on the leg by a black mamba during a photo - shoot of a black mamba at a facility in Central America. The bite ruptured an artery in his calf, which bled profusely. Laita did not go to the doctor or the hospital, and except for the swollen fang marks giving him intense pain during the night, he was not affected and was fine physically. This led him to believe that either the snake gave him a "dry bite '' (a bite without injecting venom) or the heavy bleeding pushed the venom out. Some commenters on the story suggested that it was a venomoid snake (in which the venom glands are surgically removed), but Laita responded that it was not. Only later did Laita find that he had captured the snake biting his leg in a photograph.
Media related to Dendroaspis polylepis at Wikimedia Commons
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what's the magnitude of a star that's 10 times brighter | Magnitude (astronomy) - wikipedia
In astronomy, magnitude is a logarithmic measure of the brightness of an object in a defined passband, often in the visible or infrared spectrum, but sometimes across all wavelengths. An imprecise but systematic determination of the magnitude of objects was introduced in ancient times by Hipparchus.
Astronomers use two different definitions of magnitude: apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude. The apparent magnitude (m, or vmag for the visible spectrum) is the brightness of an object as it appears in the night sky from Earth, while the absolute magnitude (M, V and H) describes the intrinsic brightness of an object as it would appear if it were placed at a certain distance from Earth, 10 parsecs for stars. A more complex definition of absolute magnitude is used for planets and small Solar System bodies, based on its brightness at one astronomical unit from the observer and from the sun.
The brighter an object appears, the lower the value of its magnitude, with the brightest objects reaching negative values. The Sun has an apparent magnitude of − 27, the full moon − 13, the brightest planet Venus measures − 5, and Sirius, the brightest visible star in the night sky, is at − 1.5. An apparent magnitude can also be assigned to man - made objects in Earth orbit. The brightest satellite flares are ranked at − 9, and the International Space Station, ISS, appears at a magnitude of − 6. The scale is logarithmic, and defined such that each step of one magnitude changes the brightness by a factor of the fifth root of 100, or approximately 2.512. For example, a magnitude 1 star is exactly a hundred times brighter than a magnitude 6 star, as the difference of five magnitude steps corresponds to 2.512 or 100.
The magnitude system dates back roughly 2000 years to the Greek astronomer Hipparchus (or the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy -- references vary) who classified stars by their apparent brightness, which they saw as size (magnitude means "bigness, size ''). To the unaided eye, a more prominent star such as Sirius or Arcturus appears larger than a less prominent star such as Mizar, which in turn appears larger than a truly faint star such as Alcor. In 1736, the mathematician John Keill described the ancient naked - eye magnitude system in this way:
The fixed Stars appear to be of different Bignesses, not because they really are so, but because they are not all equally distant from us. Those that are nearest will excel in Lustre and Bigness; the more remote Stars will give a fainter Light, and appear smaller to the Eye. Hence arise the Distribution of Stars, according to their Order and Dignity, into Classes; the first Class containing those which are nearest to us, are called Stars of the first Magnitude; those that are next to them, are Stars of the second Magnitude... and so forth, ' till we come to the Stars of the sixth Magnitude, which comprehend the smallest Stars that can be discerned with the bare Eye. For all the other Stars, which are only seen by the Help of a Telescope, and which are called Telescopical, are not reckoned among these six Orders. Altho ' the Distinction of Stars into six Degrees of Magnitude is commonly received by Astronomers; yet we are not to judge, that every particular Star is exactly to be ranked according to a certain Bigness, which is one of the Six; but rather in reality there are almost as many Orders of Stars, as there are Stars, few of them being exactly of the same Bigness and Lustre. And even among those Stars which are reckoned of the brightest Class, there appears a Variety of Magnitude; for Sirius or Arcturus are each of them brighter than Aldebaran or the Bull 's Eye, or even than the Star in Spica; and yet all these Stars are reckoned among the Stars of the first Order: And there are some Stars of such an intermedial Order, that the Astronomers have differed in classing of them; some putting the same Stars in one Class, others in another. For Example: The little Dog was by Tycho placed among the Stars of the second Magnitude, which Ptolemy reckoned among the Stars of the first Class: And therefore it is not truly either of the first or second Order, but ought to be ranked in a Place between both.
Note that the brighter the star, the smaller the magnitude: Bright "first magnitude '' stars are "1st - class '' stars, while stars barely visible to the naked eye are "sixth magnitude '' or "6th - class ''. The system was a simple delineation of stellar brightness into six distinct groups but made no allowance for the variations in brightness within a group.
Tycho Brahe attempted to directly measure the "bigness '' of the stars in terms of angular size, which in theory meant that a star 's magnitude could be determined by more than just the subjective judgment described in the above quote. He concluded that first magnitude stars measured 2 arc minutes (2 ′) in apparent diameter ( ⁄ of a degree, or ⁄ the diameter of the full moon), with second through sixth magnitude stars measuring 1 ⁄ ′, 1 ⁄ ′, ⁄ ′, ⁄ ′, and ⁄ ′, respectively. The development of the telescope showed that these large sizes were illusory -- stars appeared much smaller through the telescope. However, early telescopes produced a spurious disk - like image of a star that was larger for brighter stars and smaller for fainter ones. Astronomers from Galileo to Jaques Cassini mistook these spurious disks for the physical bodies of stars, and thus into the eighteenth century continued to think of magnitude in terms of the physical size of a star. Johannes Hevelius produced a very precise table of star sizes measured telescopically, but now the measured diameters ranged from just over six seconds of arc for first magnitude down to just under 2 seconds for sixth magnitude. By the time of William Herschel astronomers recognized that the telescopic disks of stars were spurious and a function of the telescope as well as the brightness of the stars, but still spoke in terms of a star 's size more than its brightness. Even well into the nineteenth century the magnitude system continued to be described in terms of six classes determined by apparent size, in which
There is no other rule for classing the stars but the estimation of the observer; and hence it is that some astronomers reckon those stars of the first magnitude which others esteem to be of the second.
However, by the mid-nineteenth century astronomers had measured the distances to stars via stellar parallax, and so understood that stars are so far away as to essentially appear as point sources of light. Following advances in understanding the diffraction of light and astronomical seeing, astronomers fully understood both that the apparent sizes of stars were spurious and how those sizes depended on the intensity of light coming from a star (this is the star 's apparent brightness, which can be measured in units such as watts / cm) so that brighter stars appeared larger.
Early photometric measurements (made, for example, by using a light to project an artificial "star '' into a telescope 's field of view and adjusting it to match real stars in brightness) demonstrated that first magnitude stars are about 100 times brighter than sixth magnitude stars.
Thus in 1856 Norman Pogson of Oxford proposed that a logarithmic scale of √ 100 ≈ 2.512 be adopted between magnitudes, so five magnitude steps corresponded precisely to a factor of 100 in brightness. Every interval of one magnitude equates to a variation in brightness of √ 100 or roughly 2.512 times. Consequently, a first magnitude star is about 2.5 times brighter than a second magnitude star, 2.5 brighter than a third magnitude star, 2.5 brighter than a fourth magnitude star, and so on.
This is the modern magnitude system, which measures the brightness, not the apparent size, of stars. Using this logarithmic scale, it is possible for a star to be brighter than "first class '', so Arcturus or Vega are magnitude 0, and Sirius is magnitude − 1.46.
As mentioned above, the scale appears to work ' in reverse ', with objects with a negative magnitude being brighter than those with a positive magnitude. The ' larger ' the negative value, the brighter.
Objects appearing farther to the left on this line are brighter, while objects appearing farther to the right are dimmer. Thus zero appears in the middle, with the brightest objects on the far left, and the dimmest objects on the far right.
Two of the main types of magnitudes distinguished by astronomers are:
The difference between these concepts can be seen by comparing two stars. Betelgeuse (apparent magnitude 0.5, absolute magnitude − 5.8) appears slightly dimmer in the sky than Alpha Centauri (apparent magnitude 0.0, absolute magnitude 4.4) even though it emits thousands of times more light, because Betelgeuse is much farther away.
Under the modern logarithmic magnitude scale, two objects, one of which is used as a reference or baseline, whose intensities (brightnesses) measured from Earth in units of power per unit area (such as watts per square metre, W m) are I and I, will have magnitudes m and m related by
Using this formula, the magnitude scale can be extended beyond the ancient magnitude 1 -- 6 range, and it becomes a precise measure of brightness rather than simply a classification system. Astronomers can now measure differences as small as one - hundredth of a magnitude. Stars that have magnitudes between 1.5 and 2.5 are called second - magnitude; there are some 20 stars brighter than 1.5, which are first - magnitude stars (see the list of brightest stars). For example, Sirius is magnitude − 1.46, Arcturus is − 0.04, Aldebaran is 0.85, Spica is 1.04, and Procyon (the little Dog) is 0.34. Under the ancient magnitude system, all of these stars might have been classified as "stars of the first magnitude ''.
Magnitudes can also be calculated for objects far brighter than stars (such as the Sun and Moon), and for objects too faint for the human eye to see (such as Pluto).
Often, only apparent magnitude is mentioned since it can be measured directly. Absolute magnitude can be calculated from apparent magnitude and distance from:
This is known as the distance modulus, where d is the distance to the star measured in parsecs, m is the apparent magnitude, and M is the absolute magnitude.
If the line of sight between the object and observer is affected by extinction due to absorption of light by interstellar dust particles, then the object 's apparent magnitude will be correspondingly fainter. For A magnitudes of extinction, the relationship between apparent and absolute magnitudes becomes
Stellar absolute magnitudes are usually designated with a capital M with a subscript to indicate the passband. For example, M is the magnitude at 10 parsecs in the V passband. A bolometric magnitude (M) is an absolute magnitude adjusted to take account of radiation across all wavelengths; it is typically smaller (i.e. brighter) than an absolute magnitude in a particular passband, especially for very hot or very cool objects. Bolometric magnitudes are formally defined based on stellar luminosity in watts, and are normalised to be approximately equal to M for yellow stars.
Absolute magnitudes for solar system objects are frequently quoted based on a distance of 1 AU. These are referred to with a capital H symbol. Since these objects are lit primarily by reflected light from the sun, an H magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude of the object at 1 AU from the sun and 1 AU from the observer.
The following is a table giving apparent magnitudes for celestial objects and artificial satellites ranging from the Sun to the faintest object visible with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST):
Under the Vega system for measuring the brightness of astronomical brightness, the star Vega is defined to have an apparent magnitude of zero as measured through all filters, although this is only an approximation e.g. its actual brightness has been measured to be 0.03 in the V (visual) band. The brightest star, Sirius, has a Vega magnitude of − 1.46. or − 1.5. However, Vega has been found to vary in brightness, and other standards are in common use. One such system is the AB magnitude system, in which the reference is a source with a constant flux density per unit frequency. Another is the STMAG system, in which the reference source is instead defined to have constant flux density per unit wavelength.
The human eye is easily fooled, and Hipparchus 's scale has had problems. For example, the human eye is more sensitive to yellow and red light than to blue, and photographic film more to blue than to yellow / red, giving different values of visual magnitude and photographic magnitude. Apparent magnitude can also be affected by factors such as dust in the atmosphere or light cloud cover absorbing some of the light.
Furthermore, many people find it counter-intuitive that a high magnitude star is dimmer than a low magnitude star.
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where did 1st odi match played in india | India national cricket team - Wikipedia
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The India national cricket team, also known as Team India and Men in Blue, represents India in international cricket. Governed by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI), it is a full member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) with Test, One Day International (ODI) and Twenty20 International (T20I) status.
Although cricket was introduced to India by European merchant sailors in the 18th century, and the first cricket club was established in Calcutta in 1792, India 's national cricket team did not play its first Test match until 25 June 1932 at Lord 's, becoming the sixth team to be granted Test cricket status. In its first fifty years of international cricket, India was one of the weaker teams, winning only 35 of the first 196 Test matches it played. From 1932 India had to wait until 1952, almost 20 years for its first Test victory. The team, however, gained strength in the 1970s with the emergence of players such as batsmen Sunil Gavaskar and Gundappa Viswanath, all - rounder Kapil Dev and the Indian spin quartet of Erapalli Prasanna, Srinivas Venkataraghavan, Bhagwat Chandrasekhar and Bishen Singh Bedi.
Traditionally much stronger at home than abroad, the Indian team has improved its overseas form, especially in limited - overs cricket, since the start of the 21st century, winning Test matches in Australia, England and South Africa. It has won the Cricket World Cup twice -- in 1983 under the captaincy of Kapil Dev and in 2011 under the captaincy of Mahendra Singh Dhoni. After winning the 2011 World Cup, India became only the third team after West Indies and Australia to have won the World Cup more than once, and the first cricket team to win the World Cup at home. It also won the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 and 2013 ICC Champions Trophy, under the captaincy of MS Dhoni. It was also the joint champions of 2002 ICC Champions Trophy, along with Sri Lanka.
As of 18 October 2017, India is ranked first in Test, second in ODIs and fifth in T20Is by the ICC. Virat Kohli is the current captain of the team across all formats, while the head coach is Ravi Shastri. The Indian cricket team has rivalries with other Test - playing nations, most notably with Pakistan, the political arch - rival of India. However, in recent times, rivalries with nations like Australia and England have also gained prominence.
The British brought cricket to India in the early 1700s, with the first cricket match played in 1721. In 1848, the Parsi community in Bombay formed the Oriental Cricket Club, the first cricket club to be established by Indians. After slow beginnings, the Europeans eventually invited the Parsis to play a match in 1877. By 1912, the Parsis, Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims of Bombay played a quadrangular tournament with the Europeans every year. In the early 1900s, some Indians went on to play for the England cricket team. Some of these, such as Ranjitsinhji and KS Duleepsinhji were greatly appreciated by the British and their names went on to be used for the Ranji Trophy and Duleep Trophy -- two major first - class tournaments in India. In 1911, an Indian team went on their first official tour of the British Isles, but only played English county teams and not the England cricket team.
India was invited into The Imperial Cricket Council in 1926, and made their debut as a Test playing nation in England in 1932, led by CK Nayudu, who was considered as the best Indian batsman at the time. The one - off Test match between the two sides was played at Lord 's in London. The team was not strong in their batting at this point and went on to lose by 158 runs. In 1933, the first Test series in India was played between India and England with matches in Bombay, Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Madras (now Chennai). England won the series 2 -- 0. The Indian team continued to improve throughout the 1930s and ' 40s but did not achieve an international victory during this period. In the early 1940s, India did n't play any Test cricket due to the Second World War. The team 's first series as an independent country was in late 1947 against Sir Donald Bradman 's Invincibles (a name given to the Australia national cricket team of that time). It was also the first Test series India played which was not against England. Australia won the five - match series 4 -- 0, with Bradman tormenting the Indian bowling in his final Australian summer. India subsequently played their first Test series at home not against England against the West Indies in 1948. West Indies won the 5 - Test series 1 -- 0.
India recorded their first Test victory, in their 24th match, against England at Madras in 1952. Later in the same year, they won their first Test series, which was against Pakistan. They continued their improvement throughout the early 1950s with a series win against New Zealand in 1956. However, they did not win again in the remainder of the decade and lost badly to strong Australian and English sides. On 24 August 1959, India lost by an innings in the Test to complete the only 5 -- 0 whitewash ever inflicted by England. The next decade saw India 's reputation develop as a team with a strong record at home. They won their first Test series against England at home in 1961 -- 62, and also won a home series against New Zealand. They managed to draw home series against Pakistan and Australia, and another series against England. In this same period, India also won its first series outside the subcontinent, against New Zealand in 1967 -- 68.
The key to India 's bowling in the 1970s were the Indian spin quartet -- Bishen Bedi, E.A.S. Prasanna, BS Chandrasekhar and Srinivas Venkataraghavan. This period also saw the emergence of two of India 's best ever batsmen, Sunil Gavaskar and Gundappa Viswanath. Indian pitches have had tendency to support spin and the spin quartet exploited this to create collapses in opposing batting line - ups. These players were responsible for the back - to - back series wins in 1971 in the West Indies and in England, under the captaincy of Ajit Wadekar. Gavaskar scored 774 runs in the West Indian series while Dilip Sardesai 's 112 played a big part in their one Test win.
The advent of One Day International (ODI) cricket in 1971 created a new dimension in the cricket world. However, India was not considerably strong in ODIs at this point and batsmen such as the captain Gavaskar were known for their defence - based approaches to batting. India began as a weak team in ODIs and did not qualify for the second round in the first two editions of the Cricket World Cup. Gavaskar infamously blocked his way to 36 not out off 174 balls against England in the first World Cup in 1975, India scored just 132 for 3 and lost by 202 runs.
In contrast, India fielded a strong team in Test matches and were particularly strong at home where their combination of stylish batsman and beguiling spinners were seen at their best. India set a then Test record in the third Test against the West Indies at Port - of - Spain in 1976 when they chased 403 to win thanks to 112 from Viswanath. This West Indian defeat is considered to be a watershed in the history of their cricket because it led to captain Clive Lloyd dispensing with spin altogether and relying entirely on a four - man pace attack. In November 1976, the team established another record by scoring 524 for 9 declared against New Zealand at Kanpur without an individual scoring a century. There were six fifties, the highest being 70 by Mohinder Amarnath. The innings was the eighth instance in Test cricket where all eleven batsmen reached double figures.
During the 1980s, India developed a more attack - minded batting line - up with stroke makers such as the wristy Mohammed Azharuddin, Dilip Vengsarkar and all - rounders Kapil Dev and Ravi Shastri. India won the Cricket World Cup in 1983, defeating the favourites and two - time defending champions West Indies in the final, owing to a strong bowling performance. In spite of this, the team performed poorly in the Test arena, including 28 consecutive Test matches without a victory. In 1984, India won the Asia Cup and in 1985, won the World Championship of Cricket in Australia. Apart from this, India remained a weak team outside the Indian subcontinent. India 's Test series victory in 1986 against England remained the last Test series win by India outside the subcontinent for the next 19 years. The 1980s saw Gavaskar and Kapil Dev (India 's best all - rounder to date) at the pinnacle of their careers. Gavaskar made a Test record 34 centuries as he became the first man to reach the 10,000 run mark. Kapil Dev later became the highest wicket - taker in Test cricket with 434 wickets. The period was also marked by an unstable leadership, with Gavaskar and Kapil exchanging the captaincy several times.
The addition of Sachin Tendulkar and Anil Kumble to the national side in 1989 and 1990 further improved the team. The following year, Javagal Srinath, India 's fastest bowler since Amar Singh made his debut. Despite this, during the 1990s, India did not win any of its 33 Tests outside the subcontinent while it won 17 out of its 30 Tests at home. After being eliminated by neighbours Sri Lanka on home soil at the 1996 Cricket World Cup semifinal, the team underwent a year of change as Sourav Ganguly and Rahul Dravid, later to become captains of the team, made their debut in the same Test at Lord 's. Tendulkar replaced Azharuddin as captain in late 1996, but after a personal and team form slump, Tendulkar relinquished the captaincy and Azharuddin was reinstated at the beginning of 1998. With the captaincy burden removed, Tendulkar was the world 's leading run - scorer in both Tests and ODIs, as India enjoyed a home Test series win over Australia, the best ranked team in the world.
After failing to reach the semifinals at the 1999 Cricket World Cup, Tendulkar was again made captain, and had another poor run, losing 3 -- 0 on a tour of Australia and then 2 -- 0 at home to South Africa. Tendulkar resigned, vowing never to captain the team again. Ganguly was appointed the new captain and the team was further damaged in 2000 when former captain Azharuddin and fellow batsman Ajay Jadeja were implicated in a match - fixing scandal and given life and five years bans respectively. This period was described by the BBC as "the Indian cricket 's worst hour ''. However, the new core -- Tendulkar, Dravid, Kumble and Ganguly -- swore not to let this happen to them again, and lead Indian cricket out of the dark times. And the first three put aside personal ambitions to let Ganguly lead them into a new era.
Since 2000, the Indian team underwent major improvements with the appointment of John Wright as India 's first ever foreign coach. India maintained their unbeaten home record against Australia in Test series after defeating them in 2001. The series was famous for the Kolkata Test match, in which India became only the third team in the history of Test cricket to win a Test match after following on. Australian captain Steve Waugh labelled India as the "Final Frontier '' as a result of his side 's inability to win a Test series in India. Victory in 2001 against the Australians marked the beginning of a dream run for India under their captain Ganguly, winning Test matches in Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka, West Indies and England. The England series is also known for India 's highest ODI run - chase of 325 runs at Lord 's which came in the Natwest ODI Series final against England. In the same year, India were joint - winners of the ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka, and then went to the 2003 Cricket World Cup in South Africa where they reached the final only to be beaten by Australia. The 2003 -- 04 season also saw India play out a Test series in Australia where they drew 1 -- 1 with the world champions, and then win a Test and ODI series in Pakistan.
At the end of the 2004 season, India suffered from lack of form and fitness from its older players. A defeat in a following home Test series against Australia was followed by an ODI home series defeat against Pakistan followed by a Test series levelled 1 -- 1. Greg Chappell took over from John Wright as the coach of the Indian cricket team following the series, and his methods proved to be controversial during the beginning of his tenure. The tension resulted in a fallout between Chappell and Ganguly, resulting in Rahul Dravid being made captain. This triggered a revival in the team 's fortunes, following the emergence of players like Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Suresh Raina, and the coming of age of players like Irfan Pathan and Yuvraj Singh. A thumping home series victory over Sri Lanka in 2005 and a drawn series with South Africa put India at second place in the ICC ODI rankings. Dravid, Tendulkar and Virender Sehwag were selected to play for the ICC World XI in the 2005 "SuperTest '' against Australia. A convincing ODI series win in Pakistan in early 2006, following a loss in the Test series, gave India the world record of 17 successive ODI victories while batting second. Towards the middle of 2006, however, a 4 -- 1 series loss in the West Indies gave rise to a slump in India 's ODI form, while they achieved a 1 -- 0 victory in the Test series that followed, giving them their first Test series victory in the Caribbean since 1971. India 's ODI form slumped further with a disappointing performance in the 2006 Champions Trophy and a drubbing in the ODI series in South Africa. This was followed yet again by an initial good performance in the Tests, giving India its first Test match win in South Africa, although they went on to lose the series 2 -- 1. This Test series was marked by Ganguly 's comeback to the Indian team.
In December 2006, India played and won its first ever Twenty20 international in South Africa, becoming the most recent Test team to play Twenty20 cricket. The beginning of 2007 had seen a revival in the Indian team 's ODI fortunes before the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Series victories against the West Indies and Sri Lanka, marked by the comeback of Ganguly, and strong form by Tendulkar, and the emergence of young players like Robin Uthappa saw many pundits to tip India as a real contender to win the 2007 Cricket World Cup. However, defeats to Bangladesh and Sri Lanka saw India fail to reach the second round.
After winning the Test series against England in August 2007, Dravid stepped down as the captain of the team following which Dhoni was made the captain of the Twenty20 and ODI team. In September 2007, India won the first - ever Twenty20 World Cup held in South Africa, beating Pakistan by 5 runs in the final. In 2007 -- 08, they toured Australia where India lost the highly controversial home Test series 2 -- 1, but managed to win the CB series the following month with a whitewash final of Australia.
In April 2009, India secured their first Test series win in New Zealand in 41 years. After beating Sri Lanka 2 -- 0 in December 2009, India became the No. 1 Test team in the world. They retained the ranking by drawing series against South Africa and Sri Lanka. In October 2010, India whitewashed Australia 2 -- 0 in the home test series, giving them back - to - back series wins against them. Later that year, India managed to draw the Test series in South Africa at 1 -- 1.
On 2 April 2011, India won the 2011 Cricket World Cup by defeating Sri Lanka in the final, thus becoming the third team after West Indies and Australia to win the World Cup twice, the previous win being in 1983. Gautam Gambhir and the skipper Dhoni led the way with 97 and 91 * respectively. India also became the first team to win the World Cup on home soil.
India were whitewashed 4 -- 0 in away Test series by England in August 2011 due to which England replaced India as the No. 1 Test team in the rankings. This series was followed by another 4 -- 0 whitewash of India in January 2012 in Australia. The disastrous whitewashes saw the retirement of Dravid and VVS Laxman from Test cricket in 2012. Tendulkar retired in November 2013 after his 200th Test match. With Ganguly having retired in 2008, this period signalled the end of the fabled middle - order batting line - up Indian had for a decade. 2012 signalled a rough period for Indian cricket as they were beaten 2 -- 1 by England at home in the Test series. This was the first Team India were beaten by England at home in the modern era. This was followed by a 2 -- 1 loss in the ODI series against Pakistan, India 's arch rivals, at home. India were then knocked out in the second round of the 2012 ICC World Twenty20. India also failed to qualify for the 2012 Asia Cup final which closed out a disappointing 2012 for the Indian cricket team. 2013 saw a resurgence in Indian cricket.
In early 2013, India returned the favour to Australia and whitewashed them 4 -- 0 at home in a Test series. India then beat the Aussies 3 -- 2 in the 7 - match ODI series and won the one - off T20I. However, India lost heavily against New Zealand and South Africa away from home and led to heavy criticism of Indian cricketers for not being able to perform overseas. India defeated England in the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy final and Mahendra Singh Dhoni became the first captain in history to win the three major ICC trophies, namely - ICC Cricket World Cup, ICC World Twenty20 and ICC Champions Trophy. This was followed by a victory in the West Indies Triangular Series in 2013 consisting of India, West Indies and Sri Lanka. In 2014, India toured Bangladesh and England. Although they beat the former 2 -- 0 in 3 One Day Internationals, Team India were beaten 3 -- 1 in 5 Test matches by England. This series included a famous win for the Indian team in the first match of the series at Lord 's. The Test series was followed by a 3 -- 1 win for the Indians in a 5 - match ODI series and a loss in a one - off T20, both against England.
India failed to reach the final of the Asia Cup yet again in 2014. In the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 hosted in Bangladesh, India narrowly missed out on another ICC trophy by losing to Sri Lanka in the final. This tournament saw the rise of Virat Kohli as one of the best limited overs batsmen in world cricket as he was adjudged the man of the series. India soon comprehensively beat Sri Lanka and West Indies in ODI series to cement their position at the top of the ODI rankings. India toured Australia towards the end of 2014 for a 4 - match Test series, which is remembered for MS Dhoni 's sudden retirement from Test cricket after the end of the second Test. Virat Kohli was appointed captain of Team India in Test matches but he was unable to turn the series around and India lost 2 -- 0. Kohli 's first series win as captain came away from home in a 3 - match Test series vs Sri Lanka which signalled the beginning of an unbeaten Test series run for India.
2015 saw the beginning of India 's dominance at home in Test matches under new captain Virat Kohli when they comprehensively beat South Africa. This series was the beginning of an unbeaten streak of 19 Test matches for India which was brought to an end by Australia in early 2017. This series also saw the emergence of Ravichandran Ashwin and Ravindra Jadeja as two of the best spinners and all rounders. They spun webs around touring batsmen, much like the spinning quartet of the 1970s. This was followed by limited overs victories over Australia and Sri Lanka away from home. India were knocked out of the 2015 World Cup in the semi-final stage, to eventual winners Australia. India began 2016 by winning the 2016 Asia Cup, remaining unbeaten throughout the tournament, beating Pakistan along the way. India were favourites to win the 2016 ICC World Twenty20 which was being held at home, but they lost in the semi final to eventual champions West Indies. Virat Kohli was again named man of the series.
In 2016, "The Grand Home Season '' began for India, including series at home against New Zealand, England, Bangladesh and Australia. India whitewashed New Zealand to regain the number one ranking in Test cricket after almost 10 years. Before the series against England in November 2016, MS Dhoni resigned as captain of India in limited overs, thus handing the captaincy to Virat Kohli across all formats. India beat England across all three formats, with a notable 4 -- 0 win in the Test series. This was followed by Test series wins against Bangladesh and Australia, which meant India reclaimed the Border Gavaskar Trophy. Ravichandran Ashwin became the fastest cricketer of all time to reach 250 wickets; he and Ravindra Jadeja occupied the top two spots in both the ICC Bowlers and All - Rounders rankings at the time. In the process, India became the third team (after South Africa and Australia) to have won their most recent Test series against all the other Test - playing nations. India hold an unbeaten streak of 8 consecutive Test series wins as of 19 August 2017.
India defeated Pakistan in their first game of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy, winning by a convincing 124 - run margin, but lost their second game of the group against Sri Lanka by 7 wickets despite posting a total of 321. In their final group game against South Africa, a must - win encounter, India won comfortably and sealed a spot in the semi-finals, against Bangladesh. India comfortably won the match by 9 wickets, and faced arch - rivals Pakistan in the final, the first time they had met at this stage of a tournament since 2007. In an anti-climax, considering India were the clear favourites, Pakistan defeated India comfortably by 180 runs in the final, outclassing them across all three departments.
India beat the West Indies 3 -- 1 in a 5 - match ODI series in the Caribbean in July 2017, but lost to the same opposition in a one - off T20I. India then toured Sri Lanka, and comprehensively defeated them 3 - 0 in a three - match Test series, the first time India had whitewashed a team away from home in a Test series with at least three games.
The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) is the governing body for the Indian cricket team and first - class cricket in India. The Board has been operating since 1929 and represents India at the International Cricket Council. It is amongst the richest sporting organisations in the world. It sold media rights for India 's matches from 2006 -- 2010 for US $612,000,000. It manages the Indian team 's sponsorships, its future tours and team selection.
The International Cricket Council determines India 's upcoming matches through its future tours program. However, the BCCI, with its influential financial position in the cricketing world, has often challenged the ICC 's program and called for more series between India, Australia and England which are more likely to earn more revenue as opposed to tours with Bangladesh or Zimbabwe. In the past, the BCCI has also come into conflict with the ICC regarding sponsorships and the legitimacy of the ICC Champions Trophy.
Selection for the Indian cricket team occurs through the BCCI 's zonal selection policy, where each of the five zones is represented with one selector and one of the members nominated by BCCI as the Chairman of the selection committee. This has sometimes led to controversy as to whether these selectors are biased towards their zones.
The current chairman of selection committee is M.S.K. Prasad. Devang Gandhi, Sarandeep Singh, Jatin Paranjpe, and Gagan Khoda are the other members of the selection committee from 21 September 2016.
Since colours have made their way into international cricket, the Indian cricket team has chosen blue as their primary colour and orange / red as their secondary colour and have worn one or the other shade of blue. The blue colour of their uniform has also earned them the nickname of "Men in Blue ''. With the advent of the World Series Cup in the 1970s, each team was to don a primary and secondary colour on their uniforms. The Indian team elected to wear light - blue as their primary colour and yellow as their secondary colour. Even during the 1999 Cricket World Cup, the secondary colour on the Indian cricket team 's clothing was yellow. However, this has since been replaced with the tricolour. In the past, the Indian ODI outfits were changed to different shades of blue, mostly darker than the current, and the team donned navy blue during 1992, and then the sky blue colour for the next decade. Indian team has got a new kit from 2009 which is feroza blue with India written on it in orange. Currently, from October 2010, the team is once again using a light blue shade though not as light as the previous sky blue one, with India written in orange, and shades of the tricolour at the sides. The kit sponsor for the Indian cricket team is Nike, which in 2005 bought the kit rights in a $27.2 million contract with BCCI.
Due to their love for blue colour Nike with Board for Control of Cricket in India launched the mega campaign called "Bleed Blue '' for the support of Indian team in 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup which turned out to be a huge success and people over the internet and places adopted this to cheer for India.
A new ultramarine blue coloured jersey of the one - day cricket team was released on 20 October 2010 for the upcoming tours and ICC Cricket World Cup. The jersey has been designed by team 's apparel and kit sponsor Nike. Previously, the Indian cricket team has worn a darker shade of blue and before that the team has worn sky blue. The vertical tricolour band has been made on both sides in comparison to just one side in previous shirt. OPPO, the manufacturer of Chinese electronics is the official team sponsor logo is on the central part of the jersey (above orange coloured INDIA logo and on the right arm Nike logo is visible. The name and jersey number of the player is printed in orange at the back while on the chest the logo of BCCI is on the left side. The one - day cap was also sky blue with the BCCI logo on the front.
When playing first - class cricket, in addition to their cricket whites, Indian fielders sometimes wear a sunhat, which is dark blue and has a wide brim, with the BCCI logo in the middle of the front of the hat. Helmets are coloured similarly. Some players sport the Indian flag on their helmet. The current kit sponsor for the Indian team is Nike, Inc. and current team sponsor is Oppo Electronics.
There are numerous world - renowned cricket stadiums located in India. Most grounds are under the administration of various state cricket boards as opposed to being under the control of the BCCI. The Bombay Gymkhana was the first ground in India to host a full - scale cricket match featuring an Indian cricket team. This was between the Parsis and the Europeans in 1877. The first stadium to host a Test match in India was also the Gymkhana Ground in Bombay in 1933, the only Test it ever hosted. The second and third Tests in the 1933 series were hosted at Eden Gardens and Chepauk. The Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi was the first stadium to host a Test match after independence, a draw against the West Indies in 1948, the first of a 5 - Test series. 21 stadiums in India have hosted at least one official Test match. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of world - class cricket stadiums in India, with multiple Test venues in Indore, Chandigarh Mohali, Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Rajkot, Ranchi, Pune, Dharamshala and Nagpur.
Eden Gardens in Kolkata has hosted the most Tests, and also has the second - largest seating capacity of any cricket stadium in the world, being capable of holding more than 66,000 spectators. Founded in 1864, it is one of the most historical stadiums in India, having hosted numerous historical and controversial matches. Other major stadiums in India include the Feroz Shah Kotla, which was established in 1883 and hosted memorable matches including Anil Kumble 's ten wickets in an innings haul against Pakistan. For the last two years, the ground has been undergoing renovation.
The Bombay Gymkhana hosted the first ever Test match in India which is the only Test it has hosted to date. Wankhede Stadium, established in 1974, has a capacity to hold 33,000 spectators and is currently the most popular venue in the city. It has hosted 24 Test matches. It was the unofficial successor of the Brabourne Stadium, which is also located in Mumbai. Mumbai is often considered the cricketing capital of India because of its fans and the talent it produces (see Mumbai cricket team) and thus the stadium regularly hosts major Test matches. The M.A. Chidambaram Stadium in Chepauk is also considered to be an important historical Indian cricket ground, established in the early 1900s it was the site of India 's first Test victory.
Thirty - two men have captained the Indian cricket team in at least one Test match, although only six have led the team in more than 25 matches, and six have captained the team in ODIs but not Tests. India 's first captain was CK Nayudu, who led the team in four matches against England: one in England in 1932 and a series of three matches at home in 1933 -- 34. Lala Amarnath, India 's fourth captain, led the team in its first Test match after Indian independence. He also captained the side to its first Test victory and first series win, both in a three - match series at home against Pakistan in 1952 -- 53. From 1952 until 1961 -- 62, India had a number of captains such as Vijay Hazare, Polly Umrigar and Nari Contractor.
The Nawab of Pataudi, Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, was the team 's captain for 36 Test matches from 1961 -- 62 to 1969 -- 70, returning for another four matches against West Indies in 1974 -- 75. In the early years of his captaincy tenure, the team was whitewashed in the West Indies, England and Australia. However, in 1967 -- 68, Pataudi led India on its maiden New Zealand tour, which ended in India winning the Test series 3 -- 1. In 1970 -- 71, Ajit Wadekar took over the captaincy from Pataudi. Under Wadekar 's captaincy, India registered its first Test series wins in the West Indies and England. India played its first ODI in 1974, also under his captaincy. India won its first ODI under the captaincy of Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan in the 1975 Cricket World Cup, against East Africa. Between 1975 -- 76 and 1978 -- 79, Bishen Singh Bedi captained the team in 22 Tests and 4 ODIs, winning 6 Tests and one ODI.
Sunil Gavaskar took over as Test and ODI captain in 1978 -- 79, leading India in 47 Test matches and 37 ODIs, winning 9 Tests and 14 ODIs. He was succeeded by Kapil Dev in the 1980s, who continued for 34 Test matches, including 4 victories. Kapil Dev led India to victory in 39 of his 74 ODIs in charge, including the 1983 Cricket World Cup. Kapil Dev also captained India 's 2 -- 0 Test series victory in England in 1986. Between 1987 -- 88 and 1989 -- 90, India had three captains in Dilip Vengsarkar, Ravi Shastri and Krishnamachari Srikkanth. Vengsarkar took over the captaincy from Kapil Dev after the 1987 Cricket World Cup. Although he started with two centuries in his first series as captain, his captaincy period was turbulent and he lost the job following a disastrous tour of the West Indies in early - 1989 and a stand - off with the Indian cricket board (BCCI).
India has had six regular Test captains since Mohammad Azharuddin took charge in 1989. Azharuddin led the team in 47 Test matches from 1989 -- 90 to 1998 -- 99, winning 14, and in 174 ODIs, winning 90. He was followed by Sachin Tendulkar, who captained the team in 25 Test matches and 73 ODIs in the late 1990s; Tendulkar was relatively unsuccessful as a captain, winning only 4 Test matches and 23 ODIs. He was replaced as ODI captain by Ajay Jadeja and then by Sourav Ganguly.
Ganguly became the regular captain of the team in both Tests and ODIs in 2000. He remained captain until 2005 -- 06 and became the then most successful Indian captain, winning 21 of his 49 Test matches in charge and 76 of his 146 ODIs. Under his captaincy, India became the joint - winners of the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka, and the runners - up of the 2003 Cricket World Cup. India lost only three Tests at home under Ganguly and managed to draw Test series in England and Australia. Rahul Dravid took over as Test captain in 2005. In 2006, he led India to its first Test series victory in the West Indies in more than 30 years.
In September 2007, Mahendra Singh Dhoni was named as the new captain of the ODI and T20I teams, after Dravid stepped down from the post. Soon after taking up the captaincy, Dhoni led the team to the inaugural World Twenty20 title. Anil Kumble was appointed Test captain in November 2007, but retired from international cricket in November 2008 after captaining in 14 Tests. Dhoni succeeded him as the Test captain, making him the captain in all formats. Under the captaincy of Dhoni, the Indian team held the number one position in the Test rankings for 21 months (from November 2009 to August 2011), and set a national record for most back - to - back ODI wins (nine straight wins). Dhoni also led the team to victory in 2011 Cricket World Cup and 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Thus, Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies, namely - ICC Cricket World Cup in 2011, ICC World Twenty20 in 2007 and ICC Champions Trophy in 2013. He is widely regarded as India 's best ever captain. However, the team performed poorly in away Tests from 2011 to 2014 and Dhoni retired from Test cricket in December 2014, with Virat Kohli being named as the new Test captain. Dhoni resigned as captain of the ODI and T20 teams in January 2017 and Kohli succeeded him at the position.
Under Kohli 's captaincy, India were unbeaten in 19 Test matches starting from a 3 -- 0 series win over New Zealand and ending with a 2 -- 1 series win over Australia. India have an unbeaten streak of winning 7 consecutive Test series as of May 2017, starting with a 2 -- 1 series win over Sri Lanka. India also became only the third team after Australia and South Africa to have won their most recent Test series simultaneously against all the other Test playing nations. As per winning percentage in Test matches, Kohli is India 's most successful test captain having won more than 61 % of Test matches (at least 2 games).
The recent results and forthcoming fixtures of India in international cricket:
This lists all the players who have played for India in the past 12 months and the forms in which they have played. Correct as of 10 November 2017.
Key
Other players with a central contract who have not played for India in the past 12 months: Dhawal Kulkarni, Ambati Rayudu and Mandeep Singh (all Grade C)
The BCCI awards central contracts to its players, its pay graded according to the importance of the player. Players ' salaries are as follows:
Players also receive a match fee of ₹ 15 lakh (US $23,000) per Test match, ₹ 6 lakh (US $9,400) per ODI, and ₹ 3 lakh (US $4,700) per T20I.
† Cricket was played only at the 1998 Commonwealth Games. † The Indian team that won the 1985 World Championship of Cricket was adjudged by Wisden as the ' Team of the Century '.
Sachin Tendulkar, who began playing for India as a 16 - year - old in 1989 and has since become the most prolific run - scorer in the history of both Test and ODI cricket, holds a large number of national batting records. He holds the record of most appearances in both Tests and ODIs, most runs in both Tests and ODIs and most centuries in Tests and ODIs. The highest score by an Indian is the 319 scored by Virender Sehwag in Chennai. It is the second triple century in Test cricket by an Indian, the first being a 309 also made by Sehwag although against Pakistan. The team 's highest ever score was a 759 / 7 against England at MA Chidambaram Stadium, Chennai in 2016, while its lowest was 42 against England in 1974. In ODIs, the team 's highest score is 418 / 5 against West Indies at Indore in 2011 -- 12. India score 413 -- 5 in a match against Bermuda in 2007 World Cup which is the highest score ever in Cricket World Cup history. In the same match, India set a world record of the highest winning margin in an ODI match of 257 runs.
India has also had some very strong bowling figures, with spin bowler Anil Kumble being a member of the elite group of 3 bowlers who have taken 600 Test wickets. In 1999, Anil Kumble emulated Jim Laker to become the second bowler to take all ten wickets in a Test match innings when he took 10 wickets for 74 runs against Pakistan at the Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi.
Many of the Indian cricket team 's records are also world records, for example Sachin Tendulkar 's century tally (in Tests and ODIs) and run tally (also in both Tests and ODIs). Mahendra Singh Dhoni 's 183 not out against Sri Lanka in 2005 is the world record score by a wicketkeeper in ODIs. The Indian cricket team also holds the record sequence of 17 successful run - chases in ODIs, which ended in a dramatic match against the West Indies in May 2006, which India lost by just 1 run when Yuvraj Singh was bowled by Dwayne Bravo 's full toss.
Sachin Tendulkar was the first batsman to score 200 runs (he was unbeaten on 200 from 147 deliveries including 25x4 and 3x6) in a single ODI innings, on 24 February 2010 against South Africa in Gwalior. On 8 December 2011, this achievement was eclipsed by compatriot Virender Sehwag, who scored 219 runs from 149 deliveries (25x4 7x6) versus West Indies in Indore. On 13 November 2014 the record was broken by another Indian opening batsmen, Rohit Sharma, who scored 264 runs from 173 deliveries (33x4 9x6) against Sri Lanka in Kolkata. In 2013, MS Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies - ICC Cricket World Cup in 2011, ICC World Twenty20 in 2007 and ICC Champions Trophy in 2013.
In 2014, Virat Kohli became the first cricketer to win back - to - back man of the series awards in the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 and 2014 ICC World Twenty20. In 2017, Ravichandran Ashwin became the fastest cricketer in history to reach 250 wickets. He and Ravindra Jadeja are considered to be the best bowlers in Test cricket and occupy the top two spots in the rankings for Test bowlers as of May 2017. Virat Kohli became the first captain in history to score double tons in three consecutive series, against New Zealand, England and Bangladesh in 2017.
Test record versus other nations
Most Test runs for India
Most Test wickets for India
ODI record versus other nations
Most ODI runs for India
Most ODI wickets for India
T20I record versus other nations
Most T20I runs for India
Most T20I wickets for India
Players in bold text are still active with India.
Due to the massive Indian diaspora in nations like Australia, England and South Africa, a large Indian fan turnout is expected whenever India plays in each of these nations.
There have been a number of official fan groups that have been formed over the years, including the Swami Army or Bharat Army, the Indian equivalent of the Barmy Army, that were very active in their support when India toured Australia in 2003 / 2004. They are known to attribute a number of popular Indian songs to the cricket team.
Fan rivalry and cross-border tension has created a strong rivalry between the Indian and the Pakistani cricket teams. In tours between these two nations, cricket visas are often employed to accommodate for the tens of thousands of fans wishing to cross the border to watch cricket. This intense fan dedication is one of the major causes of the BCCI 's financial success.
However, there are downsides to having such a cricket - loving population. Many Indians hold cricket very close to their hearts and losses are not received well by the Indian population. In some cases, particularly after losses to Pakistan or after a long string of weak performances, there have been reports of player effigies being burnt in the streets and vandalism of player homes. In many cases, players have come under intense attention from the media for negative reasons, this has been considered as one of the reasons for Sourav Ganguly being left out of the Indian team. At times, when a match is surrounded by controversy, it has resulted in a debacle. For example, when India slid to defeat against Australia at Brabourne Stadium in 1969, fans began throwing stones and bottles onto the field as well as setting fire to the stands, before laying siege to the Australian dressing rooms. During the same tour, a stampede occurred at Eden Gardens when tickets were oversold and India fell to another loss; the Australian team bus was later stoned with bricks. A similar event occurred during the 1996 Cricket World Cup, where India were losing the semi-final to Sri Lanka at Eden Gardens. In this case, the fan behaviour was directed at the Indian team in disappointment at their lacklustre performance. An armed guard had to be placed at the home of captain Mohammad Azharuddin to ensure his safety. Indian fans have also been passionate in their following of Sachin Tendulkar, who has been commonly thought of as one of the best batsmen in the world. Glorified for the bulk of his career, a riot occurred in early 1999 in a Test against Pakistan at Eden Gardens after a collision with Pakistani paceman Shoaib Akhtar saw him run out, forcing police to eject spectators and the game to be played in an empty stadium. Although in 2006, a string of low scores resulted in Tendulkar being booed by the Mumbai crowd when he got out against England
Often, fans engage in protests regarding players if they believe that regionalism has affected selection, or because of regional partisan support for local players. In 2005, when Sourav Ganguly was dropped due to lack of form, Ganguly 's home state of West Bengal erupted in protests. India later played a match against South Africa in Kolkata, West Bengal. The Indian team was booed by the Bengali crowd who supported South Africa instead of India in response to Ganguly 's dropping. Similar regional divisions in India regarding selection have also caused protests against the team, with political activists from the regional Kalinga Kamgar Sena party in Odisha disrupting the arrival of the team in Cuttack for an ODI over the lack of a local player in the team, with one activist manhandling coach Greg Chappell. Similar treatment was handed to India 's Marathi captain Sunil Gavaskar in the 1980s by Bengali crowds, with consecutive Tests in Calcutta requiring police intervention due to crowd rioting.
However, it should be noted that a successful string of results, victories against arch - rivals Pakistan or victory in major tournaments such as the World Cup are greeted with particular ecstasy from the Indian fans.
The Indian women 's cricket team has a much lower profile than the men 's team. For all national women 's cricket teams, the female players are paid much less their male counterparts, and the women 's teams do not receive as much popular support or recognition as the men 's team. The women 's teams also have a less packed schedule compared to men 's teams and play fewer matches. The Indian women 's cricket team played its first Test match in 1976 / 7, when they drew with the West Indies in a six - match series.
The Women 's Cricket World Cup was held in India in 1978 and featured 4 teams. India lost both the matches they have played. Their next appearance in the Test and ODI circuit was against Australia in 1984, in which the Test series was tied but the ODI series was lost in a whitewash.
The Indian women 's cricket team has since picked up their form, reaching the finals in the World Cup, but then losing to Australia. The Women 's Asia Cup of 2005 -- 06 was won by India, who beat Sri Lanka in the final. They also beat the West Indies in the 2004 -- 05 season, winning the 5 ODI series 5 -- 0. They were knocked out in the group stage of the 2013 Women 's Cricket World Cup held in India. India reached the final of the 2017 World Cup but lost to England by 9 runs, following which the team was praised by many including Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
Jhulan Goswami is the world 's leading ODI wicket - taker while Mithali Raj, the captain, is the leading run - scorer in ODI cricket.
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who played rachel's sister amy on friends | Christina Applegate - wikipedia
Christina Applegate (born November 25, 1971) is an American actress and dancer who, as an adolescent actress, started playing the role of Kelly Bundy on the Fox sitcom Married... with Children (1987 -- 97). In her adult years, Applegate established a film and television career, winning an Emmy and earning Tony and Golden Globe nominations. She is also known for doing the voice of Brittany in the Alvin and the Chipmunks film series.
She has had major roles in several films, including Do n't Tell Mom the Babysitter 's Dead (1991), The Big Hit (1998), Prince Charming (2001), The Sweetest Thing (2002), Grand Theft Parsons (2003), Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy (2004) and its sequel, Anchorman 2: The Legend Continues (2013), Farce of the Penguins (2007), Hall Pass (2011), Vacation (2015) and Bad Moms (2016). She has also starred in numerous Broadway theatre productions such as the 2005 revival of the musical Sweet Charity. She played the lead role in the television sitcoms Jesse (1998 -- 2000) and Samantha Who? (2007 -- 09) and starred in the NBC comedy Up All Night (2011 -- 12).
Applegate was born in Hollywood, California. Her father, Robert William "Bob '' Applegate, was a record producer and record company executive, and her mother, Nancy Lee Priddy, is a singer and actress. Her parents were separated shortly after her birth. She has two half - siblings (Alisa and Kyle) from her father 's remarriage. After her parents ' divorce, her mother had a relationship with musician Stephen Stills. After her television debut with her mother in the soap opera Days of Our Lives and a commercial for Playtex baby bottles at three and five months, respectively, Applegate made her film debut in the 1979 film, Jaws of Satan (or King Cobra) at the age of seven, followed by 1981 's Beatlemania. She debuted in a television movie as young Grace Kelly in the biopic, Grace Kelly (1983) and appeared in her first TV series in Showtime 's political comedy, Washingtoon (1985), in which she played a Congressman 's daughter. She was also seen as a guest in the shows, Father Murphy (1981), Charles in Charge (1984 and 1985), and Silver Spoons (1986). In 1986, Applegate won the role of Robin Kennedy (1986 -- 87), a policeman 's daughter, in the police drama series Heart of the City. Meanwhile, she was also seen guest starring in several other television series such as All is Forgiven, Still the Beaver, Amazing Stories, and the Family Ties episode "Band on the Run '' (1987) as Kitten.
In 1987, Applegate played the role of the ditzy, sexually promiscuous daughter, Kelly Bundy, on the Fox Network 's first sitcom, Married... with Children. She portrayed her character for 11 years (1987 -- 97). While working on the series, Applegate was seen in Dance ' til Dawn (1988, NBC) and in Streets (1990), in which a teenaged drug addict is stalked by a psychotic police officer. Applegate guest - starred in 21 Jump Street (1988) and Top of the Heap (1991, as Kelly Bundy), and hosted Saturday Night Live (May 8, 1993, and October 13, 2012) and MADtv (1996).
The character of Sue Ellen Crandell in the black comedy feature Do n't Tell Mom the Babysitter 's Dead (1991) was Applegate 's first starring role in a mainstream film, playing a rebellious teenager who is forced to take care of siblings after their summer babysitter dies. Applegate followed with roles in films such as Vibrations (1995), Across the Moon (1995), Wild Bill (1995), Tim Burton 's Mars Attacks! (1996), and Gregg Araki 's Nowhere (1997). After the sitcom Married... with Children was cancelled in May 1997, Applegate starred as Claudine Van Doozen in the independent feature Claudine 's Return (or Kiss of Fire), was cast in the action - comedy The Big Hit, and played the fiancée of a mob descendant in the Mafia satire Jane Austen 's Mafia (1998).
Applegate was one of the founding members of The Pussycat Dolls, which debuted at Johnny Depp 's Viper Room on the Sunset Strip in 1995. Applegate emceed for the group when they moved to The Roxy in 2002. In 1996, Applegate auditioned for the role of Rose in James Cameron 's blockbuster hit fim Titanic, but lost to Kate Winslet. In 1998, Applegate was given the title role in the NBC sitcom Jesse. The series debuted in 1998, received rave reviews, and brought Applegate a People 's Choice Award for Favorite Female Performer in a New TV series and the TV Guide Award for Star of a New Series, as well as a nomination at the Golden Globe Awards for Lead Actress in a Comedy. Though the series gained critical praise, it was cancelled in 2000.
The new millennium had Applegate playing the dual role of a 12th - century noblewoman, Princess Rosalind, and her 21st - century descendant, Julia Malfete, in the time - travel comedy Just Visiting (2001). She was Princess Gwendolyn and Kate in the movie Prince Charming (2001). After playing Cameron Diaz 's level - headed best friend, Courtney Rockcliffe, in The Sweetest Thing (2002), Applegate continued to play roles in such films as Heroes (2002), and the romantic airplane comedy View from the Top (2003), as well as in the true - crime film Wonderland (2003), based on the Wonderland murders, and the Gram Parsons biopic Grand Theft Parsons (2003). In 2004, Applegate starred alongside Ben Affleck in the holiday comedy Surviving Christmas, and alongside Matt Dillon in Employee of the Month. Behind the screen, she was the executive producer of Comforters, Miserable (2001).
Applegate guest - starred on two episodes of Friends, in the ninth (2002) and tenth (2003) seasons, titled "The One with Rachel 's Other Sister '' and "The One Where Rachel 's Sister Babysits '' as Amy Green, Rachel Green 's (Jennifer Aniston) sister. She won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series her performance in "The One with Rachel 's Other Sister. '' On the silver screen, she portrayed TV anchorwoman Veronica Corningstone in the 2004 films Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy and the bonus film Wake Up, Ron Burgundy: The Lost Movie (an alternative film comprising alternate takes and deleted scenes and story elements).
In addition to her screen work, Applegate has performed on stage in such productions as The Axeman 's Jazz, Nobody Leaves Empty Handed, and The Runthrough, as well as John Cassavetes ' The Third Day (co-starring Gena Rowlands). In 2004, she debuted on the Broadway stage playing the title role of Charity Hope Valentine in a revival of the 1966 musical Sweet Charity. In late April 2005, she also took part in the annual Broadway Cares ' Easter Bonnet Competition, being sawed in half by a magician in their Clearly Impossible sawing illusion. Sweet Charity ended its Broadway run on December 31, 2005. Applegate eventually took home the 2005 Theatre World Award and was nominated for a 2005 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical.
While appearing in Sweet Charity, Applegate broke her foot, and it was announced that the musical would close during previews. She persuaded the producers to rescind their decision and on April 18, 2005, she made her Broadway debut. Because of her injury, Applegate had to wear special shoes to prevent another incident, and in a 2013 interview said that because of what happened, she "actually ca n't dance anymore. And that is sad for me because I always wanted to go back. But I probably wo n't be able to. '' She does dance whenever the opportunity presents, but can not do any more strenuous roles.
In 2006, Applegate appeared in Jessica Simpson 's music video "A Public Affair '' alongside Eva Longoria, Ryan Seacrest, and Christina Milian. She starred in the ABC comedy Samantha Who? from October 15, 2007, until it was cancelled on May 18, 2009. The series costarred Jean Smart, Jennifer Esposito, and Melissa McCarthy. The series was about a 30 - year - old, who after a hit - and - run accident, develops amnesia and has to rediscover her life, her relationships, and herself. Shortly after the cancellation was announced, Applegate began a campaign to get the show back into production, which was a failure. Applegate topped the list of People 's Most Beautiful People in 2009. Applegate appeared with her TV brother David Faustino (Bud Bundy from Married with Children) in an episode of Faustino 's show Star - ving.
She also voiced Catherine the Cat in the three - dimensional talking animal sequel Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore. Applegate said her mother was who wanted her to be involved in the film. Prior to Cats & Dogs 2, she voiced Brittany (one of the Chipettes) in Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel (2009), Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked (2011), and Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip (2015). She starred in the NBC sitcom Up All Night with Maya Rudolph and Will Arnett, and the show debuted on September 14, 2011. On February 8, 2013, she left the series after its second - season hiatus which was leading into a planned format change.
On July 31, 2013, Applegate was featured on the second episode of the fourth season of the revived American version of TLC 's, Who Do You Think You Are? The broadcast centered around Applegate trying to find out for her father, Robert Applegate, about his mother, Lavina Applegate Walton, who was mysteriously absent for most of her son 's life and who died early in his life. Applegate also hoped to find out if the hearsay concerning her grandmother 's tragic death were true. The actress traveled from her home in Hollywood, California, to Trenton, New Jersey, for her search.
In 2015, Applegate starred with Ed Helms in the National Lampoon sequel Vacation, the fifth full - length movie episode of the road - trip comedies. Helms and Applegate play Rusty Griswold and his wife Debbie, who with their two sons take a trip to Walley World, just as Rusty did with his parents in the 1983 original film, National Lampoon 's Vacation. Series stars Beverly D'Angelo and Chevy Chase make appearances as Rusty 's parents Ellen and Clark Griswold. Also, Leslie Mann appears as Rusty 's sister Audrey with Chris Hemsworth as her husband Stone Crandell.
On October 20, 2001, Applegate married actor Johnathon Schaech in Palm Springs, California. Schaech filed for divorce in December 2005, citing irreconcilable differences, and the divorce was finalized in August 2007. In 2009, she began dating musician Martyn LeNoble. The couple became engaged on Valentine 's Day 2010, and married on February 23, 2013, at their Los Angeles home. It is the second marriage for both. They have one daughter, Sadie Grace, born in January 2011. Applegate is a vegetarian, and in 2007, appeared in an anti-fur advertisement for PETA.
On August 3, 2008, People reported that Applegate had been diagnosed with breast cancer. This was confirmed by her representative who said in a statement, "Christina Applegate was diagnosed with an early stage of breast cancer. Benefiting from early detection through a doctor - ordered MRI, the cancer is not life - threatening. Christina is following the recommended treatment of her doctors and will have a full recovery. No further statement will be issued at this time. '' On August 19, 2008, it was announced that Applegate was cancer free after a double mastectomy, though cancer was found in only one breast. She has an inherited genetic trait, a BRCA1 mutation, which can trigger breast cancer. Her mother, Nancy Priddy, is a breast cancer survivor. Applegate said when she first was diagnosed, "I was just shaking and then also immediately, I had to go into ' take - care - of - business - mode ' which included a change to a more healthy diet. ''
In 1992, Applegate joined other celebrities in a benefit show for a Hollywood children 's charity, acting as a special guest assistant to a local magician and taking part in a number of illusions, including being sawn in half. In 2003, she was the spokesperson for the Lee National Denim Day, which raises millions of dollars for breast cancer education and research. Following her diagnosis with breast cancer, Applegate appeared on a television special entitled Stand Up to Cancer designed to raise funds for breast cancer research. The one - hour special was broadcast on CBS, NBC, and ABC television networks on September 5, 2008. In 2009, she announced her plans to return as the ambassador for Lee National Denim Day. Also in 2009, she founded Right Action for Women, a charitable foundation dedicated to breast - cancer screening for women, and focused on the type of MRI scan which saved her life. In February 2015, Applegate was awarded the Saint Vintage Love Cures Award from unite4: humanity and Saint Vintage, for her dedication to and work with Right Action for Women. Applegate has also supported Entertainment Industry Foundation, Adopt - A-Classroom, The Motion Picture and Television Fund Foundation, World Animal Protection, and the Trevor Project.
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how does atp drive chemical reactions through reaction coupling | ATP hydrolysis - wikipedia
ATP hydrolysis is the catabolic reaction process by which chemical energy that has been stored in the high - energy phosphoanhydride bonds in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is released by splitting these bonds, for example in muscles, by producing work in the form of mechanical energy. The product is adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate, orthophosphate (P). ADP can be further hydrolyzed to give energy, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), and another orthophosphate (P). ATP hydrolysis is the final link between the energy derived from food or sunlight and useful work such as muscle contraction, the establishment of electrochemical gradients across membranes, and biosynthetic processes necessary to maintain life.
The description and typical textbook labeling anhydridic bonds as "high energy... bonds '' can be very misleading to students. These bonds are in fact relatively weak. They do involve high energy electrons but the bonds themselves are quite easy to break. As noted below, energy is released by the hydrolysis of ATP when these weak bonds are broken -- requiring a small input of energy, followed by the formation of new bonds and the release of a larger amount of energy as the total energy of the system is lowered and becomes more stable.
Hydrolysis of the phosphate groups in ATP is especially exergonic, because the resulting orthophosphate group is greatly stabilized by multiple resonance structures, making the products (ADP and P) much lower in energy than the reactant (ATP). The high negative charge density associated with the three adjacent phosphate units of ATP also destabilizes the molecule, making it higher in energy. Hydrolysis relieves some of these electrostatic repulsions, liberating useful energy in the process by causing conformational changes in enzyme structure.
In humans, approximately 60 percent of the energy released from the hydrolysis of one mole of ATP produces metabolic heat rather than fuel the actual reactions taking place. Due to the acid - base properties of ATP, ADP, and inorganic phosphate, the hydrolysis of ATP has the effect of lowering the pH of the reaction medium. Under certain conditions, high levels of ATP hydrolysis can contribute to lactic acidosis.
Hydrolysis of the terminal phosphoanhydridic bond is a highly exergonic process. The amount of released energy depends on the conditions in a particular cell. Specifically, the energy released is dependent on concentrations of ATP, ADP and P. As the concentrations of these molecules deviate from values at equilibrium, the value of Gibbs free energy change (ΔG) will be increasingly different. In standard conditions (ATP, ADP and P concentrations are equal to 1M, water concentration is equal to 55M) the value of ΔG is between - 28 to - 34 kJ / mol.
The range of the ΔG value exists because this reaction is dependent on the concentration of Mg cations, which stabilize the ATP molecule. The cellular environment also contributes to differences in the ΔG value since ATP hydrolysis is dependent not only on the studied cell, but also on the surrounding tissue and even the compartment within the cell. Variability in the ΔG values is therefore to be expected.
The relationship between Gibbs free energy and chemical equilibrium is revealing. This relationship is defined by the equation ΔG = - RTln (K). The standard value of ΔG for this reaction is, as mentioned, between - 28 and - 34 kJ / mol; however, experimentally determined concentrations of the involved molecules reveal that the reaction is not at equilibrium. Given this fact, a comparison between the equilibrium constant, K, and the reaction quotient, Q, provides insight. K takes into consideration reactions taking place in standard conditions, but in the cellular environment the concentrations of the involved molecules (namely, ATP, ADP, and P) are far from the standard 1M. In fact, the concentrations are more appropriately measured in mM, which is smaller than M by three orders of magnitude. Using these nonstandard concentrations, the calculated value of Q is much less than one. By relating Q to ΔG using the equation ΔG = ΔG + RTln (Q), where ΔG is the standard change in Gibbs free energy for the hydrolysis of ATP, the magnitude of ΔG is much greater than the standard. The nonstandard conditions of the cell actually result in a more favorable reaction.
In one particular study, to determine the ΔG in vivo in humans, the concentration of ATP, ADP, and P was measured using nuclear magnetic resonance. In human muscle cells at rest, the concentration of ATP was found to be around 4 mM and the concentration of ADP was around 9 μM. Inputing these values into the above equations yields the - 64 kJ / mol ΔG. After ischemia, when the muscle is recovering from exercise, the concentration of ATP is as low as 1 mM and the concentration of ADP is around 7 μmol / l. Therefore, the absolute ΔG would be as high as - 69 kJ / mol.
By comparing the standard value of ΔG and the experimental value of ΔG, one can see that the energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP, as measured in humans, is almost twice as much as the energy produced in standard conditions.
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how many episodes of heartland are in season 10 | List of Heartland episodes - wikipedia
Heartland is a Canadian family drama television series which debuted on CBC on October 14, 2007. Heartland follows sisters Amy and Lou Fleming, their grandfather Jack Bartlett, and Ty Borden, through the highs and lows of life at the ranch.
Heartland airs in Canada on the regional CBC channels at 7 pm (7: 30 pm in Newfoundland) on Sundays. Beginning April 23, 2017, the 10th season of Heartland airs in the United States on the Up TV network on Sunday evenings at 8: 00 pm Eastern. From its first episode the plot focuses on Amy, who inherited her mother 's gift of being able to heal abused and damaged horses, after a tragic accident that led to big changes in everyone 's lives.
The show became the longest - running one - hour scripted drama in the history of Canadian television, when it surpassed the 124 episodes of Street Legal on October 19, 2014. As of February 12, 2017, 170 episodes of Heartland have aired. It was announced on March 22, 2017 that Heartland was renewed for Season 11. Season 11 begins on Sunday, September 24, 2017 at its usual time.
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who wrote i left my heart in san francisco | I Left My Heart in San Francisco - wikipedia
"I Left My Heart in San Francisco '' is a popular song, written in the fall of 1953 in Brooklyn, New York, with music by George Cory and lyrics by Douglass Cross (1920 -- 1975) and best known as the signature song of Tony Bennett.
In 1962, the song was released as a single by Bennett on Columbia Records as the b - side to "Once Upon a Time, '' peaked at # 19 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, and was also included on the album of the same name. It also reached number seven on the Easy Listening chart. The song is one of the official anthems for the city of San Francisco.
The music was written by Cory, with lyrics by Cross, about two amateur writers nostalgic for San Francisco after moving to New York.
Although the song was originally written for Claramae Turner, who often used it as an encore, she never got around to recording it. The song found its way to Tony Bennett through Ralph Sharon, Bennett 's longtime accompanist and friends with the composers. Sharon brought the music along when he and Bennett were on tour and on their way to San Francisco 's Fairmont Hotel.
A little - known fact about the song is that, prior to Tony Bennett hearing it, the song was pitched to Tennessee Ernie Ford, whom Claramae Turner suggested Cross take it to. Ford turned the song down, but in an ironic turn of events, later purchased a ranch in Lake County, California, owned by Cross 's family.
In December 1961, in the famous "Venetian Room '' at the Fairmont Hotel in San Francisco, Tony Bennett first sang "I Left My Heart in San Francisco ''. In the audience that night were San Francisco mayor George Christopher and future mayor Joseph L. Alioto. From the 1960s through the 1980s, at San Francisco 's premier supper club the "Venetian Room, '' Bennett sang the city song.
Bennett first recorded the song at CBS Studios on 30th Street on January 23, 1962; CBS released it as the b - side of "Once Upon A Time. '' The A-side received no attention, and DJs began flipping the record over and playing "San Francisco. '' It became a hit on the pop singles chart in 1962 and spent close to a year on various other charts, achieving gold record status. It then won the top prize of Grammy Award for Record of the Year, as well as for Best Male Solo Vocal Performance. In 2001 it was ranked 23rd on an RIAA / NEA list of the most historically significant Songs of the 20th Century.
It has often been performed in public by Bennett in concert as well as on special occasions, most notably in the final National Football League game at Kezar Stadium featuring the San Francisco 49ers and the Dallas Cowboys in the 1970 NFC Championship Game, at the 50th anniversary celebration of the Golden Gate Bridge in May 1987; at the reopening of the San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge after sections of the bridge were damaged by the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake; game three of the 2002 World Series featuring the San Francisco Giants and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in San Francisco; again at game one of the 2010 World Series featuring the Giants and the Texas Rangers; and at the 2012 San Francisco Giants World Series parade and celebration in front of San Francisco City Hall on Halloween Day, October 31, 2012. Bennett 's recording is played over the public address system at AT&T Park after all San Francisco Giants home game victories and was played at the end of San Francisco Bulls home games at the Cow Palace, win or lose. A statue of Tony Bennett was unveiled outside the Fairmont Hotel on 19 August 2016, in honor of his 90th birthday, the hotel performance, and the song 's history with San Francisco.
Bennett has said of the song,
That song helped make me a world citizen. It allowed me to live, work and sing in any city on the globe. It changed my whole life.
