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van halen ain't talkin bout love sammy hagar | Ai n't Talkin ' ' bout Love - wikipedia
"Ai n't Talkin ' ' bout Love '' is a song by American rock band Van Halen from their 1978 debut album, Van Halen. When Eddie Van Halen wrote the song, he did not consider it good enough to show his bandmates until a year later. He said it was supposed to be a punk rock parody, "a stupid thing to us, just two chords. It did n't end up sounding punk, but that was the intention. '' The guitar solo was doubled in overdubs with an electric sitar.
This song is also one of the few David Lee Roth - era songs that onetime replacement Sammy Hagar was willing to sing in concert when he joined the band in the mid - ' 80s.
The song has been featured in the South Park episode "Ginger Cow '' and The Sopranos episode "Fortunate Son '' and the Freaks and Geeks episode "Beers and Weirs ''.
The song was formerly used by the National Hockey League 's Philadelphia Flyers as their "goal song '', played after every Flyers ' goal in the late 1990s.
The song has appeared as a playable track in music game Guitar Hero Van Halen and as downloadable content for Rock Band 4.
British big beat group Apollo 440 sampled the lead guitar of the song for their single "Ai n't Talkin ' ' bout Dub '' (1996), which was featured on their sophomore studio album Electro Glide in Blue (1997).
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which of the following is true about the socio-cultural perspective of information literacy | Information literacy - Wikipedia
The United States National Forum on Information Literacy defines information literacy as "... the hyper ability to know when there is a need for information, to be able to identify, locate, evaluate, and effectively use that information for the issue or problem at hand. '' The American Library Association defines "information literacy '' as a set of abilities requiring individuals to "recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information. Other definitions incorporate aspects of "skepticism, judgement, free thinking, questioning, and understanding... '' or incorporate competencies that an informed citizen of an information society ought to possess to participate intelligently and actively in that society.
A number of efforts have been made to better define the concept and its relationship to other skills and forms of literacy. Although other educational goals, including traditional literacy, computer literacy, library skills, and critical thinking skills, are related to information literacy and important foundations for its development, information literacy itself is emerging as a distinct skill set and a necessary key to one 's social and economic well - being in an increasingly complex information society. According to McTavish (2009), in order to increase and maximize people 's contributions to a healthy, democratic and pluralistic society and maintain a prosperous and sustainable economy, governments and industries around the world are challenging education systems to focus people 's attention on literacy. In Canada, because of a great focus on a supposed literacy crisis, it has caused some alarm in some educational sectors. Brink (2006) researched government organization, such as Human Resources and Skill Development Canada, claims that almost half of working - age Canadians do not have the literacy skills they need to meet the ever - increasing demands of modern life.
The phrase information literacy first appeared in print in a 1974 report written on behalf of the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science by Paul G. Zurkowski, who was at the time president of the Information Industry Association. Zurkowski used the phrase to describe the "techniques and skills '' learned by the information literate "for utilizing the wide range of information tools as well as primary sources in molding information solutions to their problems '' and drew a relatively firm line between the "literates '' and "information illiterates ''.
The Presidential Committee on Information Literacy released a report on January 10, 1989, outlining the importance of information literacy, opportunities to develop information literacy, and an Information Age School. The report 's final name is the Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report.
The recommendations of the Presidential Committee led to the creation later that year of the National Forum on Information Literacy, a coalition of more than 90 national and international organizations.
In 1998, the American Association of School Librarians and the Association for Educational Communications and Technology published Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning, which further established specific goals for information literacy education, defining some nine standards in the categories of "information literacy '', "independent learning '', and "social responsibility ''.
Also in 1998, the Presidential Committee on Information Literacy produced an update on its Final Report. This update outlined the six main recommendations of the original report and examined areas where it made progress and areas that still needed work. The updated report supports further information literacy advocacy and reiterates its importance.
In 1999, the Society of College, National and University Libraries (SCONUL) in the UK, published "The Seven Pillars of Information Literacy '' model to "facilitate further development of ideas amongst practitioners in the field... stimulate debate about the ideas and about how those ideas might be used by library and other staff in higher education concerned with the development of students ' skills. '' A number of other countries have developed information literacy standards since then.
In 2003, the National Forum on Information Literacy, together with UNESCO and the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, sponsored an international conference in Prague with representatives from some twenty - three countries to discuss the importance of information literacy within a global context. The resulting Prague Declaration described information literacy as a "key to social, cultural, and economic development of nations and communities, institutions and individuals in the 21st century '' and declared its acquisition as "part of the basic human right of lifelong learning ''.
The Alexandria Proclamation linked Information literacy with lifelong learning. More than that, it sets Information Literacy as a basic Human right that it "promotes social inclusion of all nations ''.
On May 28, 2009, U.S. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Executive Order S - 06 - 09, establishing a California ICT Digital Literacy Leadership Council, which in turn, was directed to establish an ICT Digital Literacy Advisory Committee. "The Leadership Council, in consultation with the Advisory Committee, shall develop an ICT Digital Literacy Policy, to ensure that California residents are digitally literate. '' The Executive Order states further: "ICT Digital Literacy is defined as using digital technology, communications tools and / or networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate, create, and communicate information in order to function in a knowledge - based economy and society... '' The Governor directs "... The Leadership Council, in consultation with the Advisory Committee... (to) develop a California Action Plan for ICT Digital Literacy (Action Plan). '' He also directs "The California Workforce Investment Board (WIB)... (to) develop a technology literacy component for its five - year Strategic State Plan. '' His Executive Order ends with the following: "I FURTHER REQUEST that the Legislature and Superintendent of Public Instruction consider adopting similar goals, and that they join the Leadership Council in issuing a "Call to Action '' to schools, higher education institutions, employers, workforce training agencies, local governments, community organizations, and civic leaders to advance California as a global leader in ICT Digital Literacy ".
Information literacy rose to national consciousness in the U.S. with President Barack Obama 's Proclamation designating October 2009 as National Information Literacy Awareness Month. President Obama 's Proclamation stated that
"Rather than merely possessing data, we must also learn the skills necessary to acquire, collate, and evaluate information for any situation... Though we may know how to find the information we need, we must also know how to evaluate it. Over the past decade, we have seen a crisis of authenticity emerge. We now live in a world where anyone can publish an opinion or perspective, whether true or not, and have that opinion amplified within the information marketplace. At the same time, Americans have unprecedented access to the diverse and independent sources of information, as well as institutions such as libraries and universities, that can help separate truth from fiction and signal from noise. ''
Obama 's proclamation ended with:
"Now, therefore, I, Barack Obama, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the laws of the United States, do hereby proclaim October 2009 as National Information Literacy Awareness Month. I call upon the people of the United States to recognize the important role information plays in our daily lives, and appreciate the need for a greater understanding of its impact. ''
The Presidential Committee on Information Literacy was formed in 1987 by the American Library Association 's president at the time Margaret Chisholm. The committee was formed with three specific purposes
The American Library Association 's Presidential Committee on Information Literacy defined information literacy as the ability "to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information '' and highlighted information literacy as a skill essential for lifelong learning and the production of an informed and prosperous citizenry.
The committee outlined six principal recommendations: to "reconsider the ways we have organized information institutionally, structured information access, and defined information 's role in our lives at home in the community, and in the work place ''; to promote "public awareness of the problems created by information illiteracy ''; to develop a national research agenda related to information and its use; to ensure the existence of "a climate conducive to students ' becoming information literate ''; to include information literacy concerns in teacher education; and to promote public awareness of the relationship between information literacy and the more general goals of "literacy, productivity, and democracy. ''
In March 1998 the Presidential Committee on Information Literacy re-evaluated its Final Report and published an update. The update looks at what the Final Report set out to accomplish, its six main goals, and how far it had come to that point in meeting those objectives. Before identifying what still needs to be done, the updated report recognizes what the previous report and the National Forum were able to accomplish. In realizing it still had not met all objectives, it set out further recommendations to ensure all were met. The updated report ends with an invitation, asking the National Forum and regular citizens to recognize that "the result of these combined efforts will be a citizenry which is made up of effective lifelong learners who can always find the information needed for the issue or decision at hand. This new generation of information literate citizens will truly be America 's most valuable resource '', and to continue working toward an information literate world.
One of the most important things to come out of the Presidential Committee on Information Literacy was the creation of the National Forum on Information Literacy.
In 1983, the seminal report "A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform '' declared that a "rising tide of mediocrity '' was eroding the very foundations of the American educational system. It was, in fact, the genesis of the current educational reform movement within the United States. Ironically, the report did not include in its set of reform recommendations the academic and / or the public library as one of the key architects in the redesign of our K - 16 educational system. This report and several others that followed, in conjunction with the rapid emergence of the information society, led the American Library Association (ALA) to convene a blue ribbon panel of national educators and librarians in 1987. The ALA Presidential Committee on Information Literacy was charged with the following tasks:
In the release of its Final Report in 1989, the American Library Association Presidential Committee on Information Literacy summarized in its opening paragraphs the ultimate mission of the National Forum on Information Literacy:
"How our country deals with the realities of the Information Age will have enormous impact on our democratic way of life and on our nation 's ability to compete internationally. Within America 's information society, there also exists the potential of addressing many long - standing social and economic inequities. To reap such benefits, people -- as individuals and as a nation -- must be information literate. To be information literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information. Producing such a citizenry will require that schools and colleges appreciate and integrate the concept of information literacy into their learning programs and that they play a leadership role in equipping individuals and institutions to take advantage of the opportunities inherent within the information society.
Ultimately, information literate people are those who have learned how to learn. They know how to learn because they know how knowledge is organized, how to find information, and how to use information in such a way that others can learn from them. They are people prepared for lifelong learning because they can always find the information needed for any task or decision at hand. ''
Acknowledging that the major obstacle to people becoming information literate citizens, who are prepared for lifelong learning, "is a lack of public awareness of the problems created by information illiteracy, '' the report recommended the formation of a coalition of national organizations to promote information literacy. ''
Thus, in 1989, the A.L.A. Presidential Committee established the National Forum on Information Literacy, a volunteer network of organizations committed to raising public awareness on the importance of information literacy to individuals, communities, the economy, and to engage citizenship participation.
Since 1989, the National Forum on Information Literacy has evolved steadily under the leadership of its first chair, Dr. Patricia Senn Breivik. Today, the Forum represents over 90 national and international organizations, all dedicated to mainstreaming the philosophy of information literacy across national and international landscapes, and throughout every educational, domestic, and workplace venue.
Although the initial intent of the Forum was to raise public awareness and support on a national level, over the last several years, the National Forum on Information Literacy has made significant strides internationally in promoting the importance of integrating information literacy concepts and skills throughout all educational, governmental, and workforce development programs. For example, the National Forum co-sponsored with UNESCO and IFLA several "experts meetings '', resulting in the Prague Declaration (2003) and the Alexandria Proclamation (2005) each underscoring the importance of information literacy as a basic fundamental human right and lifelong learning skill.
In the United States, however, information literacy skill development has been the exception and not the rule, particularly as it relates to the integration of information literacy practices within our educational and workforce development infrastructures. In a 2000 peer - reviewed publication, Nell K. Duke, found that students in first grade classrooms were exposed to an average of 3.6 minutes of informational text in a school day. In October 2006, the first national Summit on Information Literacy brought together over 100 representatives from education, business, and government to address America 's information literacy deficits as a nation currently competing in a global marketplace. This successful collaboration was sponsored by the National Forum on Information Literacy, Committee for Economic Development, Educational Testing Service, the Institute for a Competitive Workforce, and National Education Association (NEA). The Summit was held at NEA headquarters in Washington, D.C.
A major outcome of the Summit was the establishment of a national ICT literacy policy council to provide leadership in creating national standards for ICT literacy in the United States.
As stated on the Forum 's Main Web page, it recognizes that achieving information literacy has been much easier for those with money and other advantages. For those who are poor, non-White, older, disabled, living in rural areas or otherwise disadvantaged, it has been much harder to overcome the digital divide. A number of the Forum 's members address the specific challenges for those disadvantaged. For example, The Children 's Partnership advocates for the nearly 70 million children and youth in the country, many of whom are disadvantaged. The Children 's Partnership currently runs three programs, two of which specifically address the needs of those with low - incomes: Online content for Low - Income and Underserved Americans Initiative, and the California Initiative Program. Another example is the National Hispanic Council on Aging, which is:
Dedicated to improving the quality of life for Latino elderly, families, and communities through advocacy, capacity and institution building, development of educational materials, technical assistance, demonstration projects, policy analysis and research (National Hispanic Council on Aging, and, Mission Statement section).
The National Forum on Information Literacy will continue to work closely with educational, business, and non-profit organizations in the U.S. to promote information literacy skill development at every opportunity, particularly in light of the ever - growing social, economic, and political urgency of globalization, prompting citizens to re-energize our promotional and collaborative efforts.
IFLA has established an Information Literacy Section. The Section has, in turn, developed and mounted an Information Literacy Resources Directory, called InfoLit Global. Librarians, educators and information professionals may self - register and upload information - literacy - related materials (IFLA, Information Literacy Section, n.d.) According to the IFLA website, "The primary purpose of the Information Literacy Section is to foster international cooperation in the development of information literacy education in all types of libraries and information institutions. ''
This alliance was created from the recommendation of the Prague Conference of Information Literacy Experts in 2003. One of its goals is to allow for the sharing of information literacy research and knowledge between nations. The IAIL also sees "lifelong learning '' as a basic human right, and their ultimate goal is to use information literacy as a way to allow everyone to participate in the "Information Society '' as a way of fulfilling this right. The following organizations are founding members of IAIL:
According to the UNESCO website, this is their "action to provide people with the skills and abilities for critical reception, assessment and use of information and media in their professional and personal lives. '' Their goal is to create information literate societies by creating and maintaining educational policies for information literacy. They work with teachers around the world, training them in the importance of information literacy and providing resources for them to use in their classrooms.
UNESCO publishes studies on information literacy in many countries, looking at how information literacy is currently taught, how it differs in different demographics, and how to raise awareness. They also publish pedagogical tools and curricula for school boards and teachers to refer to and use.
In "Information Literacy as a Liberal Art '', Jeremy J. Shapiro and Shelley K. Hughes (1996) advocated a more holistic approach to information literacy education, one that encouraged not merely the addition of information technology courses as an adjunct to existing curricula, but rather a radically new conceptualization of "our entire educational curriculum in terms of information ''.
Drawing upon Enlightenment ideals like those articulated by Enlightenment philosopher Condorcet, Shapiro and Hughes argued that information literacy education is "essential to the future of democracy, if citizens are to be intelligent shapers of the information society rather than its pawns, and to humanistic culture, if information is to be part of a meaningful existence rather than a routine of production and consumption ''.
To this end, Shapiro and Hughes outlined a "prototype curriculum '' that encompassed the concepts of computer literacy, library skills, and "a broader, critical conception of a more humanistic sort '', suggesting seven important components of a holistic approach to information literacy:
Ira Shor further defines critical literacy as "(habits) of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action, event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse ''.
The Big6 skills have been used in a variety of settings to help those with a variety of needs. For example, the library of Dubai Women 's College, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates which is an English as a second language institution, uses the Big6 model for its information literacy workshops. According to Story - Huffman (2009), using Big6 at the college "has transcended cultural and physical boundaries to provide a knowledge base to help students become information literate '' (para. 8). In primary grades, Big6 has been found to work well with variety of cognitive and language levels found in the classroom.
Differentiated instruction and the Big6 appear to be made for each other. While it seems as though all children will be on the same Big6 step at the same time during a unit of instruction, there is no reason students can not work through steps at an individual pace. In addition, the Big 6 process allows for seamless differentiation by interest.
Issues to consider in the Big6 approach have been highlighted by Philip Doty:
This approach is problem - based, is designed to fit into the context of Benjamin Bloom 's taxonomy of cognitive objectives, and aims toward the development of critical thinking. While the Big6 approach has a great deal of power, it also has serious weaknesses. Chief among these are the fact that users often lack well - formed statements of information needs, as well as the model 's reliance on problem - solving rhetoric. Often, the need for information and its use are situated in circumstances that are not as well - defined, discrete, and monolithic as problems.
Eisenberg (2004) has recognized that there are a number of challenges to effectively applying the Big6 skills, not the least of which is information overload which can overwhelm students. Part of Eisenberg 's solution is for schools to help students become discriminating users of information.
This conception, used primarily in the library and information studies field, and rooted in the concepts of library instruction and bibliographic instruction, is the ability "to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information ''. In this view, information literacy is the basis for lifelong learning. It is also the basis for evaluating contemporary sources of information.
In the publication Information power: Building partnerships for learning (AASL and AECT, 1998), three categories, nine standards, and twenty - nine indicators are used to describe the information literate student.
The categories and their standards are as follows:
Standards:
Standards:
Standards:
Since information may be presented in a number of formats, the term "information '' applies to more than just the printed word. Other literacies such as visual, media, computer, network, and basic literacies are implicit in information literacy.
Many of those who are in most need of information literacy are often amongst those least able to access the information they require:
Minority and at - risk students, illiterate adults, people with English as a second language, and economically disadvantaged people are among those most likely to lack access to the information that can improve their situations. Most are not even aware of the potential help that is available to them.
As the Presidential Committee report points out, members of these disadvantaged groups are often unaware that libraries can provide them with the access, training and information they need. In Osborne (2004), many libraries around the country are finding numerous ways to reach many of these disadvantaged groups by discovering their needs in their own environments (including prisons) and offering them specific services in the libraries themselves.
The rapidly evolving information landscape has demonstrated a need for education methods and practices to evolve and adapt accordingly. Information literacy is a key focus of educational institutions at all levels and in order to uphold this standard, institutions are promoting a commitment to lifelong learning and an ability to seek out and identify innovations that will be needed to keep pace with or outpace changes.
Educational methods and practices, within our increasingly information - centric society, must facilitate and enhance a student 's ability to harness the power of information. Key to harnessing the power of information is the ability to evaluate information, to ascertain among other things its relevance, authenticity and modernity. The information evaluation process is crucial life skill and a basis for lifelong learning. According to Lankshear and Knobel, what is needed in our education system is a new understanding of literacy, information literacy and on literacy teaching. Educators need to learn to account for the context of our culturally and linguistically diverse and increasingly globalized societies. We also need to take account for the burgeoning variety of text forms associated with information and multimedia technologies.
Evaluation consists of several component processes including metacognition, goals, personal disposition, cognitive development, deliberation, and decision - making. This is both a difficult and complex challenge and underscores the importance of being able to think critically.
Critical thinking is an important educational outcome for students. Education institutions have experimented with several strategies to help foster critical thinking, as a means to enhance information evaluation and information literacy among students. When evaluating evidence, students should be encouraged to practice formal argumentation. Debates and formal presentations must also be encouraged to analyze and critically evaluate information.
Education professionals must underscore the importance of high information quality. Students must be trained to distinguish between fact and opinion. They must be encouraged to use cue words such as "I think '' and "I feel '' to help distinguish between factual information and opinions. Information related skills that are complex or difficult to comprehend must be broken down into smaller parts. Another approach would be to train students in familiar contexts. Education professionals should encourage students to examine "causes '' of behaviors, actions and events. Research shows that people evaluate more effectively if causes are revealed, where available.
Information in any format is produced to convey a message and is shared via a selected delivery method. The iterative processes of researching, creating, revising, and disseminating information vary, and the resulting product reflects these differences (Association of College, p. 5).
Some call for increased critical analysis in Information Literacy instruction. Smith (2013) identifies this as beneficial "to individuals, particularly young people during their period of formal education. It could equip them with the skills they need to understand the political system and their place within it, and, where necessary, to challenge this '' (p. 16).
National content standards, state standards, and information literacy skills terminology may vary, but all have common components relating to information literacy.
Information literacy skills are critical to several of the National Education Goals outlined in the Goals 2000: Educate America Act, particularly in the act 's aims to increase "school readiness '', "student achievement and citizenship '', and "adult literacy and lifelong learning ''. Of specific relevance are the "focus on lifelong learning, the ability to think critically, and on the use of new and existing information for problem solving '', all of which are important components of information literacy.
In 1998, the American Association of School Librarians and the Association for Educational Communications and Technology published "Information Literacy Standards for Student Learning '', which identified nine standards that librarians and teachers in K - 12 schools could use to describe information literate students and define the relationship of information literacy to independent learning and social responsibility:
In 2007 AASL expanded and restructured the standards that school librarians should strive for in their teaching. These were published as "Standards for the 21st Century Learner '' and address several literacies: information, technology, visual, textual, and digital. These aspects of literacy were organized within four key goals: that "learners use of skills, resources, & tools '' to "inquire, think critically, and gain knowledge ''; to "draw conclusions, make informed decisions, apply knowledge to new situations, and create new knowledge ''; to "share knowledge and participate ethically and productively as members of our democratic society ''; and to "pursue personal and aesthetic growth ''.
In 2000, the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), a division of the American Library Association (ALA), released "Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education '', describing five standards and numerous performance indicators considered best practices for the implementation and assessment of postsecondary information literacy programs. The five standards are:
These standards were meant to span from the simple to more complicated, or in terms of Bloom 's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, from the "lower order '' to the "higher order ''. Lower order skills would involve for instance being able to use an online catalog to find a book relevant to an information need in an academic library. Higher order skills would involve critically evaluating and synthesizing information from multiple sources into a coherent interpretation or argument.
In 2016, the Association of College and Research Librarians (ACRL) rescinded the Standards and replaced them with the Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, which offers the following set of core ideas:
The Framework is based on a cluster of interconnected core concepts, with flexible options for implementation, rather than on a set of standards or learning outcomes, or any prescriptive enumeration of skills. At the heart of this Framework are conceptual understandings that organize many other concepts and ideas about information, research, and scholarship into a coherent whole.
Today instruction methods have changed drastically from the mostly one - directional teacher - student model, to a more collaborative approach where the students themselves feel empowered. Much of this challenge is now being informed by the American Association of School Librarians that published new standards for student learning in 2007.
Within the K - 12 environment, effective curriculum development is vital to imparting Information Literacy skills to students. Given the already heavy load on students, efforts must be made to avoid curriculum overload. Eisenberg strongly recommends adopting a collaborative approach to curriculum development among classroom teachers, librarians, technology teachers, and other educators. Staff must be encouraged to work together to analyze student curriculum needs, develop a broad instruction plan, set information literacy goals, and design specific unit and lesson plans that integrate the information skills and classroom content. These educators can also collaborate on teaching and assessment duties
Educators are selecting various forms of resource - based learning (authentic learning, problem - based learning and work - based learning) to help students focus on the process and to help students learn from the content. Information literacy skills are necessary components of each. Within a school setting, it is very important that a students ' specific needs as well as the situational context be kept in mind when selecting topics for integrated information literacy skills instruction. The primary goal should be to provide frequent opportunities for students to learn and practice information problem solving. To this extent, it is also vital to facilitate repetition of information seeking actions and behavior. The importance of repetition in information literacy lesson plans can not be underscored, since we tend to learn through repetition. A students ' proficiency will improve over time if they are afforded regular opportunities to learn and to apply the skills they have learnt.
The process approach to education is requiring new forms of student assessment. Students demonstrate their skills, assess their own learning, and evaluate the processes by which this learning has been achieved by preparing portfolios, learning and research logs, and using rubrics.
Information literacy efforts are underway on individual, local, and regional bases.
Many states have either fully adopted AASL information literacy standards or have adapted them to suit their needs. States such as Oregon (OSLIS, 2009) increasing rely on these guidelines for curriculum development and setting information literacy goals. Virginia, on the other hand, chose to undertake a comprehensive review, involving all relevant stakeholders and formulate its own guidelines and standards for information literacy. At an international level, two framework documents jointly produced by UNESCO and the IFLA (International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions) developed two framework documents that laid the foundations in helping define the educational role to be played by school libraries: the School library manifesto (1999),.
Another immensely popular approach to imparting information literacy is the Big6 set of skills. Eisenberg claims that the Big6 is the most widely used model in K - 12 education. This set of skills seeks to articulate the entire information seeking life cycle. The Big6 is made up of six major stages and two sub-stages under each major stages. It defines the six steps as being: task definition, information seeking strategies, location and access, use of information, synthesis, and evaluation. Such approaches seek to cover the full range of information problem - solving actions that a person would normally undertake, when faced with an information problem or with making a decision based on available resources.
Information literacy instruction in higher education can take a variety of forms: stand - alone courses or classes, online tutorials, workbooks, course - related instruction, or course - integrated instruction. One attempt in the area of physics was published in 2009.
The six regional accreditation boards have added information literacy to their standards, Librarians often are required to teach the concepts of information literacy during "one shot '' classroom lectures. There are also credit courses offered by academic librarians to prepare college students to become information literate.
In 2016, the Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL, part of the American Library Association) adopted a new Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, replacing the ACRL 's Information Literacy Standards for Higher Education that had been approved in 2000. The standards were largely criticized by proponents of critical information literacy, a concept deriving from critical pedagogy, for being too prescriptive. It 's termed a "framework '' because it consists of interconnected core concepts designed to be interpreted and implemented locally depending on the context and needs of the audience. The framework draws on recent research around threshold concepts, or the ideas that are gateways to broader understanding or skills in a given discipline. It also draws on newer research around meta - literacy, and assumes a more holistic view of information literacy that includes creation and collaboration in addition to consumption, so is appropriate for current practices around social media and Web 2.0. The six concepts, or frames, are:
This draws from he concept of metaliteracy, which offers a renewed vision of information literacy as an overarching set of abilities in which students are consumers and creators of information who can participate successfully in collaborative spaces (Association of College, p. 2) There is a growing body of scholarly research describing faculty - librarian collaboration to bring information literacy skills practice into higher education curriculum, moving beyond "one shot '' lectures to an integrated model in which librarians help design assignments, create guides to useful course resources, and provide direct support to students throughout courses.
Now that information literacy has become a part of the core curriculum at many post-secondary institutions, it is incumbent upon the library community to be able to provide information literacy instruction in a variety of formats, including online learning and distance education. The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) addresses this need in its Guidelines for Distance Education Services (2000):
Library resources and services in institutions of higher education must meet the needs of all their faculty, students, and academic support staff, wherever these individuals are located, whether on a main campus, off campus, in distance education or extended campus programs -- or in the absence of a campus at all, in courses taken for credit or non-credit; in continuing education programs; in courses attended in person or by means of electronic transmission; or any other means of distance education.
Within the e-learning and distance education worlds, providing effective information literacy programs brings together the challenges of both distance librarianship and instruction. With the prevalence of course management systems such as WebCT and Blackboard, library staff are embedding information literacy training within academic programs and within individual classes themselves.
An online article published by the Asian Development Bank described higher education in Asia as remarkably successful. Majority of Asian government and political leaders support secondary and college education knowing it is crucial to fostering socio - economic development across the region. These bureaucracies understand that market globalization, interdependence in international financial systems, and prompt communications generated huge need for competent technical and managerial personnel. As a result, enrollment has increased and contribution to higher education diversified with the creation of more universities and educational institutions experimenting with various modes of delivery of instructions. Higher education in Asia continues to face numerous challenges. For one, Higher Education Institutions need to handle the sudden upsurge of enrollment. There are instances of lack of qualified mentors, questions about quality of instructions, and serious financial issues. University World News said there has been substantial progress in higher education in Southeast Asia as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is laying the foundation of collaboration with regards to the education systems of member - nations. Collaboration has grown significantly during the last two decades.
Many academic libraries are participating in a culture of assessment, and attempt to show the value of their information literacy interventions to their students. Librarians use a variety of techniques for this assessment, some of which aim to empower students and librarians and resist adherence to unquestioned norms. Oakleaf describes the benefits and dangers of various assessment approaches: fixed - choice tests, performance assessments, and rubrics.
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operation of a hair salon is an example of | Beauty salon - wikipedia
A beauty salon or beauty parlor (beauty parlour) (or sometimes beauty shop) is an establishment dealing with cosmetic treatments for men and women. Other variations of this type of business include hair salons and spas.
There is a distinction between a beauty salon and a hair salon and although many small businesses do offer both sets of treatments; beauty salons provide extended services related to skin health, facial aesthetic, foot care, nail manicures, aromatherapy, -- even meditation, oxygen therapy, mud baths, and many other services.
Massage for the body is a popular beauty treatment, with various techniques offering benefits to the skin (including the application of beauty products) and for increasing mental well - being. Hair removal is offered at some beauty salons through treatments such as waxing and threading. Some beauty salons style hair instead of going to a separate hair salon, and some also offer sun tanning. Other treatments of the face are known as facials. Specialized beauty salons known as nail salons offer treatments such as manicures and pedicures for the nails. A manicure is a treatment for the hands, incorporating the fingernails and cuticles and often involving the application of nail polish, while a pedicure involves treatment of the feet, incorporating the toenails and the softening or removal of calluses.
Beauty salons have proven to be a recession - proof industry across United States. Although sales had declined from 2008 highs due to the Great Recession, they remain robust with long term positive forecast. Even though during recessions, consumers tend to be more price conscious, spending continues to go increase. With rising per capita incomes across the United States since 2015, beauty salons are booming with the industry generating $56.2 billion in the United States. Hair care is the largest segment with 86,000 locations. Skin care is expected to have revenue of almost $11 billion by 2018. This growth is being driven in part by a generally increasing awareness of the importance of skin care among American woman, but also specifically due to an increase in the market for men. The market is distributed widely across America, with a concentration in the Northeast and Midwest. There is also a growing trend in boutique salons popping up and leveraging online marketing to gain customers and compete with the franchise chains. The US Labor Department estimates employment in the United States will increase 20 % between 2008 -- 2014, with greatest employment growth from skin care specialists.
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who gets the job in new york in the office | The Job (the Office) - wikipedia
"The Job '' is the third - season finale of the U.S. version of The Office, and the show 's 52nd and 53rd episodes overall. In this episode, Michael prepares for his interview for the corporate job and names Dwight as his successor, whose managing methods are unpopular. Jan arrives at the office to see Michael and everyone is shocked when it appears she has undergone breast augmentation. Jim and Karen also interview for the corporate position, and Pam deals with the consequences of her earlier outburst.
The episode was written by Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur, and was directed by Ken Kwapis. It was cut down from an hour and twelve minutes to forty - two minutes, making it the season 's second hour - long episode after "A Benihana Christmas ''. Kwapis carefully shot Jim 's reaction shots, as he did not want to reveal Jim 's choice of Karen or Pam to the audience. The cast were unaware how the season would end, as multiple endings were shot by the crew. Filming wrapped up in April 2007.
The finale first aired in the United States on May 17, 2007 on NBC. An estimated 7.9 million viewers watched the episode; it earned a 3.9 / 12 ratings share among adults 18 -- 49, making it rank first for the night. Television critics gave positive reviews to the finale. It won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay -- Episodic Comedy and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series. In addition, Jenna Fischer received a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series.
Confident that he will get the corporate job in New York City, Michael Scott (Steve Carell) sells his condo and names Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) his successor as Regional Manager. Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) cheerfully withstands her colleagues ' teasing over her speech from "Beach Games, '' and tells Karen Filippelli (Rashida Jones) that she is not sorry about what she said but regrets putting Karen in an awkward position. Meanwhile, Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner) asks Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) whom he finds more attractive between Karen and Pam. Though Jim initially refuses to answer, he becomes intrigued when Kevin starts to compare the two women. He tells Kevin to keep thinking about it in a joking way, but appears to be very interested in the results.
Jan Levinson (Melora Hardin) arrives at the office to win Michael back. In a panic, Michael consults the women of the office. Pam tells him not to reconcile with Jan. Michael attempts to reject Jan, but reverses himself immediately when he sees that she has had a breast augmentation. Jim and Karen drive to New York City together and spend the night before their interviews. Karen tells Jim that if either of them gets the job, both should move to New York. She promises to do so, but is met with awkward silence when she asks Jim to reciprocate. Meanwhile, Dwight begins his new regime, assigning Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) the role of his number two and asking Pam to be his secret "Assistant to the Regional Manager. '' Dwight 's new motivational style is not popular, and so he and Andy repaint the walls of Dwight 's new office black in order to instill fear.
During his interview at Corporate, Michael learns from CFO David Wallace (Andy Buckley) that he is interviewing for the job currently held by Jan, who will be fired. Michael goes to Jan 's office after the interview and quickly bumbles into revealing her impending termination. Jan storms into Wallace 's office, interrupting Karen 's interview, and refuses to leave. After Jan is escorted out by security, Michael learns that he will not be getting the position. On the drive home, Jan tells Michael that she will make their relationship her "full - time job ''. Upon hearing that, Michael becomes visibly uncomfortable.
Jim 's interview with David goes well until he discovers an encouraging note from Pam along with a yogurt lid medal (reminiscent of an earlier episode). Jim recalls a conversation with Pam after her confession on the beach. He discreetly admits that he left Scranton because of her rejection and that he feels that he has "never really come back, '' meaning that he has been actively fighting his feelings for her. Pam tells him that she wishes that he would come back.
Just as Pam is telling the cameras that she does not think that it would work out between her and Jim, he bursts into the room and asks her out to dinner. Stunned, she agrees, and Jim says, "Alright. Then, it 's a date. '' After Jim exits the room, Pam becomes visibly joyous and forgets what she was talking about.
During a phone call, David Wallace offers the job to Ryan Howard (B.J. Novak), who accepts and immediately breaks up with Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling).
"The Job '' was written by Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur. It was directed by Ken Kwapis, who had, around the same time, directed The Office actor John Krasinski in the 2007 film License to Wed. Script reading for the episode took place on a beach during the filming of the season 's twenty - third episode, "Beach Games ''. Actress Kate Flannery remarked that "we were so excited that we almost had another hot dog eating contest. Not. It 's a great script. Lots of questions answered. Lots. The Office fans have been anxiously awaiting a one - hour episode, and guess what? You got it. '' The original cut of the episode was an hour and twelve minutes long, and had to be edited down to forty - two minutes of screentime. It was the second Office episode to fill the entire hour timeslot; the first was the third - season episode "A Benihana Christmas ''.
Krasinski received a haircut due to production on another film, Leatherheads (2008), which he thought "ended up working perfectly '' for the season finale. Co-creator Greg Daniels had wanted Jim to get a haircut for a while, as he thought it would "change (him) up a little bit. '' Krasinski thought it was "really smart '' to make it seem like Karen 's idea. Kwapis was careful with Jim 's reaction shots in the episode, as he did not want to "tip anything '' to the audience about Jim 's choice of Karen or Pam. Kwapis explained, "That to me was actually one of the big challenges of the episode is how to keep you on your toes in terms of not knowing where the story was going. '' Jim 's flashback scene with Pam on the beach was initially intended to be the cold open of the episode before Michael Schur suggested it be moved. Kwapis shot multiple endings, and the cast was unaware how the season would end.
Jenna Fischer enjoyed doing her individual scenes with Rainn Wilson because their characters rarely interacted one - on - one. The filming of these scenes took place on the last days of production for the season, and not many people were still on set. The episode finished shooting in April 2007. Two weeks before the finale, actor Oscar Nunez gave brief allusions in an interview with Entertainment Weekly, "There will be some movement. Major things moving. Major shifts that affect the entire office. So there 's some good stuff coming up. That 's all I can say. ''
The episode first aired in the United States on May 17, 2007, several days after NBC announced a fourth season. "The Job '' attracted 7.9 million viewers and earned a 3.9 / 12 ratings share among adults 18 to 49. It ranked first for the night in that demographic, and was NBC 's highest among adults and total viewers in its timeslot since the broadcast of "Cocktails ''. Among total viewers, The Office ranked third in its timeslot (behind a CBS tribute to the retiring Bob Barker and ABC 's first season finale of Ugly Betty).
The season finale received generally positive reviews from television critics. Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West wrote that it "was hands down one of the most satisfying hours of television I have ever had the pleasure of watching, '' explaining that it created "entirely new dynamics '' for the fourth season, hit "all major beats, '' and had "real story progression '' and heart. Give Me My Remote writer Kath Skerry declared that the episode was "brilliantly written, acted, and well paced. It was filled with twists and turns that I did n't see coming. And I know that it sounds cliche, and I know saying it sounds cliche, sounds cliche. Maybe I 'm being cliche but I do n't care. I am what I am -- a full fledged Office addict who got exactly what she wanted, and in fact needed from the finale. '' James Poniewozik of Time magazine voiced similar sentiments, believing the finale to be a "good if not great season - ender, and if the conclusion did n't have the holy - crap factor of The Kiss last year, Pam 's closeup reaction to Jim 's return during her interview was -- like everything Jenna Fischer does on this show -- winning and sweet. '' Poniewozik disliked how the season left Karen, calling it "an uncharacteristic way to end this love triangle, which was distinguished by the writers ' refusal to make anyone the bad guy. ''
James Poniewozik, Time magazine
IGN 's Travis Fickett rated "The Job '' 8.2 / 10. He believed that the episode "pulled off some rather brilliant turns '' with the storylines concerning Jan and Jim, Karen, and Pam. Fickett opined however that the episode was at its weakest during the Dwight 's take - over scenes in Scranton, as he knew Michael would be returning. He concluded his review on a more positive note by commenting that Ryan 's selection "makes for some interesting scenarios for next season. All in all this was a funny episode that wrapped up some key story lines while still leaving open some questions to be answered next season. It was n't a home run finale, but it certainly has us eagerly await the fall premiere. '' AOL TV contributor Jay Black highlighted scenes he found humorous, including Dwight 's preferred choice of an assistant and Michael 's reaction to Jan 's implants. He gave the episode "7 Shrute Bucks out of 7. '' Various cast members were also lauded for their performances, including Jenna Fischer, John Krasinski, and Melora Hardin.
In an article written after the episode 's broadcast, actress Kate Flannery observed that "lots of questions '' were answered and that it was "like a movie. '' Referring to the agreed - to date between Jim and Pam, Flannery said, "The point is that the elephant in the room has not only been addressed but asked to dinner. Makes Season 4 seem filled with possibilities -- like an empty glass in front of a full bar. '' In an article written around the time of actor Steve Carell 's last performance on The Office in 2011, IGN 's Cindy White listed Michael 's quote about Jan 's "breast enhancement '' as among the best of the series. Dan Philipps, another writer for IGN, ranked Jim 's date proposal among the best moments for the couple, stating that "after toying with fans ' expectations for two whole seasons, the series ' writers finally allowed fans to breathe a sigh of relief. For many, the moment was well worth the wait. ''
For their writing of "The Job '', Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay -- Episodic Comedy, beating The Office episodes "Local Ad '' and "Phyllis ' Wedding '' as well as episodes of 30 Rock, Flight of the Conchords, and Pushing Daisies. At the 59th Creative Arts Emmy Awards, editors David Rogers and Dean Holland won for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series. For her work in "The Job '', Jenna Fischer received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, but lost to Jaime Pressly for her performance in My Name is Earl.
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who penned a child's garden of verses | A Child 's Garden of verses - Wikipedia
A Child 's Garden of Verses is a collection of poetry for children about childhood, illness, play and solitude by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson. The collection first appeared in 1885 under the title Penny Whistles, but has been reprinted many times, often in illustrated versions. It contains about 65 poems including the cherished classics "Foreign Children, '' "The Lamplighter, '' "The Land of Counterpane, '' "Bed in Summer, '' "My Shadow '' and "The Swing. ''
The classical scholar Terrot Reaveley Glover published a translation of the poems into Latin in 1922 under the title Carmina non prius audita de ludis et hortis virginibus puerisque.
Part I -- A Child 's Garden of Verses
The Child Alone
Garden Days
Envoys
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who played carrie on the little house on the prairie | Lindsay and Sidney Greenbush - Wikipedia
Rachel Lindsay Rene Bush and Sidney Robyn Danae Bush (born May 25, 1970, Los Angeles) are former child actresses, best known for their combined (alternating) role as Carrie Ingalls, in the drama series Little House on the Prairie. They are identical twin sisters, born to actor Billy "Green '' Bush and Carole Kay Bush. Their older brother, Clay, is also an actor. Their shared character 's younger sister Grace Ingalls was played by Wendi and Brenda Turnbaugh.
Prior to Little House on the Prairie debuting on September 11, 1974, they starred in the made - for - television drama Sunshine (1973), as Jill Hayden. In 1978, in the season five Little House episode "The Godsister, '' the sisters are shown together playing different characters. The twins ' final appearance on the series was on May 10, 1982.
In the final season, their absence was explained that the family (except Laura) moved to Burr Oak, Iowa, to pursue a promising life. Several months later, the series was canceled. The opening credits of the series showed one of the twins running in a meadow behind the credit "Lindsay Sidney Greenbush, '' leading many viewers to believe that was one little actress 's full name. During the course of the series, Sidney had broken her arm several times and it was in a cast. Lindsay did most of the scenes as Carrie.
In 1983, Lindsay guest starred in a Matt Houston episode as an abuse victim. Sidney starred in the film, Hambone and Hillie in 1983. The twins starred in a few commercials, Doublemint Gum, Mattel Toys, Kentucky Fried Chicken, etc. The twins decided to retire from acting, and continue their studies at public school. They graduated from Santa Monica High in 1988.
Sidney was married to horse breeder William "Rocky '' Foster for nine years, until his suicide at age 55 in 2009.
Lindsay has been married to Daniel Sanchez since 2014. They originally met on the Little House set at Big Sky Ranch in Simi Valley (where exterior scenes were filmed) when she was a small child and he was a teenager who lived nearby. She has said Michael Landon allowed him to watch them film at "Big Sky Ranch. '' Decades later, they met again, and married in the same spot where they first met.
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list of companies in energy sector in india | Category: Energy companies of India - wikipedia Help
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who sings let it go from frozen movie | Let It Go (Disney song) - Wikipedia
"Let It Go '' is a song from Disney 's 2013 animated feature film Frozen, whose music and lyrics were composed by husband - and - wife songwriting team Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez. The song was performed in its original show - tune version in the film by American actress and singer Idina Menzel in her vocal role as Queen Elsa. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez also composed a simplified pop version (with shorter lyrics and background chorus) which was performed by actress and singer Demi Lovato over the start of the film 's closing credits. A music video was separately released for the pop version.
The song presents the ostracized Queen Elsa, who abandons her kingdom when her magical ability to create and control ice and snow is discovered by the public. Up in the mountains, away from confused and suspicious onlookers, Elsa realizes that she no longer needs to hide her abilities, and so declares herself free from the restrictions she has had to endure since childhood. She rejoices in being able to use her power without fear or limit, to let her past go, and manipulate snow to create a living snowman and a magnificent ice castle for herself. The song also includes discarding items, most notably her glove which her parents gave her to hold back her powers, and taking her tiara off her head and throwing it over her shoulder, afterwards unraveling her braided hairstyle.
"Let It Go '' reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and won both the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2014 and the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media in 2015. The song gained international recognition, becoming one of the most globally recorded Disney songs, with numerous covers being recorded in different languages.
According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, "Let It Go '' sold 10.9 million copies in 2014, becoming the year 's fifth best - selling song.
The Daily Telegraph explained that instead of the villain originally envisioned by the producers, the songwriters saw Elsa as "a scared girl struggling to control and come to terms with her gift. '' When interviewed in January 2014 by John August and Aline Brosh McKenna, Frozen director Jennifer Lee gave her recollection of the song 's conception: "Bobby and Kristen said they were walking in Prospect Park and they just started talking about what would it feel like (to be Elsa). Forget villain. Just what it would feel like. And this concept of letting out who she is (,) that she 's kept to herself for so long (,) and she 's alone and free, but then the sadness of the fact (sic) that the last moment is she 's alone. It 's not a perfect thing, but it 's powerful. ''
"Let It Go '' was the first song written by Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez for the film that made it in, since songs composed earlier were eventually cut. The story outline they were given had a place reserved for "Elsa 's Badass Song '', which was what they were trying to write. The duo took inspiration from the songs of the Disney Renaissance such as The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast and various artists including Adele, Aimee Mann, Avril Lavigne (whose 2002 debut album was titled Let Go), Lady Gaga, and Carole King. The song finally began to gel one day as the couple walked together from their home in Park Slope to nearby Prospect Park while they were "thinking from an emo kind of place. '' Anderson - Lopez explained what happened next: "We went for a walk in Prospect Park and threw phrases at each other. What does it feel like to be the perfect exalted person, but only because you 've held back this secret? Bobby came up with ' kingdom of isolation, ' and it worked. '' Lopez was able to improvise the song 's first four lines on the spot. Back at their home studio, they composed the rest of the song by alternating between improvising melodies on a piano and brainstorming lyrics on a whiteboard, and finished it within a single day.
"Let It Go '' is a power ballad in the key of A-flat major overall, but begins in the relative minor (F minor). The song is in quadruple meter, and has a fast tempo of around 137 beats per minute (allegro). The song 's vocal range spans from F to E ♭. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez specifically wrote the song for Idina Menzel, referring to her as "one of the most glorious voices of Broadway and an icon in musical theater. '' Menzel 's vocal range was taken under consideration during the music 's composition.
For each song they created, including "Let It Go '', Anderson - Lopez and Lopez recorded a demo in their studio, then emailed it to the Disney Animation production team in Burbank for discussion at their next videoconference. After the film 's release, Anderson - Lopez was shown an "explicitly honest '' fan version of the song with very colorful lyrics, and in response, she noted that in the videoconferences she herself had used similarly candid language to describe Elsa 's mindset at that point in the plot: "After a while, Chris Montan, the head of music at Disney, would be like, ' Whoa, language! ' '' She also disclosed that Disney Animation 's Chief Creative Officer John Lasseter (who served as executive producer for Frozen) was so taken with "Let It Go '' that he played her original demo of the song in his car for months.
Once approved, the song 's piano - vocal score, along with the rest of their work for Frozen, was eventually forwarded to arranger Dave Metzger at his home studio in Salem, Oregon, who orchestrated their work into a lush sound suitable for recording by a full orchestra at the Eastwood Scoring Stage on the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank at the end of July 2013. The song 's vocal track was recorded separately prior to orchestration at Sunset Sound in Hollywood, with the piano track from the demo playing into Menzel 's headphones. That piano track, played by Lopez himself, was not re-recorded by a session musician at the orchestral recording session; it is the same piano track heard in the final mix of the song.
Although unintentional, the song 's composition was pivotal in the film 's characterization of Elsa. Although Elsa was originally written as a villain, co-directors Chris Buck and Lee gradually rewrote Elsa into one of the film 's protagonists after "Let It Go '' was composed. About that, Lee later explained, "the minute we heard the song the first time, I knew that I had to rewrite the whole movie. '' Buck further clarified: "Jen had to go back and rewrite some pages in the first act to build up to that scene... You have to set it up well enough in advance so that when the song comes, the audience is ready for it and there 's an emotional payoff. ''
When it came to animating Elsa 's scenes for the song, Lopez and Anderson - Lopez insisted on the particular detail that Elsa should slam the palace doors on the audience at the song 's end, which they acknowledged was similar to the ending of the Broadway musical Sweeney Todd. Lopez explained that they wanted that feeling of how "this character does n't need us anymore, '' because he had always loved that feeling "when a character just kind of malevolently looks at you and slams a door in your face, '' although in the final version, Elsa 's facial expression ended up as more of a "sly smile ''. According to Lopez, it was the last line at the end, "the cold never bothered me anyway, '' that was "our little Avril Lavigne line ''.
On December 6, 2013, Walt Disney Animation Studios released a video of the entire "Let It Go '' sequence as seen in the movie, which has over 600 million views as of December 2017 on YouTube. On January 30, 2014, a sing - along version of the sequence was released and has received more than 1.3 billion views on YouTube as of December 2017.
Besides the original English version, Disney Character Voices International arranged for Frozen to be dubbed into another 47 languages and dialects worldwide. A major challenge was to find sopranos capable of matching Menzel 's warm vocal tone and vocal range in their native languages. Rick Dempsey, senior executive at Disney Character Voices International regarded the process as "exceptionally challenging '', explaining, "It 's a difficult juggling act to get the right intent of the lyrics and also have it match rhythmically to the music. And then you have to go back and adjust for lip sync! (It)... requires a lot of patience and precision. ''
On January 22, 2014, Disney released a multi-language version of the "Let It Go '' musical sequence, which featured vocal performances of 25 different voice actresses who portrayed Elsa in their respective dubbing versions of the film. At the annual meeting of the shareholders of the Walt Disney Company on March 18, 2014 in Portland, Oregon, chairman and chief executive officer Bob Iger praised the team who did "an incredible job casting fantastic international talent so that Frozen truly belongs to the world, '' then showed the entire multi-language video clip of "Let It Go '' to the assembled shareholders. On March 31, 2014, an in - studio multi-language video of the song was released, showing singers of 25 different languages recording their versions of "Let It Go ''. On April 15, 2014 a studio recording of the multi-language version was released via digital download.
In 2015, a Hindi and an Indonesian version of the movie were aired on Disney Channel. The Indonesian version features a translated pop version of "Let It Go '', sung by the ensemble of Indonesian singers Anggun, Chilla Kiana, Regina Ivanova (id), Nowela and Cindy Bernadette. The pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia (id).
On April 15, 2014, Walt Disney Records released a compilation album titled Let It Go: The Complete Set, with all 42 foreign - language film versions of "Let It Go '' and nine end credit versions.
In South Korea, the pop version of the song by Hyolyn reached number six on the Gaon Music Chart in February, followed by the film version performed by Hye Na Park (ko) charting at number 80 in March. The Japanese versions of the song, performed in the film by Takako Matsu and in the end roll by May J., reached number 2 and 8 respectively on the Japan Hot 100 after the film 's Japanese release in March 2014. Matsu 's version was certified million for digital downloads in Japan in May 2014, and May J. 's version platinum for 250,000 downloads. May J. recorded a rearranged version of the song on her album Heartful Song Covers, which was released on March 26, 2014.
Since 2013, some local TV stations have been dubbing the movie in their local languages. Namely: Albanian, Arabic, Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog.
Anggun, Chilla Kiana, Regina Ivanova (id), Nowela and Cindy Bernadette (credits)
"Let It Go '' received widespread acclaim from film critics, music critics, and audiences, with some comparing it favorably to "Defying Gravity '' (also performed by Idina Menzel) from the Broadway musical Wicked. The Rochester City Newspaper called it the best song of the film 's soundtrack, writing; "Performed with belty gusto by Idina Menzel, it 's got every element needed to be a lasting favorite. (...) Menzel should be credited for providing as much power and passion to this performance as she did in her most famous role. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Snetiker described the song as "an incredible anthem of liberation '' while Joe Dziemianowicz of New York Daily News called it "a stirring tribute to girl power and the need to ' let go ' of fear and shame ''.
On the other hand, Jim DeRogatis and Greg Kot of the radio show Sound Opinions criticized the song; DeRogatis labeled it "schlock '', and Kot described it as a "clichéd piece of fluff that you would have heard on a Broadway soundtrack from maybe the fifties or the sixties ''.
By spring 2014, many journalists had observed that after watching Frozen, numerous young children in the United States were becoming unusually obsessed with the film 's music, and with "Let It Go '' in particular. Columnist Yvonne Abraham of The Boston Globe called the song "musical crack '' which "sends kids into altered states. '' A similar phenomenon was described in the United Kingdom, where Lorraine Candy, editor - in - chief of Elle UK, wrote of a "musical epidemic sweeping the nation, relentlessly gathering up every child... in its cult - like grip ''.
Passenger, the singer - songwriter who rose to fame with the 2012 hit single "Let Her Go '', admitted in an August 2016 interview on The Project that his single is frequently confused with "Let It Go. '' As a result, he "always '' receives song requests for the latter, even though it is not his song.
In November 2017, Chilean pop singer Jaime Ciero sued Disney, Idina Menzel, and Demi Lovato, claiming that "Let It Go '' was extremely similar to his 2008 song "Volar ''.
Some viewers outside the film industry, including one evangelical pastor and commentators, believe that the film is a promotion for the normalization of homosexuality, while others have argued that the character of Elsa is a representation of positive LGBT youth and the song is a metaphor for coming out. The LGBT community, however, had a mixed reaction to these claims. When Frozen co-director Jennifer Lee was asked about the purported gay undertones, she stated that the film 's meaning was open to interpretation "I feel like once we hand the film over, it belongs to the world, so I do n't like to say anything, and let the fans talk. I think it 's up to them. '' Lee added that the film 's meaning was also inevitably going to be interpreted within the cultural context of being made in the year 2013.
Another interpretation for the song is that it promotes self - affirmation for people on the autism spectrum. Co-writer Kristen Andersen - Lopez has stated that her younger brother has autistic traits and that inspired the song insofar as it deals with the concept of having a "special sibling. ''
"Let It Go '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 86th Academy Awards, where a shortened rendition of the show - tune version was performed live by Menzel; with the award, Robert Lopez became the 12th person, and by far the quickest (10 years), to win an Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony in their career.
The decision to release a single for "Let It Go '' was made after the song was written and was presented to Disney. Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez selected American singer and former Disney Channel star Demi Lovato, who also appears on Disney 's Hollywood Records roster, to cover the song on the soundtrack album. It was included in the deluxe edition of Demi. The Demi Lovato version was officially covered in nine other languages, eight of which are included into "Let It Go the Complete Set '': French, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Malaysian, Mandarin Chinese (China 's version), Spanish (Latin American version) and Russian. The Indonesian pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia (id).
Anderson - Lopez said that Lovato was chosen because of the singer 's own personal life; "She had a past that she 's pretty open about that is similar to Elsa 's journey of letting a dark past and fear behind and moving forward with your power. '' Lovato indeed identified herself with the song 's context, stating "It 's so relatable. Elsa is finding her identity; she 's growing into who she is and she 's finally accepting her own strength and magical powers. Instead of hiding it, like she 's done all her life, she 's letting it go and embracing it. ''
Lovato 's cover version was released as a single by Walt Disney Records on October 21, 2013. While Menzel 's version is performed in the key of A-flat major and a tempo of 137 beats per minute, Lovato 's version is performed in the key of G major and a tempo of 140 beats per minute, with her vocal range spanning between G and E. In this version, the line "Let the storm rage on '' is omitted from the chorus, along with its unusual accompanying chord progression, and an extra "Let it go '' is substituted in its place.
The music video was released on November 1, 2013. It was directed by Declan Whitebloom. The video opens with Lovato sitting on the floor of an abandoned mansion lined with marble floors and dotted with furniture covered with white sheets. During the video she is wearing a black period - inspired cloak dress. She can then be seen playing a grand piano. The scenes inside the mansion are interwoven with images and clips from Frozen. Towards the end of the song, Lovato re-emerges wearing a cream - colored gown and the room seems to be new again, with the sheets thrown away revealing brightly embellished furniture.
Lovato performed the song on several occasions. Lovato first performed the track at the 2013 Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade. On November 13, 2014, she performed the song at the 2014 Royal Variety Performance. The song was also a part of Lovato 's setlist for The Neon Lights Tour and the Demi World Tour. On May 2015, she performed the song for 2nd Indonesian Choice Awards.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Menzel 's version was a single release, being promoted to adult contemporary radio by Walt Disney Records in January 2014. Disney 's music division planned to release Lovato 's version of the song before Menzel 's, as they did not consider Menzel 's version a traditional pop song.
It is the first song from a Disney animated musical to reach the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 since 1995, when Vanessa L. Williams ' "Colors of the Wind '' from Pocahontas peaked at number four on the chart. The song is also Menzel 's first single to reach the top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, making her the first Tony Award winner for acting to ever reach the top 10. The song was the ninth best - selling song of 2014 in the United States with 3.37 million copies sold in that year. As of December 2014, the song has sold 3.5 million copies in the US. It is now the biggest - selling foreign song from any original soundtrack in South Korea as of March 12, 2014.
A remix EP was released digitally by Walt Disney Records on May 19, 2014. The EP features four remixes by Dave Audé, Papercha $ er, DJ Escape & Tony Coluccio and Corbin Hayes. Armin van Buuren produced another remix of the song for the remix album, Dconstructed.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Many cover versions have been recorded internationally. In February 2014, Alex Boyé recorded a light Africanized tribal cover of the song, featuring the One Voice Children 's Choir and Lexi Walker as Elsa.
The Piano Guys ' cover version mixes parts of Antonio Vivaldi 's Concerto No. 4 in F minor, Op. 8, RV 297, "L'inverno '' (Winter) from The Four Seasons into the original. The music videos of both covers were filmed in the ice castles in Midway, Utah.
In March 2014, Brian Hull recorded a cover of the song while impersonating various Disney characters such as Winnie the Pooh, Tigger, Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse and Goofy.
Norwegian YouTube singer Per Fredrik Pellek Asly or "PelleK '', covered a power metal version of the Lovato version of the song on December 16, 2013, collecting more than 4 million views.
In February 2014, a parody YouTuber by the name of Malinda Kathleen Reese used Google Translate to translate the song 's lyrics from multiple languages to English, revealing expected humorous mistranslations, with lines such as "Let us very angry '' and "Give up, tune in, slam the door. ''
It has been alleged by some commentators that one of the promotional songs for the 2022 Winter Olympics, "The Snow and Ice Dance, '' has suspicious similarities with "Let It Go. '' A Chinese media outlet cited technical analysis of the two songs: Both songs employ a piano as the major instrument, have similar prelude chords and an eight - beat introduction, and they run at almost exactly the same tempo.
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what rights are included in the declaration of independence | Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness - wikipedia
"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness '' is a well - known phrase in the United States Declaration of Independence. The phrase gives three examples of the "unalienable rights '' which the Declaration says have been given to all human beings by their Creator, and which governments are created to protect.
The United States Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson, and then edited by the Committee of Five, which consisted of Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. It was then further edited and adopted by the Committee of the Whole of the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. The second paragraph of the first article in the Declaration of Independence contains the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness ''.
Jefferson 's "original Rough draught '' is on exhibit in the Library of Congress. This version was used by Julian Boyd to create a transcript of Jefferson 's draft, which reads:
We hold these truths to be sacred & undeniable; that all men are created equal & independent, that from that equal creation they derive rights inherent & inalienable, among which are the preservation of life, & liberty, & the pursuit of happiness;...
The Committee of Five edited Jefferson 's draft. Their version survived further edits by the whole Congress intact, and reads:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. -- --
A number of possible sources or inspirations for Jefferson 's use of the phrase in the Declaration of Independence have been identified, although scholars debate the extent to which any one of them actually influenced Jefferson. Jefferson declared himself an Epicurean during his lifetime: this is a philosophical doctrine that teaches the pursuit of happiness and proposes autarchy, which translates as self - rule, self - sufficiency or freedom. The greatest disagreement comes between those who suggest the phrase was drawn from John Locke and those who identify some other source.
There is debate about what the word "happiness '' may have meant in 1776. Current usage focuses on pleasant, positive emotions and having needs satisfied, whereas in 1776 the common meaning may have been "prosperity, thriving, wellbeing ''.
In 1689, Locke argued in his Two Treatises of Government that political society existed for the sake of protecting "property '', which he defined as a person 's "life, liberty, and estate ''. In A Letter Concerning Toleration, he wrote that the magistrate 's power was limited to preserving a person 's "civil interest '', which he described as "life, liberty, health, and indolency of body; and the possession of outward things ''. He declared in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding that "the highest perfection of intellectual nature lies in a careful and constant pursuit of true and solid happiness ''.
According to those scholars who saw the root of Jefferson 's thought in Locke 's doctrine, Jefferson replaced "estate '' with "the pursuit of happiness '', although this does not mean that Jefferson meant the "pursuit of happiness '' to refer primarily or exclusively to property. Under such an assumption, the Declaration of Independence would declare that government existed primarily for the reasons Locke gave, and some have extended that line of thinking to support a conception of limited government.
The first and second article of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason and adopted unanimously by the Virginia Convention of Delegates on June 12, 1776, speaks of happiness in the context of recognizably Lockean rights and is paradigmatic of the way in which "the fundamental natural rights of mankind '' were expressed at the time.
That all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they can not, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.
Benjamin Franklin was in agreement with Thomas Jefferson in downplaying protection of "property '' as a goal of government. It is noted that Franklin found property to be a "creature of society '' and thus, he believed that it should be taxed as a way to finance civil society.
In 1628, Sir Edward Coke wrote in The First Part of the Institutes of the Lawes of England, his commentary on Thomas de Littleton, that "It is commonly said that three things be favoured in Law, Life, Liberty, Dower. '' At common law, dower was closely guarded as a means by which the widow and orphan of a deceased landowner could keep their real property.
Garry Wills has argued that Jefferson did not take the phrase from Locke and that it was indeed meant to be a standard by which governments should be judged. Wills suggests Adam Ferguson as a good guide to what Jefferson had in mind:
If, in reality, courage and a heart devoted to the good of mankind are the constituents of human felicity, the kindness which is done infers a happiness in the person from whom it proceeds, not in him on whom it is bestowed; and the greatest good which men possessed of fortitude and generosity can procure to their fellow creatures is a participation of this happy character. If this be the good of the individual, it is likewise that of mankind; and virtue no longer imposes a task by which we are obliged to bestow upon others that good from which we ourselves refrain; but supposes, in the highest degree, as possessed by ourselves, that state of felicity which we are required to promote in the world.
The 17th - century cleric and philosopher Richard Cumberland wrote that promoting the well - being of our fellow humans is essential to the "pursuit of our own happiness ''. Locke never associated natural rights with happiness, but his philosophical opponent Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz made such an association in the introduction to his Codex Iuris Gentium. William Wollaston 's The Religion of Nature Delineated describes the "truest definition '' of "natural religion '' as being "The pursuit of happiness by the practice of reason and truth ''. An English translation of Jean - Jacques Burlamaqui 's Principles of Natural and Politic Law prepared in 1763 extolled the "noble pursuit '' of "true and solid happiness '' in the opening chapter discussing natural rights. Historian Jack Rakove posits Burlamaqui as the inspiration for Jefferson 's phrase.
Other tripartite mottos include "liberté, égalité, fraternité '' (liberty, equality, fraternity) in France; "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit '' (unity, justice and liberty) in Germany and "peace, order, and good government '' in Canada. It is also similar to a line in the Canadian Charter of Rights: "life, liberty, security of the person '' (this line was also in the older Canadian Bill of rights, which added "enjoyment of property '' to the list).
The phrase can also be found in Chapter III, Article 13 of the 1947 Constitution of Japan, and in President Ho Chi Minh 's 1945 declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. An alternative phrase "life, liberty, and property '', is found in the Declaration of Colonial Rights, a resolution of the First Continental Congress. The Fifth Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution declare that governments can not deprive any person of "life, liberty, or property '' without due process of law. Also, Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads, "Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security of person ''.
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who has scored the most 3 pointers in a game | NBA Regular season records - wikipedia
This article lists all - time records achieved in the NBA regular season in major statistical categories recognized by the league, including those set by teams and individuals in a game, season, and career. The NBA also recognizes records from its original incarnation, the Basketball Association of America (BAA).
In 2006, the NBA introduced age requirement restrictions. Prospective high school players must wait a year before entering the NBA, making age - related records harder to break.
Note: Other than the longest game and disqualifications in a game, all records in this section are since the 24 - second shot clock was instituted for 1954 -- 55 season onward.
* This award has only been given since the 1968 -- 69 season. * * This award has only been given since the 1982 -- 83 season.
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what is the width and length of a queen size bed | Bed size - wikipedia
Standard bed sizes are based on standard mattress sizes, which vary from country to country. Bed sizes also vary according to the size and degree of ornamentation of the bed frame. Dimensions and names vary considerably around the world, with most countries having their own standards and terminology. In addition, two mattresses with the same nominal size may still have slightly different dimensions, due to manufacturing tolerances, amount of padding, and support type. In almost all territories, standard beds are rectangular but other shapes, notably circular, may be obtained by special order.
Modern manufacturing conventions have produced many standard mattress and box spring sizes. Beds vary by country of origin as per the table below. These dimensions are for the mattress -- actual bed frames are a little larger to accommodate the mattress. Mattress thickness varies considerably.
35 in × 79 in
35 in x 74 in
38 in x 80 in
55 in × 79 in
71 in × 79 in
54 in x 74 in
62 in x 78 in
76 in x 80 in
71 in × 79 in
Standard bed sizes in the US and Canada are:
Most modern beds / mattresses available in the UK and Ireland are sold using metric dimensions, as required by law. The names of standard mattress sizes were, however, originally attributed to specific imperial dimensions which remain in common use as a point of reference.
It is worth noting that "bed size '' in the UK generally refers to mattress size. This is because mattresses have a standard size grading, whereas bed frames do not. While many companies in the UK do offer bespoke bed making services, most mass - produced bed linens, bed frames and mattresses fit only the standard bed sizes above. A Queen size mattress in the UK is often misunderstood to be one of the larger sizes as is the case in many other parts of the world. At 120cm in width, however, it is smaller than a UK double. Another common mistake is to use a mattress size as the required space for the full dimensions of the bed and mattress.
Single size beds are usually 90 centimetres (35 in) wide by 190 centimetres (75 in) long.
Most common sizes for double beds are: 140 centimetres (55 in) wide by 190 centimetres (75 in) long 160 centimetres (63 in) wide by 200 centimetres (79 in) long 180 centimetres (71 in) wide by 200 centimetres (79 in) long (less common, but increasing popularity).
Due to the popularity of imported beds (especially from IKEA), the 200 centimetres (79 in) length is becoming more common.
In Italy, beds are classified by name and use the term Piazza as in "one place '' Standard sizes are:
Less common:
Due to the popularity of imported beds (especially from IKEA), the 200 centimetres (79 in) length is becoming more common.
These sizes are for Germany, Poland, Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. There are some variations between the Nordic countries and the Baltic nations, but these are the most common sizes:
Single:
Three - Quarter:
Double:
Most beds are 200 cm (79 in) cm long. Extra long beds are usually 220 cm (87 in), but they are rare.
In Portugal the most common sizes for beds are:
Solteiro (single) 80 centimetres (31 in) wide by 190 centimetres (75 in) long (can go up to 105 cm wide by 200 cm long)
Casal (double) 140 centimetres (55 in) wide by 190 centimetres (75 in), 195 or 200 cm long
Queen Size 160 centimetres (63 in) or 180 centimetres (71 in) wide by 190, 195 or 200 cm long
King Size 180 centimetres (71 in) wide by 190, 195 or 200 cm long
Super King Size 200 centimetres (79 in) wide by 200 cm long
In Spain the most common sizes are:
180 / 190 / 200 cm long
80 / 90 / 105 / 120 / 135 / 150 cm wide, the most common:
"Individual '' (single) = 90 cm wide
"Matrimonio '' (marital) = 135 / 150 cm wide
Single:
Double:
The following bed sizes are available in Australia
The following bed sizes are available in New Zealand
Comprehensive list of bed sizes in South Africa:
XL mattress sizes vary only in length but not in width.
In China, the regulation standard has following sizes available:
In practice, bed sizes are usually categorized by the width. The length is typically two metres, but may vary. The most common sizes are:
There are also extra size beds available, but they are less common.
The following bed sizes are available in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia:
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why do humans belong to the subclass eutheria | Eutheria - Wikipedia
Eutheria (/ juː ˈθɪəriə /; from Greek εὐ -, eu - "good '' or "right '' and θηρίον, thēríon "beast '' hence "true beasts '') is one of two mammalian clades with extant members that diverged in the Early Cretaceous or perhaps the Late Jurassic. Except for the Virginia opossum, from North America, which is a metatherian, all post-Miocene mammals indigenous to Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America north of Mexico are eutherians. Extant eutherians, their last common ancestor, and all extinct descendants of that ancestor are members of Placentalia.
Eutherians are distinguished from noneutherians by various phenotypic traits of the feet, ankles, jaws and teeth. All extant eutherians lack epipubic bones, which are present in all other living mammals (marsupials and monotremes). This allows for expansion of the abdomen during pregnancy.
The oldest known eutherian species is Juramaia sinensis, dated at 160 million years ago from the Jurassic in China.
Eutheria was named in 1872 by Theodore Gill; in 1880 Thomas Henry Huxley defined it to encompass a more broadly defined group than Placentalia.
Distinguishing features are:
Eutheria contains several extinct genera as well as larger groups, many with complicated taxonomic histories still not fully understood. Members of the Adapisoriculidae, Cimolesta and Leptictida have been previously placed within the out - dated placental group Insectivora, while Zhelestids have been considered primitive ungulates. However, more recent studies have suggested these enigmatic taxa represent stem group eutherians, more basal to Placentalia.
The weakly favoured cladogram favours Boreoeuthearia as a basal Eutherian clade as sister to the Atlantogenata.
Xenarthra
Afrotheria
Laurasiatheria
Euarchontoglires
Tritylodontids
Other mammaliformes
Hadrocodium
Other Australosphenids
Monotremes
Metatheria
Eutheria
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what is the distinction between a hierophany and an theophany | Hierophany - Wikipedia
A hierophany is a manifestation of the sacred. The word is a formation of the Greek adjective hieros (Greek: ἱερός; sacred / holy) and the verb phainein (φαίνειν; to reveal / to bring to light).
When the sacred is revealed in some form or other to an entity, it brings with it great pleasure and suffering, as one who has become familiar with the Godhead would ascribe. This information can be then used by the recipient to assist others on their own path.
The word hierophany recurs frequently in the works of the religious historian Mircea Eliade, which he preferred to the more constrictive word theophany (an appearance of a god).
Eliade argues that religion is based on a sharp distinction between the sacred (God, gods, mythical ancestors, etc.) and the profane. According to Eliade, for traditional man, myths describe "breakthroughs of the sacred (or the ' supernatural ') into the World '' -- that is, hierophanies.
In the hierophanies recorded in myth, the sacred appears in the form of ideal models (the actions and commandments of gods, heroes, etc.). By manifesting itself as an ideal model, the sacred gives the world value, direction, and purpose: "The manifestation of the sacred, ontologically founds the world ''. According to this view, all things need to imitate or conform to the sacred models established by hierophanies, in order to have true reality: to traditional man, things "acquire their reality, their identity, only to the extent of their participation in a transcendent reality ''.
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who made the cut in the masters tournament | Masters tournament - Wikipedia
The Masters Tournament (usually referred to as simply The Masters, or the U.S. Masters outside of North America) is one of the four major championships in professional golf. Scheduled for the first full week of April, the Masters is the first major of the year, and unlike the others, it is held at the same location, Augusta National Golf Club, a private course in the southeastern United States, in the city of Augusta, Georgia.
The Masters was started by noted amateur champion Bobby Jones and investment banker Clifford Roberts. After his grand slam in 1930, Jones acquired the former plant nursery and co-designed Augusta National with course architect Alister MacKenzie. First played 84 years ago in 1934, the tournament is an official money event on the PGA Tour, the European Tour, and the Japan Golf Tour. The field of players is smaller than those of the other major championships because it is an invitational event, held by the Augusta National Golf Club.
The tournament has a number of traditions. Since 1949, a green jacket has been awarded to the champion, who must return it to the clubhouse one year after his victory, although it remains his personal property and is stored with other champions ' jackets in a specially designated cloakroom. In most instances, only a first - time and currently reigning champion may remove his jacket from the club grounds. A golfer who wins the event multiple times uses the same green jacket awarded upon his initial win (unless he needs to be re-fitted with a new jacket). The Champions Dinner, inaugurated by Ben Hogan in 1952, is held on the Tuesday before each tournament, and is open only to past champions and certain board members of the Augusta National Golf Club. Beginning in 1963, legendary golfers, usually past champions, have hit an honorary tee shot on the morning of the first round to commence play. These have included Fred McLeod, Jock Hutchinson, Gene Sarazen, Sam Snead, Byron Nelson, Arnold Palmer, Jack Nicklaus, and Gary Player. Since 1960, a semi-social contest at the par - 3 course has been played on Wednesday, the day before the first round.
Nicklaus has the most Masters wins, with six between 1963 and 1986. Palmer and Tiger Woods won four each, and five have won three titles at Augusta: Jimmy Demaret, Sam Snead, Gary Player, Nick Faldo, and Phil Mickelson. Player, from South Africa, was the first non-American player to win the tournament, in 1961; the second was Seve Ballesteros of Spain, the champion in 1980 and 1983.
The Augusta National course first opened 85 years ago in 1933 and has been modified many times by different architects. Among the changes: greens have been reshaped and, on occasion, entirely re-designed, bunkers have been added, water hazards have been extended, new tee boxes have been built, hundreds of trees have been planted, and several mounds have been installed.
The idea for Augusta National originated with Bobby Jones, who wanted to build a golf course after his retirement from the game. He sought advice from Clifford Roberts, who later became the chairman of the club. They came across a piece of land in Augusta, Georgia, of which Jones said: "Perfect! And to think this ground has been lying here all these years waiting for someone to come along and lay a golf course upon it. '' The land had been an indigo plantation in the early nineteenth century and a plant nursery since 1857. Jones hired Alister MacKenzie to help design the course, and work began in 1931. The course formally opened in 1933, but MacKenzie died before the first Masters Tournament was played.
The first "Augusta National Invitational '' Tournament, as the Masters was originally known, began on March 22, 1934, and was won by Horton Smith, who took the first prize of $1,500. The present name was adopted in 1939. The first tournament was played with current holes 10 through 18 played as the first nine, and 1 through 9 as the second nine then reversed permanently to its present layout for the 1935 tournament.
Initially the Augusta National Invitational field was composed of Bobby Jones ' close associates. Jones had petitioned the USGA to hold the U.S. Open at Augusta but the USGA denied the petition, noting that the hot Georgia summers would create difficult playing conditions.
Gene Sarazen hit the "shot heard ' round the world '' in 1935, holing a shot from the fairway on the par 5 15th for a double eagle (albatross). This tied Sarazen with Craig Wood, and in the ensuing 36 - hole playoff Sarazen was the victor by five strokes. The tournament was not played from 1943 to 1945, due to World War II. To assist the war effort, cattle and turkeys were raised on the Augusta National grounds.
The Big Three of Arnold Palmer, Gary Player, and Jack Nicklaus dominated the Masters from 1960 through 1978, winning the event 11 times among them during that span. After winning by one stroke in 1958, Palmer won by one stroke again in 1960 in memorable circumstances. Trailing Ken Venturi by one shot in the 1960 event, Palmer made birdies on the last two holes to prevail. Palmer would go on to win another two Masters in 1962 and 1964.
Jack Nicklaus emerged in the early 1960s, and served as a rival to the popular Palmer. Nicklaus won his first green jacket in 1963, defeating Tony Lema by one stroke. Two years later, he shot a then - course record of 271 (17 under par) for his second Masters win, leading Bobby Jones to say that Nicklaus played "a game with which I am not familiar. '' The next year, Nicklaus won his third green jacket in a grueling 18 - hole playoff against Tommy Jacobs and Gay Brewer. This made Nicklaus the first player to win consecutive Masters. He won again in 1972 by three strokes. In 1975, Nicklaus won by one stroke in a close contest with Tom Weiskopf and Johnny Miller in one of the most exciting Masters to date.
Gary Player became the first non-American to win the Masters in 1961, beating Palmer, the defending champion. In 1974, he won again by two strokes. After not winning a tournament on the U.S. PGA tour for nearly four years, and at the age of 42, Player won his third and final Masters in 1978 by one stroke over three players. Player currently shares (with Fred Couples) the record of making 23 consecutive cuts, and has played in a record 52 Masters.
A controversial ending to the Masters occurred in 1968. Roberto De Vicenzo signed a scorecard (scored by playing partner Tommy Aaron) which incorrectly showed him as making a par 4 instead of a birdie 3 on the 17th hole of the final round. By the rules of golf, if a player signs a scorecard (thereby attesting to its veracity) that records a score on a hole higher than what he actually made on the hole, the player receives the higher score for that hole. This extra stroke cost De Vicenzo a chance to be in an 18 - hole Monday playoff with Bob Goalby, who won the green jacket. De Vicenzo 's mistake led to the famous quote, "What a stupid I am. ''
In 1975, Lee Elder became the first African American to play in the Masters, doing so 15 years before Augusta National admitted its first black member, Ron Townsend, as a result of the Shoal Creek Controversy.
Non-Americans collected 11 victories in 20 years in the 1980s and 1990s, by far the strongest run they have had in any of the three majors played in the United States since the early days of the U.S. Open. The first European to win the Masters was Seve Ballesteros in 1980. Nicklaus became the oldest player to win the Masters in 1986 when he won for the sixth time at age 46.
During this period, no golfer suffered from the pressure of competing at Augusta more than Greg Norman. In 1987, Norman lost a sudden - death playoff to Larry Mize when Mize holed out a remarkable 45 - yard pitch shot to birdie the second playoff hole and win the Masters. In 1996, Norman tied the course record with an opening round 63, and had a six - stroke lead over Nick Faldo entering the final round. Norman shot a 78 while Faldo scored a 67 to win by five shots (for his third Masters championship). Norman also suffered in 1986 when after birdieing four straight holes, and needing only a par to tie Nicklaus for the lead and force a Monday playoff, he badly pushed his 4 - iron approach on 18 and missed his par putt for a closing bogey.
At age 21 in 1997, Tiger Woods won the Masters by twelve shots and broke the 72 - hole record that had stood for 32 years. Woods completed his "Tiger Slam '' by winning his fourth straight major championship at the Masters in 2001. He won again the following year, making him only the third player in history to win the tournament in consecutive years, as well as in 2005 when he defeated Chris DiMarco in a playoff for his first major championship win in almost three years.
The club was targeted by Martha Burk, who organized a failed protest at the 2003 Masters to pressure the club into accepting female members. Burk planned to protest at the front gates of Augusta National during the third day of the tournament, but her application for a permit to do so was denied. A court appeal was dismissed. In 2004, Burk stated that she had no further plans to protest against the club.
Augusta National Chairman Billy Payne himself made headlines in April 2010, however, when he commented (at the annual pre-Masters press conference) on Tiger Woods ' off - the - course behavior. "It 's not simply the degree of his conduct that is so egregious here, '' Payne said, in his opening speech. "It is the fact he disappointed all of us and more importantly our kids and grandkids. ''
The 2003 tournament was won by Mike Weir, who became the first Canadian to win a men 's major championship, and the first left - hander to win the Masters. The following year, another left - hander, Phil Mickelson, won his first major championship by making a birdie on the final hole to beat Ernie Els by a stroke. Mickelson also won the tournament in 2006 and 2010. In 2011, the tournament was won by South African Charl Schwartzel, who birdied the final four holes to win by two strokes. In 2012, Bubba Watson won the tournament on the second playoff hole. Watson 's win marked the fifth time that a left - hander won the Masters in the previous ten tournaments. Prior to 2003, no left - hander had ever won the Masters. The 2013 Masters was won by Adam Scott, the first Australian to win the tournament. Watson won the 2014 Masters by three strokes over Jordan Spieth and Jonas Blixt. It was his second Masters victory in three years. In 2015, Spieth would become the second - youngest winner in just his second Masters.
The total prize money for the 2014 tournament was $9,000,000, with $1,620,000 going to the winner. In the inaugural year of 1934, the winner Horton Smith received $1,500 out of a $5,000 purse. After Nicklaus 's first win in 1963, he received $20,000, while after his final victory in 1986 he won $144,000. In recent years the purse has grown quickly. Between 2001 and 2014, the winner 's share grew by $612,000, and the purse grew by $3,400,000.
In addition to a cash prize, the winner of the tournament is presented with a distinctive green jacket, formally awarded since 1949, and informally acquired by the champions for many years before that. The green sport coat is the official attire worn by members of Augusta National while on the club grounds; each Masters winner becomes an honorary member of the club. The recipient of the green jacket has it presented to him inside the Butler Cabin soon after the end of the tournament, and the presentation is then repeated outside near the 18th green in front of the patrons. Winners keep their jacket for the first year after their first victory, then return it to the club to wear whenever they visit. The tradition began in 1949, when Sam Snead won his first of three Masters titles.
The green jacket is only allowed to be removed from Augusta National by the reigning champion, after which it must remain at the club. Exceptions to this rule include Gary Player, who in his joy of winning mistakenly took his jacket home to South Africa after his 1961 victory (although he has always followed the spirit of the rule and has never worn the jacket); Seve Ballesteros who, in an interview with Peter Alliss from his home in Pedreña, showed one of his two green jackets in his trophy room; and Henry Picard, whose jacket was removed from the club before the tradition was well established, remained in his closet for a number of years, and is now on display at Canterbury Golf Club in Beachwood, Ohio, where he was the club professional for many years.
By tradition, the winner of the previous year 's Masters Tournament puts the jacket on the current winner at the end of the tournament. In 1966, Jack Nicklaus became the first player to win in consecutive years and he donned the jacket himself. When Nick Faldo (in 1990) and Tiger Woods (in 2002) repeated as champions, the chairman of Augusta National put the jacket on them.
There are several awards presented to players who perform exceptional feats during the tournament. The player who has the daily lowest score receives a crystal vase, while players who score a hole - in - one or a double eagle win a large crystal bowl. For each eagle a player makes he receives a pair of crystal goblets.
In addition to the green jacket, winners of the tournament receive a gold medal. They have their names engraved on the actual silver Masters trophy, introduced in 1961, which depicts the clubhouse. This trophy remains at Augusta National; since 1993 winners have received a sterling silver replica. The runner - up receives a silver medal, introduced in 1951. Beginning in 1978, a silver salver was added as an award for the runner - up.
In 1952 the Masters began presenting an award, known as the Silver Cup, to the lowest scoring amateur to make the cut. In 1954 they began presenting an amateur silver medal to the low amateur runner - up.
In 2017, a green jacket that was found at a thrift store in 1994 was sold at auction for $139,000.
In 2013, Augusta National partnered with the USGA and the PGA of America to establish Drive, Chip and Putt, a youth golf skills competition which was first held in 2014. The event was established as part of an effort to help promote the sport of golf among youth; the winners of local qualifiers in different age groups advance to the national finals, which have been held at Augusta National on the Sunday immediately preceding the Masters. The driving and chipping portions of the event are held on the course 's practice range, but the putting portion has been played on the course 's 18th hole.
On April 4, 2018, prior to the 2018 tournament, new Augusta National chairman Fred Ridley announced that the club would host a new Women 's amateur championship beginning in 2019. The first two rounds will be held at the Champion 's Retreat club in Evans, Georgia, with the final two rounds hosted by Augusta National (the final round will take place on the Saturday directly preceding the tournament). Ridley stated that holding such an event at Augusta National would have the "greatest impact '' on women 's golf. Although concerns were raised that the event would conflict with the LPGA Tour 's Dinah Shore major (which has invited top amateur players to compete), Ridley stated that he had discussed the event with commissioner Mike Whan, and stated that he agreed on the notion that any move to bolster the prominence of women 's golf would be a "win '' for the LPGA over time.
The Par 3 Contest was first introduced in 1960, and was won that year by Snead. Since then it has traditionally been played on the Wednesday before the tournament starts. The par 3 course was built in 1958. It is a nine - hole course, with a par of 27, and measures 1,060 yards (970 m) in length.
There have been 94 holes - in - one in the history of the contest, with a record nine occurring in 2016. Camilo Villegas became the first player to card two holes - in - one in the same round during the 2015 Par 3 Contest. No par 3 contest winner has also won the Masters in the same year. There have been several repeat winners, including Pádraig Harrington, Sandy Lyle, Sam Snead, and Tom Watson. The former two won in successive years.
In this event, golfers may use their children as caddies, which helps to create a family - friendly atmosphere. In 2008, the event was televised for the first time by ESPN.
The winner of the par 3 competition, which is played the day before the tournament begins, wins a crystal bowl.
As with the other majors, winning the Masters gives a golfer several privileges which make his career more secure. Masters champions are automatically invited to play in the other three majors (the U.S. Open, The Open Championship, and the PGA Championship) for the next five years (except for amateur winners, unless they turn pro within the five - year period), and earn a lifetime invitation to the Masters. They also receive membership on the PGA Tour for the following five seasons and invitations to The Players Championship for five years.
Because the tournament was established by an amateur champion, Bobby Jones, the Masters has a tradition of honoring amateur golf. It invites winners of the most prestigious amateur tournaments in the world. Also, the current U.S. Amateur champion always plays in the same group as the defending Masters champion for the first two days of the tournament.
Amateurs in the field are welcome to stay in the "Crow 's Nest '' atop the Augusta National clubhouse during the tournament. The Crow 's Nest is 1,200 square feet (110 m) with lodging space for five during the competition.
Since 1963, the custom in most years has been to start the tournament with an honorary opening tee shot at the first hole, typically by one or more legendary players. The original honorary starters were Jock Hutchison and Fred McLeod; this twosome led off every tournament from 1963 until 1973, when poor health prevented Hutchison from swinging a club. McLeod continued on until his death in 1976. Byron Nelson and Gene Sarazen started in 1981, and were then joined by Sam Snead in 1984. This trio continued until 1999 when Sarazen died, while Nelson stopped in 2001. Snead hit his final opening tee shot in 2002, a little over a month before he died.
In 2007, Arnold Palmer took over as the honorary starter. Palmer also had the honor in 2008 and 2009. At the 2010 and 2011 Masters Tournaments, Jack Nicklaus joined Palmer as an honorary co-starter for the event. In 2012, Gary Player joined them. Palmer announced in March 2016 that a lingering shoulder issue would prevent him from partaking in the 2016 tee shot. Palmer was still in attendance for the ceremony.
Following Palmer 's death in 2016, the 2017 ceremony featured tributes; his green jacket was draped over an empty white chair, while everyone in attendance wore "Arnie 's Army '' badges.
The Champions ' Dinner is held each year on the Tuesday evening preceding Thursday 's first round. The dinner was first held in 1952, hosted by defending champion Ben Hogan, to honor the past champions of the tournament. At that time 15 tournaments had been played, and the number of past champions was 11. Officially known as the "Masters Club '', it includes only past winners of the Masters, although selected members of the Augusta National Golf Club have been included as honorary members, usually the chairman.
The defending champion, as host, selects the menu for the dinner. Frequently, Masters champions have served finely prepared cuisine by the Masters chef from their home regions. Notable examples have included haggis, served by Scotsman Sandy Lyle in 1989, and bobotie, a South African dish, served at the behest of 2008 champion Trevor Immelman. Other examples include German Bernhard Langer 's 1986 Wiener schnitzel, Britain 's Nick Faldo 's fish and chips, Canadian Mike Weir 's elk and wild boar, and Vijay Singh 's seafood tom kah and chicken panang curry. In 1997, 1979 champion Fuzzy Zoeller created a media storm when he suggested that Tiger Woods refrain from serving collard greens and fried chicken, dishes commonly associated with Afro - American culture, at the dinner. The 2011 dinner of Phil Mickelson was a Spanish - themed menu in hopes that Seve Ballesteros would attend, but he was too sick to attend and died weeks later.
Until 1983, all players in the Masters were required to use the services of an Augusta National Club caddie, who by club tradition was always an African American man. Indeed, club co-founder Clifford Roberts is reputed to have said, "As long as I 'm alive, golfers will be white, and caddies will be black. '' Since 1983, players have been allowed the option of bringing their own caddie to the tournament.
The Masters requires caddies to wear a uniform consisting of a white jumpsuit, a green Masters cap, and white tennis shoes. The surname, and sometimes first initial, of each player is found on the back of his caddie 's uniform. The defending champion always receives caddie number "1 '': other golfers get their caddie numbers from the order in which they register for the tournament. The other majors and some PGA Tour events formerly had a similar policy concerning caddies well into the 1970s; the U.S. Open first allowed players to use their own caddies in 1976.
The day after the tournament closes, The Bobby Jones Scholars from The University of St Andrews in Scotland play a four - ball round on the course -- the last people to do so before the greenkeepers start the process of repairing and restoring the course to pre-tournament standard.
The Masters is the first major championship of the year. Since 1948, its final round has been scheduled for the second Sunday of April, with several exceptions. It ended on the first Sunday four times (1952, 1957, 1958, 1959) and the 1979 and 1984 tournaments ended on April 15, the month 's third Sunday. The first edition in 1934 was held in late March and the next ten were in early April, with only the 1942 event scheduled to end on the second Sunday.
Similar to the other majors, the tournament consists of four rounds at 18 holes each, Thursday through Sunday (when there are no delays). The Masters has a relatively small field of contenders, when compared with other golf tournaments, so the competitors play in groups of three for the first two rounds (36 holes) and the field is not split to start on the 1st and 10th tees, unless weather shortens the available playing time. The tournament is unique in that it is the only major tournament conducted by a private club rather than a national golf organization like the PGA.
Originally, the Masters was the only tournament to use two - man pairings during the first two rounds. It was also the only event to re-pair based on the leaderboard before Friday 's round, as most tournaments only do this on the weekend. This practice ended in the early 2000s, when the Masters switched to the more standard three - man groups and the groups are now kept in - tact on Friday, with players sharing the same playing partners in both of the first two rounds.
After 36 holes of play, a cut - off score is calculated to reduce the size of the field for the weekend rounds. To "make the cut '', players must be either in the top 50 places (ties counting), or within 10 strokes of the leader 's score. These criteria have applied since 2013. From 1957 to 1960, the top 40 scores (including ties) and those within 10 strokes of the leader made the cut. From 1961 to 2012, it was the top 44 (and ties) or within 10 strokes of the lead. Before 1957, there was no 36 - hole cut and all of the invitees played four rounds, if desired.
Following the cut, an additional 36 holes are played over the final two days. Should the fourth round fail to produce a winner, all players tied for the lead enter a sudden - death playoff. Play begins on the 18th hole, followed by the adjacent 10th, repeating until one player remains. Adopted in 1976, the sudden - death playoff was originally formatted to start on the first hole, but was not needed for the first three years. It was changed for 1979 to the inward (final) nine holes, starting at the tenth tee, where the television coverage began. First employed that same year, the Masters ' first sudden - death playoff ended on the eleventh green. The current arrangement, beginning at the 18th tee, was amended for 2004 and first used the following year. Through 2017, the eleven sudden - death playoffs have yet to advance past the second extra hole. Earlier playoffs were 18 holes on the following day, except for the first in 1935, which was 36 holes; the last 18 - hole playoff was in 1970, and none of the full - round playoffs went to additional holes.