In his concerts in the 2000s, Bennett typically performs the song midway through his set, after which the house lights are turned up while the audience engages in extended applause. When that finally subsides, the house lights go down and the show resumes. On November 8, 2006, Bennett performed "I Left My Heart in San Francisco '' on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. He stated that his first performance of that song was on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson when the song was first released in 1962, on Johnny Carson 's first night on the show. The Songwriters Hall of Fame gave Bennett the Towering Performance Award for his vocal rendition of the song.
The song has been recorded by a myriad of artists, including Frank Sinatra, Peggy Lee, Jan & Dean, Julie London, Brenda Lee, Buddy Greco, Italian singer Mina and Dean Martin and others, with the version by rhythm and blues singer Bobby Womack making the chart for Minit Records, peaking at # 48 on the Billboard R&B singles chart in 1969. In that same year, the song was adopted by the City and County of San Francisco as one of its two official anthems, the other being the title song from the 1936 film San Francisco (1936 film). Jazz instrumental versions have been recorded by Charlie Byrd, Booker Ervin and a brief bass feature by Charles Mingus. Sergio Franchi recorded an Italian - language version on his 1965 concert album for RCA Victor, Live at the Coconut Grove... Comedian Steve Allen recorded a parody entitled "I Left My Nose in San Diego '' in 1964.
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who is billy russo in the marvel universe | Jigsaw (Marvel Comics) - Wikipedia
Jigsaw (William "Billy '' Russo, also known as Billy "The Beaut '' Russo before his disfigurement) is a fictional character, gangster, and supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Len Wein and artist Ross Andru, the character made his first full appearance in The Amazing Spider - Man # 162 (November 1976).
Billy Russo is portrayed by Ben Barnes in the Netflix TV series The Punisher set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Jigsaw was created by writer Len Wein and artist Ross Andru. He first appeared in The Amazing Spider - Man # 162 (November 1976). He returned in The Amazing Spider - Man # 188, and The Punisher # 1 and # 4 -- 5. Jigsaw then allied with the Rev in The Punisher Vol. 2, # 35 -- 40, and Gregario in # 55 -- 56. Following a cameo appearance in The Punisher War Journal # 61, Jigsaw 's origin was detailed in Issues # 3 -- 4 of the prequel limited series The Punisher: Year One, and he further bedeviled the Punisher in Punisher Vol. 3, # 2 -- 4 and # 9 -- 10.
Preceding an encounter with the eponymous character in Daredevil Vol. 2, # 61 -- 64, Jigsaw appeared in The New Avengers # 1 -- 3, # 35, # 46, # 50, # 57, and The New Avengers Annual # 2; concurrent to his appearances in that title, Jigsaw also starred in Punisher War Journal Vol. 2, # 11, # 18 -- 20, and # 22 -- 23. He was then featured in the five - issue miniseries Punisher: In the Blood, and made a subsequent cameo in the Thunderbolts Vol. 2 Annual.
Jigsaw received profiles in The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe # 6, The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Master Edition # 10, Marvel Encyclopedia # 4 and # 5, The New Avengers Most Wanted Files # 1, and Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A -- Z # 6.
Billy Russo was born to a poor Italian - American family, kicked out and abandoned as an orphan by his abusive father at the age of ten, and went on to become a hitman for New York 's Italian criminal underworld, where his good looks garnered him the nickname "the Beaut ''. He also married a woman named Susan, and would beat both her and their son, Henry, once forcing Henry to drown his pet cat 's kittens by threatening to shoot Susan. After the botched gangland execution that inadvertently led to the Castle family being massacred, Russo is hired by Frank Costa to assassinate all those connected to the Castles. Russo kills all of his targets but Frank Castle, who survives the bomb that Russo had planted in Castle 's home. Hours later, the Punisher (Frank Castle) tracks Russo down to a Maggia nightclub. The Punisher guns down all of Russo 's associates, but leaves him alive to send a message to organized crime after knocking him through a glass pane, an act that reduces Russo 's face to a jigsaw puzzle - like mess of scars.
Taking advantage of his hideous visage, the formerly handsome gangster adopts the identity of Jigsaw, and attempts to frame the Punisher for murder. However, the plan fails due to the intervention of Spider - Man and Nightcrawler; Spider - Man witnesses one of Jigsaw 's murders, and one of his victims is an old friend of Nightcrawler. Jigsaw later battled Spider - Man again.
It is revealed in the first Punisher miniseries that Jigsaw was behind a plan to drug the Punisher, causing his enemy to behave erratically and attack any criminals, even for things as minor as littering. Jigsaw also attempts to kill the Punisher in prison. The Punisher confronts and defeats him, and later stops Jigsaw from escaping in a prison riot. Later in the series, Jigsaw is brainwashed by the Trust into serving as a member of a Punisher - style assassination squad. He manages to remember who he is after encountering Castle once again, and attacks the Punisher. He is defeated once more.
Jigsaw is broken out of Ryker 's Island by the Rev who has him supervise the importation of a sterility - inducing Venezuelan drug that the Rev intends to test in New York City. When the drug shipment is destroyed by the Punisher, Jigsaw sics a street gang on him, and flees to Venezuela with the Rev. After Jigsaw 's face is healed by the Rev 's powers, he is shot by the Punisher, but resurrected by the Rev, with the assistance of Belasco. Jigsaw 's restored face is destroyed, and he is left for dead in the jungle in a later battle with the Punisher. Jigsaw recovers, and subsequently attempts to illegally reenter the United States, but is arrested and returned to Ryker 's Island. When the Punisher is captured by the authorities and sent to same prison, Jigsaw disfigures and tries to kill him, but the Punisher survives, and escapes from Ryker 's.
After the Punisher is arrested and sentenced to death, Jigsaw dons a stylized copy of his costume and embarks on a homicidal rampage, targeting all those connected to the execution. When the Punisher is revealed to still be alive, an overjoyed Jigsaw attempts to kill him, but the Punisher overpowers him with the assistance of Daredevil. Jigsaw later partners with various syndicates, and lays siege to the estate of the Geraci crime family, which the Punisher had become the reluctant underboss of. Jigsaw and his allies abduct the Geracis, but they are saved by the Punisher, who shoots Jigsaw in the head.
Jigsaw next establishes a gunrunning operation, which is broken up by Daredevil and Black Widow. When his attempt at negotiating with Daredevil (who had declared himself the new Kingpin) fails, Jigsaw seeks revenge by breaking into Daredevil 's home, where he is subdued by Black Widow. Jigsaw is remanded to the Raft, an island supervillain prison, which he escapes from (breaking Spider - Man 's arm in the process) when the facility is attacked by Electro. Once free, Jigsaw tries to rob a bank, but is beaten by Tigra. This humiliation leads to his forming an alliance with the self - proclaimed "super-villain Kingpin '' the Hood; together, Jigsaw and the Hood film themselves threatening and torturing Tigra. Later, Jigsaw takes part in the Hood 's attack on the Sanctum Sanctorum, where he attempts to snipe Jessica Jones and Danielle Cage, only to be foiled by Spider - Man.
Jigsaw has resumed his vendetta against the Punisher, in the pages of Punisher: War Journal. Now wearing a color - inverted mockup of the Punisher costume, Jigsaw arranges for the brainwashing of a young auxiliary police officer in the NYPD. Exploiting the naive cop 's pathological "hero - worship '' complex, Jigsaw and his new psychiatrist girlfriend turn the young man into a new version of the Punisher.
After a battle on the Brooklyn Bridge where the Punisher once again spares Jigsaw 's life, Jigsaw is taken into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody. While imprisoned he is seemingly shot dead by the man that he and his girlfriend (who was actually undercover S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Lynn Michaels) had brainwashed. Jigsaw survived the attempt on his life, and was transferred to a "reprogramming asylum '' by H.A.M.M.E.R. He returns to the Hood 's Gang in Secret Invasion to assist in fending off the invading Skrulls, and rejoins again in Dark Reign to help attack the New Avengers.
Jigsaw then partners with the similarly disfigured Stuart Clarke. Together, the "Jigsaw Brothers '' hire Lady Gorgon to impersonate Maria Castle while they manipulate Henry, the Punisher 's ally and Jigsaw 's son, into helping them capture and kill the Punisher. After betraying and murdering Clarke, Jigsaw battles the Punisher on top of his own burning headquarters, only to fall through the roof of the building and into the fire below.
Jigsaw resurfaced when the pictures of he and Spider - Man were shown enjoying ice cream cones together while under the thrall of fairy king Oberoth 'M ' Gozz.
A recovered Jigsaw afterward appears in the Civil War II storyline as one of the criminals that the Kingpin has assembled to help him rebuild his New York empire.
During the "Search for Tony Stark '' arc, Jigsaw rejoined Hood 's gang and assisted in the attack on Castle Doom.
Jigsaw is an athletic man with no superhuman powers. During his time in prison, he was able to hone his physical strength to a level comparable to the Punisher. He has extensive experience with street - fighting techniques, and familiarity with a variety of weapons and criminal techniques. He carries various handguns as needed. He has been known to wear a special exo - skeleton in his outfits.
Though lacking any formal, military training, Jigsaw is an exceptional strategist and tactician. His unorthodox pattern of operation makes him more difficult for the Punisher to anticipate than the majority of Punisher 's enemies. Before Jigsaw was disfigured, he was a highly - charismatic leader and criminal organizer, but after the accident, only the latter trait remained.
A cyborg and the under - capo of a crime syndicate called Cyber-Nostra, Multi-Fractor is the one to inform the group 's leader, Fearmaster, of the existence of the new Punisher, who Multi-Fractor encounters for the first time while attempting to illegally demolish a decrepit neighborhood inhabited by "Decreds ''. Multi-Fractor survives his initial run - in with the Punisher, who he encounters again while extorting protection money from a Grav - Ball Stadium. When the Punisher gains the upper hand in the ensuing fight, a trio of corrupt police officers come to Multi-Fractor's aid, providing him with a power - enhancing device, which kills him when the Punisher rams the machine into Multi-Fractor's chest.
A mortician and a veterinarian resurrect Multi-Fractor as Jigsaw 2099, a Frankenstein 's monster - like being made of machinery and body parts taken from animals. Jigsaw attempts to get revenge on the Punisher, but is temporarily flash frozen by the crime fighter, psychologically tortured for information, and then imprisoned in the Punisher 's "Punishment Hotel ''. Jigsaw is located and freed by Fearmaster, and together the two try to execute the Punisher with his own Molecular Disintegrator. When the machine is turned on, its fail - safes activate, and blast Jigsaw. Jigsaw is later discovered, taken captive, and further augmented by a gang, which he massacres and escapes from before rejoining Fearmaster.
Jigsaw appears in both Batman / Punisher intercompany crossover books. In the first crossover, Jigsaw allies with the Joker and they both fight the Punisher and Batman (Jean Paul Valley). In the sequel, Jigsaw 's face is repaired by one of the world 's foremost plastic surgeons, extorted by the Joker, whom Jigsaw allies with again to take over Gotham. At the end of this crossover, Jigsaw 's reconstructed face is destroyed by one of the Punisher 's fragmentation grenades, and he is knocked out and left for the police by Batman (Bruce Wayne). Jigsaw and the Punisher 's activities in Gotham are later recounted by Azrael, and Nightwing.
When the Amalgam Universe came into being as a result of the events of DC vs. Marvel, Jigsaw was merged with Wonder Woman foe Cheetah to form "Pelt - Man ''; cursed by an ancient ritual to resemble a big cat, Billy Minerva took his anger over his condition out on beautiful people, mutilating their faces until he was located and subdued by Trevor Castle and Diana Prince.
At some point, Jigsaw died, and was sent to the Realm of the Dead. When Captain Marvel and Thanos destroyed Death and created Paradise, Jigsaw was among the many who came to realize that they were actually deceased. Jigsaw rejected Paradise and remained in the Realm of the Dead, where he and the Jackal took to tormenting the Punisher, who had committed suicide, and was living in blissful ignorance with his equally unaware family. Jigsaw and the Jackal 's actions cause the Punisher to remember his death, and drive a wedge between him and his disbelieving loved ones, who only come to accept that they are dead much later. Captain America, who had been sent by Paradise to bring others to it, punishes Jigsaw and the Jackal by banishing them to a desolate region of the Realm of the Dead.
Jigsaw, operating under the alias The Heavy, appears in the "Girls in White Dresses '' storyline of The Punisher MAX. An American drug lord, Jigsaw expands his empire to Mexico, and has his affiliates within the country kidnap women from border towns for use as disposable slave labor in meth labs. When the families of the abducted and murdered women seek aid from the Punisher, Jigsaw drives the crime fighter to suicidal despair by tricking him into believing he had accidentally shot an innocent girl, though a last minute epiphany prompts the Punisher into exhuming and performing an amateur autopsy on the child, leading to the discovery that the bullet that ended her life was not one of his own. The Punisher proceeds to destroy Jigsaw 's Mexican operation and free his captives, and during a subsequent fight between the two archenemies the Punisher knocks Jigsaw out a window and onto the boxcar of a passing train, leaving his fate ambiguous.
Bullseye later researches Jigsaw and other enemies of the Punisher, such as Barracuda, Finn Cooley, and General Nikolai Zakharov.
Jigsaw 's role in "Girls in White Dresses '' was regarded as generic and anticlimactic, and his inclusion in the MAX imprint criticized as obtrusive and gratuitous, by Jesse Schedeen of IGN, who felt that the character was "planted in this story mainly to appeal to fans of the recent movie ''.
Jigsaw is Al Capone 's top assassin in Punisher Noir. He, Barracuda, and the Russian are hired to kill Frank Castelione, a grocer who had defied mob boss Dutch Schultz. Years later, Frank 's son, the Punisher, tries to ambush Jigsaw, but is shot unconscious, and has his skull - face mask removed. Jigsaw takes the Punisher to his lair, and tortures him by carving a skull into the Punisher 's chest. After Jigsaw mentions who helped him and Barracuda murder Frank, the Punisher escapes his bonds, and kills Jigsaw by garroting.
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when does attack of the radio active thing come out for xbox one | Xbox Live - wikipedia
Xbox Live is an online multiplayer gaming and digital media delivery service created and operated by Microsoft. It was first made available to the Xbox system in November 2002. An updated version of the service became available for the Xbox 360 console at the system 's launch in November 2005, and a further enhanced version was released in 2013 with the Xbox One.
The service was extended in 2007 on the Windows platform, named Games for Windows -- Live, which makes most aspects of the system available on Windows computers. Microsoft has announced plans to extend Live to other platforms such as handhelds and mobile phones as part of the Live Anywhere initiative. With Microsoft 's mobile operating system, Windows Phone, full Xbox Live functionality is integrated into new Windows Phones that launched since late 2010. The service shut down for the original Xbox on April 15, 2010, and original Xbox Games are now only playable online through local area network (LAN) tunneling applications such as XLink Kai.
The Xbox Live service is available as both a free and subscription - based service, known as Xbox Live Free and Xbox Live Gold, respectively, with most features such as online gaming restricted to the Gold service.
As Microsoft developed the original Xbox console, online gaming was designated as one of the key pillars for the greater Xbox strategy. Sega had made an attempt to capitalize on the ever - growing online gaming scene when it launched the Dreamcast video game console in 1999, including online support as standard, called SegaNet and Dreamarena. Nevertheless, due to lack of widespread broadband adoption at the time, the Dreamcast shipped with only a dial - up modem while a later - released broadband adapter was neither widely supported nor widely available. Downloadable content was available, though limited in size due to the narrowband connection and the size limitations of a memory card. The online features, while praised as innovative, were largely considered a failure, and the Dreamcast 's immediate competitor, the PlayStation 2, did not initially ship with built - in networking capabilities.
Microsoft, however, hoped that the Xbox would succeed where the Dreamcast had failed. The company determined that intense online gaming required the throughput of a broadband connection and the storage space of a hard disk drive, and thus these features would be vital to the new platform. This would allow not only for significant downloadable content, such as new levels, maps, weapons, challenges and characters, to be downloaded quickly and stored, but also would make it possible to standardize bandwidth intensive features such as voice communication. Steve Ballmer and Bill Gates both had a vision of making premium download content and add - ons that would attract many new customers. Based on this reasoning, the console included a standard Ethernet port (10 / 100) in order to provide connectivity to common broadband networks, but did not include a modem or any dial - up support, and its online service was designed to support broadband users only. Critics scoffed at it, citing poor broadband adoption at the turn of the century.
When the Xbox launched on November 15, 2001, the as - yet unnamed online service was destined for a Summer 2002 deployment. Xbox Live was finally given a name at E3 2002 when the service was unveiled in its entirety. Sound - dampened booths and broadband - connected Xbox consoles -- featuring an early version of Unreal Championship -- demonstrated the service on the show floor. The Epic title was one of the flagship titles for the service, which was slated for a debut on November 15, 2002, marking the anniversary of the Xbox launch. Microsoft announced that 50 Xbox Live titles would be available by the end of 2003. Utilizing the required broadband bandwidth, Xbox Live featured a unified gaming "Friends List '', as well as a single identity across all titles (regardless of the publisher), and standardized voice chat with a headset and communication, a feature that was still in its infancy.
Leading up to the launch, Microsoft enlisted several waves of beta testers to improve the service and receive feature feedback. The first wave of beta testers were given Revolt! (which never was released officially) and NFL Fever to beta test. Once beta testing concluded, Microsoft sent these beta testers a translucent orange memory card, a headset carrying case, and a beta tester tshirt with the slogan "I have great hands ''. When the service debuted, it lacked much of the functionality that later titles included, but Xbox Live grew and evolved on the Xbox and many aspects of the service were included with the Xbox 360 console out of the box, rather than through a later update. Microsoft 's 5000th patent was Live - related and gave Xbox 360 users access to watch other gamers compete against each other over Xbox Live.
The packaging for playable Xbox Live titles on the original Xbox console featured the trademark gold bar underneath the Xbox header. Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell and Brute Force sported a Live "bubble '' design, as they only featured downloadable content. It was changed later, wherein all Xbox Live titles included the universal gold Live bar. By the time of the Xbox 360, all titles were required to provide at least a limited form of Xbox Live "awareness ''. In July 2004, Xbox Live had reached 1 million online users. In July 2005, Xbox Live had reached 2 million online users.
On November 15, 2007, Microsoft celebrated Xbox Live 's 5th anniversary by offering its then over 8 million subscribers the title Carcassonne free of charge and awarding gamers who had subscribed to Live since its inception 500 free Microsoft Points. Due to intermittent service interruptions during late December 2007 and early January 2008, Microsoft promised to offer a free Xbox Live Arcade game to all Xbox Live users as compensation, in an open letter to all Xbox Live members from Mark Whitten, Xbox LIVE General Manager. Increased demand from Xbox 360 purchasers (the largest number of new user sign - ups in the history of Xbox Live) was given as the reason for the downtime. On January 18, 2008, Microsoft announced Undertow would be offered free to both Gold and Free members for the week starting January 23 through January 27 as compensation.
On November 12, 2009, Dennis Durkin, COO of Microsoft 's interactive entertainment business, announced that November 10, 2009, the release of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 marked the busiest day ever on Xbox Live, with over two million active users simultaneously.
On February 5, 2010, Marc Whitten announced that Xbox Live had reached 23 million members. On the same day, Larry Hyrb, Xbox Live 's Major Nelson, announced on his blog that Xbox Live support for the original Xbox would be discontinued on April 15, 2010, including online play through backwards compatibility on the Xbox 360 and all downloadable content for original Xbox games.
In August 2010, Microsoft announced an increase to the cost of Xbox Live Gold in several countries by 20 %, for the first time since its inception. The basic service was also renamed. Prior to October 2010, the free service was known as Xbox Live Silver.
It was announced on June 10, 2011 that the service is going to be fully integrated into Microsoft 's Windows 8.
In October 2011, Microsoft announced live streaming cable television with various providers.
In February 2013, Yusuf Mehdi, corporate vice president of Microsoft 's Interactive Entertainment Business, shared that Xbox Live members now number 46 million, up 15 percent from a year ago, during the Dive into Media conference in Southern California.
In June 2014, Microsoft retracted the Xbox Live Gold requirements to download streaming media apps (including Netflix, Hulu, YouTube, Internet Explorer, Skype, and others), though various rental or subscription fees may still apply.
On December 25, 2014, both PlayStation Network and Xbox Live suffered network disruption after a denial - of - service attack. Functionality was restored on December 28, with some users experiencing difficulties in the days that followed. A group called, "The Phantom Squad '' has threatened to disrupt the Xbox Live network through a denial - of - service attack on December 25, 2015.
Xbox Live is available as both a free and subscription - based service, known as Xbox Live Gold. A comparison of free and premium services:
^ a Some content available one week after Gold subscribers ^ b Available in U.S. and Canada only ^ c Available in UK and Ireland only ^ d Over 18 's only / parental permission required ^ e Various rental / subscription fees apply ^ f Available in Portugal only ^ g Available in Australia only ^ h Available in France only ^ i Available in Spain only ^ j Available in Germany only ^ k Available in U.S. only ^ l Available in Canada only ^ m Discontinued from Xbox Live Marketplace ^ n Available in selected markets ^ o Gold membership required on 360
A Gamertag is the universal name for a player 's username on Xbox Live. A Gamertag used online must be unique and can be up to fifteen characters in length, including numbers, letters, and spaces. Gamertags can be changed using an Xbox One or Xbox 360 console (first time is free, then for a price of $10), the Xbox 360 supports eight Xbox Live - enabled profiles per memory unit and thirty - two profiles on the hard drive.
A player 's Gamertag account status can be checked using a variety of online tools, which is useful especially when looking for a new Gamertag, or confirming that a Gamertag exists. Using a valid Gamertag, any player can be located and messaged from within Live. There are also several websites which allow users of Gamertags to upload photos and information about themselves.
Gamertags can be used in a variety of places, including Games for Windows -- Live, Zune, XNA Creators Club, and of course on Xbox One and Xbox 360.
Gamertags also contain avatar images (or "gamer pictures ''), sometimes associated with certain games or game characters. On Xbox 360, individual gamerpics cost between $0.17 and $0.25, but they are usually bundled into packs; packs of four or five gamerpics usually cost $1, while packs of ten typically cost $1.87. It is also possible to take "Public '' pictures (which are shown to all that view a profile, unless the user has a different "personal '' picture set) which can be taken of avatars while using the avatar editor.
Users were formerly forbidden to use strings such as gay or refer to homosexuality in any way in their Gamertag or profile due to it being considered "content of a sexual nature '', even if the string occurs in a legitimate surname. Incidents where a woman was suspended from the service for identifying herself as a lesbian, and an incident where a male user was suspended for using his surname "Gaywood '' in his username attracted controversy. In February 2009, Xbox Live Lead Program Manager for Enforcement Stephen Toulouse clarified the service 's policy on sexual identification, stating that "Expression of any sexual orientation (...) is not allowed in Gamertags '' but that the company is "examining how we can provide it in a way that wo n't get misused. '' Changes announced in March 2010 permit Xbox Live members to express sexual orientation in their gamertags and profiles.
The Gamerscore (G) is an achievements point accumulation system that reflects the number of achievements accumulated by a user on Xbox Live through the displaying of the number of points accumulated. These Achievement points are awarded for the completion of game - specific challenges, such as beating a level or amassing a specified number of wins against other players in online matches and other various in game challenges.
Initially, retail Xbox 360 games offered up to 1,000 G spread over a variable number of Achievements, while each Xbox Live Arcade title contained 12 Achievements totaling 200G. On February 1, 2007, Microsoft announced on their Gamerscore Blog some new policies that developers must follow related to Gamerscore and Achievements in future releases. All regular disc - based games must have 1,000 Gamerscore points in the base game; the title can ship with fewer than 1,000 points, but anything added later must be free. Game developers also now have the option of adding up to 250 points via downloadable content every quarter after the first year of release (for a total of 1,750 points). Xbox Live Arcade titles also allow players to obtain Gamerscore, initially up to 200 Gamerscore with additional points up to 50 Gamerscore via downloadable content (for a total of 250 points), but some XBLA games now contain up to 400 Gamerscore without DLC.
On May 26, 2007, Halo 2 was the first Games for Windows title to feature Achievements, which counted towards a player 's Gamerscore.
On March 25, 2008, Microsoft cracked down on "Gamerscore cheaters '' (those who used external tools to artificially inflate their Gamerscore), and reduced their Gamerscores to zero without the option to recover the scores that had been "earned '', and branded the player by denoting on their Gamertag that they were a "Cheater ''.
The development of the Gamerscore system has created a new niche in the internet economy. Many websites have been created to provide gamers with tips and tricks for getting achievement points. Some sites are solely devoted to these achievement guides, and some blogs provide gaming guides in addition to their other content.
On March 13, 2014, Ray Cox IV or "Stallion83 '' became the first player in history to reach 1 million Gamerscore.
The Gamercard is an information panel used to summarize one 's user profile on Microsoft 's Xbox Live. The pieces of information on a Gamercard include:
A player 's Gamercard can be viewed via the Xbox 360 Dashboard, or online through Xbox.com. The top bar that displays the Gamertag is shown in front of either a silver or gold bar which designates if the gamer has an Xbox Live Free or Gold subscription (respectively). If the gamer is part of the Xbox 360 Launch Team, the top bar will also have additional text stating "Launch Team '' in the background. Third - party sites allow users to post a rendered version of their Gamercard as a small Flash applet or JPEG image on any website or Internet forum.
Similarly, Mac OS X users can download widgets that display their Xbox Live Gamercard within Mac OS X 's Dashboard. These can be downloaded onto any Mac with OS X 10.4 or higher via Apple 's widget download page.
There are four Gamer Zones; Recreation is for casual gamers, Family is for family - friendly gamers (without profanity, etc.), Pro is for competitive gamers who enjoy a challenge, and Underground is for no - holds - barred gaming where anything goes (as long as it does not violate the Xbox Live Terms of Use). However, in practice these gamer zones are displayed only on the Gamercard of the player, and do not tend to affect the gameplay experience or the matching of players in online games.
TrueSkill is a ranking and matchmaking system which was first implemented as part of the Xbox 360 's Live services. Developed at Microsoft Research Cambridge (United Kingdom), the TrueSkill ranking system is now used in over 150 titles for the Xbox 360 and in the Games for Windows -- Live game Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War II. It uses a mathematical model of uncertainty to address weaknesses in existing ranking systems such as Elo. For example, a new player joining million - player leagues can be ranked correctly in fewer than 20 games. It can predict the probability of each game outcome, which enhances competitive matchmaking, making it possible to assemble skill - balanced teams from a group of players with different abilities.
When matchmaking, the system attempts to match individuals based on their estimated skill level. If two individuals are competing head - to - head and have the same estimated skill level with low estimate uncertainty, they should each have roughly a 50 % chance of winning a match. In this way, the system attempts to make every match as competitive as possible.
In order to prevent abuse of the system, the majority of ranked games have relatively limited options for matchmaking. By design, players can not easily play with their friends in ranked games. However, these countermeasures have failed due to techniques such as alternate account (s) and system flaws where each system has its own individual TrueSkill rating. To provide less competitive games, the system supports unranked Player Matches, which allow individuals of any skill level to be paired (often including "guests '' on an account). Such matches do not contribute to the TrueSkill rating.
Xbox Games Store (formerly Xbox Live Marketplace) is a unified storefront which offers both free and premium content for download including Xbox Live Arcade titles, Xbox indie games, original Xbox games, Xbox 360 game demos, game expansion material (e.g. extra maps, vehicles, songs), trailers, gamer pictures and themes, television shows, music videos, movie rentals, Apps and games and more.
On November 17, 2009, Microsoft released a downloadable Zune application for the Xbox 360. This application turns the Xbox 360 into a Zune device. Once one downloads the Zune application, it takes over the Marketplace menus and sections of the console. With the addition of the Zune Marketplace to a Xbox 360 console, one is able to purchase movies instead of only being able to rent them. The Zune Marketplace has a much more extensive content offering compared to the classic Xbox Live Marketplace.
Xbox Play Anywhere is a cross-buy program (between Xbox One and Windows 10) announced at E3 2016 and deployed in September 2016. The supported games can be bought either on the Windows Store or on the Xbox Games Store (on the web or directly on the Xbox One) with a unique Xbox / Microsoft account and will be available globally for the account (supposedly that the targeted Windows 10 computer can technically support the game).
A comprehensive list of supported game can be found on the Xbox Play Anywhere website.
Xbox Live Gold is a paid subscription service for the Xbox community. Signing up to Xbox Live is free, but, with the exception of the Windows 10 version, in order to play online and access some core services, a periodic fee is required. Features that require a Gold subscription include online gaming, matchmaking / smartmatch, private chat, party chat and in - game voice communication. Other features, such as game recording and media sharing also necessitate Gold membership. Similarly, ordinary Xbox Live members can download and access the Twitch live streaming application, but in order to broadcast gameplay of one 's own, a Gold subscription is necessary. Free - to - play titles also remain behind a paywall. Subscribers are benefited with space "in the cloud '' for storing files, and granted early or exclusive access to betas, special offers, Games with Gold, and Video Kinect.
Games with Gold is a program in which digital downloads of games are offered at no charge to Xbox Live Gold subscribers. Games with Gold launched for Xbox 360 in July 2013, while Xbox One games were added in June 2014. Xbox 360 receives a game twice per month, while Xbox One receives two games once per month. Games downloaded through the program on Xbox 360 are free to own with no further restrictions. Xbox One Games with Gold titles require active Xbox Live Gold subscription in order to use, and become locked and unplayable if the subscription lapses. As of November 2015, all Games with Gold titles for Xbox 360 are backwards compatible on Xbox One.
At E3 2008, Microsoft announced that all Xbox 360 owners would receive a new dashboard update, titled New Xbox Experience (NXE), on November 19, 2008 that has added many new features. Though the new interface is generally downloaded when a new Xbox is connected to Xbox Live, some games, including Fight Night Round 4, Portal 2 and Dragon Ball: Raging Blast, will also update it.
One feature is the ability to watch standard quality and 720p streaming movies and TV shows from Netflix through the Xbox 360. This feature is only available in the U.S. and Canada, and requires an Xbox Live Gold subscription and Netflix Unlimited. Users are also able to watch Netflix titles with their friends in a party of up to 8 players. Xbox Live members have the ability to view over 12,000 movies and episodes. Users can browse for titles based on their interests and Netflix ratings with the Xbox interface. Users no longer need to visit the website to choose the content to watch. When a player parties up with a group, they also have the ability to join games together, chat together or view a slideshow of photos.
Another feature gives players the ability to create Avatars. Players are able to customize avatars by changing body shape, facial features, hair and clothes, as well as new clothing being released from time to time. Xbox Live requires that users select an avatar. Another feature is the ability to install an entire game disc onto the Xbox 360 's hard drive, which decreases loading times, and significantly reduces noise due to the game being read from the hard drive and not the louder disc drive (similar to the PS2 HD LOADER Feature). For most games this feature also reduces the amount of time spent reading the disc, thereby helping to extend the life - span of the optical drive mechanism.
During the Press Conference at E3, Microsoft announced Xbox Live Primetime, a series of scheduled programs where Xbox Live members can play against each other. The first announced game is an adaptation of the Endemol game show 1 vs. 100 in which one Xbox Live member will play against 100 other members with a live host and prizes awarded. On July 15, 2010, Microsoft confirmed that 1 vs. 100 would be cancelled.
The Xbox Guide has also been redesigned. Players are not only able to view their friends and messages, but are able to access their game library. If a user has installed any game onto their Xbox 360 Hard drive, they are able to immediately start the game from the guide, whether they are in a game or in the dashboard. Microsoft also confirmed that every new 360 comes with 3 free Xbox Live Gold trial accounts, upon creating a new account the player is allowed to claim a trial period upon refusing to pay for Gold subscription; therefore allowing the user to try online gameplay for that one - month trial period, after which the player is required to pay subscription fees to continue matchmaking online. Major Nelson also announced that the update supports 16: 10 on VGA or HDMI, expanding the choice of resolutions.
While previous system updates have been stored on internal memory, this is the first update to require a storage device. The update requires at least 128MB free space on either a memory card or a hard drive. Microsoft has stated that many Core or Arcade users will not have sufficient space on their limited memory cards for the new update and thus provided them with a free 512MB memory card or a discounted 20GB hard drive for a limited time. This promotion has since ended and all new arcade units now come with 512MB of internal memory.
The NXE was leaked onto Torrent sites and could be installed via a USB drive. Microsoft 's Major Nelson stated that unauthorized installation of NXE would result in the user 's console being banned from Xbox Live until its official release which was on November 19, 2008.
On September 22, 2010, Major Nelson announced that the Xbox Live dashboard would be redesigned once again. The new design would incorporate the Metro interface used in other Microsoft products, such as Zune HD and Windows Phone. As well as a new color scheme and other minor tweaks to the overall layout, the update would also include a "Kinect hub '', designed specifically for the Kinect sensor for easier dashboard navigation. Xbox Live members were able to sign up for a preview program, which opened on September 29, 2010. The new dashboard officially went live on December 6, 2011.
On June 6, 2011 at E3, it was announced that the dashboard would be updated again to include the Bing search engine, allowing users to search for games, trailers, movies etc. Kinect would also be updated allowing users to navigate the dashboard and Bing using their voice. Other updates would include cloud storage, YouTube access and live television streaming. The dashboard update was delayed till December 6, 2011.
On May 13, 2014, Microsoft announced changes to the Xbox Live Gold membership that would allow subscribers to access available apps such as Netflix, Twitch, MLB.tv, etc. without a Gold membership on both Xbox One and Xbox 360 consoles, though various rental or subscription fees still apply. Microsoft would be offering pro-rated refunds for the service for requests up until August 31, 2014. The company also announced "Games with Gold '' that would give subscribers free games on both Xbox 360 and Xbox One with one single membership, and "Deals with Gold '' for exclusive discounts for Xbox One games at the Xbox store.
On November 6, 2006, Microsoft announced the Xbox Video (formerly Xbox Video Marketplace), an exclusive video store accessible through the console. Launched in the United States on November 22, 2006, the first anniversary of the Xbox 360 's launch, the service allows users in the United States to download high - definition and standard - definition television shows for purchase and movies for rental onto an Xbox 360 console for viewing. With the exception of short clips, content is not currently available for streaming, and must be downloaded. Movies are available for rental from the Video Marketplace. They expire in 14 days after download or at the end of the first 24 hours after the movie has begun playing, whichever comes first. Television episodes can be purchased to own, and are transferable to an unlimited number of consoles. Downloaded files use 5.1 surround audio and are encoded using VC - 1 for video at 720p, with a bitrate of 6.8 Mbit / s. Television content is offered from MTV, VH1, Comedy Central, Turner Broadcasting and CBS; and movie content is Warner Bros., Paramount and Disney, along with other publishers.
The "Game with Fame '' initiative has been Microsoft 's way to connect Xbox Live members with celebrities and game developers. Notable participants of "Game with Fame '' include Shia LaBeouf, Jack Black, Rihanna, Velvet Revolver, Victoria Justice, Shaun Wright - Phillips, Scissor Sisters, Paramore, Korn, OK Go, Red Jumpsuit Apparatus, Dream Theater, Linkin Park, Green Day and Insane Clown Posse.
"Xbox Ambassadors '' are Xbox Live members selected by Microsoft who have proven themselves to be helpful towards others, and are willing to assist new Xbox Live users and answer their questions. As of March 2009, there are ambassadors representing 18 countries in more than 30 languages.
"Xbox Rewards '' was a promotion designed to provide gamers incentives to play on Xbox Live by subsidizing achievement points earned with actual rewards. Gamers were required to register for specific challenges which, if successfully completed, would yield a challenge - specific reward.
"Xbox Live Rewards '' is a current promotion providing Xbox Live members with Reward Points (not to be confused with the defunct Microsoft Points) when they renew their Gold Membership, buy something on the Marketplace, etc.
"Xbox Live Labs '' was a program found in the community section and was available from March 10 to 27, 2011 for members in the United States. If a player chose to participate, they were rewarded with avatar items and 3 zero - point achievements.
SentUAMessage was a show which aimed to answer questions sent in by viewers on anything related to the world of Xbox. The show ran for four series and was released every other Saturday. The show was driven entirely by user - generated questions. To ensure the volume of questions remained high, fans could contact the show in a variety of ways, including sending questions to the SentUAMessage Gamertag over Xbox LIVE, writing an email, or using social network websites.
Microsoft implements a number of different security measures on its Xbox Live service. One of these takes the form of a proactive security check that assures that only unmodified machines may access their service. On May 17, 2007, Microsoft banned consoles with modified firmware from Xbox Live. According to Microsoft, consoles with firmware of unknown origin, quality or intent were banned permanently from Xbox Live. A Microsoft representative indicated that the action was taken to assure "the integrity of the service and protect our partners and users. ''
It has been discovered that pretexting has been used to impersonate an Xbox Live user for sabotage. Microsoft has implemented greater security to decrease the service 's susceptibility to social engineering.
In early November 2009 Microsoft banned approximately 1 million consoles with modified firmware from Xbox Live.
In October 2011, users of Xbox Live reported having unauthorized access to their Xbox Live accounts, with Microsoft points subsequently being used and / or bought to purchase various in - game items for FIFA 12. Microsoft is responding to such incidents by restricting access to the account for 25 days whilst the fraud team investigates. Both EA and Microsoft have denied that there is a problem with security.
On December 25, 2014, both PlayStation Network and Xbox Live suffered network disruption after a denial - of - service attack. Functionality was restored on December 28, with some users experiencing difficulties in the days that followed.
As of December 16, 2012, Xbox Live is currently available in 42 countries / territories:
Users from other countries are not officially supported, although it is possible for them to access Xbox Live if they provide an address located in a country where Xbox Live is officially available. The country selected during account creation affects the payment options, content, and services available to the user. Previously, users were unable to change their account region, but in October 2012, Microsoft introduced an account migration tool as a pilot project, which allows the user to change their region and maintain their Xbox Live profile. Subscriptions, such as that for Xbox Music, can not be transferred with this method.
On May 18, 2011, Microsoft announced that it planned to launch Xbox Live in the Middle East within the next twelve months, but it never occurred during that time period. However, on October 20, 2012, Microsoft officially announced the service will be launching in the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia in three days time. On November 4, Microsoft announced that the service would be launched on November 29 in Argentina and Israel. The service also appeared in the following month in Slovakia and Turkey. The service was launched in China in late 2014.
Xbox Live for the original Xbox was discontinued by Microsoft on April 15, 2010, encouraging gamers to upgrade to the Xbox 360. Though official Xbox Live service has been discontinued for the original Xbox, tunneling software such as Xlink Kai exists, allowing original Xbox users to play system link games such as Halo with other people from around the world, much like Xbox Live. However, no third - party software developed thus far has been fully compatible with all original Xbox titles.
Live Anywhere is an initiative by Microsoft to bring the Live online gaming and entertainment network to a wide variety of platforms and devices, including Xbox, Xbox 360, Microsoft Windows (XP SP2 / SP3, Vista and 7), Windows Phone, Java - based phones and Zune. The concept service for mobile devices has been demonstrated at E3 and CES on a Motorola Q mobile phone.
Microsoft 's Chris Early clarified that Live Anywhere is a long - term project expected to be rolled out over several years.
On February 15, 2010, Microsoft announced its new mobile operating system, Windows Phone. With Windows Phone 7, Microsoft has integrated full Xbox Live functionality into Windows Phone.
Bloomberg estimates that Xbox Live likely generated over $ 1 billion in revenue in the 2010 fiscal year, which ended on June 30, 2010.
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now that's what i call music compilations | Now That 's What I Call Music! Discography - wikipedia
This is a list of known albums and DVDs belonging to the Now That 's What I Call Music! series. They are categorised by series (country), then ordered by date.
The first full - track edition to be released on compact disc was Now That 's What I Call Music 10. Vinyl production ended with Now That 's What I Call Music! 35 and audio cassettes ended with Now That 's What I Call Music! 64. Part of the series was also released on the MiniDisc format, beginning with Now That 's What I Call Music! 43 and ending with Now That 's What I Call Music! 48.
Some of the albums have also been released on video. Volumes 1 through 18 and 20 were released on VHS. The first two albums were also issued on Laser - disc. Every video tape had a typical running time of roughly 1 hour. From 2001 to 2007, the videos were published on DVD with a frequency of one per year. The DVDs are numbered by year and not linked to album numbers. Now 2006 was released on UMD as well as DVD.
The series release dates below represent the date of release in the United Kingdom. Through the release of Now That 's What I Call Music! 90 on 30 March 2015, the release date in Ireland was three days before the UK release. Beginning with the release of Now That 's What I Call Music! 91 on 24 July 2015, the release dates in the UK and Ireland have been the same following the announcement of the Global Release Day campaign by IFPI, which became effective on 10 July 2015.
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describe the significance of civil disobedience movement in the freedom struggle of india | Indian Independence movement - Wikipedia
The Indian independence movement encompassed activities and ideas aiming to end the East India Company rule (1757 -- 1857) and the British Indian Empire (1857 -- 1947) in the Indian subcontinent. The movement spanned a total of 90 years (1857 -- 1947).
The very first organised militant movements were in Bengal, but they later took movement in the newly formed Indian National Congress with prominent moderate leaders seeking only their basic right to appear for Indian Civil Service (British India) examinations, as well as more rights, economic in nature, for the people of the soil. The early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political self - rule proposed by leaders such as the Lal, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh, V.O. Chidambaram Pillai. The last stages of the self - rule struggle from the 1920s onwards saw Congress adopt Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 's policy of nonviolence and civil resistance, and several other campaigns. Nationalists like Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh preached armed revolution to achieve self - rule. Poets and writers such as Rabindranath Tagore, Subramania Bharati, Muhammad Iqbal, Josh Malihabadi, Mohammad Ali Jouhar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and Kazi Nazrul Islam used literature, poetry and speech as a tool for political awareness. Feminists such as Sarojini Naidu and Begum Rokeya promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in national politics. B.R. Ambedkar championed the cause of the disadvantaged sections of Indian society within the larger self - rule movement. The period of the Second World War saw the peak of the campaigns by the Quit India Movement led by Congress, and the Indian National Army movement led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose.
The Indian self - rule movement was a mass - based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent a process of constant ideological evolution. Although the basic ideology of the movement was anti-colonial, it was supported by a vision of independent capitalist economic development coupled with a secular, democratic, republican, and civil - libertarian political structure. After the 1930s, the movement took on a strong socialist orientation, owing to the influence of Bhagat Singh 's demand of Purn Swaraj (Complete Self - Rule). The work of these various movements led ultimately to the Indian Independence Act 1947, which ended the suzerainty in India and the creation of Pakistan. India remained a Dominion of the Crown until 26 January 1950, when the Constitution of India came into force, establishing the Republic of India; Pakistan was a dominion until 1956, when it adopted its first republican constitution. In 1971, East Pakistan declared independence as the People 's Republic of Bangladesh.
European traders first reached Indian shores with the arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 at the port of Calicut, in search of the lucrative spice trade. Just over a century later, the Dutch and English established trading outposts on the subcontinent, with the first English trading post set up at Surat in 1613. Over the course of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, the British defeated the Portuguese and Dutch militarily, but remained in conflict with the French, who had by then sought to establish themselves in the subcontinent. The decline of the Mughal Empire in the first half of the eighteenth century provided the British with the opportunity to establish a firm foothold in Indian politics. After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, during which the East India Company 's Indian army under Robert Clive defeated Siraj ud - Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, the Company established itself as a major player in Indian affairs, and soon afterwards gained administrative rights over the regions of Bengal, Bihar and Midnapur part of Orissa, following the Battle of Buxar in 1764. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of South India came either under the Company 's direct rule, or under its indirect political control as part a princely state in a subsidiary alliance. The Company subsequently gained control of regions ruled by the Maratha Empire, after defeating them in a series of wars. The Punjab was annexed in 1849, after the defeat of the Sikh armies in the First (1845 -- 1846) and Second (1848 -- 49) Anglo - Sikh Wars.
English was made the medium of instruction in India 's schools in 1835, and many Indians increasingly disliked British rule.
Puli Thevar was one of the opponents of the British rule in India. He was in conflict with the Nawab of Arcot who was supported by the British. His prominent exploits were his confrontations with Marudhanayagam, who later rebelled against the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. Nelkatumseval the present Tirunelveli Dist of Tamil Nadu state of India was the headquarters of Puli Thevan.
Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja was one of the earliest freedom fighters in India. He was the prince regent of the princely state of Kottiyur or Cotiote in North Malabar, near Kannur, India between 1774 and 1805. He fought a guerrilla war with tribal people from Wynad supporting him. He was caught by the British and his fort was razed to the ground.
Rani Velu Nachiyar (1730 -- 1796), was a queen of Indian Sivaganga from 1760 to 1790. She was the first queen to fight against the British in India. Rani Nachiyar was trained in war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam (fighting using stick), horse riding and archery. She was a scholar in many languages and she had proficiency with languages like French, English and Urdu. When her husband, Muthuvaduganathaperiya Udaiyathevar, was killed by British soldiers and the son of the Nawab of Arcot, she was drawn into battle. She formed an army and sought an alliance with Gopala Nayaker and Hyder Ali with the aim of attacking the British, whom she did successfully fight in 1780. When Rani Velu Nachiyar found the place where the British stored their ammunition, she arranged a suicide attack: a faithful follower, Kuyili, doused herself in oil, set herself alight and walked into the storehouse. Rani Velu Nachiyar formed a woman 's army named "udaiyaal '' in honour of her adopted daughter, Udaiyaal, who died detonating a British arsenal. Rani Nachiyar was one of the few rulers who regained her kingdom, and ruled it for ten more years.
Veerapandiya Kattabomman was an eighteenth - century Polygar and chieftain from Panchalankurichi in Tamil Nadu, India who waged a war against the East India Company. He was captured by the British and hanged in 1799 CE. Kattabomman refused to accept the sovereignty of East India Company, and fought against them. Dheeran Chinnamalai was a Kongu chieftain and Palayakkarar from Tamil Nadu who fought against the East India Company. After Kattabomman and Tipu Sultan 's deaths, Chinnamalai sought the help of Marathas and Maruthu Pandiyar to attack the British at Coimbatore in 1800. British forces managed to stop the armies of the allies and hence Chinnamalai was forced to attack Coimbatore on his own. His army was defeated and he escaped from the British forces. Chinnamalai engaged in guerrilla warfare and defeated the British in battles at Cauvery in 1801, Odanilai in 1802 and Arachalur in 1804.
In September 1804, the King of Khordha, Kalinga was deprived of the traditional rights of Jagannath Temple which was a serious shock to the King and the people of Odisha. Consequently, in October 1804 a group of armed Paiks attacked the British at Pipili. This event alarmed the British force. Jayee Rajguru, the chief of Army of Kalinga requested all the kings of the state to join hands for a common cause against the British. Rajguru was killed on 6 December 1806. After Rajguru 's death, Bakshi Jagabandhu commanded an armed rebellion against the East India Company 's rule in Odisha which is known as Paik Rebellion.
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large - scale rebellion in the northern and central India against the British East India Company 's rule. It was suppressed and the British government took control of the company. The conditions of service in the company 's army and cantonments increasingly came into conflict with the religious beliefs and prejudices of the sepoys. The predominance of members from the upper castes in the army, perceived loss of caste due to overseas travel, and rumours of secret designs of the government to convert them to Christianity led to deep discontent among the sepoys. The sepoys were also disillusioned by their low salaries and the racial discrimination practised by British officers in matters of promotion and privileges. The indifference of the British towards leading native Indian rulers such as the Mughals and ex-Peshwas and the annexation of Oudh were political factors triggering dissent amongst Indians. The Marquess of Dalhousie 's policy of annexation, the doctrine of lapse (or escheat) applied by the British, and the projected removal of the descendants of the Great Mughal from their ancestral palace at Red Fort to the Qutb Minaar (near Delhi) also angered some people.
The final spark was provided by the rumoured use of tallow (from cows) and lard (pig fat) in the newly introduced Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle cartridges. Soldiers had to bite the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their rifles, and the reported presence of cow and pig fat was religiously offensive to both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
Mangal Pandey, a 29 - year - old sepoy, was believed to be responsible for inspiring the Indian sepoys to rise against the British. Pandey revolted against his army regiment for protection of the cow, considered sacred by Hindus. In the first week of May 1857, he killed a higher officer in his regiment at Barrackpore for the introduction of the rule. He was captured and was sentenced to death when the British took back control of the regiment. On 10 May 1857, the sepoys at Meerut broke rank and turned on their commanding officers, killing some of them. They reached Delhi on 11 May, set the company 's toll house on fire, and marched into the Red Fort, where they asked the Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, to become their leader and reclaim his throne. The emperor was reluctant at first, but eventually agreed and was proclaimed Shehenshah - e-Hindustan by the rebels. The rebels also murdered much of the European, Eurasian, and Christian population of the city.
Revolts broke out in other parts of Oudh and the North - Western Provinces as well, where civil rebellion followed the mutinies, leading to popular uprisings. The British were initially caught off - guard and were thus slow to react, but eventually responded with force. The lack of effective organisation among the rebels, coupled with the military superiority of the British, brought a rapid end to the rebellion. The British fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi, and after prolonged fighting and a siege, defeated them and retook the city on 20 September 1857. Subsequently, revolts in other centres were also crushed. The last significant battle was fought in Gwalior on 17 June 1858, during which Rani Lakshmibai was killed. Sporadic fighting and guerrilla warfare, led by Tatya Tope, continued until spring 1859, but most of the rebels were eventually subdued.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major turning point in the history of modern India. While affirming the military and political power of the British, it led to significant change in how India was to be controlled by them. Under the Government of India Act 1858, the Company was deprived of its involvement in ruling India, with its territory being transferred to the direct authority of the British government. At the apex of the new system was a Cabinet minister, the Secretary of State for India, who was to be formally advised by a statutory council; the Governor - General of India (Viceroy) was made responsible to him, while he in turn was responsible to the government. In a royal proclamation made to the people of India, Queen Victoria promised equal opportunity of public service under British law, and also pledged to respect the rights of the native princes. The British stopped the policy of seizing land from the princes, decreed religious tolerance and began to admit Indians into the civil service (albeit mainly as subordinates). However, they also increased the number of British soldiers in relation to native Indian ones, and only allowed British soldiers to handle artillery. Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon, Burma, where he died in 1862.
In 1876, in a controversial move Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli acceded to the Queen 's request and passed legislation to give Queen Victoria the additional title of Empress of India. Liberals in Britain objected that the title was foreign to British traditions.
The decades following the Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness, manifestation of Indian public opinion and emergence of Indian leadership at both national and provincial levels. Dadabhai Naoroji formed the East India Association in 1867 and Surendranath Banerjee founded the Indian National Association in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, seventy - two Indian delegates met in Bombay in 1885 and founded the Indian National Congress. They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile and successful western - educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such as law, teaching and journalism. At its inception, the Congress had no well - defined ideology and commanded few of the resources essential to a political organisation. Instead, it functioned more as a debating society that met annually to express its loyalty to the British Raj and passed numerous resolutions on less controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities in government (especially in the civil service). These resolutions were submitted to the Viceroy 's government and occasionally to the British Parliament, but the Congress 's early gains were slight. Despite its claim to represent all India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites; the number of participants from other social and economic backgrounds remained negligible.
The influence of socio - religious groups such as Arya Samaj (started by Swami Dayanand Saraswati) and Brahmo Samaj (founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and others) became evident in pioneering reforms of Indian society. The work of men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna, Sri Aurobindo, V.O. Chidambaram Pillai, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji, as well as women such as the Scots -- Irish Sister Nivedita, spread the passion for rejuvenation and freedom. The rediscovery of India 's indigenous history by several European and Indian scholars also fed into the rise of nationalism among Indians.
By 1900, although the Congress had emerged as an all - India political organisation, its achievement was undermined by its singular failure to attract Muslims, who felt that their representation in government service was inadequate. Attacks by Hindu reformers against religious conversion, cow slaughter, and the preservation of Urdu in Arabic script deepened their concerns of minority status and denial of rights if the Congress alone were to represent the people of India. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a movement for Muslim regeneration that culminated in the founding in 1875 of the Muhammadan Anglo - Oriental College at Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh (renamed Aligarh Muslim University in 1920). Its objective was to educate wealthy students by emphasising the compatibility of Islam with modern western knowledge. The diversity among India 's Muslims, however, made it impossible to bring about uniform cultural and intellectual regeneration.
The nationalistic sentiments among Congress members led to the movement to be represented in the bodies of government, to have a say in the legislation and administration of India. Congressmen saw themselves as loyalists, but wanted an active role in governing their own country, albeit as part of the Empire. This trend was personified by Dadabhai Naoroji, who went as far as contesting, successfully, an election to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, becoming its first Indian member.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the first Indian nationalist to embrace Swaraj as the destiny of the nation. Tilak deeply opposed the then British education system that ignored and defamed India 's culture, history and values. He resented the denial of freedom of expression for nationalists, and the lack of any voice or role for ordinary Indians in the affairs of their nation. For these reasons, he considered Swaraj as the natural and only solution. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it '' became the source of inspiration for Indians.
In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand wanted reform within the framework of British rule. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view. Under them, India 's three great states -- Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab shaped the demand of the people and India 's nationalism. Gokhale criticised Tilak for encouraging acts of violence and disorder. But the Congress of 1906 did not have public membership, and thus Tilak and his supporters were forced to leave the party.
But with Tilak 's arrest, all hopes for an Indian offensive were stalled. The Congress lost credibility with the people. A Muslim deputation met with the Viceroy, Minto (1905 -- 10), seeking concessions from the impending constitutional reforms, including special considerations in government service and electorates. The British recognised some of the Muslim League 's petitions by increasing the number of elective offices reserved for Muslims in the Indian Councils Act 1909. The Muslim League insisted on its separateness from the Hindu - dominated Congress, as the voice of a "nation within a nation ''.
In July 1901, Lord Curzon, the Viceroy and Governor - General (1899 -- 1905), ordered the partition of the province of Bengal supposedly
for improvements in administrative efficiency in the huge and populous region. It also had justifications due to increasing conflicts between Muslims and dominant Hindu regimes in Bengal. However, the Indians viewed the partition as an attempt by the British to disrupt the growing national movement in Bengal and divide the Hindus and Muslims of the region. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national politics. The partition outraged Bengalis. Not only had the government failed to consult Indian public opinion, but the action appeared to reflect the British resolve to divide and rule. Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press, and the Congress advocated boycotting British products under the banner of swadeshi, or indigenous industries. A growing movement emerged, focussing on indigenous Indian industries, finance and education, which saw the founding of National Council of Education, birth of Indian financial institutions and banks, as well as an interest in Indian culture and achievements in science and literature. Hindus showed unity by tying Rakhi on each other 's wrists and observing Arandhan (not cooking any food). During this time, Bengali Hindu nationalists like Sri Aurobindo, Bhupendranath Datta, and Bipin Chandra Pal began writing virulent newspaper articles challenging legitimacy of British rule in India in publications such as Jugantar and Sandhya, and were charged with sedition. Brahmabhandav Upadhyay, a Hindu newspaper editor who helped Tagore establish his school at Shantiniketan, was imprisoned and the first to die in British custody in the twentieth century struggle for self - rule.
The All - India Muslim League was founded by the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dhaka (now Bangladesh), in 1906, in the context of the circumstances that were generated over the partition of Bengal in 1905. Being a political party to secure the interests of the Muslim diaspora in British India, the Muslim League played a decisive role behind the creation of Pakistan in the Indian subcontinent.
In 1916, Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined the Indian National Congress, which was the largest Indian political organisation. Like most of the Congress at the time, Jinnah did not favour outright self - rule, considering British influences on education, law, culture and industry as beneficial to India. Jinnah became a member of the sixty - member Imperial Legislative Council. The council had no real power or authority, and included a large number of un-elected pro-Raj loyalists and Europeans. Nevertheless, Jinnah was instrumental in the passing of the Child Marriages Restraint Act, the legitimisation of the Muslim waqf (religious endowments) and was appointed to the Sandhurst committee, which helped establish the Indian Military Academy at Dehradun. During the First World War, Jinnah joined other Indian moderates in supporting the British war effort.
The First World War began with an unprecedented outpouring of support towards Britain from within the mainstream political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt. India contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money and ammunition. However, Bengal and Punjab remained hotbeds of anti colonial activities. Nationalism in Bengal, increasingly closely linked with the unrests in Punjab, was significant enough to nearly paralyse the regional administration, whilst failed conspiracies were made by revolutionaries to trigger nationalist revolt in India.
None of the revolutionary conspiracies had significant impact inside India. The prospect of subversive violence and its effect on the popular war effort drew support amongst Indian population for special measures against anti-colonial activities in the form of Defence of India act 1915, and no major mutinies occurred. However, the war - time conspiracies did lead to profound fears of insurrection among British officials, preparing them to use extreme force to frighten the Indians into submission.
In the aftermath of the First World War, high casualty rates, soaring inflation compounded by heavy taxation, a widespread influenza epidemic and the disruption of trade during the war escalated human suffering in India.
The pre-war nationalist movement revived as moderate and extremist groups within the Congress submerged their differences in order to stand as a unified front. They argued their enormous services to the British Empire during the war demanded a reward, and demonstrated the Indian capacity for self - rule. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the Lucknow Pact, a temporary alliance with the Muslim League over the issues of devolution of political power and the future of Islam in the region.
The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick '' approach in recognition of India 's support during the war and in response to renewed nationalist demands. In August 1917, Edwin Montagu, the secretary of state for India, made the historic announcement in Parliament that the British policy for India was "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self - governing institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire. '' The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act, 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which both elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. The act also expanded the central and provincial legislatures and widened the franchise considerably. Diarchy set in motion certain real changes at the provincial level: a number of non-controversial or "transferred '' portfolios, such as agriculture, local government, health, education, and public works, were handed over to Indians, while more sensitive matters such as finance, taxation, and maintaining law and order were retained by the provincial British administrators.
Gandhi had been a leader of the Indian nationalist movement in South Africa, and had been a vocal opponent of basic discrimination and abusive labour treatment as well as suppressive police control such as the Rowlatt Acts. During these protests, Gandhi had perfected the concept of satyagraha, which had been inspired by the philosophy of Baba Ram Singh (famous for leading the Kuka Movement in the Punjab in 1872). In January 1914 (well before the First World War began) Gandhi was successful. The legislation against Indians was repealed and all Indian political prisoners were released by General Jan Smuts. Gandhi accomplished this through extensive use of non-violent protest, such as boycotting, protest marching, and fasting by him and his followers.
Gandhi returned to India on 9 January 1915, and initially entered the political fray not with calls for a nation - state, but in support of the unified commerce - oriented territory that the Congress Party had been asking for. Gandhi believed that the industrial development and educational development that the Europeans had brought with them were required to alleviate many of India 's problems. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a veteran Congressman and Indian leader, became Gandhi 's mentor. Gandhi 's ideas and strategies of non-violent civil disobedience initially appeared impractical to some Indians and Congressmen. In Gandhi 's own words, "civil disobedience is civil breach of unmoral statutory enactments. '' It had to be carried out non-violently by withdrawing co-operation with the corrupt state. Gandhi had great respect for Lokmanya Tilak. His programmes were all inspired by Tilak 's "Chatusutri '' programme. It was at this point he met the prophet Ryan Chart, where he founded some of his most spiritual messages with his British colleague.
The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Act, named after the recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Committee. The commission was set up to look into the war - time conspiracies by the nationalist organisations and recommend measures to deal with the problem in the post-war period. Rowlatt recommended the extension of the war - time powers of the Defence of India act into the post-war period. The war - time act had vested the Viceroy 's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. It was increasingly reviled within India due to widespread and indiscriminate use. Many popular leaders, including Annie Beasant and Ali brothers had been detained. Rowlatt act was, therefore, passed in the face of universal opposition among the (non-official) Indian members in the Viceroy 's council. The extension of the act drew widespread opposition and criticism. In protest, a nationwide cessation of work (hartal) was called, marking the beginning of widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent.
The agitation unleashed by the acts led to British attacks on demonstrators, culminating on 13 April 1919, in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (also known as the Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar, Punjab. The British military commander, Brigadier - General Reginald Dyer, blocked the main, and only entrance, and ordered his soldiers to fire into an unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of some 15,000 men, women and children. They had assembled peacefully at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled courtyard, but Dyer had wanted to execute the imposed ban on all meetings and proposed to teach all Indians a lesson the harsher way. A total of 1,651 rounds were fired, killing 379 people (as according to an official British commission; Indian officials ' estimates ranged as high as 1,499 and wounding 1,137 in the massacre.) Dyer was forced to retire but was hailed as a hero in Britain, demonstrating to Indian nationalists that the Empire was beholden to public opinion in Britain, but not in India. The episode dissolved wartime hopes of home rule and goodwill and opened a rift that could not be bridged short of complete self - rule.
From 1920 to 1922, Gandhi started the Non-Cooperation Movement. At the Kolkata session of the Congress in September 1920, Gandhi convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-co - operation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for dominion status. The first satyagraha movement urged the use of khadi and Indian material as alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged people to boycott British educational institutions and law courts; resign from government employment; refuse to pay taxes; and forsake British titles and honours. Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new Government of India Act 1919, the movement enjoyed widespread popular support, and the resulting unparalleled magnitude of disorder presented a serious challenge to foreign rule. However, Gandhi called off the movement because he was scared after Chauri Chaura incident, which saw the death of twenty - two policemen at the hands of an angry mob.
Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee, and a hierarchy of committees was established and made responsible for discipline and control over a hitherto amorphous and diffuse movement. The party was transformed from an elite organisation to one of mass national appeal and participation.
Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six years of prison, but was released after serving two. On his release from prison, he set up the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, on the banks of river Sabarmati, established the newspaper Young India, and inaugurated a series of reforms aimed at the socially disadvantaged within Hindu society -- the rural poor, and the untouchables.
This era saw the emergence of new generation of Indians from within the Congress Party, including C. Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhas Chandra Bose and others - who would later on come to form the prominent voices of the Indian self - rule movement, whether keeping with Gandhian Values, or, as in the case of Bose 's Indian National Army, diverging from it.
The Indian political spectrum was further broadened in the mid-1920s by the emergence of both moderate and militant parties, such as the Swaraj Party, Hindu Mahasabha, Communist Party of India and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. Regional political organisations also continued to represent the interests of non-Brahmins in Madras, Mahars in Maharashtra, and Sikhs in Punjab. However, people like Mahakavi Subramanya Bharathi, Vanchinathan and Neelakanda Brahmachari played a major role from Tamil Nadu in both self - rule struggle and fighting for equality for all castes and communities.
Many women participated in the movement, including Kasturba Gandhi (Gandhi 's wife), Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Muthulaxmi Reddy, Aruna Asaf Ali, and many others.
Following the rejection of the recommendations of the Simon Commission by Indians, an all - party conference was held at Mumbai in May 1928. This was meant to instill a sense of Liberation among people. The conference appointed a drafting committee under Motilal Nehru to draw up a constitution for India. The Kolkata session of the Indian National Congress asked the British government to accord dominion status to India by December 1929, or a countrywide civil disobedience movement would be launched. By 1929, however, in the midst of rising political discontent and increasingly violent regional movements, the call for complete sovereignty and end of British rule began to find increasing grounds within the Public. Under the presidency of Jawaharlal at his historic Lahore session in December 1929, the Indian National Congress adopted the idea of complete self - rule and end of British rule. It authorised the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience movement throughout the country. It was decided that 26 January 1930 should be observed all over India as the Purna Swaraj (complete self - rule) Day. Many Indian political parties and Indian revolutionaries of a wide spectrum united to observe the day with honour and pride.
In March 1931, the Gandhi - Irwin Pact was signed, and the government agreed to set all political prisoners free (Although, some of the great revolutionaries were not set free and the death sentence for Bhagat Singh and his two comrades was not taken back which further intensified the agitation against Congress not only outside it but within the Congress itself). For the next few years, the Congress and the government were locked in conflict and negotiations until what became the Government of India Act 1935 could be hammered out. By then, the rift between the Congress and the Muslim League had become unbridgeable as each pointed the finger at the other acrimoniously. The Muslim League disputed the claim of the Congress to represent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the Muslim League 's claim to voice the aspirations of all Muslims.
The Civil Disobedience Movement indicated a new part in the process of the Indian self - rule struggle. As a whole, it became a failure by itself, but it brought the Indian population together, under the Indian National Congress 's leadership. The movement made the Indian people strive even more towards self - rule. The movement allowed the Indian community to revive their inner confidence and strength against the British Government. In addition, the movement weakened the authority of the British and aided in the end of the British Empire in India. Overall, the civil disobedience Movement was an essential achievement in the history of Indian self - rule.
The Government of India Act 1935, the voluminous and final constitutional effort at governing British India, articulated three major goals: establishing a loose federal structure, achieving provincial autonomy, and safeguarding minority interests through separate electorates. The federal provisions, intended to unite princely states and British India at the centre, were not implemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding the existing privileges of princes. In February 1937, however, provincial autonomy became a reality when elections were held; the Congress emerged as the dominant party with a clear majority in five provinces and held an upper hand in two, while the Muslim League performed poorly.
In 1939, the Viceroy Linlithgow declared India 's entrance into the Second World War without consulting provincial governments. In protest, the Congress asked all of its elected representatives to resign from the government. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the president of the Muslim League, persuaded participants at the annual Muslim League session at Lahore in 1940 to adopt what later came to be known as the Lahore Resolution, demanding the division of India into two separate sovereign states, one Muslim, the other Hindu; sometimes referred to as Two Nation Theory. Although the idea of Pakistan had been introduced as early as 1930, very few had responded to it. However, the volatile political climate and hostilities between the Hindus and Muslims transformed the idea of Pakistan into a stronger demand.