The golf course was formerly a plant nursery and each hole is named after the tree or shrub with which it has become associated. The course layout in 2014:
Lengths of the course for the Masters at the start of each decade:
The course was lengthened to 7,445 yards (6,808 m) in 2006. The first hole was shortened by 10 yards (9 m) in 2009, resulting in the current length of 7,435 yards (6,799 m).
As with many other courses, Augusta National 's championship setup was lengthened in recent years. In 2001, the course measured 6,925 yards (6,332 m) and was extended to 7,270 yards (6,648 m) for 2002, and again in 2006 to 7,445 yards (6,808 m); 520 yards (475 m) longer than the 2001 course. The changes attracted many critics, including the most successful players in Masters history, Jack Nicklaus, Arnold Palmer, Gary Player and Tiger Woods. Woods claimed that the "shorter hitters are going to struggle. '' Augusta National chairman Hootie Johnson was unperturbed, stating, "We are comfortable with what we are doing with the golf course. '' After a practice round, Gary Player defended the changes, saying, "There have been a lot of criticisms, but I think unjustly so, now I 've played it... The guys are basically having to hit the same second shots that Jack Nicklaus had to hit (in his prime) ''.
Originally, the grass on the putting greens was the wide - bladed Bermuda. The greens lost speed, especially during the late 1970s, after the introduction of a healthier strain of narrow - bladed Bermuda, which thrived and grew thicker. In 1978, the greens on the par 3 course were reconstructed with bentgrass, a narrow - bladed species that could be mowed shorter, eliminating grain. After this test run, the greens on the main course were replaced with bentgrass in time for the 1981 Masters. The bentgrass resulted in significantly faster putting surfaces, which has required a reduction in some of the contours of the greens over time.
Just before the 1975 tournament, the common beige sand in the bunkers was replaced with the now - signature white feldspar. It is a quartz derivative of the mining of feldspar and is shipped in from North Carolina.
The Masters has the smallest field of the major championships, with 90 -- 100 players. Unlike other majors, there are no alternates or qualifying tournaments. It is an invitational event, with invitations largely issued on an automatic basis to players who meet published criteria. The top 50 players in the Official World Golf Ranking are all invited.
Past champions are always eligible, but since 2002 the Augusta National Golf Club has discouraged them from continuing to participate at an advanced age. Some will later become honorary starters.
Most of the top current players will meet the criteria of multiple categories for invitation. The Masters Committee, at its discretion, can also invite any golfer not otherwise qualified, although in practice these invitations are currently reserved for international players.
Changes for the 2014 tournament include invitations now being awarded to the autumn events in the PGA Tour, which now begin the wraparound season, tightening of qualifications (top 12 plus ties from the Masters, top 4 from the U.S. Open, Open Championship, and PGA Championship), and the top 30 on the PGA Tour now referencing the season - ending points before the Tour Championship, not the former annual money list. The 2015 Masters added the winner of the newly established Latin America Amateur Championship, which effectively replaced the exemption for the United States Amateur Public Links Championship, which ended after the 2014 tournament. (The final Public Links champion played in the 2015 Masters.)
The first winner of the Masters Tournament was Horton Smith in 1934, and he repeated in 1936. The player with the most Masters victories is Jack Nicklaus, who won six times between 1963 and 1986. Arnold Palmer and Tiger Woods have each won four, and Jimmy Demaret, Gary Player, Sam Snead, Nick Faldo, and Phil Mickelson have three titles to their name. Player was the tournament 's first overseas winner with his first victory in 1961. Two - time champions include Byron Nelson, Ben Hogan, Tom Watson, Seve Ballesteros, Bernhard Langer, Ben Crenshaw, José María Olazábal, and Bubba Watson.
In 1952 the Masters began presenting an award, known as the Silver Cup, to the lowest - scoring amateur to make the cut. In 1954 they began presenting an amateur silver medal to the low amateur runner - up. There have been six players to win low amateur and then go on to win the Masters as a professional. These players are Cary Middlecoff, Jack Nicklaus, Ben Crenshaw, Phil Mickelson, Tiger Woods and Sergio García.
Jack Nicklaus has won the most Masters (six) and was 46 years, 82 days old when he won in 1986, making him the oldest winner of the Masters. Nicklaus is the record holder for the most top tens, with 22, and the most cuts made, with 37. The youngest winner of the Masters is Tiger Woods, who was 21 years, 104 days old when he won in 1997. In that year Woods also broke the records for the widest winning margin (12 strokes), and the lowest winning score, with 270 (− 18). Jordan Spieth tied his score record in 2015.
In 2013, Guan Tianlang became the youngest player ever to compete in the Masters, at age 14 years, 168 days on the opening day of the tournament; the following day, he became the youngest ever to make the cut at the Masters or any men 's major championship.
Gary Player holds the record for most appearances, with 52. Player also holds the record for the number of consecutive cuts made, with 23 between 1959 and 1982 (Player did not compete in 1973 as he was recovering from recent surgery). He shares this record with Fred Couples, who made his consecutive cuts between 1983 and 2007, not competing in 1987 and 1994.
Nick Price and Greg Norman share the course record of 63, with their rounds coming in 1986 and 1996 respectively.
The highest winning score of 289 (+ 1) has occurred three times: Sam Snead in 1954, Jack Burke, Jr. in 1956, and Zach Johnson in 2007. Anthony Kim holds the record for most birdies in a round with 11 in 2009 during his second round.
There have been only four double eagles carded in the history of the Masters; the latest was by a contender in the fourth round in 2012. In the penultimate pairing with eventual champion Bubba Watson, Louis Oosthuizen 's 260 - yard (238 m) downhill 4 iron from the fairway made the left side of the green at the par - 5 second hole, called Pink Dogwood, rolled downhill, and in. The other two rare occurrences of this feat after Sarazen 's double eagle on the fabled course 's Fire Thorn hole in 1935: Bruce Devlin made double eagle from 248 yards (227 m) out with a 4 - wood at the eighth hole (Yellow Jasmine) in the first round in 1967, while Jeff Maggert hit a 3 - iron 222 yards (203 m) at the 13th hole (Azalea) in the fourth round in 1994.
Three players share the record for most runner - up finishes with four: Ben Hogan (1942, 1946, 1954, 1955), Tom Weiskopf (1969, 1972, 1974, 1975), Jack Nicklaus (1964, 1971, 1977, 1981)
CBS has televised the Masters in the United States every year since 1956, when it used six cameras and covered only the final four holes. Tournament coverage of the first eight holes did not begin until 1993 because of resistance from the tournament organizers, but by 2006, more than 50 cameras were used. Chairman Jack Stephens felt that the back nine was always more "compelling '', increased coverage would increase the need for sponsorship spending, and that broadcasting the front nine of the course on television would cut down on attendance and television viewership for the tournament. USA Network added first - and second - round coverage in 1982. In 2008, ESPN replaced USA as broadcaster of early - round coverage. These broadcasts use the CBS Sports production staff and commentators, but with ESPN personality Scott Van Pelt (succeeding Mike Tirico, who replaced Bill Macatee 's similar role under USA Network) as studio host.
In 2005, CBS broadcast the tournament with high - definition fixed and handheld wired cameras, as well as standard - definition wireless handheld cameras. In 2006, a webstream called "Amen Corner Live '' began providing coverage of all players passing through holes 11, 12, and 13 through all four rounds. This was the first full tournament multi-hole webcast from a major championship. In 2007, CBS added "Masters Extra, '' an extra hour of full - field bonus coverage daily on the internet, preceding the television broadcasts. In 2008, CBS added full coverage of holes 15 and 16 live on the web. In 2011, "Masters Extra '' was dropped after officials gave ESPN an extra hour each day on Thursday and Friday. In 2016, the Amen Corner feed was broadcast in 4K ultra high definition exclusively on DirecTV -- as one of the first live U.S. sports telecasts in the format. A second channel of 4K coverage covering holes 15 and 16 was added in 2017, and this coverage was produced with high - dynamic - range (HDR) color in 2018.
While Augusta National Golf Club has consistently chosen CBS as its U.S. broadcast partner, it has done so in successive one - year contracts. Former CBS Sports president Neal Pilson stated that their relationship had gotten to the point where the contracts could be negotiated in just hours. Due to the lack of long - term contractual security, as well as the club 's limited dependence on broadcast rights fees (owing to its affluent membership), it is widely held that CBS allows Augusta National greater control over the content of the broadcast, or at least performs some form of self - censorship, in order to maintain future rights. The club, however, has insisted it does not make any demands with respect to the content of the broadcast. Despite this, announcers who have been deemed not to have acted with the decorum expected by the club have been removed, notably Jack Whitaker and Gary McCord, and there also tends to be a lack of discussion of any controversy involving Augusta National, such as the 2003 Martha Burk protests.
Coverage itself carries a more formal style than other golf telecasts; announcers refer to the gallery as patrons rather than as spectators or fans. Gallery itself is also used. The club also disallows promotions for other network programs, or other forms of sponsored features. Significant restrictions have been placed on the tournament 's broadcast hours compared to other major championships. Only in the 21st century did the tournament allow CBS to air 18 - hole coverage of the leaders, a standard at the other three majors. Since 1982, CBS has used "Augusta '' by Dave Loggins as the event telecast 's distinctive theme music. Loggins originally came up with the song during his first trip to the Augusta course in 1981.
The club mandates minimal commercial interruption, currently limited to four minutes per hour (as opposed to the usual 12 or more); this is subsidized by selling exclusive sponsorship packages to two or three companies -- currently these "global sponsors '' are AT&T, IBM, and Mercedes - Benz. AT&T (then SBC) and IBM have sponsored the tournament since 2005, joined at first by ExxonMobil, which in 2014 was replaced as a global sponsor by Mercedes - Benz. In 2002, in the wake of calls to boycott tournament sponsors over the Martha Burk controversy, club chairman Hootie Johnson suspended all television sponsorship of the 2003 tournament. He argued that it was "unfair '' to have the Masters ' sponsors become involved with the controversy by means of association with the tournament, as their sponsorship is of the Masters and not Augusta National itself. CBS agreed to split production costs for the tournament with the club to make up for the lack of sponsorship. After the arrangement continued into 2004, the tournament reinstated sponsorships for 2005, with the new partners of ExxonMobil, IBM, and SBC.
The club also sells separate sponsorship packages, which do not provide rights to air commercials on the U.S. telecasts, to two "international partners ''; in 2014, those companies were Rolex and UPS (the latter of which replaced Mercedes - Benz upon that company 's elevation to "global sponsor '' status).
WestwoodOne (previously Dial Global and CBS Radio) has provided live radio play - by - play coverage in the United States since 1956. This coverage can also be heard on the official Masters website. The network provides short two - or three - minute updates throughout the tournament, as well as longer three - and four - hour segments towards the end of the day.
The BBC has broadcast the Masters in the UK since 1986, and it also provides live radio commentary on the closing stages on Radio Five Live. With the 2007 launch of BBC HD, UK viewers can now watch the championship in that format. BBC Sport held the TV and radio rights through to 2010. The BBC 's coverage airs without commercials because it is financed by a licence fee. From the 2011 Masters, Sky Sports began broadcasting all four days, as well as the par 3 contest in HD and, for the first time ever, in 3D. The BBC will only have highlights of the first two days ' play but will go head to head with Sky Sports, with full live coverage on the final two days of play. In Ireland, Setanta Ireland previously showed all four rounds, and now since 2017 Eir Sport broadcast all four rounds live having previously broadcast the opening two rounds with RTÉ broadcasting the weekend coverage.
In Canada, broadcast rights to the Masters are held by Bell Media, with coverage divided between TSN (cable), which carries live simulcasts and primetime encores of CBS and ESPN coverage for all four rounds, CTV (broadcast), which simulcasts CBS 's coverage of the weekend rounds, and RDS, which carries French - language coverage. Prior to 2013, Canadian broadcast rights were held by a marketing company, Graham Sanborn Media, which in turn bought time on the Global Television Network, TSN, and RDS (except for 2012 when French - language coverage aired on TVA and TVA Sports) to air the broadcasts, also selling all of the advertising for the Canadian broadcasts. This was an unusual arrangement in Canadian sports broadcasting, as in most cases broadcasters acquire their rights directly from the event organizers or through partnerships with international rightsholders, such as ESPN International (ESPN owns a minority stake in TSN). In 2013, Global and TSN began selling advertising directly, and co-produced supplemental programs covering the tournament (while still carrying U.S. coverage for the tournament itself).
On December 15, 2015, TSN parent company Bell Media announced that it had acquired exclusive Canadian rights to the tournament beginning 2016 under a multi-year deal. Broadcast television coverage moved to co-owned broadcast network CTV, while TSN uses its expanded five - channel service to carry supplemental feeds (including the Amen Corner feed and early coverage of each round) that were previously exclusive to digital platforms.
In 53 countries, including much of Latin America, broadcast rights for the entire tournament are held by the ESPN International networks.
Although tickets for the Masters are not expensive, they are very difficult to come by. Even the practice rounds can be difficult to get into. Applications for practice round tickets have to be made nearly a year in advance and the successful applicants are chosen by random ballot. Tickets to the actual tournament are sold only to members of a patrons list, which is closed. A waiting list for the patrons list was opened in 1972 and closed in 1978. It was reopened in 2000 and subsequently closed once again. In 2008, the Masters also began allowing children (between the ages of 8 and 16) to enter on tournament days free if they are accompanied by the patron who is the owner of his or her badge.
The difficulty in acquiring Masters badges has made the tournament one of the largest events on the secondary - ticket market. A majority of the badges for the Masters are delivered to the same group of patrons, fans, and members each year, and these perennial ticket holders sometimes decide to sell their badges through large ticket marketplaces such as StubHub, TicketCity, and VividSeats. Some of these marketplaces will allow fans to purchase a Masters badge for a single day, as opposed to the traditional 4 - day pass.
Coordinates: 33 ° 30 ′ 11 '' N 82 ° 01 ′ 12 '' W / 33.503 ° N 82.020 ° W / 33.503; - 82.020
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a permeable cell membrane acts as a cell | Cell membrane - wikipedia
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the extracellular space). It consists of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its surroundings. The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and organelles. In this way, it is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. In addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx, and the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton. In the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.
While Robert Hooke 's discovery of cells in 1665 led to the proposal of the Cell Theory, Hooke misled the cell membrane theory that all cells contained a hard cell wall since only plant cells could be observed at the time. Microscopists focused on the cell wall for well over 150 years until advances in microscopy were made. In the early 19th century, cells were recognized as being separate entities, unconnected, and bound by individual cell walls after it was found that plant cells could be separated. This theory extended to include animal cells to suggest a universal mechanism for cell protection and development. By the second half of the 19th century, microscopy was still not advanced enough to make a distinction between cell membranes and cell walls. However, some microscopists correctly identified at this time that while invisible, it could be inferred that cell membranes existed in animal cells due to intracellular movement of components internally but not externally and that membranes were n't the equivalent of a cell wall to plant cell. It was also inferred that cell membranes were n't vital components to all cells. Many refuted the existence of a cell membrane still towards the end of the 19th century. In 1890, an update to the Cell Theory stated that cell membranes existed, but were merely secondary structures. It was n't until later studies with osmosis and permeability that cell membranes gained more recognition.
The lipid bilayer hypothesis, proposed in 1925, created speculation to the description of the cell membrane bilayer structure based on crystallographic studies and soap bubble observations. In an attempt to accept or reject the hypothesis, researchers measured membrane thickness. In 1925 it was determined that the thickness of erythrocyte and yeast cell membranes ranged between 3.3 and 4 nm., a thickness compatible with a lipid monolayer. The choice of the dielectric constant used in these studies was called into question but future tests could not disprove the results of the initial experiment. Independently, the leptoscope was invented in order to measure very thin membranes by comparing the intensity of light reflected from a sample to the intensity of a membrane standard of known thickness. The instrument could resolve thicknesses that depended on pH measurements and the presence of membrane proteins that ranged from 8.6 to 23.2 nm, with the lower measurements supporting the lipid bilayer hypothesis. Later in the 1930s, the membrane structure model developed in general agreement to be the paucimolecular model. This model was based on studies of surface tension between oils and echinoderm eggs. Since the surface tension values appeared to be much lower than would be expected for an oil -- water interface, it was assumed that some substance was responsible for lowering the interfacial tensions in the surface of cells. It was suggested that a lipid bilayer was in between two thin protein layers. The paucimolecular model immediately became popular and it dominated cell membrane studies for the following 30 years, until it became rivaled by the fluid mosaic model.
Despite the numerous models of the cell membrane proposed prior to the fluid mosaic model, it remains the primary archetype for the cell membrane long after its inception in the 1970s. Although the fluid mosaic model has been modernized to detail contemporary discoveries, the basics have remained constant: the membrane is a lipid bilayer composed of hydrophilic exterior heads and a hydrophobic interior where proteins can interact with hydrophilic heads through polar interactions, but proteins that span the bilayer fully or partially have hydrophobic amino acids that interact with the non-polar lipid interior. The fluid mosaic model not only provided an accurate representation of membrane mechanics, it enhanced the study of hydrophobic forces, which would later develop into an essential descriptive limitation to describe biological macromolecules.
For many centuries, the scientists cited disagreed with the significance of the structure they were seeing as the cell membrane. For almost 2 centuries, the membranes were seen but mostly disregarded this as an important structure with cellular function. It was n't until the 20th century that the significance of the cell membrane as it was acknowledged. Finally, two scientists Gorter and Grendel made the discovery that the membrane is "lipid - based ''. From this, they furthered the idea that this structure would have to be in a formation that mimicked layers. Once studied further, it was found by comparing the sum of the cell surfaces and the surfaces of the lipids, a 2: 1 ratio was estimated; thus, providing the first basis of the bilayer structure known today. This discovery initiated many new studies that arose globally within various fields of scientific studies, confirming that the structure and functions of the cell membrane are widely accepted.
The structure has been variously referred to by different writers as the ectoplast (de Vries, 1885), Plasmahaut (plasma skin, Pfeffer, 1877, 1891), Hautschicht (skin layer, Pfeffer, 1886; used with a different meaning by Hofmeister, 1867), plasmatic membrane (Pfeffer, 1900), plasma membrane, cytoplasmic membrane, cell envelope and cell membrane. Some authors that did not believe that there was a functional permeable boundary at the surface of the cell preferred to use the term plasmalemma (coined by Mast, 1924) for the external region of the cell.
Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, notably lipids and proteins. Composition is not set, but constantly changing for fluidity and changes in the environment, even fluctuating during different stages of cell development. Specifically, the amount of cholesterol in human primary neuron cell membrane changes, and this change in composition affects fluidity throughout development stages.
Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanisms:
The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids, and sterols. The amount of each depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant, often contributing for over 50 % of all lipids in plasma membranes. Glycolipids only account for a minute amount of about 2 % and sterols make up the rest. In RBC studies, 30 % of the plasma membrane is lipid. However, for the majority of eukaryotic cells, the composition of plasma membranes is about half lipids and half proteins by weight.
The fatty chains in phospholipids and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 16 and 20. The 16 - and 18 - carbon fatty acids are the most common. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always "cis ''. The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membrane fluidity as unsaturated lipids create a kink, preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly, thus decreasing the melting temperature (increasing the fluidity) of the membrane. The ability of some organisms to regulate the fluidity of their cell membranes by altering lipid composition is called homeoviscous adaptation.
The entire membrane is held together via non-covalent interaction of hydrophobic tails, however the structure is quite fluid and not fixed rigidly in place. Under physiological conditions phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are in the liquid crystalline state. It means the lipid molecules are free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion along the layer in which they are present. However, the exchange of phospholipid molecules between intracellular and extracellular leaflets of the bilayer is a very slow process. Lipid rafts and caveolae are examples of cholesterol - enriched microdomains in the cell membrane. Also, a fraction of the lipid in direct contact with integral membrane proteins, which is tightly bound to the protein surface is called annular lipid shell; it behaves as a part of protein complex.
In animal cells cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane. Additionally, the amount of cholesterol in biological membranes varies between organisms, cell types, and even in individual cells. Cholesterol, a major component of animal plasma membranes, regulates the fluidity of the overall membrane, meaning that cholesterol controls the amount of movement of the various cell membrane components based on its concentrations. In high temperatures, cholesterol inhibits the movement of phospholipid fatty acid chains, causing a reduced permeability to small molecules and reduced membrane fluidity. The opposite is true for the role of cholesterol in cooler temperatures. Cholesterol production, and thus concentration, is up - regulated (increased) in response to cold temperature. At cold temperatures, cholesterol interferes with fatty acid chain interactions. Acting as antifreeze, cholesterol maintains the fluidity of the membrane. Cholesterol is more abundant in cold - weather animals than warm - weather animals. In plants, which lack cholesterol, related compounds called sterols perform the same function as cholesterol.
Lipid vesicles or liposomes are circular pockets that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer. These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell, as well as getting more insight into cell membrane permeability. Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through sonication, resulting in a vesicle. By measuring the rate of efflux from that of the inside of the vesicle to the ambient solution, allows researcher to better understand membrane permeability. Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution. Proteins can also be embedded into the membrane through solubilizing the desired proteins in the presence of detergents and attaching them to the phospholipids in which the liposome is formed. These provide researchers with a tool to examine various membrane protein functions.
Plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates, predominantly glycoproteins, but with some glycolipids (cerebrosides and gangliosides). Carbohydrates are important in the role of cell - cell recognition in eukaryotes; they are located on the surface of the cell where they recognize host cells and share information, viruses that bind to cells using these receptors cause an infection For the most part, no glycosylation occurs on membranes within the cell; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells, especially epithelia with microvilli. Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in cell adhesion, lymphocyte homing, and many others. The penultimate sugar is galactose and the terminal sugar is sialic acid, as the sugar backbone is modified in the Golgi apparatus. Sialic acid carries a negative charge, providing an external barrier to charged particles.
The cell membrane has large content of proteins, typically around 50 % of membrane volume These proteins are important for cell because they are responsible for various biological activities. Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms. Membrane proteins consist of three main types: Integral proteins, peripheral proteins, and lipid - anchored proteins.
As shown in the adjacent table, integral proteins are amphipathic transmembrane proteins. Examples of integral proteins include ion channels, proton pumps, and g - protein coupled receptors. Ion channels allow inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, or chlorine to diffuse down their electrochemical gradient across the lipid bilayer through hydrophilic pores across the membrane. The electrical behavior of cells (i.e. nerve cells) are controlled by ion channels. Proton Pumps are protein pumps that are embedded in the lipid bilayer that allow protons to travel through the membrane by transferring from one amino acid side chain to another. Processes such as electron transport and generating ATP use proton pumps. A G - protein coupled receptor is a single polypeptide chain that crosses the lipid bilayer seven times responding to signal molecules (i.e. hormones and neurotransmitters). G - protein coupled receptors are used in processes such as cell to cell signaling, the regulation of the production of cAMP, and the regulation of ion channels.
The cell membrane, being exposed to the outside environment, is an important site of cell -- cell communication. As such, a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins, such as antigens, are present on the surface of the membrane. Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell -- cell contact, surface recognition, cytoskeleton contact, signaling, enzymatic activity, or transporting substances across the membrane.
Most membrane proteins must be inserted in some way into the membrane. For this to occur, an N - terminus "signal sequence '' of amino acids directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum, which inserts the proteins into a lipid bilayer. Once inserted, the proteins are then transported to their final destination in vesicles, where the vesicle fuses with the target membrane.
The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of living cells, physically separating the intracellular components from the extracellular environment. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to hold them together to form tissues. Fungi, bacteria, most archaea, and plants also have a cell wall, which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the passage of larger molecules.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival. The movement of substances across the membrane can be either "passive '', occurring without the input of cellular energy, or "active '', requiring the cell to expend energy in transporting it. The membrane also maintains the cell potential. The cell membrane thus works as a selective filter that allows only certain things to come inside or go outside the cell. The cell employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes:
1. Passive osmosis and diffusion: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as carbon dioxide (CO) and oxygen (O), can move across the plasma membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. Diffusion occurs when small molecules and ions move freely from high concentration to low concentration in order to equilibrate the membrane. It is considered a passive transport process because it does not require energy and is propelled by the concentration gradient created by each side of the membrane. Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the water. Osmosis, in biological systems involves a solvent, moving through a semipermeable membrane similarly to passive diffusion as the solvent still moves with the concentration gradient and requires no energy. While water is the most common solvent in cell, it can also be other liquids as well as supercritical liquids and gases.
2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Transmembrane proteins extend through the lipid bilayer of the membranes; they function on both sides of the membrane to transport molecules across it. Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules can diffuse passively through protein channels such as aquaporins in facilitated diffusion or are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. Protein channel proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, and they only recognize and transport a limited variety of chemical substances, often limited to a single substance. Another example of a transmembrane protein is a cell - surface receptor, which allow cell signaling molecules to communicate between cells.
3. Endocytosis: Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward, called an invagination, in which the substance to be transported is captured. This invagination is caused by proteins on the outside on the cell membrane, acting as receptors and clustering into depressions that eventually promote accumulation of more proteins and lipids on the cytosolic side of the membrane. The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell, creating a vesicle containing the captured substance. Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing solid particles ("cell eating '' or phagocytosis), small molecules and ions ("cell drinking '' or pinocytosis), and macromolecules. Endocytosis requires energy and is thus a form of active transport.
4. Exocytosis: Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation of a vesicle, the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane, extruding its contents to the surrounding medium. This is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes, and to transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier. In the process of exocytosis, the undigested waste - containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus, is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface. The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused. A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell
Prokaryotes are divided into two different groups, Archaea and Bacteria, with bacteria dividing further into gram - positive and gram - negative. Gram - negative bacteria have both a plasma membrane and an outer membrane separated by periplasm, however, other prokaryotes have only a plasma membrane. These two membranes differ in many aspects. The outer membrane of the gram - negative bacteria differ from other prokaryotes due to phospholipids forming the exterior of the bilayer, and lipoproteins and phospholipids forming the interior. The outer membrane typically has a porous quality due to its presence of membrane proteins, such as gram - negative porins, which are pore - forming proteins. The inner, plasma membrane is also generally symmetric whereas the outer membrane is asymmetric because of proteins such as the aforementioned. Also, for the prokaryotic membranes, there are multiple things that can affect the fluidity. One of the major factors that can affect the fluidity is fatty acid composition. For example, when the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus was grown in 37 C for 24h, the membrane exhibited a more fluid state instead of a gel - like state. This supports the concept that in higher temperatures, the membrane is more fluid than in colder temperatures. When the membrane is becoming more fluid and needs to become more stabilized, it will make longer fatty acid chains or saturated fatty acid chains in order to help stabilize the membrane. Bacteria are also surrounded by a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (amino acids and sugars). Some eukaryotic cells also have cell walls, but none that are made of peptidoglycan. The outer membrane of gram negative bacteria is rich in lipopolysaccharides, which are combined poly - or oligosaccharide and carbohydrate lipid regions that stimulate the cell 's natural immunity. The outer membrane can bleb out into periplasmic protrusions under stress conditions or upon virulence requirements while encountering a host target cell, and thus such blebs may work as virulence organelles. Bacterial cells provide numerous examples of the diverse ways in which prokaryotic cell membranes are adapted with structures that suit the organism 's niche. For example, proteins on the surface of certain bacterial cells aid in their gliding motion. Many gram - negative bacteria have cell membranes which contain ATP - driven protein exporting systems.
According to the fluid mosaic model of S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson (1972), which replaced the earlier model of Davson and Danielli, biological membranes can be considered as a two - dimensional liquid in which lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily. Although the lipid bilayers that form the basis of the membranes do indeed form two - dimensional liquids by themselves, the plasma membrane also contains a large quantity of proteins, which provide more structure. Examples of such structures are protein - protein complexes, pickets and fences formed by the actin - based cytoskeleton, and potentially lipid rafts.
Lipid bilayers form through the process of self - assembly. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids that spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail '' regions are isolated from the surrounding water while the hydrophilic "head '' regions interact with the intracellular (cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer. Hydrophobic interactions (also known as the hydrophobic effect) are the major driving forces in the formation of lipid bilayers. An increase in interactions between hydrophobic molecules (causing clustering of hydrophobic regions) allows water molecules to bond more freely with each other, increasing the entropy of the system. This complex interaction can include noncovalent interactions such as van der Waals, electrostatic and hydrogen bonds.
Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates. Flippases and scramblases concentrate phosphatidyl serine, which carries a negative charge, on the inner membrane. Along with NANA, this creates an extra barrier to charged moieties moving through the membrane.
Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis.
The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces inward to the lumen. This is particularly evident in epithelial and endothelial cells, but also describes other polarized cells, such as neurons. The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces. It faces outwards, towards the interstitium, and away from the lumen. Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms "basal (base) membrane '' and "lateral (side) membrane '', which, especially in epithelial cells, are identical in composition and activity. Proteins (such as ion channels and pumps) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model. Tight junctions join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane. The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent to one another, yet distinct from the apical surface.
Cell membrane can form different types of "supramembrane '' structures such as caveola, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, focal adhesion, and different types of cell junctions. These structures are usually responsible for cell adhesion, communication, endocytosis and exocytosis. They can be visualized by electron microscopy or fluorescence microscopy. They are composed of specific proteins, such as integrins and cadherins.
The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to, as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell. Indeed, cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane. Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface -- for example, the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut -- and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage - like organelles, such as cilia, which are microtubule - based extensions covered by the cell membrane, and filopodia, which are actin - based extensions. These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and / or make contact with the substrate or other cells. The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin - based finger - like projections known as microvilli, which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients. Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb.
The content of the cell, inside the cell membrane, is composed of numerous membrane - bound organelles, which contribute to the overall function of the cell. The origin, structure, and function of each organelle leads to a large variation in the cell composition due to the individual uniqueness associated with each organelle.
The cell membrane has different lipid and protein compositions in distinct types of cells and may have therefore specific names for certain cell types.
The permeability of a membrane is the rate of passive diffusion of molecules through the membrane. These molecules are known as permeant molecules. Permeability depends mainly on the electric charge and polarity of the molecule and to a lesser extent the molar mass of the molecule. Due to the cell membrane 's hydrophobic nature, small electrically neutral molecules pass through the membrane more easily than charged, large ones. The inability of charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane results in pH partition of substances throughout the fluid compartments of the body.
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where can galactose be found in the body | Galactose - wikipedia
Galactose (galacto - + - ose, "milk sugar ''), sometimes abbreviated Gal, is a monosaccharide sugar that is about as sweet as glucose, and about 65 % as sweet as sucrose. It is a C - 4 epimer of glucose.
Galactan is a polymeric form of galactose found in hemicellulose, and forming the core of the galactans, a class of natural polymeric carbohydrates.
Galactose exists in both open - chain and cyclic form. The open - chain form has a carbonyl at the end of the chain.
Four isomers are cyclic, two of them with a pyranose (six - membered) ring, two with a furanose (five - membered) ring. Galactofuranose occurs in bacteria, fungi and protozoa, and is recognized by a putative chordate immune lectin intelectin through its exocyclic 1, 2 - diol. In the cyclic form there are two anomers, named alpha and beta, since the transition from the open - chain form to the cyclic form involves the creation of a new stereocenter at the site of the open - chain carbonyl. In the beta form, the alcohol group is in the equatorial position, whereas in the alpha form, the alcohol group is in the axial position.
Galactose is a monosaccharide. When combined with glucose (monosaccharide), through a condensation reaction, the result is the disaccharide lactose. The hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose is catalyzed by the enzymes lactase and β - galactosidase. The latter is produced by the lac operon in Escherichia coli.
In nature, lactose is found primarily in milk and milk products. Consequently, various food products made with dairy - derived ingredients can contain lactose. Galactose metabolism, which converts galactose into glucose, is carried out by the three principal enzymes in a mechanism known as the Leloir pathway. The enzymes are listed in the order of the metabolic pathway: galactokinase (GALK), galactose - 1 - phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT), and UDP - galactose - 4 ' - epimerase (GALE).
In human lactation, glucose is changed into galactose via hexoneogenesis to enable the mammary glands to secrete lactose. However, most lactose in breast milk is synthesized from galactose taken up from the blood, and only 35 ± 6 % is made from galactose from de novo synthesis. Glycerol also contributes some to the mammary galactose production.
Glucose is the primary metabolic fuel for humans. It is more stable than galactose and is less susceptible to the formation of nonspecific glycoconjugates, molecules with at least one sugar attached to a protein or lipid. Many speculate that it is for this reason that a pathway for rapid conversion from galactose to glucose has been highly conserved among many species.
The main pathway of galactose metabolism is the Leloir pathway; humans and other species, however, have been noted to contain several alternate pathways, such as the De Ley Doudoroff pathway. The Leloir pathway consists of the latter stage of a two - part process that converts β - D - galactose to UDP - glucose. The initial stage is the conversion of β - D - galactose to α - D - galactose by the enzyme, mutarotase (GALM). The Leloir pathway then carries out the conversion of α - D - galactose to UDP - glucose via three principal enzymes: Galactokinase (GALK) phosphorylates α - D - galactose to galactose - 1 - phosphate, or Gal - 1 - P; Galactose - 1 - phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT) transfers a UMP group from UDP - glucose to Gal - 1 - P to form UDP - galactose; and finally, UDP galactose - 4 ' - epimerase (GALE) interconverts UDP - galactose and UDP - glucose, thereby completing the pathway.
Galactosemia is an inability to properly break down galactose due to a genetically inherited mutation in one of the enzymes in the Leloir pathway. As a result, the consumption of even small quantities is harmful to galactosemics.
Galactose is found in dairy products, avocados, sugar beets, other gums and mucilages. It is also synthesized by the body, where it forms part of glycolipids and glycoproteins in several tissues; and is a by - product from the third - generation ethanol production process (from macroalgae).
Chronic systemic exposure of mice, rats, and Drosophila to D - galactose causes the acceleration of senescence (aging) and has been used as an aging model. Two studies have suggested a possible link between galactose in milk and ovarian cancer. Other studies show no correlation, even in the presence of defective galactose metabolism. More recently, pooled analysis done by the Harvard School of Public Health showed no specific correlation between lactose - containing foods and ovarian cancer, and showed statistically insignificant increases in risk for consumption of lactose at 30 g / d. More research is necessary to ascertain possible risks.
Some ongoing studies suggest galactose may have a role in treatment of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (a kidney disease resulting in kidney failure and proteinuria). This effect is likely to be a result of binding of galactose to FSGS factor.
Galactose is a component of the antigens present on blood cells that determine blood type within the ABO blood group system. In O and A antigens, there are two monomers of galactose on the antigens, whereas in the B antigens there are three monomers of galactose.
A disaccharide composed of two units of galactose, galactose - alpha - 1, 3 - galactose (alpha - gal), has been recognized as a potential allergen present in mammal meat. Alpha - gal allergy may be triggered by lone star tick bites.
In 1855, E.O. Erdmann noted that hydrolysis of lactose produced a substance besides glucose. Galactose was first isolated and studied by Louis Pasteur in 1856. He called it "lactose ''. In 1860, Berthelot renamed it "galactose '' or "glucose lactique ''. In 1894, Emil Fischer and Robert Morrell determined the configuration of galactose.
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who voices marco from star vs the forces of evil | Adam McArthur - wikipedia
Adam McArthur is an American actor and martial artist based in Los Angeles, California, United States. His best - known role is voicing Marco Diaz in the Disney XD cartoon Star vs. the Forces of Evil. He also voices characters on other animation shows, and on - screen on some nationally aired commercials. In martial arts, he specializes in kung fu, has been a champion at some tournaments, and has been the featured subject of several documentaries that have aired on PBS.
McArthur grew up in the San Francisco Bay Area. He graduated from Pepperdine University in 2005 with a degree in Acting and Television Production, and has worked with improv groups in the Los Angeles area. As a martial artist, he specializes in Wushu kung fu, and other forms such as judo. He started when he was 11. In 2003, he was an All Around Grand Champion in the Adult Male Traditional category at the UC Berkeley Chinese Martial Arts Tournament. In 2006, he was selected for the documentary Kung Fu: Journey to the East where he and fellow martial arts practitioner Kristi Jordan visited China to learn from martial arts experts and perform at a stage presentation at the Shaolin Temple. The show was broadcast on PBS. He would return in 2014 for another PBS - broadcast documentary called Shaolin Kung Fu Monks where he follows the group as they go on a worldwide tour with stops in Moscow, New York City, and Los Angeles.
McArthur 's first major role in animation voice - over was in Star vs. the Forces of Evil, which premiered as one of the top animated shows on the Disney XD channel, and which was ordered for a second season ahead of its regular broadcast of the first season. He voices Marco Diaz, a teenage boy whose family hosts the title character as an exchange student, and who becomes her partner in their adventures. Daron Nefcy said he brings something special to the character, making Marco 's Charlie Brown - ness charming. He voiced in the series Star Wars: The Clone Wars as Mon Cala Prince Lee - Char for a story arc in season 4. In an interview with TheForce.net, McArthur said he used his regular voice for his character.
McArthur was involved in theater throughout high school and college, and has worked at ComedySportz in Los Angeles as part of their improv team. In 2015, he starred in an Audi commercial called "The Scripted Life '' which aired during the 2015 Emmy Awards and was also nominated for several awards among film festivals and advertising critics.
McArthur is married to Kim. They have a small business involving photo booths that was advertised on The Knot.
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what is the hole in the coke can lid for | Beverage can - wikipedia
A beverage can is a metal container designed to hold a fixed portion of liquid such as carbonated soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, fruit juices, teas, herbal teas, energy drinks, etc. Beverage cans are made of aluminum (75 % of worldwide production) or tin - plated steel (25 % worldwide production). Worldwide production for all beverage cans is approximately 370 billion cans per year worldwide.
The first commercial beer available in cans began in 1935 in Richmond, Virginia. Not long after that, sodas, with their higher acidity and somewhat higher pressures, were available in cans. The key development for storing beverages in cans was the interior liner, typically plastic or sometimes a waxy substance, that helped to keep the product 's flavor from being ruined by a chemical reaction with the metal. Another major factor for the timing was the repeal of Prohibition in the United States at the end of 1933.
In 1935, the small brewery at Felinfoel was the first brewery outside the USA to commercially can beer. Prior to this time, beer was only available in barrels or in glass bottles. From this time, lightweight tin cans could be used. Felinfoel Brewery was a major supplier to British armed forces abroad in the Second World War - cans saved a great deal of space and weight for wartime exports compared to glass bottles, and did not have to be returned for refilling. These early cans did not have a ' pull tab ', instead they had a ' crown cork ' (beer bottle top). All modern UK canned beer is descended from these small, early cans which helped change the drinking and beer - buying habits of the British public. From the 18th century until the early 20th century Wales dominated world tinplate production, peaking in the early 1890s when 80 % of the world 's tinplate was produced in south Wales.
Canned beverages were factory - sealed and required a special opener tool in order to consume the contents. Cans were typically formed as cylinders, having a flat top and bottom. They required a can piercer, colloquially known as a "church key '', that latched onto the top rim for leverage; lifting the handle would force the sharp tip through the top of the can, cutting a triangular hole. A smaller second hole was usually punched at the opposite side of the top to admit air while pouring, allowing the liquid to flow freely.
In the mid-1930s, some cans were developed with caps so that they could be opened and poured more like a bottle. These were called "cone tops '', as their tops had a conical taper up to the smaller diameter of the cap. Cone top cans were sealed by the same crimped caps that were put on bottles, and could be opened with the same bottle - opener tool. There were three types of conetops: high profile, low profile, and j - spout. The low profile and j - spout were the earliest, dating from about 1935. The "crowntainer '' was a different type of can that was drawn steel with a bottom cap. These were developed by Crown Cork & Seal (now known as Crown Holdings, Inc.), a leading beverage packaging and beverage can producer. Various breweries used crowntainers and conetops until the late 1950s, but many breweries kept using the simple cylindrical cans.
The popularity of canned beverages was slow to catch on, as the metallic taste was difficult to overcome with the interior liner not perfected, especially with more acidic sodas. Cans had two advantages over glass bottles. First for the distributors, flat - top cans were more compact for transportation and storage and weighed less than bottles. Second for consumers, they did not require the deposit typically paid for bottles, as they were discarded after use. Glass - bottle deposits were reimbursed when consumers took the empties back to the store.
By the time the United States entered World War II, cans had gained only about ten percent of the beverage container market; this was drastically reduced during the war to accommodate strategic needs for metal.
In 1959, Ermal Fraze devised a can - opening method that would come to dominate the canned beverage market. His invention was the "pull - tab ''. This eliminated the need for a separate opener tool by attaching an aluminum pull - ring lever with a rivet to a pre-scored wedge - shaped tab section of the can top. The ring was riveted to the center of the top, which created an elongated opening large enough that one hole simultaneously served to let the beverage flow out while air flowed in. In 1959, while on a family picnic, Mr. Fraze had forgotten to bring a can opener and was forced to use a car bumper to open a can of beer. Thinking there must be an easier way, he later stayed up all night until he came up with the pull tab. Pull - tab cans, or the discarded tabs from them, were also called "pop - tops '' colloquially. In Australia these were colloquially known as "ring - pull ''. Into the 1970s, the pull - tab was widely popular, but its popularity came with a significant problem, as people would frequently discard the pull - tabs on the ground as litter, or drop them into the can and risk choking on them. These problems were both addressed by the invention of the "push - tab ''. Used primarily on Coors Beer cans in the mid-1970s, the push - tab was a raised circular scored area used in place of the pull - tab. It needed no ring to pull up. Instead, the raised aluminum blister was pushed down into the can, with a small unscored piece that kept the tab connected after being pushed inside. Push - tabs never gained wide popularity because while they had solved the litter problem of the pull - tab, they created a safety hazard where the person 's finger upon pushing the tab into the can was immediately exposed to the sharp edges of the opening. An unusual feature of the push - tab Coors Beer cans was that they had a second, smaller, push - tab at the top as an airflow vent -- a convenience that was lost with the switch from can opener to pull - tab. The "push - tab '' was introduced into Australia in the early 1980s and was locally known as "pop - tops ''.
The safety and litter problems were both eventually solved later in the 1970s with Daniel F. Cudzik 's invention of the non-removing "Stay - Tab ''. The pull - ring was replaced with a stiff aluminum lever, and the removable tab was replaced with a pre-scored round tab that functioned similarly to the push - tab, but the raised blister was no longer needed, as the riveted lever would now do the job of pushing the tab open and into the interior of the can.
In 2008, an aluminum version of the crowntainer design was adopted for packaging Coca - Cola 's Caribou Coffee beverage. In 2004, Anheuser - Busch adopted an all - aluminum bottle for use with Budweiser and Bud Light beers.
Various standard capacities are used throughout the world.
In Australia the standard can size for alcoholic and soft drinks is 375 ml. Energy drinks are commonly served in 250 ml and 500 ml sizes.
In Brazil the standard can size is 355 ml.
In New Zealand the standard can size is 355 ml.
In China the most common size is 330 ml.
Can dimensions may be cited in metric or imperial units. Imperial dimensions for canmaking are written as inches + sixteenths of an inch (e.g. "202 '' = 2 inches + 2 sixteenths).
In Europe the standard can used to be 330 ml but since the 1990s the 250 ml size has slowly become about just as common. In European countries the 500 ml can size is second standard. It 's often used for beer, cider and energy drinks.
In the UK 440 ml is commonly used for lager and cider.
In Austria energy drinks are usually sold in sizes 200 to 300 ml. In 2014 for beverage cans in general, already much more aluminum is used than steel. There are even steel cans with alu - lids and vice versa.
In Hong Kong most cans are 330 ml.
In India standard cans are 330 ml.
In Japan the most common sizes are 350 ml and 500 ml. Larger and smaller cans are also sold.
In South Korea 250 ml cans are the most common for soft drinks. However, when accompanying take out food (such as pizza or chicken), a short 245 ml can is standard. Recently, some 355 ml cans which are similar to North American cans are increasingly available, but limited mostly to Coca - Cola and Dr Pepper. Finally, beer cans also come in 500 ml forms.
In both Malaysia and Singapore, the most commonly found cans are 300 ml for non-carbonated drinks and 325 ml for carbonated drinks. Larger 330 ml / 350 ml cans are limited to imported drinks where it would usually cost a lot more than local ones.
In Pakistan the most common sizes are 250 ml and 330 ml. 200 ml cans are also sold.
In North America, the standard can size is 12 US fl oz or 355 ml. The US standard can is 4.83 inches high, 2.13 inches in diameter at the lid, and 2.60 inches in diameter at the widest point of the body. Also available are 16oz cans known as pounders, and 24oz cans or larger are referred to as tall boys.
In Canada, the standard size was previously 10 Imperial fluid ounces (284 ml), later redefined and labeled as 280 ml in around 1980. This size was commonly used with steel beverage cans in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, the US standard 355 ml can size was standardized in the 1980s and 1990s, upon the conversion from steel to aluminum. Some beverage such as Nestea are sold in 341 ml cans. In Quebec by the year 2015, a new standard for carbonated drink have been added as many important grocery store now only sell 6 - packs (with plastic holds) with 222 ml cans instead of the original 341 ml (for the same price) and that from every major carbonated drinks. Many convenience stores began selling "slim cans '' with a 310ml capacity as of late 2015
South African standard cans are 330 ml (reduced in the early 2000s from the up - until - then ubiquitous 340 ml) and the promotional size is 440 ml. There is also the 500 ml can. A smaller 200 ml can is used for "mixers '' such as tonic or soda water. It has a smaller diameter than the other cans.