Apart from a few stray incidents, armed rebellions against the British rulers did not occur before the beginning of the 20th century. The Indian revolutionary underground began gathering momentum through the first decade of the 20th century, with groups arising in Bengal, Maharashtra, Odisha, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and the Madras Presidency including what is now called South India. More groups were scattered around India. Particularly notable movements arose in Bengal, especially around the Partition of Bengal in 1905, and in Punjab after 1907. In the former case, it was the educated, intelligent and dedicated youth of the urban middle class Bhadralok community that came to form the "Classic '' Indian revolutionary, while the latter had an immense support base in the rural and Military society of the Punjab. In Bengal, the Anushilan Samiti emerged from conglomerations of local youth groups and gyms (Akhra) in Bengal in 1902, forming two prominent and somewhat independent arms in East and West Bengal identified as Dhaka Anushilan Samiti in Dhaka (modern day Bangladesh), and the Jugantar group (centred at Calcutta) respectively. Led by nationalists of the likes of Aurobindo Ghosh and his brother Barindra Ghosh, the Samiti was influenced by philosophies as diverse as Hindu Shakta philosophy propounded by Bengali literaetuer Bankim and Vivekananda, Italian Nationalism, and Pan-Asianism of Kakuzo Okakura. The Samiti was involved in a number of noted incidences of revolutionary terrorism against British interests and administration in India within the decade of its founding, including early attempts to assassinate Raj officials whilst led by Ghosh brothers. In the meantime, in Maharashtra and Punjab arose similarly militant nationalist feelings. The District Magistrate of Nasik, A.M.T. Jackson was shot dead by Anant Kanhere in December 1909, followed by the death of Robert D'Escourt Ashe at the hands of Vanchi Iyer. Indian nationalism made headway through Indian societies as far as Paris and London. In London India House under the patronage of Shyamji Krishna Verma came under increasing scrutiny for championing and justifying violence in the cause of Indian nationalism, which found in Indian students in Britain and from Indian expatriates in Paris Indian Society avid followers. By 1907, through Indian nationalist Madame Bhikaji Rustom Cama 's links to Russian revolutionary Nicholas Safranski, Indian groups including Bengal revolutionaries as well as India House under V.D. Savarkar were able to obtain manuals for manufacturing bombs. India House was also a source of arms and seditious literature that was rapidly distributed in India. In addition to The Indian Sociologist, pamphlets like Bande Mataram and Oh Martyrs! by Savarkar extolled revolutionary violence. Direct influences and incitement from India House were noted in several incidents of political violence, including assassinations, in India at the time. One of the two charges against Savarkar during his trial in Bombay was for abetting the murder of the District Magistrate of Nasik, A.M.T. Jackson, by Anant Kanhere in December 1909. The arms used were directly traced through an Italian courier to India House. Ex-India House residents M.P.T. Acharya and V.V.S. Aiyar were noted in the Rowlatt report to have aided and influenced political assassinations, including the murder of Robert D'Escourt Ashe. The Paris - Safranski link was strongly suggested by French police to be involved in a 1907 attempt in Bengal to derail the train carrying the Lieutenant - Governor Sir Andrew Fraser. The activities of nationalists abroad is believed to have shaken the loyalty of a number of native regiments of the British Indian Army. The assassination of William Hutt Curzon Wyllie in the hands of Madanlal Dhingra was highly publcised and saw increasing surveillance and suppression of Indian nationalism. These were followed by the 1912 attempt on the life of Viceroy of India. Following this, the nucleus of networks formed in India House, the Anushilan Samiti, nationlalists in Punjab, and the nationalism that arose among Indian expatriates and labourers in North America, a different movement began to emerge in the North American Ghadar Party, culminating in the Sedetious conspiracy of World War I led by Rash Behari Bose and Lala Hardayal.
However, the emergence of the Gandhian movement slowly began to absorb the different revolutionary groups. The Bengal Samiti moved away from its philosophy of violence in the 1920s, when a number of its members identified closely with the Congress and Gandhian non-violent movement. Revolutionary nationalist violence saw a resurgence after the collapse of Gandhian Noncooperation movement in 1922. In Bengal, this saw reorganisation of groups linked to the Samiti under the leadership of Surya Sen and Hem Chandra Kanungo. A spate of violence led up to enactment of the Bengal Criminal Law Amendment in the early 1920s, which recalled the powers of incarceration and detention of the Defence of India Act. In north India, remnants of Punjab and Bengalee revolutionary organisations reorganised, notably under Sachindranath Sanyal, founding the Hindustan Republican Association with Chandrashekhar Azad in north India. The HSRA had strong influences from leftist ideologies. Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) was formed under the leadership of Chandrasekhar Azad. Kakori train robbery was done largely by the members of HSRA. A number of Congress leaders from Bengal, especially Subhash Chandra Bose, were accused by the British Government of having links with and allowing patronage to the revolutionary organisations during this time. The violence and radical philosophy revived in the 1930s, when revolutionaries of the Samiti and the HSRA were involved in was involved in the Chittagong armoury raid and the Kakori conspiracy and other attempts against the administration in British India and Raj officials. Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 protesting against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill while raising slogans of "Inquilab Zindabad '', though no one was killed or injured in the bomb incident. Bhagat Singh surrendered after the bombing incident and a trial was conducted. Sukhdev and Rajguru were also arrested by police during search operations after the bombing incident. Following the trial (Central Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in 1931. Allama Mashriqi founded Khaksar Tehreek in order to direct particularly the Muslims towards the self - rule movement. Some of its members left for the Indian National Congress then led by Subhas Chandra Bose, while others identified more closely with Communism. The Jugantar branch formally dissolved in 1938. On 13 March 1940, Udham Singh shot Michael O'Dwyer (the last political murder outside India), generally held responsible for the Amritsar Massacre, in London. However, the revolutionary movement gradually disseminated into the Gandhian movement. As the political scenario changed in the late 1930s -- with the mainstream leaders considering several options offered by the British and with religious politics coming into play -- revolutionary activities gradually declined. Many past revolutionaries joined mainstream politics by joining Congress and other parties, especially communist ones, while many of the activists were kept under hold in different jails across the country.
Within a short time of its inception, these organisations became the focus of an extensive police and intelligence operations. Operations against Anushilan Samiti saw founding of the Special branch of Calcutta Police. The intelligence operations against India House saw the founding of the Indian Political Intelligence Office which later grew to be the Intelligence bureau in independent India. Heading the intelligence and missions against Ghadarite movement and India revolutionaries was the MI5 (g) section, and at one point invokved the Pinkerton 's detective agency. Notable officers who led the police and intelligence operations against Indian revolutionaries, or were involved in it, at various time included John Arnold Wallinger, Sir Robert Nathan, Sir Harold Stuart, Vernon Kell, Sir Charles Stevenson - Moore and Sir Charles Tegart, as well as W. Somerset Maugham. The threat posed by the activities of the Samiti in Bengal during World War I, along with the threat of a Ghadarite uprising in Punjab, saw the passage of Defence of India Act 1915. These measures saw the arrest, internment, transportations and execution of a number of revolutionaries linked to the organisation, and was successful in crushing the East Bengal Branch. In the aftermath of the war, the Rowlatt committee recommended extending the Defence of India Act (as the Rowlatt act) to thwart any possible revival of the Samiti in Bengal and the Ghadarite movement in Punjab. In the 1920s, Alluri Sitarama Raju led the ill - fated Rampa Rebellion of 1922 -- 24, during which a band of tribal leaders and other sympathisers fought against the British Raj. He was referred to as "Manyam Veerudu '' ("Hero of the Jungles '') by the local people. After the passing of the 1882 Madras Forest Act, its restrictions on the free movement of tribal peoples in the forest prevented them from engaging in their traditional podu (Slash - and - burn) agricultural system, which involved shifting cultivation. Raju led a protest movement in the border areas of the Godavari Agency in Madras Presidency (present - day Andhra Pradesh). Inspired by the patriotic zeal of revolutionaries in Bengal, Raju raided police stations in and around Chintapalle, Rampachodavaram, Dammanapalli, Krishna - devi - peta, Rajavommangi, Addateegala, Narsipatnam and Annavaram. Raju and his followers stole guns and ammunition and killed several British army officers, including Scott Coward near Dammanapalli. The British campaign lasted for nearly a year from December 1922. Raju was eventually trapped by the British in the forests of Chintapalli then tied to a tree and shot dead with a rifle.
Government of India through the Ministry of Home Affairs has later notified 38 movements / struggles across Indian territories as the ones that led to the country gaining self - rule and ending the British Raj. The Kallara - Pangode Struggle is one of these 39 agitations.
In 1937, provincial elections were held and the Congress came to power in seven of the eleven provinces. This was a strong indicator of the Indian people 's support for complete self - rule.
When the Second World War started, Viceroy Linlithgow unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side of Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives. In opposition to Linlithgow 's action, the entire Congress leadership resigned from the provincial and local governments. The Muslims and Sikhs, by contrast, strongly supported the war effort and gained enormous stature in London. Defying Congress, millions of Indians supported the war effort, and indeed the British Indian Army became the largest volunteer force, numbering 2,500,000 men during the war.
Especially during the Battle of Britain in 1940, Gandhi resisted calls for massive civil disobedience movements that came from within as well as outside his party, stating he did not seek India 's self - rule out of the ashes of a destroyed Britain. In 1942, the Congress launched the Quit India movement. There was some violence but the Raj cracked down and arrested tens of thousands of Congress leaders, including all the main national and provincial figures. They were not released until the end of the war was in sight in 1945.
The self - rule movement saw the rise of three movements: The first of these, the Kakori conspiracy (9 August 1925) was led by Indian youth under the leadership of Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil; second was the Azad Hind movement led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose which saw its inception early in the war and joined Germany and Japan to fight Britain; the third one saw its inception in August 1942, was led by Lal Bahadur Shastri and reflected the common man resulting the failure of the Cripps ' mission to reach a consensus with the Indian political leadership over the transfer of power after the war.
The entry of India into the war was strongly opposed by Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been elected President of the Congress in 1938 and 1939, but later resigned due to differences in opinion with Gandhi. After resignation he formed his own wing separated from the mainstream congress leadership known as Forward bloc which was the centre of ex-congressmen with socialist views; however he remained emotionally attached with him for the remainder of his life. Bose then founded the All India Forward Bloc. In 1940, a year after war broke out, the British had put Bose under house arrest in Calcutta. However, he escaped and made his way through Afghanistan to Nazi Germany to seek Hitler and Mussolini 's help for raising an army to fight the British. The Free India Legion comprising Erwin Rommel 's Indian POWs was formed. However, in light of Germany 's changing fortunes, a German land invasion of India became untenable and Hitler advised Bose to go to Japan and arranged for a submarine. Bose was ferried to Japanese Southeast Asia, where he formed the Azad Hind Government, a Provisional Free Indian Government in exile, and reorganised the Indian National Army composed of Indian POWs and volunteering Indian expatriates in South - East Asia, with the help of the Japanese. Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentment to inspire revolts among Indian soldiers to defeat the British raj.
The INA was to see action against the allies, including the British Indian Army, in the forests of Arakan, Burma and in Assam, laying siege on Imphal and Kohima with the Japanese 15th Army. During the war, the Andaman and Nicobar islands were captured by the Japanese and handed over by them to the INA.
The INA failed owing to disrupted logistics, poor supplies from the Japanese, and lack of training. It surrendered unconditionally to the British in Singapore in 1945. Bose, however, attempted to escape to Japanese - held Manchuria in an attempt to escape to the Soviet Union, marking the end of the entire Azad Hind movement.
The Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andolan) or the August Movement was a civil disobedience movement in India which commenced on 8 August 1942 in response to Gandhi 's call for immediate self - rule by Indians and against sending Indians to World War II. He asked all teachers to leave their schools, and other Indians to leave their respective jobs and take part in this movement. Due to Gandhi 's political influence, his request was followed by a massive proportion of the population. In addition, the INC led the Quit India Movement to demand the British to leave India and to transfer the political power to INC.
During the movement, Gandhi and his followers continued to use non-violence against British rule. This movement was where Gandhi gave his famous message, "Do or Die! '', and this message spread towards the Indian community. In addition, this movement was addressed directly to women as "disciplined soldiers of Indian freedom '' and they had to keep the war for independence to go on (against British rule).
At the outbreak of war, the Congress Party had during the Wardha meeting of the working - committee in September 1939, passed a resolution conditionally supporting the fight against fascism, but were rebuffed when they asked for self - rule in return. In March 1942, faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent only reluctantly participating in the war, and deteriorations in the war situation in Europe and South East Asia, and with growing dissatisfactions among Indian troops - especially in Europe - and among the civilian population in the sub-continent, the British government sent a delegation to India under Stafford Cripps, in what came to be known as the Cripps ' Mission. The purpose of the mission was to negotiate with the Indian National Congress a deal to obtain total co-operation during the war, in return of progressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the Viceroy to elected Indian legislature. However, the talks failed, having failed to address the key demand of a timeframe towards self - government, and of definition of the powers to be relinquished, essentially portraying an offer of limited dominion - status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement. To force the British Raj to meet its demands and to obtain definitive word on total self - rule, the Congress took the decision to launch the Quit India Movement.
The aim of the movement was to force the British Government to the negotiating table by holding the Allied war effort hostage. The call for determined but passive resistance that signified the certitude that Gandhi foresaw for the movement is best described by his call to Do or Die, issued on 8 August at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay, since renamed August Kranti Maidan (August Revolution Ground). However, almost the entire Congress leadership, and not merely at the national level, was put into confinement less than 24 hours after Gandhi 's speech, and the greater number of the Congress khiland were to spend the rest of the war in jail.
On 8 August 1942, the Quit India resolution was passed at the Mumbai session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC). The draft proposed that if the British did not accede to the demands, a massive Civil Disobedience would be launched. However, it was an extremely controversial decision. At Gowalia Tank, Mumbai, Gandhi urged Indians to follow a non-violent civil disobedience. Gandhi told the masses to act as citizens of a sovereign nation and not to follow the orders of the British. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India -- Burma border, responded the next day by imprisoning Gandhi at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. The Congress Party 's Working Committee, or national leadership was arrested all together and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar Fort. They also banned the party altogether. All the major leaders of the INC were arrested and detained. As the masses were leaderless the protest took a violent turn. Large - scale protests and demonstrations were held all over the country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called. The movement also saw widespread acts of sabotage, Indian under - ground organisation carried out bomb attacks on allied supply convoys, government buildings were set on fire, electricity lines were disconnected and transport and communication lines were severed. The disruptions were under control in a few weeks and had little impact on the war effort. The movement soon became a leaderless act of defiance, with a number of acts that deviated from Gandhi 's principle of non-violence. In large parts of the country, the local underground organisations took over the movement. However, by 1943, Quit India had petered out.
All the other major parties rejected the Quit India plan, and most cooperated closely with the British, as did the princely states, the civil service and the police. The Muslim League supported the Raj and grew rapidly in membership, and in influence with the British.
There was opposition to the Quit India Movement from several political quarters who were fighting for Indian self - rule. Hindu nationalist parties like the Hindu Mahasabha openly opposed the call and boycotted the Quit India Movement. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, the president of the Hindu Mahasabha at that time, even went to the extent of writing a letter titled "Stick to your Posts '', in which he instructed Hindu Sabhaites who happened to be "members of municipalities, local bodies, legislatures or those serving in the army... to stick to their posts '' across the country, and not to join the Quit India Movement at any cost.
The other Hindu nationalist organisation, and Mahasabha affiliate Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had a tradition of keeping aloof from the anti-British Indian self - rule movement since its founding by K.B. Hedgewar in 1925. In 1942, the RSS, under M.S. Golwalkar completely abstained from joining in the Quit India Movement as well. The Bombay government (British) appreciated the RSS as such, by noting that,
"the Sangh has scrupulously kept itself within the law, and in particular, has refrained from taking part in the disturbances that broke out in August 1942 ''.
The British Government stated that the RSS was not at all supporting any civil disobedience against them, and as such their other political activities (even if objectionable) can be overlooked. Further, the British Government also asserted that at Sangh meetings organised during the times of anti-British movements started and fought by the Indian National Congress,
"speakers urged the Sangh members to keep aloof from the congress movement and these instructions were generally observed ''.
As such, the British government did not crack down on the RSS and Hindu Mahasabha at all. The RSS head (sarsanghchalak) during that time, M.S. Golwalkar later openly admitted to the fact that the RSS did not participate in the Quit India Movement. However, such an attitude during the Indian independence movement also led to the Sangh being viewed with distrust and anger, both by the general Indian public, as well as certain members of the organisation itself. In Golwalkar 's own words,
"In 1942 also, there was a strong sentiment in the hearts of many. At that time too, the routine work of the Sangh continued. Sangh decided not to do anything directly. ' Sangh is the organisation of inactive people, their talks have no substance ' was the opinion uttered not only by outsiders but also our own swayamsevaks ''
Overall, the Quit India Movement turned out to be not very successful and only lasted until 1943. It drew away from Gandhi 's tactic of non-violence; it eventually became a rebellious act without any real leader.
After two Japanese attacks on Christmas Island in late February and early March 1942, relations between the British officers and their Indian troops broke down. On the night of 10 March, the Indian troops assisted by Sikh policemen mutinied, killing five British soldiers and imprisoning the remaining 21 Europeans on the island. Later on 31 March, a Japanese fleet arrived at the island and the Indians surrendered.
The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny encompasses a total strike and subsequent mutiny by Indian sailors of the Royal Indian revolt on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay (Mumbai) harbour on 18 February 1946. From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support throughout British India, from Karachi to Calcutta and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.
The agitations, mass strikes, demonstrations and consequently support for the mutineers, therefore continued several days even after the mutiny had been called off. Along with this, the assessment may be made that it described in crystal clear terms to the government that the British Indian Armed forces could no longer be universally relied upon for support in crisis, and even more it was more likely itself to be the source of the sparks that would ignite trouble in a country fast slipping out of the scenario of political settlement.
On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last British Governor - General of India, announced the partitioning of British India into India and Pakistan. With the speedy passage through the British Parliament of the Indian Independence Act 1947, at 11: 57 on 14 August 1947 Pakistan was declared a separate nation, and at 12: 02, just after midnight, on 15 August 1947, India also became a sovereign and democratic nation. Eventually, 15 August became the Independence Day for India, due to the ending of British rule over India. On that 15 August, both Pakistan and India had the right to remain in or remove themselves from the British Commonwealth. In 1949, India decided to remain in the commonwealth.
Violent clashes between Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims followed. Prime Minister Nehru and deputy prime minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel invited Mountbatten to continue as Governor General of India. He was replaced in June 1948 by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari. Patel took on the responsibility of bringing into the Indian Union 565 princely states, steering efforts by his "iron fist in a velvet glove '' policies, exemplified by the use of military force to integrate Junagadh and Hyderabad State into India (Operation Polo). On the other hand, Nehru kept the issue of Kashmir in his hands.
The Constituent Assembly completed the work of drafting the constitution on 26 November 1949; on 26 January 1950, the Republic of India was officially proclaimed. The Constituent Assembly elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the first President of India, taking over from Governor General Rajgopalachari. Subsequently, the French ceded Chandernagore in 1951, and Pondichéry and its remaining Indian colonies in 1954. India invaded and annexed Goa and Portugal 's other Indian enclaves in 1961, and Sikkim voted to join the Indian Union in 1975.
Following self - rule in 1947, India remained in the Commonwealth of Nations, and relations between the UK and India have been friendly. There are many areas in which the two countries seek stronger ties for mutual benefit, and there are also strong cultural and social ties between the two nations. The UK has an ethnic Indian population of over 1.6 million. In 2010, Prime Minister David Cameron described Indian -- British relations as a "New Special Relationship ''.
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who was the last hohenzollern monarch and why was he forced to abdicate (step down) | Abdication of Wilhelm II - wikipedia
Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated as German Emperor and King of Prussia in November 1918. The abdication was announced on 9 November 1918 by Prince Maximilian of Baden, and formally enacted by William 's written statement on 28 November 1918, made while on exile in Amerongen, the Netherlands, thus ending the House of Hohenzollern 's 400 - year rule over Prussia. He had ruled Germany and Prussia from 15 June 1888 until 9 November 1918, when he went into exile. Following the abdication statement and German Revolution of 1918 -- 19, the German nobility as a legally defined class was abolished. On promulgation of the Weimar Constitution on 11 August 1919, all Germans were declared equal before the law. Ruling princes of the constituent states of Germany also had to give up their monarchical titles and domains, of which there were 22. Of these princely heads of state, 4 held the title King (König) (the Kings of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Württemberg), 6 held the title Grand Duke (Großherzog), 5 held the title Duke (Herzog), and 7 held the title Prince (i.e. Sovereign Prince, Fürst).
After the Oberste Heeresleitung stated the German front was about to collapse and asked for immediate negotiation of an armistice, the cabinet of Chancellor Georg von Hertling resigned on 30 September 1918. Hertling, with the support of Haußmann, Oberst Hans von Haeften (de) and Erich Ludendorff suggested Prince Max as his successor. To have Wilhelm II appoint Max as Chancellor of Germany and Minister President of Prussia. When Max arrived in Berlin on 1 October, Emperor Wilhelm II convinced him to take the post and appointed him on 3 October 1918. The message asking for an armistice went out on 4 October, hopefully to be accepted by President of the United States Woodrow Wilson. In late October, Wilson 's third note seemed to imply that negotiations of an armistice would be dependent on the abdication of Wilhelm II. On 1 November, Max wrote to all the ruling Princes of Germany, asking them whether they would approve of an abdication by the Emperor. On 6 November, Maximilian urged Wilhelm II to abdicate. The Kaiser, who had fled from Berlin to the Spa, Belgium OHL - headquarters, was willing to consider abdication only as Emperor, not as King of Prussia.
Around 4 November delegations of sailors dispersed to all of the country 's big cities. By 7 November the revolution had seized all large coastal cities as well as Hanover, Brunswick, Frankfurt on Main and Munich. On 7 November, Max met with Friedrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany and discussed his plan to go to Spa and convince Wilhelm II to abdicate. He was thinking about setting up Wilhelm 's second son as regent. However, the outbreak of the German Revolution in Berlin prevented Max from implementing his plan. Ebert decided that to keep control of the socialist uprising the Emperor had to resign quickly and that a new government was required. As the masses gathered in Berlin, at noon on 9 November 1918, Maximilian went ahead and unilaterally announced the abdication, as well as the renunciation of Crown Prince Wilhelm.
As the uprising in Berlin swelled into a revolution, Wilhelm could not make up his mind whether or not to abdicate. Up to that point, he accepted that he would likely have to give up the imperial crown, but still hoped to retain the Prussian kingship. However, this was impossible under the Constitution of the German Empire. He believed that he ruled as emperor in a personal union with Prussia. However, under the constitution, the empire was a confederation of states under the permanent presidency of Prussia. Thus, the imperial crown was tied to the Prussian crown, meaning that Wilhelm could not renounce one crown without renouncing the other. Wilhelm 's hopes of retaining at least one of his crowns was revealed as unrealistic when, in the hope of preserving the monarchy in the face of growing revolutionary unrest, Prince Max announced Wilhelm 's abdication of both titles on 9 November 1918. Prince Max himself was forced to resign later the same day, when it became clear that only Ebert could effectively exert control. Later that day, one of Ebert 's secretaries of state (ministers), Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann, proclaimed Germany a republic. Wilhelm consented to the abdication only after Ludendorff 's replacement, General Wilhelm Groener, had informed him that the officers and men of the army would march back in good order under Paul von Hindenburg 's command, but would certainly not fight for Wilhelm 's throne on the home front. The monarchy 's last and strongest support had been broken, and finally even Hindenburg, himself a lifelong royalist, was obliged, with some embarrassment, to advise the Emperor to give up the crown.
On 10 November, Wilhelm crossed the border by train and went into exile in the Netherlands, which had remained neutral throughout the war. Upon the conclusion of the Treaty of Versailles in early 1919, Article 227 expressly provided for the prosecution of Wilhelm "for a supreme offence against international morality and the sanctity of treaties '', but Queen Wilhelmina and the Dutch government refused to extradite him, despite appeals from the Allies. King George V wrote that he looked on his cousin as "the greatest criminal in history '', but opposed Prime Minister David Lloyd George 's proposal to "hang the Kaiser ''. President Woodrow Wilson of the United States rejected extradition, arguing that punishing Wilhelm for waging war would destabilize international order and lose the peace.
Wilhelm first settled in Amerongen, where on 28 November he issued a belated statement of abdication from both the Prussian and imperial thrones. He also released his soldiers and officials in both Prussia and the empire from their oath of loyalty to him.
With the first sentence, Wilhelm formally acknowledged that he had lost both of his crowns for good.
Wilhelm moved to the municipality of Doorn, to Huis Doorn on 15 May 1920. The Weimar Republic allowed Wilhelm to remove twenty - three railway wagons of packages from the New Palace at Potsdam. In 1922, Wilhelm published the first volume of his memoirs -- a very slim volume that insisted he was not guilty of initiating the Great War, and defended his conduct throughout his reign, especially in matters of foreign policy. In the early 1930s, Wilhelm apparently hoped that the successes of the German Nazi Party would stimulate interest in a restoration of the monarchy, with his eldest grandson as the fourth Kaiser. His second wife, Hermine Reuss of Greiz, actively petitioned the Nazi government on her husband 's behalf, but the petitions were ignored.
After Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor in 1933, the Nazi regime restored the Prussian imperial flag. On 21 March 1933, the new Reichstag (Nazi Germany) was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam, which was until 1918, the Parish church of the Prussian royal family. This "Day of Potsdam '' was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military. Hitler appearing in a morning coat and humbly greeting Hindenburg. After the deposed heir of Wilhelm II; Crown Prince Wilhelm joined the Stahlhelm which merged in 1931 into the Harzburg Front, Adolf Hitler visited the former Crown Prince at Cecilienhof three times, in 1926, in 1933 (on the "Day of Potsdam '') and in 1935. In September 1939, Kaiser Wilhelm 's adjutant, General von Dommes, wrote on his behalf to Hitler, stating that the House of Hohenzollern "remained loyal '' stating nine Prussian Princes (one son and eight grandchildren) were stationed at the front, concluding "because of the special circumstances that require residence in a neutral foreign country, His Majesty must personally decline to make the aforementioned comment. The Emperor has therefore charged me with making a communication. ''
In March 1939, Hitler demanded the return of the Danzig and the Polish Corridor, a strip of land that separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. German forces then invaded Poland, which was Hitler 's first military action which started World War II, also restoring Wilhelm 's Prussian territories lost in 1918. Wilhelm greatly admired the success Hitler was able to achieve in the opening months of World War II, and personally sent a congratulatory telegram when the Netherlands surrendered in May 1940: "My Fuhrer, I congratulate you and hope that under your marvellous leadership the German monarchy will be restored completely. ''
In another telegram to Hitler upon the fall of Paris a month later, Wilhelm stated "Congratulations, you have won using my troops. '' In a letter to his daughter Victoria Louise, Duchess of Brunswick, he wrote triumphantly, "Thus is the pernicious Entente Cordiale of Uncle Edward VII brought to nought. '' Nevertheless, after the Nazi conquest of the Netherlands in 1940, the aging Wilhelm retired completely from public life. In May 1940, when Hitler invaded the Netherlands, Wilhelm declined an offer from Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of asylum in the United Kingdom, preferring to die at Huis Doorn on 4 June 1941... In a letter of 1940 to his sister, Wilhelm wrote: "The hand of God is creating a new world & working miracles... We are becoming the U.S. of Europe under German leadership, a united European Continent. ''. ''
William, German Crown Prince was first son and heir of Prussia and the collective Kaiserreich of Kaiser Wilhelm II. The Crown Prince is known to have abdicated around the same time as his father in 1918. Prince William was a military commander, as second in command to his Commander in Chief father, with Generalfeldmarschall Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria and Generalfeldmarschall Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg, at German military headquarters throughout World War I, until the allied armistice of 11 / 11 / 1918. As such, Wilhelm II and Crown Prince William directly commanded their Chief of General Staff, General Paul von Hindenburg throughout World War I. In 1933, von Hindenburg appointed (Nazi Party Leader) Hitler as the new Chancellor of Germany. On Hindenburg 's death, Hitler officially became Führer and Chancellor of the Realm / Reich. Previously in Germany (1871 - 1918), the Chancellor was only responsible to the Prussian Kaiser (as Leader of the reich). In 1933, the Nazi regime abolished the flag of the Weimar Republic, and officially restored the Imperial Prussian flag, alongside the Swastika.
An earlier meeting with a (later) senior Nazi figure occurred in 1916, when Crown Prince William invested Hermann Göring with his Iron Cross, first class, after Göring flew reconnaissance and bombing missions in a Feldflieger Abteilung 25 (FFA 25) -- in Crown Prince William 's Fifth Army. Like many veterans, Göring believed the Stab - in - the - back legend, that the World War I German Army had not really lost the war, but was betrayed by Marxists, Jews, and especially Republicans, who had overthrown the German monarchy. In 1933, with Hitler and the Nazi Party in power, Göring was appointed as Minister of the Interior for Prussia, for which he established a Prussian police force called the Geheime Staatspolizei, or Gestapo. The headquarters of Reich Main Security Office, SD, Gestapo and SS in Nazi Germany (1933 - 1945), was symbolically housed at Prinz Albrecht - Strasse, off Wilhelm - straße, in Berlin.
In the early 1930s, Wilhelm II apparently hoped the successes of the German Nazi Party would stimulate interest in a restoration of the monarchy, with Crown Prince William 's son as the fourth Kaiser. After Crown Prince Wilhelm joined the Stahlhelm which merged in 1931 into the Harzburg Front, Adolf Hitler visited the former Crown Prince at Cecilienhof three times, in 1926, in 1933 (on the "Day of Potsdam '') and in 1935. In May 1940, Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, the son of Crown Prince William, nominated by Wilhelm as the fourth Kaiser, took part in the invasion of France. He was wounded during the fighting in Valenciennes and died on 26 May 1940. The service drew over 50,000 mourners. His death and the ensuing sympathy of the German public toward a member of the former German royal house greatly bothered Hitler, and he began to see the Hohenzollerns as a threat to his power. In 1940 Hitler issued the Prinzenerlass, prohibiting princes from German royal houses from military service the Wehrmacht, but did not prohibit membership of military SA & SS units which many princes joined.
Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia was the fourth son of Emperor Wilhelm II, by his first wife, Augusta Victoria. In 1933 August Wilhelm had a position in the Prussian state, and became a member of the German Reichstag. The former prince hoped "that Hitler would one day hoist him or his son Alexander up to the vacant throne of the Kaiser ''. In 1939 August Wilhelm was made an SA - Obergruppenführer, the second highest SA rank. Translated as "senior group leader '', Obergruppenführer was a Nazi Party paramilitary rank first created in 1932 as a rank of the SA, and adopted by the Schutzstaffel one year later. Until 1942, it was the highest commissioned SS rank, inferior only to Reichsführer - SS Heinrich Himmler. As listed, Prince August was given Nazi Party membership number 24, at number 12 was SS - Obergruppenführer Philipp Bouhler. He was a SS - Reichsleiter, (same SS rank as Himmler and Goebbels), he was 2nd only to the rank of the Führer in NASDAP. Philipp Bouhler, worked alongside Philipp, Landgrave of Hesse who was a close friend of Göring. Bouhler was head of Nazi Action T4 euthanasia program for children and the handicapped; (70,000 murders). Deputy Führer to Hitler, also ranked SS - Obergruppenführer, and also SS - Reichsleiter, Rudolf Hesse was number 14. Hesse and Hitler, like Göring, held a shared belief in the stab - in - the - back myth, that Germany 's loss in World War I was caused by a conspiracy of Jews and Bolsheviks rather than a military defeat.
After the death of Prince August 's father, Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1942, more so after making derogatory remarks about Joseph Goebbels, Prince August was denounced in 1942, side - lined and also banned from making public speeches. In 1945, with former Crown Princess Cecilie, August Wilhelm fled the approaching Red Army to Kronberg to take refuge with his aunt Princess Margaret of Prussia.
Prince Alexander Ferdinand was the only son of Prince August Wilhelm and his wife Princess Alexandra Victoria. In 1939, Prince Alexander was a first lieutenant in the Air Force Signal Corps. Like his father, Prince August hope that Hitler "would one day hoist him, or his son, up to the vacant throne of the Kaiser ''. Prince Alexander and his fathers support for the Nazis, caused disagreements among the Hohenzollerns, with Wilhelm II urging them both to leave the Nazi party. In 1933, Prince Alexander quit the SA and became a private in the German regular army. In 1934, Berlin leaked out that the prince quit the SA because Hitler had chosen 21 - year - old Alexander Ferdinand to succeed him as "head man in Germany when he (Hitler) no longer can carry the torch ''. The report said Joseph Goebbels was expected to oppose the prince 's nomination. Unlike many princes untrusted and removed from their commands by Hitler, Prince Alexander was the only Hohenzollern allowed to remain at his post.
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distance from my location to el paso texas | El Paso, Texas - wikipedia
El Paso (/ ɛl ˈpæsoʊ / el PASS - oh; from Spanish, "the pass '') is a city in and the seat of El Paso County, Texas, United States. It is situated in the far western corner of the U.S. state of Texas.
El Paso stands on the Rio Grande river across the Mexico -- United States border from Ciudad Juárez, the largest city in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. The two cities, along with Las Cruces in the neighboring U.S. state of New Mexico, form a combined international metropolitan area sometimes referred to as the Paso del Norte or El Paso -- Juárez -- Las Cruces. The region of over 2.7 million people constitutes the largest bilingual and binational work force in the Western Hemisphere.
The city is the headquarters of Western Refining, a Fortune 500 company, and three publicly traded companies, as well as home to the Medical Center of the Americas, the only medical research and care provider complex in West Texas and southern New Mexico, and the University of Texas at El Paso, the city 's primary university. The city hosts the annual Sun Bowl college football post-season game, the second oldest bowl game in the country.
El Paso has a strong federal and military presence. William Beaumont Army Medical Center, Biggs Army Airfield, and Fort Bliss call the city home. Fort Bliss is one of the largest military complexes of the United States Army and the largest training area in the United States. Also headquartered in El Paso are the DEA domestic field division 7, El Paso Intelligence Center, Joint Task Force North, U.S. Border Patrol El Paso Sector, and U.S. Border Patrol Special Operations Group (SOG).
In 2010, El Paso received an All - America City Award. El Paso has been ranked the safest large city in the U.S. for four consecutive years and has ranked in the top three since 1997. As of July 1, 2016, the population estimate for the city from the U.S. Census was 683,080. Its U.S. metropolitan area covers all of El Paso and Hudspeth counties in Texas, and has a population of 841,971. The El Paso metropolitan area forms part of the larger El Paso -- Las Cruces CSA, with a population of 1,056,178.
The El Paso region has had human settlement for thousands of years, as evidenced by Folsom points from hunter - gatherers found at Hueco Tanks. The evidence suggests 10,000 to 12,000 years of human habitation. The earliest known cultures in the region were maize farmers. When the Spanish arrived, the Manso, Suma, and Jumano tribes populated the area. These were subsequently incorporated into the Mestizo culture, along with immigrants from central Mexico, captives from Comanchería, and genízaros of various ethnic groups. The Mescalero Apache were also present.
Spanish explorer Don Juan de Oñate was born in 1550 in Zacatecas, Zacatecas, Mexico and was the first New Spain (Mexico) explorer known to have observed the Rio Grande near El Paso, in 1598, celebrating a Thanksgiving Mass there on April 30, 1598 (decades before the Pilgrims ' Thanksgiving). However, the four survivors of the Narváez expedition, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Alonso del Castillo Maldonado, Andrés Dorantes de Carranza, and his enslaved Moor Estevanico, are thought to have passed through the area in the mid-1530s. El Paso del Norte (present - day Ciudad Juárez) was founded on the south bank of the Río Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande), in 1659 by Fray Garcia de San Francisco. In 1680, the small village of El Paso became the temporary base for Spanish governance of the territory of New Mexico as a result of the Pueblo Revolt, until 1692 when Santa Fe was reconquered and once again became the capital. El Paso remained the largest settlement in New Mexico until its cession to the U.S. in 1848, when Texas took possession of it with the Compromise of 1850.
The Texas Revolution (1836) was generally not felt in the region, as the American population was small; not being more than 10 % of the population. However, the region was claimed by Texas as part of the treaty signed with Mexico and numerous attempts were made by Texas to bolster these claims. However, the village which consisted of El Paso and the surrounding area remained essentially a self - governed community with both representatives of the Mexican and Texan government negotiating for control until Texas irrevocably took control in 1846.
During this interregnum, 1836 -- 1848, Americans nonetheless continued to settle the region. As early as the mid-1840s, alongside long extant Hispanic settlements such as the Rancho de Juan María Ponce de León, Anglo settlers such as Simeon Hart and Hugh Stephenson had established thriving communities of American settlers owing allegiance to Texas. Stephenson, who had married into the local Hispanic aristocracy, established the Rancho de San José de la Concordia, which became the nucleus of Anglo and Hispanic settlement within the limits of modern - day El Paso, in 1844. Given the reclamations of the Texas Republic that wanted a chunk of the Santa Fe trade, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo effectively made the settlements on the north bank of the river a formal American settlement, separate from Old El Paso del Norte on the Mexican side. The present Texas -- New Mexico boundary placing El Paso on the Texas side was drawn in the Compromise of 1850.
El Paso County was established in March 1850, with San Elizario as the first county seat. The United States Senate fixed a boundary between Texas and New Mexico at the 32nd parallel, thus largely ignoring history and topography. A military post called "The Post opposite El Paso '' (meaning opposite El Paso del Norte, across the Rio Grande) was established in 1854. Further west, a settlement on Coons ' Rancho called Franklin became the nucleus of the future El Paso, Texas. A year later, pioneer Anson Mills completed his plan of the town, calling it El Paso. However, the various communities never totalled more than several hundred residents with Hispanics and Americans holding an equal percentage of the population.
During the Civil War, a Confederate presence was in the area until it was captured by the Union California Column in 1862. It was then headquarters for the 5th Regiment California Volunteer Infantry until December 1864.
After the Civil War 's conclusion, the town 's population began to grow as Texans continued to move into the villages and soon became the majority. El Paso itself, incorporated in 1873, encompassed the small area communities that had developed along the river. In the 1870s, a population of 23 non-Hispanic whites and 150 Hispanics was reported. With the arrival of the Southern Pacific, Texas and Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroads in 1881, the population boomed to 10,000 by the 1890 census, with many Anglo - Americans, recent immigrants, old Hispanic settlers, and recent arrivals from Mexico. The location of El Paso as well as the arrival of these more wild newcomers caused the city to become a violent and wild boomtown known as the "Six Shooter Capital '' because of its lawlessness. Indeed, prostitution and gambling flourished until World War I, when the Department of the Army pressured El Paso authorities to crack down on vice (thus benefitting vice in neighboring Ciudad Juárez). With the suppression of the vice trade and in consideration of the city 's geographic position, the city continued into developing as a premier manufacturing, transportation, and retail center of the U.S. Southwest.
In 1909, William Howard Taft and Porfirio Díaz planned a summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, an historic first meeting between a U.S. president and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president would cross the border into Mexico But tensions rose on both sides of the border, including threats of assassination, so the Texas Rangers, 4,000 U.S. and Mexican troops, U.S. Secret Service agents, FBI agents and U.S. marshals were all called in to provide security. Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, was put in charge of a 250 private security detail hired by John Hays Hammond, who in addition to owning large investments in Mexico was a close friend of Taft from Yale and a U.S. Vice-Presidential candidate in 1908. On October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham and Private C.R. Moore, a Texas Ranger, discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham and Moore captured, disarmed, and arrested the assassin within only a few feet of Taft and Díaz.
By 1910, the overwhelming number of people in the city were Americans creating a settled environment. However, this period was short lived as the Mexican Revolution greatly impacted the city, bringing an influx of refugees -- and capital -- to the bustling boom town. Spanish - language newspapers, theaters, movie houses, and schools were established, many supported by a thriving Mexican refugee middle class. Large numbers of clerics, intellectuals, and businessmen took refuge in the city, particularly between 1913 and 1915.
Ultimately, the violence of the Mexican Revolution followed with the large Mexican diaspora which had fled into El Paso. In 1915 and again in 1916 and 1917 various Mexican revolutionary societies planned, staged, and launched violent attacks against both Texans and their political Mexican opponents in El Paso. This state of affairs eventually led to the vast Plan de San Diego which resulted in the murder of 21 white citizens. The subsequent reprisals by local militia soon caused an escalation of violence, wherein it is estimated that approximately 300 Mexicans and Mexican - Americans lost their lives. These actions affected almost every resident of the entire lower Rio Grande Valley, resulting in millions of dollars of losses; the end result of the Plan of San Diego was long - standing enmity between the two racial groups.
Simultaneously, other Texans and Americans gravitated to the city and by 1920, along with the U.S. Army troops, the population exceeded 100,000 and whites once again were in the clear majority. Nonetheless, the city increased the segregation between Mexicans and Mexican - Americans with Americans. In reply, the Catholic Church attempted to garner the Mexican - American community 's allegiance through education and political and civic involvement organizations, including the National Catholic Welfare Fund. In 1916, the Census Bureau reported El Paso 's population as 53 % Mexican and 44 % white.
Mining and other industries gradually developed in the area. The El Paso and Northeastern Railway was chartered in 1897, to help extract the natural resources of surrounding areas, especially in southeastern New Mexico Territory. The 1920s and 1930s saw the emergence of major business development in the city, partially enabled by Prohibition - era bootlegging. However, the military demobilization, an agricultural economic depression which hit places like El Paso first before the larger Great Depression was felt in the big cities, hit the city hard. In turn, as in the rest of the United States, the Depression era overall hit the city hard, and El Paso 's population declined through the end of World War II with most of population losses coming from the white community. Nonetheless, whites remained the majority to the 1940s.
During and following the war, military expansion in the area, as well as oil discoveries in the Permian Basin (North America), helped to engender rapid economic expansion in the mid-1900s. Copper smelting, oil refining, and the proliferation of low - wage industries (particularly garment making) led the city 's growth. Additionally, the departure of region 's rural population, which was mostly white, to cities like El Paso, brought a short term burst of capital and labor. However, this was balanced by additional departures of middle class Americans to other parts of the country which offered new and better paying jobs. In turn, local businesses looked south to the opportunities afforded by cheap Mexican labor. Furthermore, the period from 1942 to 1956 saw the bracero program which brought in cheap Mexican labor into the rural area to replace the losses of the native white population. In turn, seeking better - paying jobs these migrants also moved to El Paso. By 1965, Hispanics once again were a majority. Meanwhile, the post-war expansion slowed again in the 1960s, but the city continued to grow with the annexation of surrounding neighborhoods and in large part because of its significant economic relationship with Mexico.
El Paso is at 31 ° 47 ′ 25 '' N 106 ° 25 ′ 24 '' W / 31.79028 ° N 106.42333 ° W / 31.79028; - 106.42333 (31.790208, − 106.423242). It lies at the intersection of three states (Texas, New Mexico, and Chihuahua) and two countries (the U.S. and Mexico). It is the only major Texas city on Mountain Time. Ciudad Juarez used to be on Central Time, but both cities are now on Mountain Time.
El Paso is closer to the capital cities of four other states - Phoenix, Arizona (348 miles away); Santa Fe, New Mexico, (272 miles away); Ciudad Chihuahua, Chihuahua, (212 miles away); and Hermosillo, Sonora (327 miles away) - than it is to the capital of its own state, Austin (526 miles away). It is closer to Los Angeles, California (702 miles away) than it is to Orange, Texas (762 miles away), the easternmost town in the state.
El Paso is located within the Chihuahuan Desert, the easternmost section of the Basin and Range Region. The Franklin Mountains extend into El Paso from the north and nearly divide the city into two sections; the west side forms the beginnings of the Mesilla Valley, and the east side expands into the desert and lower valley. They connect in the central business district at the southern end of the mountain range.
The city 's elevation is 3,800 ft (1,200 m) above sea level. North Franklin Mountain is the highest peak in the city at 7,192 ft (2,192 m) above sea level. The peak can be seen from 60 mi (100 km) in all directions. Additionally, this mountain range is home to the famous natural red - clay formation, the Thunderbird, from which the local Coronado High School gets its mascot 's name. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 256.3 square miles (663.7 km).
The 24,000 - acre (9,700 ha) Franklin Mountains State Park, the largest urban park in the United States, lies entirely in El Paso, extending from the north and dividing the city into several sections along with Fort Bliss and El Paso International Airport.
The Rio Grande Rift, which passes around the southern end of the Franklin Mountains, is where the Rio Grande flows. The river defines the border between El Paso and Ciudad Juárez to the south and west until the river turns north of the border with Mexico, separating El Paso from Doña Ana County, New Mexico. Mt. Cristo Rey, an example of a pluton, rises within the Rio Grande Rift just to the west of El Paso on the New Mexico side of the Rio Grande. Nearby volcanic features include Kilbourne Hole and Hunt 's Hole, which are Maar volcanic craters 30 miles (50 km) west of the Franklin Mountains.
El Paso has a transitional climate between cold desert climate (Köppen BWk) and hot desert climate (Köppen BWh) with hot summers, usually with little humidity, and mild, dry winters. Rainfall averages 9.7 in (250 mm) per year, much of which occurs during the summer from July through September, and is predominantly caused by the North American Monsoon. During this period, southerly and southeasterly winds carry moisture from the Pacific, the Gulf of California, and the Gulf of Mexico into the region. When this moisture moves into the El Paso area and places to the southwest, orographic lift from the mountains, combined with strong daytime heating, causes thunderstorms, some severe enough to produce flash flooding and hail, across the region.
The sun shines 302 days per year on average in El Paso, 83 % of daylight hours, according to the National Weather Service; from this, the city is nicknamed "The Sun City ''. Due to its arid, windy climate, El Paso often experiences sand and dust storms during the dry season, particularly during the springtime between March and early May. With an average wind speed often exceeding 30 mph (50 km / h) and gusts that have been measured at over 75 mph (120 km / h), these wind storms kick up large amounts of sand and dust from the desert, causing loss of visibility.
El Paso, at 3,800 ft (1,200 m) elevation, also receives snow; weather systems have produced over one foot (30 cm) of snow on several occasions. In the 1982 -- 1983 winter season, three major snowstorms produced record seasonal snowfall. On December 25 -- 26, 1982, 6.0 inches (15 cm) of snow fell, producing a white Christmas for the city. This was followed by another 7.0 inches (18 cm) on December 30 -- 31, 1982. On April 4 -- 7, 1983, 16.5 inches (42 cm) of snow fell on El Paso, bringing the seasonal total to nearly 30 inches (76 cm). On December 13 -- 14, 1987, a record storm dumped over 22 inches (56 cm) of snow on El Paso, and two weeks later (December 25 -- 26), another three inches (7.6 cm) fell, bringing the monthly total for December 1987 to an all - time record high of 25.9 inches (66 cm) of snow. The average annual snowfall for the city varies widely between different neighborhoods at different elevations, but is 6.1 inches (15 cm) at the airport (but with a median of 0, meaning most years see no snow at all). It is most rare around Ysleta and the eastern valley area, which usually include large numbers of palm trees; while in the higher neighborhoods palm trees are more vulnerable to cold snaps and as a result many of which can be seen with brown leaves.
One example of El Paso 's varying climate at its most extreme was the damaging winter storm of early February 2011, which caused closures of schools, businesses, and City Hall. The snow, which was light, stopped after about a day, but during the ensuing cold episode, municipal utilities went into a crisis. The high temperature on February 2, 2011 was 15 ° F (− 9 ° C), the lowest daily maximum on record. In addition, the low temperature on February 3 was 1 ° F (− 17 ° C), breaking the 5 ° F (− 15 ° C) monthly record low set during the cold wave of 1899. Loss of desert vegetation, such as Mexican / California palm trees, oleanders, and iceplants to the cold weather was one of the results. Two local power plants failed, forcing El Paso Electric to institute rolling blackouts over several days, and electric wires were broken, causing localised blackouts. Many water utility pipes froze, causing areas of the city to be without water for several days.
Monthly means range from 44.8 ° F (7.1 ° C) in December to 82.8 ° F (28.2 ° C) in July, but high temperatures typically peak in June before the monsoon arrives, while daily low temperatures typically peak in July or early August with the higher humidity the monsoon brings (translating to warmer nights). On average, there are 52 nights of at - or below - freezing lows, 109 days of 90 ° F (32 ° C) + highs and 20 days of 100 ° F (38 ° C) + highs annually; it is extremely rare for temperatures to stay below the freezing mark all day. The city 's record high is 114 ° F (46 ° C) on June 30, 1994, and its record low is − 8 ° F (− 22 ° C) on January 11, 1962; the highest daily minimum was 85 ° F (29 ° C) on July 1 and 3, 1994, with weather records for the area maintained by the National Weather Service since 1879.
Although the average annual rainfall is only about 9.7 in (250 mm), many parts of El Paso are subject to occasional flooding during intense summer monsoonal thunderstorms. In late July and early August 2006, up to 10 in (250 mm) of rain fell in a week, the flood - control reservoirs overflowed and caused major flooding citywide. The city staff estimated damage to public infrastructure at $21 million, and to private property (residential and commercial) at $77 million. Much of the damage was associated with development in recent decades in arroyos protected by flood - control dams and reservoirs, and the absence of any storm drain utility in the city to handle the flow of rain water.
This part of town contains some of the city 's oldest and most historic neighborhoods. Located in the heart of the city, it is home to approximately 130,000 people. Development of the area started around 1875, when the city was barely beginning to gain its roots. Today, central El Paso has grown into the center of the city 's economy and a thriving urban community. It contains numerous historic sites and landmarks mostly in the Sunset Heights district. It is close to the El Paso International Airport, the international border, and Fort Bliss. It is part of the El Paso Independent School District.
Dr. James Day, an El Paso historian, said that downtown 's main business area was originally centered between Second Avenue (now Paisano Drive) and San Francisco Avenue. At a later point the main business area was centered around Stanton Street and Santa Fe Street. In the late 1800s most of the white American residents lived to the north of the non-white areas, living in brick residences along Magoffin, Myrtle, and San Antonio Avenues. Hispanic - American residents lived in an area called Chihuahuita ("little Chihuahua ''), which was located south of Second Avenue and west of Santa Fe Street. Several African Americans and around 300 Chinese Americans also lived in Chihuahuita. Many of the Chinese Americans participated in the building of railroads in the El Paso area. Another downtown neighborhood is El Segundo Barrio, which is near the United States / Mexico border.
Better known as West El Paso or the West Side, the area includes a portion of the Rio Grande floodplain upstream from downtown which is known locally as the Upper Valley and is located on the west side of the Franklin Mountains. The Upper Valley is the greenest part of the county due to the Rio Grande. The west side is home to some of the most affluent neighborhoods within the city, such as the Coronado Hills and Country Club neighborhoods. It is one of the fastest - growing areas of El Paso.
West central El Paso is located north of Interstate 10 and west of the Franklin Mountains. The University of Texas at El Paso and the Cincinnati Entertainment district are located in the heart of the area. Historic districts Kern Place and Sunset Heights are in this part of town.
Kern Place was founded in 1914 by Peter E. Kern, for whom the neighborhood was named.
The homes of Kern Place are unique in architecture and some were built by residents themselves. One of the better known homes is the Paul Luckett Home located at 1201 Cincinnati Ave. above Madeline Park, and is made of local rock. It is known as "The Castle '' due to its round walls and a crenelated rooftop.
Kern Place is extremely popular with college and university students. The area is known for its glitzy entertainment district, restaurants and coffee shops who cater to both business patrons and university students. After UTEP 's basketball and football games, UTEP fans pack the Kern Place area for food and entertainment at Cincinnati Street a small bar district. This bar scene has grown over the years and has attracted thousands to its annual Mardi Gras block party as well as after sporting events or concerts. Young men and women make up the majority of the crowds who stop in between classes or after work.
Sunset Heights is one of the most historic areas in town, which has existed since the latter part of the 1890s. Many wealthy residents have had their houses and mansions built on this hill. Although some buildings have been renovated to their former glory, but many have been neglected and have deteriorated. During the Mexican Revolution, a widely popular Mexican revolutionary leader, Doroteo Arango (also known as Francisco "Pancho '' Villa), owned and resided in this area during the 1910s. During the 1910 Mexican Revolution many Mexicans fled Mexico and settled in Sunset Heights.
This part of town is located north of central El Paso and east of the Franklin Mountains. Development of the area was extensive during the 1950s and 1960s. It is one of the more ethnically diverse areas in the city due to the concentration of military families. The Northeast has not developed as rapidly as other areas like east El Paso and northwest El Paso, but its development is steadily increasing. It is expected that the population will grow more rapidly as a result of the troop increase at Ft. Bliss in the coming years. The area has also gained recognition throughout the city for the outstanding high school athletic programs at Andress High School, Parkland High School, Irvin High School, and Chapin High School.
The area is located north of Interstate 10, east of Airway Blvd., and south of Montana Ave. It is the largest and fastest growing area of town with a population of over 150,000. It includes the 79936 zip code, which was considered in 2013 as the most populous in the nation with over 114,000 people. Its neighborhoods are mainly middle - class, but does have a considerable number of affluent neighborhoods. East El Paso is noted also for its ridges and cliffs which offer desirable views of the lower valley, the Franklin Mountains and downtown El Paso. It also possesses the greatest number of entertainment venues in the city.
Formerly known as the lower valley, it includes part of Eastside and all lower valley districts. It is the third largest area of the city, behind east El Paso and central El Paso. Hawkins Road and Interstate 10 border the Mission Valley. This location is considered the oldest area of El Paso, dating back to the late 17th century when present - day Texas was under the rule of Nueva España (New Spain).
In 1680 the Isleta Pueblo tribe revolted against the Spaniards who were pushed south to what is now El Paso. Some Spaniards and tribe members settled here permanently. Soon afterward, three Spanish missions were built; they remain standing, currently functioning as churches: Ysleta Mission - 1682 (La Misión de Corpus Christi y de San Antonio de la Ysleta del Sur / Our Lady of Mt. Carmel), Socorro Mission - 1759 (Nuestra Señora de la Purísima Concepción del Socorro) - 1759 and San Elizario Chapel (Capilla de San Elcear) - 1789.
On April 30, 1598, the northward - bound Spanish conquistadors crossed large sand dunes about 27 miles south of present - day downtown El Paso. It is said that the expeditionaries and their horses ran toward the river, and two horses drank themselves to death. Don Juan de Oñate, a New Spain - born conquistador of Spanish parents, was an expedition leader who ordered a big feast north of the Río Grande in what is now San Elizario. This was the first documented and true Thanksgiving in North America. Oñate declared La Toma (taking possession), claiming all territory north of the Río Grande for King Philip II of Spain.
Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo (related to the insurgent Isleta Pueblo Tribe) is also located in this valley. The Tigua (pronounced Tiwa) is one of three Indian tribes in Texas whose sovereignty is recognized by the United States government. Ysleta is spelled with a "Y '' because 19th - century script did not differentiate between a capital "Y '' and a capital "I. ''
Some people in this area and its twin city across the river, Ciudad Juárez, are direct descendants of the Spaniards.
El Paso is surrounded by many cities and communities in both Texas and New Mexico. The most populated suburbs in Texas are Socorro, Horizon City, Fort Bliss and San Elizario. Other Texas suburbs are Anthony, Canutillo, Sparks, Fabens and Vinton.
Although Anthony, Santa Teresa, Sunland Park, and Chaparral lie adjacent to El Paso County, they are considered to be part of the Las Cruces, New Mexico metropolitan area by the United States Census Bureau.
El Paso 's tallest building, the Wells Fargo Plaza, was built in the early 1970s as State National Plaza. The black - windowed, 296 - foot (90 m) building is famous for its 13 white horizontal lights (18 lights per row on the east and west sides of the building, and seven bulbs per row on the north and south sides) that were lit at night. The tower did use a design of the United States flag during the July 4 holidays, as well as the American hostage crisis of 1980, and was lit continuously following the September 11 attacks in 2001 until around 2006. During the Christmas holidays, a design of a Christmas tree was used, and at times, the letters "UTEP '' were used to support University of Texas at El Paso athletics. The tower is now only lit during the holiday months, or when special events take place in the city.
As of the census of 2010, 649,121 people, 216,694 households, and 131,104 families resided in the city. The population density was 2,263.0 people per square mile (873.7 / km2). There were 227,605 housing units at an average density of 777.5 per square mile (300.2 / km2).
According to the 2010 US Census, the racial composition of El Paso was:
Ethnically, the city was:
There were 182,063 households out of which 42.4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.6 % were married couples living together, 18.5 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.5 % were not families. About 19.2 % of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.07 and the average family size was 3.54.
In the city, the population was distributed as 31.0 % under the age of 18, 10.0 % from 18 to 24, 29.1 % from 25 to 44, 19.2 % from 45 to 64, and 10.7 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $32,124, and for a family was $35,432. Males had a median income of $28,989 versus $21,540 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,388. About 19.0 % of families and 22.2 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.8 % of those under age 18 and 17.7 % of those age 65 or over.
El Paso has a diversified economy focused primarily within international trade, military, government civil service, oil and gas, health care, tourism and service sectors. The El Paso metro area had a GDP of $29 billion in 2011. There were also $92 billion worth of trade in 2012. Over the past 15 years the city has become a significant location for American - based call centers. Cotton, fruit, vegetables, and livestock are also produced in the area. El Paso has added a significant manufacturing sector with items and goods produced that include petroleum, metals, medical devices, plastics, machinery, defense - related goods and automotive parts. The city is the second busiest international crossing point in the U.S. behind San Diego.
El Paso is home to one Fortune 500 company, Western Refining, which is listed on the New York Stock Exchange. This makes the city one of six Texas metro areas to have at least one Fortune 500 company call it home; the others being Houston, Dallas - Fort Worth, San Antonio, Austin and Corpus Christi. The second publicly traded company is Helen of Troy Limited, a NASDAQ - listed company that manufactures personal health care products under many labels, such as OXO, Dr. Scholl 's, Vidal Sassoon, Pert Plus, Brut and Sunbeam, and the third is El Paso Electric listed on the New York Stock Exchange, a public utility engaging in the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity in west Texas and southern New Mexico. The fourth publicly traded company is Western Refining Logistics also traded in the New York Stock Exchange. It is a Western Refining subsidiary which owns, operates, develops, and acquires terminals, storage tanks, pipelines, and other logistics assets.
More than 70 Fortune 500 companies have offices in El Paso, including AT&T, ADP, Boeing, Charles Schwab, Delphi, dish network, Eureka, Hoover, Raytheon, Prudential Financial, USAA and Verizon Wireless. Hispanic Business Magazine included 28 El Paso companies in its list of the 500 largest Hispanic owned businesses in the United States. El Paso 's 28 companies are second only to Miami 's 57. The list of the largest Hispanic owned businesses includes companies like Fred Loya Insurance, a Hispanic 500 company and the 18th largest Hispanic business in the nation. Other companies on the list are Dos Lunas Spirits, Dynatec Labs, Spira Footwear, Datamark, Inc. and El Taco Tote. El Paso was home to El Paso Corporation formerly known as El Paso Natural Gas Company.
The city also has a large military presence with Fort Bliss, William Beaumont Army Medical Center and Biggs Army Airfield. The defense industry in El Paso employs over 41,000 and provides a $6 billion annual impact to the city 's economy. Fort Bliss was chosen as the newly configured U.S. Air Force Security Forces Regional Training Center which will bring 8,000 to 10,000 Air Force personnel annually.
In addition to the military, the federal government has a strong presence in El Paso to manage its status and unique issues as an important border region. Operations headquartered in El Paso include the DEA domestic field division 7, El Paso Intelligence Center, Joint Task Force North, U.S. Border Patrol El Paso Sector and U.S. Border Patrol Special Operations Group (SOG).
Call center operations employ more than 10,000 people in the area. Automatic Data Processing has an office in West El Paso, employing about 1,100 people with expansion plans to reach 2,200 by 2020.
Tourism is another major industry in El Paso, bringing in $1.5 billion - a-year and over 2.3 million visitors annually due to the city 's sunny weather, natural beauty, rich cultural history and many outdoor attractions.
Education is also a driving force in El Paso 's economy. El Paso 's three large school districts are among the largest employers in the area, employing more than 20,000 people among them. UTEP has an annual budget of nearly $418 million and employs nearly 4,800 people. A 2010 study by the university 's Institute for Policy and Economic Development stated the university 's impact on local businesses is $417 million annually.
Amigo Airsho is one of El Paso 's premier events, and is ranked as one of the top ten air shows in the country. The show is filled with air entertainment and ground activities. Acts include the Franklin 's Flying Circus, where performers walk on the wings of an airborne plane. Ground activities include the Jet Powered School Bus. After 31 years of being held at Biggs Army Airfield, the show was moved to Dona Ana Airport in 2014.
The KLAQ Great River Raft Race is an annual event celebrated on the second to last Saturday of June. Participants are encouraged to ride the river and float the Rio Grande with family and friends. The organizers encourage the building of unique rafts that will get you down the river with prizes and trophies awarded for the most points earned, best looking crew, and best decorated raft. The race starts at the Vinton bridge and ends three miles downstream at the Canutillo bridge.
The Southwestern International PRCA Rodeo is the 17th oldest rodeo in the nation and El Paso 's longest running sporting event. Consistently ranked as one of the top 50 shows in the country by the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association, this charitable event is a true celebration of western culture and heritage.
Fiesta de las Flores is the oldest Hispanic Festival in the Southwest. The three - day Fiesta is held each year during the Labor Day weekend and emphasizes El Paso 's Hispanic heritage and culture. The festival attracts 20,000 to 30,000 visitors from El Paso County, New Mexico, West Texas and the State of Chihuahua, Mexico. Activities included in the Fiesta are crowning of the Queen, a Fiesta Parade, Senior Appreciation Dance, Military Appreciation Day, and live Entertainment. The Fiesta is also well known for the authentic regional cuisine, arts and craft wares, games, and services available for the enjoyment of all segments of the attendees. Over 80 booths, sponsored by local vendors and nonprofit organizations create the Hispanic ambience and culture.
The El Paso Balloonfest is an annual event celebrated on Memorial Day weekend and is self described as "3 days of hot air balloons filling the El Paso skies, 3 afternoons of concerts and fun in the sun at Wet N ' Wild Waterworld in Anthony, Texas. '' Over 60 balloons take to the air annually from TFCU launch field which is adjacent to the water park. After the balloons launch, visitors have a weekend of water rides, swimming, concerts, and grilling. The concert aspect of the event features local bands, starting at noon, and different headlining artists in the afternoon. Overnight camping has been added for 2014.
The annual El Paso Downtown Street Festival is held during the last weekend of June in downtown El Paso near the El Paso Convention center. It is the oldest musical festival in the city and brings local, regional and nationally known acts.
The annual Neon Desert Music Festival is a two - day event usually held on the last Saturday and Sunday of May on five stages in downtown El Paso stretching from San Jacinto Plaza to Cleveland Square. The festival brings over 30 acts from the worlds of indie rock, Latin and electronic dance music.
The outdoor concert series, started in 1983, is held annually at the Chamizal National Memorial and draws over 60,000 attendees. It features local and international performers with musical genres ranging from Classical, Country, Tejano, rock and others. The evening concerts are showcased every Sunday afternoon and start in early June and end in the middle of August.
The only El Paso musical festival not held downtown; instead it is held at Ascarate Park. The Sun City Music Festival is a two - day event dubbed as the largest electronic dance music festival in Texas.
The Texas Showdown Festival is an annual event celebrating musicians and tattoo artists under one roof. Dubbed as the world 's largest tattoo and musical festival, the event is held usually the last weekend of July at the El Paso County Coliseum.
The outdoor musical extravaganza Viva! El Paso is performed in the McKelligon Canyon Amphitheatre. It is locally produced and chronicles the 400 - year history and cultural evolution of the El Paso region. The show is performed each Friday and Saturday night in June, July, and August. Viva! El Paso has entertained local residents and out - of - town visitors for over 35 years.
The El Paso Symphony was established in the 1930s, it is the oldest performing arts organization in El Paso and the longest continuously running symphony orchestra in the state of Texas. It has received both national and international recognition as a result of its very successful tours of Germany in 1996 and Turkey in 2000, and continues to represent the El Paso region with pride and distinction. The El Paso Symphony Orchestra Association season is anchored by 12 classical concerts. Special events serve as outreach toward new audiences.
Ballet was largely nonexistent in El Paso until the arrival of Ingeborg Heuser, a professional ballerina from Germany, in the 1950s. Heuser taught ballet at the University of Texas at El Paso for 47 years and founded the city 's first professional ballet company, firstly known as Texas Western Civic Ballet and eventually as Ballet El Paso. The company dissipated due to financial trouble in 1997 and Heuser retired from UTEP soon after.
The El Paso Youth Ballet was founded in 2009 by Heuser 's previous student, Marta Katz, following Heuser 's departure from the university. With students from the youth ballet, Heuser staged her last Nutcracker in 2006. The youth company continues to perform the Nutcracker and other pre-professional pieces in and around the El Paso area. The company provides the only platform for young ballet dancers to train and perform at such a level within the city since the folding of Ballet El Paso.
El Paso City Ballet is a current professional ballet company in El Paso, providing local employment for professional dancers in the field of ballet. The company performs a variety of classical and contemporary works choreographed by Artistic Director Lisa Skaf and artists from the US and Latin America. It has been active since 2005, performing yearly productions.
The Abraham Chavez Theatre, adjacent to the El Paso Convention and Performing Arts Center, welcomes patrons with a three - story - high glass - windowed entry and unique sombrero - shaped architecture, making it a distinct feature on El Paso 's southwestern landscape.
The Plaza Theatre is a historic building located at 125 Pioneer Plaza. The theater stands as one of the city 's most well - known landmarks. It shows various Broadway productions, musical concerts, and individual performers. It has a seating capacity of 2,100.
McKelligon Canyon is a 90 - acre (360,000 m) park, located in the Franklin Mountains, open to hikers and picnickers. In the canyon, McKelligon Canyon Amphitheatre is surrounded on three sides by dramatic canyon walls; the 1,500 - seat amphitheatre is used for concerts and special events, such as Viva El Paso! El Paso Playhouse is a theater affiliated with Kids - N - Co, a theater for child actors. The UTEP Dinner Theatre is a theatre within the UTEP campus.
The Centennial Museum and Chihuahuan Desert Gardens, located on the grounds of UTEP, includes a comprehensive collection of El Paso Brown, Native American pottery, as well as educational exhibits for students.
The El Paso Museum of Archaeology is located on the eastern slope of North Franklin Mountain, west of Gateway South Blvd. on TransMountain Rd. Its grounds include native plants of the American Southwest, as well samples of Native American shelters, in an unspoiled location. The museum includes dioramas for school children which illustrate the culture and geology of the American Southwest, such as Hueco Tanks in El Paso County. One diorama (see image to the right) is of the Cueva de la Olla (cave of the pot) which is located in the Sierra Madre of Chihuahua, an example of the Paquimé culture.
The El Paso Museum of Art is located next to the Plaza Theater adjacent to San Jacinto Plaza, the public square downtown. It contains works of southwestern artists such as Tom Lea.
Other area museums include:
Within driving distance from El Paso are nine state parks, two national parks, two national monuments, one national memorial and a national forest.
El Paso is home to the Sun Bowl, the second oldest consecutive college football contest (after the Rose Bowl). Its first game was held in 1937.
On September 18, 2012, the city council voted to approve the demolition of the current city hall to make way for Southwest University Park, to be the new home of the El Paso Chihuahuas Triple - A team (San Diego Padres affiliate) beginning with the 2014 season. The team was recently purchased by Mountainstar Sports Group of El Paso.
The El Paso Marathon takes place annually since 2007. The El Paso Patriots played their last season in 2013 and are no longer an organization.
El Paso is home to the largest urban park in the nation. The Franklin Mountains State Park, with its more than 24,248 acres (9,813 ha), is completely located within the city limits. The park is open year - round for recreation including hiking, mountain biking, picnicking, scenic driving and views of the city. The city is also home to 242 municipal parks.
The Wyler Aerial Tramway is operated by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and is in the Franklin Mountains State Park. The tramway complex covers 196 acres (0.79 km) on the east side of the Franklin Mountains. The gondolas travel along two 2,600 - foot (790 m) 1 ⁄ diameter steel cables to Ranger Peak, 5,632 feet (1,717 m) above sea level. The trip takes about four minutes and lifts riders 940 feet (290 m) above the boarding area.
Hueco Tanks State Historic Site is a Texas historic site in the Hueco Tanks area, approximately 32 miles (51 km) northeast of El Paso. The park is popular for recreation such as birdwatching and bouldering, and is culturally and spiritually significant to many Native Americans. This significance is partially manifested in the pictographs (rock paintings) that can be found throughout the region, many of which are thousands of years old. Also within the city limits, the Chamizal National Memorial is a 54.90 - acre (22.22 ha) memorial park that serves primarily as a cultural center and contains art galleries, a theater, and an amphitheatre. A museum detailing the history of the Mexico -- U.S. border is located inside the visitor center.
The metro area has 16 golf courses including Butterfield Trail Golf Club, the only public premium daily fee Tom Fazio designed golf course in the state of Texas. It was ranked No. 1 in Texas and No. 3 in the Nation on Golfweek 's 2013 Best Municipal Golf Courses. Other golf courses found in the county include:
Next door in Dona Ana County there are the following golf courses:
The El Paso Zoo has 35 acres (14 ha) and over 200 animal species. The zoo is divided into three distinct sections: the Americas; Asia; and Africa. Exhibits include elephants, lions, tigers, sea lions, zebras, and giraffes.
City Council is officially nonpartisan
The city government is officially nonpartisan. Mayors and city council members are elected for four year terms and may not be elected more than twice or serve for more than 10 years in their respective offices. Municipal elections are currently held in May in odd - numbered years, but a voter - approved charter amendment will change this to November in even - numbered years, beginning in 2018. Council members elected in 2015 will serve through December 2018, and council members and the mayor elected in 2017 will serve through December 2020. Those elected in 2018 and 2020 will serve regular four - year terms.
The city operates under a council -- manager form of government. Power is concentrated in the eight - member elected city council and mayor, who hire a manager to carry out its directives and oversee the delivery of public services. The current city manager is Tommy Gonzalez and the current mayor of El Paso is Oscar Leeser, who was elected to the office in 2013.
The terms of Mayor Margo and Councillors Annello, Hernandez, Morgan, and Rivera will end in 2020. The terms of Lizarraga, Noe, Ordaz, and Svarzbein will end in 2018.
Noe has been on the council since 2011, Ordaz since 2014, Svarzbein since 2015, and Annello, Hernandez, Lizarraga, Morgan, and Rivera since 2017. Due to the term limits clause of the city charter Noe is ineligible for reelection. All other councilors and the mayor are eligible for reelection.
The El Paso County Judge is Veronica Escobar, and the county commissioners are Carlos Leon (Precinct 1), David Stout (Precinct 2), Vince Perez (Precinct 3), and Andrew Haggerty (Precinct 4). Haggerty is a Republican, the other commissioners and the county judge are Democrats.
Escobar was elected in 2010 and re-elected in 2014, and has been in office since 2011. Leon and Perez were first elected to their positions in 2012, were re-elected in 2016, and have been in office since 2013. Haggerty and Stout were first elected to their positions in 2014, and have been in office since 2015.
The El Paso metropolitan area is represented in the Texas State House by Democrats Cesar Blanco, Mary Gonzalez, Joe Moody, Lina Ortega and Joe Pickett, and in the State Senate by José R. Rodríguez (D - El Paso).
The Texas Department of Criminal Justice operates the El Paso I District Parole Office in the city. The El Paso II District Parole Office is in an unincorporated area east of Horizon City.
El Paso City and County vote overwhelmingly Democratic, like most of the Texas -- Mexico border area and urban Texas.
The El Paso metropolitan area is represented by Beto O'Rourke (D - El Paso), and Will Hurd (R - San Antonio) in the House of Representatives. The current U.S. Senators for Texas are Ted Cruz (R - Texas) and John Cornyn (R - Texas).
El Paso is home to the University of Texas at El Paso, the largest public university in the region. UTEP was recently ranked as the 7th best university in Washington Monthly 's 2013 National University Rankings, just behind Stanford and ahead of Harvard. Also, the university 's School of Engineering is the nation 's top producer of Hispanic engineers with M.S. and Ph. D. degrees.
El Paso is also home to Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at El Paso, Paul L. Foster School of Medicine, Texas Tech College of Architecture at El Paso, Brightwood College, Park University, Webster University and the University of Phoenix. Also due to its proximity, many El Paso students attend New Mexico State University where the school offers in - state tuition to El Paso County residents.
The El Paso Community College serves most of the area as well as several technical schools and for profit schools. El Pasoans also have access to the Doña Ana Community College with campuses in Sunland Park, Anthony and Chaparral, New Mexico: This community college is a part of the New Mexico State University system.
El Paso area students primarily attend public schools in four school districts, El Paso Independent School District, Ysleta Independent School District, Socorro Independent School District and Canutillo Independent School District. Numerous accredited private preparatory schools also serve El Paso students. These include various pre-high school religious (Christian, Catholic, Jewish) affiliates and Montessori schools, Cathedral High School, Loretto Academy, Father Yermo High School, Lydia Patterson Institute, Faith Christian Academy, El Paso Jewish Academy, Rose of Sharon Christian Academy, Zion Lutheran Day School and Radford School.
The El Paso Public Library serves the needs of the public in El Paso, Southern New Mexico, and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. It consists of 13 branches and one bookmobile service. It also has multiple outreach services available, including a homebound service. Livability.com ranked El Paso 's libraries as the 6th best library for kids in the U.S.
The main newspapers are the English - language daily El Paso Times, founded in 1881; the Spanish - language daily El Diario de El Paso, and the online newspaper El Paso Herald Post started in 2015. The original and defunct El Paso Herald Post was also founded in 1881 as the El Paso Herald, which then merged with the El Paso Post in 1931. The paper was shut down in 1997. El Paso also has some weekly and niche magazines.
Radio stations from Las Cruces, New Mexico, and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, can also be heard within the El Paso market.
El Paso was the largest city in the United States without a PBS television station within the city limits until 1978. El Paso viewers had to watch channel 22, KRWG, from Las Cruces until 1978. In fact, the city had only three English - speaking channels and two Spanish - language channels (channel 2 and channel 5) from Juarez, and cable TV subscribers in the 1970s and 1980s could receive four Los Angeles independent channels: KTLA, KHJ, KTTV and KCOP as well as Spanish - language stations KMEX of Los Angeles and KWEX of San Antonio usually sharing the same cable channel slot. Over time, as more television stations signed on, more cable channels were added and those stations added network affiliations, the L.A. and San Antonio stations would disappear from the lineup. The last to be removed was KTLA in the fall of 2006 as a consequence of the WB - UPN merger into The CW, when KVIA - TV launched a digital subchannel with the network 's programming.
El Paso 's current television stations are as shown in the table below:
KTSM - TV reports that cellular phone users in El Paso may be subject to international calling fees.
El Paso is the medical hub of West Texas and Southern New Mexico, hosting numerous state - of - the - art medical centers. Some of the city 's top hospitals include William Beaumont Army Medical Center, Sierra Medical Center, Las Palmas Medical Center, Del Sol Medical Center, Sierra Providence East Medical Center, El Paso Children 's Hospital, and Providence Memorial Hospital. University Medical Center is the only level I trauma center in the region. William Beaumont Army Medical Center will be replaced by a new state of the art $650 million Fort Bliss Replacement Hospital expected to open in 2017. West El Paso will be getting a new $120 million 140 - bed teaching hospital complex with construction expected to be completed by late 2016. The hospital will be affiliated with the Texas Tech Paul L. Foster School of Medicine.
El Paso is also home to the Medical Center of the Americas, an integrated complex of medical facilities anchored by Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at El Paso, Paul L. Foster School of Medicine, its primary teaching hospital University Medical Center, the El Paso Psychiatric Center and by the new El Paso Children 's Hospital. It is also site to the future Cardwell Collaborative biomedical research park and the Gayle Greve Hunt School of Nursing.
El Paso is served by El Paso International Airport and Amtrak via the historic Union Depot.
Several roads and highways connect El Paso, including Interstate 10, US Highway 54 (known locally as "54 '', the "North - South Freeway '' or officially as the Patriot Freeway), Spur 601 (Liberty Expressway), US Highway 180 and US Highway 62 (Montana Avenue), US Highway 85 (Paisano Drive), Loop 375, Loop 478 (Copia Street - Pershing Drive - Dyer Street), numerous Texas Farm - to - Market roads (a class of state highway commonly abbreviated to FM) and the city 's original thoroughfare, State Highway 20, the eastern portion of which is known locally as Alameda Avenue (formerly US Highway 80). Texas 20 also includes portions of Texas Avenue in central El Paso, Mesa Street from Downtown to the West Side, and Doniphan Drive on the West Side. Northeast El Paso is connected to West El Paso by Transmountain Road (Loop 375). The city also shares four international bridges and one railbridge with Ciudad Juárez, Mexico. In 2009, El Paso was home to number 52, number 98, and number 100 of the 100 most congested roads in Texas, which are, respectively: North Zaragoza Road between Sun Fire Boulevard and Interstate 10; Lee Trevino Drive between Montana Avenue and Interstate 10; and Interstate 10 between Patriot Freeway and Loop 375.
In 2016, Walk Score ranked El Paso as the 32nd most walkable of the 50 largest U.S. cities, rating it "car - dependent ''.
The Sun Metro Mass Transit System operates a system of medium - to large - capacity natural gas - powered buses all around the city of El Paso.
El Paso County Transit makes trips with small - capacity buses mainly in the eastern El Paso area.
On September 1, 2009, NMDOT Park and Ride began operating commuter bus service to and from Las Cruces, New Mexico.
Historically, El Paso and Ciudad Juarez had a shared streetcar system with a peak electrified route mileage of 64 miles (103 km) in 1920. The first electrified line across the Rio Grande, which opened on January 11, 1902, was preceded by a network that relied on animal labor. The system quickly spread into residential and industrial areas of El Paso. In 1913, a 12 - mile (19 km) interurban line was built to Ysleta. At the close of 1943, the holding company El Paso Electric sold its subsidiary, the El Paso Electric Railway Company and its Mexican counterpart, to one of National City Lines ' subsidiaries. This resulted in the formation of El Paso City Lines, whose domestic streetcar lines were replaced by buses in 1947. The international streetcar line which crossed the border via the Stanton Street Bridge continued to operate until 1973. In 1977, El Paso City Lines and two other bus companies were bought by the municipality and merged to form Sun City Area Transit (SCAT). In 1987, SCAT restyled itself Sun Metro.
El Paso Streetcar is a $90 million Sun Metro project to restore and run the original rolling stock on a 4.8 miles (7.7 km) route from Downtown El Paso to University of Texas at El Paso.
In 2011, Sun Metro was named the most outstanding public transit system of the year in all of North America for a mid-size transit system by the American Public Transportation Association.
The first bridge to cross the Rio Grande at El Paso del Norte was built in the time of Nueva España, over 250 years ago, from wood hauled in from Santa Fe. Today, this bridge is honored by the modern Santa Fe Street Bridge, and Santa Fe Street in downtown El Paso.
Several bridges serve the El Paso -- Ciudad Juárez area:
There is also a land crossing at nearby Santa Teresa, New Mexico, and the Fabens - Caseta International Bridge in nearby Fabens, Texas.
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when did the wizard of oz change to color | The Wizard of Oz (1939 film) - wikipedia
The Wizard of Oz is a 1939 American musical fantasy film produced by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer. Widely considered to be one of the greatest films in cinema history, it is the best - known and most commercially successful adaptation of L. Frank Baum 's 1900 children 's book, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It stars Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale, alongside Ray Bolger, Jack Haley, Bert Lahr, Frank Morgan, Billie Burke and Margaret Hamilton, with Charley Grapewin, Pat Walshe and Clara Blandick, Terry (billed as Toto), and the Singer Midgets as the Munchkins.
Notable for its use of Technicolor, fantasy storytelling, musical score, and memorable characters, it has become an icon of American popular culture. It was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture, but lost to Gone with the Wind. It did win in two other categories, including Best Original Song for "Over the Rainbow '' and Best Original Score by Herbert Stothart. While the film was considered a critical success upon release in August 1939, it failed to generate profit for MGM, earning only $3,017,000 on a $2,777,000 budget, which made it MGM 's most expensive production to date.
The 1956 broadcast television premiere of the film on the CBS network reintroduced the film to the wider public and eventually made the presentation an annual tradition, making it one of the best known films in movie history. The film was named the most - viewed motion picture on television syndication by the Library of Congress, which also included the film in its National Film Registry in its inaugural year in 1989. Designation on the registry calls for efforts to preserve it for being "culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant ''. It is also one of the few films on UNESCO 's Memory of the World Register. The film is among the top ten in the BFI list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14.
The Wizard of Oz is the source of many quotes referenced in contemporary popular culture. It was directed primarily by Victor Fleming (who left production to take over direction on the troubled Gone with the Wind production). Noel Langley, Florence Ryerson and Edgar Allan Woolf received credit for the screenplay, but uncredited contributions were made by others. The songs were written by Edgar "Yip '' Harburg (lyrics) and Harold Arlen (music). The musical score and the incidental music were composed by Stothart.
The film begins in Kansas, which is depicted in a sepia tone. Dorothy Gale lives with her dog, Toto, on her Aunt Em and Uncle Henry 's farm. Toto gets in trouble with a mean neighbor, Miss Almira Gulch, when he bites her. However, Dorothy 's family and the farmhands are all too busy to listen to her troubles. Miss Gulch produces an order from the sheriff allowing her to have Toto put down. She takes him away, but he escapes and returns to Dorothy who, fearing that Miss Gulch will return, decides to run away from home.
After some miles Dorothy and Toto encounter Professor Marvel, a kindly fortune teller who, realizing Dorothy has run away, uses his crystal ball to convince her that Aunt Em is ill. Dorothy races home just as a tornado approaches. Locked out of the storm cellar, she seeks safety in the house, where a wind - blown window sash knocks her out. She awakens to find the tornado has sent the house spinning into the sky. Outside the window during the flight she and Toto see farm animals, an old lady knitting in a chair, two men rowing a boat, and finally Miss Gulch, who transforms into a cackling witch riding a broomstick.
Suddenly the house strikes the ground and all is quiet. As Dorothy opens the door the film changes to technicolor -- she and Toto have landed in Munchkinland, part of the Land of Oz. Glinda the Good Witch of the North and the Munchkins welcome her as their heroine -- the house has landed on and killed the Wicked Witch of the East, leaving only her feet poking out from under. In the middle of the celebration, the Wicked Witch of the West arrives in a ball of smoke and fire to claim her sister 's ruby slippers, but Glinda transports them onto Dorothy 's feet before the witch can get them. The witch swears revenge on Dorothy for her sister 's death. Glinda tells Dorothy to follow the yellow brick road to the Emerald City, where the Wizard of Oz might be able to help her get back home.
On her way, Dorothy meets and befriends a Scarecrow, who wants a brain, and invites him to join her on her journey. Eventually they come to an apple orchard where they find and befriend a Tin Man, who desires a heart. After they invite him to come along, the Witch appears and makes threats to them. Deep in the woods, they meet a Cowardly Lion, who is in need of courage and invite him to come along as well. After the Witch attempts to stop them using an enchanted poppy field, they finally reach the Emerald City. Inside, after being initially rejected, they are permitted to see the Wizard, who appears as a large disembodied head surrounded by fire. He agrees to grant their wishes when they bring him the Witch of the West 's broomstick, implying they must kill her to get it.
On their journey to the Witch 's castle, they pass through the Haunted Forest, while the Witch views their progress in her crystal ball. She sends her winged monkeys to attack them; they capture Dorothy and Toto. At the castle, the Witch is stymied by magic when she tries to get the ruby slippers off Dorothy 's feet, then remembers that she must be dead first. Toto escapes and leads the Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion to the castle. After ambushing three Winkie guards, they march inside wearing the stolen guards ' uniforms and free her, but the Witch discovers and traps them. The Scarecrow provides a distraction and they attempt to escape, being chased by the Witch and her guards, but are finally surrounded. The Witch sets fire to the Scarecrow and Dorothy puts it out with a bucket of water and unwittingly melts and kills the witch as the water splashes on her. The guards rejoice that she is dead and give Dorothy the charred broomstick in gratitude.
Back at the Emerald City, they bring the broomstick to the Wizard. But when they ask him to keep his promises, the Wizard delays granting their requests much to their shock and frustration. During the argument, Toto pulls back a curtain and exposes the "Wizard '' as a normal middle - aged man who has been projecting the fearsome image; he denies Dorothy 's accusation that he is a bad man, but admits to being a humbug. He then gives the Scarecrow a diploma, the Lion a medal and the Tin Man a ticking heart - shaped clock, making them realize that they had what they wanted all along. They just did not know it yet. He then prepares to launch his hot air balloon to take Dorothy home but Toto runs off, and as she tries to get him back, the balloon leaves without them. Suddenly, Glinda returns and tells her that she can still return home by using the ruby slippers. After sharing a tearful farewell with her friends, Dorothy follows Glinda 's instructions and taps her heels together three times and repeats, "There 's no place like home ''. She wakes up in bed at her home in Kansas, surrounded by her family, the farmhands, Professor Marvel and Toto. Though they dismiss her adventure as a dream, she insists that it was all real, and that there is no place like home.
Development began when Walt Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) showed that films adapted from popular children 's stories and fairytale folklore could be successful. In January 1938, Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer bought the rights to the hugely popular novel from Samuel Goldwyn, who had toyed with the idea of making the film as a vehicle for Eddie Cantor, who was under contract to the Goldwyn studios and whom Goldwyn wanted to cast as the Scarecrow.
The script went through a number of writers and revisions before the final shooting. Mervyn LeRoy 's assistant William H. Cannon had submitted a brief four - page outline. Because recent fantasy films had not fared well, he recommended that the magical elements of the story be toned down or eliminated. In his outline, the Scarecrow was a man so stupid that the only employment open to him was literally scaring crows from cornfields, and the Tin Woodman was a criminal so heartless he was sentenced to be placed in a tin suit for eternity; this torture softened him into someone gentle and kind. His vision was similar to Larry Semon 's 1925 film adaptation of the story, in which the magical element is absent.
After that, LeRoy hired screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, who soon delivered a 17 - page draft of the Kansas scenes, and a few weeks later, a further 56 pages. Noel Langley and poet Ogden Nash were also hired to write separate versions of the story. None of these three knew about the others, and this was not an uncommon procedure. Nash delivered a four - page outline, Langley turned in a 43 - page treatment and a full film script. He turned in three more, this time incorporating the songs that had been written by Harold Arlen and Yip Harburg. Florence Ryerson and Edgar Allan Woolf submitted a script and were brought on board to touch up the writing. They would be responsible for making sure the story stayed true to the Baum book. However, producer Arthur Freed was unhappy with their work and reassigned it to Langley. During filming, Victor Fleming and John Lee Mahin revised the script further, adding and cutting some scenes. In addition, Jack Haley and Bert Lahr are known to have written some of their own dialogue for the Kansas sequence.
The final draft of the script was completed on October 8, 1938, following numerous rewrites. All in all, it was a mish - mash of many creative minds, but Langley, Ryerson, and Woolf got the film credits. Along with the contributors already mentioned, others who assisted with the adaptation without receiving credit include: Irving Brecher, Herbert Fields, Arthur Freed, Yip Harburg, Samuel Hoffenstein, Jack Mintz, Sid Silvers, Richard Thorpe, Cukor and Vidor.
In addition, songwriter Harburg 's son (and biographer) Ernie Harburg reported:
The original producers thought that a 1939 audience was too sophisticated to accept Oz as a straight - ahead fantasy; therefore, it was reconceived as a lengthy, elaborate dream sequence. Because of a perceived need to attract a youthful audience through appealing to modern fads and styles, the score had featured a song called "The Jitterbug '', and the script had featured a scene with a series of musical contests. A spoiled, selfish princess in Oz had outlawed all forms of music except classical and operetta, and went up against Dorothy in a singing contest in which her swing style enchanted listeners and won the grand prize. This part was initially written for Betty Jaynes. The plan was later dropped.
Another scene, which was removed before final script approval and never filmed, was a concluding scene back in Kansas after Dorothy 's return. Hunk (the Kansan counterpart to the Scarecrow) is leaving for agricultural college and extracts a promise from Dorothy to write to him. The implication of the scene is that romance will eventually develop between the two, which also may have been intended as an explanation for Dorothy 's partiality for the Scarecrow over her other two companions. This plot idea was never totally dropped, but is especially noticeable in the final script when Dorothy, just before she is to leave Oz, tells the Scarecrow, "I think I 'll miss you most of all. ''
In his book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Baum describes Kansas as being "in shades of gray ''. Further, Dorothy lived inside a farmhouse which had its paint blistered and washed away by the weather, giving it an air of grayness. The house and property were situated in the middle of a sweeping prairie where the grass was burnt gray by harsh sun. Aunt Em and Uncle Henry were "gray with age ''. Effectively, the use of monochrome sepia tones for the Kansas sequences was a stylistic choice that evoked the dull and gray countryside. Much attention was given to the use of color in the production, with the MGM production crew favoring some hues over others. Consequently, it took the studio 's art department almost a week to settle on the final shade of yellow used for the yellow brick road.
LeRoy had always insisted that he wanted to cast Judy Garland to play Dorothy from the start; however, evidence suggests that negotiations occurred early in pre-production for Shirley Temple to be cast as Dorothy, on loan from 20th Century Fox. A persistent rumor also existed that Fox, in turn, was promised Clark Gable and Jean Harlow as a loan from MGM. The tale is almost certainly untrue, as Harlow died in 1937, before MGM had even purchased the rights to the story. Despite this, the story appears in many film biographies (including Temple 's own autobiography). The documentary The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: The Making of a Movie Classic states that Mervyn LeRoy was under pressure to cast Temple, then the most popular child star, but at an unofficial audition, MGM musical mainstay Roger Edens listened to her sing and felt that an actress with a different style was needed; a 50th anniversary documentary for the film suggested that Temple, then 10 years old, was slightly too young for the part. Newsreel footage is included in which Temple wisecracks, "There 's no place like home '', suggesting that she was being considered for the part at that time. A possibility is that this consideration did indeed take place, but that Gable and Harlow were not part of the proposed deal.
Actress Deanna Durbin, who was under contract to Universal Studios, was also considered for the part of Dorothy. Durbin, at the time, far exceeded Garland in film experience and fan base and both had co-starred in a 1936 two - reeler titled Every Sunday. The film was most notable for exhibiting Durbin 's operatic style of singing against Garland 's jazzier style. Durbin was possibly passed over once it was decided to bring on Jaynes, also an operatic singer, to rival Garland 's jazz in the aforementioned discarded subplot of the film.
Ray Bolger was originally cast as the Tin Man and Buddy Ebsen was to play the Scarecrow. Bolger, however, longed to play the Scarecrow, as his childhood idol Fred Stone had done on stage in 1902; with that very performance, Stone had inspired him to become a vaudevillian in the first place. Now unhappy with his role as the Tin Man (reportedly claiming, "I 'm not a tin performer; I 'm fluid ''), Bolger convinced producer Mervyn LeRoy to recast him in the part he so desired. Ebsen did not object; after going over the basics of the Scarecrow 's distinctive gait with Bolger (as a professional dancer, Ebsen had been cast because the studio was confident he would be up to the task of replicating the famous "wobbly - walk '' of Stone 's Scarecrow), he recorded all of his songs, went through all the rehearsals as the Tin Man and began filming with the rest of the cast.
Bert Lahr was signed for the Cowardly Lion on July 25, 1938; the next month, Charles Grapewin was cast as Uncle Henry on August 12.
W.C. Fields was originally chosen for the role of the Wizard, a role turned down by Ed Wynn as he thought the part was too small, but the studio ran out of patience after protracted haggling over Fields ' fee; instead, another contract player, Frank Morgan, was cast on September 22.
Gale Sondergaard was originally cast as the Wicked Witch. She became unhappy when the witch 's persona shifted from sly and glamorous (thought to emulate the wicked queen in Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs) into the familiar "ugly hag ''. She turned down the role and was replaced on October 10, 1938, just three days before filming started, by MGM contract player Margaret Hamilton. Sondergaard said in an interview for a bonus feature on the DVD that she had no regrets about turning down the part, and would go on to play a glamorous villain in Fox 's version of Maurice Maeterlinck 's The Blue Bird in 1940; Margaret Hamilton played a role remarkably similar to the Wicked Witch in the Judy Garland film Babes in Arms (1939).
According to Aljean Harmetz, the "gone - to - seed '' coat worn by Morgan as the wizard was selected from a rack of coats purchased from a second - hand shop. According to legend, Morgan later discovered a label in the coat indicating it had once belonged to Baum, that Baum 's widow confirmed this, and that the coat was eventually presented to her. But Baum biographer Michael Patrick Hearn says the Baum family denies ever seeing the coat or knowing of the story; Hamilton considered it a concocted studio rumor.
Filming commenced October 13, 1938, on the MGM lot in Culver City, California, under the direction of Richard Thorpe (replacing original director Norman Taurog, who filmed only a few early Technicolor tests and was then reassigned). Thorpe initially shot about two weeks of footage (nine days in total) involving Dorothy 's first encounter with the Scarecrow, as well as a number of sequences in the Wicked Witch 's castle, such as Dorothy 's rescue (which, though unreleased, comprises the only footage of Ebsen 's Tin Man).
According to most sources, ten days into the shoot, Ebsen suffered a reaction to the aluminum powder makeup he wore. He was hospitalized in critical condition, and subsequently was forced to leave the project; in a later interview (included on the 2005 DVD release of The Wizard of Oz), he recalled the studio heads appreciated the seriousness of his illness only after seeing him in the hospital. Filming halted while a replacement for him was found. No full footage of him as the Tin Man has ever been released -- only photographs taken during filming and makeup test photos. His replacement, Jack Haley, simply assumed he had been fired. Author and screen - writer George MacDonald Fraser offers an alternative story, told to him by Burt Lancaster 's producing partner, Jim Hill, that Ebsen had refused to be painted silver and was fired.
LeRoy, after reviewing the footage and feeling Thorpe was rushing the production, adversely affecting the actors ' performances, had Thorpe replaced. During reorganization on the production, George Cukor temporarily took over, under LeRoy 's guidance. Initially, the studio had made Garland wear a blond wig and heavy "baby - doll '' makeup, and she played Dorothy in an exaggerated fashion; now, Cukor changed Garland 's and Hamilton 's makeup and costumes, and told Garland to "be herself ''. This meant that all the scenes Garland and Hamilton had already completed had to be discarded and reshot. Cukor also suggested that the studio cast Jack Haley, on loan from Fox, as the Tin Man. To keep down on production costs, Haley only rerecorded "If I Only Had a Heart '' and solo lines during "The Jitterbug '' and "If I Only Had the Nerve ''; as such, Ebsen 's voice can still be heard in the remaining songs featuring the Tin Man in group vocals. The makeup used for Haley was quietly changed to an aluminum paste, with a layer of clown white greasepaint underneath to protect his skin; although it did not have the same dire effect on Haley, he did at one point suffer an eye infection from it.
In addition, Bolger 's original recording of "If I Only Had a Brain '' had been far more sedate compared to the version heard in the film; during this time, Cukor and LeRoy decided that a more energetic rendition would better suit Dorothy 's initial meeting with the Scarecrow (initially, it was to contrast with his lively manner in Thorpe 's footage), and was rerecorded as such. At first thought to be lost for over seven decades, a recording of this original version was rediscovered in 2009.
Cukor did not actually shoot any scenes for the film, merely acting as something of a "creative advisor '' to the troubled production, and, because of his prior commitment to direct Gone with the Wind, he left on November 3, 1938, when Victor Fleming assumed directorial responsibility. As director, Fleming chose not to shift the film from Cukor 's creative realignment, as producer LeRoy had already pronounced his satisfaction with the new course the film was taking.
Production on the bulk of the Technicolor sequences was a long and cumbersome process that ran for over six months, from October 1938 to March 1939. Most of the cast worked six days a week and had to arrive as early as 4: 00 a.m. to be fitted with makeup and costumes, and often did not leave until 7 pm or later. Cumbersome makeup and costumes were made even more uncomfortable by the daylight - bright lighting the early Technicolor process required, which could heat the set to over 100 ° F (38 ° C). Bolger later said that the frightening nature of the costumes prevented most of the Oz principals from eating in the studio commissary; the toxicity of Hamilton 's copper - based makeup forced her to eat a liquid diet on shoot days. It took as many as twelve takes to have Toto run alongside the actors as they skipped down the yellow brick road.
All of the Oz sequences were filmed in three - strip Technicolor. The opening and closing credits, as well as the Kansas sequences, were filmed in black and white and colored in a sepia - tone process. Sepia - toned film was also used in the scene where Aunt Em appears in the Wicked Witch 's crystal ball.
An extensive talent search produced over a hundred little people to play Munchkins; this meant that most of the film 's Oz sequences would have to already be shot before work on the Munchkinland sequence could begin. According to Munchkin actor Jerry Maren, the little people were each paid over $125 a week. Meinhardt Raabe, who played the coroner, revealed in the 1990 documentary The Making of the Wizard of Oz that the MGM costume and wardrobe department, under the direction of designer Adrian, had to design over 100 costumes for the Munchkin sequences. They then had to photograph and catalog each Munchkin in his or her costume so that they could correctly apply the same costume and makeup each day of production.
In Hamilton 's exit from the Munchkinland a concealed elevator was arranged to lower her below stage as fire and smoke erupted to dramatize and conceal her exit. The first take ran well but in the second take the flames did not go out in time. The flames set fire to her green, copper - based face paint, causing third - degree burns on her hands and face. She spent three months healing before returning to work.
On February 12, 1939, Fleming hastily replaced Cukor in directing Gone with the Wind; the next day, King Vidor was assigned as director by the studio to finish the filming of The Wizard of Oz (mainly the sepia - toned Kansas sequences, including Garland 's singing of "Over the Rainbow '' and the tornado). In later years, when the film became firmly established as a classic, Vidor chose not to take public credit for his contribution until after the death of his friend Fleming in 1949.
Principal photography concluded with the Kansas sequences on March 16, 1939; nonetheless, reshoots and pick - up shots were filmed throughout April and May and into June, under the direction of producer LeRoy. After the deletion of the "Over the Rainbow '' reprise during subsequent test screenings in early June, Garland had to be brought back one more time to reshoot the "Auntie Em, I 'm frightened! '' scene without the song; the footage of Blandick 's Aunt Em, as shot by Vidor, had already been set aside for rear - projection work, and was simply reused.
After Hamilton 's torturous experience with the Munchkinland elevator, she refused to do the pick - ups for the scene in which she flies on a broomstick that billows smoke, so LeRoy chose to have stand - in Betty Danko perform the scene, instead; as a result, Danko was severely injured doing the scene due to a malfunction in the smoke mechanism.
At this point, the film began a long arduous post-production. Herbert Stothart had to compose the film 's background score, while A. Arnold Gillespie had to perfect the various special effects that the film required, including many of the rear projection shots. The MGM art department also had to create the various matte paintings for the background of many of the scenes.
One significant innovation planned for the film was the use of stencil printing for the transition to Technicolor. Each frame was to be hand - tinted to maintain the sepia tone; however, because this was too expensive and labor - intensive, it was abandoned and MGM used a simpler and less expensive variation of the process. During the reshoots in May, the inside of the farm house was painted sepia, and when Dorothy opens the door, it is not Garland, but her stand - in, Bobbie Koshay, wearing a sepia gingham dress, who then backs out of frame; once the camera moves through the door, Garland steps back into frame in her bright blue gingham dress (as noted in DVD extras), and the sepia - painted door briefly tints her with the same color before she emerges from the house 's shadow, into the bright glare of the Technicolor lighting. This also meant that the reshoots provided the first proper shot of Munchkinland; if one looks carefully, the brief cut to Dorothy looking around outside the house bisects a single long shot, from the inside of the doorway to the pan-around that finally ends in a reverse - angle as the ruins of the house are seen behind Dorothy as she comes to a stop at the foot of the small bridge.
Test screenings of the film began on June 5, 1939. Oz initially ran nearly two hours long. LeRoy and Fleming knew that at least a quarter of an hour needed to be deleted to get the film down to a manageable running time; the average film in 1939 ran for just about 90 minutes. Three sneak previews in Santa Barbara, Pomona and San Luis Obispo, California, helped guide LeRoy and Fleming in the cutting. Among the many cuts were "The Jitterbug '' number, the Scarecrow 's elaborate dance sequence following "If I Only Had a Brain '', reprises of "Over the Rainbow '' and "Ding - Dong! The Witch Is Dead '', and a number of smaller dialogue sequences. This left the final, mostly serious portion of the film with no songs, only the dramatic underscoring.
One song that was almost deleted was "Over the Rainbow ''. MGM had felt that it made the Kansas sequence too long, as well as being far over the heads of the target audience of children. The studio also thought that it was degrading for Garland to sing in a barnyard. LeRoy, uncredited associate producer Arthur Freed and director Fleming fought to keep it in, and they all eventually won. The song went on to win the Academy Award for Best Song of the Year, and came to be identified so strongly with Garland herself that she made it her theme song. In 2004, the song was ranked no. 1 by the American Film Institute on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs list.
After the preview in San Luis Obispo in early July, the film was officially released in August 1939 at its current 101 - minute running time.
The film is widely noted for its musical selections and soundtrack. The music was composed by Harold Arlen, and the lyrics were written by Yip Harburg, both of whom won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Over the Rainbow ''. The song was ranked first in two lists: the AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs and the Recording Industry Association of America 's "365 Songs of the Century ''.
MGM composer Herbert Stothart, a well - known Hollywood composer and songwriter, won the Academy Award for Best Original Score in recognition of his original score.
Georgie Stoll was associate conductor and screen credit was given to George Bassman, Murray Cutter, Ken Darby and Paul Marquardt for orchestral and vocal arrangements (as usual, Roger Edens was also heavily involved as an unbilled musical associate to Freed.)
The song "The Jitterbug '', written in a swing style, was intended for the sequence in which the group is journeying to the Witch 's castle. Due to time constraints, the song was cut from the final theatrical version. The film footage for the song has been lost, although silent home film footage of rehearsals for the number has survived. The sound recording for the song, however, is intact and was included in the two - CD Rhino Records deluxe edition of the film soundtrack, as well as on the VHS and DVD editions of the film. A reference to "The Jitterbug '' remains in the film: the Witch remarks to her flying monkeys that they should have no trouble apprehending Dorothy and her friends because "I 've sent a little insect on ahead to take the fight out of them. ''
Another musical number cut before release occurred right after the Wicked Witch of the West was melted and before Dorothy and her friends returned to the Wizard. This was a reprise of "Ding - Dong! The Witch Is Dead '' (blended with "We 're Off to See the Wizard '' and "The Merry Old Land of Oz '') with the lyrics altered to "Hail! Hail! The Witch is Dead! '' This started with the Witch 's guard saying "Hail to Dorothy! The Wicked Witch is dead! '' and dissolved to a huge celebration of the citizens of the Emerald City singing the song as they accompany Dorothy and her friends to see the Wizard. Today, the film of this scene is also lost and only a few stills survive, along with a few seconds of footage used on several reissue trailers. The entire audio still exists and is included on the two - CD Rhino Record deluxe edition of the film soundtrack.
In addition, a brief reprise of "Over the Rainbow '' was intended to be sung by Garland while Dorothy is trapped in the Witch 's castle, but it was cut because it was considered too emotionally intense. The original soundtrack recording still exists, however, and was included as an extra in all home media releases from 1993 - onwards.
The songs were recorded in the studio 's scoring stage before filming. Several of the recordings were completed while Ebsen was still with the cast. Therefore, while he had to be dropped from the cast due to illness from the aluminum powder makeup, his singing voice remained in the soundtrack (as noted in the notes for the CD Deluxe Edition). In the group vocals of "We 're Off to See the Wizard '', his voice can be heard. Haley spoke with a distinct Boston accent, thus did not pronounce the r in wizard. By contrast, Ebsen was a Midwesterner, like Garland, and pronounced it. Haley rerecorded Ebsen 's solo parts later.
Extensive edits in the film 's final cut removed vocals from the last portion of the film. However, the film was fully underscored, with instrumental snippets from the film 's various leitmotifs throughout. There was also some recognizable popular music, including:
(The above list is excerpted from the liner notes on the Rhino Records collection.)
The film 's first sneak preview was held in San Bernardino, California. The film was previewed in three test markets: on August 11, 1939, at Kenosha, Wisconsin and Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and at the Strand Theatre in Oconomowoc, Wisconsin, on August 12.
The Hollywood premiere was on August 15, 1939, at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre. The New York City premiere, held at Loew 's Capitol Theatre on August 17, 1939, was followed by a live performance with Garland and her frequent film co-star Mickey Rooney. They continued to perform there after each screening for a week, extended in Rooney 's case for a second week and in Garland 's to three (with Oz co-stars Ray Bolger and Bert Lahr replacing Rooney for the third and final week). The film opened nationwide on August 25, 1939.
According to MGM records, during the film 's initial release, it earned $2,048,000 in the US and Canada and $969,000 in other countries throughout the world, resulting in total earnings of $3,017,000. While these were considerable earnings, the high production cost, in association with various distribution and other costs, meant the movie initially recorded a loss of $1,145,000 for the studio. It did not show what MGM considered a profit until a 1949 rerelease earned an additional $1.5 million (about $15 million today). However, for all the risks and cost that MGM undertook to produce the film, it was considered at least more successful than anyone thought it would be. According to Christopher Finch, author of the Judy Garland biography Rainbow: The Stormy Life Of Judy Garland, "Fantasy is always a risk at the box office. The film had been enormously successful as a book, and it had also been a major stage hit, but previous attempts to bring it to the screen had been dismal failures. '' Finch also writes that after the success of the film, Garland signed a new contract with MGM giving her a substantial increase in salary, making her one of the top - ten box office stars in the United States.
The film received much acclaim upon its release. Frank Nugent considered the film a "delightful piece of wonder - working which had the youngsters ' eyes shining and brought a quietly amused gleam to the wiser ones of the oldsters. Not since Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs has anything quite so fantastic succeeded half so well. '' Nugent had issues with some of the film 's special effects, writing, "with the best of will and ingenuity, they can not make a Munchkin or a Flying Monkey that will not still suggest, however vaguely, a Singer 's Midget in a Jack Dawn masquerade. Nor can they, without a few betraying jolts and split - screen overlappings, bring down from the sky the great soap bubble in which Glinda rides and roll it smoothly into place. '' According to Nugent, "Judy Garland 's Dorothy is a pert and fresh - faced miss with the wonder - lit eyes of a believer in fairy tales, but the Baum fantasy is at its best when the Scarecrow, the Tin Man, and the Lion are on the move. ''
Writing in Variety, John C. Flinn predicted that the film was "likely to perform some record - breaking feats of box - office magic, '' noting, "Some of the scenic passages are so beautiful in design and composition as to stir audiences by their sheer unfoldment. '' He also called Garland "an appealing figure '' and the musical numbers "gay and bright. ''
Harrison 's Reports wrote, "Even though some persons are not interested in pictures of this type, it is possible that they will be eager to see this picture just for its technical treatment. The performances are good, and the incidental music is of considerable aid. Pictures of this caliber bring credit to the industry. ''
Film Daily wrote:
Not all reviews were positive. Some moviegoers felt that the 16 - year - old Garland was slightly too old to play the little girl who Baum originally intended his Dorothy to be. Russell Maloney of The New Yorker wrote that the film displayed "no trace of imagination, good taste, or ingenuity '' and declared it "a stinkeroo, '' while Otis Ferguson of The New Republic wrote, "It has dwarfs, music, Technicolor, freak characters, and Judy Garland. It ca n't be expected to have a sense of humor, as well - and as for the light touch of fantasy, it weighs like a pound of fruitcake soaking wet. '' Still, the film placed seventh on Film Daily 's year - end nationwide poll of 542 critics naming the best films of 1939.
Roger Ebert chose it as one of his Great Films, writing that "The Wizard of Oz has a wonderful surface of comedy and music, special effects and excitement, but we still watch it six decades later because its underlying story penetrates straight to the deepest insecurities of childhood, stirs them and then reassures them. ''
Writer Salman Rushdie acknowledged "The Wizard of Oz was my very first literary influence '' in his 2002 musings about the film. He has written: "When I first saw The Wizard of Oz, it made a writer of me. '' His first short story, written at the age of 10, was titled "Over the Rainbow ''.
In a 2009 retrospective article about the film, San Francisco Chronicle film critic and author Mick LaSalle declared that the film 's "entire Munchkinland sequence, from Dorothy 's arrival in Oz to her departure on the yellow brick road, has to be one of the greatest in cinema history -- a masterpiece of set design, costuming, choreography, music, lyrics, storytelling, and sheer imagination. ''
On the film critic aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 99 % based on 109 reviews, with an average score of 9.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "An absolute masterpiece whose groundbreaking visuals and deft storytelling are still every bit as resonant, The Wizard of Oz is a must - see film for young and old. '' At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film received the maximum score of 100 out of 100, based on 4 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim '', which, as of August 2017, is matched only by five other films.
Although the 1949 reissue used sepia tone, as in the original release, beginning with the 1955 re-issue, and continuing until the film 's 50th anniversary VHS release in 1989, these opening Kansas sequences were shown in black and white instead of the sepia tone as originally printed. (This includes television showings.)
The MGM "Children 's Matinees '' series rereleased the film twice, in both 1970 and 1971. It was for this release that the film received a G rating from the MPAA.
For the film 's then - upcoming 60th anniversary, Warner Bros. Pictures released a "Special Edition '' on November 6, 1998, digitally restored with remastered audio.
In 2002, the film had a very limited re-release in U.S. theaters, earning only $139,905.
On September 23, 2009, the film was rereleased in select theaters for a one - night - only event in honor of its 70th anniversary and as a promotion for various new disc releases later in the month. An encore of this event was released in theaters on November 17, 2009.
An IMAX 3D theatrical re-release played at 300 theaters in North America for one week only beginning September 20, 2013, as part of the film 's 75th anniversary. Warner Bros. spent $25 million on advertising. The studio hosted a premiere of the film 's first IMAX 3D release on September 15, 2013, from the newly remodeled TCL Chinese Theatre (formerly Grauman 's Chinese Theatre, the site of the film 's Hollywood premiere) in Hollywood. It was the first to play at the new theater and served as the grand opening of Hollywood 's first 3D IMAX screen. It was also shown as a special presentation at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival. This re-release grossed $5.6 million at the North American box office.
In 2013, in preparation for its IMAX 3D release, the film was submitted again to the MPAA for re-classification. According to MPAA rules, a film that has been altered in any way from its original version must be submitted for re-classification, as the 3 - D conversion fell within that guideline. Surprisingly, the 3D version received a PG rating for "Some scary moments '', although no change was made to the film 's original story content. The 2D version still retains its G rating.
The film was rereleased on January 11 and 14, 2015, as part of the "TCM Presents '' series by Turner Classic Movies.
The film was first shown on television on November 3, 1956, by CBS, as the last installment of the Ford Star Jubilee.
The film was released multiple times for the home - video commercial market (on a limited scale) on Super 8 film (8 mm format) during the 1970s. These releases include an edited English version (roughly 10 minutes, and roughly 20 minutes), as well as edited Spanish versions of the classic. Also, a full commercial release of it was made on Super 8 (on multiple reels) that came out in the 1970s, as well, for the commercial market.
The film was among the first videocassettes (on both VHS and Betamax format for the 1980 release) by MGM / CBS Home Video in 1980; all current home video releases are by Warner Home Video (via current rights holder Turner Entertainment). The first LaserDisc release of it was in 1982, with two versions of a second (one from Turner and one from The Criterion Collection with a commentary track) for the 50th anniversary release in 1989, a third in 1991, a fourth in 1993, a fifth in 1995 and a sixth and final LaserDisc release on September 11, 1996.
In addition to VHS (and later, LaserDisc), the film has been released multiple times during the 1980s on the Betamax format, beginning in 1980 simultaneously with the VHS release.
The film was released for the first and only time on the CED format in 1982 by MGM / UA Home Video.
Outside of the North American and European markets, the film has also been released multiple times on the Video CD format since the 1990s in Asia.
The first DVD release was on March 26, 1997, by MGM / Turner and contained no special features or supplements. It was re-released by Warner Bros. for its 60th anniversary on October 19, 1999, with its soundtrack presented in a new 5.1 surround sound mix. The monochrome - to - color transition was more smoothly accomplished by digitally keeping the inside of the house in monochrome while Dorothy and the reveal of Munchkinland are in color. The DVD also contained a behind - the - scenes documentary, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: The Making of a Movie Classic, produced in 1990 and hosted by Angela Lansbury, which was originally shown on television immediately following the 1990 telecast of the film; it had been featured in the 1993 "Ultimate Oz '' LaserDisc release. Outtakes, the deleted "Jitterbug '' musical number, clips of pre-1939 Oz adaptations, trailers, newsreels, and a portrait gallery were also included, as well as two radio programs of the era publicizing the film.
In 2005, two DVD editions were released, both featuring a newly restored version of the film with an audio commentary and an isolated music and effects track. One of the two DVD releases was a "Two - Disc Special Edition '', featuring production documentaries, trailers, various outtakes, newsreels, radio shows and still galleries. The other set, a "Three - Disc Collector 's Edition '', included these features, as well as the digitally restored 80th - anniversary edition of the 1925 feature - length silent film version of The Wizard of Oz, other silent Oz adaptations and a 1933 animated short version.
The film was released on Blu - ray on September 29, 2009, for its 70th anniversary in a four - disc "Ultimate Collector 's Edition '', including all the bonus features from the 2005 Collector 's Edition DVD, new bonus features about Victor Fleming and the surviving Munchkins, the telefilm The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story, and the miniseries MGM: When the Lion Roars. For this edition, Warner commissioned a new transfer at 8K resolution from the original film negatives. The restoration job was given to Prime Focus World. This restored version also features a lossless 5.1 Dolby TrueHD audio track. A DVD version was also released as a Two - Disc Special Edition and a Five - Disc Ultimate Collector 's Edition.
On December 1, 2009, three Blu - ray discs of the Ultimate Collector 's Edition were repackaged as a less expensive "Emerald Edition '', with an Emerald Edition four - disc DVD arriving the following week. A single - disc Blu - ray, containing the restored movie and all the extra features of the two - disc Special Edition DVD, also became available on March 16, 2010.
In 2013, the film was re-released on DVD, Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and UltraViolet for the 90th anniversary of Warner Bros. and as part of its 75th anniversary.
Also, multiple special editions were released in celebration of the film 's the 75th anniversary in 2013, exclusively by both Best Buy (a SteelBook of the 3D Blu - ray) and another version that came with a keepsake lunch bag released by Target stores.
The American Film Institute (AFI) has compiled various lists which include this film or elements thereof.
Roughly 40 identifiable major differences exist between the original book and the MGM interpretation.
The film was dramatized as a one - hour radio play on Lux Radio Theatre, which was broadcast on December 25, 1950, with Garland reprising her earlier role. In 1964, a one - hour animated cartoon called Return to Oz was shown as an afternoon weekend special on NBC. An official 1972 sequel, the animated Journey Back to Oz starring Liza Minnelli, daughter of Garland, was produced to commemorate the original film 's 35th anniversary.
In 1975, the stage show The Wiz premiered on Broadway. It was an African American version of The Wizard of Oz reworked for the stage. It starred Stephanie Mills and other Broadway stars and earned a number of Tony Awards. Its financing was handled by actor Geoffrey Holder. Its inspired revivals after it left the stage and an unsuccessful motion picture made in 1978, starring Diana Ross as Dorothy and Michael Jackson as the Scarecrow.
In 1985, Walt Disney Productions released the live - action fantasy film Return to Oz, which starred (and introduced) Fairuza Balk as a young Dorothy Gale. Based loosely on The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904) and Ozma of Oz (1907), it fared rather poorly with critics who were unfamiliar with the Oz books and was not successful at the box office, although it has since become a popular cult film, with many considering it a more loyal and faithful adaptation of what L. Frank Baum envisioned.
In 1995, Gregory Maguire published the novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West, which was adapted into the wildly successful Broadway musical Wicked. The story describes the life of the Wicked Witch of the West and other events prior to Dorothy 's arrival.
For the film 's 56th anniversary, a 1995 stage show also titled The Wizard of Oz was based upon it and the book by L. Frank Baum. It toured from 1995 to 2012, except for 2004.
In 2005, The Muppets Studio produced The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz, a television film for ABC, starring Ashanti as Dorothy, Jeffrey Tambor as the Wizard, David Alan Grier as Uncle Henry, and Queen Latifah as Aunt Em. Kermit the Frog portrayed the Scarecrow, Gonzo portrayed the Tin Thing (Tin Man), Fozzie Bear portrayed the Lion and Miss Piggy portrayed all the Witches of the West, East, North and South.
In 2007, The Sci - Fi Channel released the three - part miniseries Tin Man, a science fiction continuation starring Zooey Deschanel as DG.
Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice wrote a stage musical of the same name, which opened in 2011 at the West End 's London Palladium. It features all of the songs from the film plus new songs written by Lloyd Webber and Rice. Lloyd Webber also found Danielle Hope to play Dorothy on the reality show, Over the Rainbow. Another production opened in December 2012 at the Ed Mirvish Theatre in Toronto. A reality TV show, also titled Over the Rainbow, found a Canadian girl, Danielle Wade, to play Dorothy. The Canadian production then began a North American tour in September 2013. An Australian tour will begin at the Lyric Theatre, Queensland Performing Arts Centre in November 2017, followed by a season at the Capitol Theatre, Sydney beginning December 2017.
An animated film called Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz was released in 2011 by Warner Home Video, incorporating Tom and Jerry into the story as Dorothy 's "protectors ''. A sequel titled Tom and Jerry: Back to Oz was released on DVD on June 21, 2016.
In 2013, Walt Disney Pictures released a spiritual prequel titled, Oz the Great and Powerful. It was directed by Sam Raimi, and starred James Franco, Mila Kunis, Rachel Weisz and Michelle Williams. It was the second film based on Baum 's Oz series to be produced by Disney, after Return to Oz. It was a commercial success and received a mixed critical reception.
In 2014, now - defunct independent film company Clarius Entertainment released a big - budget animated musical film, Legends of Oz: Dorothy 's Return, which follows Dorothy 's second trip to Oz. The film was a box office bomb and was received negatively by critics largely for its plot and unmemorable musical numbers.
Regarding the original Baum storybook, it has been said that "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is America 's greatest and best - loved home grown fairytale. The first totally American fantasy for children, it is one of the most - read children 's books... and despite its many particularly American attributes, including a wizard from Omaha, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz has universal appeal. ''
The film also has been deemed "culturally significant '' by the United States Library of Congress, which selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1989. In June 2007, the film was listed on UNESCO 's Memory of the World Register. The film placed at number 86 on Bravo 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments. In 1977, Aljean Harmetz wrote The Making of The Wizard of Oz, a detailed description of the creation of the film based on interviews and research; it was updated in 1989.
Because of their iconic stature, the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland in the film are now among the most treasured and valuable film memorabilia in movie history. The silver slippers that Dorothy wore in the book series were changed to ruby to take advantage of the new Technicolor process. Adrian, MGM 's chief costume designer, was responsible for the final design. A number of pairs were made, though no one knows exactly how many.
After filming, the slippers were stored among the studio 's extensive collection of costumes and faded from attention. They were found in the basement of MGM 's wardrobe department during preparations for a mammoth auction in 1970. One pair was the highlight of the auction, going for a then unheard of $15,000 to an anonymous buyer, who apparently donated them to the Smithsonian Institution in 1979. Four other pairs are known to exist; one sold for $666,000 at auction in 2000. A pair was stolen from the Judy Garland Museum in Grand Rapids, Minnesota and remains missing.
Another, differently styled pair unused in the film was sold at auction with the rest of her collections by owner actress Debbie Reynolds for $510,000 (not including the buyer 's premium) in June 2011.
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where is the bakery from cake boss located | Carlo 's Bake Shop - wikipedia
Carlo 's Bake Shop, commonly known as Carlo 's Bakery and also known as Carlo 's City Hall Bake Shop, is a bakery in Hoboken, New Jersey, owned by Buddy Valastro. The bakery has gained public attention as the setting of the TLC television series, Cake Boss.
In 1910, Carlo 's Bakery was founded by Carlo Guastaferro, and in 1964, it was purchased by Bartolo "Buddy '' Valastro, Sr. Valastro 's son Buddy Valastro currently runs the bakery, with help from his four older sisters, three brothers - in - law, and other assorted family members and friends. One notable employee was Sal Picinich, who began working at the bakery shortly after the Valastro family purchased it, and continued until his death on January 30, 2011.
The bakery rose to fame with Cake Boss, a reality television series that premiered on TLC in April 2009, depicting the staff of the shop creating elaborate custom - order novelty cakes.
As a result of the popularity of Cake Boss, Carlo 's Bakery built a new factory at Lackawanna Center, a mixed industrial - retail complex in nearby Jersey City. Carlo 's Bakery has leased space at the complex, which is used for additional space to make specialty cakes, as well as the ability to make baked goods for shipment across the country. Because of the limited space at the Hoboken location, Carlo 's Bakery was unable to ship cakes beyond normal driving distance from the bakery; the bakery had conducted a limited trial Internet sale of pies in October 2009, to test the viability of selling baked goods on the Internet.
In January 2012, as a result of the attention that has been brought to the city of Hoboken by the shop and the TV series, the Hudson Reporter named Buddy Valastro Jr. as an honorable mention in its list of Hudson County 's 50 most influential people.
Carlo 's Bakery now has locations opened all over the country. As of December 2016, there are 14 locations open across the country in 7 states, with a further 3 in construction in 3 more states.
On May 24, 2011, Carlo 's Bakery opened its first branch location, Cake Boss Cafe, at the Discovery Times Square Exposition at 226 West 44th Street in New York City 's Times Square. This location offers Carlo 's Bakery 's smaller baked goods, as well as bakery and Cake Boss merchandise. On February 10, 2013, the Bakery opened its first full - range branch location in Ridgewood, New Jersey. On September 1, 2013, the Bakery opened its third bakery location in Westfield, New Jersey. The next bakery opened on November 23, 2013, in Red Bank, New Jersey.
In March 2014, Carlo 's opened its next location in Morristown, New Jersey, as well as its first bakery on the West Coast in Las Vegas, Nevada, located in the Venetian Palazzo.
Florida - Orlando: Carlo 's Bakery opens up in Orlando, Florida
New Jersey - Morristown In March 2014, Carlo 's opened its next location in Morristown, New Jersey
Nevada - Las Vegas Carlo 's Bakery opens its first bakery on the West Coast in Las Vegas, Nevada, located in the Venetian Palazzo.
Pennsylvania - Philadelphia Carlo 's Bake Shop located on Walnut Street in Philadelphia 's Rittenhouse Square neighborhood.
On November 10, 2016, Carlo 's opened a kiosk sized booth in Willowbrook Mall, in Wayne, New Jersey, situated in front of the mall 's food court.
In April 2017 it was announced that a 2,000 sq. foot location was to open at the Mall of America sometime in Summer 2017.
Carlo 's also has a location in The Woodlands, Texas.
(São Paulo) - São Paulo On December 7, 2016, Carlo 's opens its first bakery outside the United States. Managed by Rick Zavala, Batalha dos Confeiteiros Brasil 's winner, a TV Reality Show exhibited by RecordTV.
Coordinates: 40 ° 44 ′ 14 '' N 74 ° 01 ′ 51 '' W / 40.73715 ° N 74.03078 ° W / 40.73715; - 74.03078
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who has the highest ppg average in nba history | List of National Basketball Association annual scoring Leaders - wikipedia
In basketball, points are accumulated through free throws or field goals. The National Basketball Association 's (NBA) scoring title is awarded to the player with the highest points per game average in a given season. The scoring title was originally determined by total points scored through the 1968 -- 69 season, after which points per game was used to determine the leader instead. Players who earned scoring titles before the 1979 -- 80 season did not record any three point field goals because the three - point line had just been implemented in the NBA at the start of that season. To qualify for the scoring title, the player must appear in at least 70 games (out of 82) or have at least 1,400 points. These have been the entry criteria since the 1974 -- 75 season.
Wilt Chamberlain holds the all - time records for total points scored (4,029) and points per game (50.4) in a season; both records were achieved in the 1961 -- 62 season. He also holds the rookie records for points per game when he averaged 37.6 points in the 1959 -- 60 season. Among active players, Kevin Durant has the highest point total (2,593) and the highest scoring average (32.0) in a season; both were achieved in the 2013 -- 14 season.
Michael Jordan has won the most scoring titles, with ten. Jordan and Chamberlain are the only players to have won seven consecutive scoring titles (this was also Chamberlain 's career total). George Gervin, Allen Iverson and Durant have won four scoring titles in their career, and George Mikan, Neil Johnston and Bob McAdoo have achieved it three times. Paul Arizin, Bob Pettit, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Shaquille O'Neal, Tracy McGrady, Kobe Bryant, and Russell Westbrook have each won the scoring title twice. Since the 1946 -- 47 season, five players have won both the scoring title and the NBA championship in the same season: Fulks in 1947 with the Philadelphia Warriors, Mikan from 1949 to 1950 with the Minneapolis Lakers, Abdul - Jabbar (then Lew Alcindor) in 1971 with the Milwaukee Bucks, Jordan from 1991 to 1993 and from 1996 to 1998 with the Chicago Bulls, and O'Neal in 2000 with the Los Angeles Lakers. Since the introduction of the three - point field goal, O'Neal is the only scoring leader to have made no three - pointers in his winning season.
At 21 years and 197 days, Durant is the youngest scoring leader in NBA history, averaging 30.1 points in the 2009 -- 10 season. Russell Westbrook led the league with an average of 31.6 points in the 2016 -- 17 season, when he also became the second NBA player to average a triple - double in a season. The most recent champion is James Harden.
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day of atonement high priest holy of holies | Holy of Holies - wikipedia
The Holy of Holies (Tiberian Hebrew: קֹדֶשׁ הַקֳּדָשִׁים Qṓḏeš HaQŏḏāšîm) is a term in the Hebrew Bible which refers to the inner sanctuary of the Tabernacle where God dwelt. The Ark is said to have contained the Ten Commandments, which were given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai. It is thought to be located under the Dome of the Rock.
The area was defined by four pillars which held up the veil of the covering under which the Ark of the Covenant was held off the floor by two staves. Three hundred years later, it was the Temple in Jerusalem, where the Ark of the Covenant was kept during the First Temple.
The construction "Holy of Holies '' is a literal translation of a Hebrew idiom which is intended to express a superlative. Examples of similar constructions are "servant of servants '' (Gen 9: 25), "Sabbath of sabbaths '' (Ex 31: 15), "God of gods '' (Deut 10: 17), "Vanity of vanities '' (Eccl 1: 2), "Song of songs '' (Song of Songs 1: 1), "king of kings '' (Ezra 7: 12), etc.
In the Authorized King James Version, "Holy of Holies '' is always translated as "Most Holy Place ''. This is in keeping with the intention of the Hebrew idiom to express the utmost degree of holiness. The King James Version of the Bible has been in existence for over four hundred years. For most of that time, it was a primary reference in much of the English speaking world for information about Judaism. Thus, the name "Most Holy Place '' was used to refer to the "Holy of Holies '' in many English documents.
A related term is the debir (דְּבִיר ) transliterated in the Septuagint as dabir (δαβιρ), which either means the back (i.e. western) part of the Sanctuary, or derives from the verb stem D-V-R, "to speak '', justifying the translation in the Latin Vulgate as oraculum, from which the traditional English translation "oracle '' (KJV, 1611) derives.
The Holy of Holies was covered by a veil, and no one was allowed to enter except the High Priest, and even he could only enter once a year on Yom Kippur (the day of atonement), to offer the blood of sacrifice and incense before the mercy seat. The Bible reports that in the wilderness, on the day that the tabernacle was first raised up, the cloud of the Lord covered the tabernacle (Exodus 40: 33 - 40: 34). There are other times that this was recorded, and instructions were given that the Lord would appear in the cloud upon the mercy seat (kapporet), and at that time the priests should not enter into the tabernacle (Leviticus 16: 2). According to the Hebrew Bible, the Holy of Holies contained the Ark of the Covenant with representation of Cherubim. Upon completion of the dedication of the Tabernacle, the Voice of God spoke to Moses "from between the Cherubim '' (Numbers 7: 89).
The area could be entered only by the High Priest on Yom Kippur after sanctifying himself
The Holy of Holies, the most sacred site in Judaism, is the inner sanctuary within the Tabernacle and Temple in Jerusalem when Solomon 's Temple and the Second Temple were standing. The Holy of Holies was located in the westernmost end of the Temple building, being a perfect cube: 20 cubits by 20 cubits by 20 cubits. The inside was in total darkness and contained the Ark of the Covenant, gilded inside and out, in which was placed the Tablets of the Covenant. According to Hebrews 9: 4 in the New Testament, Aaron 's rod and a pot of manna were also in the ark. The Ark was covered with a lid made of pure gold, known as the "mercy seat '' (Exodus 37: 6) which was covered by the beaten gold cherubim wings. Creating the space for the Divine Presence.
When the Temple was rebuilt after the Babylonian captivity, the Ark was no longer present in the Holy of Holies; instead, a portion of the floor was raised slightly to indicate the place where it had stood. Josephus records that Pompey profaned the Temple by insisting on entering the Holy of Holies in 63 BCE.
The Holy of Holies was entered once a year by the High Priest on the Day of Atonement, to sprinkle the blood of sacrificial animals (a bull offered as atonement for the Priest and his household, and a goat offered as atonement for the people) and offer incense upon the Ark of the Covenant and the mercy seat which sat on top of the ark in the First Temple (the Second Temple had no ark and the blood was sprinkled where the Ark would have been and the incense was left on the Foundation Stone). The animal was sacrificed on the Brazen Altar and the blood was carried into the most holy place. The golden censers were also found in the Most Holy Place.
According to the Hebrew Bible, in order that God may dwell among the Israelites, God gave Moses instructions for erecting a sanctuary. The directions provide for:
The Magdala stone is thought to be a representation of the Holy of Holies carved before the destruction of the Temple in the year 70.
Traditional Judaism regards the location where the inner sanctuary was originally located, on the Temple Mount in Mount Moriah, as retaining some or all of its original sanctity for use in a future Third Temple. The exact location of the Kodesh Hakodashim is a subject of dispute.
Traditional Judaism regards the Holy of Holies as the place where the presence of God dwells. The Talmud gives detailed descriptions of Temple architecture and layout. According to the Babylonian Talmud Tractate Yoma, the Kodesh Hakodashim is located in the center North - South but significantly to the West from an East -- West perspective, with all the major courtyards and functional areas lying to its east.
The Talmud supplies additional details, and describes the ritual performed by the High Priest. During the ritual, the High Priest would pronounce the Tetragrammaton, the only point according to traditional Judaism that it was pronounced out loud. According to Jewish tradition, the people prostrated themselves fully on the ground when it was said. According to the Talmud, the High Priest 's face upon exit from the Holy of Holies was radiant.
While under normal circumstances, access to the Holy of Holies was restricted to the High Priest and only on Yom Kippur, the Talmud suggests that repair crews were allowed inside as needed but were lowered from the upper portion of the room via enclosures so that they only saw the area they were to work on.
Judaism regards the Torah ark, a place in a synagogue where the Torah scrolls are kept, as a miniature Holy of Holies.
At present it is conjectured that it is located under the Dome of the Rock which stands on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, though the exact location of the Most Holy Place is not known with absolute certainty. Most Orthodox Jews today completely avoid climbing up to Temple Mount, to prevent them from accidentally stepping on the Most Holy Place or any sanctified areas. A few Orthodox Jewish authorities, following the opinion of the medieval scholar Maimonides, permit Jews to visit parts of the Temple Mount known not to be anywhere near any of the sanctified areas. Orthodox Jewish visitors to the Temple Mount, who come especially from those groups associated with the Temple Institute and its efforts to rebuild a Temple, seek to conform to the minimal requirements for coming near the Temple, such as immersing in a mikvah ("collection of water ''), not coming during or following menstruation or immediately following a seminal emission, not showing their back towards its presumed location, and other strictures.
To avoid religious conflict, Jewish visitors caught praying or bringing ritual objects are usually expelled from the area by police.
The Greek New Testament retains the pre-Christian Septuagint phrase "Holy of the Holies '' hágion (sg n) tōn hagíōn (ἅγιον τῶν ἁγίων) without the definite article as "Holies of Holies '' hágia (pl n) hagíōn (ἅγια ἁγίων) in Hebrews 9: 3. In the Vulgate, these are rendered as sanctum sanctorum and sancta sanctorum, respectively.
Certain branches of Christianity, including the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church continue to have a tradition of a Holy of Holies which they regard as a most sacred site. The ciborium, a permanent canopy over the altar in some churches, once surrounded by curtains at points in the liturgy, symbolizes the Holy of Holies.
The Greek phrase refers to the Tabernacle or Temple. The name in Greek for the Sanctuary of a Church is Ἱερόν Βῆμα (Hieron Vema, see Bema # Christianity), in Russian it is called Святой Алтарь (Svyatoy Altar), and in Romanian it is called Sfântul Altar.
A cognate term in Ge'ez is found in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church: Qidduse Qiddusan, referring to the innermost sanctuary of an Orthodox Christian church, where the tabot is kept and only clergy may enter. This is also called the "Bete Mekdes. Every Ethiopian Orthodox Church has one, and it is covered with a Curtain. There are Three ways to enter (most of the time) and those three doors are also a way to reveal the Holy Trinity. In the middle there is always an Altar where the Church 's Tabot is kept. There can be as many altars as the number of Tabots. ''
The Saint Thomas Christians (also known as Nasrani or Syrian Christians) from Kerala, South India still follow much Jewish Christian tradition. In Nasrani tradition the Holy of Holies is kept veiled for much of the time. The red veil covers the inner altar or the main altar. It is unveiled only during the central part of the main Nasrani ritual. The main ritual of the Saint Thomas Christians is the Qurbana (derived from the Syriac word "Qurobo '' meaning "sacrifice '').
The Latin Vulgate Bible translates Qṓḏeš HaqQŏḏāšîm as Sanctum sanctorum (Ex 26: 34). Reproducing in Latin the Hebrew construction, the expression is used as a superlative of the neuter adjective sanctum, to mean "a thing most holy ''. It is used by Roman Catholics to refer to holy objects beyond the Holy of Holies, particularly in religious feast day processions in Southern Germany.
The Vulgate also refers to the Holy of Holies with the plural form Sancta sanctorum (2 Chr 5: 7), arguably a synecdoche referring to the holy objects hosted there. This form is also used more broadly in Catholic tradition with reference to sanctuaries other than the Temple in Jerusalem. A notable example is for the Chiesa di San Lorenzo in Palatio ad Sancta Sanctorum, a chapel in the complex of St John Lateran in Rome.
The Salt Lake Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) contains a Holy of Holies wherein the church 's president -- acting as the Presiding High Priest -- enters to fulfill the relationship between the High Priest of Israel and God in accordance with the LDS interpretation of the Book of Exodus (Exodus 25: 22) and Mormon religious texts.
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who counts first in crib at the end | Rules of cribbage - wikipedia
Over the 400 or so years that the game of cribbage has been around, variations and rules have evolved. House rules, preferences and even misunderstandings have been passed from one player to another. However, the core of the rules remains constant, and should be familiar to most players. The rules here apply to the standard two -, three - or four - player games, with details of variations being listed below.