Middle East
In the Middle East standard cans are 330 ml.
Most metal beverage cans manufactured in the United States are made of aluminum, whereas in some parts of Europe and Asia approximately 55 percent are made of steel and 45 percent are aluminum alloy. Steel cans often have a top made of aluminum. The aluminum used in United States and Canada are alloys containing 92.5 % to 97 % aluminum, < 5.5 % magnesium, < 1.6 % manganese, < 0.15 % chromium and some trace amounts of iron, silicon and copper according to MSDS from aluminum producer Alcoa. Alloys used include 3004, 3105, or other 3xxx / 5xxx series aluminum.
An empty aluminum can weighs approximately half an ounce (14.2 grams). There are 34 empty 12 ounce aluminum cans to a pound or 70 to a kilogram.
In many parts of the world a deposit can be recovered by turning in empty plastic, glass, and aluminum containers. Scrap metal dealers often purchase aluminum cans in bulk, even when deposits are not offered. Aluminum is one of the most cost - effective materials to recycle. When recycled without other metals being mixed in, the can -- lid combination is perfect for producing new stock for the main part of the can -- the loss of magnesium during melting is made up for by the high magnesium content of the lid. Also, reducing ores such as bauxite into aluminum requires large amounts of electricity, making recycling cheaper than producing new metal.
Aluminum cans are coated internally to protect the aluminum from oxidizing. Despite this coating, trace amounts of aluminum can be degraded into the liquid, the amount depending on factors such as storage temperature and liquid composition. Chemical compounds used in the internal coating of the can include types of epoxy resin.
In order to achieve primary aluminum for manufacturing, bauxite is converted to alumina through the Bayer process. After this process, aluminum can be extracted from alumina. Subsequently, it goes through a process called aluminum smelting and ingot casting. Simply, these two stages require alumina to undergo an extremely hot temperature and high - energy bath. Following this process is hot rolling and cold rolling. This is ultimately done to cast the aluminum can into shape for further processing. Finally, the process of "ironing '' is performed which forms the shape of the can.
Cans are filled before the top is crimped on. The filling and sealing operations need to be extremely fast and precise. The filling head centers the can using gas pressure, purges the air, and lets the beverage flow down the sides of the can. The lid is placed on the can, and then crimped in two operations. A seaming head engages the lid from above while a seaming roller to the side curls the edge of the lid around the edge of the can body. The head and roller spin the can in a complete circle to seal all the way around. Then a pressure roller with a different profile drives the two edges together under pressure to make a gas - tight seal. Filled cans usually have pressurized gas inside, which makes them stiff enough for easy handling.
Modern cans are generally produced through a mechanical cold forming process that starts with punching a flat blank from very stiff cold - rolled sheet. This sheet is typically alloy 3104 - H19 or 3004 - H19, which is aluminum with about 1 % manganese and 1 % magnesium to give it strength and formability. The flat blank is first formed into a cup about three inches in diameter. This cup is then pushed through a different forming process called "ironing '' which forms the can. The bottom of the can is also shaped at this time. The malleable metal deforms into the shape of an open - top can. With the sophisticated technology of the dies and the forming machines, the side of the can is significantly thinner than either the top and bottom areas, where stiffness is required.
Plain lids (known as shells) are stamped from a coil of aluminum, typically alloy 5182 - H48, and transferred to another press that converts them to easy - open ends. This press is known as a conversion press which forms an integral rivet button in the lid and scores the opening, while concurrently forming the tabs in another die from a separate strip of aluminum.
Early metal beverage cans had no tabs; they were opened by a can - piercer or churchkey, a device resembling a bottle opener with a sharp point. The can was opened by punching two triangular holes in the lid -- a large one for drinking, and a second (smaller) one to admit air.
As early as 1922, inventors were applying for patents on cans with tab tops, but the technology of the time made these inventions impractical. Later advancements saw the ends of the can made out of aluminum instead of steel.
Cans are usually in sealed paperboard cartons, corrugated fiberboard boxes, or trays covered with plastic film. The entire distribution system and packaging need to be controlled to ensure freshness.
Mikola Kondakow of Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, invented the pull tab version for bottles in 1956 (Canadian patent 476789). Then, in 1962, Ermal Cleon Fraze (1913 -- 1989) of Dayton, Ohio, United States, invented the similar integral rivet and pull - tab version (also known as ring pull in British English), which had a ring attached at the rivet for pulling, and which would come off completely to be discarded. He received US Patent No. 3,349,949 for his pull - top can design in 1963 and licensed his invention to Alcoa and Pittsburgh Brewing Company, the latter of which first introduced the design on Iron City Beer cans. The first soft drinks to be sold in all - aluminum cans were R.C. Cola and Diet - Rite Cola, both made by the Royal Crown Cola company, in 1964.
The early pull - tabs detached easily. In 1976 the Journal of the American Medical Association noted cases of children ingesting pull - tabs that had broken off and dropped into the can.
Full - top pull - tabs were also used in some oil cans and are currently used in some soup, pet food, tennis ball, nuts and other cans.
In 1975, Daniel F. Cudzik, an engineer with Reynolds Metals, filed a design patent application for a "End closure for a container. '' This later became known as a "Sta - Tab. '' When the Sta - Tab launched in 1975, on Falls City beer and, quickly, other beverages, there was an initial period of consumer testing and education. Cudzik later received patents for this "Easy Open Wall '' (US 3967752, issued 1976 - 07 - 06 US 3967753, issued 1976 - 07 - 06). The validity of these patents was upheld in subsequent litigation.
The similarly designed "Easy - open ecology end '' was invented by Ermal Fraze and Omar Brown. Its patent application was also filed in 1975. This design, like Cudzik 's, uses a separate tab attached to the upper surface as a lever to depress a scored part of the lid, which folds underneath the top of the can and out of the way of the resulting opening, thus reducing injuries and roadside litter caused by removable tabs.
Such "retained ring - pull '' cans supplanted pull - off tabs in the United Kingdom in 1989 for soft drinks and 1990 for alcoholic beverages.
One of the more recent modifications to can design was the introduction of the "wide mouth '' can in the late 1990s. The American Can Company, now a part of Rexam, and Coors Brewing Company have owned wide mouth design patent (number D385, 192) since 1997. Other companies have similar designs for the wide mouth. Ball Corporation 's from 2008 has a vent tube to allow direct airflow into the can reducing the amount of gulps during the pour.
The SuperEnd from Crown Holdings launched in 2000 was designed to use 10 % less metal in production than standard beverage ends.
One variation was the press button can, which featured two pre-cut buttons -- one small and one large -- in the top of the can sealed with a plastic membrane. These buttons were held closed by the outward pressure of the carbonated beverage. The consumer would open the can by depressing both buttons, which would result in two holes. The small hole would act as a vent to relieve internal pressure so the larger button could then be pressed down to create the hole used for drinking the beverage. Consumers could also easily cut themselves on the edges of the holes or get their fingers stuck.
Press button cans were used by Pepsi in Canada from the 1970s to 1980s and Coors in the 1970s. They have since been replaced with pull tabs. Used in Australia, locally known as "pop - tops '', for soft drinks during the early 1980s.
A recent innovation to the beverage can is the full aperture end, where the entire lid is removed turning the aluminum can into a cup. Crown Holdings first designed the "360 End '' for use by SABMiller at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. It has been used by Anheuser - Busch InBev in China and Brazil and most recently by Sly Fox Brewing Company in the United States.
The latest innovation to the beverage can is the re-sealable lid. A version patented by Cogito Can in France has been used by Groupe Casino, the French grocery chain for its private label energy drink.
Beer can collecting was a minor fad in the late 1970s and 1990s. However, the hobby waned rapidly in popularity. The Beer Can Collectors of America (BCCA), founded in 1970, was an organization supporting the hobby, but has now renamed itself Brewery Collectibles Club of America to be more modern.
As of late 2009, membership in the Brewery Collectibles Club of America was 3,570, down from a peak of 11,954 in 1978. Just 19 of the members were under the age of 30, and the members ' average age had increased to 59.
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who was the ideal intended audience for romanticism | Romanticism - wikipedia
Romanticism (also the Romantic era or the Romantic period) was an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific rationalization of nature -- all components of modernity. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education, and the natural sciences. It had a significant and complex effect on politics, with romantic thinkers influencing liberalism, radicalism, conservatism and nationalism.
The movement emphasized intense emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror, and awe -- especially that experienced in confronting the new aesthetic categories of the sublimity and beauty of nature. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, but also spontaneity as a desirable characteristic (as in the musical impromptu). In contrast to the Rationalism and Classicism of the Enlightenment, Romanticism revived medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived as authentically medieval in an attempt to escape population growth, early urban sprawl, and industrialism.
Although the movement was rooted in the German Sturm und Drang movement, which preferred intuition and emotion to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, the events and ideologies of the French Revolution were also proximate factors. Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of "heroic '' individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism. The decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism.
Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the starting point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that "the artist 's feeling is his law ''. To William Wordsworth, poetry should begin as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, '' which the poet then "recollect (s) in tranquility, '' evoking a new but corresponding emotion the poet can then mould into art. To express these feelings, it was considered that the content of the art had to come from the imagination of the artist, with as little interference as possible from "artificial '' rules that dictated what a work should consist of. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were natural laws that the imagination -- at least of a good creative artist -- would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creator 's own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own original work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism, and to be derivative was the worst sin. This idea is often called "romantic originality. ''
Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief and interest in the importance of nature. However, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. In contrast to the usually very social art of the Enlightenment, Romantics were distrustful of the human world, and tended to believe that a close connection with nature was mentally and morally healthy. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the personal voice of the artist. So, in literature, "much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves ''.
According to Isaiah Berlin, Romanticism embodied "a new and restless spirit, seeking violently to burst through old and cramping forms, a nervous preoccupation with perpetually changing inner states of consciousness, a longing for the unbounded and the indefinable, for perpetual movement and change, an effort to return to the forgotten sources of life, a passionate effort at self - assertion both individual and collective, a search after means of expressing an unappeasable yearning for unattainable goals. ''
The group of words with the root "Roman '' in the various European languages, such as "romance '' and "Romanesque '', has a complicated history, but by the middle of the 18th century "romantic '' in English and romantique in French were both in common use as adjectives of praise for natural phenomena such as views and sunsets, in a sense close to modern English usage but without the sexual connotation. The application of the term to literature first became common in Germany, where the circle around the Schlegel brothers, critics August and Friedrich, began to speak of romantische Poesie ("romantic poetry '') in the 1790s, contrasting it with "classic '' but in terms of spirit rather than merely dating. Friedrich Schlegel wrote in his Dialogue on Poetry (1800), "I seek and find the romantic among the older moderns, in Shakespeare, in Cervantes, in Italian poetry, in that age of chivalry, love and fable, from which the phenomenon and the word itself are derived. ''
In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the fairly new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. The use of the word did not become general very quickly, and was probably spread more widely in France by its persistent use by Madame de Staël in her De l'Allemagne (1813), recounting her travels in Germany. In England Wordsworth wrote in a preface to his poems of 1815 of the "romantic harp '' and "classic lyre '', but in 1820 Byron could still write, perhaps slightly disingenuously, "I perceive that in Germany, as well as in Italy, there is a great struggle about what they call ' Classical ' and ' Romantic ', terms which were not subjects of classification in England, at least when I left it four or five years ago ''. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, and in 1824 the Académie française took the wholly ineffective step of issuing a decree condemning it in literature.
The period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place "roughly between 1770 and 1848 '', and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M.H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, perhaps a little later than some other critics. Others have proposed 1780 -- 1830. In other fields and other countries the period denominated as Romantic can be considerably different; musical Romanticism, for example, is generally regarded as only having ceased as a major artistic force as late as 1910, but in an extreme extension the Four Last Songs of Richard Strauss are described stylistically as "Late Romantic '' and were composed in 1946 -- 48. However, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier.
The early period of the Romantic Era was a time of war, with the French Revolution (1789 -- 1799) followed by the Napoleonic Wars until 1815. These wars, along with the political and social turmoil that went along with them, served as the background for Romanticism. The key generation of French Romantics born between 1795 -- 1805 had, in the words of one of their number, Alfred de Vigny, been "conceived between battles, attended school to the rolling of drums ''. According to Jacques Barzun, there were three generations of Romantic artists. The first emerged in the 1790s and 1800s, the second in the 1820s, and the third later in the century.
The more precise characterization and specific definition of Romanticism has been the subject of debate in the fields of intellectual history and literary history throughout the 20th century, without any great measure of consensus emerging. That it was part of the Counter-Enlightenment, a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment, is generally accepted in current scholarship. Its relationship to the French Revolution, which began in 1789 in the very early stages of the period, is clearly important, but highly variable depending on geography and individual reactions. Most Romantics can be said to be broadly progressive in their views, but a considerable number always had, or developed, a wide range of conservative views, and nationalism was in many countries strongly associated with Romanticism, as discussed in detail below.
In philosophy and the history of ideas, Romanticism was seen by Isaiah Berlin as disrupting for over a century the classic Western traditions of rationality and the idea of moral absolutes and agreed values, leading "to something like the melting away of the very notion of objective truth '', and hence not only to nationalism, but also fascism and totalitarianism, with a gradual recovery coming only after World War II. For the Romantics, Berlin says,
in the realm of ethics, politics, aesthetics it was the authenticity and sincerity of the pursuit of inner goals that mattered; this applied equally to individuals and groups -- states, nations, movements. This is most evident in the aesthetics of romanticism, where the notion of eternal models, a Platonic vision of ideal beauty, which the artist seeks to convey, however imperfectly, on canvas or in sound, is replaced by a passionate belief in spiritual freedom, individual creativity. The painter, the poet, the composer do not hold up a mirror to nature, however ideal, but invent; they do not imitate (the doctrine of mimesis), but create not merely the means but the goals that they pursue; these goals represent the self - expression of the artist 's own unique, inner vision, to set aside which in response to the demands of some "external '' voice -- church, state, public opinion, family friends, arbiters of taste -- is an act of betrayal of what alone justifies their existence for those who are in any sense creative.
Arthur Lovejoy attempted to demonstrate the difficulty of defining Romanticism in his seminal article "On The Discrimination of Romanticisms '' in his Essays in the History of Ideas (1948); some scholars see Romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some like Robert Hughes see in it the inaugural moment of modernity, and some like Chateaubriand, Novalis and Samuel Taylor Coleridge see it as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to Enlightenment rationalism -- a "Counter-Enlightenment '' -- to be associated most closely with German Romanticism. An earlier definition comes from Charles Baudelaire: "Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice of subject nor exact truth, but in the way of feeling. ''
The end of the Romantic era is marked in some areas by a new style of Realism, which affected literature, especially the novel and drama, painting, and even music, through Verismo opera. This movement was led by France, with Balzac and Flaubert in literature and Courbet in painting; Stendhal and Goya were important precursors of Realism in their respective media. However, Romantic styles, now often representing the established and safe style against which Realists rebelled, continued to flourish in many fields for the rest of the century and beyond. In music such works from after about 1850 are referred to by some writers as "Late Romantic '' and by others as "Neoromantic '' or "Postromantic '', but other fields do not usually use these terms; in English literature and painting the convenient term "Victorian '' avoids having to characterise the period further.
In northern Europe, the Early Romantic visionary optimism and belief that the world was in the process of great change and improvement had largely vanished, and some art became more conventionally political and polemical as its creators engaged polemically with the world as it was. Elsewhere, including in very different ways the United States and Russia, feelings that great change was underway or just about to come were still possible. Displays of intense emotion in art remained prominent, as did the exotic and historical settings pioneered by the Romantics, but experimentation with form and technique was generally reduced, often replaced with meticulous technique, as in the poems of Tennyson or many paintings. If not realist, late 19th - century art was often extremely detailed, and pride was taken in adding authentic details in a way that earlier Romantics did not trouble with. Many Romantic ideas about the nature and purpose of art, above all the pre-eminent importance of originality, remained important for later generations, and often underlie modern views, despite opposition from theorists.
In literature, Romanticism found recurrent themes in the evocation or criticism of the past, the cult of "sensibility '' with its emphasis on women and children, the isolation of the artist or narrator, and respect for nature. Furthermore, several romantic authors, such as Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne, based their writings on the supernatural / occult and human psychology. Romanticism tended to regard satire as something unworthy of serious attention, a prejudice still influential today.
Some authors cite 16th century poet Isabella di Morra as an early precursor of Romantic literature. Her lyrics covering themes of isolation and loneliness which reflected the tragic events of her life are considered "an impressive prefigurement of Romanticism '', differing from the Petrarchist fashion of the time based on the philosophy of love.
The precursors of Romanticism in English poetry go back to the middle of the 18th century, including figures such as Joseph Warton (headmaster at Winchester College) and his brother Thomas Warton, Professor of Poetry at Oxford University. Joseph maintained that invention and imagination were the chief qualities of a poet. Thomas Chatterton is generally considered the first Romantic poet in English. The Scottish poet James Macpherson influenced the early development of Romanticism with the international success of his Ossian cycle of poems published in 1762, inspiring both Goethe and the young Walter Scott. Both Chatterton and Macpherson 's work involved elements of fraud, as what they claimed was earlier literature that they had discovered or compiled was, in fact, entirely their own work. The Gothic novel, beginning with Horace Walpole 's The Castle of Otranto (1764), was an important precursor of one strain of Romanticism, with a delight in horror and threat, and exotic picturesque settings, matched in Walpole 's case by his role in the early revival of Gothic architecture. Tristram Shandy, a novel by Laurence Sterne (1759 -- 67) introduced a whimsical version of the anti-rational sentimental novel to the English literary public.
An early German influence came from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, whose 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther had young men throughout Europe emulating its protagonist, a young artist with a very sensitive and passionate temperament. At that time Germany was a multitude of small separate states, and Goethe 's works would have a seminal influence in developing a unifying sense of nationalism. Another philosophic influence came from the German idealism of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling, making Jena (where Fichte lived, as well as Schelling, Hegel, Schiller and the brothers Schlegel) a center for early German Romanticism (see Jena Romanticism). Important writers were Ludwig Tieck, Novalis (Heinrich von Ofterdingen, 1799), Heinrich von Kleist and Friedrich Hölderlin. Heidelberg later became a center of German Romanticism, where writers and poets such as Clemens Brentano, Achim von Arnim, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff met regularly in literary circles.
Important motifs in German Romanticism are travelling, nature, for example the German Forest, and Germanic myths. The later German Romanticism of, for example E.T.A. Hoffmann 's Der Sandmann (The Sandman), 1817, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff 's Das Marmorbild (The Marble Statue), 1819, was darker in its motifs and has gothic elements. The significance to Romanticism of childhood innocence, the importance of imagination, and racial theories all combined to give an unprecedented importance to folk literature, non-classical mythology and children 's literature, above all in Germany. Brentano and von Arnim were significant literary figures who together published Des Knaben Wunderhorn ("The Boy 's Magic Horn '' or cornucopia), a collection of versified folk tales, in 1806 -- 08. The first collection of Grimms ' Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm was published in 1812. Unlike the much later work of Hans Christian Andersen, who was publishing his invented tales in Danish from 1835, these German works were at least mainly based on collected folk tales, and the Grimms remained true to the style of the telling in their early editions, though later rewriting some parts. One of the brothers, Jacob, published in 1835 Deutsche Mythologie, a long academic work on Germanic mythology. Another strain is exemplified by Schiller 's highly emotional language and the depiction of physical violence in his play The Robbers of 1781.
In English literature, the key figures of the Romantic movement are considered to be the group of poets including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and the much older William Blake, followed later by the isolated figure of John Clare; also such novelists as Walter Scott from Scotland and Mary Shelley, and the essayists William Hazlitt and Charles Lamb. The publication in 1798 of Lyrical Ballads, with many of the finest poems by Wordsworth and Coleridge, is often held to mark the start of the movement. The majority of the poems were by Wordsworth, and many dealt with the lives of the poor in his native Lake District, or his feelings about nature -- which he more fully developed in his long poem The Prelude, never published in his lifetime. The longest poem in the volume was Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which showed the Gothic side of English Romanticism, and the exotic settings that many works featured. In the period when they were writing, the Lake Poets were widely regarded as a marginal group of radicals, though they were supported by the critic and writer William Hazlitt and others.
In contrast Lord Byron and Walter Scott achieved enormous fame and influence throughout Europe with works exploiting the violence and drama of their exotic and historical settings; Goethe called Byron "undoubtedly the greatest genius of our century ''. Scott achieved immediate success with his long narrative poem The Lay of the Last Minstrel in 1805, followed by the full epic poem Marmion in 1808. Both were set in the distant Scottish past, already evoked in Ossian; Romanticism and Scotland were to have a long and fruitful partnership. Byron had equal success with the first part of Childe Harold 's Pilgrimage in 1812, followed by four "Turkish tales '', all in the form of long poems, starting with The Giaour in 1813, drawing from his Grand Tour, which had reached Ottoman Europe, and orientalizing the themes of the Gothic novel in verse. These featured different variations of the "Byronic hero '', and his own life contributed a further version. Scott meanwhile was effectively inventing the historical novel, beginning in 1814 with Waverley, set in the 1745 Jacobite Rising, which was an enormous and highly profitable success, followed by over 20 further Waverley Novels over the next 17 years, with settings going back to the Crusades that he had researched to a degree that was new in literature.
In contrast to Germany, Romanticism in English literature had little connection with nationalism, and the Romantics were often regarded with suspicion for the sympathy many felt for the ideals of the French Revolution, whose collapse and replacement with the dictatorship of Napoleon was, as elsewhere in Europe, a shock to the movement. Though his novels celebrated Scottish identity and history, Scott was politically a firm Unionist. Several spent much time abroad, and a famous stay on Lake Geneva with Byron and Shelley in 1816 produced the hugely influential novel Frankenstein by Shelley 's wife - to - be Mary Shelley and the novella The Vampyre by Byron 's doctor John William Polidori. The lyrics of Robert Burns in Scotland and Thomas Moore, from Ireland reflected in different ways their countries and the Romantic interest in folk literature, but neither had a fully Romantic approach to life or their work.
Though they have modern critical champions such as György Lukács, Scott 's novels are today more likely to be experienced in the form of the many operas that composers continued to base on them over the following decades, such as Donizetti 's Lucia di Lammermoor and Vincenzo Bellini 's I puritani (both 1835). Byron is now most highly regarded for his short lyrics and his generally unromantic prose writings, especially his letters, and his unfinished satire Don Juan. Unlike many Romantics, Byron 's widely publicised personal life appeared to match his work, and his death at 36 in 1824 from disease when helping the Greek War of Independence appeared from a distance to be a suitably Romantic end, entrenching his legend. Keats in 1821 and Shelley in 1822 both died in Italy, Blake (at almost 70) in 1827, and Coleridge largely ceased to write in the 1820s. Wordsworth was by 1820 respectable and highly regarded, holding a government sinecure, but wrote relatively little. In the discussion of English literature, the Romantic period is often regarded as finishing around the 1820s, or sometimes even earlier, although many authors of the succeeding decades were no less committed to Romantic values.
The most significant novelist in English during the peak Romantic period, other than Walter Scott, was Jane Austen, whose essentially conservative world - view had little in common with her Romantic contemporaries, retaining a strong belief in decorum and social rules, though critics have detected tremors under the surface of some works, especially Mansfield Park (1814) and Persuasion (1817). But around the mid-century the undoubtedly Romantic novels of the Yorkshire - based Brontë family appeared, in particular Charlotte 's Jane Eyre and Emily 's Wuthering Heights, which were both published in 1847.
Byron, Keats and Shelley all wrote for the stage, but with little success in England, with Shelley 's The Cenci perhaps the best work produced, though that was not played in a public theatre in England until a century after his death. Byron 's plays, along with dramatizations of his poems and Scott 's novels, were much more popular on the Continent, and especially in France, and through these versions several were turned into operas, many still performed today. If contemporary poets had little success on the stage, the period was a legendary one for performances of Shakespeare, and went some way to restoring his original texts and removing the Augustan "improvements '' to them. The greatest actor of the period, Edmund Kean, restored the tragic ending to King Lear; Coleridge said that, "Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning. ''
Although after union with England in 1707 Scotland increasingly adopted English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. Allan Ramsay (1686 -- 1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form. James Macpherson (1736 -- 96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Fingal, written in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature, through its influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. It was also popularised in France by figures that included Napoleon. Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.
Robert Burns (1759 -- 96) and Walter Scott (1771 -- 1832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major influence on the Romantic movement. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne '' is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae '' served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel. It launched a highly successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob Roy (1817), The Heart of Midlothian (1818) and Ivanhoe (1820). Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century. Other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg (1770 -- 1835), Allan Cunningham (1784 -- 1842) and John Galt (1779 -- 1839). One of the most significant figures of the Romantic movement, Lord Byron, was brought up in Scotland until he inherited his family 's English peerage.
Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era, The Edinburgh Review (founded in 1802) and Blackwood 's Magazine (founded in 1817), which had a major impact on the development of British literature and drama in the era of Romanticism. Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol suggest that publications like the novels of Scott and these magazines were part of a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth century, caused Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain and become central to a wider formation of a "British Isles nationalism. ''
Scottish "national drama '' emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. Theatres had been discouraged by the Church of Scotland and fears of Jacobite assemblies. In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost. Towards the end of the century there were "closet dramas '', primarily designed to be read, rather than performed, including work by Scott, Hogg, Galt and Joanna Baillie (1762 -- 1851), often influenced by the ballad tradition and Gothic Romanticism.
Romanticism was relatively late in developing in French literature, more so than in the visual arts. The 18th - century precursor to Romanticism, the cult of sensibility, had become associated with the Ancien regime, and the French Revolution had been more of an inspiration to foreign writers than those experiencing it at first hand. The first major figure was François - René de Chateaubriand, a minor aristocrat who had remained a royalist throughout the Revolution, and returned to France from exile in England and America under Napoleon, with whose regime he had an uneasy relationship. His writings, all in prose, included some fiction, such as his influential novella of exile René (1802), which anticipated Byron in its alienated hero, but mostly contemporary history and politics, his travels, a defence of religion and the medieval spirit (Génie du christianisme 1802), and finally in the 1830s and 1840s his enormous autobiography Mémoires d'Outre - Tombe ("Memoirs from beyond the grave '').
After the Bourbon Restoration, French Romanticism developed in the lively world of Parisian theatre, with productions of Shakespeare, Schiller (in France a key Romantic author), and adaptations of Scott and Byron alongside French authors, several of whom began to write in the late 1820s. Cliques of pro - and anti-Romantics developed, and productions were often accompanied by raucous vocalizing by the two sides, including the shouted assertion by one theatregoer in 1822 that "Shakespeare, c'est l'aide - de-camp de Wellington '' ("Shakespeare is Wellington 's aide - de-camp ''). Alexandre Dumas began as a dramatist, with a series of successes beginning with Henri III et sa cour (1829) before turning to novels that were mostly historical adventures somewhat in the manner of Scott, most famously The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo, both of 1844. Victor Hugo published as a poet in the 1820s before achieving success on the stage with Hernani -- a historical drama in a quasi-Shakespearian style that had famously riotous performances, themselves as much a spectacle as the play, on its first run in 1830. Like Dumas, he is best known for his novels, and was already writing The Hunchback of Notre - Dame (1831), one of the best known works of his long career. The preface to his unperformed play "Cromwell '' gives an important manifesto of French Romanticism, stating that "there are no rules, or models ''. The career of Prosper Mérimée followed a similar pattern; he is now best known as the originator of the story of Carmen, with his novella of 1845. Alfred de Vigny remains best known as a dramatist, with his play on the life of the English poet Chatterton (1835) perhaps his best work.
French Romantic poets of the 1830s to 1850s include Alfred de Musset, Gérard de Nerval, Alphonse de Lamartine and the flamboyant Théophile Gautier, whose prolific output in various forms continued until his death in 1872. George Sand took over from Germaine de Staël as the leading female writer, and was a central figure of the Parisian literary scene, famous both for her novels and criticism and her affairs with Chopin and several others.
Stendhal is today probably the most highly regarded French novelist of the period, but he stands in a complex relation with Romanticism, and is notable for his penetrating psychological insight into his characters and his realism, qualities rarely prominent in Romantic fiction. As a survivor of the French retreat from Moscow in 1812, fantasies of heroism and adventure had little appeal for him, and like Goya he is often seen as a forerunner of Realism. His most important works are Le Rouge et le Noir (The Red and the Black, 1830) and La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma, 1839).
Romanticism in Poland is often taken to begin with the publication of Adam Mickiewicz 's first poems in 1822, and end with the crushing of the January Uprising of 1863 against the Russians. It was strongly marked by interest in Polish history. Polish Romanticism revived the old "Sarmatism '' traditions of the szlachta or Polish nobility. Old traditions and customs were revived and portrayed in a positive light in the Polish messianic movement and in works of great Polish poets such as Adam Mickiewicz (Pan Tadeusz), Juliusz Słowacki and Zygmunt Krasiński, as well as prose writers such as Henryk Sienkiewicz. This close connection between Polish Romanticism and Polish history became one of the defining qualities of the literature of Polish Romanticism period, differentiating it from that of other countries. They had not suffered the loss of national statehood as was the case with Poland. Influenced by the general spirit and main ideas of European Romanticism, the literature of Polish Romanticism is unique, as many scholars have pointed out, in having developed largely outside of Poland and in its emphatic focus upon the issue of Polish nationalism. The Polish intelligentsia, along with leading members of its government, left Poland in the early 1830s, during what is referred to as the "Great Emigration, '' resettling in France, Germany, Great Britain, Turkey, and the United States.
Their art featured emotionalism and irrationality, fantasy and imagination, personality cults, folklore and country life, and the propagation of ideals of freedom. In the second period, many of the Polish Romantics worked abroad, often banished from Poland by the occupying powers due to their politically subversive ideas. Their work became increasingly dominated by the ideals of political struggle for freedom and their country 's sovereignty. Elements of mysticism became more prominent. There developed the idea of the poeta wieszcz (the prophet). The wieszcz (bard) functioned as spiritual leader to the nation fighting for its independence. The most notable poet so recognized was Adam Mickiewicz.
Zygmunt Krasinski also wrote to inspire political and religious hope in his countrymen. Unlike his predecessors, who called for victory at whatever price in Poland 's struggle against Russia, Krasinski emphasized Poland 's spiritual role in its fight for independence, advocating an intellectual rather than a military superiority. His works best exemplify the Messianic movement in Poland: in two early dramas, Nie - boska komedyia (1835; The Undivine Comedy) and Irydion (1836; Iridion), as well as in the later Psalmy przyszłości (1845), he asserted that Poland was the Christ of Europe: specifically chosen by God to carry the world 's burdens, to suffer, and eventually be resurrected.
Early Russian Romanticism is associated with the writers Konstantin Batyushkov (A Vision on the Shores of the Lethe, 1809), Vasily Zhukovsky (The Bard, 1811; Svetlana, 1813) and Nikolay Karamzin (Poor Liza, 1792; Julia, 1796; Martha the Mayoress, 1802; The Sensitive and the Cold, 1803). However the principal exponent of Romanticism in Russia is Alexander Pushkin (The Prisoner of the Caucasus, 1820 -- 1821; The Robber Brothers, 1822; Ruslan and Ludmila, 1820; Eugene Onegin, 1825 -- 1832). Pushkin 's work influenced many writers in the 19th century and led to his eventual recognition as Russia 's greatest poet. Other Russian Romantic poets include Mikhail Lermontov (A Hero of Our Time, 1839), Fyodor Tyutchev (Silentium!, 1830), Yevgeny Baratynsky (Eda, 1826), Anton Delvig, and Wilhelm Küchelbecker.
Influenced heavily by Lord Byron, Lermontov sought to explore the Romantic emphasis on metaphysical discontent with society and self, while Tyutchev 's poems often described scenes of nature or passions of love. Tyutchev commonly operated with such categories as night and day, north and south, dream and reality, cosmos and chaos, and the still world of winter and spring teeming with life. Baratynsky 's style was fairly classical in nature, dwelling on the models of the previous century.
Romanticism in Spanish literature developed a well - known literature with a huge variety of poets and playwrights. The most important Spanish poet during this movement was José de Espronceda. After him there were other poets like Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Mariano José de Larra and the dramatist José Zorrilla, author of Don Juan Tenorio. Before them may be mentioned the pre-romantics José Cadalso and Manuel José Quintana. The plays of Antonio García Gutiérrez were adapted to produce Giuseppe Verdi 's operas Il trovatore and Simon Boccanegra. Spanish Romanticism also influenced regional literatures. For example, in Catalonia and in Galicia there was a national boom of writers in the local languages, like the Catalan Jacint Verdaguer and the Galician Rosalía de Castro, the main figures of the national revivalist movements Renaixença and Rexurdimento, respectively.
Romanticism began in Portugal with the publication of the poem Camões (1825), by Almeida Garrett, who was raised by his uncle D. Alexandre, bishop of Angra, in the precepts of Arcadism and Neoclasic literature, which can be observed in Almeida Garrett 's early work. The author himself confesses (in Camões ' preface) that he voluntarily refused to follow the principles of epic poetry enunciated by Aristotle in his Poetics, as he did the same to Horace 's Ars Poetica. Almeida Garrett had participated in 1820 Liberal Revolution, which caused him to exile himself in England (1823), after the Vila - Francada. While living in Great Britain, he contacted with the Romantic movement and read authors such as Shakespeare, Walter Scott, Ossian and Lord Byron, at the same time visiting feudal castles and ruines of Gothic churches and abbeys, which would be reflected in his writings. In 1838, he presented Um Auto de Gil Vicente ("A Play by Gil Vicente ''), in an attempt to create a new national theatre, free of Greco - Roman and foreign influence. But his masterpiece would be Frei Luís de Sousa (1843), named by himself as a "Romantic drama '' and it was acclamaid as an excepcional work, dealing with themes as national independence, faith, justice and love. He also interested in Portuguese folkloric verse, which resulted in the publication of Romanceiro ("Traditional Portuguese Ballads '') (1843), that recollect a great number of ancient popular ballads, known as "romances '' or "rimances '', in redondilha maior verse form, that contained stories of chivalry, life of saints, crusades, courtly love, etc. He wrote the novels Viagens na Minha Terra, O Arco de Sant'Ana and Helena.
Alexandre Herculano is, alongside Almeida Garrett, one of the founders of Portuguese Romanticism. All of his poetry and prose are (unlike Almeida Garrett 's) entirely Romantic, rejecting Greco - Roman mythology and history. He sought inspiration in medieval Portuguese troubadours and chronicle - writers and in the Bible. His work is vast and covers many different genres, such as historical essays, poetry, novels, opuscules and theatre, where he brings back a whole world of Portuguese legends, tradition and history, especially in Eurico, o Presbítero ("Eurico, the Priest '') and Lendas e Narrativas ("Legends and Narratives ''). His work was largely influenced by Walter Scott, the Old Testament Psalms and French Romantic poets.
António Feliciano de Castilho made the for the Ultra-Romanticism, publishing the poems A Noite no Castelo ("Night in the Castle '') and Os Ciúmes do Bardo ("The Jealousy of the Bard ''), both in 1836, and the drama Camões. He became an inquestionable master for successive Ultra-Romantic generations, whose influence would not be challenged until the famous Coimbra Question. He also caused polemic by translating Goethe 's Faust without knowing German, but using French versions of the play.
Other notable figures of Portuguese Romanticism are the famous novelists Camilo Castelo Branco and Júlio Dinis, and Soares de Passos, Bulhão Pato and Pinheiro Chagas.
This late arrival of a truly personal Romantic style would be revived on to the beginning of the 20th century, notably through the works of poets linked to the Portuguese Renaissance (Renascença Portuguesa), such as Teixeira de Pascoais, Jaime Cortesão, Mário Beirão, among others, who can be considered as Neo-Romantics. Júlio Dantas also featured Neo-Romantic characteristics. However, an early Portuguese expression of Romanticism is found already in Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, especially in his sonnets dated at the end of the 18th century.
Romanticism in Italian literature was a minor movement, yet still important; it began officially in 1816 when Mme de Staël wrote an article in the journal Biblioteca italiana called "Sulla maniera e l'utilità delle traduzioni '', inviting Italian people to reject Neoclassicism and to study new authors from other countries. Before that date, Ugo Foscolo had already published poems anticipating Romantic themes. The most important Romantic writers were Ludovico di Breme, Pietro Borsieri and Giovanni Berchet. Better known authors such as Alessandro Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi were influenced by Enlightenment as well as by Romanticism and Classicism.
Spanish - speaking South American Romanticism was influenced heavily by Esteban Echeverría, who wrote in the 1830 and 1840s. His writings were influenced by his hatred for the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, and filled with themes of blood and terror, using the metaphor of a slaughterhouse to portray the violence of Rosas ' dictatorship.
Brazilian Romanticism is characterized and divided in three different periods. The first one is basically focused on the creation of a sense of national identity, using the ideal of the heroic Indian. Some examples include José de Alencar, who wrote Iracema and O Guarani, and Gonçalves Dias, renowned by the poem "Canção do Exílio '' (Song of the Exile). The second period, sometimes called Ultra-Romanticism, is marked by a profound influence of European themes and traditions, involving the melancholy, sadness and despair related to unobtainable love. Goethe and Lord Byron are commonly quoted in these works. The third cycle is marked by social poetry, especially the abolitionist movement, and it includes Álvares de Azevedo and Castro Alves.
In the United States, at least by 1818 with William Cullen Bryant 's "To a Waterfowl '', Romantic poetry was being published. American Romantic Gothic literature made an early appearance with Washington Irving 's The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) and Rip Van Winkle (1819), followed from 1823 onwards by the Leatherstocking Tales of James Fenimore Cooper, with their emphasis on heroic simplicity and their fervent landscape descriptions of an already - exotic mythicized frontier peopled by "noble savages '', similar to the philosophical theory of Rousseau, exemplified by Uncas, from The Last of the Mohicans. There are picturesque "local color '' elements in Washington Irving 's essays and especially his travel books. Edgar Allan Poe 's tales of the macabre and his balladic poetry were more influential in France than at home, but the romantic American novel developed fully with the atmosphere and melodrama of Nathaniel Hawthorne 's The Scarlet Letter (1850). Later Transcendentalist writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson still show elements of its influence and imagination, as does the romantic realism of Walt Whitman. The poetry of Emily Dickinson -- nearly unread in her own time -- and Herman Melville 's novel Moby - Dick can be taken as epitomes of American Romantic literature. By the 1880s, however, psychological and social realism were competing with Romanticism in the novel.
The European Romantic movement reached America in the early 19th century. American Romanticism was just as multifaceted and individualistic as it was in Europe. Like the Europeans, the American Romantics demonstrated a high level of moral enthusiasm, commitment to individualism and the unfolding of the self, an emphasis on intuitive perception, and the assumption that the natural world was inherently good, while human society was filled with corruption.
Romanticism became popular in American politics, philosophy and art. The movement appealed to the revolutionary spirit of America as well as to those longing to break free of the strict religious traditions of early settlement. The Romantics rejected rationalism and religious intellect. It appealed to those in opposition of Calvinism, which includes the belief that the destiny of each individual is preordained. The Romantic movement gave rise to New England Transcendentalism, which portrayed a less restrictive relationship between God and Universe. The new philosophy presented the individual with a more personal relationship with God. Transcendentalism and Romanticism appealed to Americans in a similar fashion, for both privileged feeling over reason, individual freedom of expression over the restraints of tradition and custom. It often involved a rapturous response to nature. It encouraged the rejection of harsh, rigid Calvinism, and promised a new blossoming of American culture.
American Romanticism embraced the individual and rebelled against the confinement of neoclassicism and religious tradition. The Romantic movement in America created a new literary genre that continues to influence American writers. Novels, short stories, and poems replaced the sermons and manifestos of yore. Romantic literature was personal, intense, and portrayed more emotion than ever seen in neoclassical literature. America 's preoccupation with freedom became a great source of motivation for Romantic writers as many were delighted in free expression and emotion without so much fear of ridicule and controversy. They also put more effort into the psychological development of their characters, and the main characters typically displayed extremes of sensitivity and excitement.
The works of the Romantic Era also differed from preceding works in that they spoke to a wider audience, partly reflecting the greater distribution of books as costs came down during the period.
In the visual arts, Romanticism first showed itself in landscape painting, where from as early as the 1760s British artists began to turn to wilder landscapes and storms, and Gothic architecture, even if they had to make do with Wales as a setting. Caspar David Friedrich and J.M.W. Turner were born less than a year apart in 1774 and 1775 respectively and were to take German and English landscape painting to their extremes of Romanticism, but both their artistic sensibilities were formed when forms of Romanticism was already strongly present in art. John Constable, born in 1776, stayed closer to the English landscape tradition, but in his largest "six - footers '' insisted on the heroic status of a patch of the working countryside where he had grown up -- challenging the traditional hierarchy of genres, which relegated landscape painting to a low status. Turner also painted very large landscapes, and above all, seascapes. Some of these large paintings had contemporary settings and staffage, but others had small figures that turned the work into history painting in the manner of Claude Lorrain, like Salvator Rosa a late Baroque artist whose landscapes had elements that Romantic painters repeatedly turned to. Friedrich often used single figures, or features like crosses, set alone amidst a huge landscape, "making them images of the transitoriness of human life and the premonition of death. ''
Other groups of artists expressed feelings that verged on the mystical, many largely abandoning classical drawing and proportions. These included William Blake and Samuel Palmer and the other members of the Ancients in England, and in Germany Philipp Otto Runge. Like Friedrich, none of these artists had significant influence after their deaths for the rest of the 19th century, and were 20th century rediscoveries from obscurity, though Blake was always known as a poet, and Norway 's leading painter Johan Christian Dahl was heavily influenced by Friedrich. The Rome - based Nazarene movement of German artists, active from 1810, took a very different path, concentrating on medievalizing history paintings with religious and nationalist themes.
The arrival of Romanticism in French art was delayed by the strong hold of Neoclassicism on the academies, but from the Napoleonic period it became increasingly popular, initially in the form of history paintings propagandising for the new regime, of which Girodet 's Ossian receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes, for Napoleon 's Château de Malmaison, was one of the earliest. Girodet 's old teacher David was puzzled and disappointed by his pupil 's direction, saying: "Either Girodet is mad or I no longer know anything of the art of painting ''. A new generation of the French school, developed personal Romantic styles, though still concentrating on history painting with a political message. Théodore Géricault (1791 -- 1824) had his first success with The Charging Chasseur, a heroic military figure derived from Rubens, at the Paris Salon of 1812 in the years of the Empire, but his next major completed work, The Raft of the Medusa of 1821, remains the greatest achievement of the Romantic history painting, which in its day had a powerful anti-government message.
Eugène Delacroix (1798 -- 1863) made his first Salon hits with The Barque of Dante (1822), The Massacre at Chios (1824) and Death of Sardanapalus (1827). The second was a scene from the Greek War of Independence, completed the year Byron died there, and the last was a scene from one of Byron 's plays. With Shakespeare, Byron was to provide the subject matter for many other works of Delacroix, who also spent long periods in North Africa, painting colourful scenes of mounted Arab warriors. His Liberty Leading the People (1830) remains, with the Medusa, one of the best - known works of French Romantic painting. Both reflected current events, and increasingly "history painting '', literally "story painting '', a phrase dating back to the Italian Renaissance meaning the painting of subjects with groups of figures, long considered the highest and most difficult form of art, did indeed become the painting of historical scenes, rather than those from religion or mythology.
Francisco Goya was called "the last great painter in whose art thought and observation were balanced and combined to form a faultless unity ''. But the extent to which he was a Romantic is a complex question. In Spain, there was still a struggle to introduce the values of the Enlightenment, in which Goya saw himself as a participant. The demonic and anti-rational monsters thrown up by his imagination are only superficially similar to those of the Gothic fantasies of northern Europe, and in many ways he remained wedded to the classicism and realism of his training, as well as looking forward to the Realism of the later 19th century. But he, more than any other artist of the period, exemplified the Romantic values of the expression of the artist 's feelings and his personal imaginative world. He also shared with many of the Romantic painters a more free handling of paint, emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke and impasto, which tended to be repressed in neoclassicism under a self - effacing finish.
Sculpture remained largely impervious to Romanticism, probably partly for technical reasons, as the most prestigious material of the day, marble, does not lend itself to expansive gestures. The leading sculptors in Europe, Antonio Canova and Bertel Thorvaldsen, were both based in Rome and firm Neoclassicists, not at all tempted to allow influence from medieval sculpture, which would have been one possible approach to Romantic sculpture. When it did develop, true Romantic sculpture -- with the exception of a few artists such as Rudolf Maison -- rather oddly was missing in Germany, and mainly found in France, with François Rude, best known from his group of the 1830s from the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, David d'Angers, and Auguste Préault. Préault 's plaster relief entitled Slaughter, which represented the horrors of wars with exacerbated passion, caused so much scandal at the 1834 Salon that Préault was banned from this official annual exhibition for nearly twenty years. In Italy, the most important Romantic sculptor was Lorenzo Bartolini.
Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814
Théodore Géricault, The Raft of the Medusa, 1819
Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People 1830
J.M.W. Turner, The Fighting Téméraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up, 1839
In France, historical painting on idealized medieval and Renaissance themes is known as the style Troubadour, a term with no equivalent for other countries, though the same trends occurred there. Delacroix, Ingres and Richard Parkes Bonington all worked in this style, as did lesser specialists such as Pierre - Henri Révoil (1776 -- 1842) and Fleury - François Richard (1777 -- 1852). Their pictures are often small, and feature intimate private and anecdotal moments, as well as those of high drama. The lives of great artists such as Raphael were commemorated on equal terms with those of rulers, and fictional characters were also depicted. Fleury - Richard 's Valentine of Milan weeping for the death of her husband, shown in the Paris Salon of 1802, marked the arrival of the style, which lasted until the mid-century, before being subsumed into the increasingly academic history painting of artists like Paul Delaroche.
Another trend was for very large apocalyptic history paintings, often combining extreme natural events, or divine wrath, with human disaster, attempting to outdo The Raft of the Medusa, and now often drawing comparisons with effects from Hollywood. The leading English artist in the style was John Martin, whose tiny figures were dwarfed by enormous earthquakes and storms, and worked his way through the biblical disasters, and those to come in the final days. Other works such as Delacroix 's Death of Sardanapalus included larger figures, and these often drew heavily on earlier artists, especially Poussin and Rubens, with extra emotionalism and special effects.
Elsewhere in Europe, leading artists adopted Romantic styles: in Russia there were the portraitists Orest Kiprensky and Vasily Tropinin, with Ivan Aivazovsky specializing in marine painting, and in Norway Hans Gude painted scenes of fjords. In Italy Francesco Hayez (1791 -- 1882) was the leading artist of Romanticism in mid-19th - century Milan. His long, prolific and extremely successful career saw him begin as a Neoclassical painter, pass right through the Romantic period, and emerge at the other end as a sentimental painter of young women. His Romantic period included many historical pieces of "Troubadour '' tendencies, but on a very large scale, that are heavily influenced by Gian Battista Tiepolo and other late Baroque Italian masters.
Literary Romanticism had its counterpart in the American visual arts, most especially in the exaltation of an untamed American landscape found in the paintings of the Hudson River School. Painters like Thomas Cole, Albert Bierstadt and Frederic Edwin Church and others often expressed Romantic themes in their paintings. They sometimes depicted ancient ruins of the old world, such as in Fredric Edwin Church 's piece Sunrise in Syria. These works reflected the Gothic feelings of death and decay. They also show the Romantic ideal that Nature is powerful and will eventually overcome the transient creations of men. More often, they worked to distinguish themselves from their European counterparts by depicting uniquely American scenes and landscapes. This idea of an American identity in the art world is reflected in W.C. Bryant 's poem, To Cole, the Painter, Departing for Europe, where Bryant encourages Cole to remember the powerful scenes that can only be found in America.
Some American paintings (such as Albert Bierstadt 's The Rocky Mountains, Lander 's Peak) promote the literary idea of the "noble savage '' by portraying idealized Native Americans living in harmony with the natural world. Thomas Cole 's paintings tend towards allegory, explicit in The Voyage of Life series painted in the early 1840s, showing the stages of life set amidst an awesome and immense nature.
Thomas Cole, Childhood, one of the 4 scenes in The Voyage of Life, 1842
William Blake, Albion Rose, 1794 - 5
Louis Janmot, from his series "The Poem of the Soul '', before 1854
Thomas Cole, 1842, The Voyage of Life Old Age
Musical Romanticism is predominantly a German phenomenon -- so much so that one respected French reference work defines it entirely in terms of "The role of music in the aesthetics of German romanticism ''. Another French encyclopedia holds that the German temperament generally "can be described as the deep and diverse action of romanticism on German musicians '', and that there is only one true representative of Romanticism in French music, Hector Berlioz, while in Italy, the sole great name of musical Romanticism is Giuseppe Verdi, "a sort of (Victor) Hugo of opera, gifted with a real genius for dramatic effect ''. Nevertheless, the huge popularity of German Romantic music led, "whether by imitation or by reaction '', to an often nationalistically inspired vogue amongst Polish, Hungarian, Russian, Czech, and Scandinavian musicians, successful "perhaps more because of its extra-musical traits than for the actual value of musical works by its masters ''.
Although the term "Romanticism '' when applied to music has come to imply the period roughly from 1800 until 1850, or else until around 1900, the contemporary application of "romantic '' to music did not coincide with this modern interpretation. Indeed, one of the earliest sustained applications of the term to music occurs in 1789, in the Mémoires of André Grétry. This is of particular interest because it is a French source on a subject mainly dominated by Germans, but also because it explicitly acknowledges its debt to Jean - Jacques Rousseau (himself a composer, amongst other things) and, by so doing, establishes a link to one of the major influences on the Romantic movement generally. In 1810 E.T.A. Hoffmann named Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven as "the three masters of instrumental compositions '' who "breathe one and the same romantic spirit ''. He justified his view on the basis of these composers ' depth of evocative expression and their marked individuality. In Haydn 's music, according to Hoffmann, "a child - like, serene disposition prevails '', while Mozart (in the late E-flat major Symphony, for example) "leads us into the depths of the spiritual world, '' with elements of fear, love, and sorrow, "a presentiment of the infinite... in the eternal dance of the spheres ''. Beethoven 's music, on the other hand, conveys a sense of "the monstrous and immeasurable, '' with the pain of an endless longing that "will burst our breasts in a fully coherent concord of all the passions. '' This elevation in the valuation of pure emotion resulted in the promotion of music from the subordinate position it had held in relation to the verbal and plastic arts during the Enlightenment. Because music was considered to be free of the constraints of reason, imagery, or any other precise concept, it came to be regarded, first in the writings of Wackenroder and Tieck and later by writers such as Schelling and Wagner, as preeminent among the arts, the one best able to express the secrets of the universe, to evoke the spirit world, infinity, and the absolute.
This chronologic agreement of musical and literary Romanticism continued as far as the middle of the 19th century, when Richard Wagner denigrated the music of Meyerbeer and Berlioz as "neoromantic '': "The Opera, to which we shall now return, has swallowed down the Neoromanticism of Berlioz, too, as a plump, fine - flavoured oyster, whose digestion has conferred on it anew a brisk and well - to - do appearance. ''
It was only toward the end of the 19th century that the newly emergent discipline of Musikwissenschaft (musicology) -- itself a product of the historicizing proclivity of the age -- attempted a more scientific periodization of music history, and a distinction between Viennese Classical and Romantic periods was proposed. The key figure in this trend was Guido Adler, who viewed Beethoven and Franz Schubert as transitional but essentially Classical composers, with Romanticism achieving full maturity only in the post-Beethoven generation of Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Berlioz, and Franz Liszt. From Adler 's viewpoint, found in books like Der Stil in der Musik (1911), composers of the New German School and various late - 19th - century nationalist composers were not Romantics but "moderns '' or "realists '' (by analogy with the fields of painting and literature), and this schema remained prevalent through the first decades of the 20th century.
By the second quarter of the 20th century, an awareness that radical changes in musical syntax had occurred during the early 1900s caused another shift in historical viewpoint, and the change of century came to be seen as marking a decisive break with the musical past. This in turn led historians such as Alfred Einstein to extend the musical "Romantic Era '' throughout the 19th century and into the first decade of the 20th. It has continued to be referred to as such in some of the standard music references such as The Oxford Companion to Music and Grout 's History of Western Music but was not unchallenged. For example, the prominent German musicologist Friedrich Blume, the chief editor of the first edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1949 -- 86), accepted the earlier position that Classicism and Romanticism together constitute a single period beginning in the middle of the 18th century, but at the same time held that it continued into the 20th century, including such pre -- World War II developments as expressionism and neoclassicism. This is reflected in some notable recent reference works such as the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians and the new edition of Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart.
Franz Liszt, 1847
Daniel Auber, c. 1868
Giovanni Boldini, Portrait of Giuseppe Verdi, 1886
Robert Schumann, 1839
Hector Berlioz, 1850
Richard Wagner, c. 1870s
Giacomo Meyerbeer, 1847
Felix Mendelssohn, 1839
In the contemporary music culture, the romantic musician followed a public career depending on sensitive middle - class audiences rather than on a courtly patron, as had been the case with earlier musicians and composers. Public persona characterized a new generation of virtuosi who made their way as soloists, epitomized in the concert tours of Paganini and Liszt, and the conductor began to emerge as an important figure, on whose skill the interpretation of the increasingly complex music depended.
The Romantic movement affected most aspects of intellectual life, and Romanticism and science had a powerful connection, especially in the period 1800 -- 40. Many scientists were influenced by versions of the Naturphilosophie of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and others, and without abandoning empiricism, sought in their work to uncover what they tended to believe was a unified and organic Nature. The English scientist Sir Humphry Davy, a prominent Romantic thinker, said that understanding nature required "an attitude of admiration, love and worship, (...) a personal response. '' He believed that knowledge was only attainable by those who truly appreciated and respected nature. Self - understanding was an important aspect of Romanticism. It had less to do with proving that man was capable of understanding nature (through his budding intellect) and therefore controlling it, and more to do with the emotional appeal of connecting himself with nature and understanding it through a harmonious co-existence.
History writing was very strongly, and many would say harmfully, influenced by Romanticism. In England Thomas Carlyle was a highly influential essayist who turned historian; he both invented and exemplified the phrase "hero - worship '', lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such as Oliver Cromwell, Frederick the Great and Napoleon. Romantic nationalism had a largely negative effect on the writing of history in the 19th century, as each nation tended to produce its own version of history, and the critical attitude, even cynicism, of earlier historians was often replaced by a tendency to create romantic stories with clearly distinguished heroes and villains. Nationalist ideology of the period placed great emphasis on racial coherence, and the antiquity of peoples, and tended to vastly over-emphasize the continuity between past periods and the present, leading to national mysticism. Much historical effort in the 20th century was devoted to combating the romantic historical myths created in the 19th century.
To insulate theology from reductionism in science, 19th - century post-Enlightenment German theologians moved in a new direction, led by Friedrich Schleiermacher and Albrecht Ritschl. They took the Romantic approach of rooting religion in the inner world of the human spirit, so that it is a person 's feeling or sensibility about spiritual matters that comprises religion.
Romantic chess was the style of chess which emphasized quick, tactical maneuvers rather than long - term strategic planning. The Romantic era in chess is generally considered to have begun with Joseph MacDonnell and Pierre LaBourdonnais, the two dominant chess players in the 1830s. The 1840s was dominated by Howard Staunton, and other leading players of the era included Adolf Anderssen, Daniel Harrwitz, Henry Bird, Louis Paulsen, and Paul Morphy. The "Immortal Game '', played by Adolf Anderssen and Lionel Kieseritzky on 21 June 1851 in London - where Anderssen made bold sacrifices to secure victory, giving up both rooks and a bishop, then his queen, and then checkmating his opponent with his three remaining minor pieces - is considered a supreme example of Romantic chess. The end of the Romantic era in chess is considered to be the 1873 Vienna Tournament where Wilhelm Steinitz popularized positional play and the closed game.
One of Romanticism 's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the assertion of nationalism, which became a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of the movement, with their focus on development of national languages and folklore, and the importance of local customs and traditions, to the movements that would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for self - determination of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Romanticism, its role, expression and meaning. One of the most important functions of medieval references in the 19th century was nationalist. Popular and epic poetry were its workhorses. This is visible in Germany and Ireland, where underlying Germanic or Celtic linguistic substrates dating from before the Romanization - Latinization were sought out. And, in Catalonia, nationalists reclaimed Catalanism from before the Hispanicization of the Catholic Monarchs in the 15th century, when the Crown of Aragon was unified with the Castilian nobility.
Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by Rousseau, and by the ideas of Johann Gottfried von Herder, who in 1784 argued that the geography formed the natural economy of a people, and shaped their customs and society.
The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after the French Revolution with the rise of Napoleon, and the reactions in other nations. Napoleonic nationalism and republicanism were, at first, inspirational to movements in other nations: self - determination and a consciousness of national unity were held to be two of the reasons why France was able to defeat other countries in battle. But as the French Republic became Napoleon 's Empire, Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. In Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word Volkstum, or nationality, was coined in German as part of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte expressed the unity of language and nation in his address "To the German Nation '' in 1806:
Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole... Only when each people, left to itself, develops and forms itself in accordance with its own peculiar quality, and only when in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that common quality, as well as in accordance with his own peculiar quality -- then, and then only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as it ought to be.
This view of nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm, the revival of old epics as national, and the construction of new epics as if they were old, as in the Kalevala, compiled from Finnish tales and folklore, or Ossian, where the claimed ancient roots were invented. The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but fit in well with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people. For instance, the Brothers Grimm rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by Charles Perrault, which they thought proved they were not truly German tales; Sleeping Beauty survived in their collection because the tale of Brynhildr convinced them that the figure of the sleeping princess was authentically German. Vuk Karadžić contributed to Serbian folk literature, using peasant culture as the foundation. He regarded the oral literature of the peasants as an integral part of Serbian culture, compiling it to use in his collections of folk songs, tales, and proverbs, as well as the first dictionary of vernacular Serbian. Similar projects were undertaken by the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, and the Englishman Joseph Jacobs.
Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states, not least in Poland, which had recently failed to restore its independence when Russia 's army crushed the Polish Uprising under Nicholas I. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the dominant nations and crystallise the mythography of Romantic nationalism. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic poet of this part of Europe was Adam Mickiewicz, who developed an idea that Poland was the Messiah of Nations, predestined to suffer just as Jesus had suffered to save all the people. The Polish self - image as a "Christ among nations '' or the martyr of Europe can be traced back to its history of Christendom and suffering under invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the Catholic Church served as bastion of Poland 's national identity and language, and the major promoter of Polish culture. The partitions came to be seen in Poland as a Polish sacrifice for the security for Western civilization. Adam Mickiewicz wrote the patriotic drama Dziady (directed against the Russians) where he depicts Poland as the Christ of Nations. He also wrote "Verily I say unto you, it is not for you to learn civilization from foreigners, but it is you who are to teach them civilization... You are among the foreigners like the Apostles among the idolaters ''. In "Books of the Polish nation and Polish pilgrimage '' Mickiewicz detailed his vision of Poland as a Messias and a Christ of Nations, that would save mankind. Dziady is known for various interpretation. The most known ones are the moral aspect of part II, individualist and romantic message of part IV, as well as deeply patriotic, messianistic and Christian vision in part III of poem. Zdzisław Kępiński, however, focuses his interpretation on Slavic pagan and occult elements found in the drama. In his book Mickiewicz hermetyczny he writes about hermetic, theosophic and alchemical philosophy on the book as well as Masonic symbols.
Joseph Vernet, 1759, Shipwreck; the 18th century "sublime ''
Joseph Wright, 1774, Cave at evening, Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts
Henry Fuseli, 1781, The Nightmare, a classical artist whose themes often anticipate the Romantic
Philip James de Loutherbourg, Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, a key location of the English Industrial Revolution
Théodore Géricault, The Charging Chasseur, c. 1812
Ingres, Death of Leornardo da Vinci, 1818, one of his Troubadour style works
Eugène Delacroix, Collision of Moorish Horsemen, 1843 -- 44
Eugène Delacroix, The Bride of Abydos, 1857, after the poem by Byron
Joseph Anton Koch, Waterfalls at Subiaco 1812 -- 1813, a "classical '' landscape to art historians
James Ward, 1814 -- 1815, Gordale Scar
John Constable, 1821, The Hay Wain, one of Constable 's large "six footers ''
J.C. Dahl, 1826, Eruption of Vesuvius, by Friedrich 's closest follower
William Blake, c. 1824 -- 27, The Wood of the Self - Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides, Tate
Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of Pompeii, 1833, The State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia
Isaac Levitan, Pacific, 1898, State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
J.M.W. Turner, The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons (1835), Philadelphia Museum of Art
Hans Gude, Winter Afternoon, 1847, National Gallery of Norway, Oslo
Ivan Aivazovsky, 1850, The Ninth Wave, Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
John Martin, 1852, The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Laing Art Gallery
Frederic Edwin Church, 1860, Twilight in the Wilderness, Cleveland Museum of Art
Albert Bierstadt, 1863, The Rocky Mountains, Lander 's Peak
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who lives in and then there were none | And Then There Were None - wikipedia
And Then There Were None is a mystery novel by English writer Agatha Christie, widely considered her masterpiece and described by her as the most difficult of her books to write. It was first published in the United Kingdom by the Collins Crime Club on 6 November 1939, as Ten Little Niggers, after the British blackface song, which serves as a major plot point. The US edition was not released until December 1939; its American reprints and adaptations were all retitled And Then There Were None, after the last five words in the nursery rhyme "Ten Little Indians ''.
It is Christie 's best - selling novel; with more than 100 million copies sold, it is also the world 's best - selling mystery and one of the best - selling books of all time. Publications International lists the novel as the seventh best - selling title.
In the novel, a group of people are lured into coming to an island under different pretexts, e.g., offers of employment, to enjoy a late summer holiday, or to meet old friends. All have been complicit in the deaths of other human beings, but either escaped justice or committed an act that was not subject to legal sanction. The guests and two servants who are present are "charged '' with their respective "crimes '' by a gramophone recording after dinner the first night, and informed that they have been brought to the island to pay for their actions. They are the only people on the island, and can not escape due to the distance from the mainland and the inclement weather, and gradually all ten are killed in turn, each in a manner that seems to parallel the deaths in the nursery rhyme. Nobody else seems to be left alive on the island by the time of the apparent last death. A confession, in the form of a postscript to the novel, unveils how the killings took place and who was responsible.
On a hot, early August day sometime in the late 1930s, eight people arrive on a small, isolated island off the Devon coast of England. Each appears to have an invitation tailored to his or her personal circumstances, such as an offer of employment or an unexpected late summer holiday. They are met by Thomas and Ethel Rogers, the butler and cook / housekeeper, who state that their hosts, Mr Ulick Norman Owen and his wife Mrs Una Nancy Owen, whom they have not yet met in person, have not arrived, but left instructions, which strikes all the guests as odd.
A framed copy of a nursery rhyme, "Ten Little Niggers '' (called "Ten Little Indians '' or "Ten Little Soldiers '' in later editions), hangs in every guest 's room, and ten figurines sit on the dining room table. After supper, a gramophone (or "phonograph '') record is played; it contains a recording that describes each visitor in turn, accuses each of having committed murder but escaping justice, and then asks if any of "the accused '' wishes to offer a defence. All but Anthony Marston and Philip Lombard deny the charges, and Miss Brent refuses to discuss the matter.
They discover that none of them actually knows the Owens and conclude that the name "U.N. Owen '' is shorthand for "Unknown ''. In the aftermath of the recording, Marston finishes his drink and immediately dies from cyanide poisoning. The remaining guests notice that one of the ten figurines is now broken, and the nursery rhyme appears to reflect the manner of death ("One choked his little self and then there were nine '').
The next morning, Mrs Rogers ' corpse is found in her bed; she had died in her sleep from an overdose of chloral hydrate. By lunchtime, General MacArthur is found dead, from a heavy blow to his head. Two more figurines are found to be broken, and again the deaths parallel the rhyme. Miss Brent, who had refused to speak with the men present, relates the account of the gramophone charge against her to Vera Claythorne, who later tells the others.
A search for "Mr Owen '' shows that nobody else is on the island except the remaining seven. The island is a "bare rock '' with no hiding places, and no one could have arrived or left; thus, they uncomfortably conclude that any one of the seven remaining persons is the killer. Justice Wargrave leads the group in determining that as of yet, none of them can definitively be ruled out as the murderer. The next morning, Rogers is found dead while chopping wood, and after breakfast, Miss Brent is found dead in the kitchen, where she had been left alone after complaining of feeling unwell; she had been injected with potassium cyanide via a hypodermic needle.
Wargrave then suggests searching all the rooms, and any potentially dangerous items they can think of are locked up. Lombard 's gun is missing from his room. When Vera goes upstairs to take a bath, she is shocked by the touch and smell of seaweed left hanging from the ceiling of her room and screams; the remaining guests rush upstairs to her room. Wargrave, however, is still downstairs. The others find him seated, immobile and crudely dressed up in the attire of a judge. Wargrave is examined briefly by Dr Armstrong and pronounced dead from a gunshot to the forehead.
That night, Lombard appears surprised when he finds his gun returned to his room. Blore catches a glimpse of someone leaving the house but loses the trail. He then discovers Armstrong is absent from his room, and the remaining three guests conclude that Armstrong must be the killer. Vera, Blore, and Lombard decide to stay together at all times. In the morning, they unsuccessfully attempt to signal SOS to the mainland from outside by using a mirror and sunlight. Blore then decides to return to the house for food by himself -- the others are not hungry -- and is killed by a heavy bear - shaped clock statue that is pushed from Vera 's window sill, crushing his skull.
Vera and Lombard are now confident that Armstrong is the killer. However, shortly afterwards, the duo come upon Armstrong 's body washed up on the beach, which they do not immediately recognize due to decomposition. They realize that Armstrong could not have killed Blore. Panicked, each concludes the other must be the killer, overlooking that neither had the opportunity as they were together on the beach and when they found Blore 's body. Quickly regaining her composure, Vera suggests moving the doctor 's body past the shore, but this is a pretext. She manages to lift Lombard 's gun. When Lombard lunges at her to get it back, she shoots him dead.
She returns to the house in a shaken dreamlike state, relieved to be alive. She finds a noose and chair arranged in her room, and a strong smell of the sea. With visions of her former lover, Hugo, urging her on, in a post-traumatic state, she adjusts the noose and kicks the chair out from under her.
Two Scotland Yard officials are puzzled by the identity of U.N. Owen. Although they can ostensibly reconstruct the deaths from Marston to Wargrave with the help of the victims ' diaries and a coroner 's careful report, they are forced to conclude that "U.N. Owen '' was one of the victims, but are unable to determine which one. They note that the chair on which Vera stood to hang herself had been set back upright, indicating that someone -- presumably the killer -- was still alive on the island after her suicide.
In a postscript, a fishing ship picks up a bottle inside its trawling nets; the bottle contains a written confession of the killings, which is then sent to Scotland Yard. It is not clear how long after the killings the bottle was discovered.
In the confession, Justice Wargrave writes that he has long wished to set an unsolvable puzzle of murder, but is morally limited to victims who are themselves guilty and deserving of such an end. He explains how he tricked the gullible Dr. Armstrong into helping him fake his own death under the pretext that it would supposedly give him the freedom to help the group identify the killer, and also explains that after Vera died, he replaced the chair in her room neatly against the wall. Finally, he reveals how he used the gun and some elastic to ensure his own death matched the account in the guests ' diaries. Although he wished to create an unsolvable mystery, he acknowledges in the missive a "pitiful human '' need for recognition, hence the confession.
He also describes how his first chronological victim was actually Isaac Morris, the sleazy lawyer and drugs trafficker who anonymously purchased the island and arranged the invitations on his behalf. Morris was poisoned before Wargrave departed for the island. Wargrave 's intention is that when the police arrive they will find ten bodies, with evidence that someone had been alive after each death, but nobody else on the island, and no way to trace the killer through his invitations or preparations. He states that, although there are three clues that could guide the police to the correct killer, he is confident they will be unable to do so and that the mystery will remain unsolved until the confession is retrieved.
Ten little Soldier Boys went out to dine; One choked his little self and then there were nine. Nine little Soldier Boys sat up very late; One overslept himself and then there were eight. Eight little Soldier Boys travelling in Devon; One said he 'd stay there and then there were seven. Seven little Soldier Boys chopping up sticks; One chopped himself in halves and then there were six. Six little Soldier Boys playing with a hive; A bumblebee stung one and then there were five. Five little Soldier Boys going in for law; One got in Chancery and then there were four. Four little Soldier Boys going out to sea; A red herring swallowed one and then there were three. Three little Soldier Boys walking in the zoo; A big bear hugged one and then there were two. Two little Soldier Boys sitting in the sun; One got frizzled up and then there was one. One little Soldier Boy left all alone; He went out and hanged himself and then there were none.
The following details of the characters are based on the original novel. Backstories, backgrounds, and names vary with differing international adaptations, based on censorship, cultural norms, etc.
The novel was originally published in 1939 and early 1940 almost simultaneously, in the United Kingdom and the United States. In the UK it appeared under the title Ten Little Niggers, in book and newspaper serialized formats. The serialization was in 23 parts in the Daily Express from Tuesday 6 June to Saturday 1 July 1939. All of the instalments carried an illustration by "Prescott '' with the first having an illustration of Burgh Island in Devon which inspired the setting of the story. The serialized version did not contain any chapter divisions. The book retailed for seven shillings and six pence.
In the United States it was published under the title And Then There Were None, again in both book and serial formats. Both of the original US publications changed the title from that originally used in the UK, due to the offensiveness of the word in American culture, where it was more widely perceived as a racially loaded ethnic slur or insult compared to contemporary UK culture, and because of the pejorative connotations of the original blackface rhyme. The serialized version appeared in the Saturday Evening Post in seven parts from 20 May (Volume 211, Number 47) to 1 July 1939 (Volume 212, Number 1) with illustrations by Henry Raleigh, and the book was published in January 1940 by Dodd, Mead and Company for $2.
In the original UK novel all references to "Indians '' or "Soldiers '' were originally "Nigger '', including the island 's name, the pivotal rhyme found by the visitors, and the ten figurines. (In Chapter 7, Vera Claythorne becomes semi-hysterical at the mention by Miss Brent of "our black brothers '', which is understandable only in the context of the original name.) The word "nigger '' was already racially offensive in the United States by the start of the 20th century, and therefore the book 's first US edition and first serialization changed the title to And Then There Were None and removed all references to the word from the book, as did the 1945 motion picture.
The book and its adaptations have since been released under various new names since the original publication, including Ten Little Indians (1946 play, Broadway performance and 1964 paperback book), Ten Little Soldiers and -- the most widely used today -- And Then There Were None. UK editions continued to use the work 's original title until the 1980s; the first UK edition to use the alternative title And Then There Were None appeared in 1985 with a reprint of the 1963 Fontana Paperback.
The original title (Ten Little Niggers) still survives in a few foreign - language versions of the novel, such as the Bulgarian title Десет малки негърчета, and was used in other languages for a time, for example in the Dutch publication until the 18th edition of 1994. The title Ten Little Negroes continues to be commonly used in foreign - language versions, for example in Spanish, Greek, Serbian, Romanian, French and Hungarian, as well as a 1987 Russian film adaptation Десять негритят (Desyat Negrityat). In 1999, the Slovak National Theatre staged the play under its original title but changed to A napokon nezostal už nik (And Then There Were None) mid-run.
And Then There Were None is one of Agatha Christie 's best - known mysteries, widely considered her masterpiece and described by her as the most difficult of her books to have written. Writing for The Times Literary Supplement of 11 November 1939, Maurice Percy Ashley stated, "If her latest story has scarcely any detection in it there is no scarcity of murders... There is a certain feeling of monotony inescapable in the regularity of the deaths which is better suited to a serialized newspaper story than a full - length novel. Yet there is an ingenious problem to solve in naming the murderer '', he continued. "It will be an extremely astute reader who guesses correctly. ''
Many other reviews were also complimentary; in The New York Times Book Review (25 February 1940), Isaac Anderson detailed the set - up of the plot up to the point where "the voice '' accuses the ten "guests '' of their past crimes or sins, which have all resulted in the deaths of other human beings, and then said, "When you read what happens after that you will not believe it, but you will keep on reading, and as one incredible event is followed by another even more incredible you will still keep on reading. The whole thing is utterly impossible and utterly fascinating. It is the most baffling mystery that Agatha Christie has ever written, and if any other writer has ever surpassed it for sheer puzzlement the name escapes our memory. We are referring, of course, to mysteries that have logical explanations, as this one has. It is a tall story, to be sure, but it could have happened. ''
Such was the quality of Christie 's work on this book that many compared it to her novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926). For instance, an unnamed reviewer in the Toronto Daily Star of 16 March 1940 said, "Others have written better mysteries than Agatha Christie, but no one can touch her for ingenious plot and surprise ending. With And Then There Were None... she is at her most ingenious and most surprising... is, indeed, considerably above the standard of her last few works and close to the Roger Ackroyd level. ''
Other critics laud the use of plot twists and surprise endings. Maurice Richardson wrote a rhapsodic review in The Observer 's issue of 5 November 1939 which began, "No wonder Agatha Christie 's latest has sent her publishers into a vatic trance. We will refrain, however, from any invidious comparisons with Roger Ackroyd and be content with saying that Ten Little Niggers is one of the very best, most genuinely bewildering Christies yet written. We will also have to refrain from reviewing it thoroughly, as it is so full of shocks that even the mildest revelation would spoil some surprise from somebody, and I am sure that you would rather have your entertainment kept fresh than criticism pure. '' After stating the set - up of the plot, Richardson concluded, "Story telling and characterisation are right at the top of Mrs Christie 's baleful form. Her plot may be highly artificial, but it is neat, brilliantly cunning, soundly constructed, and free from any of those red - herring false trails which sometimes disfigure her work. ''
Robert Barnard, a recent critic, concurred with the reviews, describing the book as "Suspenseful and menacing detective - story - cum - thriller. The closed setting with the succession of deaths is here taken to its logical conclusion, and the dangers of ludicrousness and sheer reader - disbelief are skillfully avoided. Probably the best - known Christie, and justifiably among the most popular. ''
The original title of the mystery (Ten Little Niggers) has long been abandoned as offensive in English - speaking countries and a number of others. Some critics have opined that Christie 's original title and the setting on "Nigger Island '' (later changed to "Indian Island '' and "Soldier Island '', variously) may be integral to the work. These aspects of the novel, argues Alison Light, "could be relied upon automatically to conjure up a thrilling ' otherness ', a place where revelations about the ' dark side ' of the English would be appropriate. '' Unlike novels such as Heart of Darkness, "Christie 's location is both more domesticated and privatized, taking for granted the construction of racial fears woven into psychic life as early as the nursery. If her story suggests how easy it is to play upon such fears, it is also a reminder of how intimately tied they are to sources of pleasure and enjoyment. ''
In the "Binge! '' article of Entertainment Weekly Issue # 1343 - 44 (26 December 2014 -- 3 January 2015), the writers picked And Then There Were None as an "EW favorite '' on the list of the "Nine Great Christie Novels ''.
And Then There Were None has had more adaptations than any other single work by Agatha Christie. Many adaptations incorporate changes to the story, such as using Christie 's alternative ending from her 1943 stage play or changing the setting to locations other than an island.
There have been numerous film adaptations of the novel, some comedic. Examples include:
Several variations of the original novel were adapted for television. There have been three different British adaptations: two by the BBC (in 1949 and 2015), and an ITV adaptation in 1959.
And Then There Were None (miniseries) (airdates 26 -- 28 December 2015), is a BBC One adaptation based on the original novel. This was the first English language film adaptation to feature an ending similar to that of the original novel.
On 25 and 26 March, 2017 TV Asahi in Japan aired そして 誰 もい なくなっ た (Soshite daremo inakunatta), a Japanese language adaptation by Nagasaka Shukei (長坂 秀佳) of the original story set in modern times.
The novel has been the inspiration for several video games. For the Apple II, Online Systems released the game Mystery House in 1980. On the PC, The Adventure Company released the video game Agatha Christie: And Then There Were None in 2005, the first in a series of PC games based on Christie novels. In February 2008, it was ported to the Wii console. The identity of the murderer is not that of the killer in the original book. The game player assumes the role of Patrick Naracott (brother of Fred Naracott, who is involved in a newly created subplot), who is stranded with the others when his boat is scuttled. This allows for alternate, more successful endings in which Naracott survives and is able to prevent the murders of the innocent Lombard and Claythorne. All endings depart markedly from the novel and previous adaptations in that the killer and motives are different.
And Then There Were None was released by HarperCollins as a graphic novel adaptation on 30 April 2009, adapted by François Rivière and illustrated by Frank Leclercq.
Peká Editorial released a board game based on the book, created by Judit Hurtado and Fernando Chavarría, and illustrated by Esperanza Peinado.
In 1930, The Ninth Guest by Owen Davis, premiered on Broadway. Its plot (and that of the 1934 film based on the play) strongly matches that of Christie 's novel, including a recorded voice announcing to the invitees that their sins will be visited upon them by death. Davis 's play was based on the novel The Invisible Host, by Gwen Bristow and Bruce Manning (also 1930), both of which predated Christie 's novel by nine years.
The 1933 K.B.S. Productions Sherlock Holmes film, A Study in Scarlet, predates the publication of Ten Little Indians and follows a strikingly similar plot; it includes a scene where Holmes is shown a card with the hint: "Six little Indians... bee stung one and then there were five ''; the film predates the novel by six years. Though it is a Sherlock Holmes movie, the movie bears no resemblance to Arthur Conan Doyle 's original story of the same name. In this case, the rhyme refers to "Ten Little Fat Boys ''. The author of the movie 's screenplay, Robert Florey, "doubted that (Christie) had seen A Study in Scarlet, but he regarded it as a compliment if it had helped inspire her ''.
Several parodies have been made. As early as autumn 1942, "World 's Finest Comics '' (# 7, Fall Issue) had a Superman story by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster called "The Eight Doomed Men '' which used Christie 's basic structure and even borrowed a number of her victim 's backgrounds, although Superman intervened to rescue half of the intended victims and the killer 's motivation was changed to specific revenge. Siegel and Shuster anticipated the 1966 film by moving the locale to a mountain cabin and tossed in a Zeppelin - like dirigible -- one location not yet used in adaptations of the story.
Another parody, the 1976 Broadway musical Something 's Afoot, stars Tessie O'Shea as a female sleuth resembling Miss Marple. Something 's Afoot takes place in a remote English estate, where six guests have been invited for the weekend. The guests, as well as three servants and a young man who claims to have wandered innocently onto the estate, are then murdered one by one, several in full view of the audience, with the murderer 's surprise identity revealed at the end. For an encore, the murdered cast members perform a song, "I Owe It All to Agatha Christie ''.
In the 1967 The Avengers episode "The Superlative Seven '' John Steed is invited to a costume party aboard a chartered aeroplane. The aeroplane is being flown by remote control. Steed and the six other fancy - dressed guests, who are specialists in various combat styles, eventually land on a deserted island where they are informed that one of them is a trained assassin trying to kill them all. When the first murder is committed, Steed observes "Looks as though his back was broken ''. To which an off - screen protagonist responds, over a speaker, "Quite right, Mr Steed. And then there were six ''. CSI: Crime Scene Investigation based an episode of the show 's second season under the same name focusing on a gang of armed robbers stealing from casinos outside the Las Vegas metropolitan area with each criminal killing a member of the gang to keep more of the proceeds. The animated US sitcom Family Guy loosely parodied the novel in the 2010 episode And Then There Were Fewer in which a number of previously regular characters were killed off.
The 1998 anime film Case Closed: The Fourteenth Target is a combination of this story, with intended victims invited to a secluded island and the murderer hiding amongst them, and Christie 's Hercule Poirot novel The A.B.C. Murders.
The sixth game of the Touhou Project series Embodiment of Scarlet Devil contains references to the Christie novel in the Extra boss, such as the title of the music being played called "U.N Owen Was Her? '', an attack named "And Then There Were None '' and also dialogues quoting the book.
The season 2 finale of the Australian TV show Miss Fisher 's Murder Mysteries ("Murder under the Mistletoe '', 2013) mirrors the plot of Christie 's novel. Guests stranded in a secluded mansion are murdered one by one according to the circumstances described in the "12 Days of Christmas. '' Like in the Christie novel, the guests soon realize that the murderer must be among them, but the culprit escapes detection by means of a bluff involving one of the corpses. The episode follows the 1965 film Ten Little Indians in re-imagining the island as a snowed - in inaccessible chalet.
In Anthony Horowitz 's detective series, The Diamond Brothers, the case I Know What You Did Last Wednesday pays homage to And Then There Were None; protagonist Nick Diamond accompanies his brother Tim to a school reunion on a lonely island where the various guests start dying in a manner that reflects back to a subject that they came first in at school (the person who came first in chemistry is poisoned, the one who came first in geography is crushed by a globe, etc.), with the killer revealed at the conclusion to be a former schoolfriend who came second in everything.
Sierra 's Laura Bow adventure game has a similar plot, inspired by the novel, where some (although innocent) people are murdered by a serial killer who is also found dead before their true identity is revealed.
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who sang the song rub it in rub it in | Rub it in - wikipedia
"Rub It In '' is a song written and originally recorded by Layng Martine Jr., and credited as Layng Martine. His version, released on the Barnaby Records label, was produced by Ray Stevens and was a chart single in 1971.
Billy "Crash '' Craddock covered the song in 1974, on the album Rub It In, taking it to Number One on the country music charts and Top 20 on the pop charts. He told Tom Roland in The Billboard Book of Number One Country Hits that many stations refused to play it at first because they thought it was risque. "I said, ' We 're talking about suntan lotion, and if you still think it 's risque, then do n't play it, ' '' Craddock said. "Evidently, they all went back and listened to it, and it was the biggest record we ever had. '' Craddock also made live recordings of the song on 1977 's Live! and 2009 's Live - N - Kickin '.
Craddock eventually recorded a sequel to the song, "You Rubbed It In All Wrong, '' which borrows heavily from the original song 's melody but instead replaces the lotion with sand, as the man 's lover is discovered to be cheating on him. The sequel was also a top - 5 hit on both the country charts.
A third version, in 1999 by country singer Matt King also charted on the country charts, from his album Hard Country. The song 's melody was adapted by Glade to advertise their plug - in air fresheners ("plug it in, plug it in '').
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by default access points send beacon frames every how many ms | Beacon frame - wikipedia
Beacon frame is one of the management frames in IEEE 802.11 based WLANs. It contains all the information about the network. Beacon frames are transmitted periodically to announce the presence of a wireless LAN. Beacon frames are transmitted by the access point (AP) in an infrastructure basic service set (BSS). In IBSS network beacon generation is distributed among the stations.
Beacon frames consist of an Ethernet header, body and FCS. Some of the fields in the body are listed below.
Infrastructure network access points send beacons at a defined interval, which is often set to a default 100ms. In the case of an ad hoc network where there are no access points, a peer station is responsible for sending the beacon. After an ad hoc station receives a beacon frame from a peer, it waits a random amount of time. After that random timeout has elapsed, it will send a beacon frame unless another station has already sent one. In this way, the responsibility of sending beacon frames is rotated amongst all the peers in the ad hoc network, while ensuring that beacons will always be sent.
Most access points allow the changing of the beacon interval. Increasing the beacon interval will cause the beacons to be sent less frequently. This reduces load on the network and increases throughput for clients on the network; however, it has the undesirable effect of delaying association and roaming processes as stations scanning for access points could potentially miss a beacon while scanning other channels. Alternatively, decreasing the beacon interval causes beacons to be sent more frequently. This increases load on the network and decreases throughput for users, but it does result in a quicker association and roaming process. An additional downside of decreasing the beacon interval is that stations in power save mode will consume more power as they must more frequently awake to receive beacons.
Inspecting an idle network with packet - monitoring tools such as tcpdump or Wireshark would show that most traffic on the network consists of beacon frames, with a few non-802 - 11 packets mixed in, such as DHCP packets. If users joined the network, responses to each beacon would begin to appear, along with regular traffic generated by the users.
Beacon frames must be sent with the CSMA / CA algorithm. This means that if a station is currently sending a frame when the beacon needs to be sent, it must wait. This means that beacons may not be sent as frequently as the beacon interval would indicate. However, stations are able to compensate for this difference by inspecting the timestamp in the beacon frame when it is finally sent.
While beacon frames do cause some non-trivial overhead for a network, they are vital for the proper operation of a network. Radio NICs generally scan all RF channels searching for beacons announcing the presence of a nearby access point. When a radio receives a beacon frame, it receives information about the capabilities and configuration of that network, and is also then able to provide a list of available eligible networks, sorted by signal strength. This allows the device to choose to connect to the optimal network.
Even after associating with a network, the radio NIC will continue to scan for beacons. This has several benefits. Firstly, by continuing to scan for other networks, the station has options for alternative networks if the current access point 's signal becomes too weak to continue communication. Secondly, as it still receives beacon frames from the currently associated access point, the device is able to use the timestamps in those beacons to update its internal clock. Beacons from the currently associated access point also inform stations of imminent configuration changes, such as data rate changes.
Finally, beacons enable devices to have power saving modes. Access points will hold on to packets destined for stations that are currently sleeping. In the traffic indication map of a beacon frame, the access point is able to inform stations that they have frames waiting for delivery.
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when is paint the night returning to disneyland | Paint the Night - wikipedia
Paint the Night is a nighttime parade at Hong Kong Disneyland and Disneyland. The Hong Kong version premiered on September 11, 2014, and the Disneyland version debuted on May 22, 2015, as part of the park 's 60th anniversary Diamond Celebration. The parade was intended to serve as a spiritual successor to the long - running Main Street Electrical Parade, which has appeared at numerous Disney parks in several different incarnations since 1972. At Disneyland, Paint the Night made its last regular performance on September 5, 2016, and returned as a seasonal offering for the 2016 holiday season. The original Main Street Electrical Parade returned to Disneyland in 2017 for a limited - time run.
In July 2017, it was officially announced at the D23 Expo that Paint the Night would be moving to Disney California Adventure at the Disneyland Resort starting in 2018. Also, a new float is confirmed to be joining the parade when it returns in 2018. However, the theme of the float is unknown at this time.
Disney Paint the Night (Chinese: 迪士尼 光影 匯, Jyutping: dik6 si6 nei4 gwong1 ying2 wooi6) premiered at Hong Kong Disneyland on October 1, 2014. This is the first time Walt Disney Parks and Resorts created a fully LED parade, and features seven original floats containing over 740,000 individual lights.
The Hong Kong version of the parade uses a newly arranged version of the Main Street Electrical Parade 's theme song, "Baroque Hoedown, '' alongside a Cantonese arrangement of Owl City 's "When Can I See You Again? '' from Wreck - It Ralph. In the original version of the Hong Kong version of the parade, there was a show stop in which the performers were able to interact with the interactive LED Paintbrushes sold to audience members. The show stop used an original song in Cantonese and English called "Paint the Night ''. The show stop was discontinued in November 2015.
The interactive "Mickey Mouse Paintbrushes, '' which guests can purchase in the park, allow them to interact with the performers by changing the colors of their costumes when the brushes are activated. Wearable merchandise items include the "Mickey Glow Mitt '' and "Minnie Glow Bow, '' which change colors throughout the show through the use of RFID - enabled technology.
The Hong Kong version contains the following parade units:
The Paint the Night Parade (or Paint the Night Electrical Parade, as it is titled within the show) opened May 22, 2015, as part of Disneyland 's Diamond Celebration, in commemoration of its 60th anniversary. This version of the parade utilizes over 1.5 million LED lights, special effects, and features 76 performers. The California version of the parade was inspired by the Main Street Electrical Parade. It is Disneyland 's first all - LED parade. The parade lasts approximately 17 minutes. During the Diamond Celebration, the entire 24 - hour event was streamed live via internet by the Disneyland Resort, including the premiere of Paint the Night parade on May 22, 2015. Like the Hong Kong version, the parade jointly features arrangements of Jean - Jacques Perrey and Gershon Kingsley 's "Baroque Hoedown '' and Owl City 's "When Can I See You Again? ''. This version, now in English, features new lyrics for the parade along with vocals and arrangement from Adam Young of Owl City. Following the Diamond Celebration, Paint the Night at Disneyland performed a short run during the 2016 holiday season before Disneyland revived the Main Street Electrical Parade in January 2017 for a limited - time run that ended on August 20, 2017.
The Disneyland version of the parade is slightly different and includes new floats. Unlike the Hong Kong version, it moves continuously down the parade route, with no show stops.
The Disneyland version contains the following parade units:
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who won the heisman trophy from penn state | List of Heisman Trophy winners - wikipedia
The Heisman Trophy, one of the highest individual awards in American college football, has been awarded 81 times since its creation in 1935, including 79 unique winners and one two - time winner. The trophy is given annually to the most outstanding college football player in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), and is awarded by the Heisman Trust, successors of the awards from the Downtown Athletic Club at an annual ceremony at the PlayStation Theater in Times Square, Manhattan.
In 1935, the award, then known as the DAC Trophy, was created by New York City 's Downtown Athletic Club to recognize the best college football player "east of the Mississippi River ''. In that inaugural year, the award went to Jay Berwanger from the University of Chicago. Berwanger was later drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League but declined to sign for them. He never played professional football for any team, instead choosing to pursue a career in business. In 1936, the club 's athletic director, football pioneer John Heisman, died and the trophy was renamed in his honor. Larry Kelley, the second winner of the award, was the first to win it as the "Heisman Trophy ''. In addition to the name change, the award also became a nationwide achievement. With the new name, players west of the Mississippi became eligible; the first player from the western United States was selected in 1938. Only one player, Ohio State 's Archie Griffin, has won the award twice.
On June 10, 2010, following several years of investigation, the NCAA announced that USC running back Reggie Bush, the 2005 Heisman trophy winner, received gifts from agents while still in college. The university received major sanctions, and there were reports that the Heisman Trophy Trust would strip his award. In September of that year, Bush voluntarily forfeited his title as the 2005 winner. The Heisman Trust decided to leave the award vacated with no new winner to be announced.
Between 1936 and 2001, the award was given at an annual gala ceremony at the Downtown Athletic Club in New York City. The Downtown Athletic Club 's facilities were damaged during the September 11, 2001 attacks. Due to financial difficulties stemming from the damage, the DAC declared bankruptcy in 2002, turning over its building to creditors. Following the club 's bankruptcy and the loss of the original Downtown Athletic Club building, the Yale Club of New York City assumed presenting honors in 2002 and 2003. The ceremony was moved to the New York Marriott Marquis in Times Square for the 2002, 2003, and 2004 presentations, but since 2005, the event has been held at the venue now known as PlayStation Theater, also in Times Square. The move to the PlayStation Theater allowed the Downtown Athletic Club (and ultimately, the award 's successor, The Heisman Trust) to resume full control of the event -- the most prominent example of which was the return of the official portraits of past winners -- despite the loss of the original presentation hall.
In terms of balloting, the fifty states of the U.S. are split into six regions (Far West, Mid Atlantic, Mid West, North East, South, South West), and six regional representatives are selected to appoint voters in their states. Each region has 145 media votes, for a total of 870 votes. In addition, all previous Heisman winners may vote, and one final vote is counted through public balloting. The Heisman ballots contain a 3 - 2 - 1 point system, in which each ballot ranks the voter 's top three players and awards them three points for a first - place vote, two points for a second - place vote, and one point for a third - place vote. The points are tabulated, and the player with the highest total of points across all ballots wins the Heisman Trophy.
This is a list of the colleges and universities who have had a player win a Heisman trophy: Ohio State and Notre Dame are tied for the most trophies at 7 each (USC 's 2005 award having been voluntarily forfeited). Ohio State has the distinction of the only two - time winner, Archie Griffin, leaving their total players to have won the trophy at six. In total, players from 39 different schools have won a Heisman Trophy, while 18 schools have more than one trophy.
The 2005 title was forfeited by Reggie Bush and is not tallied here.
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what is i am that i am in hebrew | I am that I am - wikipedia
I Am that I Am (אֶהְיֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶהְיֶה ' ehyeh ' ăšer ' ehyeh (ʔɛhˈjɛh ʔaˈʃɛr ʔɛhˈjɛh)) is the common English translation (JPS among others) of the response that God used in the Hebrew Bible when Moses asked for his name (Exodus 3: 14). It is one of the most famous verses in the Torah. Hayah means "existed '' in Hebrew; ' ehyeh is the first person singular imperfect form and is usually translated in English Bibles as "I am '' or "I will be '' (or "I shall be ''), for example, at Exodus 3: 14. ' ehyeh ' ăšer ' ehyeh literally translates as "I Am Who I Am. '' The ancient Hebrew of Exodus 3: 14 lacks a future tense such as modern English has, yet a few translations render this name as "I Will Be What I Will Be, '' given the context of Yahweh 's promising to be with his people through their future troubles. Both the literal present tense "I Am '' and the future tense "I will be '' have given rise to many attendant theological and mystical implications in Jewish tradition. However, in most English - language Bibles, in particular the King James Version, the phrase is rendered as I am that I am.
Ehyeh - Asher - Ehyeh (often contracted in English as "I AM '') is one of the Seven Names of God accorded special care by medieval Jewish tradition. The phrase is also found in other world religious literature, used to describe the Supreme Being, generally referring back to its use in Exodus. The word ' ehyeh is considered by many rabbinical scholars to be a first - person derivation of the tetragrammaton, see for example Yahweh.
The word ' ehyeh is used a total of 43 places in the Hebrew Bible, where it is often translated as "I will be '' -- as is the case for its first occurrence, in Genesis 26: 3 -- or "I shall be, '' as is the case for its final occurrence in Zechariah 8: 8. Whether YHWH is derived from AahYah or whether the two are individual concepts is a subject of debate among historians and theologians.
In appearance, it is possible to render YHWH (יהוה) as an archaic third person singular imperfect form of the verb ahyah (אהיה) "to be '' meaning, therefore, "He (הוא) is ''. This interpretation agrees with the meaning of the name given in Exodus 3: 14, where God is represented as speaking, and hence as using the first person -- AahYah "I am ''. Other scholars regard the triconsonantal root of hawah (הוה) as a more likely origin for the name Yahweh. It is notably distinct from the root El, which can be used as a simple noun to refer to the creator deity in general, as in Elohim, meaning simply "God '' (or gods).
In the Hellenistic Greek literature of the Jewish diaspora the phrase "' ehyeh ' ăšer ' ehyeh '' was rendered in Greek εγώ ειμι ὁ ων, "ego eimi ho on '', "I am the BEING ''.
This usage is also found in the Christian New Testament:
The Roman Catholic Church 's interpretation has been summarized in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The interpretation is found in numbers 203 - 213.
Some of the salient points are the following:
Some religious groups and theologians regard this phrase or at least the "I am '' part of the phrase as an actual name of God, or to lesser degree the sole name of God. It can be found in many listings of other common names of God.
In the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Amharic Bible, it is written as Yale'na Yeminor (I am that exists and will exists).
The conceptualization of the omnipresence of the divine being has led to the consideration of simplicity. The unified perspectival concept of "I '' combined with the supposition of omnipresence creates an atmosphere in which the unity of divine being and self can be easily understood.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge predicates much of the theoretical frame of his Biographia Literaria on what he calls ' the great I AM ' (that is, God the Father) and ' the filial WORD that re-affirmeth it... ' (Christ, reaffirming his father 's statement ') '... from Eternity to Eternity, whose choral Echo is the Universe. ' Coleridge 's argument is that these two things together work to create the ground for all meaning, especially poetic and artistic meaning.
The South Indian sage Ramana Maharshi mentions that in the Hindu Advaita Vedanta school, of all the definitions of God, "none is indeed so well put as the biblical statement ' I am that I am ' ''. He maintained that although Hindu scripture contains similar statements in the Mahavakyas, these are not as direct as given in Exodus. Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj explains the "I am '' as an abstraction in the mind of the Stateless State, of the Absolute, or the Supreme Reality, called Parabrahman: it is pure awareness, prior to thoughts, free from perceptions, associations, memories.
Victor P. Hamilton suggests "some legitimate translations (...): (1) ' I am who I am '; (2) ' I am who I was '; (3) ' I am who I shall be '; (4) ' I was who I am '; (5) ' I was who I was '; (6) ' I was who I shall be '; (7) ' I shall be who I am '; (8) ' I shall be who I was '; (9) ' I shall be who I shall be. ' ''
The Bahá'í Faith reference to "I Am '' can be found in on page 316 of The Dawn - Breakers: Nabíl 's Narrative of the Early Days of the Bahá'í Revelation. "I am, '' thrice exclaimed The Bab, "I am, I am, the promised One! I am the One whose name you have for a thousand years invoked, at whose mention you have risen, whose advent you have longed to witness, and the hour of whose Revelation you have prayed God to hasten. Verily I say, it is incumbent upon the peoples of both the East and the West to obey My word and to pledge allegiance to My person. ''
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2 advantages of the members system in shaping malayan independence | Member system - Wikipedia
The Member System, modeled on the cabinet system, was created by British authorities in Malaysia to provide self - governance. Like the Communities Liaison Committee, it drew on members of different communities, and was later described as setting a precedent for the powersharing multiracial Malayan and Malaysian cabinets post-independence.
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when do we say body is in motion | Motion (physics) - wikipedia
In physics, motion is a change in position of an object over time. Motion is described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, time, and speed. Motion of a body is observed by attaching a frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in position of the body relative to that frame.
If the position of a body is not changing with respect to a given frame of reference (reference point), the body is said to be at rest, motionless, immobile, stationary, or to have constant (time - invariant) position. An object 's motion can not change unless it is acted upon by a force, as described. Momentum is a quantity which is used for measuring the motion of an object. An object 's momentum is directly related to the object 's mass and velocity, and the total momentum of all objects in an isolated system (one not affected by external forces) does not change with time, as described by the law of conservation of momentum.
As there is no absolute frame of reference, absolute motion can not be determined. Thus, everything in the universe can be considered to be moving.
Motion applies to objects, bodies, and matter particles, to radiation, radiation fields and radiation particles, and to space, its curvature and space - time. One can also speak of motion of shapes and boundaries. So, the term motion, in general, signifies a continuous change in the configuration of a physical system. For example, one can talk about motion of a wave or about motion of a quantum particle, where the configuration consists of probabilities of occupying specific positions.
In physics, motion is described through two sets of apparently contradictory laws of mechanics. Motions of all large - scale and familiar objects in the universe (such as projectiles, planets, cells, and humans) are described by classical mechanics. Whereas the motion of very small atomic and sub-atomic objects is described by quantum mechanics.
Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. It produces very accurate results within these domains, and is one of the oldest and largest in science, engineering, and technology.
Classical mechanics is fundamentally based on Newton 's laws of motion. These laws describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and the motion of that body. They were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published on July 5, 1687. Newton 's three laws are:
Newton 's three laws of motion were the first to accurately provide a mathematical model for understanding orbiting bodies in outer space. This explanation unified the motion of celestial bodies and motion of objects on earth.
Classical mechanics was further enhanced by Albert Einstein 's special relativity and general relativity. Special relativity is concerned with the motion of objects with a high velocity, approaching the speed of light; general relativity is employed to handle gravitational motion at a deeper level.
Uniform Motion:
When an object moves with a constant speed at a particular direction at regular intervals of time it 's known as the uniform motion. For example: a bike moving in a straight line with a constant speed.
EQUATIONS OF UNIFORM MOTION:
If v = final velocity, u = initial velocity, a = acceleration, t = time, s = displacement, then:
Quantum mechanics is a set of principles describing physical reality at the atomic level of matter (molecules and atoms) and the subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, and even smaller elementary particles such as quarks). These descriptions include the simultaneous wave - like and particle - like behavior of both matter and radiation energy as described in the wave -- particle duality.
In classical mechanics, accurate measurements and predictions of the state of objects can be calculated, such as location and velocity. In the quantum mechanics, due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the complete state of a subatomic particle, such as its location and velocity, can not be simultaneously determined.
In addition to describing the motion of atomic level phenomena, quantum mechanics is useful in understanding some large - scale phenomenon such as superfluidity, superconductivity, and biological systems, including the function of smell receptors and the structures of proteins.
Humans, like all known things in the universe, are in constant motion; however, aside from obvious movements of the various external body parts and locomotion, humans are in motion in a variety of ways which are more difficult to perceive. Many of these "imperceptible motions '' are only perceivable with the help of special tools and careful observation. The larger scales of imperceptible motions are difficult for humans to perceive for two reasons: Newton 's laws of motion (particularly the third) which prevents the feeling of motion on a mass to which the observer is connected, and the lack of an obvious frame of reference which would allow individuals to easily see that they are moving. The smaller scales of these motions are too small to be detected conventionally with human senses.
Spacetime (the fabric of the universe) is expanding meaning everything in the universe is stretching like a rubber band. This motion is the most obscure as it is not physical motion as such, but rather a change in the very nature of the universe. The primary source of verification of this expansion was provided by Edwin Hubble who demonstrated that all galaxies and distant astronomical objects were moving away from Earth, known as Hubble 's law, predicted by a universal expansion.
The Milky Way Galaxy is moving through space and many astronomers believe the velocity of this motion to be approximately 600 kilometres per second (1,340,000 mph) relative to the observed locations of other nearby galaxies. Another reference frame is provided by the Cosmic microwave background. This frame of reference indicates that the Milky Way is moving at around 582 kilometres per second (1,300,000 mph).
The Milky Way is rotating around its dense galactic center, thus the sun is moving in a circle within the galaxy 's gravity. Away from the central bulge, or outer rim, the typical stellar velocity is between 210 and 240 kilometres per second (470,000 and 540,000 mph). All planets and their moons move with the sun. Thus, the solar system is moving.
The Earth is rotating or spinning around its axis. This is evidenced by day and night, at the equator the earth has an eastward velocity of 0.4651 kilometres per second (1,040 mph). The Earth is also orbiting around the Sun in an orbital revolution. A complete orbit around the sun takes one year, or about 365 days; it averages a speed of about 30 kilometres per second (67,000 mph).
The Theory of Plate tectonics tells us that the continents are drifting on convection currents within the mantle causing them to move across the surface of the planet at the slow speed of approximately 2.54 centimetres (1 in) per year. However, the velocities of plates range widely. The fastest - moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 millimetres (3.0 in) per year and the Pacific Plate moving 52 -- 69 millimetres (2.0 -- 2.7 in) per year. At the other extreme, the slowest - moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of about 21 millimetres (0.83 in) per year.
The human heart is constantly contracting to move blood throughout the body. Through larger veins and arteries in the body, blood has been found to travel at approximately 0.33 m / s. Though considerable variation exists, and peak flows in the venae cavae have been found between 0.1 and 0.45 metres per second (0.33 and 1.48 ft / s). additionally, the smooth muscles of hollow internal organs are moving. The most familiar would be the occurrence of peristalsis which is where digested food is forced throughout the digestive tract. Though different foods travel through the body at different rates, an average speed through the human small intestine is 3.48 kilometres per hour (2.16 mph). The human lymphatic system is also constantly causing movements of excess fluids, lipids, and immune system related products around the body. The lymph fluid has been found to move through a lymph capillary of the skin at approximately 0.0000097 m / s.
The cells of the human body have many structures which move throughout them. Cytoplasmic streaming is a way which cells move molecular substances throughout the cytoplasm, various motor proteins work as molecular motors within a cell and move along the surface of various cellular substrates such as microtubules, and motor proteins are typically powered by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and convert chemical energy into mechanical work. Vesicles propelled by motor proteins have been found to have a velocity of approximately 0.00000152 m / s.
According to the laws of thermodynamics, all particles of matter are in constant random motion as long as the temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperature; higher temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans who sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when lower temperature objects are touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as feeling cold.
Within each atom, electrons exist in an area around the nucleus. This area is called the electron cloud. According to Bohr 's model of the atom, electrons have a high velocity, and the larger the nucleus they are orbiting the faster they would need to move. If electrons ' move ' about the electron cloud in strict paths the same way planets orbit the sun, then electrons would be required to do so at speeds which far exceed the speed of light. However, there is no reason that one must confine one 's self to this strict conceptualization, that electrons move in paths the same way macroscopic objects do. Rather one can conceptualize electrons to be ' particles ' that capriciously exist within the bounds of the electron cloud. Inside the atomic nucleus, the protons and neutrons are also probably moving around due to the electrical repulsion of the protons and the presence of angular momentum of both particles.
Light propagates at 299,792,458 m / s, often approximated as 299,792 kilometres per second (186,282 mi / s) in a vacuum. The speed of light (or c) is also the speed of all massless particles and associated fields in a vacuum, and it is the upper limit on the speed at which energy, matter, information or causation can travel; the speed of light is the limit of speed for all physical systems.
In addition, the speed of light is an invariant quantity: it has the same value, irrespective of the position or speed of the observer. This property makes the speed of light c a natural measurement unit for speed.
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what is the meaning of the parable of the sower and the seeds | Parable of the sower - wikipedia
The Parable of the Sower (sometimes called the Parable of the Soils) is a parable of Jesus found in the three Synoptic Gospels in Matthew 13: 1 - 23, Mark 4: 1 - 20, and Luke 8: 4 - 15.
In the story, a sower sows seed and does so indiscriminately. Some seed falls on the path (way side) with no soil, on rocky ground with little soil, and soil which contained thorns, and in those cases it is lost or fails to produce a crop, but when it falls on good soil it grows, yielding thirty, sixty, and a hundredfold.
Jesus then (only in the presence of disciples) explains that the seed represents the Gospel (the sower being anyone who proclaims it), and the various soils represent people 's responses to it (the first three representing rejection while the last represents acceptance and the extent thereof). It is notable that the sower does not do any sort of soil preparation beforehand; a possible interpretation being that God does that beforehand to the extent He chooses.
Hearken; Behold, there went out a sower to sow: And it came to pass, as he sowed, some fell by the way side, and the fowls of the air came and devoured it up. And some fell on stony ground, where it had not much earth; and immediately it sprang up, because it had no depth of earth: But when the sun was up, it was scorched; and because it had no root, it withered away. And some fell among thorns, and the thorns grew up, and choked it, and it yielded no fruit. And other fell on good ground, and did yield fruit that sprang up and increased; and brought forth, some thirty, and some sixty, and some an hundred. And he said unto them, He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.
The explanation given by Jesus:
And when he was alone, they that were about him with the twelve asked of him the parable. And he said unto them, Unto you it is given to know the mystery of the kingdom of God: but unto them that are without, all these things are done in parables: That seeing they may see, and not perceive; and hearing they may hear, and not understand; lest at any time they should be converted, and their sins should be forgiven them. And he said unto them, Know ye not this parable? and how then will ye know all parables? The sower soweth the word. And these are they by the way side, where the word is sown; but when they have heard, Satan cometh immediately, and taketh away the word that was sown in their hearts. And these are they likewise which are sown on stony ground; who, when they have heard the word, immediately receive it with gladness; And have no root in themselves, and so endure but for a time: afterward, when affliction or persecution ariseth for the word 's sake, immediately they are offended. And these are they which are sown among thorns; such as hear the word, and the cares of this world, and the deceitfulness of riches, and the lusts of other things entering in, choke the word, and it becometh unfruitful. And these are they which are sown on good ground; such as hear the word, and receive it, and bring forth fruit, some thirtyfold, some sixty, and some an hundred.
In Mark 's Gospel and Matthew 's Gospel, this parable, the explanation of the purpose of parables and the explanation of the parable itself form part of Jesus ' "Parabolic Discourse '' delivered from a boat on the Sea of Galilee. In each narrative, Jesus used the boat as a means of being able to address the huge crowd gathered on the lake shore. Luke 's Gospel does not use a boat for the delivery of the sermon, but still has Jesus presenting the parable to a large crowd gathered from ' every city ' and follows the parable with a question on the purpose of parables and an explanation of the parable of the sower itself.
Whilst the parable was told to the multitude, the explanations were only given to the disciples.
Some scholars think the parable was originally optimistic in outlook, in that despite failures eventually the "seed '' will be successful, take root and produce a large "crop ''. Mark uses it to highlight the effect Christ 's previous teachings have had on people as well as the effect the Christian message has had on the world over the three decades between Christ 's ministry and the writing of the Gospel.
Jesus says he is teaching in parables because he does not want everyone to understand him, only those who are his followers. Those outside the group are not meant to understand them. Thus one must already be committed to following Jesus to fully understand his message and that without that commitment one will never fully understand him or be helped by his message. If one does not correctly understand the parables, this is a sign that one is not a true disciple of Jesus. He quotes Isaiah 6: 9 - 10, who also preached to Israel knowing that his message would go unheeded and not understood so that the Israelites ' sins would not be forgiven and they would be punished by God for them. This parable seems to be essential for understanding all the rest of Jesus ' parables, as it makes clear that what is necessary to understand Jesus is a prior faith in him, and that Jesus will not enlighten those who refuse to believe, he will only confuse them.
According to Genesis 26: 12 - 13, the Hebrew patriarch Isaac sowed seed and "reaped a hundredfold; and the Lord blessed him. (He) began to prosper, and continued prospering until he became very prosperous ''. Anglican bishop Charles Ellicott thought "the hundredfold return was, perhaps, a somewhat uncommon increase, but the narrative of Isaac 's tillage in Genesis 26: 12 shows that it was not unheard of, and had probably helped to make it the standard of a more than usually prosperous harvest '' but Protestant theologian Heinrich Meyer argued that "such points of detail... should not be pressed, serving as they do merely to enliven and fill out the picture ''.
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cities with the most skyscrapers in north america | List of cities with the most skyscrapers - wikipedia
This list of cities with most skyscrapers ranks cities around the world by their number of skyscrapers. This list refers to skyscrapers at least 150 metres (490 ft) tall or higher, complementing the list of cities with the most high - rise buildings.
This is a list of cities by number of skyscrapers that are 150 metres (490 ft) or greater in height.
Included in this chart are cities with skyscrapers of known heights that are completed or under construction.
This is a ranking of the cities with at least 10 buildings above 100m.
^ A Metro Manila - The actual administrative area governed by the City of Manila is only 42.88 square kilometers. The 16 cities and 1 municipality that constitute Metro Manila, formally known as the National Capital Region, were all historically governed as part of the City of Manila, and, as a whole, encompasses an area of 613.14 square kilometers, which is comparable to the areas covered by other cities on the list, such as Seoul, Singapore, and Mumbai. It 's number of completed skyscrapers combined are 94 making it the worlds number 10 in number of completed skyscrapers.
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when was the 2 dollar bill discontinued in canada | Withdrawn Canadian banknotes - wikipedia
Banknotes that are no longer in issue in Canada, and are being removed from circulation, are said to be withdrawn from circulation.
The Bank of Canada, Canada 's sole issuer of bank notes, currently issues five different denominations ($5, $10, $20, $50 and $100). Smaller denominations have been replaced by coins, and larger ones are felt to be no longer required in an era of electronic transmission of most large transactions. Despite competition from some more valuable foreign notes (most notably, the 500 euro banknote), there are no plans to re-issue Canadian banknotes larger than $100.
Notes issued by these former issuing authorities are considered to be withdrawn from circulation:
All Bank of Canada notes issued prior to the current Frontier Series are being withdrawn from circulation. The following Bank of Canada denominations included in previous series have been permanently retired:
The $25 note was issued only in 1935, to commemorate the silver jubilee of King George V. As with other 1935 issues, separate English and French versions were printed. This was a limited release that was never printed in large quantities. The note was coloured an appropriate royal purple; both the King & his consort Queen Mary were featured, with Windsor Castle appearing on the back. The $25 note was withdrawn from circulation in 1937.
The $500 denomination was included only in the 1935 series. No note of this denomination has been printed since. The note was coloured sepia, or burnt sienna; the face featured Sir John A. Macdonald, and the back depicted a fertility allegory. The $500 note was withdrawn from circulation in 1938.
There had been two previous printings of the $500 note by the Dominion of Canada, one in 1925 featuring King George V, and one in 1911 picturing Queen Mary. Of the latter, only three are known to still exist, one of which sold for US $322,000 in a Heritage auction in October 2008. It is unlikely that further 1911 notes survived the Depression.
Printing of the $1 note ceased in 1989 after the release of the loonie (in 1987) had been implemented. These notes are virtually never seen in circulation today. The most recent banknote series that included the $1 note was the Scenes of Canada, with the $1 note released in 1974, coloured green and black. The face featured a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II; the back featured an image of Parliament Hill from across the Ottawa River, with log driving activities taking place on the water.
Printing of the $2 note ceased on February 18, 1996, with initial release of the toonie, a coin that replaced it. These notes are virtually never seen in circulation today. The most recent banknote series that included the two - dollar note was the Birds of Canada series in 1986, in which this note was a terra cotta colour. The face featured a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II; the back featured a meadow scene with two robins. Prior to the withdrawal of the $1 note, the $2 was not as widely circulated and was difficult to find in some regions, Alberta in particular. After the $1 note was withdrawn, the $2 was much more widely circulated.
Printing of the $1,000 note ceased in 2000. The denomination was withdrawn on the advice of the Solicitor General and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), as it was often used for money laundering and organized crime. The Bank of Canada has requested that financial institutions return $1,000 notes for destruction. The most recent issue of this denomination was in 1992 as part of the Birds of Canada series. It was pink in colour, featuring Queen Elizabeth II on the face, and two pine grosbeaks on the back.
Currency withdrawn from circulation remains legal tender, but this does not obligate any creditor to accept it as a medium of exchange. Withdrawn currency is usually exchanged at commercial bank branches, though some banks require that exchangers be bank customers. The bank then returns the withdrawn currency, together with worn out currency, to the Bank of Canada for destruction.
Liabilities for outstanding provincial and Dominion of Canada notes was transferred to the Bank of Canada in 1935, and liability for chartered bank notes in 1950. As of December 31, 2016, the total value of provincial, Dominion, chartered bank, and discontinued Bank of Canada denominations still outstanding is $1.139 billion, of which more than $765 million is in $1,000 notes. The liability for this amount remains on the Bank of Canada 's books up to the present day.
On February 27, 2018, The Government of Canada announced in their 2018 Federal Budget that there are plans to make all withdrawn banknotes no longer legal tender. If passed into law, these notes will still retain face value and may still be redeemed at banks in exchange for current banknotes. The current five denominations - $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100 - will not be affected at this time, but the government may decide to remove legal tender status from older series versions of these denominations in the future.
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who is in charge of the president cabinet | Cabinet of the United States - wikipedia
The Cabinet of the United States is part of the executive branch of the U.S. government that normally acts as an advisory body to the President of the United States. It is composed of the most senior appointed officers of the executive branch of the U.S. government serving under the President. Among those are the Vice President and the heads of the federal executive departments, all of whom are by federal law (3 U.S.C. § 19) in the line of succession to the President and have duties under the 25th Amendment to the Constitution. Members of the Cabinet (except for the Vice President) serve at the pleasure of the President, who can dismiss them at will for no cause. All federal public officials, including Cabinet members, are also subject to impeachment by the House of Representatives and trial in the Senate for "treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors ''.
The President can also unilaterally designate senior White House staffers, heads of other federal agencies and the Ambassador to the United Nations as members of the Cabinet, although this is a symbolic status marker and does not, apart from attending Cabinet meetings, confer any additional powers.
There is no explicit reference to a "Cabinet '' in the United States Constitution, the United States Code, or the Code of Federal Regulations. In the Constitution, the President is authorized (but not compelled) to "require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices. '' The Constitution does not provide for an explicit forum where the principal officers ' opinions can be obtained less formally, without writing, such as a formal Cabinet.
George Washington, the first U.S. President, organized his principal officers into a Cabinet, and it has been part of the executive branch structure ever since. Washington 's Cabinet consisted of six members: himself, the Vice President John Adams, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of War Henry Knox and Attorney General Edmund Randolph.
Presidents have used Cabinet meetings of selected principal officers but to widely differing extents and for different purposes. Secretary of State William H. Seward and then Professor Woodrow Wilson advocated use of a parliamentary - style Cabinet government. But President Abraham Lincoln rebuffed Seward, and Woodrow Wilson would have none of it in his administration. In recent administrations, Cabinets have grown to include key White House staff in addition to department and various agency heads. President Ronald Reagan formed seven subcabinet councils to review many policy issues, and subsequent Presidents have followed that practice.
The term "principal Officer in each of the executive Departments '' is mentioned in the Opinion Clause (Article II, Section 2, Clause 1) and the term "Heads of Departments '' is mentioned in Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution. The term "principal officers of the executive departments '' is also mentioned in the Twenty - fifth Amendment, Section 4, the executive departments being listed in 5 U.S.C. § 101. Although there are occasional references to "Cabinet - level officers, '' which when viewed in their context do refer to these "principal officers '' and "heads of departments, '' the terms "principal officers '' and "heads of departments '' are not necessarily synonymous with "Cabinet '' members.
In 3 U.S.C. § 302 with regard to delegation of authority by the President, it is provided that "nothing herein shall be deemed to require express authorization in any case in which such an official would be presumed in law to have acted by authority or direction of the President. '' This pertains directly to the heads of the executive departments as each of their offices is created and specified by statutory law (hence the presumption) and thus gives them the authority to act for the President within their areas of responsibility without any specific delegation.
Under the 1967 Federal Anti-Nepotism statute, federal officials are prohibited from appointing their immediate family members to certain governmental positions, including those in the Cabinet.
Under the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998, an incoming administration may appoint acting heads of department from employees of the relevant department. These may be existing high - level career employees, from political appointees of the outgoing administration, or sometimes lower - level appointees of the incoming administration.
The heads of the executive departments and all other federal agency heads are nominated by the President and then presented to the Senate for confirmation or rejection by a simple majority (although before the use of the "nuclear option '' during the 113th US Congress, they could have been blocked by filibuster, requiring cloture to be invoked by ⁄ supermajority to further consideration). If approved, they receive their commission scroll, are sworn in and then begin their duties.
An elected Vice President does not require Senate confirmation, nor does the White House Chief of Staff, which is an appointed staff position of the Executive Office of the President.
The heads of the executive departments and most other senior federal officers at cabinet or sub-cabinet level receive their salary under a fixed five level pay plan known as the Executive Schedule, which is codified in Title 5 of the United States Code. 21 positions, including the heads of the executive departments and others, receiving Level I pay are listed in 5 U.S.C. § 5312, and those 46 positions on Level II pay (including the number two positions of the executive departments) are listed in 5 U.S.C. § 5313. As of January 2016, the Level I annual pay was set at $205,700.
The annual salary of the Vice President is $235,300. The salary level was set by the Government Salary Reform Act of 1989, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees. The Vice President does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his ex officio position as President of the Senate.
The individuals listed below were nominated by President Donald Trump to form his Cabinet and were confirmed by the United States Senate on the date noted, or are serving as acting department heads by his request pending the confirmation of his nominees. For a full list of people nominated for Cabinet positions, see Formation of Donald Trump 's Cabinet.
The Cabinet includes the Vice President and the heads of 15 executive departments, listed here according to their order of succession to the Presidency. These 15 positions are the core "cabinet member '' seats, as distinct from other Cabinet - level seats for other various top level White House staffers and heads of other government agencies, none of whom are in the presidential line of succession and not all of whom are Officers of the United States. Note that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate follow the Vice President and precede the Secretary of State in the order of succession, but both are in the legislative branch and are not part of the Cabinet.
The following officials hold positions that are considered to be Cabinet - level positions. Cabinet - level officials attend Cabinet meetings, but are not official Cabinet Members:
James K. Polk and his Cabinet in 1846. The first Cabinet to be photographed.
President Buchanan and his Cabinet
Abraham Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the Emancipation Proclamation draft (July 26, 1862).
President Theodore Roosevelt 's Cabinet
President William H. Taft 's second cabinet, 1912 (photographed by Harris & Ewing photo studio)
The Nixon Cabinet, 1969
President Gerald R. Ford meeting with his Cabinet (June 25, 1976)
President Jimmy Carter 's Cabinet meeting (February 13, 1978)
President Reagan and his Cabinet (September 11, 1986)
President George H.W. Bush and his Cabinet in the Cabinet Room (September 5, 1989).
The Clinton Cabinet, in 1993.
The Bush Cabinet (February 2008).
The first Obama Cabinet (September 2009).
The Trump Cabinet (March 13, 2017)
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where did the little drummer boy song come from | The Little Drummer Boy - wikipedia
"The Little Drummer Boy '' (originally known as "Carol of the Drum '') is a popular Christmas song written by the American classical music composer and teacher Katherine Kennicott Davis in 1941. First recorded in 1951 by the Trapp Family Singers, the song was further popularized by a 1958 recording by the Harry Simeone Chorale; the Simeone version was re-released successfully for several years and the song has been recorded many times since.
In the lyrics the singer relates how, as a poor young boy, he was summoned by the Magi to the Nativity of Jesus. Without a gift for the infant the little drummer boy played his drum with Jesus ' mother, Mary 's approval; recalling, "I played my best for Him '' and "He smiled at me. ''
The song was originally titled "Carol of the Drum '' and was published by Davis as based upon a traditional Czech carol. Davis 's interest was in producing material for amateur and girls ' choirs: Her manuscript is set as a chorale, in which the tune is in the soprano melody with alto harmony, tenor and bass parts producing the "drum rhythm '' and a keyboard accompaniment "for rehearsal only ''. It is headed "Czech Carol freely transcribed by K.K.D. '', these initials then deleted and replaced with "C.R.W. Robinson '', a name under which Davis sometimes published. The Czech original of the carol has never been identified.
"Carol of the Drum '' appealed to the Austrian Trapp Family Singers, who first brought the song to wider prominence when they recorded it for Decca Records in 1955, shortly before they retired: their version was credited solely to Davis and published by Belwin - Mills. In 1957 it was recorded, with a slightly altered arrangement, by the Jack Halloran Singers for their album Christmas Is A-Comin ' on Dot Records. Dot 's Henry Onorati introduced the song to his friend Harry Simeone and the following year, when 20th Century Fox Records contracted him to make a Christmas album, Simeone, making further small changes to the Halloran arrangement and retitling it "The Little Drummer Boy '', recorded it with the Harry Simeone Chorale on the album Sing We Now of Christmas. Simeone and Onorati claimed joint composition credits with Davis.
The album and the song were an enormous success, the single scoring on the U.S. music charts from 1958 to 1962. In 1963, the album was reissued under the title The Little Drummer Boy: A Christmas Festival, capitalizing on the single 's popularity. The following year the album was released in stereo. In 1988, The Little Drummer Boy: A Christmas Festival was released on CD by Casablanca Records, and subsequently, on Island Records. Harry Simeone, who in 1964 had signed with Kapp Records, recorded a new version of "The Little Drummer Boy '' in 1965 for his album O ' Bambino: The Little Drummer Boy. Simeone recorded the song a third and final time in 1981, for an album (again titled The Little Drummer Boy) on the budget Holiday Records label.
The story depicted in the song is somewhat similar to a 12th - century legend retold by Anatole France as Le Jongleur de Notre Dame (French: Our Lady 's Juggler), which was adapted into an opera in 1902 by Jules Massenet. In the French legend, however, a juggler juggles before the statue of the Virgin Mary, and the statue, according to which version of the legend one reads, either smiles at him or throws him a rose (or both, as in the 1984 television film, The Juggler of Notre Dame).
The popularity of "The Little Drummer Boy '' can be seen by the number of cover versions (a total of over 220 versions in seven languages are known) in all kinds of music genres:
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when did the horse and buggy era end | Horse and buggy - wikipedia
A horse and buggy (in American English) or horse and carriage (in British English and American English) refers to a light, simple, two - person carriage of the late 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries, drawn usually by one or sometimes by two horses. Also called a roadster or a trap, it was made with two wheels in England and the United States, and with four wheels in the United States as well. It had a folding or falling top.
A Concorde buggy, first made in Concord, New Hampshire, had a body with low sides and side - spring suspension. A buggy having two seats was a double buggy. A buggy called a stanhope typically had a high seat and closed back.
The bodies of buggies were sometimes suspended on a pair of longitudinal elastic wooden bars called sidebars. A buggy whip had a small, usually tasseled tip called a snapper.
In countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada, it was a primary mode of short - distance personal transportation, especially between 1815 and 1915. At that time, horseback riding in towns and rural areas was less common and required more specific skills than driving a buggy. Horsemanship tended to be an aristocratic skill of larger American and British landowners, North American western pioneers, the military and scouts. Buggies required at least crudely graded main roadways, where horses could go almost anywhere. The growing use of buggies for local travel expanded, along with stage lines and railroads for longer trips. In cities and towns, horse - drawn railed vehicles gave carriage to poor workers and the lower middle class. The upper middle class used buggies, as did farmers, while the rich had the more elegant 4 - wheel carriages for local use. In the late 19th century bicycles became another factor in urban personal transport.
Until mass production of the automobile brought its price within the reach of the working class, horse - drawn conveyances were the most common means of local transport in towns and nearby countryside. Buggies cost around $25 to $50, and could easily be hitched and driven by untrained men, women, or children. In the United States, hundreds of small companies produced buggies, and their wide use helped to encourage the grading and graveling of main rural roads and actual paving in towns. This provided all - weather passage within and between larger towns.
By the early 1910s, the number of automobiles had surpassed the number of buggies, but their use continued well into the 1920s in out of the way places.
During the 1930s, unemployment due to the Great Depression and high gasoline prices meant many car owners in the U.S. and Canada could no longer afford to drive. The Bennett buggy (in Canada) or Hoover wagon (in the U.S.) was an automobile converted to be pulled by horses.
In the 21st Century, the buggy is still used as normal, every day means of transportation by Anabaptists like the Amish, parts of the Old Order Mennonites, parts of the Old Order River Brethren and parts of the German - speaking "Russian '' Mennonites in Latin America but also by the Old Order German Baptist Brethren and Old Brethren German Baptists who belong to the Schwarzenau Brethren. A Triangular Warning sign with red border and yellow background is often attached to the rear of the buggy.
Commercial horse and buggy rides mainly for tourists are conducted in in several places, for example in New York City 's central park area, in Vienna, Brussels and other European and North American sites.
Today, the term "horse and buggy '' is often used in reference to the era before the advent of the automobile and other socially revolutionizing major inventions. By extension, it has come to mean clinging to outworn attitudes or ideas, and hopelessly outmoded, old - fashioned, non-modern, or obsolete.
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who is buried at st paul cathedral london | Category: Burials at St Paul 's Cathedral - wikipedia Help
This category includes people buried in Old St Paul 's Cathedral, the predecessor to the present building.
The following 77 pages are in this category, out of 77 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).
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what are early wood and latewood how can the age of a tree be determined | Dendrochronology - wikipedia
Dendrochronology (or tree - ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in history. Dendrochronology is useful for determining the timing of events and rates of change in the environment (most prominently climate) and also in works of art and architecture, such as old panel paintings on wood, buildings, etc. It is also used in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages.
New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark. A tree 's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes, resulting in visible growth rings. Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons, or one year, in the tree 's life. As of 2013, the oldest tree - ring measurements in the Northern Hemisphere are a floating sequence extending from about 12,580 to 13,900 years. Dendrochronology derives from Ancient Greek: δένδρον (dendron), meaning "tree '', χρόνος (khronos), meaning "time '', and - λογία (- logia), "the study of ''.
The Greek botanist Theophrastus (ca. 371 -- ca. 287 BC) first mentioned that the wood of trees has rings. In his Trattato della Pittura (Treatise on Painting), Leonardo da Vinci was the first person to mention that trees form rings annually and that their thickness is determined by the conditions under which they grew. In 1737, French investigators Henri - Louis Duhamel du Monceau and Georges - Louis Leclerc de Buffon examined the effect of growing conditions on the shape of tree rings. They found that in 1709, a severe winter produced a distinctly dark tree ring, which served as a reference for subsequent European naturalists. In the U.S., Alexander Catlin Twining (1801 -- 1884) suggested in 1833 that patterns among tree rings could be used to synchronize the dendrochronologies of various trees and thereby to reconstruct past climates across entire regions. The English polymath Charles Babbage proposed using dendrochronology to date the remains of trees in peat bogs or even in geological strata (1835, 1838).
During the latter half of the nineteenth century, the scientific study of tree rings and the application of dendrochronology began. In 1859, the German - American Jacob Kuechler (1823 -- 1893) used crossdating to examine oaks (Quercus stellata) in order to study the record of climate in western Texas. In 1866, the German botanist, entomologist, and forester Julius Ratzeburg (1801 -- 1871) observed the effects on tree rings of defoliation caused by insect infestations. By 1882, this observation was already appearing in forestry textbooks. In the 1870s, the Dutch astronomer Jacobus C. Kapteyn (1851 -- 1922) was using crossdating to reconstruct the climates of the Netherlands and Germany. In 1881, the Swiss - Austrian forester Arthur von Seckendorff - Gudent (1845 -- 1886) was using crossdating. From 1869 to 1901, Robert Hartig (1839 -- 1901), a German professor of forest pathology, wrote a series of papers on the anatomy and ecology of tree rings. In 1892, the Russian physicist Fedor Nikiforovich Shvedov (Фёдор Никифорович Шведов) (1841 -- 1905) wrote that he had used patterns found in tree rings to predict droughts in 1882 and 1891.
During the first half of the 20th century, the astronomer A.E. Douglass founded the Laboratory of Tree - Ring Research at the University of Arizona. Douglass sought to better understand cycles of sunspot activity and reasoned that changes in solar activity would affect climate patterns on earth, which would subsequently be recorded by tree - ring growth patterns (i.e., sunspots → climate → tree rings).
Horizontal cross sections cut through the trunk of a tree can reveal growth rings, also referred to as tree rings or annual rings. Growth rings result from new growth in the vascular cambium, a layer of cells near the bark that botanists classify as a lateral meristem; this growth in diameter is known as secondary growth. Visible rings result from the change in growth speed through the seasons of the year; thus, critical for the title method, one ring generally marks the passage of one year in the life of the tree. Removal of the bark of the tree in a particular area may cause deformation of the rings as the plant overgrows the scar.
The rings are more visible in trees which have grown in temperate zones, where the seasons differ more markedly. The inner portion of a growth ring forms early in the growing season, when growth is comparatively rapid (hence the wood is less dense) and is known as "early wood '' (or "spring wood '', or "late - spring wood ''); the outer portion is the "late wood '' (sometimes termed "summer wood '', often being produced in the summer, though sometimes in the autumn) and is denser.
Many trees in temperate zones produce one growth - ring each year, with the newest adjacent to the bark. Hence, for the entire period of a tree 's life, a year - by - year record or ring pattern builds up that reflects the age of the tree and the climatic conditions in which the tree grew. Adequate moisture and a long growing season result in a wide ring, while a drought year may result in a very narrow one.
Direct reading of tree ring chronologies is a complex science, for several reasons. First, contrary to the single - ring - per - year paradigm, alternating poor and favorable conditions, such as mid-summer droughts, can result in several rings forming in a given year. In addition, particular tree - species may present "missing rings '', and this influences the selection of trees for study of long time - spans. For instance, missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees.
Critical to the science, trees from the same region tend to develop the same patterns of ring widths for a given period of chronological study. Researchers can compare and match these patterns ring - for - ring with patterns from trees which have grown at the same time in the same geographical zone (and therefore under similar climatic conditions). When one can match these tree - ring patterns across successive trees in the same locale, in overlapping fashion, chronologies can be built up -- both for entire geographical regions and for sub-regions. Moreover, wood from ancient structures with known chronologies can be matched to the tree - ring data (a technique called cross-dating), and the age of the wood can thereby be determined precisely. Dendrochronologists originally carried out cross-dating by visual inspection; more recently, they have harnessed computers to do the task, applying statistical techniques to assess the matching. To eliminate individual variations in tree - ring growth, dendrochronologists take the smoothed average of the tree - ring widths of multiple tree - samples to build up a ring history, a process termed replication. A tree - ring history whose beginning - and end - dates are not known is called a floating chronology. It can be anchored by cross-matching a section against another chronology (tree - ring history) whose dates are known.
A fully anchored and cross-matched chronology for oak and pine in central Europe extends back 12,460 years, and an oak chronology goes back 7,429 years in Ireland and 6,939 years in England. Comparison of radiocarbon and dendrochronological ages supports the consistency of these two independent dendrochronological sequences. Another fully anchored chronology that extends back 8500 years exists for the bristlecone pine in the Southwest US (White Mountains of California).
Dendrochronological equation defines the law of growth of tree rings. The equation was proposed by Russian biophysicist Alexandr N. Tetearing in his work "Theory of populations '' in the form:
Δ L (t) = 1 k v ρ 1 3 d (M 1 3 (t)) d t, (\ displaystyle \ Delta L (t) = (\ frac (1) (k_ (v) \, \ rho ^ (\ tfrac (1) (3)))) \, (\ frac (d (\ big () M ^ (\ tfrac (1) (3)) (t) (\ big))) (dt)),)
where Δ L (\ displaystyle \ Delta L) is width of annual ring, t (\ displaystyle t) is time (in years), ρ (\ displaystyle \ rho) is density of wood, k v (\ displaystyle k_ (v)) is some coefficient, M (t) (\ displaystyle M (t)) is function of mass growth of the tree.
With the neglection of natural sinusoidal oscillations in tree mass, the formula of the changes in the annual ring width is:
Δ L (t) = − c 1 e − a 1 t + c 2 e − a 2 t 3 k v ρ 1 3 (c 4 + c 1 e − a 1 t + c 2 e − a 2 t) 2 3 (\ displaystyle \ Delta L (t) = - (\ dfrac (c_ (1) e ^ (- a_ (1) t) + c_ (2) e ^ (- a_ (2) t)) (3k_ (v) \ rho ^ (\ tfrac (1) (3)) (c_ (4) + c_ (1) e ^ (- a_ (1) t) + c_ (2) e ^ (- a_ (2) t)) ^ (\ tfrac (2) (3)))))
There c 1 (\ displaystyle c_ (1)), c 2 (\ displaystyle c_ (2)), and c 4 (\ displaystyle c_ (4)) are some coefficients, a 1 (\ displaystyle a_ (1)) and a 2 (\ displaystyle a_ (2)) are positive constants.
The formula is useful for correct approximation of samples data before data normalization procedure.
The typical forms of the function Δ L (t) (\ displaystyle \ Delta L (t)) of annual growth of wood ring are shown in the figures.