Cribbage uses a standard 52 - card deck of cards. The jokers are removed; the suits are equal in status. The players cut for first deal, with the player cutting the lowest card (the ace counts as one, and is the lowest card) dealing first. If the cutters tie, the cards are re-shuffled and re-cut. The dealer shuffles, offers the deck to the player on his or her right to cut (required in tournament play), and deals cards singly to each player, starting with the player on the dealer 's left. During the deal, if any card is exposed by the dealer or found face - up in the deck, cards must be redealt.
Cards must be dealt so that each player ends up with four cards after the crib is formed, and the crib should also have four cards. For two players, each is dealt six cards (though some play with five cards dealt to each player and two to the crib). For three or four players, each is dealt five cards. In the case of three players, a single card is dealt face down in front of the dealer to start the crib.
Once the cards have been dealt, each player chooses four cards to retain, discarding the other one or two face - down to form the "crib '' that will be used later by the dealer. At this point, each player 's hand and the crib will contain exactly four cards.
The player on the dealer 's left cuts the undealt portion of the deck (leaving at least 4 cards), and the dealer reveals the top card, called the "starter '' or the "cut '', placing it on top of the deck face up. (It is illegal to peek at any other cards in the deck during this process.) If this card is a Jack, the dealer scores two points for "his heels '', also known as "his nibs '', or simply "nibs ''. The game can end on a cut of a Jack for the dealer.
The play (often called pegging) starts with the player on the dealer 's left and continues clockwise. Each player lays one card in turn onto the table so that it is visible, stating the cumulative value of the cards played. (For example, the first player lays a 4 and says "four '', the next lays a 7 and says "eleven '', and so on). Face cards are worth ten; Aces are worth one. Play must not exceed 31, so a player who can not lay a card without bringing the total above 31 passes by saying "Go ''. The other players continue to lay cards in turn without exceeding 31 until no cards can be played. If a player can lay a card they must do so. The last player to lay a card scores two points if 31 is reached exactly ("31 for two ''); otherwise one point is scored, e.g., "29 for one '', or "30 for one '', etc. The one - point score is known as "One for the go '', or simply the "Go ''. The count is then reset to zero and play resumes, starting with the player to the left of the last card played. Players with cards remaining repeat this process until all players ' cards have been played.
In addition to scoring one or two points for the last card, players score points according to the following rules:
If a card completes more than one scoring combination, then all combinations are scored. For example, if the first three cards played are 5s, the third one scores eight points: two for making 15, and six for a pair royal. Card combinations can not span a reset; once the total reaches 31 (or a Go has been scored) and counting has restarted at zero, cards already played can not contribute to runs or pairs. During this phase of play run combinations can not span a pair; in a play of 2, 3, 3, 4 the pair interrupts the run so only the pair is counted for points.
Players choose when to lay each card in order to maximise their score according to the scheme shown below. The first player to reach 121 wins the game.
Once the play is complete, each player in turn receives points based on the content of their hand. Starting with the player on the dealer 's left, players spread out their cards on the playing surface and calculate their score based on these four cards and the starter card:
Common combinations are often scored as a group. For example, a run of three cards with an additional card matching one of the three in value, e.g., 2 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4, is termed a "double run '', and scores eight according to the above rules, three for each of the runs and two for the pair. Even more valuable are "triple runs '' (three three - card straights including a three - of - a-kind, e.g., 2 -- 2 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4, that score fifteen) and "double - double runs '' (four three - card straights including pairs, e.g., 2 -- 3 -- 3 -- 4 -- 4, that score sixteen). Combined runs may also include fifteen - twos. A 24 hand, the largest commonly seen, comprises a double - double run and four fifteen - twos. Two examples are 4 -- 4 -- 5 -- 5 -- 6 and 6 -- 7 -- 7 -- 8 -- 8.
The dealer scores his hand last and then turns the cards in the crib face up. These cards, in conjunction with the starter card, are scored by the dealer as an additional hand. The rules for scoring the crib are the same as scoring a hand, with the exception of the flush; a four - card flush in the crib is scored only if it is the same suit as the starter card (for a total of five points).
The highest possible score for a hand is 29 points: a starter card of a 5, and a hand of 5, 5, 5, J with the Jack being the same suit as the starter card. The score might be announced thus:
Fifteen two, fifteen four, fifteen six, fifteen eight, (four J - 5 combinations) fifteen ten, fifteen twelve, fifteen fourteen, fifteen sixteen, (four 5 -- 5 -- 5 combinations) twelve for pairs (four 5s) is twenty - eight, and nobs makes twenty - nine.
Scores between 0 and 29 are all possible, with the exception of 19, 25, 26 and 27. Players may colloquially refer to a blank hand (one scoring no points) as a "nineteen hand ''.
After the dealer has scored the crib, all cards are collected and the deal passes to the player on the dealer 's left. The next round starts with the deal.
Although the rules of cribbage do not require it (except in tournament play), the traditional method of keeping score is to use a cribbage board. This is a flat board, usually made of wood, with separate series of holes that record each player 's score. It is usually arranged in five hole sections for easier scoring. Players each have two pegs that mark their current and previous scores, and all scoring is done by moving the back peg ahead of the front peg.
When a player reaches the target score for the game (usually 121), the game ends with that player the winner.
A match (much like tennis) consists of more than one game, often an odd number (3 games, 5 games, 7 games etc.). The match points are scored on the cribbage board using the holes reserved for match points. On a spiral board, these are often at the bottom of the board in a line with 5 or 7 holes. On a traditional board, they are often placed in the middle of the board or at the top / bottom.
In a two player game of cribbage a player scores one match point for each game won. Their opponent will begin the next game as first dealer. If a player skunks their opponent (reaches 121 points before their opponent scores 91 points) then that player scores one extra match point for that game (two match points in total). If a player double skunks their opponent (reaches 121 points before their opponent reaches 61), then they score two extra match points for the game (four match points in total). If a player triple skunks their opponent (reaches 121 points before their opponent reaches 31 points), they automatically win the match regardless of how many match points are needed to win. Double and triple skunks are not included in the official rules of cribbage play and are optional. There are several different formats for scoring match points.
When playing a three player match in a winner takes all format, the winner scores two match points (just like in two - way cribbage) for each game won. If he / she skunks just the third opponent, they score an additional match point (3 total) with second place receiving one point. If he / she double skunks both opponents, he / she still scores three match points but second place would not receive any points at all.
In continued play format, the winner of the match earns two match points for three player cribbage and four match points for five player cribbage (plus applicable match points if the player has skunked / double skunked their opponents). The remaining players play until there is a second winner, who scores one match point for three player cribbage and two match points for five player cribbage (with no extra points for skunking opponents). In five player cribbage, the remaining three players play until there is a third winner, who scores one match point (with no extra points for skunking opponents).
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who does the voice of the dragon in dragonheart | Dragonheart - wikipedia
Dragonheart is a 1996 British - American fantasy action - adventure film directed by Rob Cohen. It stars Dennis Quaid, David Thewlis, Pete Postlethwaite, Dina Meyer, and the voice of Sean Connery. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and various other awards in 1996 and 1997.
An English knight, Bowen (Dennis Quaid), mentors a Saxon prince, Einon (Lee Oakes), in the ideals of chivalry, in the hope that he will become a better king than his tyrannical father Freyne (Peter Hric). When the king is killed while suppressing a peasant rebellion, Einon is mortally, though accidentally, wounded by the peasant girl Kara (Sandra Kovacikova). Einon 's mother, Queen Aislinn (Julie Christie), has him taken before a dragon whom she implores to save the boy 's life. The dragon replaces Einon 's wounded heart with half of its own on the promise that Einon will rule with justice and virtue. However, Einon soon becomes more tyrannical than his father, enslaving the former rebels and forcing them to rebuild a Roman castle. Bowen believes that the dragon 's heart has twisted Einon, and swears vengeance on all dragons.
Twelve years later, an adult Einon (David Thewlis) has his castle rebuilt. Kara (Dina Meyer) asks the king to pardon her father after years of slavery, but Einon instead kills him in order to "free '' him. As for Bowen, he has become a very skilled dragonslayer. Brother Gilbert (Pete Postlethwaite), a monk and aspiring poet, observes Bowen slaying a dragon and follows him to record his exploits. Bowen stalks another dragon (voiced by Sean Connery) to its cave, but the confrontation ends in a stalemate. The dragon states that he is the last of his kind, and thus if Bowen kills him, he will be out of a job. The two form a partnership to defraud local villagers with staged dragonslayings. Bowen calls the dragon Draco, after the constellation. Unknown to Bowen, Draco is the dragon who shared his heart with Einon, and through this connection, any pain inflicted upon one is also felt by the other.
Meanwhile, Kara, seeking revenge on Einon for murdering her father, is imprisoned after a failed assassination attempt. Einon recognizes her as the one responsible for his near - death and attempts to seduce her and make her his queen. Disgusted by what her son has become, Aislinn helps Kara escape. Kara returns to her village and tries to rally the villagers there against Einon, but they instead offer her as a sacrifice to Draco, who takes her to his lair. Einon arrives to recapture her and fights Bowen, declaring that he never believed in Bowen 's ideals, and only told Bowen what he wanted to hear so he would teach him how to fight. He eventually gains the upper hand and nearly kills Bowen, but Draco intervenes, reveals his half - heart to Einon, and the king flees. Kara asks Bowen to help overthrow Einon, but the disillusioned knight refuses.
After meeting Gilbert by chance at another village, Bowen and Draco 's next staged dragonslaying goes poorly, and their con is exposed (after Kara, disgusted by their actions, unsuccessfully attempts to expose the con herself). While Draco is playing dead, the villagers see him as potential meat and attempt to carve him up, but hearing their intentions makes him flee, subsequently alerting the villagers to the con. Angered, they surround Bowen, Kara, and Gilbert, now deciding to make them their meat instead. Draco, however, rescues the three and takes them to Avalon, where they take shelter among the tombs of the Knights of the Round Table. Draco reveals the connection between himself and Einon, stating that he hoped giving the prince a piece of his heart would change Einon 's nature and reunite the races of Man and Dragon. Through this action Draco hoped to earn a place in the stars, where dragons who prove their worth go after they die. He fears that his failure will cost him his soul, and agrees to help Kara and Gilbert against Einon. After experiencing a vision of King Arthur (voiced by John Gielgud) that reminds him of his knightly code, Bowen agrees to help, as well.
With Bowen and Draco on their side, the villagers are organized into a formidable fighting force. Aislinn presents Einon with a group of dragonslayers, secretly knowing that killing Draco will cause Einon to die as well. The villagers are on the verge of victory against Einon 's cavalry when Gilbert strikes Einon in the heart with an arrow. Draco falls from the sky and is captured. Einon realizes that he is effectively immortal as long as Draco remains alive, and determines to keep the dragon imprisoned. Aislinn attempts to kill Draco during the night, but Einon stops and kills her instead.
The rebels invade Einon 's castle to rescue Draco as Bowen battles Einon. Draco begs Bowen to kill him as it is the only way to end Einon 's reign, but Bowen ca n't bring himself to kill his friend. Einon charges at Bowen with a dagger, but Bowen reluctantly throws an axe into Draco 's exposed half - heart. Einon and Draco both die, and Draco 's body dissipates as his soul becomes a new star in the constellation. Bowen and Kara go on to lead the kingdom into an era of justice and brotherhood.
Patrick Read Johnson, who wrote the story for Dragonheart, first proposed the idea for the film to producer Raffaella de Laurentiis. Johnson describes it as "The Skin Game with a dragon in it... or Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Dragon '', and that he wanted "the idea of a dragon and a knight conning villages for money '' because he thought that the concept was "not only funny, but kind of sweet ''. Johnson went on to pitch the idea to screenplay writer Charles Edward Pogue, and he agreed to work on the film. De Laurentiis originally intended for John Badham, Rob Cohen 's then - partner, to work on Dragonheart. According to Cohen, Badham "did n't respond '' to the material, so Johnson was then asked to direct the film.
To be able to stay within the budget that Universal Studios was willing to shell out with Johnson directing, the developers approached Jim Henson 's Creature Shop to create the dragon through traditional means. The dragon model was done within eight weeks time, and the crew then went to Shepperton Studios in England to begin shooting the film, starting with the campfire scene. The crew faced difficulties in keeping within the budget.
After working with de Laurentiis on Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story in 1993, Rob Cohen agreed to take over as director for the film. He approached Universal Studios with his new ideas, including the addition of computer - generated imagery (CGI) to animate the dragons similar to how the dinosaurs were created for Jurassic Park.
The principal cast members of Dragonheart were:
Phil Tippett, a visual effects producer specializing in creature design and character animation, and Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) were hired to work on animating Draco for Dragonheart. Tippett states that the responsibilities that his studio had for Dragonheart differed from what they did for Jurassic Park in that they were mostly responsible for the actual look and design of the dragon as well as the storyboards, blocking, and the timing of action sequences.
Tippett worked closely with sculptor Pete Konig in designing Draco. Konig crafted several maquettes that they showed to Cohen, and they worked on improving the ones that Cohen said "(felt) right ''. Cohen 's ideas for Draco 's design stemmed from the traditional Chinese guardian lion, which Cohen describes as having "a lion - like elegance, a fierceness '', and that it is "ultimately a proud... visually powerful creature ''. He also drew ideas from nature, such as the boa constrictor 's jaw structure and the musculature of horses. Tippett also took into consideration how the scenes with Draco in it would be framed, the size difference between Draco and the human actors, and what he would actually be doing throughout the film. Draco 's hide and wings were originally going to have an iridescent quality and his eyes were to be more detailed such as being able to dilate, but those design elements were dropped due to software issues and running out of time.
Tippett and his crew created a five - foot model of Draco for lighting reference, and an articulated model that could be used for as a reference for Draco 's poses. Because Draco would have more screen time than the CGI dinosaurs in Jurassic Park (23 minutes for Draco, as opposed to six and a half for the dinosaurs), visual effects producer Julie Weaver and her team did a screen test for Dragonheart six to eight months before actual storyboarding, using a "stretched out '' version of the Tyrannosaurus rex from Jurassic Park.
The film is notably the first to use ILM 's Caricature software, as it was developed to help lip - sync Draco 's animation to Sean Connery 's voiceover work. Draco is often seen as the first fully CGI main character in film, when in reality, that distinction belongs to a knight from the 1985 film Young Sherlock Holmes. Draco is however noted as the first computer - generated dragon in film.
Actual filming began in July 1994 in Slovakia. During sequences with Draco and Bowen in them, visual effects supervisor Scott Squires and his teams used what they called a "monster stick '' -- a pole with a bar and two red circles at the top -- as an indicator for where Draco 's eyes would be for Quaid 's reference. They also set up speakers through which Cohen would read Draco 's lines for Quaid, which Quaid said "helped (him) out a lot. ''
While filming the scenes involving Draco in flight, the crew used a microlight as reference, and then edited the footage to "put Draco over the top of that and remove any traces of the aircraft. ''
Although Draco is fully rendered in CGI, full - sized models of some of Draco 's body parts were used for some of the scenes. One of them was Draco 's foot, which was used to pin Bowen to the ground, and the other was Draco 's jaw during the scene where Bowen gets trapped inside it. While the foot was a non-moving prop, the jaw had moving parts and was operated by a puppeteer.
According to Cohen, they spent an additional thirteen months working on the film after making the final cut of the film. He was in Rome to shoot Daylight on - location during this period, and had to review animation sequences with ILM and give them his comments and instructions through a satellite hookup.
The score was composed by Randy Edelman. The main theme song, "The World of the Heart '' and "To the Stars '', were used in film trailers such as Two Brothers, Mulan, and Seven Years in Tibet, clip montages at the Academy Awards, numerous other film trailers, and the closing credits of the U.S. broadcasts of the Olympic Games, making it a well known film score. MCA Records released the film 's soundtrack album on May 28, 1996, which contains 15 music tracks.
The film was released in the US and Canada on May 31, 1996, and earned $15,027,150 during its opening weekend.
Dragonheart was released on VHS on April 8, 1997, and on DVD as a "Collector 's Edition '' on March 31, 1998. The film was later released on HD DVD on May 29, 2007. Dragonheart and Dragonheart: A New Beginning were released together on a one - disc print known as "2 Legendary Tales '' on March 2, 2004. Dragonheart was released on Blu - ray Disc on March 27, 2012.
Charles Edward Pogue wrote a novelization of DragonHeart based on his screenplay, which was published by The Berkley Publishing Group in June 1996. It has been released in several languages and in five editions in the U.S. to widespread critical acclaim, with readers praising Pogue 's writing, how the book develops the story, setting, and characters more than the film, also noting its darker and more serious tone compared to that of the film. In 1999, the film was adapted as a junior novelization by Adriana Gabriel.
Some of the notable differences from the film are:
Based on reviews from 30 critics compiled retrospectively, Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 50 % with an average rating of 5.7 out of 10. Critics praised the premise, visual effects, and character development but panned the script as confusing and clichéd.
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4, saying "While no reasonable person over the age of 12 would presumably be able to take it seriously, it nevertheless has a lighthearted joy, a cheerfulness, an insouciance, that recalls the days when movies were content to be fun. Add that to the impressive technical achievement that went into creating the dragon, and you have something to acknowledge here. It is n't great cinema, but I 'm glad I saw it. '' Jami Bernard of The New York Daily News described the film as "a movie for people young enough to keep dragons in the menageries of their imaginations '', and went on to say that "the dragon is the most believable part of the whole movie. '' Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the movie a positive review, but criticized the fact that Sean Connery provided the voice for Draco, saying that "If only Sean Connery did n't have such a wonderfully distinctive voice, Draco might live and breathe as his own creature. ''
After its release, Dragonheart spawned a spin - off 2D hack and slash game for the PlayStation and Saturn called Dragonheart: Fire & Steel, made by Acclaim Entertainment, which was met with mostly negative reviews due to bad gameplay, poor quality graphics, and a generally unimaginative design. In late 1996, Acclaim ported a PC version of the game, which received similar criticism. There was also an original Game Boy game based on the film. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly, while remarking that the Game Boy game is rather simple and lacking in challenge, especially the "anticlimactic '' combat, concluded that it offers decent entertainment and longevity for a portable game. They especially praised the storyline, with Sushi X going so far as to say it was the main reason he kept playing the game.
In the years following its release and strong home media sales, Dragonheart gained a following and is now considered a cult classic. The character of Draco also gained popularity, often being ranked as one of cinema 's most memorable dragons, with fans noting him as ILM 's best work on the heels of Jurassic Park and praising Sean Connery 's vocal performance. In 2006, Draco was ranked no. 6 on a Top 10 list of movie dragons by Karl Heitmueller for MTV Movie News. In 2013, WatchMojo.com ranked Draco no. 8 on their list of "Top 10 Dragons from Movies and TV '' and, in 2015, listed him as an Honorable Mention on their list of "Another Top 10 Movie Characters We Did n't Want to Die. ''
On various days throughout the year in Toronto, a fully restored "20th anniversary edition '' of Dragonheart with never - before - seen footage, enhanced visual effects, and a digitally remastered soundtrack is screened at the AMC Yonge & Dundas 24 theatre. On May 31 2016, in celebration of the film 's 20th anniversary, a retrospective article was published on the making of DragonHeart featuring Scott Squires and Phil Tippett among others who worked on the film.
A direct - to - video sequel to the film called Dragonheart: A New Beginning was released in 2000. A prequel called Dragonheart 3: The Sorcerer 's Curse was released in 2015, and a second DTV prequel, Dragonheart: Battle for the Heartfire, was released in 2017.
In a 2013 MTV interview about his upcoming film 5 - 25 - 77, DragonHeart creator Patrick Read Johnson expressed a desire to remake the film with Sean Connery and Liam Neeson, who was on board to play the role of Bowen before Johnson was fired from the project. In April 2016, Matthew Feitshans, screenwriter of Dragonheart 3 and Dragonheart 4, stated that Universal wants to use the prequels to keep up the film series ' momentum, mentioning the possibility and the hopes of them leading to a remake of the original film. In 2017, Dragonheart was listed as no. 8 on WatchMojo. com 's list of "Top 10 Movie Remakes We Actually WANT To See. ''
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where is the movie father of the year filmed | Father of the Year (film) - wikipedia
Father of the Year is an American comedy film directed by Tyler Spindel. The film stars David Spade, Nat Faxon, Bridgit Mendler, Joey Bragg, Matt Shively, and Jared Sandler.
The film was released on July 20, 2018 by Netflix.
In July 2017, it was announced that David Spade, Nat Faxon, Bridgit Mendler, Joey Bragg, Matt Shively, and Jackie Sandler would star in Who Do You Think Would Win? for Netflix. The film was eventually re-titled Graduates and then later Father of the Year.
Principal photography took place in Boston and Hudson, MA in June 2017.
The film was released on July 20, 2018. The film was originally set to be released on June 29, 2018.
Rotten Tomatoes gives Father of The Year a 0 % Approval rating This is the third time a film from Happy Madison Productions has a 0 % approval rating after The Ridiculous 6 & Bucky Larson: Born to Be a Star.
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who played the title character he-man in the 1987 live action movie masters of the universe | Masters of the Universe (film) - wikipedia
Masters of the Universe is a 1987 American science fantasy film directed by Gary Goddard, produced by Yoram Globus and by Menahem Golan and written by David Odell. The film stars Dolph Lundgren, Frank Langella, Jon Cypher, Chelsea Field, Billy Barty, Courteney Cox, Robert Duncan McNeill and Meg Foster. It is based on the Mattel toyline of the same name and brings the story of two teenagers who meet the mighty warrior He - Man, who arrived on Earth from planet Eternia and now goes on a mission to save the universe from the villainous Skeletor, his nemesis.
Masters of the Universe was released theatrically in the United States on August 7, 1987. It was a critical and commercial failure, grossing $17 million worldwide against a budget of $22 million, but is now regarded as a cult film.
On the planet Eternia, at the center of the Universe, Skeletor 's army seizes Castle Grayskull, scatters the remaining Eternian defenders, and captures the Sorceress of Grayskull, planning to add her power to his own by the next moonrise.
Skeletor 's archenemy, the warrior He - Man, veteran soldier Man - At - Arms, and his daughter Teela rescue Gwildor from Skeletor 's forces. Gwildor, a Thenorian locksmith, reveals that Skeletor has acquired his invention: a "Cosmic Key '' that can open a portal to anywhere by utilizing sound keys. The device was stolen by Skeletor 's second - in - command, Evil - Lyn, allowing Skeletor to breach Castle Grayskull.
With Gwildor 's remaining prototype of the Key in hand, He - Man and his friends travel to the Castle. They attempt to free the Sorceress but are overwhelmed by Skeletor 's army and forced to flee through Gwildor 's hastily opened portal, transporting them to Earth. The Key is misplaced on their arrival and discovered by two New Jersey teenagers, orphaned high school girl Julie Winston and her boyfriend Kevin Corrigan. The pair attempt to figure out what the Key is and accidentally send a signal that allows Evil - Lyn to track the Key and send her henchmen -- Saurod, Blade, Beast Man and Karg -- to recover it.
Kevin, an aspiring musician, mistakes the Key for a synthesizer and takes it to a music store run by his friend Charlie. Karg 's team arrives and chases Julie until He - Man comes across her and rescues her. Karg 's team returns to Grayskull where, incensed by their failure, Skeletor kills Saurod and sends the others back to Earth, with a larger force under Evil - Lyn 's command. Unable to find Julie, Kevin is taken to Julie 's house by Lubic, a detective investigating the disturbance created by Karg 's team. Suspecting the Key is stolen, Lubic confiscates it from Kevin and leaves. Immediately afterward, Evil - Lyn captures and interrogates Kevin for the Key 's location with a mind control collar, before pursuing Lubic.
Julie and the Eternians release Kevin from the collar before they go after Lubic and the Key. They manage to get hold of them in Charlie 's store, but Skeletor 's forces catch up with them, and a pitched battle ensues. Evil - Lyn recovers the key and summons Skeletor to Earth. Skeletor 's forces capture the Eternians, and Julie is mortally wounded by Skeletor 's lightning blast, which simultaneously erases the memory storage of Gwildor 's Key. He - Man surrenders to save his comrades and is returned to Eternia as Skeletor 's slave. Skeletor demands that He - Man kneel before him for all of Eternia to witness, before he is killed. He - Man refuses and is lashed by Blade 's laser whip in an attempt to make him submit. He - Man is still standing when the moon rises, and Skeletor absorbs the powers of the universe. Declaring himself the Master of the Universe, Skeletor asserts his victory and continues to torture He - Man with energy blasts.
Back on Earth, Gwildor repairs the Cosmic Key, and Kevin recreates the tones necessary to create a gateway to Eternia. The group, including Lubic who attempts to arrest them, are transported to Castle Grayskull, where they begin battling Skeletor 's forces. Resenting that Skeletor absorbed the power of the Universe without sharing it with her, Evil - Lyn deserts him along with the other henchmen. Skeletor accidentally frees He - Man, who reclaims the Sword of Grayskull, and they battle until He - Man shatters Skeletor 's staff, removing his new powers and restoring him to his normal state. He - Man offers mercy, but Skeletor draws a concealed sword and attempts to kill He - Man; He - Man knocks Skeletor into a towering pit below. The freed Sorceress heals Julie, and a portal is opened to send the Earthlings home. Hailed as a hero for his bravery, Lubic decides to remain on Eternia.
Julie awakens on the morning of her parents ' deaths by plane crash. She prevents them from taking the ill - fated flight by taking their keys, and runs outside to find Kevin. Kevin confirms that their experiences were real, producing a souvenir from Eternia: a small blue sphere containing a scene of He - Man in front of Castle Grayskull with his sword raised above his head.
In a post-credits scene, Skeletor 's head emerges from the water at the bottom of the pit, saying "I 'll be back! ''.
One of the original drafts from the script by David Odell (whose previous writing credits include Supergirl and The Dark Crystal) was reviewed in the third episode of the He - Man and She - Ra podcast, Masters Cast. The original draft included more time spent on Eternia and Snake Mountain, had Beast man in a speaking role, and even revealed that He - Man 's mother was originally from Earth, as per the character Queen Marlena from the Filmation animated series He - Man and the Masters of the Universe, thus linking the two planets. Describing her character, Foster said that Evil - Lyn is not villainous, "she is just doing her job and she knows how to get results, even if it means being harsh. '' Langella agreed, calling Evil - Lyn a female more dedicated to Skeletor 's cause than any man; she is obsessive around Skeletor because she is slightly lovelorn. The filmmakers considered having Foster wear eye - lenses to mask her naturally pale - blue eyes, but decided that her natural eyes fit the character better. However, they did augment Foster 's chest, fitting cleavage into the character 's costume. Foster wanted the character to have a large hairstyle, rather than the short style featured in the film.
When offered the role, Langella said that he "did n't even blink... I could n't wait to play him. '' Langella cited his then - four - year - old son 's love of Skeletor while running around his house yelling He - Man 's battle cry "I have the power! '', as the reason he chose to play He - Man 's archenemy.
Comic book writer / artist John Byrne compared the film to Jack Kirby 's comic book metaseries Fourth World, stating in Comic Shop News # 497:
The best New Gods movie, IMHO, is Masters of the Universe. I even corresponded with the director, who told me this was his intent, and that he had tried to get (Jack) Kirby to do the production designs, but the studio nixed it.
Check it out. It requires some bending and an occasional sex change (Metron becomes an ugly dwarf, The Highfather becomes the Sorceress), but it 's an amazingly close analog, otherwise. And Frank Langella 's Skeletor is a dandy Darkseid!
Director Gary Goddard clarified this in a letter appearing in John Byrne 's Next Men # 26, in which he stated:
As the director of Masters of the Universe, it was a pleasure to see that someone got it. Your comparison of the film to Kirby 's New Gods was not far off. In fact, the storyline was greatly inspired by the classic Fantastic Four / Doctor Doom epics, The New Gods and a bit of Thor thrown in here and there. I intended the film to be a "motion picture comic book, '' though it was a tough proposition to sell to the studio at the time. ' Comics are just for kids, ' they thought. They would not allow me to hire Jack Kirby who I desperately wanted to be the conceptual artist for the picture...
I grew up with Kirby 's comics (I 've still got all my Marvels from the first issue of Fantastic Four and Spider - Man through the time Kirby left) and I had great pleasure meeting him when he first moved to California. Since that time I enjoyed the friendship of Jack and Roz and was lucky enough to spend many hours with Jack, hearing how he created this character and that one, why a villain has to be even more powerful than a hero, and on and on. Jack was a great communicator, and listening to him was always an education. You might be interested to know that I tried to dedicate Masters of Universe to Jack Kirby in the closing credits, but the studio took the credit out.
Brian Cronin, author of the "Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed '' column, concludes that "the film itself was not intended to be literally a reworked Fourth World, although the intent WAS to make the film a tribute to Jack Kirby -- just a tribute to ALL of his work, not just the Fourth World. ''
The musical score of Masters of the Universe was composed by Bill Conti. It was recorded by several European orchestras, chiefly the Graunke Orchestra of Munich (the only one to be credited on the soundtrack album) and conducted by a number of conductors, chiefly Bruce Miller and Harry Rabinowitz (Rabinowitz received sole credit). Conti did not conduct his score because it could not be recorded in the United States as "there was a musicians strike or something like that... So it went to various places. '' He and the score mixer Dan Wallin assembled the score from the various recorded takes, because there were problems with the orchestral performances ("We did n't have anything that went from beginning to end without a problem '').
The soundtrack album was released on record, cassette and compact disc by Varèse Sarabande in 1987; it was subsequently issued in an expanded version by Edel. In 2008, La - La Land Records released a two - disc edition with the complete score and the original album presentation; in 2012, Intrada Records issued the complete score (the entirely of disc one and tracks 1 -- 5 on disc two) on one disc.
Prior to releasing it, the Cannon Group touted Masters of the Universe as the Star Wars of the 1980s. Despite releasing alongside the height of the success of the toy line, animated series, and related merchandise, Masters of the Universe began as the third - highest - grossing film of the weekend in North America on August 7, 1987, earning $4,883,168, behind Stakeout ($5,170,403) and The Living Daylights ($7,706,230). The film quickly left the charts altogether with a North American gross of $17,336,370.
Masters of the Universe was released on DVD October 23, 2001. A 25th Anniversary Edition Blu - ray Disc was released by Warner Home Video on October 2, 2012.
Masters of the Universe received negative reviews from critics and holds a 17 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 23 reviews. Variety called it a "Conan - Star Wars hybrid ripoff '' that is "a colossal bore ''. Walter Goodman of The New York Times wrote, "If you liked the toy, you 'll love the movie. '' Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times called it "a misfiring, underdone epic ''. Johanna Steinmetz of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the film, while predictable and derivative, entertains audiences through its side plots set on Earth.
In a retrospective review, Glenn Heath, Jr. of Slant Magazine called it a "jarring mix of corny screwball comedy and choppy action heroics ''. Chris Eggertsen of HitFix, in an article identifying the film 's campy, positive qualities, called it "an objectively bad film with a big heart ''. Joshua Winning of Digital Spy wrote, "... beloved of ' 80s kids but scorned by critics, it 's a high camp oddity that we should celebrate on its own terms ''.
Billy Barty received a Golden Raspberry Award nomination for Worst Supporting Actor for his performance in the film, but ' lost ' to David Mendenhall for Over the Top.
The commercial failure of Masters of the Universe, among other films such as Superman IV: The Quest for Peace and Lifeforce, contributed to the eventual closure of Cannon Films. Cannon Films had intended to create a Masters of the Universe sequel, indicated by the end credits with a surprise reveal that Skeletor survives his fall. The sequel titled "Masters of the Universe 2: Cyborg '' was written and followed He - Man, who returned to Earth to battle Skeletor, who has left Earth as a post-apocalyptic wasteland and the film was to feature Trap Jaw and She - Ra. Pro surfer Laird Hamilton was originally to replace Dolph Lundgren as He - Man and the only aspect known about the sequel 's screenplay was that He - Man would have returned to Earth and was disguised as a professional quarterback. With a low budget of $4.5 million, the sequel was to be directed by Albert Pyun, consecutively with the aborted Spider - Man movie. The project was abandoned when Cannon would not pay Mattel 's fees. The production instead utilized the already - made costumes and sets for the low - budget sci - fi film Cyborg.
Masters of the Universe was Lundgren 's first leading role in a feature film following his success in Rocky IV, and he later labeled it as his least favorite film role. Conversely, Langella considers playing Skeletor to be one of his favorite roles.
A new He - Man film directed by John Woo was reportedly being developed in 2007, but despite many rumors circulating the Internet regarding the film 's production status and casting, the project was never officially green - lit. The film rights to He - Man have reportedly since reverted to Mattel.
In September 2009, Sony took over the rights from Warner Bros. to produce the live action adaptation after Mattel and producer Joel Silver, who was previously involved with a potential film, could n't agree on creative direction for the film. Sony and Escape Artists ' Todd Black, Jason Blumenthal, and Steve Tisch will now start developing the project from scratch for Columbia Pictures. In April 2010, Sony hired screenwriters Mike Finch and Alex Litvak to draft a new script. Warner announced that John Stevenson, director of Kung Fu Panda will direct the upcoming feature. On May 12, 2009, it was announced that the scripting duties had been handed to Evan Daugherty, with Stevenson still attached to direct.
In late 2012, Deadline reported that Jon M. Chu was in talks to direct the film. Original He - Man actor Lundgren did an interview with IGN about a possible role in the film as King Randor. October 12, 2012, Richard Wenk is hired to rewrite the script for the film. On March 28, 2013, Chu spoken that the film is still early is in the experimentation and also it wo n't be campy but an origin story. On October 7, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Terry Rossio would script and that Black, Blumenthal, and Tisch would produce the film and it will be set on Eternia; the site also reported that Chu will not direct the film.
On January 10, 2014, Schmoes Know reported that Joe Cornish (Attack the Block), Rian Johnson (Looper), Andrés Muschietti (Mama), Kirk DeMicco and Chris Sanders (The Croods), and Phil Lord and Chris Miller (The Lego Movie) were named as frontrunners to direct the film. On February 26, it was reported that directors Mike Cahill, Jeff Wadlow, Harald Zwart, and Chris McKay are on the short list to direct. On April 9, Schmoes Know reported that Wadlow will direct the film, but The Hollywood Reporter announced that he 's rewriting the script of the film.
On August 19, 2015, it was announced that Chris Yost had been hired to write the film.
On January 22, 2016, Deadline reports that McG will direct the film and will also oversee a rewrite of the latest script by Alex Litvak and Mike Finch, while Escape Artists ' Todd Black, Jason Blumenthal and Steve Tisch are on board as producers.
On June 24, 2016, Kellan Lutz tweeted that he has a meeting with both McG and Mary Viola about having the role of He - Man.
On April 27, 2017, it was announced that the film will be released on December 18, 2019. At the same time, McG left the film and David S. Goyer has been hired to rewrite the script.
In December 2017, reports are saying that Goyer is in talks to direct the film. In February 2018, Variety reports that Goyer has decided to step away as director to focus on other projects, but he will remain on board as an executive producer and screenwriter and the studio is said to be very happy with the script he turned in and is currently meeting with potential replacements. In April 2018, Variety reports that Aaron and Adam Nee will direct the film.
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1984 what is really going on with the war | Nineteen Eighty - Four - wikipedia
Nineteen Eighty - Four, often published as 1984, is a dystopian novel published in 1949 by English author George Orwell. The novel is set in the year 1984 when most of the world population have become victims of perpetual war, omnipresent government surveillance and public manipulation.
In the novel, Great Britain ("Airstrip One '') has become a province of a superstate named Oceania. Oceania is ruled by the "Party '', who employ the "Thought Police '' to persecute individualism and independent thinking. The Party 's leader is Big Brother, who enjoys an intense cult of personality but may not even exist. The protagonist of the novel, Winston Smith, is a rank - and - file Party member. Smith is an outwardly diligent and skillful worker, but he secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion against Big Brother. Smith rebels by entering a forbidden relationship with fellow employee Julia.
As literary political fiction and dystopian science - fiction, Nineteen Eighty - Four is a classic novel in content, plot, and style. Many of its terms and concepts, such as Big Brother, doublethink, thoughtcrime, Newspeak, Room 101, telescreen, 2 + 2 = 5, and memory hole, have entered into common usage since its publication in 1949. Nineteen Eighty - Four popularised the adjective Orwellian, which describes official deception, secret surveillance, brazenly misleading terminology, and manipulation of recorded history by a totalitarian or authoritarian state. In 2005, the novel was chosen by Time magazine as one of the 100 best English - language novels from 1923 to 2005. It was awarded a place on both lists of Modern Library 100 Best Novels, reaching number 13 on the editor 's list, and 6 on the readers ' list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 8 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
Orwell "encapsulate (d) the thesis at the heart of his unforgiving novel '' in 1944, the implications of dividing the world up into zones of influence, which had been conjured by the Tehran Conference. Three years later, he wrote most of it on the Scottish island of Jura from 1947 to 1948 despite being seriously ill with tuberculosis. On 4 December 1948, he sent the final manuscript to the publisher Secker and Warburg, and Nineteen Eighty - Four was published on 8 June 1949. By 1989, it had been translated into 65 languages, more than any other novel in English until then. The title of the novel, its themes, the Newspeak language and the author 's surname are often invoked against control and intrusion by the state, and the adjective Orwellian describes a totalitarian dystopia that is characterised by government control and subjugation of the people.
Orwell 's invented language, Newspeak, satirises hypocrisy and evasion by the state: the Ministry of Love (Miniluv) oversees torture and brainwashing, the Ministry of Plenty (Miniplenty) oversees shortage and rationing, the Ministry of Peace (Minipax) oversees war and atrocity and the Ministry of Truth (Minitrue) oversees propaganda and historical revisionism.
The Last Man in Europe was an early title for the novel, but in a letter dated 22 October 1948 to his publisher Fredric Warburg, eight months before publication, Orwell wrote about hesitating between that title and Nineteen Eighty - Four. Warburg suggested choosing the main title to be the latter, a more commercial one.
In the novel 1985 (1978), Anthony Burgess suggests that Orwell, disillusioned by the onset of the Cold War (1945 -- 91), intended to call the book 1948. The introduction to the Penguin Books Modern Classics edition of Nineteen Eighty - Four reports that Orwell originally set the novel in 1980 but that he later shifted the date to 1982 and then to 1984. The introduction to the Houghton Mifflin Harcourt edition of Animal Farm and 1984 (2003) reports that the title 1984 was chosen simply as an inversion of the year 1948, the year in which it was being completed, and that the date was meant to give an immediacy and urgency to the menace of totalitarian rule.
Throughout its publication history, Nineteen Eighty - Four has been either banned or legally challenged, as subversive or ideologically corrupting, like Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World (1932), We (1924) by Yevgeny Zamyatin, Darkness at Noon (1940) by Arthur Koestler, Kallocain (1940) by Karin Boye and Fahrenheit 451 (1953) by Ray Bradbury. Some writers consider the Russian dystopian novel We by Zamyatin to have influenced Nineteen Eighty - Four, and the novel bears significant similarities in its plot and characters to Darkness at Noon, written years before by Arthur Koestler, who was a personal friend of Orwell.
The novel is in the public domain in Canada, South Africa, Argentina, Australia, and Oman. It will be in the public domain in the United Kingdom, the EU, and Brazil in 2021 (70 years after the author 's death), and in the United States in 2044.
Nineteen Eighty - Four is set in Oceania, one of three inter-continental superstates that divided the world after a global war.
Smith 's memories and his reading of the proscribed book, The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism by Emmanuel Goldstein, reveal that after the Second World War, the United Kingdom became involved in a war fought in Europe, western Russia, and North America during the early 1950s. Nuclear weapons were used during the war, leading to the destruction of Colchester. London would also suffer widespread aerial raids, leading Winston 's family to take refuge in a London Underground station. Britain fell to civil war, with street fighting in London, before the English Socialist Party, abbreviated as Ingsoc, emerged victorious and formed a totalitarian government in Britain. The British Commonwealth was absorbed by the United States to become Oceania. Eventually Ingsoc emerged to form a totalitarian government in the country.
Simultaneously, the Soviet Union conquered continental Europe and established the second superstate of Eurasia. The third superstate of Eastasia would emerge in the Far East after several decades of fighting. The three superstates wage perpetual war for the remaining unconquered lands of the world in "a rough quadrilateral with its corners at Tangier, Brazzaville, Darwin, and Hong Kong '' through constantly shifting alliances. Although each of the three states are said to have sufficient natural resources, the war continues in order to maintain ideological control over the people.
However, due to the fact that Winston barely remembers these events and due to the Party 's manipulation of history, the continuity and accuracy of these events are unclear. Winston himself notes that the Party has claimed credit for inventing helicopters, airplanes and trains, while Julia theorizes that the perpetual bombing of London is merely a false - flag operation designed to convince the populace that a war is occurring. If the official account was accurate, Smith 's strengthening memories and the story of his family 's dissolution suggest that the atomic bombings occurred first, followed by civil war featuring "confused street fighting in London itself '' and the societal postwar reorganisation, which the Party retrospectively calls "the Revolution ''.
Most of the plot takes place in London, the "chief city of Airstrip One '', the Oceanic province that "had once been called England or Britain ''. Posters of the Party leader, Big Brother, bearing the caption "BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU '', dominate the city (Winston states it can be found on nearly every house), while the ubiquitous telescreen (transceiving television set) monitors the private and public lives of the populace. Military parades, propaganda films, and public executions are said to be commonplace.
The class hierarchy of Oceania has three levels:
As the government, the Party controls the population with four ministries:
The protagonist Winston Smith, a member of the Outer Party, works in the Records Department of the Ministry of Truth as an editor, revising historical records, to make the past conform to the ever - changing party line and deleting references to unpersons, people who have been "vaporised '', i.e., not only killed by the state but denied existence even in history or memory.
The story of Winston Smith begins on 4 April 1984: "It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen. '' Yet he is uncertain of the true date, given the regime 's continual rewriting and manipulation of history.
Winston Smith is a man who lives in Airstrip One, the remnants of Britain broken down by war, civil conflict, and revolution in the year 1984. A member of the middle class Outer Party, Winston lives in a one - room London flat in the Victory Mansions. Smith lives on rations consisting of black bread, synthetic meals, and "Victory '' - branded gin. Telescreens in every building, accompanied by microphones and cameras, allow the Thought Police to identify anyone who might compromise the Party 's regime, and threat of surveillance forces citizens to display an obligatory optimism regarding the country, who are afraid for being arrested for thoughtcrime, the infraction of expressing thoughts contradictory to the Party 's ideology. Children are encouraged to inform the officials about potential thought criminals, including their parents, and are indoctrinated by Party propaganda from an early age. Winston 's neighbor, Tom Parsons, is deeply involved in patriotic activism, and his children are highly indoctrinated with Party propaganda and desensitized to violence.
Winston works at the Ministry of Truth, or "Minitrue '', as an editor responsible for historical negationism. He rewrites records and alters photographs to conform to the state 's ever - changing version of history itself, rendering the deleted people "unpersons ''; the original documents are destroyed by fire in a "memory hole ''. At work, he re-writes a Times article reporting on a government official condemned as a thoughtcriminal by writing a story on a nonexistent war hero named "Comrade Ogilvy '', and notes the state - sponsored media reporting an increase in the chocolate ration during an actual decrease. Despite his proficiency in his profession, Winston becomes mesmerized by the true past after seeing a photograph of three former high - ranking upper class Inner Party officials in New York, discounting the official government account that they had been collaborating with Eurasian officials. Winston tries to get more information about the true past, and purchases an old journal at an antiques shop in a proletarian neighborhood of London. In a place beside his flat 's telescreen where he believes he can not be seen, he begins writing a journal criticizing the Party and its enigmatic leader, Big Brother. By doing so, he commits a crime that, if discovered by the Thought Police, warrants certain death, and Winston quickly resigns himself to the fact that he will eventually be arrested for thoughtcrime. In the journal, he records his sexual frustration over a young woman maintaining the novel - writing machines at the ministry named Julia, whom Winston is attracted to but suspects is an informant. He also suspects that his superior, an Inner Party official named O'Brien, is a secret agent for an enigmatic underground resistance movement known as the Brotherhood, a group formed by Big Brother 's reviled political rival Emmanuel Goldstein.
The next day, Julia surreptitiously hands Winston a note confessing her love for him. Winston and Julia begin an affair after Winston realizes she shares his loathing of the Party, first meeting in the country, and eventually in a rented room at the top of the antiques shop where Winston purchased the diary, which is owned by the seemingly kindly Mr. Charrington. They believe that the shop is safe, as the room has no telescreen. During his affair with Julia, Winston remembers the death of his family; during the civil war of the 1950s, Winston stole rationed chocolate from his malnourished infant sister and his mother, and would return home to discover that they had disappeared. He also recounts his terse relationship with his ex-wife Katharine, whom he was forced to have sex with and despised to such an extent that he considered pushing her off a cliff during a nature walk. Winston also interacts with his colleague Syme, who is writing a dictionary for a revised version of the English language called Newspeak. After Syme insightfully reveals that the true purpose of Newspeak is to reduce the capacity of human thought, Winston speculates that Syme will be vaporized. He is later proven correct when Syme disappears without a trace, and no one acknowledges his absence.
Weeks later, Winston is approached by O'Brien. They arrange a meeting at O'Brien's luxurious flat where both Winston and Julia swear allegiance to the Brotherhood. A week later, O'Brien clandestinely sends Winston a copy of "The Book '', The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism by Emmanuel Goldstein, the publicly reviled leader of the Brotherhood. Through The Book, the author explains the structure and practices of Oceania. In particular, The Book explains the concept of perpetual war, the true meanings of the slogans "War is peace '', "Freedom is slavery '', and "Ignorance is strength '', and how the Party can be overthrown through means of the political awareness of the proles (proletarians).
The Thought Police capture Winston along with Julia in their rented room. The two are then delivered to the Ministry of Love (Miniluv) for interrogation. Mr. Charrington, the shopkeeper who rented the room to them, reveals himself as a Thought Police agent. O'Brien is also an agent of the Thought Police. He is part of a special sting operation used by the police to find and arrest suspected thoughtcriminals. Winston is placed in a prison cell with Parsons, who had been reported by his children and believes himself to be guilty. O'Brien interrogates and tortures Winston with electroshock, telling Winston that he can "cure '' himself of his "insanity '' -- his manifest hatred for the Party -- through controlled manipulation of perception. Winston is held in the prison for an unspecified length of time, and confesses to crimes that O'Brien tells him to say that he has committed, but O'Brien understands that Winston has not betrayed Julia. O'Brien informs Winston that the Party usually kills enemies by gunshot after successfully brainwashing them into loving Big Brother.
After awakening from a nightmare in which he confesses his love for Julia, O'Brien sends him to Room 101 for the final stage of re-education, a room which contains each prisoner 's worst fear. Winston shouts "Do it to Julia! '' as a wire cage holding hungry rats is fitted onto his face, thus betraying her.
After being put back into society, Winston meets Julia in a park. She admits that she was also tortured, and both reveal betraying the other. Later, Winston sits alone in the Chestnut Tree Cafe. As he remembers a rare happy memory of his family, he convinces himself that it is false. A raucous celebration begins outside, celebrating Oceania 's "decisive victory '' over Eurasian armies in Africa, and Winston imagines himself as a part of the crowd. As Winston imagines a gun being pointed at the back of his head and a bullet being shot through him, he feels that he has at last ended his "stubborn, self - willed exile '' from the love of Big Brother -- a love Winston returns to quite happily as he looks up in admiration at a portrait of Big Brother.
Ingsoc (English Socialism) is the predominant ideology and pseudophilosophy of Oceania, and Newspeak is the official language of official documents.
In London, the capital city of Airstrip One, Oceania 's four government ministries are in pyramids (300 m high), the façades of which display the Party 's three slogans. The ministries ' names are the opposite (doublethink) of their true functions: "The Ministry of Peace concerns itself with war, the Ministry of Truth with lies, the Ministry of Love with torture and the Ministry of Plenty with starvation. '' (Part II, Chapter IX -- The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism)
The Ministry of Peace supports Oceania 's perpetual war against either of the two other superstates:
The primary aim of modern warfare (in accordance with the principles of doublethink, this aim is simultaneously recognized and not recognized by the directing brains of the Inner Party) is to use up the products of the machine without raising the general standard of living. Ever since the end of the nineteenth century, the problem of what to do with the surplus of consumption goods has been latent in industrial society. At present, when few human beings even have enough to eat, this problem is obviously not urgent, and it might not have become so, even if no artificial processes of destruction had been at work.
The Ministry of Plenty rations and controls food, goods, and domestic production; every fiscal quarter, it publishes false claims of having raised the standard of living, when it has, in fact, reduced rations, availability, and production. The Ministry of Truth substantiates Ministry of Plenty 's claims by revising historical records to report numbers supporting the current, "increased rations ''.
The Ministry of Truth controls information: news, entertainment, education, and the arts. Winston Smith works in the Minitrue RecDep (Records Department), "rectifying '' historical records to concord with Big Brother 's current pronouncements so that everything the Party says is true.
The Ministry of Love identifies, monitors, arrests, and converts real and imagined dissidents. In Winston 's experience, the dissident is beaten and tortured, and, when near - broken, he is sent to Room 101 to face "the worst thing in the world '' -- until love for Big Brother and the Party replaces dissension.
The keyword here is blackwhite. Like so many Newspeak words, this word has two mutually contradictory meanings. Applied to an opponent, it means the habit of impudently claiming that black is white, in contradiction of the plain facts. Applied to a Party member, it means a loyal willingness to say that black is white when Party discipline demands this. But it means also the ability to believe that black is white, and more, to know that black is white, and to forget that one has ever believed the contrary. This demands a continuous alteration of the past, made possible by the system of thought which really embraces all the rest, and which is known in Newspeak as doublethink. Doublethink is basically the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one 's mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them.
Three perpetually warring totalitarian super-states control the world:
The perpetual war is fought for control of the "disputed area '' lying "between the frontiers of the super-states '', which forms "a rough parallelogram with its corners at Tangier, Brazzaville, Darwin and Hong Kong '', and Northern Africa, the Middle East, India and Indonesia are where the superstates capture and use slave labour. Fighting also takes place between Eurasia and Eastasia in Manchuria, Mongolia and Central Asia, and all three powers battle one another over various Atlantic and Pacific islands.
Goldstein 's book, The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism, explains that the superstates ' ideologies are alike and that the public 's ignorance of this fact is imperative so that they might continue believing in the detestability of the opposing ideologies. The only references to the exterior world for the Oceanian citizenry (the Outer Party and the Proles) are Ministry of Truth maps and propaganda to ensure their belief in "the war ''.
Winston Smith 's memory and Emmanuel Goldstein 's book communicate some of the history that precipitated the Revolution. Eurasia was formed when the Soviet Union conquered Continental Europe, creating a single state stretching from Portugal to the Bering Strait. Eurasia does not include the British Isles because the United States annexed them along with the rest of the British Empire and Latin America, thus establishing Oceania and gaining control over a quarter of the planet. Eastasia, the last superstate established, emerged only after "a decade of confused fighting ''. It includes the Asian lands conquered by China and Japan. Although Eastasia is prevented from matching Eurasia 's size, its larger populace compensates for that handicap.
The annexation of Britain occurred about the same time as the atomic war that provoked civil war, but who fought whom in the war is left unclear. Nuclear weapons fell on Britain; an atomic bombing of Colchester is referenced in the text. Exactly how Ingsoc and its rival systems (Neo-Bolshevism and Death Worship) gained power in their respective countries is also unclear.
While the precise chronology can not be traced, most of the global societal reorganization occurred between 1945 and the early 1960s. Winston and Julia once meet in the ruins of a church that was destroyed in a nuclear attack "thirty years '' earlier, which suggests 1954 as the year of the atomic war that destabilised society and allowed the Party to seize power. It is stated in the novel that the "fourth quarter of 1983 '' was "also the sixth quarter of the Ninth Three - Year Plan '', which implies that the first quarter of the first three - year plan began in July 1958. By then, the Party was apparently in control of Oceania.
In 1984, there is a perpetual war between Oceania, Eurasia and Eastasia, the superstates that emerged from the global atomic war. The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism, by Emmanuel Goldstein, explains that each state is so strong it can not be defeated, even with the combined forces of two superstates, despite changing alliances. To hide such contradictions, history is rewritten to explain that the (new) alliance always was so; the populaces are accustomed to doublethink and accept it. The war is not fought in Oceanian, Eurasian or Eastasian territory but in the Arctic wastes and in a disputed zone comprising the sea and land from Tangiers (Northern Africa) to Darwin (Australia). At the start, Oceania and Eastasia are allies fighting Eurasia in northern Africa and the Malabar Coast.
That alliance ends and Oceania, allied with Eurasia, fights Eastasia, a change occurring on Hate Week, dedicated to creating patriotic fervour for the Party 's perpetual war. The public are blind to the change; in mid-sentence, an orator changes the name of the enemy from "Eurasia '' to "Eastasia '' without pause. When the public are enraged at noticing that the wrong flags and posters are displayed, they tear them down; the Party later claims to have captured Africa.
Goldstein 's book explains that the purpose of the unwinnable, perpetual war is to consume human labour and commodities so that the economy of a superstate can not support economic equality, with a high standard of life for every citizen. By using up most of the produced objects like boots and rations, the proles are kept poor and uneducated and will neither realise what the government is doing nor rebel. Goldstein also details an Oceanian strategy of attacking enemy cities with atomic rockets before invasion but dismisses it as unfeasible and contrary to the war 's purpose; despite the atomic bombing of cities in the 1950s, the superstates stopped it for fear that would imbalance the powers. The military technology in the novel differs little from that of World War II, but strategic bomber aeroplanes are replaced with rocket bombs, helicopters were heavily used as weapons of war (they did not figure in World War II in any form but prototypes) and surface combat units have been all but replaced by immense and unsinkable Floating Fortresses, island - like contraptions concentrating the firepower of a whole naval task force in a single, semi-mobile platform (in the novel, one is said to have been anchored between Iceland and the Faroe Islands, suggesting a preference for sea lane interdiction and denial).
The society of Airstrip One and, according to "The Book '', almost the whole world, lives in poverty: hunger, disease and filth are the norms. Ruined cities and towns are common: the consequence of the civil war, the atomic wars and the purportedly enemy (but possibly false flag) rockets. Social decay and wrecked buildings surround Winston; aside from the ministerial pyramids, little of London was rebuilt. Members of the Outer Party consume synthetic foodstuffs and poor - quality "luxuries '' such as oily gin and loosely - packed cigarettes, distributed under the "Victory '' brand. (That is a parody of the low - quality Indian - made "Victory '' cigarettes, widely smoked in Britain and by British soldiers during World War II. They were smoked because it was easier to import them from India than it was to import American cigarettes from across the Atlantic because of the War of the Atlantic.)
Winston describes something as simple as the repair of a broken pane of glass as requiring committee approval that can take several years and so most of those living in one of the blocks usually do the repairs themselves (Winston himself is called in by Mrs. Parsons to repair her blocked sink). All Outer Party residences include telescreens that serve both as outlets for propaganda and to monitor the Party members; they can be turned down, but they can not be turned off.
In contrast to their subordinates, the Inner Party upper class of Oceanian society reside in clean and comfortable flats in their own quarter of the city, with pantries well - stocked with foodstuffs such as wine, coffee and sugar, all denied to the general populace. Winston is astonished that the lifts in O'Brien's building work, the telescreens can be switched off and O'Brien has an Asian manservant, Martin. All members of the Inner Party are attended to by slaves captured in the disputed zone, and "The Book '' suggests that many have their own motorcars or even helicopters. Nonetheless, "The Book '' makes clear that even the conditions enjoyed by the Inner Party are only "relatively '' comfortable, and standards would be regarded as austere by those of the prerevolutionary élite.
The proles live in poverty and are kept sedated with alcohol, pornography and a national lottery whose winnings are never actually paid out; that is obscured by propaganda and the lack of communication within Oceania. At the same time, the proles are freer and less intimidated than the middle - class Outer Party: they are subject to certain levels of monitoring but are not expected to be particularly patriotic. They lack telescreens in their own homes and often jeer at the telescreens that they see. "The Book '' indicates that is because the middle class, not the lower class, traditionally starts revolutions. The model demands tight control of the middle class, with ambitious Outer - Party members neutralised via promotion to the Inner Party or "reintegration '' by the Ministry of Love, and proles can be allowed intellectual freedom because they lack intellect. Winston nonetheless believes that "the future belonged to the proles ''.
The standard of living of the populace is low overall. Consumer goods are scarce, and all those available through official channels are of low quality; for instance, despite the Party regularly reporting increased boot production, more than half of the Oceanian populace goes barefoot. The Party claims that poverty is a necessary sacrifice for the war effort, and "The Book '' confirms that to be partially correct since the purpose of perpetual war consumes surplus industrial production. Outer Party members and proles occasionally gain access to better items in the market, which deals in goods that were pilfered from the residences of the Inner Party.
Nineteen Eighty - Four expands upon the subjects summarised in Orwell 's essay "Notes on Nationalism '' about the lack of vocabulary needed to explain the unrecognised phenomena behind certain political forces. In Nineteen Eighty - Four, the Party 's artificial, minimalist language ' Newspeak ' addresses the matter.
O'Brien concludes: "The object of persecution is persecution. The object of torture is torture. The object of power is power. ''
In the book, Inner Party member O'Brien describes the Party 's vision of the future:
There will be no curiosity, no enjoyment of the process of life. All competing pleasures will be destroyed. But always -- do not forget this, Winston -- always there will be the intoxication of power, constantly increasing and constantly growing subtler. Always, at every moment, there will be the thrill of victory, the sensation of trampling on an enemy who is helpless. If you want a picture of the future, imagine a boot stamping on a human face -- forever.
A major theme of Nineteen Eighty - Four is censorship, especially in the Ministry of Truth, where photographs are modified and public archives rewritten to rid them of "unpersons '' (persons who are erased from history by the Party). On the telescreens, figures for all types of production are grossly exaggerated or simply invented to indicate an ever - growing economy, when the reality is the opposite. One small example of the endless censorship is Winston being charged with the task of eliminating a reference to an unperson in a newspaper article. He proceeds to write an article about Comrade Ogilvy, a made - up party member who displayed great heroism by leaping into the sea from a helicopter so that the dispatches he was carrying would not fall into enemy hands.
The inhabitants of Oceania, particularly the Outer Party members, have no real privacy. Many of them live in apartments equipped with two - way telescreens so that they may be watched or listened to at any time. Similar telescreens are found at workstations and in public places, along with hidden microphones. Written correspondence is routinely opened and read by the government before it is delivered. The Thought Police employ undercover agents, who pose as normal citizens and report any person with subversive tendencies. Children are encouraged to report suspicious persons to the government, and some denounce their parents. Citizens are controlled, and the smallest sign of rebellion, even something so small as a facial expression, can result in immediate arrest and imprisonment. Thus, citizens, particularly party members, are compelled to obedience.
"The Principles of Newspeak '' is an academic essay appended to the novel. It describes the development of Newspeak, the Party 's minimalist artificial language meant to ideologically align thought and action with the principles of Ingsoc by making "all other modes of thought impossible ''. (A linguistic theory about how language may direct thought is the Sapir -- Whorf hypothesis.)
Whether or not the Newspeak appendix implies a hopeful end to Nineteen Eighty - Four remains a critical debate, as it is in Standard English and refers to Newspeak, Ingsoc, the Party etc., in the past tense: "Relative to our own, the Newspeak vocabulary was tiny, and new ways of reducing it were constantly being devised '' p. 422). Some critics (Atwood, Benstead, Milner, Pynchon) claim that for the essay 's author, both Newspeak and the totalitarian government are in the past.
Nineteen Eighty - Four uses themes from life in the Soviet Union and wartime life in Great Britain as sources for many of its motifs. Some time at an unspecified date after the first American publication of the book, producer Sidney Sheldon wrote to Orwell interested in adapting the novel to the Broadway stage. Orwell sold the American stage rights to Sheldon, explaining that his basic goal with Nineteen Eighty - Four was imagining the consequences of Stalinist government ruling British society:
(Nineteen Eighty - Four) was based chiefly on communism, because that is the dominant form of totalitarianism, but I was trying chiefly to imagine what communism would be like if it were firmly rooted in the English speaking countries, and was no longer a mere extension of the Russian Foreign Office.
The statement "2 + 2 = 5 '', used to torment Winston Smith during his interrogation, was a communist party slogan from the second five - year plan, which encouraged fulfillment of the five - year plan in four years. The slogan was seen in electric lights on Moscow house - fronts, billboards and elsewhere.
The switch of Oceania 's allegiance from Eastasia to Eurasia and the subsequent rewriting of history ("Oceania was at war with Eastasia: Oceania had always been at war with Eastasia. A large part of the political literature of five years was now completely obsolete ''; ch 9) is evocative of the Soviet Union 's changing relations with Nazi Germany. The two nations were open and frequently vehement critics of each other until the signing of the 1939 Treaty of Non-Aggression. Thereafter, and continuing until the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, no criticism of Germany was allowed in the Soviet press, and all references to prior party lines stopped -- including in the majority of non-Russian communist parties who tended to follow the Russian line. Orwell had criticised the Communist Party of Great Britain for supporting the Treaty in his essays for Betrayal of the Left (1941). "The Hitler - Stalin pact of August 1939 reversed the Soviet Union 's stated foreign policy. It was too much for many of the fellow - travellers like Gollancz (Orwell 's sometime publisher) who had put their faith in a strategy of construction Popular Front governments and the peace bloc between Russia, Britain and France. ''
The description of Emmanuel Goldstein, with a "small, goatee beard '', evokes the image of Leon Trotsky. The film of Goldstein during the Two Minutes Hate is described as showing him being transformed into a bleating sheep. This image was used in a propaganda film during the Kino - eye period of Soviet film, which showed Trotsky transforming into a goat. Goldstein 's book is similar to Trotsky 's highly critical analysis of the USSR, The Revolution Betrayed, published in 1936.
The omnipresent images of Big Brother, a man described as having a moustache, bears resemblance to the cult of personality built up around Joseph Stalin.
The news in Oceania emphasised production figures, just as it did in the Soviet Union, where record - setting in factories (by "Heroes of Socialist Labor '') was especially glorified. The best known of these was Alexey Stakhanov, who purportedly set a record for coal mining in 1935.
The tortures of the Ministry of Love evoke the procedures used by the NKVD in their interrogations, including the use of rubber truncheons, being forbidden to put your hands in your pockets, remaining in brightly lit rooms for days, torture through the use of provoked rodents, and the victim being shown a mirror after their physical collapse.
The random bombing of Airstrip One is based on the Buzz bombs and the V - 2 rocket, which struck England at random in 1944 -- 1945.
The Thought Police is based on the NKVD, which arrested people for random "anti-soviet '' remarks. The Thought Crime motif is drawn from Kempeitai, the Japanese wartime secret police, who arrested people for "unpatriotic '' thoughts.
The confessions of the "Thought Criminals '' Rutherford, Aaronson and Jones are based on the show trials of the 1930s, which included fabricated confessions by prominent Bolsheviks Nikolai Bukharin, Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev to the effect that they were being paid by the Nazi government to undermine the Soviet regime under Leon Trotsky 's direction.
The song "Under the Spreading Chestnut Tree '' ("Under the spreading chestnut tree, I sold you, and you sold me '') was based on an old English song called "Go no more a-rushing '' ("Under the spreading chestnut tree, Where I knelt upon my knee, We were as happy as could be, ' Neath the spreading chestnut tree. ''). The song was published as early as 1891. The song was a popular camp song in the 1920s, sung with corresponding movements (like touching your chest when you sing "chest '', and touching your head when you sing "nut ''). Glenn Miller recorded the song in 1939.
The "Hates '' (Two Minutes Hate and Hate Week) were inspired by the constant rallies sponsored by party organs throughout the Stalinist period. These were often short pep - talks given to workers before their shifts began (Two Minutes Hate), but could also last for days, as in the annual celebrations of the anniversary of the October revolution (Hate Week).
Orwell fictionalized "newspeak '', "doublethink '', and "Ministry of Truth '' as evinced by both the Soviet press and that of Nazi Germany. In particular, he adapted Soviet ideological discourse constructed to ensure that public statements could not be questioned.
Winston Smith 's job, "revising history '' (and the "unperson '' motif) are based on the Stalinist habit of airbrushing images of ' fallen ' people from group photographs and removing references to them in books and newspapers. In one well - known example, the Soviet encyclopaedia had an article about Lavrentiy Beria. When he fell in 1953, and was subsequently executed, institutes that had the encyclopaedia were sent an article about the Bering Strait, with instructions to paste it over the article about Beria.
Big Brother 's "Orders of the Day '' were inspired by Stalin 's regular wartime orders, called by the same name. A small collection of the more political of these have been published (together with his wartime speeches) in English as "On the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union '' By Joseph Stalin. Like Big Brother 's Orders of the day, Stalin 's frequently lauded heroic individuals, like Comrade Ogilvy, the fictitious hero Winston Smith invented to ' rectify ' (fabricate) a Big Brother Order of the day.
The Ingsoc slogan "Our new, happy life '', repeated from telescreens, evokes Stalin 's 1935 statement, which became a CPSU slogan, "Life has become better, Comrades; life has become more cheerful. ''
In 1940 Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges published Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius which described the invention by a "benevolent secret society '' of a world that would seek to remake human language and reality along human - invented lines. The story concludes with an appendix describing the success of the project. Borges ' story addresses similar themes of epistemology, language and history to 1984.
During World War II, Orwell believed that British democracy as it existed before 1939 would not survive the war. The question being "Would it end via Fascist coup d'état from above or via Socialist revolution from below ''? Later, he admitted that events proved him wrong: "What really matters is that I fell into the trap of assuming that ' the war and the revolution are inseparable '. ''
Nineteen Eighty - Four (1949) and Animal Farm (1945) share themes of the betrayed revolution, the person 's subordination to the collective, rigorously enforced class distinctions (Inner Party, Outer Party, Proles), the cult of personality, concentration camps, Thought Police, compulsory regimented daily exercise, and youth leagues. Oceania resulted from the US annexation of the British Empire to counter the Asian peril to Australia and New Zealand. It is a naval power whose militarism venerates the sailors of the floating fortresses, from which battle is given to recapturing India, the "Jewel in the Crown '' of the British Empire. Much of Oceanic society is based upon the USSR under Joseph Stalin -- Big Brother. The televised Two Minutes Hate is ritual demonisation of the enemies of the State, especially Emmanuel Goldstein (viz Leon Trotsky). Altered photographs and newspaper articles create unpersons deleted from the national historical record, including even founding members of the regime (Jones, Aaronson and Rutherford) in the 1960s purges (viz the Soviet Purges of the 1930s, in which leaders of the Bolshevik Revolution were similarly treated). A similar thing also happened during the French Revolution in which many of the original leaders of the Revolution were later put to death, for example Danton who was put to death by Robespierre, and then later Robespierre himself met the same fate.
In his 1946 essay "Why I Write '', Orwell explains that the serious works he wrote since the Spanish Civil War (1936 -- 39) were "written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism ''. Nineteen Eighty - Four is a cautionary tale about revolution betrayed by totalitarian defenders previously proposed in Homage to Catalonia (1938) and Animal Farm (1945), while Coming Up for Air (1939) celebrates the personal and political freedoms lost in Nineteen Eighty - Four (1949). Biographer Michael Shelden notes Orwell 's Edwardian childhood at Henley - on - Thames as the golden country; being bullied at St Cyprian 's School as his empathy with victims; his life in the Indian Imperial Police in Burma and the techniques of violence and censorship in the BBC as capricious authority.
Other influences include Darkness at Noon (1940) and The Yogi and the Commissar (1945) by Arthur Koestler; The Iron Heel (1908) by Jack London; 1920: Dips into the Near Future by John A. Hobson; Brave New World (1932) by Aldous Huxley; We (1921) by Yevgeny Zamyatin which he reviewed in 1946; and The Managerial Revolution (1940) by James Burnham predicting perpetual war among three totalitarian superstates. Orwell told Jacintha Buddicom that he would write a novel stylistically like A Modern Utopia (1905) by H.G. Wells.
Extrapolating from World War II, the novel 's pastiche parallels the politics and rhetoric at war 's end -- the changed alliances at the "Cold War 's '' (1945 -- 91) beginning; the Ministry of Truth derives from the BBC 's overseas service, controlled by the Ministry of Information; Room 101 derives from a conference room at BBC Broadcasting House; the Senate House of the University of London, containing the Ministry of Information is the architectural inspiration for the Minitrue; the post-war decrepitude derives from the socio - political life of the UK and the US, i.e., the impoverished Britain of 1948 losing its Empire despite newspaper - reported imperial triumph; and war ally but peace - time foe, Soviet Russia became Eurasia.
The term "English Socialism '' has precedents in his wartime writings; in the essay "The Lion and the Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius '' (1941), he said that "the war and the revolution are inseparable... the fact that we are at war has turned Socialism from a textbook word into a realisable policy '' -- because Britain 's superannuated social class system hindered the war effort and only a socialist economy would defeat Adolf Hitler. Given the middle class 's grasping this, they too would abide socialist revolution and that only reactionary Britons would oppose it, thus limiting the force revolutionaries would need to take power. An English Socialism would come about which "will never lose touch with the tradition of compromise and the belief in a law that is above the State. It will shoot traitors, but it will give them a solemn trial beforehand and occasionally it will acquit them. It will crush any open revolt promptly and cruelly, but it will interfere very little with the spoken and written word. ''
In the world of Nineteen Eighty - Four, "English Socialism '' (or "Ingsoc '' in Newspeak) is a totalitarian ideology unlike the English revolution he foresaw. Comparison of the wartime essay "The Lion and the Unicorn '' with Nineteen Eighty - Four shows that he perceived a Big Brother regime as a perversion of his cherished socialist ideals and English Socialism. Thus Oceania is a corruption of the British Empire he believed would evolve "into a federation of Socialist states, like a looser and freer version of the Union of Soviet Republics ''.
When first published, Nineteen Eighty - Four was generally well received by reviewers. V.S. Pritchett, reviewing the novel for the New Statesman stated: "I do not think I have ever read a novel more frightening and depressing; and yet, such are the originality, the suspense, the speed of writing and withering indignation that it is impossible to put the book down. '' P.H. Newby, reviewing Nineteen Eighty - Four for The Listener magazine, described it as "the most arresting political novel written by an Englishman since Rex Warner 's The Aerodrome. '' Nineteen Eighty - Four was also praised by Bertrand Russell, E.M. Forster and Harold Nicolson. On the other hand, Edward Shanks, reviewing Nineteen Eighty - Four for The Sunday Times, was dismissive; Shanks claimed Nineteen Eighty - Four "breaks all records for gloomy vaticination ''. C.S. Lewis was also critical of the novel, claiming that the relationship of Julia and Winston, and especially the Party 's view on sex, lacked credibility, and that the setting was "odious rather than tragic ''.
Nineteen Eighty - Four has been adapted for the cinema, radio, television and theatre at least twice each, as well as for other art media, such as ballet and opera.
The effect of Nineteen Eighty - Four on the English language is extensive; the concepts of Big Brother, Room 101, the Thought Police, thoughtcrime, unperson, memory hole (oblivion), doublethink (simultaneously holding and believing contradictory beliefs) and Newspeak (ideological language) have become common phrases for denoting totalitarian authority. Doublespeak and groupthink are both deliberate elaborations of doublethink, and the adjective "Orwellian '' means similar to Orwell 's writings, especially Nineteen Eighty - Four. The practice of ending words with "- speak '' (such as mediaspeak) is drawn from the novel. Orwell is perpetually associated with 1984; in July 1984, an asteroid was discovered by Antonín Mrkos and named after Orwell.
References to the themes, concepts and plot of Nineteen Eighty - Four have appeared frequently in other works, especially in popular music and video entertainment. An example is the worldwide hit reality television show Big Brother, in which a group of people live together in a large house, isolated from the outside world but continuously watched by television cameras.
The book touches on the invasion of privacy and ubiquitous surveillance. From mid-2013 it was publicized that the NSA has been secretly monitoring and storing global internet traffic, including the bulk data collection of email and phone call data. Sales of Nineteen Eighty - Four increased by up to seven times within the first week of the 2013 mass surveillance leaks. The book again topped the Amazon.com sales charts in 2017 after a controversy involving Kellyanne Conway using the phrase "alternative facts '' to explain discrepancies with the media.
The book also shows mass media as a catalyst for the intensification of destructive emotions and violence. Since the 20th century, news and other forms of media have been publicizing violence more often. In 2013, the Almeida Theatre and Headlong staged a successful new adaptation (by Robert Icke and Duncan Macmillan), which twice toured the UK and played an extended run in London 's West End. The play opened on Broadway in 2017.
In the decades since the publication of Nineteen Eighty - Four, there have been numerous comparisons to the Aldous Huxley 's novel Brave New World, which had been published 17 years earlier, in 1932. They are both predictions of societies dominated by a central government and are both based on extensions of the trends of their times. However, members of the ruling class of Nineteen Eighty - Four use brutal force, torture and mind control to keep individuals in line, but rulers in Brave New World keep the citizens in line by addictive drugs and pleasurable distractions.
In October 1949, after reading Nineteen Eighty - Four, Huxley sent a letter to Orwell and wrote that it would be more efficient for rulers to stay in power by the softer touch by allowing citizens to self - seek pleasure to control them rather than brute force and to allow a false sense of freedom:
Within the next generation I believe that the world 's rulers will discover that infant conditioning and narco - hypnosis are more efficient, as instruments of government, than clubs and prisons, and that the lust for power can be just as completely satisfied by suggesting people into loving their servitude as by flogging and kicking them into obedience.
Elements of both novels can be seen in modern - day societies, with Huxley 's vision being more dominant in the West and Orwell 's vision more prevalent with dictators in ex-communist countries and the theocracies and the dictatorships of the Middle East, as is pointed out in essays that compare the two novels, including Huxley 's own Brave New World Revisited.
Comparisons with other dystopian novels like The Handmaid 's Tale, Virtual Light, The Private Eye and Children of Men have also been drawn.
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michio kaku sci fi science physics of the impossible | Sci Fi Science: Physics of the Impossible - Wikipedia
Sci Fi Science: Physics of the Impossible (also called Science of the Impossible) is an American documentary television series on Science which first aired in the United States on December 1, 2009. The series is hosted by theoretical physicist Michio Kaku and is based on his book Physics of the Impossible. In each episode, Dr. Kaku addresses a technological concept from science fiction and designs his own theoretical version of the technology using currently - known science. He also visits scientists developing technology related to the episode 's concept.
Around March 22, 2010, Dr. Kaku started filming for the second season of Sci Fi Science, consisting of 12 new episodes. It started broadcasting on September 1, 2010.
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who guides all elements of a drama or film production | List of William Shakespeare screen adaptations - wikipedia
The Guinness Book of Records lists 410 feature - length film and TV versions of William Shakespeare 's plays as having been produced, making Shakespeare the most filmed author ever in any language.
As of August 2016, the Internet Movie Database lists Shakespeare as having writing credit on 1,292 films, including those under production but not yet released. The earliest known production is King John from 1899.
In the British version, Lady Macbeth wiped a small amount of blood from her hands; in the American she had to wash away gallons of the stuff. In the British, the witches danced around a small cauldron; in the American the witches became dancing beauties cavorting around a huge cauldron. In the British, Macbeth and Macduff fought in a ditch; in the American Macbeth falls to his death from a skyscraper.
NOTE: "ShakespeaRe - Told '', "The Animated Shakespeare '' and "BBC Television Shakespeare '' series have been covered above, under the respective play performed in each episode.
Three further episodes were filmed but never edited or screened. They were to be called "Using the Prose '', "Using the Sonnets '' and "Contemporary Shakespeare ''. Their text can be read in the book "Playing Shakespeare '' by John Barton.
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who and where did caritas originally start in 1897 | Caritas Internationalis - wikipedia
Caritas Internationalis is a confederation of 165 Catholic relief, development and social service organisations operating in over 200 countries and territories worldwide.
Collectively and individually their claimed mission is to work to build a better world, especially for the poor and oppressed. The first Caritas organisation was established by Lorenz Werthmann on 9 November 1897 in Germany. Other national Caritas organisations were soon formed in Switzerland (1901) and the United States (Catholic Charities, 1910).
In July 1924, during the international Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam, 60 delegates from 22 countries formed a conference, with headquarters at Caritas Switzerland in Lucerne. In 1928, the conference became known as Caritas Catholica. The delegates met every two years until the outbreak of the Second World War when all activities came to a standstill. Work resumed in 1947, with the approval of the Secretariat of State, and two conferences convened in Lucerne to help coordinate efforts and collaboration. Caritas was given a further endorsement when the Secretariat of State entrusted it with the official representation of all welfare organisations at the international level, especially at the United Nations. The Holy Year in 1950 saw the beginning of a union of Caritas organisations. Following a suggestion by Msgr Montini, then Substitute Secretary of State, and later Pope Paul VI, a study week, with participants from 22 countries, was held in Rome to examine the problems of Christian Caritas work. As a result, the decision was made to set up an international conference of Roman Catholic charities.
In December 1951, upon approval of the statutes by the Holy See, the first constitutive General Assembly of Caritas Internationalis took place. Founding members came from Caritas organisations in 13 countries: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States. The Church describes Caritas as its official voice "in relation to its teachings in the area of charity work ''.
In 1954, the Confederation changed its name to Caritas Internationalis to reflect the international presence of Caritas members on every continent. As of 2015, the Confederation has 164 members working in over 200 countries and territories. Its General Secretariat is located in the Palazzo San Calisto, Vatican City. The current president is Luis Antonio Cardinal Tagle and the Secretary General is Michel Roy.
The full membership list of Caritas organisations includes:
45 national agencies in Sub-Saharan Africa
24 national agencies including:
Caritas Europa with 48 national agencies including:
6 regional agencies, including:
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what ethnic group is the majority in the united states | Race and ethnicity in the United States - wikipedia
The United States of America has a racially and ethnically diverse population. The United States Census officially recognizes six racial categories: White American, Black or African American, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and people of two or more races; a category called "some other race '' is also used in the census and other surveys, but is not official. The United States Census Bureau also classifies Americans as "Hispanic or Latino '' and "Not Hispanic or Latino '', which identifies Hispanic and Latino Americans as an ethnicity (not a race) distinct from others, and comprising the largest minority group in the nation.
The United States Supreme Court unanimously held that "race '' is not limited to Census designations on the "race question '' but extends to all ethnicities, and thus can include Jewish and Arab as well as Polish or Italian or Irish, etc. In fact, the Census asks an "Ancestry Question '' which covers the broader notion of ethnicity initially in the 2000 Census long form and now in the American Community Survey. The ancestry question will return in the 2020 Census.
As of July 2016, White Americans are the racial majority. African Americans are the largest racial minority, amounting to an estimated 12.7 % of the population. Hispanic and Latino Americans amount to an estimated 17.8 % of the total U.S. population, making up the largest ethnic minority. The White, non-Hispanic or Latino population make up 61.3 % of the nation 's total, with the total White population (including White Hispanics and Latinos) being 76.9 %.
White Americans are the majority in every census - defined region (Northeast, Midwest, South, West) and in every state except Hawaii, but contribute the highest proportion of the population in the Midwestern United States, at 85 % per the Population Estimates Program (PEP), or 83 % per the American Community Survey (ACS). Non-Hispanic Whites make up 79 % of the Midwest 's population, the highest ratio of any region. However, 35 % of White Americans (whether all White Americans or non-Hispanic / Latino only) live in the South, the most of any region.
55 % of the African American population lives in the South. A plurality or majority of the other official groups reside in the West. The latter region is home to 42 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans, 46 % of Asian Americans, 48 % of American Indians and Alaska Natives, 68 % of Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, 37 % of the "two or more races '' population (Multiracial Americans), and 46 % of those self - designated as "some other race ''.
In the 2000 Census and subsequent United States Census Bureau surveys, Americans self - described as belonging to these racial groups:
Each person has two identifying attributes, racial identity and whether or not they are of Hispanic ethnicity. These categories are sociopolitical constructs and should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature. They have been changed from one census to another, and the racial categories include both "racial '' and national - origin groups.
In 2007, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the US Department of Labor finalized its update of the EEO - 1 report format and guidelines to come into an effect on September 30, 2007. In particular, this update concerns the definitions of racial / ethnic categories.
The question on Hispanic or Latino origin is separate from the question on race. Hispanic and Latino Americans have ethnic origins in the countries of Latin America, Spain, and Portugal. Latin American countries are, like the United States, racially diverse. Consequently, no separate racial category exists for Hispanic and Latino Americans, as they do not constitute a race, nor a national group. When responding to the race question on the census form, each person is asked to choose from among the same racial categories as all Americans, and are included in the numbers reported for those races.
Each racial category may contain Non-Hispanic or Latino and Hispanic or Latino Americans. For example: the White (European - American) race category contains Non-Hispanic Whites and Hispanic Whites (see White Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Black or African - American category contains Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic Blacks (see Black Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Asian - American category contains Non-Hispanic Asians and Hispanic Asians (see Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans); and likewise for all the other categories. See the section on Hispanic and Latino Americans in this article.
Self - identifying as both Hispanic or Latino and not Hispanic or Latino is neither explicitly allowed nor explicitly prohibited.
In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, Africans and Europeans were considered to belong to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria for membership in these groups were similar, comprising a person 's appearance, their social circle (how they lived), and their known non-White ancestry. History played a part, as persons with known slave ancestors were assumed to be African (or, in later usage, black), regardless of whether they also had European ancestry.
The differences between how Native American and Black identities are defined today (blood quantum versus one - drop and political assumptions) have been based on different historical circumstances. According to the anthropologist Gerald Sider, such racial designations were a means to concentrate power, wealth, privilege and land in the hands of Whites in a society of White hegemony and privilege (Sider 1996; see also Fields 1990). The differences had little to do with biology and more to do with the history of slavery and its racism, and specific forms of White supremacy (the social, geopolitical and economic agendas of dominant Whites vis - à - vis subordinate Blacks and Native Americans). They related especially to the different social places which Blacks and Amerindians occupied in White - dominated 19th - century America. Sider suggests that the blood quantum definition of Native American identity enabled mixed - race Whites to acquire Amerindian lands during the allotment process. The one - drop rule of Black identity, enforced legally in the early 20th century, enabled Whites to preserve their agricultural labor force in the South. The contrast emerged because, as peoples transported far from their land and kinship ties on another continent, Black labor was relatively easy to control, and they became reduced to valuable commodities as agricultural laborers. In contrast, Amerindian labor was more difficult to control; moreover, Amerindians occupied large territories that became valuable as agricultural lands, especially with the invention of new technologies such as railroads. Sider thinks the blood quantum definition enhanced White acquisition of Amerindian lands in a doctrine of Manifest Destiny, which subjected Native Americans to marginalization and resulted in numerous conflicts related to American expansionism.
The political economy of race had different consequences for the descendants of aboriginal Americans and African slaves. The 19th - century blood quantum rule meant that it was relatively easier for a person of mixed Euro - Amerindian ancestry to be accepted as White. The offspring of a few generations of intermarriage between Amerindians and Whites likely would not have been considered Amerindian (at least not in a legal sense). Amerindians could have treaty rights to land, but because an individual with only one Amerindian great - grandparent no longer was classified as Amerindian, he lost a legal claim to Amerindian land, under the allotment rules of the day. According to Sider 's theory, Whites were more easily able to acquire Amerindian lands. On the other hand, the same individual who could be denied legal standing in a tribe, according to the government, because he was "too White '' to claim property rights, might still have enough visually identifiable Amerindian ancestry to be considered socially as a "half - breed '' or breed, and stigmatized by both communities.
The 20th - century one - drop rule made it relatively difficult for anyone of known Black ancestry to be accepted as White. The child of an African - American sharecropper and a White person was considered Black by the local communities. In terms of the economics of sharecropping, such a person also would likely become a sharecropper as well, thus adding to the landholder or employer 's labor force. In short, this theory suggests that in a 20th - century economy that benefited from sharecropping, it was useful to have as many Blacks as possible.
Although some scholars of the Jim Crow period agree that the 20th - century notion of invisible Blackness shifted the color line in the direction of paleness, and "expanded '' the labor force in response to Southern Blacks ' Great Migration to the North. But, others (such as the historians Joel Williamson, C. Vann Woodward, George M. Fredrickson, and Stetson Kennedy) considered the one - drop rule a consequence of the need to define Whiteness as being pure, and justifying White - on - Black oppression.
Over the centuries when Whites wielded power over both Blacks and Amerindians and believed in their inherent superiority over people of color, they created a social order of hypodescent, in which they assigned mixed - race children to the lower - status groups. They were often ignorant of the systems among Native American tribes of social classification, including kinship and hypodescent. The Omaha people, for instance, who had a patrilineal kinship system, classified all children with white fathers as "white '', and excluded them as members of the clans and tribe, unless one was formally adopted by a male member. Tribal members might care for mixed - race children of white fathers, but considered them outside the hereditary clan and kinship fundamental to tribal society.
The hypodescent social construction related to the racial caste that was associated with African slavery and the conditions of the slave societies. It was made explicit by Virginia and other colonies ' laws as early as 1662. Virginia incorporated the Roman principle of partus sequitur ventrem into slave law, saying that children of slave mothers were born into their status. Under English common law for subjects, children 's social status was determined by the father, not the mother. But the colonists put Africans outside the category of English subjects. Generally, white men were in positions of power to take sexual advantage of black women slaves. But, historian Paul Heinegg has shown that most free African - American families listed in the censuses of 1790 -- 1810 were, in fact, descended from unions between white women and African men in colonial Virginia, from the years when working classes lived and worked closely together, and before slavery had hardened as a racial caste.
In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time by whites that classified individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories (Gossett 1997), but these were always porous. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790, after slavery was well established in the United States, included classification of persons by race: white, black, mulatto, and Indian (Nobles 2000). But, the inclusion of mulatto was an explicit acknowledgement of mixed race. In addition, before the Civil War, Virginia and some other states had legal definition of "whiteness '' that provided for people being classified as white if no more than 1 / 8 black. (For example, if not born into slavery, Thomas Jefferson 's children by his slave Sally Hemings would have been classified as legally white, as they were 7 / 8 white by ancestry. Three of the four surviving children entered white society as adults, and their descendants have identified as white.) In the late 18th and 19th centuries, people of mixed race often migrated to frontiers where societies were more open, and they might be accepted as white if satisfying obligations of citizenship.
The more familiar "one - drop rule '' was not adopted by Virginia and other states until the 20th century, but it classified persons with any known African ancestry as black (Davis 2001). Passage of such laws was often urged by white supremacists and people promoting "racial purity '' through eugenics, having forgotten the long history of multi-racial unions in the South that comprised the ancestry of many families.
In other countries in the Americas, where mixing among groups was overtly more extensive, social categories have tended to be more numerous and fluid. In some cases, people may move into or out of categories on the basis of a combination of socioeconomic status, social class, ancestry, and appearance (Mörner 1967).
The term Hispanic as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century, with the rise of migration of laborers from Spanish - speaking countries of the western hemisphere to the United States. It includes people who may have been considered racially distinct (Black, White, Amerindian or other mixed groups) in their home countries. Today, the word "Latino '' is often used as a synonym for "Hispanic ''. Even if such categories were earlier understood as racial categories, today they have begun to represent ethno - linguistic categories (regardless of perceived race). Similarly, "Anglo '' is now used among many Hispanics to refer to non-Hispanic White Americans or European Americans, most of whom speak the English language but are not of primarily English descent.
The United States is a racially diverse country. The growth of the Hispanic population through immigration and high birth rates is noted as a partial factor for the US ' population gains in the last quarter - century. The 2000 census revealed that Native Americans had reached their highest documented population, 4.5 million, since the US was founded in 1776.
The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions of the Old World. In the Americas, the immigrant populations began to mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continents. In the United States, for example, most people who identify as African American have some European ancestors, as revealed by genetic studies. In one analysis of those genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7 % for a sample of Jamaicans to ~ 23 % for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans, where there was historically a large class of mixed race (now called Louisiana Creoles) (Parra et al. 1998).
In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, African Americans, and European Americans were classified as belonging to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria among whites for membership in these groups were similar, comprising physical appearance, assumption of non-European ancestry, and social circle. The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century. During and after Reconstruction, after the emancipation of slaves after the Civil War, in the effort to restore white supremacy in the South, whites began to classify anyone with "one drop '' of "black blood '', or known African ancestry, to be black. Such a legal definition was not put into law until the early 20th century in most southern states, but many established racial segregation of facilities during the Jim Crow era, after white Democrats regained control of state legislatures in the South.
Efforts to track mixing between groups led to an earlier proliferation of historical categories (such as "mulatto '' and "octaroon '' among persons with partial African descent) and "blood quantum '' distinctions, which became increasingly untethered from self - reported ancestry. In the 20th century, efforts to classify the increasingly mixed population of the United States into discrete categories generated many difficulties (Spickard 1992). By the standards used in past censuses, many mixed - race children born in the United States were classified as of a different race than one of their biological parents. In addition, a person may change personal racial identification over time because of cultural aspects, and self - ascribed race can differ from assigned race (Kressin et al. 2003).
Until the 2000 census, Latinos were required to identify as one race, and none was Latino. Partly as a result of the confusion generated by the distinction, 32.9 % (U.S. census records) of Latino respondents in the 2000 census ignored the specified racial categories and checked "some other race ''. (Mays et al. 2003 claim a figure of 42 %)
Historical trends influencing the ethnic demographics of the United States include:
In some cases, immigrants and migrants form ethnic enclaves; in others, mixture creates ethnically diverse neighborhoods.
(For demographics by specific ethnic groups rather than general race, see "Ancestry '' below.)
The majority of people currently living in the United States are White and European Americans. The United States Census Bureau defines White people as those "having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. '' Like all official U.S. racial categories, "White '' has a "not Hispanic or Latino '' and a "Hispanic or Latino '' component, the latter consisting mostly of White Mexican Americans and White Cuban Americans.
White Americans are the majority in 49 of the 50 states, with Hawaii as the exception. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states; Hawaii, New Mexico, California, and Texas (and the District of Columbia) are the exceptions. These five jurisdictions have "minority majorities '', i.e. minority groups compose the majority of the population.
The non-Hispanic White percentage (63 % in 2012) tends to decrease every year, and this sub-group is expected to become a plurality of the overall U.S. population after the year 2043. White Americans overall (non-Hispanic Whites together with White Hispanics) are projected to continue as the majority, at 73.1 % (or 303 million out of 420 million) in 2050, from currently 77.1 %.
Although a high proportion of the population is known to have multiple ancestries, in the 2000 census, the first with the option to choose more than one, most people still identified with one racial category. In the 2000 census, self - identified German Americans made up 17.1 % of the U.S. population, followed by Irish Americans at 12 %, as reported in the 2000 U.S. Census. This makes German and Irish the largest and second - largest self - reported ancestry groups in the United States. Both groups had high rates of immigration to the U.S. beginning in the mid-19th century, triggered by the Great Famine in Ireland and the failed 1848 Revolution in Germany. However, English Americans and British Americans are still considered the largest ethnic group due to a serious under count following the 2000 census whereby many English and British Americans self - identified under the new category entry ' American ' considering themselves ' indigenous ' because their families had resided in the US for so long or, if of mixed European ancestry, identified with a more recent and differentiated ethnic group.
7.2 % of the population listed their ancestry as American on the 2000 census (see American ethnicity). According to the United States Census Bureau, the number of people in the U.S. who reported American and no other ancestry increased from 12.4 million in 1990 to 20.2 million in 2000. This change in reporting represented the largest "growth '' of any ethnic group in the United States during the 1990s, but it represented how people reported themselves more than growth through birth rates, for instance, and certainly did not reflect immigration.
Most French Americans are believed descended from colonists of Catholic New France; exiled Huguenots, much fewer in number and settling in the eastern English colonies in the late 1600s and early 1700s, needed to assimilate into the majority culture and have intermarried over generations. Isleños of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest have had, in part, direct Spanish ancestry; most self - reported White Hispanics are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban origins, each of which are multi-ethnic nations. Hispanic immigration has increased from nations of Central and South America.
Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self - identify as African - American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa. The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual 's self - identification since not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are "Black ''. Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Hamito - Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa.
African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro - Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. According to the 2009 American Community Survey, there were 38,093,725 Black and African Americans in the United States, representing 12.4 % of the population. There were 37,144,530 non-Hispanic blacks, which comprised 12.1 % of the population. This number increased to 42 million according to the 2010 United States Census, when including Multiracial African Americans, making up 14 % of the total U.S. population. Black and African Americans make up the second largest group in the United States, but the third largest group after White Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race). The majority of the population (55 %) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and Midwest.
Most African Americans are the direct descendants of captives from West Africa, who survived the slavery era within the boundaries of the present United States. As an adjective, the term is usually written African - American. The first West Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. The English settlers treated these captives as indentured servants and released them after a number of years. This practice was gradually replaced by the system of race - based slavery used in the Caribbean. All the American colonies had slavery, but it was usually the form of personal servants in the North (where 2 % of the people were slaves), and field hands in plantations in the South (where 25 % were slaves); by the beginning of the American Revolutionary War 1 / 5th of the total population was enslaved. During the revolution, some would serve in the Continental Army or Continental Navy, while others would serve the British Empire in Lord Dunmore 's Ethiopian Regiment, and other units. By 1804, the northern states (north of the Mason -- Dixon line) had abolished slavery. However, slavery would persist in the southern states until the end of the American Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Following the end of the Reconstruction Era, which saw the first African American representation in Congress, African Americans became disenfranchised and subject to Jim Crow laws, legislation that would persist until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 due to the Civil Rights Movement.
According to US Census Bureau data, very few African immigrants self - identify as African - American. On average, less than 5 % of African residents self - reported as "African - American '' or "Afro - American '' on the 2000 US Census. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants (~ 95 %) identified instead with their own respective ethnicities. Self - designation as "African - American '' or "Afro - American '' was highest among individuals from West Africa (4 % - 9 %), and lowest among individuals from Cape Verde, East Africa and Southern Africa (0 % - 4 %). None the less, African immigrants often develop very successful professional and business working - relationships with African - Americans.
In 2008, "Hispanic or Latino origin '' was the self - identification of 47 million Americans. They chiefly have origins in the Spanish - speaking nations of Latin America. Very few also come from other places, for example: 0.2 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans were born in Asia. The group is heterogeneous in race and national ancestry.
The Census Bureau defines "Hispanic or Latino origin '' thus:
The leading country - of - origin for Hispanic Americans is Mexico (30.7 million), followed by Puerto Rico (4.2 million) (which actually has a special relationship with the US, of which its people are citizens), and Cuba (1.6 million), as of 2008. However, as of 2010, there were 1,648,968 Salvadorans in the United States, the largest of the U.S. - Central American community. Salvadorans are poised to become the third largest Hispanic group by the next census, significantly overtaking and replacing Cubans. Recent estimates already put the Salvadoran population as high as 2 million, as of 2013, the third largest Hispanic - American group.
62.4 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans identified as white. 30.5 % identified as "some other race '' (other than the ones listed). According to the PEP 91.9 % of Latinos are white, as these official estimates do not recognize "some other race ''. In the official estimates, Black or African American Hispanics are the second - largest group, with 1.9 million, or 4.0 % of the whole group. The remaining Hispanics are accounted as follows, first per the PEP: 1.6 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.5 % two or more races, 0.7 % Asian, and 0.03 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. Per the ACS: 3.9 % two or more races, 1.9 % Black or African American, 1.0 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.4 % Asian, and 0.05 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander.
In the United States the Hispanic and Latino population has reached 58 million in 2016. According to Pew Research Center the Latino population has been the principal driver of United States demographic growth since 2000. Mexicans make up most of the Hispanic and Latino population 35,758,000. There is also a growth of Hispanics who are receiving a college education in 2015, 40 % of Hispanics age 25 and older have had a college experience. In 2000 the percentage was at a low 30 %. In all the 50 US states California houses the largest population percentage of Latinos. In 2015, 15.2 million Hispanics lived in California.
The Hispanic or Latino population is young and fast - growing, due to immigration and higher birth rates. For decades it has contributed significantly to U.S. population increases, and this is expected to continue. The Census Bureau projects that by 2050, one - quarter of the population will be Hispanic or Latino.
A third significant minority is the Asian American population, comprising 19.4 million in 2013, or 6.0 % of the U.S. population. California is home to 4.5 million Asian Americans, whereas 495,000 live in Hawaii, where they compose the plurality, at 38.5 % of the islands ' people. This is their largest share of any state. Historically first concentrated on Hawaii and the West Coast, Asian Americans now live across the country, living and working in large numbers in New York City, Chicago, Boston, Houston, and other major urban centers.
Their histories are diverse. As with the new immigration from central and eastern Europe to the East Coast from the mid-19th century on, Asians started immigrating to the United States in large numbers in the 19th century. This first major wave of immigration consisted predominantly of Chinese and Japanese laborers, but also included Korean and South Asian immigrants. Many immigrants also came during and after this period from the Philippines, which was a US colony from 1898 to 1946. Exclusion laws and policies largely prohibited and curtailed Asian immigration until the 1940s. After the US changed its immigration laws during the 1940s to 1960s to make entry easier, a much larger new wave of immigration from Asia began. Today the largest self - identified Asian American sub-groups according to census data are Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans, Indian Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Korean Americans, and Japanese Americans, among other groups.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas, particularly Native Americans, made up 0.8 % of the population in 2008, numbering 2.4 million. An additional 2.3 million persons declared part - American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry.
The legal and official designation of who is Native American has aroused controversy by demographers, tribal nations, and government officials for many decades. Federally recognized tribes and state recognized tribes set their own membership requirements; tribal enrollment may require residency on a reservation, documented lineal descent from recognized records, such as the Dawes Rolls, and other criteria. Some tribes have adopted the use of blood quantum, requiring members to have a certain percentage. The federal government requires individuals to certify documented blood quantum of ancestry for certain federal programs, such as education benefits, available to members of recognized tribes. But Census takers accept any respondent 's identification. Genetic scientists estimated that more than 15 million other Americans, including African Americans and Hispanic Americans (specifically those of Mexican heritage), may have up to one quarter of American Indian ancestry.
Once thought to face extinction as a race or culture, Native Americans of numerous tribes have achieved revival of aspects of their cultures, together with asserting their sovereignty and direction of their own affairs since the mid-20th century. Many have started language programs to revive use of traditional languages; some have established tribally controlled colleges and other schools on their reservations, so that education is expressive of their cultures. Since the late 20th century, many tribes have developed gaming casinos on their sovereign land to raise revenues for economic development, as well as to promote the education and welfare of their people through health care and construction of improved housing.
Today more than 800,000 to one million persons claim Cherokee descent in part or as full - bloods; of these, an estimated 300,000 live in California, 70,000 -- 160,000 in Oklahoma, and 15,000 in North Carolina in ancestral homelands.
The second largest tribal group is the Navajo, who call themselves Diné and live on a 16 - million acre (65,000 km2) Indian reservation covering northeast Arizona, northwest New Mexico, and southeast Utah. It is home to half of the 450,000 Navajo Nation members. The third largest group are the Lakota (Sioux) Nation, with distinct federally recognized tribes located in the states of Minnesota, Nebraska, Montana, Wyoming; and North and South Dakota.
Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders numbered 427,810 in 2008, or 0.1 % of the population. Additionally, nearly as many individuals identify as having partial Native Hawaiian ancestry, for a total of 829,949 people of full or part Native Hawaiian ancestry. This group constitutes the smallest minority in the United States. More than half identify as "full - blooded '', but historically most Native Hawaiians on the island chain of Hawaii are believed to have admixture with Asian and European ancestries. But, the Census takes reporting by individuals as to how they identify.
Some demographers believe that by the year 2025, the last full - blooded Native Hawaiian will die off, leaving a culturally distinct, but racially mixed population. The total number of persons who have identified as Native Hawaiian in 2008 was more than the estimated Hawaiian population when the US annexed the islands in 1898. Native Hawaiians are receiving ancestral land reparations. Throughout Hawaii, they are working to preserve and assert adaptation of Native Hawaiian customs and the Hawaiian language. They have cultural schools solely for legally Native Hawaiian students.
According to the Arab American Institute (AAI), countries of origin for Arab Americans include Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
There are an estimated 1.9 - 2.0 million Middle Eastern Americans according to the U.S. Census, including both Arab and non-Arab Americans, comprising 0.6 % of the total U.S. population; however, the Arab American Institute estimates a population closer to 3.6 million. U.S. Census population estimates are based on responses to the ancestry question on the census, which makes it difficult to accurately count Middle Eastern Americans. Though Middle Eastern American communities can be found in each of the 50 states, the majority live in just 10 states with nearly "one third of the total liv (ing) in California, New York, and Michigan ''. More Middle Eastern Americans live in California than any other state, but Middle Eastern Americans represent the highest percentage of the population of Michigan. In particular, Dearborn, Michigan has long been home to a high concentration of Middle Eastern Americans.
The United States Census Bureau is presently finalizing the ethnic classification of MENA populations. In 2012, prompted in part by post-9 / 11 discrimination, the American - Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee petitioned the Department of Commerce 's Minority Business Development Agency to designate the MENA populations as a minority / disadvantaged community. Following consultations with MENA organizations, the US Census Bureau announced in 2014 that it would establish a new MENA ethnic category for populations from the Middle East, North Africa and the Arab world, separate from the "white '' classification that these populations had previously sought in 1909. The expert groups, including some Jewish organizations, felt that the earlier "white '' designation no longer accurately represents MENA identity, so they successfully lobbied for a distinct categorization. This process does not currently include ethnoreligious groups such as Jews or Sikhs, as the Bureau only tabulates these groups as followers of religions rather than members of ethnic groups.
As of December 2015, the sampling strata for the new MENA category includes the Census Bureau 's working classification of 19 MENA groups, as well as Turkish, Sudanese, Somali, Mauritanian, Armenian, Cypriot, Afghan, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups.
Self - identified multiracial Americans numbered 7.0 million in 2008, or 2.3 % of the population. They have identified as any combination of races (White, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, "some other race '') and ethnicities. The U.S. has a growing multiracial identity movement.
While the colonies and southern states protected white fathers by making all children born to slave mothers be classified as slaves, regardless of paternity, they also banned miscegenation or interracial marriage, most notably between whites and blacks. This did little to stop interracial relationships, except as legal, consensual unions.
Demographers state that, due to new waves of immigration, the American people through the early 20th century were mostly multi-ethnic descendants of various immigrant nationalities, who maintained cultural distinctiveness until, over time, assimilation, migration and integration took place. The Civil Rights Movement through the 20th century gained passage of important legislation to enforce constitutional rights of minorities.
According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University, Northridge, by some calculations in the 2000 Census, the multiracial population that is part white (which is the largest percentage of the multiracial population), is as follows:
A 2002 study found an average of 18.6 % European genetic contribution and 2.7 % Native American genetic contribution (with standard errors 1.5 % and 1.4 % respectively) in a sample of 232 African Americans. Meanwhile, in a sample of 187 European Americans from State College, Pennsylvania, there was an average of 0.7 % West African genetic contribution and 3.2 % Native American genetic contribution (with standard errors 0.9 % and 1.6 % respectively). Most of the non-European admixture was concentrated in 30 % of the sample, with West African admixture ranging from 2 to 20 %, with an average of 2.3 %.
In 1958 Robert Stuckert produced a statistical analysis using historical census data and immigration statistics. He concluded that the growth in the White population could not be attributed solely to births in the White population and immigration from Europe, but was also due to people identifying as white who were partly black. He concluded that 21 percent of white Americans had some recent African - American ancestors. He also concluded that the majority of Americans of known African descent were partly European and not entirely sub-Saharan African.
More recently, many different DNA studies have shown that many African Americans have European admixture, reflecting the long history in this country of the various populations. Proportions of European admixture in African - American DNA have been found in studies to be 17 % and between 10.6 % and 22.5 %. Another recent study found the average to be 21.2 %, with a standard error of 1.2 %.
The Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group of the National Human Genome Research Institute notes that "although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person 's ancestors coming from various continental populations, these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history. ''
In the 2000 census, the non-standard category of "Other '' was especially intended to capture responses such as Mestizo and Mulatto, two large multiracial groups in most of the countries of origin of Hispanic and Latino Americans. However, many other responses are captured by the category.
In 2008 15.0 million people, nearly 5 % of the total U.S. population, were estimated to be "some other race '', with 95 % of them being Hispanic or Latino.
Due to this category 's non-standard status, statistics from government agencies other than the Census Bureau (for example: the Centers for Disease Control 's data on vital statistics, or the FBI 's crime statistics), but also the Bureau 's own official Population Estimates, omit the "some other race '' category and include most of the people in this group in the white population, thus including the vast majority (about 90 %) of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the white population. For an example of this, see The World Factbook, published by the Central Intelligence Agency.
The ancestry of the people of the United States of America is widely varied and includes descendants of populations from around the world. In addition to its variation, the ancestry of people of the United States is also marked by varying amounts of intermarriage between ethnic and racial groups.
While some Americans can trace their ancestry back to a single ethnic group or population in Europe, Africa, or Asia, these are often first - and second - generation Americans. Generally, the degree of mixed heritage increases the longer one 's ancestors have lived in the United States (see melting pot). In theory, there are several means available to discover the ancestry of the people residing in the United States, including genealogy, genetics, oral and written history, and analysis of Federal Population Census schedules. In practice, only few of these have been used for a larger part of the population.
According to the 2010 -- 2015 American Community Survey, the twenty largest ancestry groups in the United States were (see above for the OMB self - designation options):
These images display frequencies of self - reported ancestries, as of the 2000 U.S. Census. Regional African ancestries are not listed, though an African American map has been added from another source.
Frequency of American ancestry
Density of Asian Americans
Percent of Asian Americans
Density of African Americans
Percent of African Americans
Density of Native Hawaiian Americans
Percent of Native Hawaiian Americans
Density of Native Americans
Percent of Native Americans
Density of White Americans
Percent of White Americans
Black ancestry
Arab ancestry
Density of Hispanic ancestry
Percent of Hispanic ancestry
West Indian ancestry
These images display frequencies of self - reported European American ancestries as of the 2000 U.S. Census.
Czech ancestry
Danish ancestry
Dutch ancestry
English ancestry
Finnish ancestry
French ancestry
French Canadian ancestry
German ancestry
Greek ancestry
Hungarian ancestry
Icelandic ancestry
Irish ancestry
Italian ancestry
Lithuanian ancestry
Norwegian ancestry
Polish ancestry
Portuguese ancestry
Romanian ancestry
Russian ancestry
Scots - Irish ancestry
Scottish ancestry
Slovak ancestry
Swedish ancestry
Ukrainian ancestry
Welsh ancestry
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what is the minimum age to become the president of india | President of India - wikipedia
The President of the Republic of India is the ceremonial head of state of India and the commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The president is indirectly elected by an electoral college comprising the Parliament of India (both houses) and the Legislative Assemblies of each of India 's states and territories, who themselves are all directly elected.
Although the Article 53 of the Constitution of India states that the president can exercise his powers directly or by subordinate authority, with few exceptions, all of the executive powers vested in the president are, in practice, exercised by the prime minister (a subordinate authority) with the help of the Council of Ministers. The president is bound by the constitution to act on the advice of the prime minister and cabinet as long as the advice is not violating the constitution.
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Urban bodies:
India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor - general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, undertook the process of drafting a completely new constitution for the country. The Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor - general were replaced by the new office of President of India, with Rajendra Prasad as its first incumbent.
The Indian constitution accords with the president, the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the Constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after the President 's assent. The president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution (Article 60), who has pre-emptive power for ensuring constitutionality in the actions of the executive or legislature. The role of the judiciary in upholding the Constitution of India is the second line of defence in nullifying any unconstitutional actions of the executive and legislative entities of the Indian Union.
The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath (Article 60 of Indian constitution). The president is the common head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations (Article 3, Article 111, Article 274, etc.) and supervisory powers (Article 74 (2), Article 78 c, Article 108, Article 111, etc.) over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution. There is no bar on the actions of the president to contest in the court of law.
Legislative power is constitutionally vested by the Parliament of India of which the president is the head, to facilitate the lawmaking process per the constitution (Article 78, Article 86, etc.). The President of the Republic summons both the Houses (The House of the People and ' The Council of States ') of the parliament and prorogues them. He can dissolve the Lok Sabha.
The president inaugurates parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year per Article 87 (1). The Presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government.
All bills passed by the parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the president per Article 111. After a bill is presented to him, the president shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to parliament, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. President may be of the view that a particular bill passed under the legislative powers of parliament is violating the constitution, he can send back the bill with his recommendation to pass the bill under the constituent powers of parliament following the Article 368 procedure. When, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the president, with or without amendments, the president can not withhold his assent from it. The president can also withhold his assent to a bill when it is initially presented to him (rather than return it to parliament) thereby exercising a pocket veto on the advice of prime minister or council of ministers per Article 74 if it is inconsistent to the constitution. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the supreme court about the constitutional validity of an issue. The president shall assent to constitutional amendment bills without power to withhold the bills per Article 368 (2).
When either of the two Houses of the Parliament of India is not in session, and if the government feels the need for an immediate procedure, the president can promulgate ordinances which have the same force and effect as an act passed by parliament under its legislative powers. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval. Ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Under Article 123, the president as the upholder of the constitution shall be satisfied that immediate action is mandatory as advised by the union cabinet and he is confident that the government commands majority support in the parliament needed for the passing of the ordinance into an act and parliament can be summoned to deliberate on the passing of the ordinance as soon as possible. The promulgated ordinance is treated as an act of parliament when in force and it is the responsibility of the president to withdraw the ordinance as soon as the reasons for promulgation of the ordinance are no longer applicable. Bringing laws in the form of ordinances has become a routine matter by the government and President, but the provisions made in Article 123 are meant for mitigating unusual circumstances where immediate action is inevitable when the extant provisions of the law are inadequate. Re-promulgation of an ordinance after failing to get approval within the stipulated time of both houses of parliament is an unconstitutional act by the president. The President should not incorporate any matter in an ordinance which violates the constitution or requires an amendment to the constitution. The president should take moral responsibility when an ordinance elapses automatically or is not approved by the parliament or violates the constitution.
Per Article 53, the executive power of the country is vested in the president and is exercised by President either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the constitution. When parliament thinks fit it may accord additional executive powers to the president per Article 70 which may be further delegated by the president to the governors of states per Article 160. Union cabinet with prime minister as its head, should aid and advice the president in performing his functions. Per Article 74 (2), the council of ministers or prime minister are not accountable legally to the advice tendered to the president but it is the sole responsibility of the president to ensure compliance with the constitution in performing his duties. President or his subordinate officers is bound by the provisions of the constitution notwithstanding any advice by union cabinet.
Per Article 142, it is the duty of President to enforce the decrees of the supreme court.
The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India per Article 60. The president appoints the Chief Justice of India and other judges on the advice of the chief justice. He dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the parliament pass resolutions to that effect by a two - thirds majority of the members present.
Attorney General for India -- who is the Indian government 's chief legal adviser -- is appointed by the President of India under Article 76 (1) and holds office during the pleasure of the president. If the president considers a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen, he can also ask for the advisory opinion of the supreme court per Article 143. Per Article 88, President can ask the Attorney General to attend the parliamentary proceedings and report to him any unlawful functioning if any.
The president appoints as prime minister, the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). the president then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the prime minister. The Council of Ministersa remains in power at the ' pleasure ' of the president.
The president appoints 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. President may nominate not more than two members of Anglo Indian community as Lok Sabha members per Article 331
Governors of states are also appointed by the president who shall work at the pleasure of the president. Per Article 156, President is empowered to dismiss a governor who has violated the constitution in his acts.
The president is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the president. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the prime minister along with his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the parliament. The president represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The president may also send and receive diplomats, i.e. the officers from the Indian Foreign Service. The president is the first citizen of the country.
The president is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The president can declare war or conclude peace, on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the prime minister. All important treaties and contracts are made in the President 's name. He also appoints the chiefs of the service branches of the armed forces.
As mentioned in Article 72 of the Indian constitution, the president is empowered with the powers to grant pardons in the following situations:
The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the prime minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most cases, however, the president exercises his executive powers on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet.
The president can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial, under articles 352, 356 & 360 in addition to promulgating ordinances under article 123.
A national emergency can be declared in the whole of India or a part of its territory for causes of war or armed rebellion or an external aggression. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (Indo - China war), 1971 (Indo - Pakistan war), and 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi).
Under Article 352 of the India constitution, the president can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the cabinet of ministers headed by the prime minister. Such a proclamation must be approved by the parliament with an at least two - thirds majority within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval - there is no maximum duration.
In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty can not be suspended (Article 21).
The president can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the president for approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency.
National Emergency has been proclaimed 3 times in India till date. It was declared first in 1962 by President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, during the Sino - Indian War. This emergency lasted through the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 and up to 1968. It was revoked in 1968. The second emergency in India was proclaimed in 1971 by President V.V. Giri on the eve of the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971. The first two emergencies were in the face of external aggression and War. They were hence external emergencies. Even as the second emergency was in progress, another internal emergency was proclaimed by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, with Indira Gandhi as prime minister in 1975. In 1977, the second and the third emergencies were together revoked.
If the president is fully satisfied, on the basis of the report of the governor of the concerned state or from other sources that the governance in a state can not be carried out according to the provisions in the constitution, he can proclaim under Article 356 a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the parliament within a period of 2 months.
Under Article 356 of the Indian constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.
During such an emergency, the president can take over the entire work of the executive, and the governor administers the state in the name of the president. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation).
A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. It can last up to a maximum of three years via extensions after each 6 - month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if
The Sarkaria Commission held that presidents have unconstitutionally misused the provision of Article 356 many times for achieving political motives, by dismissing the state governments although there was no constitutional break down in the states. During 2005, President 's rule was imposed in Bihar state, misusing Article 356 unconstitutionally to prevent the democratically elected state legislators to form a government after the state elections.
There is no provision in the constitution to re-promulgate president 's rule in a state when the earlier promulgation ceased to operate for want of parliaments approval within two months duration. During 2014 in Andhra Pradesh, president 's rule was first imposed on 1 March 2014 and it ceased to operate on 30 April 2014. President 's rule was promulgated after being fully aware that the earliest parliament session is feasible at the end of May 2014 after the general elections. It was reimposed again unconstitutionally on 28 April 2014 by the president.
Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources available with the states for public purpose. Article 293 gives liberty to states to borrow without any limit to its ability for its requirements within the territory of India without any consent from the Union government. However, Union government can insist for compliance of its loan terms when a state has outstanding loan charged to the consolidated fund of India or an outstanding loan in respect of which a guarantee has been given by the Government of India under the liability of consolidated fund of India.
Under article 360 of the constitution, President can proclaim a financial emergency when the financial stability or credit of the nation or of any part of its territory is threatened. However, until now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a state or a union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have been framed either by the finance commission or by the central government.
Such an emergency must be approved by the parliament within two months by a simple majority. It has never been declared. A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the president.
The president can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the supreme court and high courts, in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by state legislatures are submitted to the president for approval. He can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.
Article 58 of the constitution sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the president. A President must be:
A person shall not be eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments.
Certain office - holders, however, are permitted to stand as Presidential candidates. These are:
In the event that the vice-president, a state governor or a minister is elected President, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as President.
A member of parliament or of a State Legislature can seek election to the office of the president but if he is elected as President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in parliament or State Legislature on the date on which he enters upon his office as President (Article 59 (1)).
Article 57 provides that a person who holds, or who has held, office as President shall, subject to the other provisions of this constitution, be eligible for re-election to that office.
Under The Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952, a candidate to be nominated for the office of president needs 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders for his name to appear on the ballot.
Article 56 (1) of the constitution provides that the president shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. According to Article 62, an election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of office of President shall be completed before the expiration of the term. An election to fill a vacancy in the office of President occurring by reason of his death, resignation or removal, or otherwise shall be held as soon as possible after, and in no case later than six months from, the date of occurrence of the vacancy; and the person elected to fill the vacancy shall, subject to the provisions of Article 56, be entitled to hold office for the full term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. To meet the contingency of an election to the office of President not being completed in time due to unforeseen circumstances like countermanding of election due to death of a candidate or on account of postponement of the poll for any valid reason, Article 56 (1) (c) provides that the president shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office until his successor enters upon his office.
Certain conditions, per Article 59 of the Indian constitution, debar an otherwise eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are:
Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new President is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of parliament (M.P.s), the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha) of all States and the elected members of the legislative assemblies (MLAs) of two union territories, i.e., National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi and Union Territory of Puducherry. The election process of President is more extensive process than prime minister who is also elected indirectly (not elected by people directly) by the Lok Sabha members only. Whereas President being the constitutional head with duties to protect, defend and preserve the constitution and rule of law in a constitutional democracy with constitutional supremacy, is elected in an extensive manner by the members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and state legislative assemblies in a secret ballot procedure.
The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the president must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. Each candidate has to make a security deposit of ₹ 15,000 (US $220) in the Reserve Bank of India. The security deposit is liable to be forfeited in case the candidate fails to secure one - sixth of the votes polled.
The election is held in accordance with the system of proportional representation (PR) by means of the single transferable vote (STV) method. The voting takes place by a secret ballot system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55 of the constitution.
Each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the total number of votes cast by Members of parliament equals the total number of votes cast by State Legislators. Also, legislators from larger states cast more votes than those from smaller states. Finally, the number of legislators in state matters; if a state has few legislators, then each legislator has more votes; if a state has many legislators, then each legislator has fewer votes.
The actual calculation for votes cast by a particular state is calculated by dividing the state 's population by 1000, which is divided again by the number of legislators from the State voting in the electoral college. This number is the number of votes per legislator in a given state. Every elected member of the parliament enjoys the same number of votes, which may be obtained by dividing the total number of votes assigned to the members of legislative assemblies by the total number of elected representatives of the parliament.
Although Indian presidential elections involve actual voting by MPs and MLAs, they tend to vote for the candidate supported by their respective parties.
The president is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the Chief Justice of India -- or in his absence, the senior-most judge of the supreme court -- an oath or affirmation that he / she shall protect, preserve and defend the constitution as follows:
I, (name), do swear in the name of God (or solemnly affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President (or discharge the functions of the President) of the Republic of India, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law, and that I will devote myself to the service and well - being of the people of the Republic of India.
The President of India used to receive ₹ 10,000 (US $100) per month per the Second Schedule of the constitution. This amount was increased to ₹ 50,000 (equivalent to ₹ 160,000 or US $2,300 in 2017) in 1998. On 11 September 2008, the Government of India increased the salary of the president to ₹ 1.5 lakh (equivalent to ₹ 3.0 lakh or US $4,300 in 2017). This amount was further increased to ₹ 5 lakh (US $7,300) in the 2018 Union budget of India. However, almost everything that the president does or wants to do is taken care of by an annual ₹ 225 million (equivalent to ₹ 450 million or US $6.5 million in 2017) budget that the Government allots for his or her upkeep. Rashtrapati Bhavan, the President 's official residence, is the largest Presidential Palace in the world. The Rashtrapati Nilayam at Bolarum, Hyderabad and Retreat Building at Chharabra, Shimla are the official Retreat Residences of the President of India. The official state car of the president is a custom - built heavily armoured Mercedes Benz S600 (W221) Pullman Guard.
The former presidents and spouses of deceased Presidents are eligible for pension, furnished accommodation, security, various allowances, etc.
Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the president, located at New Delhi
Rashtrapati Nilayam is the official retreat of the president located in Hyderabad.
The President 's Bodyguards is an elite household cavalry regiment of the Indian Army.
Air India One is the call sign of any aircraft carrying the president. The aircraft are operated as VIP flights by the Indian Air Force.
A chopper of IAF 's special VIP fleet meant for carrying the President of India
Supreme court shall inquire and decide regarding all doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with the election of a president per Article 71 (1) of the constitution. supreme court can remove the president for the electoral malpractices or upon being not eligible to be Lok Sabha member under the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Subject to Article 71 (3), parliament made applicable rules / procedure to petition the supreme court for resolving the disputes only that arise during the election process of the president but not the doubts that arise from his unconstitutional actions / deeds or changing Indian citizenship during the tenure of president which may violate the requisite election qualifications.
The president may also be removed before the expiry of the term through impeachment for violating the Constitution of India by the Parliament of India. The process may start in either of the two houses of the parliament. The house initiates the process by levelling the charges against the president. The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by at least one - quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the president and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.
A resolution to impeach the president has to be passed by a two - thirds majority of the total number of members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the president has the right to defend oneself through an authorised counsel. If the second house also approves the charges made by special majority again, the president stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated their office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. No president has faced impeachment proceedings so the above provisions have never been used.
Under Article 361 of the constitution, though the president can not be summoned for questioning except on his voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of his controversial deeds, the unconstitutional decisions taken by the president would be declared invalid by the courts. The case would be decided by the courts based on the facts furnished by the Union government for the president 's role. As clarified by the supreme court in the case Rameshwar Prasad & Ors vs Union Of India & Anr on 24 January 2006; though the president can not be prosecuted and imprisoned during his term of office, he can be prosecuted after he / she steps down from the post for the guilty committed during the term of presidency as declared earlier by the courts. No president has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying his unconstitutional decisions by the courts till now. No criminal case at least on the grounds of disrespecting constitution is lodged till now against former presidents to punish them for their unconstitutional acts; though many decisions taken during the term of a president have been declared by the supreme court as unconstitutional, mala fides, void, ultra vires, etc.
The Office of the president falls vacant in the following scenarios:
Article 65 of the Indian constitution says that the Vice-President of India will have to discharge the duties, if the office falls vacant due to any reason other than the expiry of the term. The vice-president reverts to their office when a new President is elected and enters office. When the president is unable to act because of absence, illness or any other cause, the vice-president discharges the President 's functions until the president resumes the duties.
A vice-president who acts as or discharges the functions of the president has all the powers and immunities of the president and is entitled to the same emoluments as the president. When a vice-president discharges the duties of the president, he / she does not function as the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.
The Indian parliament has enacted the law -- The President (Discharge of Functions) Act, 1969 -- for the discharge of the functions of the president when vacancies occur in the offices of the president and of the vice-president simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the chief justice -- or in his absence, the senior most judge of the Supreme Court of India available -- discharges the functions of the president until a newly elected President enters upon his office or a newly elected Vice-president begins to act as President under Article 65 of the constitution, whichever is the earlier. For example, in 1969, when President Zakir Husain died in Office, Vice-President V.V. Giri served as the acting President of India. However, later, V.V Giri resigned from both posts (Acting President of India and Vice-President of India) as he became a candidate in the 1969 Presidential election in India. In this event, the then Chief Justice of India, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah served as the acting President of India until the next President was elected.
The President 's role as defender of the constitution and the powers as Head of State, especially in relation to those exercised by the prime minister as leader of the government, have changed over time. In particular, Presidents have made a number of interventions into government and lawmaking, which have established and challenged some conventions concerning Presidential intervention.
In 1979, Prime Minister Charan Singh, did not enjoy a parliamentary majority. He responded to this by simply not advising the president to summon parliament. Since then, Presidents have been more diligent in directing incoming Prime Ministers to convene parliament and prove their majority within reasonable deadlines (2 to 3 weeks). In the interim period, the Prime Ministers are generally restrained from making policy decisions.
Since the 1990s, Parliamentary elections have generally not resulted in a single party or group of parties having a distinct majority, until the 2014 Lok Sabha elections when BJP received a clear majority. In such cases, Presidents have used their discretion and directed Prime Ministerial aspirants to establish their credentials before being invited to form the government. Typically, the aspirants have been asked to produce letters from various party leaders, with the signatures of all the MPs who are pledging support to their candidature. This is in addition to the requirement that a prime minister prove he has the support of the Lok Sabha (by a vote on the floor of the house) within weeks of being sworn into office.
Since the Indian constitution does not provide any time limit within which the president is to declare his assent or refusal, the president could exercise a "pocket veto '' by not taking any action for an indefinite time. The veto was used in 1986 by President Zail Singh over the Postal Bill. the president did not give assent to the bill, arguing that its scope was too sweeping and would give the government arbitrary powers to intercept postal communications indiscriminately.
In the late 1990s, President K.R. Narayanan introduced explaining to the nation (by means of Rashtrapati Bhavan communiqués), the thinking that led to the various decisions he took while exercising his discretionary powers; this has led to openness and transparency in the functioning of the president.
The constitution gives the president the power to return a bill unsigned but it circumscribes the power to send it back only once for reconsideration. If the parliament sends back the bill with or without changes, the president is obliged to sign it. In mid-2006, President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam sent back a controversial bill regarding the exclusion of certain offices from the scope of ' offices of profit ', the holding of which would disqualify a person from being a member of parliament. The combined opposition, the NDA, hailed the move. The UPA chose to send the bill back to the president without any changes and, after 17 days, Kalam gave his assent on 18 August 2006.
Arunachal Pradesh governor who was earlier appointed by the ruling party at the centre, has been sacked by the president after the supreme court has quashed his unconstitutional acts.
There are two living former Indian presidents:
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movie talking heads this must be the place | This Must Be the Place (Naive Melody) - wikipedia
"This Must Be the Place (Naive Melody) '' is a song by new wave band Talking Heads, released in November 1983 as the second single from their fifth album Speaking in Tongues. The lyrics were written by David Byrne, and the music was written by Byrne and the other members of the band, Chris Frantz, Tina Weymouth and Jerry Harrison.
In the "Self Interview '' on the DVD of the concert film Stop Making Sense, Byrne states that it is a love song, a topic he tends to avoid because it is "kinda big. '' He also said of the song:
That 's a love song made up almost completely of non sequiturs, phrases that may have a strong emotional resonance but do n't have any narrative qualities. It 's a real honest kind of love song. I do n't think I 've ever done a real love song before. Mine always had a sort of reservation, or a twist. I tried to write one that was n't corny, that did n't sound stupid or lame the way many do. I think I succeeded; I was pretty happy with that.
According to the Stop Making Sense commentary track, the title "Naive Melody '' refers to the music. On the track, the guitar part and the bass part are doing the same thing throughout the whole song. According to David Byrne, many professional musicians would not play a song written in that fashion, and that is what makes the melody naive. Byrne played the lead keyboard solo.
Bassist Tina Weymouth stated in the liner notes of Once in a Lifetime: The Best of Talking Heads that the song was created through "truly naive '' experimentation with different instruments and jamming. Weymouth played guitar, guitarist Jerry Harrison played a Prophet synthesiser (including the bassline) Wally Badarou used the same synthesizer to add the stabs, and Byrne switched between guitar and another Prophet synthesizer, the latter of which he played using the pitch modulation wheel and "campy '' piano glissandos.
Pitchfork later described the song as "an aberration for the Talking Heads. It was more of an exercise in understated musical hypnosis than polyrhythmic, Kuti - quoting funk, well - compressed instead of bursting at the seams, and (in its abashed way) it was a full - blown love song. (...) With "This Must Be the Place '', the band simplified their sound dramatically, condensing their sonic palette to the level of small EKG blips (having switched instruments for a lark, this was nearly all they were able to reliably deliver chops-wise) and wringing out only a few chords. ''
The song is featured in Stop Making Sense (1984), a concert film featuring Talking Heads and directed by Jonathan Demme. Throughout the Stop Making Sense version, Byrne and his bandmates perform by a standard lamp, while close - up images of various body parts are projected onto a screen behind them. As revealed on the commentary to the film, the body parts belong to Byrne and his girlfriend (later wife) Adelle Lutz who was also known as Bonnie. When the song reaches a bridge, the musicians step back and Byrne dances with the lamp, a reference to Fred Astaire 's similar dance with a coat - rack in the film Royal Wedding. During the song, Weymouth is seen playing a rare Fender Swinger electric guitar, instead of her usual bass.
The Stop Making Sense version was released as single in 1986, peaking at # 100 on the UK Singles Chart.
In 2015, Pitchfork ranked the song at number 22 in their list of "The 200 Best Songs of the 1980s, '' with Winston Cook - Wilson of the website saying: "In the process of stripping down, Talking Heads showcased something at the root of their art: David Byrne 's inimitable gift for melody, and his unique ability to make every musical figure seem both familiar and tied directly to the lyrical thought (see ' I feel numb... born with a weak heart / I guess I must be having fun '). Is there a better moment of catharsis in a pop then the song 's final eureka realization, after Byrne gets whacked with the monolithic spiritual hammer and awakes from a life - encompassing daze into unexpected stability? There 's nothing to narrow his eyes at anymore: ' Cover up the blank spots, hit me on the head / Aaoooh, aaooh, aaooh, aaoooh. ' For a band rarely given to addressing issues of the heart head - on, ' Naive Melody ' remains an unexpected and peerless achievement. ''
The music video depicts the band members and their session musicians watching light - hearted home movies, before going down into the basement and playing their instruments.
The name of the song serves as the title of a 2011 drama film starring Sean Penn as an aging rock star. In one scene, the main character attends a concert in which David Byrne performs the song.
The song was featured in the 2007 film Lars and the Real Girl during a party scene.
It was also featured in the Oliver Stone 1987 film Wall Street, starring Michael Douglas and Charlie Sheen, as well as the 2010 sequel, Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps.
In 2011 the song briefly appears in the Steve Carell romantic - comedy Crazy, Stupid, Love.
The song is briefly played in the 2009 romantic - comedy He 's Just Not That into You.
The song briefly appears on a radio in the Once Upon a Time episode "Welcome to Storybrooke ''.
Part of the song was played in the final moments of the Season 6 premiere of the Northern Exposure episode "Dinner at Seven - Thirty '' in September 1994.
The song is used in a montage scene in the season premiere of the fifth season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D..
The opening of the song was used as the theme tune for the BBC Radio 4 comedy series Any Bloke which starred Jim Sweeney and Caroline Quentin.
Independent musician Miles Fisher covered the song on his self - titled 2009 EP, Miles Fisher. The music video is an homage to the 2000 film American Psycho, with Fisher imitating Christian Bale 's performance as Patrick Bateman.
The song was covered live by the Montreal - based band Arcade Fire, and is featured as the B - side to their single "Neighborhood # 3 (Power Out) ''. Their version features David Byrne on guest vocals.
Shawn Colvin performed the song on her third album, Cover Girl.
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how many voices sing the opening phrase of fair phyllis fair phyllis i saw sitting all alone | Fair Phyllis - wikipedia
Fair Phyllis (also Fair Phyllis I saw, Fair Phyllis I saw sitting all alone) is an English madrigal by John Farmer. The music is polyphonic and was published in 1599. The madrigal contains four voices and uses occasional imitation. It also alternates between triple and duple beat subdivisions of the beat in different parts of the work.
This is an English madrigal. Farmer uses clever word painting. For example, in the opening line "Fair Phyllis I saw sitting all alone '', Farmer had only the soprano sing since she was all alone. In the next line "Feeding her flock near to the mountain side '', all the voices sang since it was her flock. Additionally, the second phrase, which begins with "Up and down he wandered '' and ends with "then they fell a-kissing '' repeats, causing the elision "kissing up and down. ''
The song describes a person who saw a young shepherdess sitting alone feeding her sheep near a mountain. The other shepherds did not know where she was at the time. Her lover, Amyntas, goes looking for her and wanders through the hills playing hide and seek. Eventually he finds her, and when he does, they fall down and start kissing. The lyrics have a humorous ribald twist with the words "up and down he wandered ''. The first time it refers to the hide and seek game. The second time it refers to the kissing. "oh then they fell a kissing, up and down he wandered ''.
Fair Phyllis I saw sitting all alone Feeding her flock near to the mountain side. The shepherds knew not, they knew not whither she was gone, But after her lover Amyntas hied, Up and down he wandered whilst she was missing; When he found her, O then they fell a-kissing.
note: ' hied ' is a form of the archaic verb ' hie ' which means ' to hasten or hurry '; see The Oxford Book of English Madrigals for text and full score.
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who played doug ross's father on er | List of supporting characters in ER - wikipedia
This is a list of supporting fictional characters in the medical drama ER.
Shiri Appleby Season 1, Episode 1 - Teen with etopic pregnancy
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when is 20 20 world cup in 2018 | ICC World Twenty20 - wikipedia
The ICC World Twenty20 (also referred to as the World T20, and colloquially as the T20 World Cup) is the international championship of Twenty20 International cricket. Organised by cricket 's governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), the tournament currently consists of 16 teams, comprising all twelve ICC full members and four other associate members chosen through the World Twenty20 Qualifier. All matches played are accorded Twenty20 International status.
The event has generally been held every two years. However, the next edition of the tournament is scheduled to take place in 2020 in Australia, four years after the conclusion of the 2016 edition. In May 2016, the ICC put forward the idea of having a tournament in 2018, with South Africa being the possible host. But at the conclusion of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy, the ICC announced that the next edition of the World T20 would take place in 2020 in Australia, as originally scheduled.
Six tournaments have so far been played, and only the West Indies, who currently hold the title, has won the tournament on multiple occasions. The inaugural event, the 2007 World Twenty20, was staged in South Africa, and won by India, who defeated Pakistan in the final at the Wanderers Stadium in Johannesburg. The 2009 tournament took place in England, and was won by the previous runner - up, Pakistan, who defeated Sri Lanka in the final at Lord 's. The third tournament was held in 2010, hosted by the countries making up the West Indies cricket team. England defeated Australia in the final in Barbados, which was played at Kensington Oval, winning its first and the only international tournament to date. The fourth tournament, the 2012 World Twenty20, was held in Asia for the first time, with all matches played in Sri Lanka. The West Indies won the tournament by defeating Sri Lanka in the final, winning its first international tournament since the 2004 Champions Trophy. The fifth tournament, the 2014 ICC World Twenty20, was hosted by Bangladesh, and was won by Sri Lanka defeating India, who became the first team to play in three finals. West Indies are the current World T20I holders, beating England in the 2016 final, winning their second title.
When the Benson & Hedges Cup ended in 2002, the ECB needed another one day competition to fill its place. Cricketing authorities were looking to boost the game 's popularity with the younger generation in response to dwindling crowds and reduced sponsorship. It was intended to deliver fast - paced, exciting cricket accessible to thousands of fans who were put off by the longer versions of the game. Stuart Robertson, the marketing manager of the ECB, proposed a 20 over per innings game to county chairmen in 2001 and they voted 11 -- 7 in favour of adopting the new format.