Dendrochronology makes available specimens of once - living material accurately dated to a specific year. Dates are often represented as estimated calendar years B.P., for before present, where "present '' refers to 1 January 1950.
Timber core samples are sampled and used to measure the width of annual growth rings; by taking samples from different sites within a particular region, researchers can build a comprehensive historical sequence. The techniques of dendrochronology are more consistent in areas where trees grew in marginal conditions such as aridity or semi-aridity where the ring growth is more sensitive to the environment, rather than in humid areas where tree - ring growth is more uniform (complacent). In addition, some genera of trees are more suitable than others for this type of analysis. For instance, the bristlecone pine is exceptionally long - lived and slow growing, and has been used extensively for chronologies; still - living and dead specimens of this species provide tree - ring patterns going back thousands of years, in some regions more than 10,000 years. Currently, the maximum span for fully anchored chronology is a little over 11,000 years B.P.
In 2004 a new radiocarbon calibration curve, INTCAL04, was internationally ratified to provide calibrated dates back to 26,000 B.P. For the period back to 12,400 B.P., the radiocarbon dates are calibrated against dendrochronological dates.
Dendrochronology practice faces many obstacles, including the existence of species of ants that inhabit trees and extend their galleries into the wood, thus destroying ring structure.
European chronologies derived from wooden structures initially found it difficult to bridge the gap in the 14th century when there was a building hiatus, which coincided with the Black Death, however there do exist unbroken chronologies dating back to prehistoric times, for example the Danish chronology dating back to 352 BC.
Given a sample of wood, the variation of the tree - ring growths provides not only a match by year, it can also match location because the climate across a continent is not consistent. This makes it possible to determine the source of ships as well as smaller artifacts made from wood but which were transported long distances, such as panels for paintings and ship timbers.
Dates from dendrochronology can be used as a calibration and check of radiocarbon dating
Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climates from trees primarily from the properties of the annual tree rings. Other properties of the annual rings, such as maximum latewood density (MXD) have been shown to be better proxies than simple ring width. Using tree rings, scientists have estimated many local climates for hundreds to thousands of years previous.
Dendrochronology has become important to art historians in the dating of panel paintings. However, unlike analysis of samples from buildings, which are typically sent to a laboratory, wooden supports for paintings usually have to be measured in a museum conservation department, which places limitations on the techniques that can be used.
In addition to dating, dendrochronology can also provide information as to the source of the panel. Many Early Netherlandish paintings have turned out to be painted on panels of "Baltic oak '' shipped from the Vistula region via ports of the Hanseatic League. Oak panels were used in a number of northern countries such as England, France and Germany. Wooden supports other than oak were rarely used by Netherlandish painters.
Since panels of seasoned wood were used, an uncertain number of years has to be allowed for seasoning when estimating dates. Panels were trimmed of the outer rings, and often each panel only uses a small part of the radius of the trunk. Consequently, dating studies usually result in a "terminus post quem '' (earliest possible) date, and a tentative date for the actual arrival of a seasoned raw panel using assumptions as to these factors. As a result of establishing numerous sequences, it was possible to date 85 -- 90 % of the 250 paintings from the 14th to 17th century analysed between 1971 and 1982; by now a much greater number have been analysed.
A portrait of Mary, Queen of Scots in the National Portrait Gallery, London was believed to be an 18th - century copy. However, dendrochronology revealed that the wood dated from the second half of the 16th century. It is now regarded as an original 16th - century painting by an unknown artist.
On the other hand, dendrochronology was applied to four paintings depicting the same subject, that of Christ expelling the money - lenders from the Temple. The results showed that the age of the wood was too late for any of them to have been painted by Hieronymus Bosch.
While dendrochronology has become an important tool for dating oak panels, it is not effective in dating the poplar panels often used by Italian painters because of the erratic growth rings in poplar.
The 16th century saw a gradual replacement of wooden panels by canvas as the support for paintings, which means the technique is less often applicable to later paintings. In addition, many panel paintings were transferred onto canvas or other supports during the 19th and 20th centuries.
The dating of buildings with wooden structures and components has also been done by using dendrochronology. While archaeologists can date wood and when it was felled, it may be difficult to definitively determine the age of a building or structure in which the wood was used; the wood could have been reused from an older structure, may have been felled and left for many years before use, or could have been used to replace a damaged piece of wood. The dating of building via dendrochronology thus requires knowledge of the history of building technology.
Examples:
Similar seasonal patterns also occur in ice cores and in varves (layers of sediment deposition in a lake, river, or sea bed). The deposition pattern in the core will vary for a frozen - over lake versus an ice - free lake, and with the fineness of the sediment.
Some columnar cactus also exhibit similar seasonal patterns in the isotopes of carbon and oxygen in their spines (acanthochronology). These are used for dating in a manner similar to dendrochronology, and such techniques are used in combination with dendrochronology, to plug gaps and to extend the range of the seasonal data available to archaeologists and paleoclimatologists.
A similar technique is used to estimate the age of fish stocks through the analysis of growth rings in the otolith bones.
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what kind of websites is to sell goods and services | EBay - Wikipedia
eBay Inc. (/ ˈiːˌbeɪ / EE - bay) is a multinational e-commerce corporation headquartered in San Jose, California that facilitates consumer - to - consumer and business - to - consumer sales through its website. eBay was founded by Pierre Omidyar in 1995, and became a notable success story of the dot - com bubble. Today, eBay is a multi-billion - dollar business with operations in about 30 countries. The company manages eBay.com, an online auction and shopping website in which people and businesses buy and sell a wide variety of goods and services worldwide. The website is free to use for buyers, but sellers are charged fees for listing items after a limited number of free listings, and again when those items are sold.
In addition to its original auction - style sales, the website has since evolved and expanded to include "Buy It Now '' shopping; shopping by UPC, ISBN, or other kind of SKU number (via Half.com); online classified advertisements (via Kijiji or eBay Classifieds); online event ticket trading (via StubHub); and other services. It previously offered online money transfers (via PayPal, which was a wholly owned subsidiary of eBay from 2002 until 2015).
The AuctionWeb was founded in California on September 3, 1995, by French - born Iranian - American computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as part of a larger personal site. One of the first items sold on AuctionWeb was a broken laser pointer for $14.83. Astonished, Omidyar contacted the winning bidder to ask if he understood that the laser pointer was broken. In his responding email, the buyer explained: "I 'm a collector of broken laser pointers. ''
The frequently repeated story that eBay was founded to help Omidyar 's fiancée trade Pez candy dispensers was fabricated by a public relations manager, Mary Lou Song, in 1997 to interest the media, which were not interested in the company 's previous explanation about wanting to create a "perfect market ''. This was revealed in Adam Cohen 's book, The Perfect Store (2002), and confirmed by eBay.
Reportedly, eBay was simply a side hobby for Omidyar until his Internet service provider informed him he would need to upgrade to a business account due to the high volume of traffic to his website. The resulting price increase (from $30 / month to $250) forced him to start charging those who used eBay, and was not met with any animosity. It resulted in the hiring of Chris Agarpao as eBay 's first additional employee to handle the number of checks coming in for fees.
Jeffrey Skoll was hired as the first new president of the company in early 1996. In November 1996, eBay entered into its first third - party licensing deal, with a company called Electronic Travel Auction to use SmartMarket Technology to sell plane tickets and other travel products. Growth was phenomenal; in January 1997 the site hosted 2,000,000 auctions, compared with 250,000 during the whole of 1996.
The company officially changed the name of its service from AuctionWeb to eBay in September 1997. Originally, the site belonged to Echo Bay Technology Group, Omidyar 's consulting firm. Omidyar had tried to register the domain name echobay.com, but found it already taken by the Echo Bay Mines, a gold mining company, so he shortened it to his second choice, eBay.com.
In 1997, the company received $6.7 million in funding from the venture capital firm Benchmark Capital.
Meg Whitman was hired as eBay President and CEO in March 1998. At the time, the company had 30 employees, half a million users and revenues of $4.7 million in the United States.
eBay went public on September 21, 1998, and both Omidyar and Skoll became instant billionaires. eBay 's target share price of $18 was all but ignored as the price went to $53.50 on the first day of trading.
As the company expanded product categories beyond collectibles into almost any saleable item, business grew quickly. In February 2002, the company purchased iBazar, a similar European auction web site founded in 1998, and then bought PayPal on October 3, 2002.
By early 2008, the company had expanded worldwide, counting hundreds of millions of registered users as well as 15,000 employees and revenues of almost $7.7 billion. After nearly ten years at eBay, Whitman decided to enter politics. On January 23, 2008, the company announced that Whitman would step down on March 31, 2008, and John Donahoe was selected to become President and CEO. Whitman remained on the Board of Directors and continued to advise Donahoe through 2008. In late 2009, eBay completed the sale of Skype for $2.75 billion, but will still own 30 % equity in the company.
In 2012, eBay was charged by the United States Department of Justice with entering into non-solicitation agreements with other technology companies involving their highly skilled employees.
On September 30, 2014, eBay announced it would spinoff PayPal into a separate publicly traded company, a demand made nine months prior by activist hedge fund magnate Carl Icahn. The spinoff completed on July 18, 2015. eBay 's then chief executive, John Donahoe, stepped down from that role.
As of November 2014, the board of directors was as follows:
In September 2012, eBay introduced a new logo set in Univers, installed on the website on October 10, 2012.
1995 -- 2012
2012 -- present
eBay generates revenue by a complex system of fees for services, listing product features, and a Final Value Fee for sales proceeds by sellers. As of November 2012, the US - based eBay.com charges $ 0.10 to $2, based on the opening or reserve price, as an insertion fee for a basic auction - style listing without any adornments. The Final Value Fee amounts to 10 % of the total amount of the sale, which is the price of the item plus shipping charges. Fixed - price listings have an insertion fee of $0.30, and the final value fee varies based on category and total amount of the sale (e.g., 13 % for DVDs & Movies up to $50). The UK - based ebay.co.uk takes from £ 0.15 to a maximum rate of £ 3 per £ 100 for an ordinary listing and up to 10 % of the final price. Reduced Final Value Fees are available to business registered customers.
Under US law, a state can not require sellers located outside the state to collect a sales tax, making purchases more attractive to buyers. Although some state laws require resident purchasers to pay use tax on out - of - state purchases, it is not a common practice. However, sellers that operate as a business do follow state tax regulations on eBay transactions. However Value Added Tax (VAT), the EU countries ' sales tax, is different. eBay requires sellers to include the VAT element in their listing price and not as an add - on and thus profits by collecting fees based not only on the sale price "ex VAT '' but also on the VAT. In a similar manner eBay also charges its Final Value Fees on all shipping charges.
The company 's business strategy includes increasing international trade. eBay has already expanded to over two dozen countries, including China and India. Strategic international expansion has failed in Taiwan and Japan, where Yahoo! had a head start, and New Zealand, where Trade Me is the dominant online auction website. eBay also notably failed in China due to competition from local rival Taobao. eBay entered the Chinese market in 2002 and shut down its Chinese site in 2007. In India too, eBay 's operations came to a halt after it sold off its India operations to country 's largest ecommerce company Flipkart, in the latter 's $1.4 Bn fundraise, where eBay was a participant too.
In its Q1 2008 results, total payment volume via PayPal increased 17 %, but off the eBay auction site it was up 61 %.
For most listing categories, eBay sellers are permitted to offer a variety of payment systems such as Escrow.com, PayPal, Paymate, Propay, and Skrill. Propay and Skrill were banned effective September 27, 2015, citing low usage.
Escrow.com is eBay 's approved escrow site. The transactions processed through Escrow.com largely are in relation to eBay Motors; however, they are not restricted to this type of listing.
eBay runs an affiliate program under the name eBay Partner Network. eBay affiliate marketers were originally paid a percentage of the eBay seller 's transaction fees, with commissions ranging from 50 % to 75 % of the fees paid for an item purchased. In October 2009, eBay changed to an affiliate payout system that it calls Quality Click Pricing, in which affiliates are paid an amount determined by an undisclosed algorithm. The total earnings amount is then divided by the number of clicks the affiliate sent to eBay and is reported as Earnings Per Click, or EPC. In October 2013, ePN launched a new pricing model. The new model is more transparent and is based on category - level base commission rates with bonuses available for referring new and reactivated buyers.
On April 18, 2012 eBay reported a 29 % Q1 revenue increase to $3.3 billion compared to their Q1 in 2011. Net income was reported to be at $570 million for the quarter.
On May 8, 2008, eBay announced the opening of its newest building on the company 's North Campus in San Jose, which is the first structure in the city to be built from the ground up to LEED Gold standards. The building, the first the company had built in its 13 - year existence, uses an array of 3,248 solar panels, spanning 60,000 square feet (5,600 m), and providing 650 kilo watts of power to eBay 's campus. The array can supply 15 -- 18 % of the company 's total energy requirements, reducing the amount of greenhouse gases that would be produced to create that energy by other means. SolarCity, the company responsible for designing the array, estimates that the solar panels installed on eBay 's campus will prevent 37 million pounds of carbon dioxide from being released into the environment as a result of replaced power production over the next three decades. Creating an equivalent impact to remove the same amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere would require planting 322 acres (1.30 km) of trees.
The design of the building also incorporates other elements to reduce its impact on the environment. The building is equipped with a lighting system that detects natural ambient light sources and automatically dims artificial lighting to save 39 % of the power usually required to light an office building. eBay 's newest building also reduces demand on local water supplies by incorporating an eco-friendly irrigation system, and low - flow shower heads and faucets. Even during construction, more than 75 % of the waste from construction was recycled. eBay also runs buses between San Francisco and the San Jose campus to reduce the number of commuting vehicles. In 2014, eBay and several other Oregon businesses signed the Oregon Business Climate Declaration to promote local job growth and slow carbon pollution.
StubHub 's acquisition by eBay was announced in January 2007 for a reported $310 million. According to CNN Money, 2007 was a very successful year for the company, handling five million individual transactions, more than in the previous six years combined of its history. Staffing at StubHub had increased to 350 workers by the time of the sale. Eight months after the acquisition, StubHub reached an exclusive agreement with Major League Baseball (MLB). They get a piece of the 25 % in commissions StubHub earns on either end of a sale. Ticketmaster filed a lawsuit against StubHub and eBay in 2007, alleging "intentional interference '' with Ticketmaster 's contractual rights.
In October 2005, eBay Inc. acquired Skype Technologies, developer of the Skype VoIP and Instant messaging service, significantly expanding its customer base to more than 480 million registered users worldwide. eBay later sold a majority stake in Skype in November 2009, while retaining a minority investment in the company. This eventually led to the sale of the entire Skype business to Microsoft for $8.5 billion in May 2011.
In the summer of 2004, eBay acknowledged that it had acquired 25 % of classified listings website Craigslist. Former Craigslist executive Phillip Knowlton was the seller, and he insisted that his former employer was aware of his plans to divest his holdings. Initially, eBay assured Craigslist that they would not ask the company to change the way it does business.
In March 2005, eBay launched the classifieds service Kijiji. In April 2008, eBay sued Craigslist to "safeguard its four - year financial investment '', claiming that in January 2008, Craigslist took actions that "unfairly diluted eBay 's economic interest by more than 10 %. '' Craigslist countersued in May 2008 "to remedy the substantial and ongoing harm to fair competition '' that Craigslist claimed was constituted by eBay 's actions as a Craigslist shareholder. In September 2010, Delaware Judge William Chandler ruled that the actions of Craigslist were unlawful and that the actions taken by Craigslist founders Jim Buckmaster and Craig Newmark had "breached their fiduciary duty of loyalty '', and restored eBay 's stake in the company to 28.4 % from a diluted level of 24.85 %. However, the judge dismissed eBay 's objection to a staggered board provision, citing that Craigslist has the right to protect its own trade secrets. eBay spokesman Michael Jacobson stated "We are very pleased that the court gave eBay what it sought from the lawsuit. ''
GittiGidiyor, a subsidiary of eBay, is a Turkish e-shopping mall. The company 's URL comes from the Turkish translation of "Going, going, gone ''. GittiGidiyor offers a wide variety of products, similar to the main eBay website.
On October 3, 2002, PayPal became a wholly owned subsidiary of eBay. Its corporate headquarters were sited in San Jose, California, United States at eBay 's North First Street satellite office campus. On September 30, 2014, eBay Inc. announced the divestiture of PayPal as an independent company, which was completed on July 20, 2015.
In October 2016, eBay acquired Corrigon, a visual search engine, for less than $30 million.
eBay is a publicly visible market which has attracted an interest from economists, who have used it to analyze aspects of buying and selling behavior, auction formats, etc., comparing them with previous theoretical and empirical findings.
Computer information systems researchers have also shown interest in eBay. Michael Goul, Chairman of the Computer Information Systems department of the W.P. Carey School of Business at Arizona State University, published an academic case based on eBay 's big data management and use in which he discusses how eBay is a data - driven company that processes 50 petabytes of data a day.
eBay uses a system that allows different departments in the company to check out data from their data mart into sandboxes for analysis. According to Goul, eBay has already experienced significant business successes through its data analytics. eBay employs 5,000 data analysts to enable data - driven decision making.
In 2006, the accounting software company Intuit launched a web - based donation tracking service called ItsDeductible. The service uses data from eBay to help users assign a market value to the items they donate.
In July 2017, eBay released an image search capability allowing users to find listings on the site that match an item depicted in a photo, using artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies.
UK 's GCHQ has a suite of tools for monitoring target use of eBay, named ELATE.
Millions of collectibles, decor, appliances, computers, furnishings, equipment, domain names, vehicles, and other miscellaneous items are listed, bought, or sold daily on eBay. In 2006, eBay launched its Business & Industrial category, breaking into the industrial surplus business. Generally, anything can be auctioned on the site as long as it is not illegal and does not violate the eBay Prohibited and Restricted Items policy. Services and intangibles can be sold, too. Large international companies, such as IBM, sell their newest products and offer services on eBay using competitive auctions and fixed - priced storefronts. Separate eBay sites such as eBay US and eBay UK allow the users to trade using the local currency. Software developers can create applications that integrate with eBay through the eBay API by joining the eBay Developers Program. In June 2005, there were more than 15,000 members in the eBay Developers Program, comprising a broad range of companies creating software applications to support eBay buyers and sellers as well as eBay Affiliates.
Numerous government and police agencies around the world now use eBay as well as traditional auctions to dispose of seized and confiscated goods.
Controversy has arisen over certain items put up for bid. For instance, in late 1999, a man offered one of his kidneys for auction on eBay, attempting to profit from the potentially lucrative (and, in the United States, illegal) market for transplantable human organs. On other occasions, people and even entire towns have been listed, often as a joke or to garner free publicity. In general, the company removes auctions that violate its Terms of Service agreement.
Beginning in August 2007, eBay required listings in "Video Games '' and "Health & Beauty '' to accept its payment system PayPal and sellers could only accept PayPal for payments in the category "Video Games: Consoles ''. Starting January 10, 2008, eBay said sellers can only accept PayPal as payment for the categories "Computing > Software '', "Consumer Electronics > MP3 Players '', "Wholesale & Job Lots > Mobile & Home Phones '', and "Business, Office & Industrial > Industrial Supply / MRO ''. eBay announced that starting in March 2008, eBay had added to this requirement that all sellers with fewer than 100 feedbacks must offer PayPal and no merchant account may be used as an alternative. This is in addition to the requirement that all sellers from the United Kingdom have to offer PayPal.
Further, and as noted below, it was a requirement to offer PayPal on all listings in Australia and the UK. In response to concerns expressed by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, however, eBay has since removed the policy on the ebay.com.au website requiring sellers to offer PayPal as a payment option.
On April 24, 2006, eBay opened its new eBay Express site, which was designed to work like a standard Internet shopping site for consumers with United States addresses. It closed in 2008. Selected eBay items were mirrored on eBay Express, where buyers shopped using a shopping cart to purchase from multiple sellers. The UK version was launched to eBay members in mid-October 2006, but on January 29, 2008, eBay announced its intention to close the site. The German version, eBay Express Germany, was also opened in 2006 and closed in 2008.
At the 2008 eBay Developer 's Conference, eBay announced the Selling Manager Applications program (SM Apps). The program allows approved developers to integrate their applications directly into the eBay.com interface. The applications created by developers are available for subscription by eBay members who also subscribe to Selling Manager.
eBay maintains a number of specialty sites including the discussion boards, groups, answer center, chat rooms, and reviews and guides. eBay 's mobile offerings include SMS alerts, a WAP site, Java ME clients, and mobile applications for Windows Phone, Android OS, and Apple iPhone.
The initiative Choice in eCommerce was founded on May 8, 2013 by several online retailers in Berlin, Germany. The cause was, in the view of the initiative, sales bans and online restrictions by individual manufacturers. The dealers felt cut off from their main sales channel and thus deprived them the opportunity to use online platforms like Amazon, eBay, or Rakuten in a competitive market for the benefit of their customers.
Many unusual items have been placed for sale on eBay, including at least two previously undiscovered species, including the Coelopleurus exquisitus sea urchin.
In its earliest days, eBay was nearly unregulated. However, as the site grew, it became necessary to restrict or prohibit auctions for various items. Note that some of the restrictions relate to eBay.com (the US site), while other restrictions apply to specific European sites (such as Nazi paraphernalia). Regional laws and regulations may apply to the seller or the buyer. Generally, if the sale or ownership of an item is regulated or prohibited by one or more states, eBay will not permit its listing. Among the hundred or so banned or restricted categories:
Bidding on eBay (old or new) 's auction - style listing is called proxy bidding and is essentially equivalent to a Vickrey auction (sealed - bid), with the following exceptions.
In 2008, eBay implemented a system of seller ratings with four categories. Buyers are asked to rate the seller in each of these categories with a score of one to five, with five being the highest rating. Unlike the overall feedback rating, these ratings are anonymous; neither sellers nor other users learn how individual buyers rated the seller. The listings of sellers with a rating of 4.3 or below in any of the four rating categories appear lower in search results. Power Sellers are required to have scores in each category above 4.5.
In a reversal of roles, on January 24, 2010, Auctionbytes.com held an open survey in which sellers could rate eBay, as well as competing for auction and marketplace sites. In the survey, users were asked to rank 15 sites based on five criteria: profitability, customer service, communication, ease of use, and recommendation.
eBay was ranked 13th, after other large sites such as Amazon and Craigslist, as well as lesser - known selling sites such as Atomic Mall, eCRATER, and Ruby Lane. In individual category rankings, eBay was rated the worst of all the 15 sites on customer service and communication, and average on ease of use. Some respondents stated they would have given eBay a rating of 10, three to five years ago. eBay was rated twelfth out of fifteen in the Recommended Selling Venue category.
Using MissionFish as an arbiter, eBay allows sellers to donate a portion of their auction proceeds to a charity of the seller 's choice. The program is called eBay Giving Works in the US, and eBay for Charity in the UK. eBay provides a partial refund of seller fees for items sold through charity auctions. As of March 4, 2010, $154 million has been raised for US nonprofits by the eBay Community since eBay Giving Works began in 2003.
Some high - profile charity auctions have been advertised on the eBay home page. As of June 2010, the highest successful bid on a single item for charity was for the annual "Power Lunch '' with investor Warren Buffett at the famous Smith & Wollensky Steakhouse in New York. The winning bid was $2.63 million with all of the proceeds going to the Glide Foundation. The winning bidder was not made public, but was able to bring up to seven friends to the lunch. In 2012, a higher bid, of $3.46 million, also going to the Glide Foundation, won a lunch with Buffet. Even in 2016 an anonymous bidder won $3.45 million lunch with Warren Buffett and the money raised from the auction was given to Glide Foundation.
The previous highest successful bid on a single item for charity was for a letter sent to Mark P. Mays, CEO of Clear Channel (parent company of Premiere Radio Networks the production company that produces The Rush Limbaugh Show and Glenn Beck Program) by Senator Harry Reid and forty other Democratic senators, complaining about comments made by conservative talk show host Rush Limbaugh. The winning bid was $2,100,100, with all of the proceeds going to the Marine Corps - Law Enforcement Foundation, benefiting the education of children of men and women who have died serving in the armed forces. The winning bid was matched by Limbaugh in his largest charity donation to date.
In 2007; eBay Canada partnered with Montreal - based digital branding agency CloudRaker to develop a campaign to raise money for Sainte - Justine children 's hospital in Montreal. They aligned themselves with Internet phenomenon Têtes à claques to create an eBay auction based on popular T-A-C character Uncle Tom, an infomercial host who pitches absurd products. eBay and CloudRaker reproduced Uncle Tom 's imaginary products, The Body Toner Fly Swatter, The Willi Waller Potato Peeler, and the LCD Shovel and sold them online. In six weeks, they raised $15,000 for Hôpital St - Justine with one fly swatter, one potato peeler, and one shovel, a world record. The Body Toner Fly Swatter sold for $8,600, the Willi Waller Potato Peeler sold for $3,550, and the LCD Shovel sold for $2,146.21.
During auction setup, eBay provides shipping - method choices to sellers: ordinary mail, express mail, and / or courier service. The seller may choose to offer only one shipping method to buyers; or the seller may offer buyers a choice of options.
Very - low - value items shipped directly from China are sometimes shipped by surface mail (sea mail), which is inexpensive but takes one to two months. If the buyer is in a hurry, he or she might be able to pay an extra fee to upgrade to second - class Surface Air Lifted shipping or to first - class airmail shipping.
Since 2012, eBay has been enlisting sellers into its "Global Shipping Program ''. If a seller uses the program, non-domestic buyers pay a fee to Pitney Bowes. The seller sends the item to a Pitney Bowes facility in the US (or UK), which then forwards it to the buyer, taking care of all international shipping requirements. The program is claimed to enhance the product selection available to international buyers.
Common eBay criticism involve the policy of requiring the use of PayPal for payments and concerns over fraud, forgeries and intellectual property violations in auction items. There are also issues of how negative feedback after an auction can offset the benefits of using eBay as a trading platform. eBay has been criticized for not paying UK taxes: the Sunday Times reported in October 2012 that eBay paid only £ 1.2 m in tax on sales of over £ 800m.
On May 21, 2014 the company revealed that the consumer database of usernames, passwords, phone numbers, and physical addresses had been breached between late February and early March. Users were advised to change their passwords; to expedite this, a "change password '' feature was added to profiles of users who had not yet done so. The Syrian Electronic Army took responsibility for the attack. The SEA said that even though the hack revealed millions of users ' banking details to them, they would not misuse the data. They had replaced the front pages of the websites with their own logo, called "Defacing '' in technical terms. The hack caused eBay 's share price to crash in intra-day trade as a result of the breach of security.
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who won the match between csk and srh | Chennai Super Kings -- Sunrisers Hyderabad rivalry - wikipedia
The Chennai Super Kings - Sunrisers Hyderabad rivalry simply known as CSK - SRH rivalry is a sports rivalry between the cricket teams of Chennai Super Kings representing Tamil Nadu and Sunrisers Hyderabad representing Telangana in the Indian Premier League (IPL). The rivalry is also referred as the South Indian Derby. The two teams have played each other in the IPL matches on 10 occasions with CSK dominating the head to head record, winning 8 of them while SRH winning only 2 of them and have played against each other in only one Champions League Twenty20 encounter where CSK won the match by 12 runs.
The battle between these two teams are also popularly known as the battle between Yellow Army and the Orange Army. The rivalry is considered to be one of the emerging rivalries in Indian Premier League history. Sunrisers Hyderabad is also regarded as the third biggest rival for Chennai Super Kings after Mumbai Indians and Royal Challengers Bangalore.
The rivalry started between the two teams during the 2013 Indian Premier League season. This was also the season where Sunrisers Hyderabad eventually made its IPL debut replacing the old franchise Deccan Chargers. At the 2013 IPL season, in the first ever meeting between the two sides, Chennai Super Kings defeated Sunrisers Hyderabad by 5 wickets at MA Chidambaram Stadium. The Sunrisers Hyderabad team recorded its first victory against them during the 2014 Indian Premier League season at Ranchi.
After the conclusion of the 2015 IPL league season since the gap of 3 years, the CSK team renewed its rivalry against Sunrisers Hyderabad on 22 April, 2018 at the 2018 Indian Premier League season. The Chennai Super Kings was previously banned from playing in IPL for 2 seasons in 2016 and 2017 after being involved in 2013 Indian Premier League spot - fixing and betting case. Chennai Super Kings recorded a close victory against Sunrisers Hyderabad in a group stage match at Hyderabad by 4 runs in the first match between two sides after 2015 during the 2018 IPL season. In the return fixture on 13 May, 2018 which held at CSK 's temporary home, Pune; CSK managed a convincing 8 wicket victory against SRH.
The two teams also clashed against each other in the 1st Qualifier of the season which held in Wankhede Stadium with Chennai Super Kings edging the Sunrisers Hyderabad team by 2 wickets to make room for the direct finale which was also CSK 's 7th final at the IPL history. On the other hand, Sunrisers Hyderabad defeated Kolkata Knight Riders in the Qualifier 2 to set up a final against Chennai Super Kings.
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who is the head coach of chicago bears | John Fox (American football) - wikipedia
John Fox (born February 8, 1955) is an American football coach for the Chicago Bears of the National Football League (NFL). He has also coached the Carolina Panthers and the Denver Broncos, with whom he won an NFC Championship and an AFC Championship, respectively, but lost both of his coaching appearances in the Super Bowl.
In the 2013 NFL season, quarterback Peyton Manning threw for 5,477 yards and 55 touchdowns, both records, and the offense combined for 7,317 yards, also a record. At the conclusion of the 2011 season, the Broncos finished tied for 3rd in the NFL in sacks and 1st in rushing offense, again with Fox.
Fox played football at Castle Park High School in Chula Vista, California under local celebrated coaches Gil Warren and Reldon "Bing '' Dawson, and Southwestern College (California) also in Chula Vista from 1974 -- 1975, before going to San Diego State, where he played defensive back with future NFL player and head coach Herman Edwards. Fox received a bachelor 's degree in physical education and earned teaching credentials from San Diego State. He then proceeded to the NFL as a free agent and signed a two - year contract with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. After that contract was over he retired from the NFL.
Fox was defensive backs coach at U.S. International University. Sid Gillman, past head coach of the San Diego Chargers, was the athletic director at the time. In 1980, Fox was the defensive backs coach for the Boise State University Broncos when they won the NCAA Division I - AA Football Championship. In 1983, Fox was a member of Mike Gottfried 's University of Kansas staff, as the secondary coach. Fox followed Gottfried to the University of Pittsburgh when Gottfried became Head Coach at Pitt in 1986. Fox was first the Defensive Backs coach and then was promoted to Defensive Coordinator by Gottfried. While at Pitt, Fox made some contacts with Pittsburgh Steeler coaches and when Gottfried was let go by Pitt, Fox got his first NFL coaching gig with the Steelers.
Fox began his first professional football coaching stint in the short - lived United States Football League with the Los Angeles Express in 1985.
He entered the NFL in 1989 as the secondary coach of the Pittsburgh Steelers, later also holding this job with the San Diego Chargers. Fox was the defensive coordinator for the Los Angeles Raiders and later that of the New York Giants during Super Bowl XXXV, which they lost.
In 2002, Fox was signed as the third head coach of the Carolina Panthers, whose previous coach George Seifert had led the team to a disastrous 1 - 15 record in 2001. Fox 's first regular season game was a 10 -- 7 victory over the Baltimore Ravens which ended the Panthers ' 15 - game losing streak dating to the previous season. Fox and the Panthers posted a 7 -- 9 record for the 2002 season (his first with the team), demonstrating a drastic improvement over the previous season.
In the 2003 season Fox led the Panthers to Super Bowl XXXVIII, losing 32 -- 29 to the New England Patriots on a last - second field goal by Adam Vinatieri. Fox joined Vince Lombardi as the only other coach to inherit a team that had won only one game in the season prior, and then take that team to a NFL Championship game. Fox also took the Carolina Panthers to the NFC Championship game in the 2005 season, but they were defeated by the Seattle Seahawks.
The 2006 season was disappointing for Fox and the Panthers, as a team that had Super Bowl aspirations finished 8 - 8 and out of the playoffs.
The 2007 season saw the team finish with a record of 7 -- 9, before finishing with a 12 -- 4 record in the 2008 season, again heading to the playoffs in which they were routed by the Arizona Cardinals.
The 2009 season was disappointing to Fox and the Panthers much like 2006. The Panthers finished the season 8 - 8 and in third place in the NFC South division, missing the playoffs again.
The 2010 season saw the Panthers finish last in the league, at 2 -- 14.
On December 31, 2010, Carolina Panthers owner Jerry Richardson announced that he would not be renewing Fox 's contract at the conclusion of the 2010 season.
On January 13, 2011, Fox was selected to be the 14th head coach of the Denver Broncos. He was signed to a 4 - year $14 million deal. He was chosen by the Broncos out of a list of five possible head coach candidates that included Broncos interim head coach and running backs coach Eric Studesville, Atlanta Falcons offensive coordinator Dirk Koetter, Houston Texans offensive coordinator Rick Dennison and New York Giants defensive coordinator Perry Fewell. Fox was chosen based on his previous head coaching experience plus his 20 + years as an NFL coach.
Fox is one of only two coaches, and the only one as a head coach, still working on the NFL sidelines that was once a member of former Pittsburgh Steelers head coach Chuck Noll 's coaching staff, the other being current Minnesota Vikings wide receivers coach George Stewart. Tom Moore, currently an offensive consultant for the Arizona Cardinals, is still active in the league but works from home.
In April 2012, Fox received a three - year contract extension worth between $5 million and $6 million per year, replacing his contract that expired at the end of the 2014 NFL season.
In week two of the 2012 season, Fox was fined $30,000 for chiding the replacement officials. The Broncos would go on to win their last 11 games after a 2 -- 3 start. In week 17 of the 2012 season, Fox won his 100th career game as an NFL head coach, including the playoffs, beating the Kansas City Chiefs 38 -- 3. However, the Broncos were upset in the divisional playoffs to the Baltimore Ravens, in double - overtime.
Due to a cardiac related issue, starting with week 10 of 2013, Fox was replaced by Broncos defensive coordinator Jack Del Rio, as Fox underwent an aortic valve replacement. Fox, while playing golf in North Carolina near his offseason home in Charlotte during the Broncos bye week, reported feeling dizzy and was taken to the hospital for examination where doctors told him not to put off valve replacement surgery any longer; he had done so earlier in the year to continue coaching this season. On November 4, Fox temporarily relinquished his head coaching duties, and Del Rio was named interim head coach for the remainder of the 2013 season regular season. Fox then underwent successful aortic valve replacement surgery.
He coached the Broncos to Super Bowl XLVIII in the 2013 season, where they played the NFC champion Seattle Seahawks. He is one of only two head coaches to win both an NFC and an AFC championship game along with Dan Reeves, and one of six coaches to reach the Super Bowl with multiple teams. On February 2, 2014, the Broncos lost to the Seahawks 43 - 8.
Fox coached the Broncos to another strong season in 2014; the Broncos finished the regular season 12 -- 4. They earned the AFC 's number 2 seed and a first - round playoff bye. Hosting the Indianapolis Colts at home in the Divisional Round, the Broncos were upset 24 -- 13 and were eliminated from the playoffs.
On January 12, 2015, the day after Denver lost in the Divisional Round of the playoffs, Fox and the Broncos mutually agreed to part ways. Fox left the Broncos with the highest regular season win percentage in team history. However, general manager John Elway felt the Broncos had n't shown enough fight at critical times in the playoffs.
Fox is only the second head coach in NFL history to win four straight division titles since joining a new team.
On January 16, 2015, Fox accepted a four - year deal to become head coach of the Chicago Bears. Fox led the Bears to a 6 -- 10 record in his first season, only the second time in his career where he had double - digit losses. However, Fox finished his second season with the Bears with a 3 - 13 record, tied for the worst record for the Bears since the NFL changed to a 16 - game season.
After a 1 - 3 start in 2017, Fox benched quarterback Mike Glennon in favor of rookie Mitchell Trubisky in Week 5.
Fox was born in Virginia Beach, Virginia and raised in San Diego, California after moving there at age 15. His step - father, Ron, was a US Navy SEAL. Fox and his wife, Robin, have three sons (Matthew, Mark, and Cody) and a daughter (Halle). Known to his friends as "Foxy '', he is an active community leader in the Carolinas. He and his wife co-chair the annual Angels & Stars Gala, which benefits St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital.
NFL head coaches under whom Fox has served:
Assistant coaches under Fox who became NFL head coaches:
Pound sign (#) denotes interim head coach.
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janet jackson when i think of you video | When I Think of You - wikipedia
"When I Think of You '' is the third single from Janet Jackson 's third studio album, Control (1986). Written by Jackson and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, and produced by Jam and Lewis, the song is about a person who finds relief and fun in a lover. It was Jackson 's first number - one hit on the Billboard Hot 100, and also peaked at number ten in the United Kingdom.
Pitchfork included the song in their Top 200 80 's Songs of All - time list at number 48.
The song was resurrected in 1995 when released on two limited - edition CD single formats in the United Kingdom, one containing remixes by Deep Dish and Heller & Farley, and the other containing remixes by David Morales. That same year these remixes were included on certain releases of "Runaway ''. "When I Think of You '' has been included in each of Jackson 's greatest hits albums, Design of a Decade: 1986 -- 1996 (1995), Number Ones (2009) and Icon: Number Ones (2010).
The single became Jackson 's first number - one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it stayed for two weeks. After "When I Think of You '' reached number one, it made Jackson and her brother Michael Jackson the first, and so far only, siblings to both have solo number - one hits on the Hot 100. At the time she was 20 years old, making Jackson the youngest artist since Stevie Wonder to top the Billboard Hot 100. It also reached number three on the Hot Black Singles (making it, ironically, the only single from the Control album that did not reach number - one on the R&B chart), and number one on the Hot Dance Club Play in 1986. "When I Think of You '' was the 32nd biggest Hot 100 single of 1986, as well as the 47th biggest Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs single of 1986 and the 22nd biggest Hot Dance Club Play single of 1986.
The music video finds Jackson going around a neighborhood. Each location she visits has the same mysterious man in different costumes saying a brief statement to her and then vanishing as she turns around. The director of "When I Think of You '', Julien Temple, would later direct Jackson 's "Alright '' video, and both videos have a similar style. Some scenes were staged by veteran Hollywood choreographer Michael Kidd. "When I Think of You '' has only five cuts. The video is quite similar to the opening segment of Temple 's 1986 film Absolute Beginners, which stars David Bowie and Sade. The style is that the video is assumed to be one long take, but in fact it is five smaller takes. Although fluid in nature, obvious differences can be seen in the edits, especially when she comes out of the back door of the club, and a photographer takes her picture, with the flash acting as an edit. Two of Jackson 's nephews, TJ and Taryll Jackson, make a cameo in the video. The video was choreographed by Paula Abdul, who also appears in the video.
The video is also based on an edit of the 12 '' Dance Remix version of the song, instead of the album version.
In February 2007, the video was made available on the iTunes Store. Jackson would later repeat the same type of format for her video "Rock with U '' from 2008 's Discipline.
Jackson has performed the song on all of her tours, Rhythm Nation 1814 Tour, janet. Tour, The Velvet Rope Tour, All for You Tour, Rock Witchu Tour, Number Ones: Up Close and Personal, Unbreakable World Tour, and State of the World Tour.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what is one purpose of a data table | Lookup table - wikipedia
In computer science, a lookup table is an array that replaces runtime computation with a simpler array indexing operation. The savings in terms of processing time can be significant, since retrieving a value from memory is often faster than undergoing an "expensive '' computation or input / output operation. The tables may be precalculated and stored in static program storage, calculated (or "pre-fetched '') as part of a program 's initialization phase (memoization), or even stored in hardware in application - specific platforms. Lookup tables are also used extensively to validate input values by matching against a list of valid (or invalid) items in an array and, in some programming languages, may include pointer functions (or offsets to labels) to process the matching input. FPGAs also make extensive use of reconfigurable, hardware - implemented, lookup tables to provide programmable hardware functionality.
Before the advent of computers, lookup tables of values were used to speed up hand calculations of complex functions, such as in trigonometry, logarithms, and statistical density functions.
In ancient (499 AD) India, Aryabhata created one of the first sine tables, which he encoded in a Sanskrit - letter - based number system. In 493 AD, Victorius of Aquitaine wrote a 98 - column multiplication table which gave (in Roman numerals) the product of every number from 2 to 50 times and the rows were "a list of numbers starting with one thousand, descending by hundreds to one hundred, then descending by tens to ten, then by ones to one, and then the fractions down to 1 / 144 '' Modern school children are often taught to memorize "times tables '' to avoid calculations of the most commonly used numbers (up to 9 x 9 or 12 x 12).
Early in the history of computers, input / output operations were particularly slow -- even in comparison to processor speeds of the time. It made sense to reduce expensive read operations by a form of manual caching by creating either static lookup tables (embedded in the program) or dynamic prefetched arrays to contain only the most commonly occurring data items. Despite the introduction of systemwide caching that now automates this process, application level lookup tables can still improve performance for data items that rarely, if ever, change.
Lookup tables were one of the earliest functionalities implemented in computer spreadsheets, with the initial version of VisiCalc (1979) including a LOOKUP function among its original 20 functions. This has been followed by subsequent spreadsheets, such as Microsoft Excel, and complemented by specialized VLOOKUP and HLOOKUP functions to simplify lookup in a vertical or horizontal table.
This is known as a linear search or brute - force search, each element being checked for equality in turn and the associated value, if any, used as a result of the search. This is often the slowest search method unless frequently occurring values occur early in the list. For a one - dimensional array or linked list, the lookup is usually to determine whether or not there is a match with an ' input ' data value.
An example of a "divide and conquer algorithm '', binary search involves each element being found by determining which half of the table a match may be found in and repeating until either success or failure. This is only possible if the list is sorted but gives good performance even if the list is lengthy.
For a trivial hash function lookup, the unsigned raw data value is used directly as an index to a one - dimensional table to extract a result. For small ranges, this can be amongst the fastest lookup, even exceeding binary search speed with zero branches and executing in constant time.
One discrete problem that is expensive to solve on many computers is that of counting the number of bits which are set to 1 in a (binary) number, sometimes called the population function. For example, the decimal number "37 '' is "00100101 '' in binary, so it contains three bits that are set to binary "1 ''.
A simple example of C code, designed to count the 1 bits in a int, might look like this:
This apparently simple algorithm can take potentially hundreds of cycles even on a modern architecture, because it makes many branches in the loop - and branching is slow. This can be ameliorated using loop unrolling and some other compiler optimizations. There is however a simple and much faster algorithmic solution - using a trivial hash function table lookup.
Simply construct a static table, bits_set, with 256 entries giving the number of one bits set in each possible byte value (e.g. 0x00 = 0, 0x01 = 1, 0x02 = 1, and so on). Then use this table to find the number of ones in each byte of the integer using a trivial hash function lookup on each byte in turn, and sum them. This requires no branches, and just four indexed memory accesses, considerably faster than the earlier code.
The above source can be improved easily, (avoiding AND'ing, and shifting) by ' recasting ' ' x ' as a 4 byte unsigned char array and, preferably, coded in - line as a single statement instead of being a function. Note that even this simple algorithm can be too slow now, because the original code might run faster from the cache of modern processors, and (large) lookup tables do not fit well in caches and can cause a slower access to memory (in addition, in the above example, it requires computing addresses within a table, to perform the four lookups needed).
In data analysis applications, such as image processing, a lookup table (LUT) is used to transform the input data into a more desirable output format. For example, a grayscale picture of the planet Saturn will be transformed into a color image to emphasize the differences in its rings.
A classic example of reducing run - time computations using lookup tables is to obtain the result of a trigonometry calculation, such as the sine of a value. Calculating trigonometric functions can substantially slow a computing application. The same application can finish much sooner when it first precalculates the sine of a number of values, for example for each whole number of degrees (The table can be defined as static variables at compile time, reducing repeated run time costs). When the program requires the sine of a value, it can use the lookup table to retrieve the closest sine value from a memory address, and may also take the step of interpolating to the sine of the desired value, instead of calculating by mathematical formula. Lookup tables are thus used by mathematics co-processors in computer systems. An error in a lookup table was responsible for Intel 's infamous floating - point divide bug.
Functions of a single variable (such as sine and cosine) may be implemented by a simple array. Functions involving two or more variables require multidimensional array indexing techniques. The latter case may thus employ a two - dimensional array of power (x) (y) to replace a function to calculate x for a limited range of x and y values. Functions that have more than one result may be implemented with lookup tables that are arrays of structures.
As mentioned, there are intermediate solutions that use tables in combination with a small amount of computation, often using interpolation. Pre-calculation combined with interpolation can produce higher accuracy for values that fall between two precomputed values. This technique requires slightly more time to be performed but can greatly enhance accuracy in applications that require the higher accuracy. Depending on the values being precomputed, pre-computation with interpolation can also be used to shrink the lookup table size while maintaining accuracy.
In image processing, lookup tables are often called LUT s (or 3DLUT), and give an output value for each of a range of index values. One common LUT, called the colormap or palette, is used to determine the colors and intensity values with which a particular image will be displayed. In computed tomography, "windowing '' refers to a related concept for determining how to display the intensity of measured radiation.