The first official Twenty20 matches were played on 13 June 2003 between the English counties in the Twenty20 Cup. The first season of Twenty20 in England was a relative success, with the Surrey Lions defeating the Warwickshire Bears by 9 wickets in the final to claim the title. The first Twenty20 match held at Lord 's, on 15 July 2004 between Middlesex and Surrey, attracted a crowd of 27,509, the largest attendance for any county cricket game at the ground other than a one - day final since 1953.
Soon after with the adoption of Twenty20 matches by other cricket boards, the popularity of the format grew with unexpected crowd attendance, new regional tournaments such as Pakistan 's Faysal Bank T20 Cup and Stanford 20 / 20 tournament and the financial incentive in the format.
The West Indies regional teams competed in what was named the Stanford 20 / 20 tournament. The event was financially backed by convicted fraudster Allen Stanford, who gave at least US $28,000,000 funding money, the fruit of his massive Ponzi scheme. It was intended that the tournament would be an annual event. Guyana won the inaugural event, defeating Trinidad and Tobago by 5 wickets, securing US $1,000,000 in prize money. A spin - off tournament, the Stanford Super Series, was held in October 2008 between Middlesex and Trinidad and Tobago, the respective winners of the English and Caribbean Twenty20 competitions, and a Stanford Superstars team formed from West Indies domestic players; Trinidad and Tobago won the competition, securing US $280,000 prize money. On 1 November, the Stanford Superstars played England in what was expected to be the first of five fixtures in as many years with the winner claiming a US $20,000,000 in each match.
On 17 February 2005 Australia defeated New Zealand in the first men 's full international Twenty20 match, played at Eden Park in Auckland. The game was played in a light - hearted manner -- both sides turned out in kit similar to that worn in the 1980s, the New Zealand team 's a direct copy of that worn by the Beige Brigade. Some of the players also sported moustaches / beards and hair styles popular in the 1980s taking part in a competition amongst themselves for best retro look, at the request of the Beige Brigade. Australia won the game comprehensively, and as the result became obvious towards the end of the NZ innings, the players and umpires took things less seriously -- Glenn McGrath jokingly replayed the Trevor Chappell underarm incident from a 1981 ODI between the two sides, and Billy Bowden showed him a mock red card (red cards are not normally used in cricket) in response.
It was first decided that every two years an ICC World Twenty20 tournament is to take place, except in the event of an Cricket World Cup being scheduled in the same year, in which case it will be held the year before. The first tournament was in 2007 in South Africa where India defeated Pakistan in the final. Two Associate teams had played in the first tournament, selected through the 2007 ICC World Cricket League Division One, a 50 - over competition. In December 2007 it was decided to hold a qualifying tournament with a 20 - over format to better prepare the teams. With six participants, two would qualify for the 2009 World Twenty20 and would each receive $250,000 in prize money. The second tournament was won by Pakistan who beat Sri Lanka by 8 wickets in England on 21 June 2009. The 2010 ICC World Twenty20 tournament was held in West Indies in May 2010, where England defeated Australia by 7 wickets. The 2012 ICC World Twenty20 was won by the West - Indies, by defeating Sri Lanka at the finals. For the first time, a host nation competed in the final of the ICC World Twenty20. There were 12 participants for the title including Ireland and Afghanistan as 2012 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier. It was the first time the T20 World Cup tournament took place in an Asian country.
The 2012 edition was to be expanded into a 16 team format however this was reverted to 12. The 2014 tournament, held in Bangladesh was the first to feature 16 teams including all ten full members and six associate members who qualified through the 2013 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier. However the top eight full member teams in the ICC T20I Championship rankings on 8 October 2012 were given a place in the Super 10 stage. The remaining eight teams competed in the group stage, from which two teams advance to the Super 10 stage. Three new teams (Nepal, Hong Kong and UAE) made their debut in this tournament.
All ICC full members qualify automatically for the tournament, with the remaining places filled by other ICC members through a qualification tournament, known as the World Twenty20 Qualifier. Qualification for the inaugural 2007 World Twenty20 came from the results of the first cycle of the World Cricket League, a 50 - over league for ICC associate and affiliate members. The two finalists of the 2007 WCL Division One tournament, Kenya and Scotland, qualified for the World Twenty20 later in the year. A separate qualification tournament was implemented for the 2009 World Twenty20, and has been retained since then. The number of teams qualifying through the World Twenty20 Qualifier has varied, however, ranging from two (in 2010 and 2012) to six (in 2014 and 2016).
In each group stage (both the preliminary round and the Super 10 round), teams are ranked against each other based on the following criteria:
In case of a tie (that is, both teams scoring the same number of runs at the end of their respective innings), a Super Over would decide the winner. In the case of a tie occurring again in the Super Over, the match is won by the team that has scored the most sixes in their innings. This is applicable in all stages of the tournament, having been implemented during the 2009 tournament. During the 2007 tournament, a bowl - out was used to decide the loser of tied matches.
The International Cricket Council 's executive committee votes for the hosts of the tournament after examining bids from the nations which have expressed an interest in holding the event. After South Africa in 2007, England, West Indies and Sri Lanka hosted the tournament in 2009, 2010 and 2012 respectively. Bangladesh hosted the tournament in 2014. India hosted the last edition of the tournament in 2016.
In December 2015, Tim Anderson, the ICC 's head of global development, suggested that a future tournament be hosted by the United States. He believed that hosting the event could help spur growth of the game in the country, where it is relatively obscure and faces competition by other sports such as baseball.
Note:
The ICC does not adjudicate rankings but only rounds a team achieves e.g. Semis, round one etc. The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams in the ICC World Twenty20.
The team ranking in each tournament is according to ICC. For each tournament, the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.
Team appearing for the first time, in alphabetical order per year.
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when do i need a wide load sign | Oversize load - wikipedia
In road transport, an oversize load (or overweight load) is a load that exceeds the standard or ordinary legal size and / or weight limits for a specified portion of road, highway or other transport infrastructure, such as air freight or water freight. There are also load per axle limits. However, a load that exceeds the per - axle limits, but not the overall weight limits, is considered overweight. Examples of oversize / overweight loads include construction machines (cranes, front loaders, backhoes, etc.), pre-built homes, containers, construction elements (bridge beams, generators, windmill propellers, rocket stages, industrial equipment).
The legal dimensions and weights vary between countries and regions within a country. A vehicle which exceeds the legal dimensions usually requires a special permit which requires extra fees to be paid in order for the oversize / overweight vehicle to legally travel on the roadways. The permit usually specifies a route the load must follow as well as the dates and times during which the load may travel.
According to the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Large Truck Crash Causation Study 7 % of U.S. trucking accidents are caused by improper cargo securement or cargo shifts. Shifting cargo can cause the truck to destabilize or the load can fall off completely leading to serious public safety issues. Load shifting is prohibited by law and it is the responsibility of the shipper, motor carrier, driver, receiver and the securing device manufacturer to ensure that the cargo is completely secured.
In a specific country the roads are built in a way that allows a vehicle with dimensions within the standard legal limits to safely (though not necessarily easily) drive and turn. Roads that do not allow large vehicles may be marked with the traffic signs. These may include per - axle load, height, width, or overall length limits.
In the United States an oversize load is a vehicle and / or load that is wider than 8 ft 6 in (2.59 m). Each individual state has different requirements regarding height and length (most states are 13 ft 6 in or 4.11 m tall), and a driver must purchase a permit for each state he / she will be traveling through. In many states, a load must be considered "nondivisible '' to qualify for a permit (e.g., an object which can not be broken down into smaller pieces), although some states allow divisible loads to be granted permits.
In New Zealand, an oversize load is a vehicle and / or load that is wider than 2.50 m (8 ft 2 in) or higher than 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in). Overlength limits vary depending on the type and the configuration of vehicle, but the overall maximum forward distance (i.e. the length from the front of the vehicle to the centre axis of the rear axle set) is 9.5 m (31 ft 2 in), the overall maximum single vehicle length is 12.6 m (41 ft 4 in) (some buses can be longer), and the overall maximum combination length is 22.0 m (72 ft 2 in). Loads must be indivisible, except when the vehicle is oversize itself where it can carry divisible loads as long as the divisible load fits within the standard load limits. Permits are not required for oversize vehicles which are under 25.0 m (82 ft 0 in) long, under 5.00 m (16 ft 5 in) high, and fit within a set combination of width and forward distance; but they must comply with certain rules regarding piloting, travel times and obstructions.
In the United States, the owner of an Oversize Load often must hire a Pilot Car (flag or escort car) before the Load can be moved on a public roadway. An Oversize Load may exceed one or all normal vehicle dimensions of weight, height, length, width and / or extend beyond the commonly - recognized perimeter of the Load vehicle. All Pilot Cars in an individual state must be uniformly identified with required durable, fade - resistant yellow OVERSIZE LOAD sign (on rooftop or the car 's position bumper) and amber flashing or rotating lights that are visible 360 ° and at least 100 feet (30 m) away. Those Pilot Cars may legally operate ahead of, behind or in any position relative to the Load that ensures the safe movement of the Load vehicle and all assisting Pilot, Police and Utility vehicles that are necessary for the move.
The certified Pilot Car Operator protects people, vehicles and property by several actions. The simple presence of a Pilot Car warns other drivers and pedestrians. The Lead (front position) Pilot Car often has a calibrated High Pole (and depending upon the state, a durable, fade - resistant yellow sign) bolted to its front bumper. The High Pole is designed to collide with overpasses, power lines and tree branches that may be above the lane in which the Pilot Car and the Load are operating. The Lead Pilot Car Operator transmits radio messages to the Load and other necessary vehicles of overhead obstructions or road conditions that require the Load to alter its path or stop. Finally, a Pilot Car Operator may park the Pilot Car just off the roadway and direct traffic with a reversible Slow / Stop sign or orange flags while wearing a bright vest and hard hat.
Generally, the Lead Pilot Car Operator functions to maintain an assured clear distance - ⁄ to 1 mile (0.8 to 2 km) - ahead of the Load. The Lead Pilot Car Operator frequently transmits his lane position, road name, lack of overhead obstruction up to and including a landmark or building and direction of travel. The Lead Pilot Car Operator is expected to observe any obstruction or complication that may require the Load to alter its path and transmit clear instructions to the Load and other necessary vehicles. Hearing the transmission from the Lead Pilot car, the Rear Pilot Car Operator ensures that the desired lane is clear and moves the Rear Pilot Car to operate in the now - clear lane. The Rear Pilot Car Operator transmit the clear lane availability to the Load. After passing the obstruction, the Lead Pilot car Operator informs the Load that the Lead Pilot car is now operating in a specific lane as it passes a specific landmark or building. The Rear Pilot Car Operator ensures and transmits that the desired lane is currently clear and moves the Rear Pilot Car to operate in the now - clear lane.
Typically, the edges of any oversize load must be marked to make them visible to drivers. During daytime the required marking is usually red flags, and during night white or yellow lights may be used. The hauling vehicle must have at least one flashing amber light in the front and back. Signs (yellow with black border in the United States, red and white diagonal stripes in the EU, and red and white vertical stripes in Canada), saying "Oversize load '' must be put in the front and back of the vehicle.
A Pilot Car is sometimes called an escort vehicle, or flag car. It is a marked vehicle with warning signs and lights that operates in front of or behind a large vehicle that exceeds normal vehicle dimensions in height, length, width and / or overhang. The escort vehicle protects the oversize load and warns and protects other roadway users. Pilot cars must conform to state - dictated standards.
A Lead Pilot Car may follow a State Trooper, local Police Car or Utility / Bucket Trucks. Pilot and trailing cars may be required also. Each must have at least one flashing amber light (visible 360 degrees at 500 feet (150 m)) on them. Their purpose is to observe all possible obstacles or impediments to the swift and safe transfer of the Load between two points and warn drivers about what 's approaching. The Lead Pilot Car warns approaching drivers in the opposite lane, and the trailing car warns any candidates to overtake or pass the LOAD. The driver of the pilot car must have a 2 - way radio communication system to alert all members of the move about any low bridges, wires, obstacles, etc. The driver of the trailing car is responsible for the safety (?) while passing obstacles or overtaking slower vehicles.
Pilot Car Operators may:
Since the driver of the truck has no visual on the end of the trailer or any possible vehicles in the next lane (because the load obstructs the mirrors), the general procedure is as follows: The truck driver sees an obstacle and signals with his left (or right, if in a left - side traffic country) turn signal (aka "blinker ''). The driver of the trailing car waits until the adjacent lane is clear and moves so that the truck driver sees his or her car, thus preventing anyone from standing next to the truck. Then the trailing car moves a little back to stay clear of the truck 's path. As soon as the trailer has cleared the obstacle, the trailing car again moves forward and flashes its headlights to inform the truck driver that it 's safe to return in their lane. A pilot car driver may temporarily block traffic at intersections to ensure the safe passage of the truck.
Oversize loads present a hazard to roadway structures as well as to road traffic. Because they exceed design clearances, there is a risk that such vehicles can hit bridges and other overhead structures. Over-height vehicle impacts are a frequent cause of damage to bridges, and truss bridges are particularly vulnerable, due to having critical support members over the roadway. An over-height load struck the overhead beams on the I - 5 Skagit River bridge in 2013, which caused the bridge to collapse.
Different countries have different approaches to licensing oversize / overweight loads. Licenses may be issued for a specific load, for a period of time, or to a specific company. In most jurisdictions, the permit specifies the exact route a vehicle must take, and includes clearance warnings. However, in some places, such as Washington State, drivers are responsible for choosing their own route. The carrier can choose to obtain the required permits themselves or go through a permit service.
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what is the difference between agarose gel and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis | Gel electrophoresis - wikipedia
Gel electrophoresis is a method for separation and analysis of macromolecules (DNA, RNA and proteins) and their fragments, based on their size and charge. It is used in clinical chemistry to separate proteins by charge and / or size (IEF agarose, essentially size independent) and in biochemistry and molecular biology to separate a mixed population of DNA and RNA fragments by length, to estimate the size of DNA and RNA fragments or to separate proteins by charge.
Nucleic acid molecules are separated by applying an electric field to move the negatively charged molecules through a matrix of agarose or other substances. Shorter molecules move faster and migrate farther than longer ones because shorter molecules migrate more easily through the pores of the gel. This phenomenon is called sieving. Proteins are separated by charge in agarose because the pores of the gel are too large to sieve proteins. Gel electrophoresis can also be used for separation of nanoparticles.
Gel electrophoresis uses a gel as an anticonvective medium and / or sieving medium during electrophoresis, the movement of a charged particle in an electrical field. Gels suppress the thermal convection caused by application of the electric field, and can also act as a sieving medium, retarding the passage of molecules; gels can also simply serve to maintain the finished separation, so that a post electrophoresis stain can be applied. DNA Gel electrophoresis is usually performed for analytical purposes, often after amplification of DNA via polymerase chain reaction (PCR), but may be used as a preparative technique prior to use of other methods such as mass spectrometry, RFLP, PCR, cloning, DNA sequencing, or Southern blotting for further characterization.
In simple terms, electrophoresis is a process which enables the sorting of molecules based on size. Using an electric field, molecules (such as DNA) can be made to move through a gel made of agarose or polyacrylamide. The electric field consists of a negative charge at one end which pushes the molecules through the gel, and a positive charge at the other end that pulls the molecules through the gel. The molecules being sorted are dispensed into a well in the gel material. The gel is placed in an electrophoresis chamber, which is then connected to a power source. When the electric current is applied, the larger molecules move more slowly through the gel while the smaller molecules move faster. The different sized molecules form distinct bands on the gel.
The term "gel '' in this instance refers to the matrix used to contain, then separate the target molecules. In most cases, the gel is a crosslinked polymer whose composition and porosity is chosen based on the specific weight and composition of the target to be analyzed. When separating proteins or small nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, or oligonucleotides) the gel is usually composed of different concentrations of acrylamide and a cross-linker, producing different sized mesh networks of polyacrylamide. When separating larger nucleic acids (greater than a few hundred bases), the preferred matrix is purified agarose. In both cases, the gel forms a solid, yet porous matrix. Acrylamide, in contrast to polyacrylamide, is a neurotoxin and must be handled using appropriate safety precautions to avoid poisoning. Agarose is composed of long unbranched chains of uncharged carbohydrate without cross links resulting in a gel with large pores allowing for the separation of macromolecules and macromolecular complexes.
Electrophoresis refers to the electromotive force (EMF) that is used to move the molecules through the gel matrix. By placing the molecules in wells in the gel and applying an electric field, the molecules will move through the matrix at different rates, determined largely by their mass when the charge - to - mass ratio (Z) of all species is uniform. However, when charges are not all uniform then, the electrical field generated by the electrophoresis procedure will affect the species that have different charges and therefore will attract the species according to their charges being the opposite. Species that are positively charged will migrate towards the cathode which is negatively charged (because this is an electrolytic rather than galvanic cell). If the species are negatively charged they will migrate towards the positively charged anode.
If several samples have been loaded into adjacent wells in the gel, they will run parallel in individual lanes. Depending on the number of different molecules, each lane shows separation of the components from the original mixture as one or more distinct bands, one band per component. Incomplete separation of the components can lead to overlapping bands, or to indistinguishable smears representing multiple unresolved components. Bands in different lanes that end up at the same distance from the top contain molecules that passed through the gel with the same speed, which usually means they are approximately the same size. There are molecular weight size markers available that contain a mixture of molecules of known sizes. If such a marker was run on one lane in the gel parallel to the unknown samples, the bands observed can be compared to those of the unknown in order to determine their size. The distance a band travels is approximately inversely proportional to the logarithm of the size of the molecule.
There are limits to electrophoretic techniques. Since passing current through a gel causes heating, gels may melt during electrophoresis. Electrophoresis is performed in buffer solutions to reduce pH changes due to the electric field, which is important because the charge of DNA and RNA depends on pH, but running for too long can exhaust the buffering capacity of the solution. There are also limitations in determining the molecular weight by SDS - PAGE, especially if you are trying to find the MW of an unknown protein. There are certain biological variables that are difficult or impossible to minimize and can affect the electrophoretic migration. Such factors include protein structure, post-translational modifications, and amino acid composition. For example, tropomyosin is an acidic protein that migrates abnormally on SDS - PAGE gels. This is because the acidic residues are repelled by the negatively charged SDS, leading to an inaccurate mass - to - charge ratio and migration. Further, different preparations of genetic material may not migrate consistently with each other, for morphological or other reasons.
The types of gel most typically used are agarose and polyacrylamide gels. Each type of gel is well - suited to different types and sizes of analyte. Polyacrylamide gels are usually used for proteins, and have very high resolving power for small fragments of DNA (5 - 500 bp). Agarose gels on the other hand have lower resolving power for DNA but have greater range of separation, and are therefore used for DNA fragments of usually 50 - 20,000 bp in size, but resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Polyacrylamide gels are run in a vertical configuration while agarose gels are typically run horizontally in a submarine mode. They also differ in their casting methodology, as agarose sets thermally, while polyacrylamide forms in a chemical polymerization reaction.
Agarose gels are made from the natural polysaccharide polymers extracted from seaweed. Agarose gels are easily cast and handled compared to other matrices, because the gel setting is a physical rather than chemical change. Samples are also easily recovered. After the experiment is finished, the resulting gel can be stored in a plastic bag in a refrigerator.
Agarose gels do not have a uniform pore size, but are optimal for electrophoresis of proteins that are larger than 200 kDa. Agarose gel electrophoresis can also be used for the separation of DNA fragments ranging from 50 base pair to several megabases (millions of bases), the largest of which require specialized apparatus. The distance between DNA bands of different lengths is influenced by the percent agarose in the gel, with higher percentages requiring longer run times, sometimes days. Instead high percentage agarose gels should be run with a pulsed field electrophoresis (PFE), or field inversion electrophoresis.
"Most agarose gels are made with between 0.7 % (good separation or resolution of large 5 -- 10kb DNA fragments) and 2 % (good resolution for small 0.2 -- 1kb fragments) agarose dissolved in electrophoresis buffer. Up to 3 % can be used for separating very tiny fragments but a vertical polyacrylamide gel is more appropriate in this case. Low percentage gels are very weak and may break when you try to lift them. High percentage gels are often brittle and do not set evenly. 1 % gels are common for many applications. ''
Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) is used for separating proteins ranging in size from 5 to 2,000 kDa due to the uniform pore size provided by the polyacrylamide gel. Pore size is controlled by modulating the concentrations of acrylamide and bis - acrylamide powder used in creating a gel. Care must be used when creating this type of gel, as acrylamide is a potent neurotoxin in its liquid and powdered forms.
Traditional DNA sequencing techniques such as Maxam - Gilbert or Sanger methods used polyacrylamide gels to separate DNA fragments differing by a single base - pair in length so the sequence could be read. Most modern DNA separation methods now use agarose gels, except for particularly small DNA fragments. It is currently most often used in the field of immunology and protein analysis, often used to separate different proteins or isoforms of the same protein into separate bands. These can be transferred onto a nitrocellulose or PVDF membrane to be probed with antibodies and corresponding markers, such as in a western blot.
Typically resolving gels are made in 6 %, 8 %, 10 %, 12 % or 15 %. Stacking gel (5 %) is poured on top of the resolving gel and a gel comb (which forms the wells and defines the lanes where proteins, sample buffer and ladders will be placed) is inserted. The percentage chosen depends on the size of the protein that one wishes to identify or probe in the sample. The smaller the known weight, the higher the percentage that should be used. Changes on the buffer system of the gel can help to further resolve proteins of very small sizes.
Partially hydrolysed potato starch makes for another non-toxic medium for protein electrophoresis. The gels are slightly more opaque than acrylamide or agarose. Non-denatured proteins can be separated according to charge and size. They are visualised using Napthal Black or Amido Black staining. Typical starch gel concentrations are 5 % to 10 %.
Denaturing gels are run under conditions that disrupt the natural structure of the analyte, causing it to unfold into a linear chain. Thus, the mobility of each macromolecule depends only on its linear length and its mass - to - charge ratio. Thus, the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of biomolecular structure are disrupted, leaving only the primary structure to be analyzed.
Nucleic acids are often denatured by including urea in the buffer, while proteins are denatured using sodium dodecyl sulfate, usually as part of the SDS - PAGE process. For full denaturation of proteins, it is also necessary to reduce the covalent disulfide bonds that stabilize their tertiary and quaternary structure, a method called reducing PAGE. Reducing conditions are usually maintained by the addition of beta - mercaptoethanol or dithiothreitol. For general analysis of protein samples, reducing PAGE is the most common form of protein electrophoresis.
Denaturing conditions are necessary for proper estimation of molecular weight of RNA. RNA is able to form more intramolecular interactions than DNA which may result in change of its electrophoretic mobility. Urea, DMSO and glyoxal are the most often used denaturing agents to disrupt RNA structure. Originally, highly toxic methylmercury hydroxide was often used in denaturing RNA electrophoresis, but it may be method of choice for some samples.
Denaturing gel electrophoresis is used in the DNA and RNA banding pattern - based methods temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE).
Native gels are run in non-denaturing conditions, so that the analyte 's natural structure is maintained. This allows the physical size of the folded or assembled complex to affect the mobility, allowing for analysis of all four levels of the biomolecular structure. For biological samples, detergents are used only to the extent that they are necessary to lyse lipid membranes in the cell. Complexes remain -- for the most part -- associated and folded as they would be in the cell. One downside, however, is that complexes may not separate cleanly or predictably, as it is difficult to predict how the molecule 's shape and size will affect its mobility. Addressing and solving this problem is a major aim of quantitative native PAGE.
Unlike denaturing methods, native gel electrophoresis does not use a charged denaturing agent. The molecules being separated (usually proteins or nucleic acids) therefore differ not only in molecular mass and intrinsic charge, but also the cross-sectional area, and thus experience different electrophoretic forces dependent on the shape of the overall structure. For proteins, since they remain in the native state they may be visualised not only by general protein staining reagents but also by specific enzyme - linked staining.
A specific experiment example of an application of native gel electrophoresis is to check for enzymatic activity to verify the presence of the enzyme in the sample during protein purification. For example, for the protein alkaline phosphatase, the staining solution is a mixture of 4 - chloro - 2 - 2methylbenzenediazonium salt with 3 - phospho - 2 - naphthoic acid - 2 ' - 4 ' - dimethyl aniline in Tris buffer. This stain is commercially sold as kit for staining gels. If the protein is present, the mechanism of the reaction takes place in the following order: it starts with the de-phosphorylation of 3 - phospho - 2 - naphthoic acid - 2 ' - 4 ' - dimethyl aniline by alkaline phosphatase (water is needed for the reaction). The phosphate group is released and replaced by an alcohol group from water. The electrophile 4 - chloro - 2 - 2 methylbenzenediazonium (Fast Red TR Diazonium salt) displaces the alcohol group forming the final product Red Azo dye. As its name implies, this is the final visible - red product of the reaction. In undergraduate academic experimentation of protein purification, the gel is usually ran next to commercial purified samples in order to visualize the results and make confusions of whether or not purification was successful.
Native gel electrophoresis is typically used in proteomics and metallomics. However, native PAGE is also used to scan genes (DNA) for unknown mutations as in Single - strand conformation polymorphism.
Buffers in gel electrophoresis are used to provide ions that carry a current and to maintain the pH at a relatively constant value. These buffers have plenty of ions in them, which is necessary for the passage of electricity through them. Something like distilled water or benzene contains few ions, which is not ideal for the use in electrophoresis. There are a number of buffers used for electrophoresis. The most common being, for nucleic acids Tris / Acetate / EDTA (TAE), Tris / Borate / EDTA (TBE). Many other buffers have been proposed, e.g. lithium borate, which is almost never used, based on Pubmed citations (LB), iso electric histidine, pK matched goods buffers, etc.; in most cases the purported rationale is lower current (less heat) and or matched ion mobilities, which leads to longer buffer life. Borate is problematic; Borate can polymerize, and / or interact with cis diols such as those found in RNA. TAE has the lowest buffering capacity but provides the best resolution for larger DNA. This means a lower voltage and more time, but a better product. LB is relatively new and is ineffective in resolving fragments larger than 5 kbp; However, with its low conductivity, a much higher voltage could be used (up to 35 V / cm), which means a shorter analysis time for routine electrophoresis. As low as one base pair size difference could be resolved in 3 % agarose gel with an extremely low conductivity medium (1 mM Lithium borate).
Most SDS - PAGE protein separations are performed using a "discontinuous '' (or DISC) buffer system that significantly enhances the sharpness of the bands within the gel. During electrophoresis in a discontinuous gel system, an ion gradient is formed in the early stage of electrophoresis that causes all of the proteins to focus into a single sharp band in a process called isotachophoresis. Separation of the proteins by size is achieved in the lower, "resolving '' region of the gel. The resolving gel typically has a much smaller pore size, which leads to a sieving effect that now determines the electrophoretic mobility of the proteins.
After the electrophoresis is complete, the molecules in the gel can be stained to make them visible. DNA may be visualized using ethidium bromide which, when intercalated into DNA, fluoresce under ultraviolet light, while protein may be visualised using silver stain or Coomassie Brilliant Blue dye. Other methods may also be used to visualize the separation of the mixture 's components on the gel. If the molecules to be separated contain radioactivity, for example in a DNA sequencing gel, an autoradiogram can be recorded of the gel. Photographs can be taken of gels, often using a Gel Doc system.
After separation, an additional separation method may then be used, such as isoelectric focusing or SDS - PAGE. The gel will then be physically cut, and the protein complexes extracted from each portion separately. Each extract may then be analysed, such as by peptide mass fingerprinting or de novo peptide sequencing after in - gel digestion. This can provide a great deal of information about the identities of the proteins in a complex.
Gel electrophoresis is used in forensics, molecular biology, genetics, microbiology and biochemistry. The results can be analyzed quantitatively by visualizing the gel with UV light and a gel imaging device. The image is recorded with a computer operated camera, and the intensity of the band or spot of interest is measured and compared against standard or markers loaded on the same gel. The measurement and analysis are mostly done with specialized software.
Depending on the type of analysis being performed, other techniques are often implemented in conjunction with the results of gel electrophoresis, providing a wide range of field - specific applications.
In the case of nucleic acids, the direction of migration, from negative to positive electrodes, is due to the naturally occurring negative charge carried by their sugar - phosphate backbone.
Double - stranded DNA fragments naturally behave as long rods, so their migration through the gel is relative to their size or, for cyclic fragments, their radius of gyration. Circular DNA such as plasmids, however, may show multiple bands, the speed of migration may depend on whether it is relaxed or supercoiled. Single - stranded DNA or RNA tend to fold up into molecules with complex shapes and migrate through the gel in a complicated manner based on their tertiary structure. Therefore, agents that disrupt the hydrogen bonds, such as sodium hydroxide or formamide, are used to denature the nucleic acids and cause them to behave as long rods again.
Gel electrophoresis of large DNA or RNA is usually done by agarose gel electrophoresis. See the "Chain termination method '' page for an example of a polyacrylamide DNA sequencing gel. Characterization through ligand interaction of nucleic acids or fragments may be performed by mobility shift affinity electrophoresis.
Electrophoresis of RNA samples can be used to check for genomic DNA contamination and also for RNA degradation. RNA from eukaryotic organisms shows distinct bands of 28s and 18s rRNA, the 28s band being approximately twice as intense as the 18s band. Degraded RNA has less sharply defined bands, has a smeared appearance, and intensity ratio is less than 2: 1.
Proteins, unlike nucleic acids, can have varying charges and complex shapes, therefore they may not migrate into the polyacrylamide gel at similar rates, or at all, when placing a negative to positive EMF on the sample. Proteins therefore, are usually denatured in the presence of a detergent such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) that coats the proteins with a negative charge. Generally, the amount of SDS bound is relative to the size of the protein (usually 1.4 g SDS per gram of protein), so that the resulting denatured proteins have an overall negative charge, and all the proteins have a similar charge - to - mass ratio. Since denatured proteins act like long rods instead of having a complex tertiary shape, the rate at which the resulting SDS coated proteins migrate in the gel is relative only to its size and not its charge or shape.
Proteins are usually analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS - PAGE), by native gel electrophoresis, by preparative gel electrophoresis (QPNC - PAGE), or by 2 - D electrophoresis.
Characterization through ligand interaction may be performed by electroblotting or by affinity electrophoresis in agarose or by capillary electrophoresis as for estimation of binding constants and determination of structural features like glycan content through lectin binding.
A 1959 book on electrophoresis by Milan Bier cites references from the 1800s. However, Oliver Smithies made significant contributions. Bier states: "The method of Smithies... is finding wide application because of its unique separatory power. '' Taken in context, Bier clearly implies that Smithies ' method is an improvement.
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harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban full movie in english online | Quidditch - wikipedia
In the world of the Harry Potter novels and movies, Quidditch / ˈkwɪdɪtʃ / is a magical competitive sport involving flying contestants. Matches are played between two teams of seven players riding flying broomsticks, using four balls: a Quaffle, two Bludgers, and a Golden Snitch. Six ring - shaped goals are situated atop poles of different heights, three on each side of the pitch. It is an extremely rough but very popular semi-contact sport, played by wizards and witches. In the wizarding world, Quidditch has a fervent fan following.
Harry Potter plays an important position for his house team at Hogwarts: he is the Seeker and becomes the team captain in his sixth year at school. Regional and international Quidditch competitions are mentioned throughout the series. In Goblet of Fire, Quidditch at Hogwarts is cancelled for the Triwizard Tournament, but Harry and the Weasleys attend the Quidditch World Cup. In addition, Harry uses his Quidditch skills to capture a golden egg from a kind of dragon called the Hungarian Horntail (in the first task of the Triwizard Tournament), to capture a flying key in Philosopher 's Stone, and on two vital occasions in Deathly Hallows -- getting hold of Ravenclaw 's diadem and during the final fight with Voldemort -- Harry 's Quidditch skills prove extremely useful. Harry has owned two broomsticks, the Nimbus 2000 and the Firebolt, both of which are lost by the series ' end. His Nimbus 2000 is destroyed by the Whomping Willow in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban and his Firebolt is lost in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows when he leaves Privet Drive for the last time. Aspects of the sport 's history are revealed in Quidditch Through the Ages, a book published by J.K. Rowling in 2001 to benefit Comic Relief.
A modified version of the game (without magic) has been created and is played in the real world in a number of countries. In this game the players have brooms but run instead of flying. Nevertheless, the basic rules are the same.
Rowling came up with the sport in a Manchester hotel room after a row with her then - boyfriend. She explained: "I had been pondering the things that hold a society together, cause it to congregate and signify its particular character and knew I needed a sport. '' Rowling claims that the word "Quidditch '' is not derived from any particular etymological root, but was the result of filling five pages of a notebook with different words beginning with "Q ''.
Despite the sport 's popularity with fans, Rowling grew to dislike describing the matches. She commented in an interview:
To be honest with you, Quidditch matches have been the bane of my life in the Harry Potter books. They are necessary in that people expect Harry to play Quidditch, but there is a limit to how many ways you can have them play Quidditch together and for something new to happen.
The final Quidditch scene in the books appears in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. Rowling experienced "fiendish glee '' writing this scene, which features memorable commentary by Luna Lovegood.
In 2014 Rowling started publishing a series of match reports from the Quidditch World Cup on Pottermore, culminating in a short story about the final featuring the return of Harry, Ron, Hermione and their friends as adults. This generated interest from several media outlets, as it was the first new writing about the Harry Potter characters since the end of the series in 2007.
Quidditch is introduced in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, and is a regularly recurring feature throughout the first six books. It is depicted as being played by both professionals (as in tournaments like the Quidditch World Cup) and amateurs. A major motif of five of the Harry Potter books is the competition among the four Hogwarts houses for the Quidditch Cup each school year; in particular, the rivalry between Gryffindor and Slytherin.
Quidditch matches are played over an oval - shaped pitch, with a scoring area at each end consisting of three hooped goal posts, each at a different height. Each team is made up of seven players, consisting of three Chasers, two Beaters, one Keeper and one Seeker. The job of the Chasers is to keep possession of the scarlet Quaffle, a spherical ball passed between players, and attempt to score goals (worth 10 points) by throwing it through one of the opponents ' three hoops. These hoops are defended by the opposing team 's Keeper, who ideally tries to block their goals. Meanwhile, players of both teams are attacked indiscriminately by the two Bludgers, round, jet black balls made of iron that fly around violently, trying to knock players off their brooms. It is the Beaters ' job to defend their teammates from the Bludgers; they carry short wooden clubs, which they use to knock the Bludgers away from their teammates and / or toward the opposing team. Finally, the role of the Seeker is to catch the Golden Snitch, a small golden ball the approximate size of a walnut. The winged Snitch is enchanted to hover, dart, and fly around the pitch, avoiding capture while remaining within the boundaries of the playing area. Catching the Snitch ends the game and scores the successful Seeker 's team 150 points. As the team with the most points wins, this often guarantees victory for the successful Seeker 's team, although a notable exception is when Bulgaria Seeker Viktor Krum catches the Snitch for Bulgaria during the World Cup Final in Goblet of Fire, while his team are still 160 points behind Ireland (their opponents), thus making his own team lose.
Magical flying broomsticks are one of the forms of transportation for wizards and witches, as well as being used for playing Quidditch. The two most prominent broomsticks in the books are the Nimbus 2000 and the Firebolt, both of which have been produced as merchandise by Warner Bros.
The Nimbus is introduced as one of the best broomsticks in the wizarding world. Harry receives a Nimbus 2000 in Philosopher 's Stone so that he can play for Gryffindor; Lucius Malfoy buys a full set of the more advanced Nimbus 2001s for the Slytherin team as a bribe so they would choose his son Draco as Seeker the following year.
The Firebolt later supersedes the Nimbus as the fastest and one of the most expensive racing brooms in existence. Harry receives a Firebolt model from his godfather, Sirius Black, after his Nimbus 2000 is destroyed during a Quidditch match in Prisoner of Azkaban. In Goblet of Fire, Harry uses his Firebolt to escape the Hungarian Horntail (which is a dragon) during the Triwizard Tournament.
Quidditch appears in five of the eight Harry Potter films. Some Quidditch subplots, such as Ron 's Keeper storyline in Order of the Phoenix, were cut to save time. Video games that feature Quidditch include:
In the Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey attraction in the Wizarding World of Harry Potter at the Islands of Adventure theme park, Quidditch is featured near the end where riders are flown through the Quidditch pitch. A storefront near Ollivanders Wand Shop is themed as a Quidditch supply with a Golden Snitch on the sign and a case containing animated Quaffle and Bludgers surrounded by Beaters ' bats.
According to David K. Steege, the books "follow very closely the school story tradition of making games and sports central to the boarding school experience; some of the most vivid and popular scenes in the series take place on the playing field. '' However, some critics have claimed that Rowling 's presentation of Quidditch reinforces gender inequality. For example, Heilman and Donaldson argue that the female players ultimately have little impact on the outcome of the game, and it has also been noted that the female players on the Gryffindor Quidditch team have very few lines. This view has been disputed by Mimi R. Gladstein, who points to the presence of female players on the victorious Irish team at the Quidditch World Cup. She argues: "The inclusion of female Quidditch players at the highest level of the sport is done without a trace of self - consciousness and their inclusion is n't an issue within the minds of the characters. ''
Quidditch has been criticised for the emphasis it places on the catching of the Snitch. Rowling claims that Quidditch is a sport that "infuriates '' men in particular, who are bothered by the unrealistic scoring system.
There have been small - scale attempts to adapt Quidditch to readily available technology, using bicycles, and unicycles.
In the real world, the word "Quidditch '' occurs in some English placenames (long before the Harry Potter stories were written), and seems to come from Anglo - Saxon cwǣð - dīc = "mud - ditch ''.
A street in Lower Cambourne, Cambridgeshire, England is named Quidditch Lane, supposedly after a type of nearby dry ditch called a Quidditch. Fans have been known to visit the area.
In November 2014, a plaque appeared outside the entrance of Bristol Children 's Hospital attesting that the famous hooped sculptures which stand in front of the paediatric institution are, in fact, not a 50 ft - tall interactive installation inaugurated in 2001, but instead the goalposts used in the 1998 Quidditch World Cup.
In 2017, Quidditch was the second word from the Harry Potter series to enter the Oxford Dictionary, following the inclusion of Muggle in 2002. Oxford Dictionaries associate editor Charlotte Buxton explained that Quidditch had gained recognition beyond the books, pointing to its existence as a real - life sport.
In 2007 the United States Quidditch Association, then named the Intercollegiate Quidditch Association or (I.Q.A), was founded to regulate quidditch in the United States and abroad, a very popular sport amongst college students. According to the International Quidditch Association, the current international governing body of the sport, the original rules and regulation of the popular collegiate sport known as quidditch were formed "... on a sunny Sunday afternoon in 2005 by Xander Manshel and Alex Benepe, students at Middlebury College in Vermont, US. '' (IQA). In contrast to the fictional sport, the game is played on foot while using one hand to hold a broom between the legs.
Since 2005, many American schools, such as UC Berkeley, have added Quidditch to their list of team sports. The sport has since then spread across more than 25 countries and includes multiple international tournaments, including a World Cup. In 2012, the International Quidditch Association held the IQA World Cup, then named the IQA Summer Games, as the torch was passing through Oxford, UK for the Summer Olympics.
Gameplay is reminiscent to the gameplay in the books, films, and game adaptations, though the sport has obviously been adapted to suit real - world constraints. Currently on the 10th edition of the rulebooks, quidditch is still evolving to suit safe play for the members of the teams, male and female. Apart from joining teams registered with their national governing body, individuals are also able to become an official certified referee to officiate tournaments and games throughout the year as teams compete to take part in various national and international tournaments. As the oldest national governing body, USQ has hosted a total of ten US Quidditch Cups as of 2017.
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who do you think you are uk stephen fry | Who Do You Think You Are? (UK TV series) - wikipedia
Who Do You Think You Are? is a British genealogy documentary series that has aired on the BBC since 2004. In each episode, a celebrity traces their family tree. It is made by the production company Wall to Wall. The show has regularly attracted an audience of more than 6 million viewers. More than ten international adaptations of the show have been produced.
Series one and two were broadcast on BBC Two, and the first was the channel 's highest - rating programme of 2004. This led to episodes being shown on BBC One from the third series onwards. The current narrator, as of Series 14 in 2017, is Phil Davis. Mark Strong took over from David Morrissey after the first series, which was nominated for "Best Factual Series or Strand '' in the 2005 BAFTAs; Cherie Lunghi was the narrator between Series 10 and 13.
In the first series, the last ten minutes of each episode featured presenter Adrian Chiles and genealogical researcher Nick Barratt giving tips on tracing a family tree. In 2007, a special episode was broadcast in conjunction with the BBC 's "Family Wanted '' campaign featuring Nicky Campbell, who was adopted a few days after he was born.
The theme tune was composed by Mark Sayer - Wade, who also provided the background music for earlier episodes. The music for later episodes is provided by Julian Hamlin and Edmund Jolliffe.
On 23 June 2015, the BBC confirmed the lineup for Series 12, which began on 13 August 2015.
On 13 July, the line - up for the 13th series was confirmed. The series started on 24 November 2016.
On 23 June 2017, the BBC announced the line - up for the show 's 14th series, which again would comprise 10 episodes.
On 10 May 2018, the BBC announced the lineup of celebrities taking part in Series 15, which aired during the summer of 2018.
The show was nominated for the 2010 BAFTA Television Award for Best Factual Series.
Series 1 -- 11 of Who Do You Think You Are? are available on DVD in the UK (Region 2).
In October 2007, BBC Magazines began issuing Who Do You Think You Are? Magazine, a monthly publication that includes material from the TV series.
The series 1 -- 4 box set of Who Do You Think You Are? is available, distributed by Acorn Media UK.
The TV format of the series has proved popular around the world and the BBC has licensed it to many foreign television companies, who have produced their own individual versions:
TVP1 has aired a Polish version, called Sekrety rodzinne, which was broadcast from November 2006 to March 2007.
In September 2007, a first series of Canadian version, consisting of 13 episodes, aired on CBC Television. In 2015, Radio - Canada produced a French language version called Qui êtes - vous?
An Australian version aired on SBS in January 2008, after six episodes of the BBC version had been shown; the BBC programmes were those featuring Stephen Fry, Bill Oddie, Julia Sawalha, Jeremy Clarkson, Gurinder Chadha, and Nigella Lawson.
In 2008, ARD 's Das Erste aired the German version, called Das Geheimnis meiner Familie ("The secret of my family ''). They aired four episodes featuring Marie - Luise Marjan, Armin Rohde, Christine Neubauer and Peter Maffay.
Ireland 's national broadcaster RTÉ has aired two series of Irish version of Who Do You Think You Are? in autumn 2008 and autumn 2009. The Irish version has included internationally recognised names such as Ardal O'Hanlon, Dana, Rosanna Davison, and Diarmuid Gavin.
Sveriges Television, the Swedish public service broadcaster, aired a Swedish version called Vem tror du att du är? in 2009. Later that year, in May and June, they also aired the BBC episodes featuring Stephen Fry, Jeremy Irons, Nigella Lawson, John Hurt, and Jane Horrocks.
Also on 31 May 2009, South African station SABC2 premiered its version, split into two parts, featuring local personalities.
An American adaptation of the show premiered on 5 March 2010 on NBC. In Britain, this began airing on BBC One on Sunday 13 June 2010.
In 2010, the Dutch version called Verborgen Verleden (nl) ("Hidden Past '') of the show started. Thus far, ten series have been produced between 2010 and 2018. From 2005 to 2008, four series of the show Verre Verwanten ("Distant Relatives '') were shown on Dutch television.
In September 2010, the Danish TV station Danmarks Radio aired the first episode of the Danish version, called Ved du hvem du er?.
On 1 September 2010, France 2 aired two episodes of the French version, Retour aux Sources, featuring Vincent Pérez and Clémentine Célarié
In January 2011, the Norwegian TV station NRK started to air the Norwegian version, called Hvem tror du at du er?
Starting on 9 January 2012, Finland 's national public - broadcasting company, YLE, aired 15 episodes of the Finnish version, called Kuka oikein olet?, in which local public figures searched for their origins.
A furthering of the concept was developed for American public broadcast TV, called Finding Your Roots, with Henry Louis Gates. This series adds DNA profiling to the format; including Y - chromosome DNA, mitochondrial DNA and autosomal DNA analyses to infer both ancient and recent genetic relationships. The series started airing on 25 March 2012.
In January 2013, Czech broadcaster ČT started broadcasting their version of this show, called Tajemství rodu ("The secret of the lineage '').
Starting 15 January 2013, RTP1 broadcast a Portuguese version called Quem É que Tu Pensas Que És? ("Who Do You Think You Are? '') at the 10: 30 pm timeslot. The first season featured such names as the comedian Herman José, the actresses Maria do Céu Guerra and Maria João Abreu, the musician Zé Pedro from the Xutos & Pontapés rock band and the fadista Camané.
BBC Wales has a similar series called Coming Home, which is made by Yellow Duck Productions and features celebrities with a Welsh background. In 2007, Wall to Wall developed You Do n't Know You 're Born for ITV1. The series saw various celebrities taking on their ancestors ' jobs. UKTV broadcast My Famous Family in 2007.
A short parody sketch of the show featured in the first series of The Armstrong and Miller Show in which Alexander Armstrong plays a fictionalised version of himself, discovering that his paternal grandfather and maternal grandmother were a child molester and a brothel - owner, respectively.
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when did life of the oarty come out | Life of the Party (2018 film) - Wikipedia
Life of the Party is a 2018 American comedy film directed by Ben Falcone and written by Falcone and Melissa McCarthy. It is the third film directed by Falcone and co-written by the pair, following Tammy (2014) and The Boss (2016). The film, starring McCarthy, Molly Gordon, Gillian Jacobs, Maya Rudolph, Julie Bowen, Matt Walsh, Debby Ryan, Adria Arjona, Jessie Ennis, with Stephen Root, and Jacki Weaver, follows a newly divorced mother who returns to college to complete her degree, and ends up bonding with her daughter 's friends.
Produced by On the Day Productions and New Line Cinema, the film was released on May 11, 2018, by Warner Bros. Pictures. It received mixed reviews from critics, who called it "a frustratingly middling comedy that never really figures out what to do with all that talent and fails to produce consistent laughs. ''
The movie starts with Deanna Miles (Melissa McCarthy) going with her husband Dan (Matt Walsh) to drop off their daughter Maddie (Molly Gordon) to her senior year at Decatur University in Atlanta for the Fall 2017 semester. After saying bye to Maddie, Deanna tells Dan how she 's looking forward to their trip to Italy until Dan flat - out tells her he wants a divorce because he has fallen in love with another woman. To make things worse, he is selling their house since everything is under his name, meaning Deanna has to leave. Deanna angrily kicks his car and takes an Uber home.
Deanna goes to the home of her parents, Mike (Stephen Root) and Sandy (Jacki Weaver). They note that Dan was always a jerk for making Deanna drop out of her last year of college when she got pregnant, meaning she never graduated, as well as making her put up with his overbearing ways during their marriage. Mike threatens to use a gun on Dan but then almost accidentally shoots their dog.
Deanna goes to play Racquetball with her best friend Christine (Maya Rudolph). There, Deanna bemoans what 's become of her life until she decides that she wo n't just sit around and let Dan ruin her life.
Deanna surprises Maddie in her dorm by announcing to her that she and Dan are divorcing and that she is now going to take a year at Decatur so that she can graduate and earn a degree in archaeology. Maddie is stunned by both bits of news and is left speechless.
Maddie introduces Deanna to her friends - Amanda (Adria Arjona), neurotic Debbie (Jessie Ennis), and Helen (Gillian Jacobs), who was in a coma for eight years and is now getting a chance to go to college. Deanna later meets her roommate Leonor (Heidi Gardner), who is agoraphobic and chronically depressed.
One of Deanna 's first classes is an archaeology class with Helen, and her professor is a former classmate of hers named Wayne (Chris Parnell). There, Deanna also meets resident "mean girl '' Jennifer (Debby Ryan) and her friend Trina (Yani Simone). They mock Deanna 's mom sweater and for her laughing at Wayne 's corny archaeology - related jokes.
Deanna later goes to sign the divorce papers with Christine while Dan shows up with his new fiancee Marcie (Julie Bowen). They exchange a lot of insults through the mediator.
Maddie takes Deanna to hang out with her and her friends. After being mocked by Jennifer again, Maddie gives her mom a makeover so that she can look more party - ready. Deanna meets Maddie 's boyfriend Tyler (Jimmy O. Yang) and another boy named Jack (Luke Benward). After many shots and beers, Deanna and Maddie wake up the next morning mortified to see each other leaving a frat house doing the "walk of shame '', which leads Maddie to realize Deanna slept with Jack.
Jack starts to constantly text Deanna since he has basically fallen in love with her. She tells him it was just a one - time thing, but they then go to the stacks in the library to have sex again.
Deanna tends to Debbie when she expresses a personal issue she is having, along with the other girls talking about their problems. Deanna encourages the girls to use their strengths to their advantage. They then go to an 80 's themed party where Deanna has a dance - off with Jennifer that results in her winning and earning the respect of her schoolmates.
Deanna must do a presentation for her archaeology class, but she gets so nervous that she sweats profusely and finally ends up fainting.
Deanna goes out to dinner with Christine, her husband, and their couple friends (that they do n't even like). To Deanna and Christine 's dismay, Dan and Marcie show up to gloat about taking the trip to Italy. However, Deanna gets the last laugh when they see that not only is Jack their waiter, but he is also Marcie 's son and Deanna gloats about sleeping with him to gross Marcie out.
On the night of Dan and Marcie 's wedding, Deanna and her friends get high off chocolate bark laced with weed, and they head to the reception. Deanna is initially ready to make peace with Dan until they see posters outside that are basically saying Dan did better than Deanna by getting with Marcie. Deanna and the girls then start trashing the reception room. Dan, Marcie, and Maddie find them after they wreck the place, and Marcie tells Deanna she is cut off financially from Dan. Deanna is filled with shame, if only because of how Maddie saw her.
Deanna tries to make amends with Maddie, but she tells her that she is leaving college since she has no means of completing the rest of the year on her own. The girls then come up with a plan to throw a party to raise money to pay for Deanna 's tuition.
The party turns out to be a flop since everyone is at a Christina Aguilera concert. Helen, who has three million Twitter followers, posts that Christina will be at the party after her show. This brings in almost the whole school, but they all start to ask when Christina will be there. Christine shows up with her husband, as do Mike and Sandy. Mike offers to give Deanna a check out of his 401K to pay off her tuition, but Deanna refuses to take it. Things get hectic when Jennifer and Helen get into a fight that is broken up after Jennifer accidentally punches Deanna in the breasts. Before the girls decide to issue refunds, they are surprised when Leonor shows up and reveals that Christina Aguilera is her cousin, and because of Deanna showing her kindness, she decided to help her out. Christina says she supports Deanna 's cause, and she puts on a show with Deanna and the girls to an excited crowd.
Later on, Deanna is up to repeat her presentation in class. She is still nervous until Maddie, Helen, Amanda, Debbie, and all the sorority sisters show up to support her, and Deanna manages to give the presentation with ease.
At the end of the year, Deanna and Maddie graduate together, with all their friends and family there to support them. Maddie encourages Deanna to throw her cap in the air. She does so, and it hits Dan in the face, knocking out an earring he was wearing while Marcie berates him for losing the expensive diamond stud.
Filming began in August 2016 in the metro Atlanta area. The sorority house used in the film is The Twelve Oaks Bed & Breakfast (www.thetwelveoaks.com) located in Covington, GA. The interior of the mansion was replicated in a warehouse in Decatur, GA for the interior scenes and the exterior scenes were filmed on location at the inn.
Life of the Party was released on May 11, 2018. The first official trailer for the film was released on February 5, 2018.
Life of the Party grossed 52.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $12.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $65.7 million.
In the United States and Canada, Life of the Party was released alongside Breaking In, and was projected to gross $18 -- 21 million from 3,656 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $4.9 million on its first day, including $700,000 from Thursday night previews, down from the $985,000 McCarthy 's The Boss grossed in March 2016, and similar to the $650,000 grossed by Snatched on the Thursday before the same weekend the previous year. The film went on to debut to $17.9 million, the lowest solo - starring opening of McCarthy 's career, and finished second behind Avengers: Infinity War ($62 million in its third week); 80 % of its audience was over the age of 25, while 70 % was female. It fell 57 % in its second weekend, to $7.6 million, finishing fourth at the box office, and another 33 % to $5.1 million in its third, finishing fifth.
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 37 % based on 123 reviews, and an average rating of 5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Life of the Party 's good - natured humor and abundance of onscreen talent are n't enough to make up for jumbled direction and a script that misses far more often than it hits. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100, based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale, higher than the "C + '' earned by each of McCarthy and Falcone 's previous two film collaborations.
Matt Zoller - Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film two out of four stars, calling it "the latest Melissa McCarthy star vehicle that fails to do justice to the sheer awesomeness of its leading lady. ''
Leigh Monson from Birth. MoviesDeath wrote the next: "One hundred minutes of self - indulgence and tedium, even if it 's well - meaning in its intentions. ''
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who does kitty end up with in brothers and sisters | Kitty Walker - wikipedia
Evan McCallister
Katherine Anne "Kitty '' Walker McCallister is a fictional character on the primetime show Brothers & Sisters. She is played by actress Calista Flockhart. In a two - part 2010 episode, actress Kay Panabaker portrayed a teenage Kitty Walker in flashback sequences set in 1986.
Kitty Walker is the second eldest of the Walker family, born in late September 1968, although she is the first child of William and Nora (as Sarah Walker was not William 's biological child). Kitty shared the conservative beliefs of her father, William, and brother, Tommy. Being Republican, Kitty always clashed with her mother, Nora, who is more liberal. Even though they love each other, their relationship is somewhat complicated.
One of the reasons for their misunderstanding was because of younger brother Justin. Kitty supported his decision to join the army whereas Nora was completely against it, especially after Justin was deployed to Afghanistan. From that point until Kitty 's return to Los Angeles the two had barely spoken to each other. Until she returned for a visit for her birthday, Kitty had not been home in several years. She had been living in New York City, and witnessed the fall of the Twin Towers during the September 11 attacks.
Kitty quit her job in New York City as a radio host after she was offered the opportunity to be a part of the political show (Red, White and Blue) in Los Angeles, despite the fact that her then fiancé, Jonathan, did n't want her to. Unable to work things out, they broke up. After the sudden death of her father, Kitty discovered, along with the rest of the Walker family, that her father had been cheating on her mother and had embezzled money from the company pension fund, putting the family business at risk. Feeling betrayed and vulnerable, Kitty slept with cohost Warren Salter, further complicating things with Jonathan, who wanted to reconcile with her. Soon after, they ultimately decided it was for the best if they broke up permanently. Jonathan returned to New York. Kitty was therefore free to pursue an affair with Warren but he was hesitant, as he was already involved with his young assistant, Amber. Warren finally asked Kitty out, and she accepted on the condition that he set things straight with Amber. When Kitty discovered that he did n't do so, she realized they did n't have a future together.
When Kitty 's brother Justin was called to fight in Iraq, she asked one of her guests, Senator Robert McCallister, for his help, but he refused. After another failed attempt to make him change his mind, Kitty apologized in front of her audience. Even though she admitted she had made a mistake, she did n't regret it and decided to leave the show. Robert was nonetheless impressed by her frankness. After much persuasion from Robert, Kitty became his communications director. Even though it was obvious that they were attracted to each other, Kitty was reticent at first, wanting to take a "man fast ''. The two of them nevertheless started dating soon after. Most recently after the campaign helicopter that she and Robert were scheduled to fly on crashed, Kitty asked McCallister to marry her. Later, the Senator proposed and Kitty accepted.
In Season 2, Kitty continues to plan her wedding to Robert, but when she discovers she is pregnant, the wedding is pushed forward to save the Senator from scandal of having a child out of wedlock. When Kitty eventually miscarries her child, the wedding is put off. After Kitty and Robert marry, their main goal is to have another child; after in vitro fertilization fails, the couple decide to look at adoption. Kitty is also revealed to have written a tell all book about the campaign with Robert and calls in an old friend, Isaac Marshall (played by Danny Glover) to help with the press and Robert 's political image. When brother Kevin marries Scotty at the end of the season, it 's Kitty who performs the ceremony.
In Season 3, Kitty and Robert are married and starting the adoption process. She asks Sarah to write a recommendation for her and Robert. However, Sarah asks Nora to do it as she does n't have time. Kitty, suspicious, questions Sarah about the letter and finds out that Nora wrote it, leading to a slight rift between them. Sarah then writes the letter.
Later, Robert tells Kitty that he has heard rumours that someone in his administration has written a book about his failed presidential campaign. It is revealed that Kitty wrote the book and accidentally leaves it at her mother 's home. Nora and Justin read the book and tell the others. They read the book and see that Kitty is talking about them negatively. Kitty and Robert then have them all over for a regular Walker dinner for the social worker. The dinner goes horribly, Nora spills water on the social worker, who leaves. Nora and Kitty then get into an argument. Robert, to everyone 's surprise, stands up to Nora and defends Kitty. She explains that she used her family to describe certain aspects about the typical voter. Robert, who is slightly angry about the book, reads it and tells her it 's brilliant. However, if Kitty publishes it, she will have to resign as his Communications Director. In the episode "Bakersfield '', Kitty is upset because Robert told her he was going to Washington but, in fact, went to Iraq to see the effects of the war. She is initially hurt, fearing he will always put his career ahead of his family. While Robert is away, Kitty gets a call from the adoption agency with the news that a woman who is six months pregnant would like them to have her child. When she calls Robert with the news, his overjoyed reaction persuades her to forgive him.
When Robert returns to the States, they set up a meeting with the birth mother at the hospital she works at. She is a brain surgeon who plainly did n't have time for the baby. After the conversation, everything seemed to be going well and both parties were excited. This was until Kitty decided to go back to the hospital and question Trish (the birth mother) if she was 100 % sure that she would go through with the adoption, and Trish was insulted that Kitty would doubt her. She ultimately told Kitty that she would find another set of adoption parents. Kitty was devastated that she had messed their chance up and Robert was upset with Kitty for returning to the hospital without discussing it with him. In a later episode, Trish phoned Robert and Kitty apologizing for "freaking out '' when Kitty had questioned her, and thanked her for giving her a chance to rethink her decision, which remained the same. She told them that if they can trust her again, she would be happy to give them her baby. Although Robert was skeptical, Kitty was elated.
After Robert suffers a heart attack, her and Robert 's marriage begins to deteriorate as he sinks into a deep depression and secretly launches plans to run for governor of California, and Kitty is left to deal with a recovering Robert and their infant son, Evan. She then meets a man named Alec who is a single father and they slowly bond and become flirtatious. When Robert eventually discovers things it snaps him out of his depression but he becomes upset with Kitty. While in Mexico visiting Tommy, he asks her if she loves him and at first she does n't know but chases after him, only to find herself too late as his chopper has already taken off.
In season 4, it is known that Kitty has been diagnosed with Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma, which will bring the family closer than ever. She starts chemotherapy, then considers stopping it in lieu of herbal remedies and positive thinking. She discovers hair loss from the treatment and shaves her head. She, Robert and Evan all move in with Nora during Kitty 's treatment so she can help with Evan during Kitty 's weakened state. Though the cancer is seemingly awful news it seems to bring Kitty and Robert closer and repairs their relationship. On the day of Justin and Rebecca 's wedding Kitty learns that the chemotherapy has not worked and that in fact her cancer has spread. However, she purposely neglects to tell Robert and her family because she does n't want to spoil the occasion. During the ceremony as she is reading a poem by e.e. cummings, Kitty passes out and her family rushes to her aid. Justin reveals that she is n't breathing and starts mouth - to - mouth resuscitation. Kitty is resuscitated at the hospital where her doctor reveals that her cancer has indeed advanced and spread and suggests a dangerous bone marrow transplant, which Kitty favors but Nora does n't.
Robert becomes angry with Kitty for keeping her advanced cancer from him, but they reconcile and he asks her to renew their vows when Kitty chooses the bone marrow transplant over more chemo - therapy. However, all the Walker siblings are tested and it is revealed that none of them are a match. In desperation Nora turns to Ryan and asks him to get tested and it is revealed that he is a match but does n't want to donate his marrow as he blames the Walkers (in place of William) for his mother 's suicide. Nora tries to tell him that she is angry with William as well but that he must move on. Nora also tells Ryan that by not helping Kitty, Evan will lose his mother, like Ryan did. However, it appears he leaves town in order to escape his sabotaging the wine at Ojai. Just as everyone begins to lose hope, Ryan returns after sorting through what Nora said and donates his marrow to his half - sister. The story then jumps three weeks later as Robert holds a press conference, it is revealed that the transplant was a success and Robert concedes his bid for governor and Ryan seemingly makes amends with the Walker family.
Kitty has since begun to run for Robert 's senate seat after he decided to step down. Robert is now involved with a group trying to gather evidence on Stanton, a politician. After he catches on to Robert he threatens to derail Kitty 's campaign should he go ahead with his information. In the season finale, the Walker family is involved in a massive highway accident. Robert is severely injured, but persuades Justin, who is a med student, to help the others while he waits for an ambulance. Kitty stays with Robert in the car and pleads with him to survive.
A year later, Kitty is tending to Robert, who has been in a vegetative coma since the accident. She insists he can recover, ignoring the rest of the family 's doubts. She 's offered a job taking his spot in the RNC, but she refuses as it would take her away from him. She blames Justin for what happened, saying Justin should have tended to Robert at the accident site, but Justin replies Robert wanted him to help Holly. A talk with Nora makes Kitty realize Robert will never wake up and finally decides to shut off his life support. Mourning her husband, she decides she 'll be okay as she prepares to move on with her life.
Eventually she rents a house in Ojai to ' find herself ' again. She meets a man, Jack, and they become romantically involved. Kitty is initially worried that their relationship wo n't work because of their different personalities. Jack reveals that he used to work in the city and would move back there if he got to be with Kitty. Once there, however, he begins to become heavily involved in his job and makes plans to move to a different country. Kitty says she ca n't go because of her family and her son. When they realize that their lives are at different points, they end their relationship.
Soon after this, Kitty is offered a job as a lecturer at Waxley University, which she accepts. Whilst there, a young graduate student named Seth asks her out. Although hesitant because of their age gap, Kitty agrees to go out with him. Their relationship goes well until she finds out his mother is the Dean at Waxley and worries she may lose her job. It turns out that she believes her son is not good enough for Kitty, which only makes Kitty more sure of her feelings. When Kitty leaves for DC, she tells her family she is going for business meetings and breaks things off with Seth. It is later revealed that there were some complications with her bone marrow and her cancer was at risk of returning. Once being given the all clear, she returns home and asks Seth for another chance to which he agrees. They then take a trip to Boston together. Kitty returns to support Sarah when she finds out that Brody is her father. On Sarah 's wedding day, she reveals that she is pregnant with Seth 's child.
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name for things washed up on the beach | Beach - wikipedia
A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, or cobblestones. The particles can also be biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae.
Some beaches have man - made infrastructure, such as lifeguard posts, changing rooms, and showers. They may also have hospitality venues (such as resorts, camps, hotels, and restaurants) nearby. Wild beaches, also known as undeveloped or undiscovered beaches, are not developed in this manner. Wild beaches can be valued for their untouched beauty and preserved nature.
Beaches typically occur in areas along the coast where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments.
Although the seashore is most commonly associated with the word beach, beaches are also found by lakes and alongside large rivers.
Beach may refer to:
The former are described in detail below; the larger geological units are discussed elsewhere under bars.
There are several conspicuous parts to a beach that relate to the processes that form and shape it. The part mostly above water (depending upon tide), and more or less actively influenced by the waves at some point in the tide, is termed the beach berm. The berm is the deposit of material comprising the active shoreline. The berm has a crest (top) and a face -- the latter being the slope leading down towards the water from the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there may be a trough, and further seaward one or more long shore bars: slightly raised, underwater embankments formed where the waves first start to break.
The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller), winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a dune.
These geomorphic features compose what is called the beach profile. The beach profile changes seasonally due to the change in wave energy experienced during summer and winter months. In temperate areas where summer is characterised by calmer seas and longer periods between breaking wave crests, the beach profile is higher in summer. The gentle wave action during this season tends to transport sediment up the beach towards the berm where it is deposited and remains while the water recedes. Onshore winds carry it further inland forming and enhancing dunes.
Conversely, the beach profile is lower in the storm season (winter in temperate areas) due to the increased wave energy, and the shorter periods between breaking wave crests. Higher energy waves breaking in quick succession tend to mobilise sediment from the shallows, keeping it in suspension where it is prone to be carried along the beach by longshore currents, or carried out to sea to form longshore bars, especially if the longshore current meets an outflow from a river or flooding stream. The removal of sediment from the beach berm and dune thus decreases the beach profile.
In tropical areas, the storm season tends to be during the summer months, with calmer weather commonly associated with the winter season.
If storms coincide with unusually high tides, or with a freak wave event such as a tidal surge or tsunami which causes significant coastal flooding, substantial quantities of material may be eroded from the coastal plain or dunes behind the berm by receding water. This flow may alter the shape of the coastline, enlarge the mouths of rivers and create new deltas at the mouths of streams that had not been powerful enough to overcome longshore movement of sediment.
The line between beach and dune is difficult to define in the field. Over any significant period of time, sediment is always being exchanged between them. The drift line (the high point of material deposited by waves) is one potential demarcation. This would be the point at which significant wind movement of sand could occur, since the normal waves do not wet the sand beyond this area. However, the drift line is likely to move inland under assault by storm waves.
The development of the beach as a popular leisure resort from the mid-19th century was the first manifestation of what is now the global tourist industry. The first seaside resorts were opened in the 18th century for the aristocracy, who began to frequent the seaside as well as the then fashionable spa towns, for recreation and health. One of the earliest such seaside resorts, was Scarborough in Yorkshire during the 1720s; it had been a fashionable spa town since a stream of acidic water was discovered running from one of the cliffs to the south of the town in the 17th century. The first rolling bathing machines were introduced by 1735.
The opening of the resort in Brighton and its reception of royal patronage from King George IV, extended the seaside as a resort for health and pleasure to the much larger London market, and the beach became a centre for upper - class pleasure and frivolity. This trend was praised and artistically elevated by the new romantic ideal of the picturesque landscape; Jane Austen 's unfinished novel Sanditon is an example of that. Later, Queen Victoria 's long - standing patronage of the Isle of Wight and Ramsgate in Kent ensured that a seaside residence was considered as a highly fashionable possession for those wealthy enough to afford more than one home.
The extension of this form of leisure to the middle and working class began with the development of the railways in the 1840s, which offered cheap and affordable fares to fast growing resort towns. In particular, the completion of a branch line to the small seaside town Blackpool from Poultron led to a sustained economic and demographic boom. A sudden influx of visitors, arriving by rail, provided the motivation for entrepreneurs to build accommodation and create new attractions, leading to more visitors and a rapid cycle of growth throughout the 1850s and 1860s.
The growth was intensified by the practice among the Lancashire cotton mill owners of closing the factories for a week every year to service and repair machinery. These became known as wakes weeks. Each town 's mills would close for a different week, allowing Blackpool to manage a steady and reliable stream of visitors over a prolonged period in the summer. A prominent feature of the resort was the promenade and the pleasure piers, where an eclectic variety of performances vied for the people 's attention. In 1863, the North Pier in Blackpool was completed, rapidly becoming a centre of attraction for elite visitors. Central Pier was completed in 1868, with a theatre and a large open - air dance floor.
Many of the popular beach resorts were equipped with bathing machines because even the all - covering beachwear of the period was considered immodest. By the end of the century the English coastline had over 100 large resort towns, some with populations exceeding 50,000.
The development of the seaside resort abroad was stimulated by the well developed English love of the beach. The French Riviera alongside the Mediterranean had already become a popular destination for the British upper class by the end of the 18th century. In 1864, the first railway to Nice was completed, making the Riviera accessible to visitors from all over Europe. By 1874, residents of foreign enclaves in Nice, most of whom were British, numbered 25,000. The coastline became renowned for attracting the royalty of Europe, including Queen Victoria and King Edward VII.
Continental European attitudes towards gambling and nakedness tended to be more lax than in Britain, so British and French entrepreneurs were quick to exploit the possibilities. In 1863, the Prince of Monaco, Charles III and François Blanc, a French businessman, arranged for steamships and carriages to take visitors from Nice to Monaco, where large luxury hotels, gardens and casinos were built. The place was renamed Monte Carlo.
Commercial sea bathing spread to the United States and parts of the British Empire by the end of the 19th century. By the late 1890s, Henry Flagler developed the Florida East Coast Railway, which linked the coastal sea resorts developing at St. Augustine, FL and Miami Beach, FL, to winter travelers from the northern United States and Canada on the East Coast Railway. By the early 20th century surfing was developed in Hawaii and Australia, and then moving to southern California by the early 1960s. By the 1970s cheap and affordable air travel was the catalyst for the growth of a truly global tourism market which benefited areas such as the Mediterranean, Australia, South Africa, and the coastal Sun Belt regions of the United States.
Beaches can be popular on warm sunny days. In the Victorian era, many popular beach resorts were equipped with bathing machines because even the all - covering beachwear of the period was considered immodest. This social standard still prevails in many Muslim countries. At the other end of the spectrum are topfree beaches and nude beaches where clothing is optional or not allowed. In most countries social norms are significantly different on a beach in hot weather, compared to adjacent areas where similar behavior might not be tolerated and might even be prosecuted.
In more than thirty countries in Europe, South Africa, New Zealand, Canada, Costa Rica, South America and the Caribbean, the best recreational beaches are awarded Blue Flag status, based on such criteria as water quality and safety provision. Subsequent loss of this status can have a severe effect on tourism revenues.
Beaches are often dumping grounds for waste and litter, necessitating the use of beach cleaners and other cleanup projects. More significantly, many beaches are a discharge zone for untreated sewage in most underdeveloped countries; even in developed countries beach closure is an occasional circumstance due to sanitary sewer overflow. In these cases of marine discharge, waterborne disease from fecal pathogens and contamination of certain marine species are a frequent outcome.
Some beaches are artificial; they are either permanent or temporary (For examples see Monaco, Paris, Copenhagen, Rotterdam, Nottingham, Toronto, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Tianjin).
The soothing qualities of a beach and the pleasant environment offered to the beachgoer are replicated in artificial beaches, such as "beach style '' pools with zero - depth entry and wave pools that recreate the natural waves pounding upon a beach. In a zero - depth entry pool, the bottom surface slopes gradually from above water down to depth. Another approach involves so - called urban beaches, a form of public park becoming common in large cities. Urban beaches attempt to mimic natural beaches with fountains that imitate surf and mask city noises, and in some cases can be used as a play park.
Beach nourishment involves pumping sand onto beaches to improve their health. Beach nourishment is common for major beach cities around the world; however the beaches that have been nourished can still appear quite natural and often many visitors are unaware of the works undertaken to support the health of the beach. Such beaches are often not recognized by consumers as artificial. A famous example of beach nourishment came with the replenishment of Waikīkī Beach in Honolulu, Hawaii, where sand from Manhattan Beach, California was transported via ship and barge throughout most of the 20th century in order to combat Waikiki 's erosion problems. The Surfrider Foundation has debated the merits of artificial reefs with members torn between their desire to support natural coastal environments and opportunities to enhance the quality of surfing waves. Similar debates surround beach nourishment and snow cannon in sensitive environments.
Public access to beaches is restricted in some parts of the world. For example, most beaches on the Jersey Shore are restricted to people who can purchase beach tags. Some beaches also restrict dogs for some periods of the year.
Also, private beaches such as those along the shores, may belong to the neighborhood association nearby. Signs are usually posted the entrance. A permit or special use occasion event may be granted upon executing the proper channels to legally obtain one.
Public access to beaches is protected by law in the U.S. State of Oregon, thanks to a 1967 state law, the Oregon Beach Bill, which guaranteed public access from the Columbia River to the California state line, "so that the public may have the free and uninterrupted use ''.
Beaches are the result of wave action by which waves or currents move sand or other loose sediments of which the beach is made as these particles are held in suspension. Alternatively, sand may be moved by saltation (a bouncing movement of large particles).
Beach materials come from erosion of rocks offshore, as well as from headland erosion and slumping producing deposits of scree. Some of the whitest sand in the world, along Florida 's Emerald Coast, comes from the erosion of quartz in the Appalachian Mountains.
A coral reef offshore is a significant source of sand particles. Some species of fish that feed on algae attached to coral outcrops and rocks can create substantial quantities of sand particles over their lifetime as they nibble during feeding, digesting the organic matter, and discarding the rock and coral particles which pass through their digestive tracts.
The composition of the beach depends upon the nature and quantity of sediments upstream of the beach, and the speed of flow and turbidity of water and wind.
Sediments are moved by moving water and wind according to their particle size and state of compaction. Particles tend to settle and compact in still water. Once compacted, they are more resistant to erosion. Established vegetation (especially species with complex network root systems) will resist erosion by slowing the fluid flow at the surface layer.
When affected by moving water or wind, particles that are eroded and held in suspension will increase the erosive power of the fluid that holds them by increasing the average density, viscosity and volume of the moving fluid.
The nature of sediments found on a beach tends to indicate the energy of the waves and wind in the locality. Coastlines facing very energetic wind and wave systems will tend to hold only large rocks as smaller particles will be held in suspension in the turbid water column and carried to calmer areas by longshore currents and tides. Coastlines that are protected from waves and winds will tend to allow finer sediments such as clays and mud to precipitate creating mud flats and mangrove forests.
The shape of a beach depends on whether the waves are constructive or destructive, and whether the material is sand or shingle.
Waves are constructive if the period between their wave crests is long enough for the breaking water to recede and the sediment to settle before the succeeding wave arrives and breaks. Fine sediment transported from lower down the beach profile will compact if the receding water percolates or soaks into the beach. Compacted sediment is more resistant to movement by turbulent water from succeeding waves.
Conversely, waves are destructive if the period between the wave crests is short. Sediment that remains in suspension when the following wave crest arrives will not be able to settle and compact and will be more susceptible to erosion by longshore currents and receding tides.
Constructive waves move material up the beach while destructive waves move the material down the beach. During seasons when destructive waves are prevalent, the shallows will carry an increased load of sediment and organic matter in suspension.
On sandy beaches, the turbulent backwash of destructive waves removes material forming a gently sloping beach. On pebble and shingle beaches the swash is dissipated more quickly because the large particle size allows greater percolation, thereby reducing the power of the backwash, and the beach remains steep.
Compacted fine sediments will form a smooth beach surface that resists wind and water erosion. During hot calm seasons, a crust may form on the surface of ocean beaches as the heat of the sun evaporates the water leaving the salt which crystallises around the sand particles. This crust forms an additional protective layer that resists wind erosion unless disturbed by animals, or dissolved by the advancing tide.
Cusps and horns form where incoming waves divide, depositing sand as horns and scouring out sand to form cusps. This forms the uneven face on some sand shorelines.
Beaches are changed in shape chiefly by the movement of water and wind. Any weather event that is associated with turbid or fast flowing water, or high winds will erode exposed beaches. Longshore currents will tend to replenish beach sediments and repair storm damage. Tidal waterways generally change the shape of their adjacent beaches by small degrees with every tidal cycle. Over time these changes can become substantial leading to significant changes in the size and location of the beach.
Changes in the shape of the beach may undermine the roots of large trees and other flora. Many beach adapted species (such as coconut palms) have a fine root system and large root ball which tends to withstand wave and wind action and tends to stabilize beaches better than other trees with a lesser root ball.
Erosion of beaches can expose less resilient soils and rocks to wind and wave action leading to undermining of coastal headlands eventually resulting in catastrophic collapse of large quantities of overburden into the shallows. This material may be distributed along the beach front leading to a change in the habitat as sea grasses and corals in the shallows may be buried or deprived of light and nutrients.
Coastal areas settled by man inevitably become subject to the effects of man - made structures and processes. Over long periods of time these influences may substantially alter the shape of the coastline, and the character of the beach.
Beach front flora plays a major role in stabilizing the foredunes and preventing beach head erosion and inland movement of dunes. If flora with network root systems (creepers, grasses and palms) are able to become established, they provide an effective coastal defense as they trap sand particles and rainwater and enrich the surface layer of the dunes, allowing other plant species to become established. They also protect the berm from erosion by high winds, freak waves and subsiding flood waters.
Over long periods of time, well stabilized foreshore areas will tend to accrete, while unstabilized foreshores will tend to erode, leading to substantial changes in the shape of the coastline. These changes usually occur over periods of many years. Freak wave events such as tsunami, tidal waves, and storm surges may substantially alter the shape, profile and location of a beach within hours.
Destruction of flora on the berm by the use of herbicides, excessive pedestrian or vehicle traffic, or disruption to fresh water flows may lead to erosion of the berm and dunes. While the destruction of flora may be a gradual process that is imperceptible to regular beach users, it often becomes immediately apparent after storms associated with high winds and freak wave events that can rapidly move large volumes of exposed and unstable sand, depositing them further inland, or carrying them out into the permanent water forming offshore bars, lagoons or increasing the area of the beach exposed at low tide. Large and rapid movements of exposed sand can bury and smother flora in adjacent areas, aggravating the loss of habitat for fauna, and enlarging the area of instability. If there is an adequate supply of sand, and weather conditions do not allow vegetation to recover and stabilize the sediment, wind - blown sand can continue to advance, engulfing and permanently altering downwind landscapes.
Sediment moved by waves or receding flood waters can be deposited in coastal shallows, engulfing reed beds and changing the character of underwater flora and fauna in the coastal shallows.
Burning or clearance of vegetation on the land adjacent to the beach head, for farming and residential development, changes the surface wind patterns, and exposes the surface of the beach to wind erosion.
Farming and residential development are also commonly associated with changes in local surface water flows. If these flows are concentrated in storm water drains emptying onto the beach head, they may erode the beach creating a lagoon or delta.
Dense vegetation tends to absorb rainfall reducing the speed of runoff and releasing it over longer periods of time. Destruction by burning or clearance of the natural vegetation tends to increase the speed and erosive power of runoff from rainfall. This runoff will tend to carry more silt and organic matter from the land onto the beach and into the sea. If the flow is constant, runoff from cleared land arriving at the beach head will tend to deposit this material into the sand changing its color, odor and fauna.
The concentration of pedestrian and vehicular traffic accessing the beach for recreational purposes may cause increased erosion at the access points if measures are not taken to stabilize the beach surface above high - water mark. Recognition of the dangers of loss of beach front flora has caused many local authorities responsible for managing coastal areas to restrict beach access points by physical structures or legal sanctions, and fence off foredunes in an effort to protect the flora. These measures are often associated with the construction of structures at these access points to allow traffic to pass over or through the dunes without causing further damage.
Beaches provide a filter for runoff from the coastal plain. If the runoff is naturally dispersed along the beach, water borne silt and organic matter will be retained on the land and will feed the flora in the coastal area. Runoff that is dispersed along the beach will tend to percolate through the beach and may emerge from the beach at low tide.
The retention of the fresh water may also help to maintain underground water reserves and will resist salt water incursion. If the surface flow of the runoff is diverted and concentrated by drains that create constant flows over the beach above the sea or river level, the beach will be eroded and ultimately form an inlet unless longshore flows deposit sediments to repair the breach.
Once eroded, an inlet may allow tidal inflows of salt water to pollute areas inland from the beach and may also affect the quality of underground water supplies and the height of the water table.
Some flora naturally occurring on the beach head requires fresh water runoff from the land. Diversion of fresh water runoff into drains may deprive these plants of their water supplies and allow sea water incursion, increasing the saltiness of the ground water. Species that are not able to survive in salt water may die and be replaced by mangroves or other species adapted to salty environments.
Beach nourishment is the importing and deposition of sand or other sediments in an effort to restore a beach that has been damaged by erosion. Beach nourishment often involves excavation of sediments from riverbeds or sand quarries. This excavated sediment may be substantially different in size and appearance to the naturally occurring beach sand.
In extreme cases, beach nourishment may involve placement of large pebbles or rocks in an effort to permanently restore a shoreline subject to constant erosion and loss of foreshore. This is often required where the flow of new sediment caused by the longshore current has been disrupted by construction of harbors, breakwaters, causeways or boat ramps, creating new current flows that scour the sand from behind these structures, and deprive the beach of restorative sediments. If the causes of the erosion are not addressed, beach nourishment can become a necessary and permanent feature of beach maintenance.
During beach nourishment activities, care must be taken to place new sediments so that the new sediments compact and stabilize before aggressive wave or wind action can erode them. Material that is concentrated too far down the beach may form a temporary groyne that will encourage scouring behind it. Sediments that are too fine or too light may be eroded before they have compacted or been integrated into the established vegetation. Foreign unwashed sediments may introduce flora or fauna that are not usually found in that locality.
Brighton Beach, on the south coast of England, is a shingle beach that has been nourished with very large pebbles in an effort to withstand erosion of the upper area of the beach. These large pebbles made the beach unwelcoming for pedestrians for a period of time until natural processes integrated the naturally occurring shingle into the pebble base.
Beach access is an important consideration where substantial numbers of pedestrians or vehicles require access to the beach. Allowing random access across delicate foredunes is seldom considered good practice as it is likely to lead to destruction of flora and consequent erosion of the fore dunes.
A well designed beach access should:
A concrete ramp should follow the natural profile of the beach to prevent it from changing the normal flow of waves, longshore currents, water and wind. A ramp that is below the beach profile will tend to become buried and cease to provide a good surface for vehicular traffic. A ramp or stair that protrudes above the beach profile will tend to disrupt longshore currents creating deposits in front of the ramp, and scouring behind. Concrete ramps are the most expensive vehicular beach accesses to construct requiring use of a quick drying concrete or a coffer dam to protect them from tidal water during the concrete curing process. Concrete is favored where traffic flows are heavy and access is required by vehicles that are not adapted to soft sand (e.g. road registered passenger vehicles and boat trailers). Concrete stairs are commonly favored on beaches adjacent to population centers where beach users may arrive on the beach in street shoes, or where the foreshore roadway is substantially higher than the beach head and a ramp would be too steep for safe use by pedestrians. A composite stair ramp may incorporate a central or side stair with one or more ramps allowing pedestrians to lead buggies or small boat dollies onto the beach without the aid of a powered vehicle or winch. Concrete ramps and steps should be maintained to prevent buildup of moss or algae that may make their wet surfaces slippery and dangerous to pedestrians and vehicles.
A corduroy or beach ladder (or board and chain) is an array of planks (usually hardwood or treated timber) laid close together and perpendicular to the direction of traffic flow, and secured at each end by a chain or cable to form a pathway or ramp over the sand dune. Corduroys are cheap and easy to construct and quick to deploy or relocate. They are commonly used for pedestrian access paths and light duty vehicular access ways. They naturally conform to the shape of the underlying beach or dune profile, and adjust well to moderate erosion, especially longshore drift. However, they can cease to be an effective access surface if they become buried or undermined by erosion by surface runoff coming from the beach head. If the corduroy is not wide enough for vehicles using it, the sediment on either side may be displaced creating a spoon drain that accelerates surface run off and can quickly lead to serious erosion. Significant erosion of the sediment beside and under the corduroy can render it completely ineffective and make it dangerous to pedestrian users who may fall between the planks.
Fabric ramps are commonly employed by the military for temporary purposes where the underlying sediment is stable and hard enough to support the weight of the traffic. A sheet of porous fabric is laid over the sand to stabilize the surface and prevent vehicles from bogging. Fabric Ramps usually cease to be useful after one tidal cycle as they are easily washed away, or buried in sediment.
A foliage ramp is formed by planting resilient species of hardy plants such as grasses over a well formed sediment ramp. The plants may be supported while they become established by placement of layers of mesh, netting, or coarse organic material such as vines or branches. This type of ramp is ideally suited for intermittent use by vehicles with a low wheel loading such as dune buggies or agricultural vehicles with large tyres. A foliage ramp should require minimal maintenance if initially formed to follow the beach profile, and not overused.
A gravel ramp is formed by excavating the underlying loose sediment and filling the excavation with layers of gravel of graduated sizes as defined by John Loudon McAdam. The gravel is compacted to form a solid surface according to the needs of the traffic. Gravel ramps are less expensive to construct than concrete ramps and are able to carry heavy road traffic provided the excavation is deep enough to reach solid subsoil. Gravel ramps are subject to erosion by water. If the edges are retained with boards or walls and the profile matches the surrounding beach profile, a gravel ramp may become more stable as finer sediments are deposited by percolating water.
Amongst the world 's longest beaches are:
A beach is an unstable environment that exposes plants and animals to changeable and potentially harsh conditions. Some animals burrow into the sand and feed on material deposited by the waves. Crabs, insects and shorebirds feed on these beach dwellers. The endangered piping plover and some tern species rely on beaches for nesting. Sea turtles also bury their eggs in ocean beaches. Seagrasses and other beach plants grow on undisturbed areas of the beach and dunes.
Ocean beaches are habitats with organisms adapted to salt spray, tidal overwash, and shifting sands. Some of these organisms are found only on beaches. Examples of these beach organisms in the southeast US include plants like sea oats, sea rocket, beach elder, beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes - caprae), and beach peanut, and animals such as mole crabs (Hippoidea), coquina clams (Donax), ghost crabs, and white beach tiger beetles.
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does only the senate vote for supreme court justices | Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The appointment and confirmation of Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States involves several steps set forth by the United States Constitution, which have been further refined and developed by decades of tradition. Candidates are nominated by the President of the United States and must face a series of hearings in which both the nominee and other witnesses make statements and answer questions before the Senate Judiciary Committee, which can vote to send the nomination to the full United States Senate. Confirmation by the Senate allows the President to formally appoint the candidate to the court.
Senate cloture rules historically required a two - thirds affirmative vote to advance nominations to a vote; this was changed to a three - fifths supermajority in 1975. In November 2013, the then - Democratic Senate majority eliminated the filibuster for executive branch nominees and judicial nominees except for Supreme Court nominees by invoking the so called nuclear option. In April 2017, the Republican Senate majority applied the nuclear option to Supreme Court nominations as well, enabling the nominations of Trump nominees Neil Gorsuch and Brett Kavanaugh to proceed to a vote.
Article Two of the United States Constitution requires the President of the United States to nominate Supreme Court Justices and, with Senate confirmation, requires Justices to be appointed. This was for the division of power between the President and Senate by the founders, who wrote:
he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint... Judges of the supreme Court...
Upon the election of a new President, incoming White House staff prepare profiles of possible candidates for the Supreme Court, considering not only judges but also politicians and other individuals whom they consider appropriate for the role. Besides considering national figures whose views are well - known, they consider others who are less recognized. They go through published rulings, articles, speeches, and other background material to get an idea of candidates ' values and views on constitutional issues. Age, health, race, gender, education, and likelihood of confirmation are also factored into considerations. Once a Supreme Court vacancy opens, the President discusses the candidates with advisors. Senators also call the President with suggestions. In turn, the White House lobbies key senators for their votes. After a first choice is decided, the candidate is contacted and called on by the President to serve on the highest court. Staffers send a vetting form for the candidate to fill out. They visit the candidate to go over tax records and payments to domestic help. A formal FBI background check is conducted. Candidates whom the President has never met are interviewed by White House officials before being sent to the White House to be interviewed in person by the President. After making a final decision, the President calls the candidate, who is told to prepare a statement for an appearance in front of the national press for the President 's formal announcement. The nominee then meets with senators and prepares for confirmation hearings.
Most Presidents nominate individuals who broadly share their ideological views. In many cases, however, a Justice 's decisions may be contrary to what the nominating President anticipated. A famous instance was Chief Justice Earl Warren; President Dwight D. Eisenhower expected him to be a conservative judge, but his decisions are arguably among the most liberal in the Court 's history. Eisenhower later called the appointment "the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made ''. Another Justice whose decisions ran contrary to what was believed to be his ideology was David Souter, who was nominated to the high court in 1990 by President George H.W. Bush. Many pundits and politicians at the time expected Souter to be a conservative; however, after becoming a Justice, his opinions generally fell on the liberal side of the political spectrum.
Because the Constitution does not set any qualifications for service as a Justice, the President may nominate any individual to serve on the Court. However, that person must receive the confirmation of the Senate.
In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from special - interest groups, many of which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee, depending on whether the nominee 's track record aligns with the group 's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings, questioning nominees to determine their suitability. By convention, nominees avoid revealing too much about their views on potential cases that may come before the Court. At the close of confirmation hearings, the Committee votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report.
The Committee 's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent, beginning with Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925. Some western senators were concerned with his links to Wall Street and expressed their opposition when Stone was nominated. Stone proposed what was then the novelty of appearing before the Judiciary Committee to answer questions; his testimony helped secure a confirmation vote with very little opposition. The second nominee to appear before the Committee was Felix Frankfurter, who only addressed (at the Committee 's request) what he considered to be slanderous allegations against him. The modern practice of the Committee questioning nominees on their judicial views began with the nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in 1955; the nomination came shortly after the Court handed down the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, and several Southern senators attempted to block Harlan 's confirmation, hence the decision to testify.
Once the Committee reports out the nomination, the whole Senate considers it. A simple majority vote is required to confirm or to reject a nominee. Prior to 2017, a successful filibuster threat could add the requirement of a supermajority of 60 needed in favor of cloture, which would allow debate to end and force a final vote on confirmation. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees in its history. The most recent rejection of a nominee by vote of the full Senate came in 1987, when the Senate refused to confirm Robert Bork.
Not everyone nominated by the President has received a floor vote in the Senate. Prior to 2017 a nominee could be filibustered once debate on the nomination had begun in the full Senate. A filibuster indefinitely prolongs the debate, preventing a final vote on the nominee. President Lyndon Johnson 's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas 's ethics. President Donald Trump 's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat left vacant by Antonin Scalia 's death was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican leadership 's prior refusal to take up Obama 's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy. The Republican majority then changed the rules to eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.
Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006 before Committee hearings had begun, citing concerns about Senate requests during her confirmation process for access to internal Executive Branch documents resulting from her position as White House Counsel. In 1987, President Ronald Reagan withdrew the nomination of Douglas H. Ginsburg because of news reports containing marijuana use allegations.
The Senate may also fail to act on the nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower 's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, the Senate failed to act on President Barack Obama 's nomination of Merrick Garland in March 2016 to fill the vacancy left by the death of Antonin Scalia; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Donald J. Trump 's appointment of Neil Gorsuch.
Before 1981 the approval process of Justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, Justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months). Some believe this is because Congress sees Justices as playing a more political role than in the past. The perceived politicization of the process has drawn criticism. For example, columnist George F. Will termed the defeat of Robert Bork 's nomination "unjust '' and, more generally, that the nomination process does "not delve deeply into the nominee 's jurisprudential thinking. '' Supreme Court nominations have caused media speculation about whether the judge leans to the left, middle, or right. One indication of the politicized selection process is how much time each nominee spends being questioned under the glare of media coverage; before 1925, nominees were never questioned; after 1955, every nominee has been required to appear before the Senate Judiciary Committee and answer questions; and the hours spent being grilled have lengthened from single digits (before 1980) to double digits today.
Following is a table of the approximate number of hours that media sources estimate were spent on the questioning of Supreme Court nominees since 1925:
Once the Senate confirms the nomination by an affirmative vote, the Secretary of the Senate attests to a resolution of confirmation and transmits it to the White House. The President then prepares and signs a commission, and causes the Seal of the United States Department of Justice to be affixed to the document before the new Justice can take office. The date of commission determines a Justice 's seniority. A ceremony is held in which the Justice must take the Constitutional Oath, which is used for every federal and state officeholder below the President, and the Judicial Oath used for federal judges before entering into the execution of their office.
Article II, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution provides that:
The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.
Thus, when the Senate is in recess, the President may make a temporary appointment to any office requiring Senate approval, including filling vacancies on the Supreme Court, without the Senate 's advice and consent. Such a recess appointee to the Supreme Court holds office only until the end of the next Senate session (always less than two years). To continue to serve thereafter and be compensated for his or her service, the nominee must be formally nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Of the ten Justices who have received recess appointments - two Chief Justices and eight Associate Justices - only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed for a regular appointment. No president since Dwight Eisenhower (who made three such appointments) has made a recess appointment to the Supreme Court and the practice has become highly controversial even when applied to lower federal courts. During the 110th Congress, the Democratic leadership of the Senate specifically blocked Republican President George W. Bush from making any recess appointments with the use of pro forma sessions.
In 1960 the Senate passed a resolution stating that it was the sense of the Senate that recess appointments to the Supreme Court should not be made except under unusual circumstances. Being a resolution, it has no legally binding effect, but was intended as an expression of the position of the Senate and as a guide to executive actions. The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines.
Following is a list of recess appointments that have been made to the Supreme Court:
The ability of a president to appoint new justices depends on the occurrence of a vacancy on the Court. In practice, such vacancies normally occur as the result of an incumbent justices ' death, resignation, or retirement.
The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior '', which is understood to mean that confirmed justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, until death. Justices may also resign or retire from their offices, and any of these circumstances results in a vacancy which must be filled. Because justices have indefinite tenure, the timing of future vacancies is unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession: in September 1971, associate justices Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II both retired, producing two vacancies which were filled in January 1972 by Lewis Powell and William Rehnquist, respectively. On the other hand, sometimes several years pass between consecutive vacancies. In August 1994, Harry Blackmun 's retirement created a vacancy which was filled by Stephen Breyer. No further vacancy would occur on the Court until September 2005 when Rehnquist, since promoted to chief justice, died. This vacancy was filled by current chief justice John Roberts.
Less commonly, though with historical precedent, vacancies may occur as a result of Congress changing the size of the Court. Because the Constitution does not specify the Court 's size, it was left to Congress to determine the matter through law, and a small number of statutes have legally changed the size of the Court throughout its history. Changing the Court 's size can have the effect of changing the seats on the Court; a newly created seat brings with it a vacancy which must be filled by an initial officeholder. The original Judiciary Act of 1789 called for six justices, vacancies promptly filled by the appointments of George Washington, resulting in the Court 's first complete composition. An 1801 act called for the Court to be reduced to five justices upon its next vacancy, but was swiftly obviated by an 1802 act which restored the Court 's legal size to six before any such vacancy occurred. In 1807, the Court 's size was increased to seven, creating one new vacancy filled by Thomas Todd. Again in 1837, the Court 's size was increased to nine, the two new vacancies being filled by John Catron and John McKinley. An 1863 act increased the Court 's size to ten, the vacancy being filled by Stephen Johnson Field. Although an 1866 act provided that the Court 's size would be thinned from ten to seven through attrition (and which did result in the elimination of two seats while in effect), a final 1869 act interrupted the plan set forth in 1866: the Court 's size shall be nine, the legally prescribed full strength which has stood ever since. Consequently, one final seat was created and filled by Joseph Bradley.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937, seeking to appoint an additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years and 6 months and refused retirement; under Roosevelt 's proposal, such appointments would continue until the Court reached a maximum size of 15 justices. Ostensibly, the proposal was made to ease the burdens of the docket on the elderly justices, but Roosevelt 's actual purpose was to pack the Court with justices who would support New Deal policies and legislation. This plan, usually called the "Court - packing Plan '', failed in Congress and proved a political disaster for Roosevelt. The balance of the Court shifted with the retirement of Willis Van Devanter and the confirmation of Hugo Black in August 1937. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven Supreme Court justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to chief justice.
It is constitutionally possible for a justice to be removed from office through Congressional impeachment by the House and conviction by the Senate, another possible situation creating a vacancy. Only one justice -- Samuel Chase, late 1804 - early 1805 -- has ever been impeached; however, Chase was acquitted by the Senate, and thus not removed from office. Removal of a justice through an impeachment process has therefore never taken place. Less substantial efforts towards impeachment of a sitting justice, not reaching a House vote, have occurred more recently: William O. Douglas was twice the subject of hearings, first in 1953 and again in 1970. No mechanism presently exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, both unable to resign and unable to resume service.
Despite the unpredictability of vacancies, most presidents have successfully appointed at least one justice. The four exceptions are William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Andrew Johnson, and Jimmy Carter. Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor John Tyler made an appointment during that presidential term. Taylor likewise died early in his term, although his successor Millard Fillmore also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Johnson was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by the 1866 act which reduced the Court 's size, mentioned above. Jimmy Carter is the only president who completed one full term in office without making a nomination to the Court during his presidency.
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how many more episodes of the affair on showtime | The Affair (TV series) - Wikipedia
The Affair is an American television drama series created by Sarah Treem and Hagai Levi. The series premiered on Showtime on October 12, 2014. A TV - 14 version of the pilot episode was made available online beginning on October 6, 2014, via YouTube, SHO.com, and several other on - demand formats.
A 12 - episode second season of The Affair premiered on October 4, 2015. On December 9, 2015, the series was renewed for a third season, which debuted on November 20, 2016. On January 9, 2017, Showtime renewed the series for a fourth season, which premiered on June 17, 2018. On July 26, 2018, Showtime announced it had renewed the series for a fifth and final season to debut in 2019.
The series won the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama and Ruth Wilson won for Best Actress -- Television Series Drama at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards in 2015. At the 73rd Golden Globe Awards in 2016, Maura Tierney won the award for Best Supporting Actress.
The Affair explores the emotional effects of an extramarital relationship between Noah Solloway and Alison Lockhart (Dominic West and Ruth Wilson) after they casually meet at the diner where Alison works. The show begins with the Solloway family packing up the family van to stay in the resort town of Montauk, New York. Noah is happily married with four children, but he resents their dependence on his wealthy father - in - law. Alison is a local waitress trying to piece her life and marriage back together in the wake of her young son 's tragic accidental death at the age of four. The story of the affair is depicted from Noah 's and Alison 's perspectives respectively, complete with memory bias which often results in vastly different scenarios. Each episode has two parts, one as remembered by Noah, the other by Alison. Noah 's perspective is of a vibrant, playful, and sexy Alison who comes on to him, while her perspective is more cautious, reserved, with a dulled conservative sense of self, and Noah coming on to her.
In the second season, the narrative is expanded to include the perspectives of Noah and Alison 's original spouses, Helen Solloway and Cole Lockhart (Maura Tierney and Joshua Jackson), as they all move forward with the dissolution of their marriages and deal with the ramifications. The subsequent death of Alison 's brother - in - law, Scott (Colin Donnell), and the ensuing police investigation and criminal trial, are explored in flashforward scenes at the end of most episodes.
The third season is set three years later, following the culmination of the flashforward trial scenes, after Noah is released from prison. Season 3 introduces an occasional perspective, Juliette Le Gall (Irène Jacob), Noah 's new love interest.
In the fourth season, Noah has moved to Los Angeles to be closer to his younger children Trevor (Jadon Sand) and Stacey (Abigail Dylan Harrison), as Helen and Vik (Omar Metwally) have moved there. Cole and Luisa (Catalina Sandino Moreno) are living together in Montauk, while Alison is working as a grief counselor. Season 4 features opening flashforward sequences, featuring Noah and Cole, in its first four episodes, which ultimately lead to the discovery of Alison 's death.
Characters marked "Perspective '' have parts of episodes told from their point of view.
On February 8, 2013, it was announced that Showtime had ordered a pilot for The Affair. The network officially picked up the series on January 16, 2014, with a 10 - episode order. On November 10, 2014, Showtime renewed the series for a 10 - episode second season; however, it was later changed to 12. On December 9, 2015, the series was renewed for a third season. On January 9, 2017, Showtime renewed the series for a fourth season. On July 26, 2018, Showtime announced it had renewed the series for a fifth and final season.
After the conclusion of the fourth season and prior to the start of production on the fifth and final season, certain series regulars departed the series. Ruth Wilson requested to leave ahead of season four, and her character was killed off at the end of the season. In September 2018, it was reported that Joshua Jackson would not return as a series regular for the final season, but could return as a guest star. In October 2018, it was also confirmed that Catalina Sandino Moreno would not be a series regular for the final season.
The first season received praise from critics. On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 90 %, based on 50 reviews, with an average rating of 8.18 / 10. The consensus reads: "Thanks to some smart, creative storytelling and spectacular performances, The Affair is a somber, bewitching exploration of truth and desire. '' On Metacritic, the first season has a score of 85 out of 100, based on 28 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
The second season received continued positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 90 %, based on 21 reviews, with an average rating of 8.04 / 10. The consensus reads: "The Affair shifts its emphasis in season two, moving psychological drama to the foreground and expanding the show 's central crime story to include two new points of view. '' On Metacritic, it has a score of 78 out of 100 based on 15 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club gave it an "A - '' grade and wrote that "With its bold new move to double our number of perspectives, it appears that The Affair will sail over that sophomore slump that has felled so many other Showtime dramas.
The third season received continued positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 79 %, based on 19 reviews, with an average rating of 7.67 / 10. The consensus reads: "The Affair adds to its cast of strong characters and deepens the mood, tension, and intrigue, even if the plot sometimes struggles to move forward. '' On Metacritic, it has a score of 72 out of 100 based on 8 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The fourth season received continued positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 90 %, based on 21 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8 / 10. The consensus reads: "The Affair 's captivating character study returns with fewer kinks than its previous outing, resulting in a more emotionally grounded season that regains much of the show 's initial allure. ''
The first season was released on DVD in region 1 on August 4, 2015. The set contains all 10 episodes, plus special features, including character profiles and costume featurettes. The second season was released on DVD in region 1 on August 16, 2016. The third season was released on DVD in region 1 on April 25, 2017.
In Canada, the series premiered simultaneously with the American broadcast on October 12, 2014, and airs on Movie Central and The Movie Network. The series premiered on Showcase in Australia on February 10, 2015. Sky Atlantic bought the rights to air The Affair in the UK with season one beginning in May 2015.
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what is d latch and d flip flop | Flip - flop (electronics) - wikipedia
In electronics, a flip - flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information. A flip - flop is a bistable multivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic storage element in sequential logic. Flip - flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.
Flip - flops and latches are used as data storage elements. A flip - flop is a device which stores a single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its two states represents a "one '' and the other represents a "zero ''. Such data storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is described as sequential logic in electronics. When used in a finite - state machine, the output and next state depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state (and hence, previous inputs). It can also be used for counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably - timed input signals to some reference timing signal.
Flip - flops can be either simple (transparent or opaque) or clocked (synchronous or edge - triggered). Although the term flip - flop has historically referred generically to both simple and clocked circuits, in modern usage it is common to reserve the term flip - flop exclusively for discussing clocked circuits; the simple ones are commonly called latches.
Using this terminology, a latch is level - sensitive, whereas a flip - flop is edge - sensitive. That is, when a latch is enabled it becomes transparent, while a flip flop 's output only changes on a single type (positive going or negative going) of clock edge.
The first electronic flip - flop was invented in 1918 by the British physicists William Eccles and F.W. Jordan. It was initially called the Eccles -- Jordan trigger circuit and consisted of two active elements (vacuum tubes). The design was used in the 1943 British Colossus codebreaking computer and such circuits and their transistorized versions were common in computers even after the introduction of integrated circuits, though flip - flops made from logic gates are also common now. Early flip - flops were known variously as trigger circuits or multivibrators.
According to P.L. Lindley, an engineer at the US Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the flip - flop types detailed below (SR, D, T, JK) were first discussed in a 1954 UCLA course on computer design by Montgomery Phister, and then appeared in his book Logical Design of Digital Computers. Lindley was at the time working at Hughes Aircraft under Eldred Nelson, who had coined the term JK for a flip - flop which changed states when both inputs were on (a logical "one ''). The other names were coined by Phister. They differ slightly from some of the definitions given below. Lindley explains that he heard the story of the JK flip - flop from Eldred Nelson, who is responsible for coining the term while working at Hughes Aircraft. Flip - flops in use at Hughes at the time were all of the type that came to be known as J-K. In designing a logical system, Nelson assigned letters to flip - flop inputs as follows: # 1: A & B, # 2: C & D, # 3: E & F, # 4: G & H, # 5: J & K. Nelson used the notations "j - input '' and "k - input '' in a patent application filed in 1953.
Flip - flops can be either simple (transparent or asynchronous) or clocked (synchronous). The simple ones are commonly described as latches, while the clocked ones are described as flip - flops.
Simple flip - flops can be built around a single pair of cross-coupled inverting elements: vacuum tubes, bipolar transistors, field effect transistors, inverters, and inverting logic gates have all been used in practical circuits.
Clocked devices are specially designed for synchronous systems; such devices ignore their inputs except at the transition of a dedicated clock signal (known as clocking, pulsing, or strobing). Clocking causes the flip - flop either to change or to retain its output signal based upon the values of the input signals at the transition. Some flip - flops change output on the rising edge of the clock, others on the falling edge.
Since the elementary amplifying stages are inverting, two stages can be connected in succession (as a cascade) to form the needed non-inverting amplifier. In this configuration, each amplifier may be considered as an active inverting feedback network for the other inverting amplifier. Thus the two stages are connected in a non-inverting loop although the circuit diagram is usually drawn as a symmetric cross-coupled pair (both the drawings are initially introduced in the Eccles -- Jordan patent).
Flip - flops can be divided into common types: the SR ("set - reset ''), D ("data '' or "delay ''), T ("toggle ''), and JK. The behavior of a particular type can be described by what is termed the characteristic equation, which derives the "next '' (i.e., after the next clock pulse) output, Q in terms of the input signal (s) and / or the current output, Q (\ displaystyle Q).
When using static gates as building blocks, the most fundamental latch is the simple SR latch, where S and R stand for set and reset. It can be constructed from a pair of cross-coupled NOR logic gates. The stored bit is present on the output marked Q.
While the R and S inputs are both low, feedback maintains the Q and Q outputs in a constant state, with Q the complement of Q. If S (Set) is pulsed high while R (Reset) is held low, then the Q output is forced high, and stays high when S returns to low; similarly, if R is pulsed high while S is held low, then the Q output is forced low, and stays low when R returns to low.
Note: X means do n't care, that is, either 0 or 1 is a valid value.
The R = S = 1 combination is called a restricted combination or a forbidden state because, as both NOR gates then output zeros, it breaks the logical equation Q = not Q. The combination is also inappropriate in circuits where both inputs may go low simultaneously (i.e. a transition from restricted to keep). The output would lock at either 1 or 0 depending on the propagation time relations between the gates (a race condition).
To overcome the restricted combination, one can add gates to the inputs that would convert (S, R) = (1, 1) to one of the non-restricted combinations. That can be:
This is done in nearly every programmable logic controller.
Alternatively, the restricted combination can be made to toggle the output. The result is the JK latch.
The characteristic equation for the SR latch is:
Q next = R _̄ Q + R _̄ S (\ displaystyle Q_ (\ text (next)) = (\ bar (R)) Q+ (\ bar (R)) S) or Q next = R _̄ (Q + S). (\ displaystyle Q_ (\ text (next)) = (\ bar (R)) (Q + S).)
Another expression is:
Q next = S + R _̄ Q (\ displaystyle Q_ (\ text (next)) = S+ (\ bar (R)) Q) with S R = 0 (\ displaystyle SR = 0).
This is an alternate model of the simple SR latch which is built with NAND logic gates. Set and reset now become active low signals, denoted S and R respectively. Otherwise, operation is identical to that of the SR latch. Historically, SR - latches have been predominant despite the notational inconvenience of active - low inputs.
From the teaching point of view, SR latches realised as a pair of cross-coupled components (transistors, gates, tubes, etc.) are rather hard to understand for beginners. A didactically easier to understand model uses a single feedback loop instead of the cross-coupling. The following is an SR latch built with an AND gate with one inverted input and an OR gate.
The JK latch is much less frequently used than the JK flip - flop. The JK latch follows the following state table:
Hence, the JK latch is an SR latch that is made to toggle its output (oscillate between 0 and 1) when passed the input combination of 11. Unlike the JK flip - flop, the 11 input combination for the JK latch is not very useful because there is no clock that directs toggling.
Latches are designed to be transparent. That is, input signal changes cause immediate changes in output. Additional logic can be added to a simple transparent latch to make it non-transparent or opaque when another input (an "enable '' input) is not asserted. When several transparent latches follow each other, using the same enable signal, signals can propagate through all of them at once. However, by following a transparent - high latch with a transparent - low (or opaque - high) latch, a master -- slave flip - flop is implemented.
A synchronous SR latch (sometimes clocked SR flip - flop) can be made by adding a second level of NAND gates to the inverted SR latch (or a second level of AND gates to the direct SR latch). The extra NAND gates further invert the inputs so the simple SR latch becomes a gated SR latch (and a simple SR latch would transform into a gated SR latch with inverted enable).
With E high (enable true), the signals can pass through the input gates to the encapsulated latch; all signal combinations except for (0, 0) = hold then immediately reproduce on the (Q, Q) output, i.e. the latch is transparent.
With E low (enable false) the latch is closed (opaque) and remains in the state it was left the last time E was high.
The enable input is sometimes a clock signal, but more often a read or write strobe.
This latch exploits the fact that, in the two active input combinations (01 and 10) of a gated SR latch, R is the complement of S. The input NAND stage converts the two D input states (0 and 1) to these two input combinations for the next SR latch by inverting the data input signal. The low state of the enable signal produces the inactive "11 '' combination. Thus a gated D - latch may be considered as a one - input synchronous SR latch. This configuration prevents application of the restricted input combination. It is also known as transparent latch, data latch, or simply gated latch. It has a data input and an enable signal (sometimes named clock, or control). The word transparent comes from the fact that, when the enable input is on, the signal propagates directly through the circuit, from the input D to the output Q.
Transparent latches are typically used as I / O ports or in asynchronous systems, or in synchronous two - phase systems (synchronous systems that use a two - phase clock), where two latches operating on different clock phases prevent data transparency as in a master -- slave flip - flop.
Latches are available as integrated circuits, usually with multiple latches per chip. For example, 74HC75 is a quadruple transparent latch in the 7400 series.
The truth table shows that when the enable / clock input is 0, the D input has no effect on the output. When E / C is high, the output equals D.
The classic gated latch designs have some undesirable characteristics. They require double - rail logic or an inverter. The input - to - output propagation may take up to three gate delays. The input - to - output propagation is not constant -- some outputs take two gate delays while others take three.
Designers looked for alternatives. A successful alternative is the Earle latch. It requires only a single data input, and its output takes a constant two gate delays. In addition, the two gate levels of the Earle latch can, in some cases, be merged with the last two gate levels of the circuits driving the latch because many common computational circuits have an OR layer followed by an AND layer as their last two levels. Merging the latch function can implement the latch with no additional gate delays. The merge is commonly exploited in the design of pipelined computers, and, in fact, was originally developed by John G. Earle to be used in the IBM System / 360 Model 91 for that purpose.
The Earle latch is hazard free. If the middle NAND gate is omitted, then one gets the polarity hold latch, which is commonly used because it demands less logic. However, it is susceptible to logic hazard. Intentionally skewing the clock signal can avoid the hazard.
The D flip - flop is widely used. It is also known as a "data '' or "delay '' flip - flop.
The D flip - flop captures the value of the D - input at a definite portion of the clock cycle (such as the rising edge of the clock). That captured value becomes the Q output. At other times, the output Q does not change. The D flip - flop can be viewed as a memory cell, a zero - order hold, or a delay line.
Truth table:
(' X ' denotes a Do n't care condition, meaning the signal is irrelevant)
Most D - type flip - flops in ICs have the capability to be forced to the set or reset state (which ignores the D and clock inputs), much like an SR flip - flop. Usually, the illegal S = R = 1 condition is resolved in D - type flip - flops. By setting S = R = 0, the flip - flop can be used as described above. Here is the truth table for the others S and R possible configurations:
These flip - flops are very useful, as they form the basis for shift registers, which are an essential part of many electronic devices. The advantage of the D flip - flop over the D - type "transparent latch '' is that the signal on the D input pin is captured the moment the flip - flop is clocked, and subsequent changes on the D input will be ignored until the next clock event. An exception is that some flip - flops have a "reset '' signal input, which will reset Q (to zero), and may be either asynchronous or synchronous with the clock.
The above circuit shifts the contents of the register to the right, one bit position on each active transition of the clock. The input X is shifted into the leftmost bit position.
This circuit consists of two stages implemented by SR NAND latches. The input stage (the two latches on the left) processes the clock and data signals to ensure correct input signals for the output stage (the single latch on the right). If the clock is low, both the output signals of the input stage are high regardless of the data input; the output latch is unaffected and it stores the previous state. When the clock signal changes from low to high, only one of the output voltages (depending on the data signal) goes low and sets / resets the output latch: if D = 0, the lower output becomes low; if D = 1, the upper output becomes low. If the clock signal continues staying high, the outputs keep their states regardless of the data input and force the output latch to stay in the corresponding state as the input logical zero (of the output stage) remains active while the clock is high. Hence the role of the output latch is to store the data only while the clock is low.
The circuit is closely related to the gated D latch as both the circuits convert the two D input states (0 and 1) to two input combinations (01 and 10) for the output SR latch by inverting the data input signal (both the circuits split the single D signal in two complementary S and R signals). The difference is that in the gated D latch simple NAND logical gates are used while in the positive - edge - triggered D flip - flop SR NAND latches are used for this purpose. The role of these latches is to "lock '' the active output producing low voltage (a logical zero); thus the positive - edge - triggered D flip - flop can also be thought of as a gated D latch with latched input gates.
A master -- slave D flip - flop is created by connecting two gated D latches in series, and inverting the enable input to one of them. It is called master -- slave because the second latch in the series only changes in response to a change in the first (master) latch.
For a positive - edge triggered master -- slave D flip - flop, when the clock signal is low (logical 0) the "enable '' seen by the first or "master '' D latch (the inverted clock signal) is high (logical 1). This allows the "master '' latch to store the input value when the clock signal transitions from low to high. As the clock signal goes high (0 to 1) the inverted "enable '' of the first latch goes low (1 to 0) and the value seen at the input to the master latch is "locked ''. Nearly simultaneously, the twice inverted "enable '' of the second or "slave '' D latch transitions from low to high (0 to 1) with the clock signal. This allows the signal captured at the rising edge of the clock by the now "locked '' master latch to pass through the "slave '' latch. When the clock signal returns to low (1 to 0), the output of the "slave '' latch is "locked '', and the value seen at the last rising edge of the clock is held while the "master '' latch begins to accept new values in preparation for the next rising clock edge.
By removing the leftmost inverter in the circuit at side, a D - type flip - flop that strobes on the falling edge of a clock signal can be obtained. This has a truth table like this:
Flip - Flops that read in a new value on the rising and the falling edge of the clock are called dual - edge - triggered flip - flops. Such a flip - flop may be built using two single - edge - triggered D - type flip - flops and a multiplexer as shown in the image.
An efficient functional alternative to a D flip - flop can be made with dynamic circuits (where information is stored in a capacitance) as long as it is clocked often enough; while not a true flip - flop, it is still called a flip - flop for its functional role. While the master -- slave D element is triggered on the edge of a clock, its components are each triggered by clock levels. The "edge - triggered D flip - flop '', as it is called even though it is not a true flip - flop, does not have the master -- slave properties.
Edge - triggered D flip - flops are often implemented in integrated high - speed operations using dynamic logic. This means that the digital output is stored on parasitic device capacitance while the device is not transitioning. This design of dynamic flip flops also enables simple resetting since the reset operation can be performed by simply discharging one or more internal nodes. A common dynamic flip - flop variety is the true single - phase clock (TSPC) type which performs the flip - flop operation with little power and at high speeds. However, dynamic flip - flops will typically not work at static or low clock speeds: given enough time, leakage paths may discharge the parasitic capacitance enough to cause the flip - flop to enter invalid states.
If the T input is high, the T flip - flop changes state ("toggles '') whenever the clock input is strobed. If the T input is low, the flip - flop holds the previous value. This behavior is described by the characteristic equation:
and can be described in a truth table:
When T is held high, the toggle flip - flop divides the clock frequency by two; that is, if clock frequency is 4 MHz, the output frequency obtained from the flip - flop will be 2 MHz. This "divide by '' feature has application in various types of digital counters. AT flip - flop can also be built using a JK flip - flop (J & K pins are connected together and act as T) or a D flip - flop (T input XOR Q drives the D input).
The JK flip - flop augments the behavior of the SR flip - flop (J = Set, K = Reset) by interpreting the J = K = 1 condition as a "flip '' or toggle command. Specifically, the combination J = 1, K = 0 is a command to set the flip - flop; the combination J = 0, K = 1 is a command to reset the flip - flop; and the combination J = K = 1 is a command to toggle the flip - flop, i.e., change its output to the logical complement of its current value. Setting J = K = 0 maintains the current state. To synthesize a D flip - flop, simply set K equal to the complement of J. Similarly, to synthesize a T flip - flop, set K equal to J. The JK flip - flop is therefore a universal flip - flop, because it can be configured to work as an SR flip - flop, a D flip - flop, or a T flip - flop.
The characteristic equation of the JK flip - flop is:
Q next = J Q _̄ + K _̄ Q (\ displaystyle Q_ (\ text (next)) = J (\ overline (Q)) + (\ overline (K)) Q)
and the corresponding truth table is:
The input must be held steady in a period around the rising edge of the clock known as the aperture. Imagine taking a picture of a frog on a lily - pad. Suppose the frog then jumps into the water. If you take a picture of the frog as it jumps into the water, you will get a blurry picture of the frog jumping into the water -- it 's not clear which state the frog was in. But if you take a picture while the frog sits steadily on the pad (or is steadily in the water), you will get a clear picture. In the same way, the input to a flip - flop must be held steady during the aperture of the flip - flop.
Setup time is the minimum amount of time the data input should be held steady before the clock event, so that the data is reliably sampled by the clock.
Hold time is the minimum amount of time the data input should be held steady after the clock event, so that the data is reliably sampled by the clock.
Aperture is the sum of setup and hold time. The data input should be held steady throughout this time period.
Recovery time is the minimum amount of time the asynchronous set or reset input should be inactive before the clock event, so that the data is reliably sampled by the clock. The recovery time for the asynchronous set or reset input is thereby similar to the setup time for the data input.
Removal time is the minimum amount of time the asynchronous set or reset input should be inactive after the clock event, so that the data is reliably sampled by the clock. The removal time for the asynchronous set or reset input is thereby similar to the hold time for the data input.
Short impulses applied to asynchronous inputs (set, reset) should not be applied completely within the recovery - removal period, or else it becomes entirely indeterminable whether the flip - flop will transition to the appropriate state. In another case, where an asynchronous signal simply makes one transition that happens to fall between the recovery / removal time, eventually the flip - flop will transition to the appropriate state, but a very short glitch may or may not appear on the output, dependent on the synchronous input signal. This second situation may or may not have significance to a circuit design.
Set and Reset (and other) signals may be either synchronous or asynchronous and therefore may be characterized with either Setup / Hold or Recovery / Removal times, and synchronicity is very dependent on the design of the flip - flop.
Differentiation between Setup / Hold and Recovery / Removal times is often necessary when verifying the timing of larger circuits because asynchronous signals may be found to be less critical than synchronous signals. The differentiation offers circuit designers the ability to define the verification conditions for these types of signals independently.
Flip - flops are subject to a problem called metastability, which can happen when two inputs, such as data and clock or clock and reset, are changing at about the same time. When the order is not clear, within appropriate timing constraints, the result is that the output may behave unpredictably, taking many times longer than normal to settle to one state or the other, or even oscillating several times before settling. Theoretically, the time to settle down is not bounded. In a computer system, this metastability can cause corruption of data or a program crash if the state is not stable before another circuit uses its value; in particular, if two different logical paths use the output of a flip - flop, one path can interpret it as a 0 and the other as a 1 when it has not resolved to stable state, putting the machine into an inconsistent state.
The metastability in flip - flops can be avoided by ensuring that the data and control inputs are held valid and constant for specified periods before and after the clock pulse, called the setup time (t) and the hold time (t) respectively. These times are specified in the data sheet for the device, and are typically between a few nanoseconds and a few hundred picoseconds for modern devices. Depending upon the flip - flop 's internal organization, it is possible to build a device with a zero (or even negative) setup or hold time requirement but not both simultaneously.
Unfortunately, it is not always possible to meet the setup and hold criteria, because the flip - flop may be connected to a real - time signal that could change at any time, outside the control of the designer. In this case, the best the designer can do is to reduce the probability of error to a certain level, depending on the required reliability of the circuit. One technique for suppressing metastability is to connect two or more flip - flops in a chain, so that the output of each one feeds the data input of the next, and all devices share a common clock. With this method, the probability of a metastable event can be reduced to a negligible value, but never to zero. The probability of metastability gets closer and closer to zero as the number of flip - flops connected in series is increased. The number of flip - flops being cascaded is referred to as the "ranking ''; "dual - ranked '' flip flops (two flip - flops in series) is a common situation.
So - called metastable - hardened flip - flops are available, which work by reducing the setup and hold times as much as possible, but even these can not eliminate the problem entirely. This is because metastability is more than simply a matter of circuit design. When the transitions in the clock and the data are close together in time, the flip - flop is forced to decide which event happened first. However fast the device is made, there is always the possibility that the input events will be so close together that it can not detect which one happened first. It is therefore logically impossible to build a perfectly metastable - proof flip - flop. Flip - flops are sometimes characterized for a maximum settling time (the maximum time they will remain metastable under specified conditions). In this case, dual - ranked flip - flops that are clocked slower than the maximum allowed metastability time will provide proper conditioning for asynchronous (e.g., external) signals.
Another important timing value for a flip - flop is the clock - to - output delay (common symbol in data sheets: t) or propagation delay (t), which is the time a flip - flop takes to change its output after the clock edge. The time for a high - to - low transition (t) is sometimes different from the time for a low - to - high transition (t).
When cascading flip - flops which share the same clock (as in a shift register), it is important to ensure that the t of a preceding flip - flop is longer than the hold time (t) of the following flip - flop, so data present at the input of the succeeding flip - flop is properly "shifted in '' following the active edge of the clock. This relationship between t and t is normally guaranteed if the flip - flops are physically identical. Furthermore, for correct operation, it is easy to verify that the clock period has to be greater than the sum t + t.
Flip - flops can be generalized in at least two ways: by making them 1 - of - N instead of 1 - of - 2, and by adapting them to logic with more than two states. In the special cases of 1 - of - 3 encoding, or multi-valued ternary logic, these elements may be referred to as flip - flap - flops.
In a conventional flip - flop, exactly one of the two complementary outputs is high. This can be generalized to a memory element with N outputs, exactly one of which is high (alternatively, where exactly one of N is low). The output is therefore always a one - hot (respectively one - cold) representation. The construction is similar to a conventional cross-coupled flip - flop; each output, when high, inhibits all the other outputs. Alternatively, more or less conventional flip - flops can be used, one per output, with additional circuitry to make sure only one at a time can be true.
Another generalization of the conventional flip - flop is a memory element for multi-valued logic. In this case the memory element retains exactly one of the logic states until the control inputs induce a change. In addition, a multiple - valued clock can also be used, leading to new possible clock transitions.
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family guy episodes and then there were fewer | And Then There Were Fewer - wikipedia
"And Then There Were Fewer '' is the first episode of the ninth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy. This and most of the other season 9 episodes were produced for the eighth production season. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on September 26, 2010. The episode follows the citizens of Quahog after they are invited by actor James Woods to his stately mansion on a remote island. While there, a series of murders occurs, and the group struggles to determine who committed the mysterious acts, before ultimately attempting to escape from the island, and avoid being murdered themselves. The name of the episode is a parody of Agatha Christie 's murder mystery, And Then There Were None.
The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by Dominic Polcino. It received high acclaim from critics, who praised its storyline and cultural references. According to Nielsen ratings, it was viewed in 9.41 million homes in its original airing. The episode features guest performances by Drew Barrymore, H. Jon Benjamin, Max Burkholder, Colin Ford, Patrick Stewart, Ashley Tisdale and James Woods, along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series. It was the first Family Guy episode to air in 720p high definition. The episode was nominated for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards. "And Then There Were Fewer '' was released on DVD along with two other episodes from the season on December 13, 2011. The show confirmed afterwards that it was part of the show 's "real '' canon and those characters that died (i.e. Diane Simmons, Muriel Goldman etc.) would not be brought back in the future. However, James Woods is seen in the thirteenth episode of season 10, "Tom Tucker: The Man and His Dream '', in which he tells Peter and Tom that paramedics brought him to a secret science lab made for celebrities and revived him. In the same episode, he hires Peter as his agent after he fired Tucker, but later also fires Peter.
The residents of Quahog are all invited to a mansion dinner party by James Woods, who states he has become a born - again Christian thanks to his new girlfriend Priscilla, and wishes to repent for all his wrongdoings. Early into the night, as Woods and Priscilla go to the kitchen, Quagmire 's new companion, Stephanie, is mysteriously shot when she sits in Woods 's seat, leading the guests to believe Woods intends to murder them all. They try to leave, but lightning strikes a tree, causing it to break the bridge. Meanwhile, the main road is flooded due to the storm. Returning amidst accusations, Woods pleads ignorance before he too is murdered in front of the guests by an unseen killer with a knife during a power outage, causing Priscilla to faint. Trapped on the estate with no way of contacting anyone due to a thunderstorm, the guests realize that the killer is among them. They also discover that Stephanie 's body has disappeared.
While the guests search for clues in discovering the killer 's identity, they realise that many of them had motives for wanting revenge on James Woods. Tom did not take the part of Freddy Krueger in A Nightmare on Elm Street due to James advising him not to, Brian had the pilot of his series messed up by James, and Quagmire lost Cheryl Tiegs due to him, while Consuela the Mexican Maid says he molested her nephew, causing him to ' shoot himself in the face '. After reading a notebook of his they find in a secret room, Mort Goldman 's wife, Muriel, disappears after it is discovered that she was being blackmailed by Woods, causing everyone to suspect her as the culprit. Peter accidentally got Joe knocked out, so organizes the groups, however several of them are separated from each other due to the secret passages. However, Muriel turns up dead soon after by being stabbed in the back with the same knife that killed James, placing suspicion on Priscilla, who also disappeared during the commotion. Jillian 's husband, Derek, leaves to get higher up so he can find a cell phone signal so he can contact the police, but is soon murdered by the unseen killer with one of Woods 's Golden Globe Awards. The guests search everyone 's rooms until they locate the bloodstained award and Priscilla 's dead body in Tom Tucker 's guest room. Tom is thus implicated as the killer and is chased and caught by Peter, Joe, Carl, Dr. Hartman, Quagmire, Seamus, and Mayor Adam West.
Tom is arrested by the police and the guests prepare to leave. Lois goes to comfort Tom 's co-anchor, Diane Simmons, only to intuitively realize she is the true murderer when she shows a dress for her solo debut on the news, even though she could n't have known Tom would be leaving. Diane reveals that she had dated Woods until he dumped her upon her fortieth birthday, around which Tom arranged her to be replaced on the Channel 5 News. Seeking revenge, Diane bribed Priscilla to make James become a born - again Christian and throw the dinner party so she could murder Woods and frame Tom for the crime, but was forced to kill the other guests after her plan went awry upon Stephanie 's accidental death. Priscilla woke up when she was removing the knife due to Joe pointing out her fingerprints were on it, so had her throat slit. When she was hiding the body in Tom 's room, Muriel saw her so was stabbed. She did not have time to conceal the knife, but was able to wipe her fingerprints clean. She killed Derek to stop the Police getting involved. Diane then attempts to silence Lois by taking her outside and shooting her next to a cliff, only to be shot down from the cliff with a suppressed sniper rifle by Stewie, who proclaims if anyone were to kill Lois, he would be the one to do it.
The episode was first announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic - Con International in San Diego, California, on July 25, 2009, by series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane. It was directed by series regular Dominic Polcino and written by series regular Cherry Chevapravatdumrong shortly after the conclusion of the eighth production season, which completed its airing on television on June 20, 2010. The episode takes its title from the Agatha Christie novel And Then There Were None, and was largely based on the 1985 comedy film Clue. Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising director, with Andrew Goldberg, Alex Carter, Elaine Ko and Spencer Porter serving as staff writers for the episode. Composer Walter Murphy, who has worked on the series since its inception, returned to compose the music for "And Then There Were Fewer ''. "And Then There Were Fewer '' was the first episode of Family Guy to be broadcast in high - definition, with series showrunners Mark Hentemann and Steve Callaghan overseeing the transition.
The episode was dedicated to series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's mother, Ann Perry MacFarlane, following her death from cancer on July 16, 2010. The original idea of the episode was sent to series showrunner and executive producer Hentemann in a text from Seth MacFarlane simply stating "murder mystery. ''
"And Then There Were Fewer '', along with the two other episodes from Family Guy 's ninth season, was released on a three - disc DVD set in the United States on December 13, 2011. The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes, a collection of deleted scenes and animatics, a special mini-feature which discussed the process behind animating "And Then There Were Fewer '', a mini-feature entitled "The Comical Adventures of Family Guy -- Brian & Stewie: The Lost Phone Call '', and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic - Con International.
In addition to the regular cast, actress Drew Barrymore reprised her role as Jillian Russell, the former girlfriend of Brian; actor James Woods, in his fifth appearance in the series, reprised his role as the overly exaggerated version of himself; actress Ashley Tisdale (who is known for playing Candace Flynn on Disney Channel 's Phineas and Ferb, the show created by Family Guy alumnus Dan Povenmire) made her first official appearance on Family Guy as James Woods 's girlfriend, Priscilla; and voice actor H. Jon Benjamin reprised his role as Quahog Market owner Carl. Additionally, actors Max Burkholder, Colin Ford and Patrick Stewart also guest starred in the episode in minor roles. Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan, John G. Brennan, Nicole Sullivan, Jennifer Tilly, and John Viener reprised their roles as news reporter Diane Simmons, Quahog pharmacist Mort Goldman, Muriel Goldman, Griffin family neighbor Bonnie Swanson, and Jillian 's husband, Derek Wilcox, respectively. A minor appearance was also made by Family Guy writer and regular voice artist Danny Smith.
The episode borrows heavily from the 1985 comedy film Clue, the 1976 comedy film Murder by Death, and is largely based upon the 1939 Agatha Christie novel And Then There Were None. The opening scene of the episode is similar to that of Stanley Kubrik 's The Shining. Once the Griffin family arrives at the mansion, Lois remarks on the estate 's beauty, wondering if television host Jeff Probst has a similar home. As they walk into the mansion, Sir John Everett Millais 's Ophelia is seen. As dinner commences, Carl begins conversing with Tom Tucker, and discusses the plot of the 1986 fantasy film Labyrinth, directed by Jim Henson.
After Tucker is accused of murdering James Woods, he reveals that Woods talked him out of auditioning for the lead role in the 1984 hit horror film A Nightmare on Elm Street. The finger is then pointed at Mayor West, who tells the group of his hardships on the social networking service Twitter, after Woods stole his originally intended username. Diane Simmons also goes on to state that Woods had promised to introduce her to former CBS news anchor Dan Rather, but ultimately ended up introducing her to actor and comedian Danny Bonaduce instead.
In the extended DVD release, Carl mentions No Way Out, Hard Rain and Days of Thunder.
While searching for Muriel Goldman throughout the mansion, Brian and Stewie begin humming and singing the theme song to several television shows, including the CBS science fiction series Lost in Space, the CBS sitcom The Dick Van Dyke Show, and the ABC soap opera Dynasty. After discovering the Golden Globe Award underneath Tom Tucker 's bed, Tucker begins to profess his innocence, with Peter then instructing him to "tell it to Mike Judge. ''
In the scene where Diane tells Lois her conspiracy, Picasso 's painting Le Rêve can be seen on the wall behind Diane. At the end of the episode, Seamus asks, "When we all see each other at school on Monday, are we still gon na be friends? '' in a reference to The Breakfast Club.
"And Then There Were Fewer '' was broadcast on September 26, 2010, as a part of an animated television night on Fox, and was preceded by the season premiere of The Simpsons, and Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's spin - off, The Cleveland Show. It was watched by 8.85 million viewers in its first half - hour, and concluded with a total 9.41 million viewers in its second half - hour, according to Nielsen ratings, despite airing simultaneously with the season premiere of Desperate Housewives on ABC, the season premiere of The Amazing Race on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC. The episode also acquired a 4.3 and 4.7 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic, beating The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership. The episode 's ratings were Family Guy 's highest since the airing of the season eight episode "Family Goy ''.
"And Then There Were Fewer '' received widespread acclaim from critics and viewers, with one critic calling the storyline "solidly funny, well - plotted, and nearly perfectly executed. '' In a simultaneous review of the episodes of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show that preceded the episode, The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff commented that he enjoyed "the ' a bunch of people go to an isolated place and start getting killed ' murder mystery subgenre '', and that the episode "made fun of the conceits of the genre ''. In the conclusion of his review VanDerWerff called the episode "excellent and fun, '' and "full of surprisingly gorgeous animation and a nicely creepy feel that hung over all of the jokes '' and rated it as a B+, the best rating between The Simpsons episode "Elementary School Musical '' and The Cleveland Show episode "Harder, Better, Faster, Browner ''. Jason Hughes of TV Squad also praised the episode 's writers for doing a "solid job of creating a genuine mystery throughout the hour, keeping us guessing as to who did it and what their motive may have been. '' Hughes went on to comment positively on the episode 's numerous guest stars, and compared its portrayal of Diane Simmons to that of The Simpsons character Sideshow Bob. Natalie Zutter of Ology also praised the episode, calling it, "Surprisingly, the best of the evening. '' In the summary of her review, Zutter wrote that it was a "fun murder mystery that lets us see all our favorite Quahog folks, '' while continuing to wonder whether the characters who were killed off would remain dead.
Tom Eames of entertainment website Digital Spy placed the episode at number 14 on his listing of the best Family Guy episodes in order of "yukyukyuks '' -- compiled in 2017 to honor the 18th anniversary of the show -- and praised the interaction of characters who do not normally interact, writing, "We never thought we 'd see Jillian 's boyfriend Derek hanging out with Seamus the sea captain. '' He expressed his shock at the death of characters such as Muriel Goldman and Diane Simmons and noted, "That 's one way to cut some dead wood. ''
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