While often effective, employing a lookup table may nevertheless result in a severe penalty if the computation that the LUT replaces is relatively simple. Memory retrieval time and the complexity of memory requirements can increase application operation time and system complexity relative to what would be required by straight formula computation. The possibility of polluting the cache may also become a problem. Table accesses for large tables will almost certainly cause a cache miss. This phenomenon is increasingly becoming an issue as processors outpace memory. A similar issue appears in rematerialization, a compiler optimization. In some environments, such as the Java programming language, table lookups can be even more expensive due to mandatory bounds - checking involving an additional comparison and branch for each lookup.
There are two fundamental limitations on when it is possible to construct a lookup table for a required operation. One is the amount of memory that is available: one can not construct a lookup table larger than the space available for the table, although it is possible to construct disk - based lookup tables at the expense of lookup time. The other is the time required to compute the table values in the first instance; although this usually needs to be done only once, if it takes a prohibitively long time, it may make the use of a lookup table an inappropriate solution. As previously stated however, tables can be statically defined in many cases.
Most computers only perform basic arithmetic operations and can not directly calculate the sine of a given value. Instead, they use the CORDIC algorithm or a complex formula such as the following Taylor series to compute the value of sine to a high degree of precision:
However, this can be expensive to compute, especially on slow processors, and there are many applications, particularly in traditional computer graphics, that need to compute many thousands of sine values every second. A common solution is to initially compute the sine of many evenly distributed values, and then to find the sine of x we choose the sine of the value closest to x. This will be close to the correct value because sine is a continuous function with a bounded rate of change. For example:
Unfortunately, the table requires quite a bit of space: if IEEE double - precision floating - point numbers are used, over 16,000 bytes would be required. We can use fewer samples, but then our precision will significantly worsen. One good solution is linear interpolation, which draws a line between the two points in the table on either side of the value and locates the answer on that line. This is still quick to compute, and much more accurate for smooth functions such as the sine function. Here is an example using linear interpolation:
Linear interpolation provides for an interpolated function that is continuous, but will not, in general, have continuous derivatives. For smoother interpolation of table lookup that is continuous and has continuous first derivative, one should use the cubic hermite spline.
Another solution that uses a quarter of the space but takes a bit longer to compute would be to take into account the relationships between sine and cosine along with their symmetry rules. In this case, the lookup table is calculated by using the sine function for the first quadrant (i.e. sin (0... pi / 2)). When we need a value, we assign a variable to be the angle wrapped to the first quadrant. We then wrap the angle to the four quadrants (not needed if values are always between 0 and 2 * pi) and return the correct value (i.e. first quadrant is a straight return, second quadrant is read from pi / 2 - x, third and fourth are negatives of the first and second respectively). For cosine, we only have to return the angle shifted by pi / 2 (i.e. x + pi / 2). For tangent, we divide the sine by the cosine (divide - by - zero handling may be needed depending on implementation):
When using interpolation, the size of the lookup table can be reduced by using nonuniform sampling, which means that where the function is close to straight, we use few sample points, while where it changes value quickly we use more sample points to keep the approximation close to the real curve. For more information, see interpolation.
Storage caches (including disk caches for files, or processor caches for either code or data) work also like a lookup table. The table is built with very fast memory instead of being stored on slower external memory, and maintains two pieces of data for a sub-range of bits composing an external memory (or disk) address (notably the lowest bits of any possible external address):
A single (fast) lookup is performed to read the tag in the lookup table at the index specified by the lowest bits of the desired external storage address, and to determine if the memory address is hit by the cache. When a hit is found, no access to external memory is needed (except for write operations, where the cached value may need to be updated asynchronously to the slower memory after some time, or if the position in the cache must be replaced to cache another address).
In digital logic, a lookup table can be implemented with a multiplexer whose select lines are driven by the address signal and whose inputs are the values of the elements contained in the array. These values can either be hard - wired, as in an ASIC which purpose is specific to a function, or provided by D latches which allow for configurable values.
An n - bit LUT can encode any n - input boolean function by storing the truth table of the function in the LUT. This is an efficient way of encoding Boolean logic functions, and LUTs with 4 - 6 bits of input are in fact the key component of modern field - programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) which provide reconfigurable hardware logic capabilities.
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where is the nfl commissioner's office located | History of the NFL commissioner - wikipedia
The Commisioner of the NFL is the chief executive of the National Football League (NFL). This article details the previous history of the chief NFL executive.
In 1920, the Canton Bulldogs were one of 14 teams to form the American Professional Football Association (APFA), which would become the National Football League (NFL) two years later. Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay was named the first head of the league (the title was officially "Temporary Secretary '') until a permanent president could be chosen.
Hay did make one notable contribution in his short tenure as Temporary Secretary. Vernon Maginnis, who operated one of Akron 's professional teams in 1919, wanted to field a team under the name of the Massillon Tigers in 1920. Hay was thoroughly unimpressed with Maginnis, as the team he had led in 1919 was not a success and Hay did not believe that a traveling team was deserving of the well - respected Massillon Tigers name. Hay actively sought another investor for the Tigers, but because the Tigers of the 1910s had been operating at such major financial losses (Hay 's primary reason for seeking a credible Tigers team was that Tigers games were major financial successes -- for their opponents) and most of its players had defected to start the Cleveland Tigers, potential owners such as F.J. Griffiths and Cupid Black either balked at or ignored overtures to run the Tigers in 1920. With no credible owner stepping forward, Hay claimed the Massillon Tigers as his own, immediately announced it would not play in 1920, and prohibited all teams in the league from playing "any other Massillon Tigers team '' such as Maginnis 's. The Tigers, while technically listed as a charter member of the league, never played in it, and became the first team to effectively be rejected as a member.
Hay chose his own running back, Jim Thorpe, as the league 's inaugural President; Hay believed Thorpe 's status and fame as an athlete would bring instant credibility to the league. Thorpe was nominally the APFA 's first president; however, he spent most of the year playing for Canton.
Thorpe nominally oversaw what was in its first year a haphazard and somewhat informal league, not unlike the loose coalitions of squads such as the Ohio League, Western Pennsylvania League and New York League that had played prior to the APFA 's formation. League teams regularly played those outside the league, and Thorpe allowed those games to be counted in the standings. As a result, there is some dispute whether a handful of teams, including the Chicago Tigers and Buffalo All - Americans, ever actually joined the league at all. His greatest personal achievement as league president was bringing his Bulldogs to New York City for a game against the All - Americans; this game, in which the All - Americans won 7 -- 3, was played in front of approximately 20,000 fans at the Polo Grounds, a rousing success for the nascent league.
By the April 1921 league meetings, the question of who had actually won the league championship (and thus the rights to the Brunswick - Balke Collender Cup) was still unresolved, as three teams (possibly four) laid claim to the title; there were even questions as to whether the league would survive beyond its first season, as the meeting had been postponed three months. Thorpe was missing from that meeting, never to return to his post, as was vice-president Stan Cofall, leaving secretary Art Ranney to preside over the meeting (and future league president Carl Storck as secretary). At the same meeting where this dispute was resolved in favor of Ranney 's own Akron Pros, Joseph Carr was named as the league 's new president.
Carr, then the owner of the Columbus Panhandles, moved the Association 's headquarters to Columbus, drafted a league constitution and by - laws, gave teams territorial rights, developed membership criteria for the franchises, and issued standings for the first time, so that the APFA would have a clear champion. The Association 's membership increased to 22 teams. Carr first set a deadline for the season to be completed and a minimum number of league games to be played in order to win the league championship. This led to standardized schedules and prevented teams from scheduling non-league teams to pad their win columns.
After taking office as President of the NFL, Carr began cleaning up the problems surrounding professional football. By 1925, he introduced a standard player 's contract, fashioned after the ones being used in pro baseball, so players could n't jump from one team to another. Carr also declared that players under contract from the previous season could not be approached by another team unless first declared a free agent, thus introducing the reserve clause to professional football.
In the early days of professional football, the game was shunned upon by many in the college area. Fearing that the pro game tainted the college game, many college administrators barred players from having anything to do with the pros. Carr would try to attack this problem and bring a peace between the pros and amateur ranks.
The first major challenge to Carr 's authority came at the end of the 1921 season. The Green Bay Packers admitted to having used college players under assumed names. Carr proclaimed the act not only a violation of association rules but a breach of the public 's trust. The Packers were forced to withdraw from the league. However, a few months later, a group headed by future Hall of Famer Curly Lambeau applied for and was granted the Green Bay franchise. Prior to the 1923 season, Lambeau made an initial public offering selling shares of stock in the franchise; the Green Bay Packers Board of Directors has since become the only publicly held corporation to own a franchise in the league (the league later imposed rules strictly limiting the number of owners a franchise could have but covered the Packers under a grandfather clause that remains in effect).
When Red Grange, a star player at the University of Illinois, turned pro by joining the Chicago Bears immediately after his final college football game, college officials everywhere criticized the league. Ernie Nevers, another All - American player, did the same thing a few days later. To help ease tensions and promote the professional game in the college circles, Carr established a rule prohibiting college players to sign with professional teams until after their class had graduated. These decisions gave the NFL credibility and much needed support from the colleges and universities from across the country.
In 1925 it was revealed that the Milwaukee Badgers used four high school boys in a hastily arranged game with the Chicago Cardinals. As a result, the Badgers were fined $500 and given 90 days to dispose of its assets and retire from the league. Though finding no evidence to suggest the Cardinals management was aware of the status of the four youths before the game, Carr nonetheless fined the club $1000 for participating in the game. Art Foltz, the Cardinals player who confessed to having made the "introductions '', was banned from play in the NFL for life.
As in 1925, the Pottsville Maroons, a first year NFL team, played an exhibition game against a team of former Notre Dame stars including the famous "Four Horsemen ''. The game was played at Philadelphia 's Shibe Park which was within the protected territory of the Frankford Yellow Jackets, who were playing a league game just a few miles away at Legion Field. On three occasions prior to the game, Carr reportedly warned the Pottsville management not to play the game, "under all penalties that the league could inflict ''. Ignoring Carr 's warnings, the game was played as scheduled. However, the Maroons stated that Carr knew of the game and had allowed it to take place. For this act, the Pottsville Maroons were fined $500 and had their franchise forfeited; as a result, the team was stripped of their NFL title, and it was given to the Chicago Cardinals. However, Carr 's decision and handling of the situation are still being protested by many sports historians, as well as by the people of Pottsville, Pennsylvania, and controversy still surrounds who actually won the 1925 NFL Championship, since the Maroons had earlier beaten Chicago and were actually awarded the league championship before they were suspended.
Carr also knew that for the league to survive, franchises needed to have a sense of stability. In his early years as president, NFL franchises constantly were setting up and then folding. From 1920 through 1932 more than 40 NFL franchises went through the league. The only two charter members to stay with the league by 1932 were the Chicago Bears and the Chicago Cardinals. In those first years, 19 teams lasted one year (one, the Tonawanda Kardex, lasted only one game) and 11 teams lasted two years. Carr envisioned the day the NFL could compete with Major League Baseball as America 's favorite spectator sport. While few really took him seriously (Leo Lyons, the owner of the Rochester Jeffersons, was one of the few who had the same belief), he thought in time it could happen and devised a plan to make it happen.
Carr knew that the NFL 's success rested on franchise stability and second, those franchises had to be located in the biggest cities, just like those in major league baseball. This led Carr to move his league to the big city. He went out of his way to recruit financially capable owners to run those teams. Beginning with New York City, the largest city in the country and a market the NFL had tried to enter since the first season (see, for instance, the ill - fated first incarnation of the New York Giants), Carr convinced Tim Mara, a successful bookie, to start a club. The club became known as the New York Giants and it is still partly owned by Mara 's family.
He continued to recruit stable owners and eventually placed teams in larger cities by moving the Dayton Triangles to become the Brooklyn Tigers in 1930, establishing the Pittsburgh Steelers and Philadelphia Eagles in 1933, moving the Portsmouth Spartans to become the Detroit Lions, establishing the Cleveland Rams in 1937, and the Washington Redskins in 1937 after that franchise moved from Boston. By 1937 the National Football League and Major League Baseball were almost identical, with 9 out of 10 NFL franchises in MLB cities. Only Green Bay, Wisconsin did not have a major league baseball team. By placing teams in big cities the NFL gained the stability it needed and established a game plan for a bright future.
Upon Carr 's death, former Dayton Triangles owner Carl Storck served as president of the National Football League. His most notable act was the refusal to allow the creation of the Pennsylvania Keystoners, a proposed merger of the Philadelphia Eagles and what would become the Pittsburgh Steelers. Storck remained president after the position of Commissioner was created. He was upset by the owners ' decision to replace him as head of the league, as he had given twenty years to the NFL (fifteen without pay) and had not received any criticism from the owners during his tenure as president. He stated that he would stay on as president if the owners defined his duties in a contract. However, on April 4, 1941 he suddenly announced that he was resigning "for the best interests of the game ''. After Storck 's resignation, the owners chose to make Layden president as well as Commissioner.
On January 17, 1941, the National Football League franchise owners voted to change the league 's constitution in an attempt to bring all professional football leagues under the authority of a single Commissioner, who would have similar powers to that of Commissioner of Baseball Kenesaw Mountain Landis. The owners had already reached working agreements with the American Football Association and the Dixie League and invited all other leagues, including the American Football League to join.
At their January 17 meeting the owners also narrowed the list of candidates to eight people. They pledged not to reveal who the finalists were, although it was reported that former United States Postmaster General and Democratic National Committee Chairman James Farley was considered for the job. Chicago Tribune journalist Arch Ward was offered the position of commissioner, but he turned it down and suggested Elmer Layden for the position.
Layden, famous from his playing days as a member of the Four Horsemen, resigned as head coach of the Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team on February 3, 1941 to accept the position of Commissioner of Professional Football. His appointment was not voted on by the entire league, which upset owners Alexis Thompson, Bert Bell, and Dan Topping. Bell stated that Layden had been "railroaded '' into office over other finalists (Philadelphia political leader John B. Kelly Sr. and University of Minnesota athletic director Frank G. McCormick, the latter of whom had yet to be interviewed). Chicago Bears owner George Halas contended that Layden 's hiring was legal because it had been agreed upon by a majority of owners. Layden was signed to a five - year contract with an annual salary of $20,000.
In five years as Commissioner, Layden saw the NFL through the World War II years, in which teams had to use many men of inferior abilities as replacements while most of the regulars were fighting in the war (as did Major League Baseball). During this period a few teams temporarily merged due to lack of manpower, most notably the Pittsburgh Steelers, who merged with the Philadelphia Eagles and earned the nickname the Phil - Pitt Steagles (unlike the Keystoners idea, which was intended to be permanent, the Steagles lasted only one year) in 1943 and then merged with the Chicago Cardinals to form Card - Pitt in 1944. The Cleveland Rams ceased operations for the 1943 season.
Layden 's tenure as NFL commissioner came to an end in January 1946. After Brooklyn owner Dan Topping withdrew his team from the league to join the new All - America Football Conference, some owners opposed renewing Layden 's contract, as they felt that he was too much of a gentleman and not forceful enough to deal with the competing league. Layden resigned on January 11, 1946.
On the day of Layden 's resignation, Pittsburgh Steelers co-owner Bert Bell was elected commissioner and given a three - year contract at $20,000 per year. He subsequently sold his ownership in the Steelers to co-owner Art Rooney. A year later, the contract was changed to a five - year pact at the same salary, a move that was followed in 1949 by a ten - year agreement that boosted his annual pay to $30,000.
Among his accomplishments as commissioner, Bell merged the league with the All - America Football Conference, and did battle with the Canadian Football League over scheduling and player rights. He also coined the phrase, "On any given Sunday, any team can beat any other team. ''
One of his first major acts dealt with a gambling scandal that marred the 1946 NFL Championship game. In response, he successfully lobbied legislators in virtually every state to enact laws that made it a crime for an athlete not to report a bribe attempt.
In addition to all these duties, he also single - handedly plotted out league schedules each season on his dining - room table by using a giant checkerboard. He created the revenue - sharing system that enables the small - market teams to make larger profits and remain competitive.
He also embraced the idea of television blackouts for home teams, especially after watching the Los Angeles Rams lose money after they televised all of their 1950 season games. However, he was seen as being a little too strict when he refused to lift a blackout for Detroit viewers to watch the sold out 1957 NFL Championship between the Lions and the Cleveland Browns, claiming it would be considered "dishonest '' to the paying customers.
Bell died of a heart attack on October 11, 1959 at Philadelphia 's Franklin Field, while watching a game between the team he co-founded, the Eagles, and the Steelers, which he had co-owned from 1941 to 1946. The Eagles actually scored the game - winning touchdown the moment Bell died, as fans were paying more attention to Bell than the game. He had been under a doctor 's care for two years and had recovered from a heart attack the previous February. Few knew that at the time, Bell was planning to retire as commissioner in order to regain ownership of the Eagles before the next season.
Bell 's salary was raised to $40,000 in 1951, which was extended for a dozen years in 1954.
In 1952, Gunsel was hired by the NFL to head the league 's investigative department, a move made in response to commissioner Bert Bell 's fear of a scandal damaging the league 's image. Gunsel became league treasurer in 1956, holding the post until his retirement ten years later.
He served as acting president of the NFL after Bell 's death in October 1959. In January 1960 at a meeting of NFL owners, he was the early frontrunner to retain the commissioner 's job, but Los Angeles Rams general manager Pete Rozelle was ultimately elected to the post on January 26 after 23 ballots.
After Bert Bell 's death in 1959, Rozelle was the surprise choice for his replacement as NFL commissioner. The owners first met on January 20, 1960, and took eight ballots without any candidate receiving the two thirds vote needed to be elected. On the first ballot San Francisco 49ers attorney Marshall Leahy defeated interim commissioner Austin Gunsel 7 to 5. Gunsel was soon dropped from consideration in favor of Baltimore Colts general manager Don Kellett. On the final ballot of the day, Leahy defeated Kellett 7 to 4, but once again did not receive enough votes to be elected. Los Angeles Times special events director Paul J. Schissler and Detroit Lions President Edwin P. Anderson were proposed as compromise candidates but neither received enough support. Leahy received strong opposition from four owners, Carroll Rosenbloom, Art Rooney, George Preston Marshall, and Frank McNamee, who objected to his plan to move the league office to San Francisco if he was elected. Conversely, seven other owners remained supportive of Leahy as they felt he was the best man for the job. George Halas chose to abstain from voting, as he was afraid that if he took sides he would lose support for his expansion plan.
The second owners meeting resulted in six more ballots taken without electing a commissioner. On the final ballot, Leahy once again led Kellett seven to four.
In an attempt to end the stalemate, Rooney suggested seven compromise candidates to the owners; former Congressman and NFL deputy commissioner Samuel A. Weiss, Sportsman 's Park general manager and former Chicago Cardinals executive Ray Benningsen, former Cleveland Rams general manager Chile Walsh, Philadelphia attorney Frank Sullivan, former Kentucky Governor and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler, Detroit Pistons general manager W. Nicholas Kerbawy, and attorney Don Miller. None of these candidates were able to end the stalemate and for the third day in a row the owners were unable to elect a commissioner.
On the fourth day of the owners meetings, the issue of electing a commissioner was not brought as the owners chose to address other league business. Two more ballots were held on day five, both ending with seven for Leahy and four for Kellett.
On the sixth day, the anti-Leahy group switched their support from Kellett back to Gunsell. However, the voting still ended 7 - 4 - 1. By the seventh day, 23 ballots had been taken without electing a commissioner.
By day eight, Leahy supporters Wellington Mara and Paul Brown realized that their candidate would not be able to win and they offered Los Angeles Rams general manager Pete Rozelle, who had been able to keep peace among his team 's feuding partners, as a compromise candidate. He received eight votes to Leahy 's one and three abstentions and was elected Commissioner. Rozelle gained the support of the four anti-Leahy owners by pledging to move the league office from Philadelphia to New York City instead of the West Coast.
Rozelle 's original contract in 1960 was $50,000 annually for three years. In May 1962, he was granted a $10,000 bonus for 1961 and a new five - year contract at $60,000 per year.
When Rozelle took office there were twelve teams in the NFL playing a twelve - game schedule to frequently half - empty stadiums, and only a few teams had television contracts. The NFL in 1960 was following a business model that had evolved from the 1930s. NFL sources credit Rozelle with originating gate and television profit - sharing. However, it was the rival American Football League which initiated both concepts at its formation in 1959. The revenue - sharing was a major factor in stabilizing the AFL and guaranteeing the success of its small - market teams. Rozelle recognized the value of such an arrangement, and following the lead of the rival AFL, Rozelle negotiated large television contracts to broadcast every NFL game played each season. In doing so, he not only deftly played one television network against the other, but also persuaded NFL team owners -- most notably Carroll Rosenbloom of the Baltimore Colts and George Preston Marshall of the Washington Redskins -- to agree to share revenues between teams, as the American Football League (AFL) had done since its inception. His business model, which emulated that of the AFL, was essentially a cartel that benefited all teams equally, from revenue sharing to the player draft.
On November 24, 1963, the NFL played its full schedule of seven games (untelevised due to uninterrupted coverage of the assassination, but well - attended), only two days after the assassination of President Kennedy, while the rival American Football League (AFL) postponed its four games out of respect for the fallen president. Rozelle soon came to regret his decision to have the NFL play, and frequently stated publicly that it had been his worst mistake. However, Rozelle and White House Press Secretary Pierre Salinger had been classmates at the University of San Francisco years before, and Rozelle had consulted with him. Salinger urged Rozelle to play the games. Rozelle felt that way, saying that "it has been traditional in sports for athletes to perform in times of great personal tragedy. '' He also said that football was Kennedy 's game and the late president thrived on competition. Rozelle 's "aptitude for conciliation '' with the league 's owners and his work in expanding the NFL, however, led to his receiving Sports Illustrated magazine 's 1963 "Sportsman of the Year '' award. The award was ironic, since it was the existence of the AFL that expanded the sport and forced the NFL to grant franchises to Dallas and Minnesota.
By 1965, the rival American Football League was firmly established, with a new NBC - TV contract, and a new superstar in Joe Namath. After an NFL team (the Giants) had signed an AFL player (the Buffalo Bills ' Pete Gogolak) in early 1966, American Football League commissioner Al Davis had shaken the NFL. Davis had immediately started signing NFL stars such as Roman Gabriel, John Brodie and Mike Ditka to contracts with AFL teams. Fearful of their league 's collapse, NFL owners, without the knowledge of Rozelle, approached AFL owners (without the knowledge of Davis) and requested merger talks. AFL and NFL executives including Lamar Hunt, founder of the AFL and owner of the Kansas City Chiefs, completed a plan. Rozelle is erroneously credited with forging the merger. In October 1966, he did testify to Congress to convince them to allow the merger, promising that if they permitted it, "Professional football operations will be preserved in the 23 cities and 25 stadiums where such operations are presently being conducted. ''; and "Every franchise of both leagues will remain in its present location. '' The merger was allowed, but despite Rozelle 's promises, numerous NFL teams have since moved, or used the threat of moving to have cities build or improve stadiums. Following the urging of American Football League commissioner Al Davis, Rozelle also agreed to the creation of the Super Bowl and later supported the concept of Monday Night Football. NFL sources have since aggrandized Rozelle 's part in both the merger and Monday Night Football. Rozelle is also often erroneously credited with introducing the concept of shared television revenues to professional football. He did advocate it for the merged NFL, but he was simply embracing the concept which had been implemented by the AFL ten years before the merger.
Following the two leagues ' agreement to merge, owners of both leagues agreed in principle to follow the 1941 model of professional football governance. AFL owners agreed to recognize Rozelle as the overall chief executive of the sport and appoint a league President to serve under the NFL Commissioner. Although Rozelle was never formally invested with a title such as Commissioner of Football or Football Commissioner, he was often referred to as such by the media for the rest of the AFL 's existence. AFL owners had intended for Davis to continue serving as AFL President, but he flatly refused to consider serving as a subordinate to Rozelle. After Davis resigned as AFL Commissioner, Milt Woodard (who had served as assistant commissioner under Foss and Davis) was appointed AFL President. Woodard would serve in that role for the rest of the AFL 's existence.
The 1970s saw Rozelle at the peak of his powers as a sports league commissioner. He presided over a decade of league expansion. Monday Night Football became a staple of American television viewing, and the Super Bowl became the single most watched televised event of the year. During this decade, the upstart World Football League organized, pushing player salaries higher even as it ended up in bankruptcy. Towards the end of the decade, labor unrest and litigation over issues such as the NFL Players Association and team movement to new markets foreshadowed Rozelle 's decline as commissioner.
In February 1974, Rozelle agreed to a ten - year contract at $200,000 per year, effective January 1973 through December 1982. It was replaced and updated in 1977.
The 1980s saw drug scandals and further struggle with powerful owners over team movement. Rozelle, again according to Monday Night Football commentator Howard Cosell, pushed the NFL into an internecine struggle with Al Davis concerning the movement of the Oakland Raiders franchise to Los Angeles. Other owners, such as Leonard Tose of the Philadelphia Eagles, sought to move their franchises elsewhere. Ultimately, the NFL lost its court case with Davis, and the Oakland franchise moved to Los Angeles. The sports world was very aware of the men 's dislike for one another. In 1981, the Oakland Raiders won the Super Bowl. As commissioner, Rozelle handed the Super Bowl Trophy over to Al Davis. It was said by some that he used both hands to give Davis the trophy so that he would n't have to shake his enemy 's hand. Additionally, the United States Football League formed, pushing player salaries higher, and ultimately embroiled the league in further legal troubles; under Rozelle, the league lost an antitrust suit to the USFL (nevertheless, the token amount of money awarded as a result forced the money - bleeding USFL to cease operations).
Under Rozelle the NFL thrived and had become an American icon, despite two players ' strikes and two different upstart leagues. He retired as commissioner on November 5, 1989. By the time of his resignation, the number of teams in the league had grown to 28, and team owners presided over sizable revenues from U.S. broadcasting networks.
After serving as a lawyer for the NFL, Tagliabue was selected by NFL owners to succeed Pete Rozelle as Commissioner of the NFL in 1989.
On March 22, 1989, Pete Rozelle announced that he would retire as commissioner as soon as a successor was elected. Many owners wanted Rozelle to be succeeded by two equally responsible chiefs; a president that would oversee the business aspects of the game, and a commissioner responsible for maintaining the game 's integrity. A six - owner search committee consisting of Wellington Mara, Lamar Hunt, Art Modell, Robert Parins, Dan Rooney, and Ralph Wilson was formed to find candidates for the job and the firm of Heidrick & Struggles was hired to assist in the search. The committee narrowed the candidates to five finalists; New Orleans Saints general manager and minority owner Jim Finks, New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority President and CEO Robert E. Mulcahy III, former Green Bay Packers defensive end and businessman Willie Davis, former Democratic National Committee Chairman Paul G. Kirk, and league attorney Paul Tagliabue. Housing and Urban Development Secretary and former Buffalo Bills quarterback Jack Kemp was considered for the job, but chose to remain in his cabinet post. Although committee chairman Mara had said they would present the owners with three or four candidates, the committee unanimously endorsed Finks and reached an agreement with him on a five - year contract. Although Finks ran unopposed for the job at the July 7 owners meeting, a group of eleven newer owners abstained from voting, which prevented Finks from receiving the nineteen votes necessary to become Commissioner. This group did not object to Finks ' candidacy, but abstained on principal because they wanted more of a voice in the selection process, felt that they had not given enough information on the search process from the committee, were upset that the committee only recommended Finks despite promising several candidates, and were upset by the fact that the committee had begun contract negotiations with Finks before he was even elected to the post.
A second search committee was formed consisting of Mara, Hunt, Mike Lynn, Ken Behring, John Kent Cooke, and Al Davis. This committee presented the owners with four finalists; Willie Davis, Jim Finks, Paul Tagliabue, and former New York Republican State Committee Chairman J. Patrick Barrett. The second owners meeting ended in deadlock with 13 votes for Finks and 13 for Tagliabue.
A third committee was made up of five owners was formed to present the owners with a unanimous candidate for commissioner. It was chaired by neutral owner Dan Rooney, who was joined by Finks supporters Mara and Modell and Tagliabue supporters Lynn and Pat Bowlen. At the third meeting, a compromise was reached by the two groups that would make Tagliabue commissioner and Finks president in charge of football operations. However, Finks declined this position and Tagliabue was elected commissioner by an undisclosed number of votes.
In 1998, Tagliabue 's $2.5 million annual salary was doubled to $5 million. His final contract, signed in 2004, paid Tagliabue about $8 million per year.
Two days after the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, Tagliabue announced that the games scheduled for the upcoming weekend were canceled. Tagliabue said the NFL was acutely aware of Commissioner Pete Rozelle 's well - publicized regret not to cancel the games on the weekend following the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963.
In 1987, Goodell was appointed assistant to the president of the American Football Conference (Lamar Hunt), and under the tutelage of Commissioner Paul Tagliabue filled a variety of football and business operations roles, culminating with his appointment as the NFL 's Executive Vice President and Chief Operating Officer in December 2001.
As the NFL 's COO, Goodell took responsibility for the league 's football operations and officiating, as well as supervised league business functions. He headed NFL Ventures, which oversees the league 's business units, including media properties, marketing and sales, stadium development and strategic planning.
Goodell was heavily involved in the negotiation of the league 's current collective bargaining agreement. He had worked extensively with Tagliabue since the latter became commissioner in 1989. He has played an extensive role in league expansion, realignment, and stadium development, including the launch of the NFL Network and securing new television agreements as well as the latest collective bargaining agreement with the National Football League Players Association.
Goodell was chosen on August 8, 2006, to succeed Paul Tagliabue and assumed office on September 1 -- the date Tagliabue set to leave office.
In November 2006, amid rumors that the NFL may expand outside of the United States, Goodell stated "I do n't know if it will become a reality, but it is certainly a possibility. ''
In April 2007, following a year of significant scandal surrounding some NFL players ' actions off - the - field, Goodell announced a new NFL Personal Conduct Policy. Tennessee Titans cornerback Pacman Jones and Cincinnati Bengals wide receiver Chris Henry were the first two players to be suspended under the new policy, and Chicago Bears defensive lineman Tank Johnson was suspended months later due to his conduct involving weapon ownership and drunk driving. On August 31, 2007, Goodell suspended Dallas Cowboys quarterbacks coach Wade Wilson for five games and fined him $100,000, and suspended New England Patriots safety Rodney Harrison four games without pay, after they admitted the use of banned substances for medical purposes and to accelerate healing, respectively. The league indicated to Wilson that his more severe penalty was because they held "people in authority in higher regard than people on the field. ''
On September 13, 2007, Goodell disciplined the New England Patriots and head coach Bill Belichick after New England attempted to videotape the defensive signals of the New York Jets on September 9. Belichick was fined the league maximum of $ 500,000 and the team itself was fined $250,000 and the loss of their first round 2008 draft pick. Goodell said he considered suspending Belichick, but decided against it because he felt the penalties were "more effective '' than a suspension. He never considered forfeiture of the affected games.
In response to the New Orleans Saints bounty scandal, where players had allegedly been encouraged during previous seasons to knock certain players out of games, Goodell suspended New Orleans head coach Sean Payton (the entire 2012 season), general manager Mickey Loomis (first eight games of the 2012 season), assistant head coach Joe Vitt (first six games of the 2012 season), and former defensive coordinator Gregg Williams (indefinitely) It was the first time in modern NFL history that a head coach has been suspended for any reason. The Saints organization was fined $500,000, and forced to forfeit their second - round draft selections in 2012 and 2013. Four former Saints players (Jonathan Vilma, Anthony Hargrove, Will Smith, and Scott Fujita) were suspended after being named as ringleaders in the scandal The players ' suspensions were vacated by Goodell 's designated appeals officer, former Commissioner Paul Tagliabue.
In the late summer and early autumn of 2014, a series of domestic - violence scandals broke, tarnishing Goodell 's reputation, as he was seen as initially not having reacted quickly or severely enough to them. The first two players embroiled in these scandals, both running backs, were Ray Rice, whose tenure with the Baltimore Ravens was terminated and who was indefinitely suspended from the NFL after the scope of his scandal broadened, forcing Goodell to change NFL policy on its handling of domestic - violence cases, and Adrian Peterson of the Minnesota Vikings, against whom child - abuse charges were filed.
On May 11, 2015, the NFL announced that it suspended New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady without pay for four games of the upcoming season based on "substantial and credible evidence '' that Brady knew Patriots employees were deflating footballs and that he failed to cooperate with investigators. The Patriots were also fined $ 1 million and lost their first round pick in the 2016 NFL draft and their fourth round pick in the 2017 NFL draft. On May 14, the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA) filed an appeal of Tom Brady 's four - game suspension. The NFL also announced that Goodell would preside over Brady 's appeal, despite objections from the NFLPA, which requested a neutral arbitrator. On July 28, Goodell upheld the four - game suspension, citing Brady 's destruction of his cell phone as a critical factor. On July 29, the NFLPA announced that they filed an injunction to prevent the NFL from enforcing the four - game suspension that commissioner Roger Goodell confirmed. On September 3, Judge Richard M. Berman threw out Brady 's suspension due to a lack of fair due process for Brady. The NFL appealed the decision, eventually having Brady 's suspension reinstated for 2016. Brady exhausted all further appeals without success.
Goodell 's compensation from the league in fiscal year 2012 was over $44 million, mostly from bonuses; his base salary was under $4 million.
Pound sign (#) denotes interim commissioner.
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who does barney date in how i met your mother | Barney Stinson - wikipedia
Barnabas "Barney '' Stinson is a fictional character portrayed by Neil Patrick Harris and created by Carter Bays and Craig Thomas for the CBS television series How I Met Your Mother. One of the main characters, Barney is a womanizer who uses many ' plays ' in his ' playbook ' to help him have sex with women. The character is known for his love of wearing expensive suits, laser tag, alcohol and various catchphrases, including "Suit up! '', "Legendary '', "Wait for it '' (often combining the two as "legen -- wait for it -- dary! ''), and "Daddy 's home ''. In later seasons, he has a few serious relationships, marries, divorces, and has a child with an unnamed woman from a one - night stand.
Critics have praised the character and credit him for much of the show 's success. He is considered the show 's breakout character.
The show 's creators envisioned Barney as what Bays later described as a "large, John Belushi - type character ''; nonetheless, Megan Branman, the casting director for How I Met Your Mother, invited Harris to audition. He assumed that he was invited solely because the two were friends and did not believe he had a chance of winning the role. Harris later said: "Since I (considered) myself the long shot, I did n't care that much, and I think that allowed a freedom. '' His audition centered on a scene playing laser tag, and Harris attempted a dive roll, accidentally knocking over a chair and slamming into a wall in the process. CBS executives enjoyed his playing and soon offered Harris the part. The character is named for a heroin dealer in the James Ellroy novel L.A. Confidential.
Barney Stinson is one of five main characters on How I Met Your Mother. He is a manipulative, oversexed businessman in his thirties who always wears a suit, likes women with "daddy issues '' and is frequently willing to offer his (sometimes hypocritical) opinion. Throughout the earlier seasons, Barney is a huge womanizer, and has been described as a "high - functioning sociopath '' by his best friend, Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor). Barney has a plethora of strategies and rules designed to meet women, sleep with them, and discard them. Through several seasons of the show, four (4) of the main characters are couples, as Ted began dating Robin Scherbatsky (Cobie Smulders) and Ted 's roommate Marshall Eriksen (Jason Segel) becomes engaged and later married to Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan). This leaves Barney the only single character, and, according to Harris, Barney is "resentful '' that the other characters have paired up. Later on, in season 5, he dates Robin. They end up breaking up not long after, once they both realize they are making one another miserable.
Harris describes Barney as a man who "likes to create crazy situations and then sit back and watch it all go down. '' He is an opportunist who manipulates any situation so that it goes his way. He is also highly competitive, and will take on "challenges '' to complete outlandish tasks in order to prove his worth. He is proud and stubborn, and attempts to stand by his word no matter what. In "I Heart NJ '', for example, he refuses to put down his fist unless someone offers him a fist bump. By the end of the episode, he has the same fist elevated in a sling after struggling to keep his fist up throughout the episode. In "Lucky Penny '', when the others do not believe that he can run the New York City Marathon the next day without training, Barney immediately agrees to do so. Although he succeeds, he is unable to walk afterwards. Although he thinks of himself as worldly, Barney is sometimes extremely naive, believing many lies his mother told him well into adulthood, such as believing that Bob Barker is his father.
Barney, like Harris himself, is an illusionist. His favorite types of magic tricks involve fire, as seen in the tenth episode of the second season, "Single Stamina '' and in the fourth episode of the fourth season, "Intervention ''. Barney uses magic tricks mostly to pick up women. His most common method of picking up women is telling them elaborate lies about himself, often using an alias. Many of his schemes for picking up women are in a book he has written called "The Playbook '', which is exposed in the episode "The Playbook ''. He has commitment issues, as evidenced in his reluctance to put a label on his relationship with Robin and the fact that she is one of the few women he has actually dated since the show started.
Barney is very well - connected and is the most affluent member of the group. He frequently buys expensive items -- such as a last - minute plane ticket to San Francisco, thousands of dollars in postage stamps, or two televisions specifically for smashing in frustration -- in the spur of the moment. He is also something of a metrosexual; he waxes his chest, enjoys manicures and has an extensive knowledge of designer labels and gourmet food. However, he is also seen to have a gambling problem that he occasionally gets under control, only to relapse as seen in several episodes such as "Atlantic City '', where he has gambling buddies in the Chinese Triad, and "Monday Night Football ''.
Although The Early Show described him as "Utterly devoid of morality '', Barney lives by the "Bro Code '', his own code of ethics. Despite his overall questionable character, according to creator Craig Thomas, Barney is "a pretty fragile character who 's really afraid of being alone. He just wants people to like him, to be important to people, and to have disciples who follow his word. '' He has displayed a softer, kinder side on several occasions, however, such as preventing Marshall from sleeping with other women when he and Lily break up, and persuading Lily to come back to Marshall.
In "The Slutty Pumpkin Returns '', Barney finds out he is one quarter Canadian, much to his horror and embarrassment.
Throughout the series, one major character development is apparent in Barney: At the beginning of the show, his character is a womanizer who completely objectifies sex and women and wants nothing to do with dating and relationships. Although he does date Robin in Season 5, he resumes his promiscuous lifestyle immediately after they break up. In Seasons 6 and 7, however, he begins to confront his personal issues, like his relationship with his estranged father and his fear of commitment. By the time late Season 7 rolls around, Barney has finally "grown up, '' and has now warmed to the idea of a commitment and marriage, culminating in his proposal to his girlfriend, Quinn. Although he briefly retreats to his escapades after he and Quinn break up, he does make one major final leap in his maturity when he burns The Playbook and proposes to Robin in Season 8 's two - part episode "The Final Page, '' after finally admitting to himself that he is still in love with her. Robin accepts and they plan their wedding in the second half of the season.
The final season revolves around Barney and Robin 's wedding weekend. After some apprehension on both their parts, they get married in "The End of the Aisle '' after he vows to always be honest with her. The series finale, "Last Forever '', reveals that, three years after their wedding, they get divorced because Robin 's hectic travel schedule prevents them from spending any time together. Barney returns to a lifestyle of meaningless sex with multiple women for several years afterward, until he gets one of his one - night stands pregnant. He hates the idea of being a father until the day his child -- a girl named Ellie -- is born. He falls in love with her at first sight and becomes a devoted father, turning away from his player lifestyle for good.
A few references have been offered to identify Barney 's Birthday: In "Natural History '', Barney claims he was six years old on July 23, 1981. This puts his birthday somewhere between July 24, 1974 and July 23, 1975; in "Zoo or False '', Ted says Barney was born seven years after the moon landing (which occurred in July 1969), In "Columns '' set in 2007, Barney gives his age as 31 further confirming his birth year is 1976. In "The Drunk Train '' Marshall states Barney is a Scorpio which places his birthday between October 23rd - November 21st 1976.
He was raised in Port Richmond, Staten Island by his mother Loretta (younger version voiced by Megan Mullally, played by Frances Conroy), who was apparently very promiscuous. His father proved to be an ongoing mystery in the series. When Barney was young, he asked his mother who his father was, and as The Price Is Right happened to be on TV at the time, she pointed to Bob Barker and replied, "Oh, I do n't know. That guy. '' Barney believed the lie wholeheartedly. Years later, as portrayed in the season 2 episode "Showdown '', he appears on The Price Is Right with the intention of naming Barker as his father on national television, until he panics at the last minute and can not go through with it. As a child, Barney was terrible at sports, and from various episodes it is shown he had few friends (one scene shows that no one attended his birthday party). In the episode "The Leap, '' Lily reveals that Barney planned on being a violinist when he was young.
In "Natural History '', Barney finds out that a man named Jerome Whittaker, whom Barney believed to be his uncle, signed a form claiming to be Barney 's father. Barney finally meets Jerome (John Lithgow) again in the episode "Legendaddy '' and learns that he is in fact his father. Upon meeting, Jerome feels pressured to act like the hard - partying womanizer he once was in order to impress Barney, and also because Barney refuses to see him any other way. Barney eventually breaks down and accuses Jerome of walking out on him. Jerome, who can offer no excuse, apologizes and pleads with Barney to allow him to be a part of his life. Later in the sixth season, in "Hopeless '', Jerome tries to impress Barney by acting like his old self, but later reveals he was just pretending. Barney, nevertheless, willingly listens to advice from Jerome about settling down. Barney also learns of his Canadian heritage, when he finds out that Jerome 's mother was born in Manitoba.
Barney has three half - siblings: James (played by Wayne Brady), from his mother 's side, a gay African American who is married to a man, with whom he has an adopted son and daughter (as revealed in the season seven episode "The Rebound Girl ''); Carly (played by Ashley Benson), a university student from his father 's side with whom Ted has a one - night stand in "Ring Up! '', and Jerome Jr. (JJ), from his father 's side, who is 11. He also has a female cousin named Leslie, with whom he accidentally grinds in a nightclub, as seen in the episode "Okay Awesome ''.
Throughout the series Barney has claimed to have attended MIT; In the final season, Barney explains that MIT is an acronym for the Magicians Institute of Teaneck, not the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He has worn a Cornell Big Red T - shirt, indicating that he may have gone there, instead. As evidenced in Season 2 "Atlantic City '', Barney learned at least conversational Korean, Chinese at some point, as well as some French. His musical skills include playing the drums, dancing the tango and singing. He is also skilled at juggling and laser tag.
"Game Night '' reveals that Barney had once been an innocent, idealistic young man who wanted to join the Peace Corps with his first serious girlfriend, Shannon. When she left him for a suit - wearing womanizer, James arranged for the 23 - year - old Barney to lose his virginity to their mother 's friend, Rhonda "the Man Maker '' French. After he slept with Rhonda and was led to believe he satisfied her, he became a similarly suit - wearing womanizer, even going so far as to adopt some of his rival 's catchphrases. He lives by a strict code known as the Bro Code.
Barney is also revealed to have had a gambling problem, enabled by his mother, who is a bookmaker. However, he assures the group that it is not a problem because he is so good at it. He revealed in "Atlantic City '' that he lost his entire life savings playing a Chinese game. He has also apparently lost every one of his many bets on the Super Bowl. He will go to any lengths to win a bet, even if it takes one year for just $10.
While Barney 's softer, generous side is not often apparent, it is not always relegated to flashbacks. When Marshall and Lily break their engagement in season one, Barney lures women away from Marshall so that he can remain faithful to the woman he truly loves. It is revealed that it was Barney who convinced Lily to come back to New York, even buying her a plane ticket home. Barney 's relationship with women evolves throughout the series; in the later seasons, he begins to desire a more conventional relationship, as evidenced by his subsequent proposals to both Quinn Garvey and Robin Scherbatsky. He is also known to write a blog. In an allusion to Harris ' role in Doogie Howser, M.D., the music played during his blogging sessions is the theme song from the show.
Throughout the series, Barney frequently refuses to say what he does for a living, brushing off any questions about his job with a dismissive "Please. ''
Barney is apparently quite wealthy, and is undeniably the richest out of the five. He lives in an upscale apartment and is rich enough to own two 300 inch televisions shipped from Japan as well as expensive memorabilia, including an Imperial Stormtrooper costume from the Star Wars films. Barney is also shown to be a fan of the rock groups AC / DC, Van Halen and Bon Jovi.
In his blog, he writes that he is the Director of WHO DID THIS. The company he works for, Altrucell, advertises itself as the world 's largest producer of the felt covers of tennis balls; however, Future Ted implies that the company 's main profits come from other, less innocent sources, such as logging, oil drilling, small arms, tobacco farming and missile construction. Barney states in "Cupcake '' that, as a lawyer for Altrucell, Marshall would make more money in three months than he and Lily make in a year because his company has so many lawsuits against it. In the season 3 episode "The Bracket, '' he says that he is good enough at lying to avoid perjury charges. As of Season 4, his company is involved in a hostile takeover of Goliath National Bank (GNB) and consequently shifts him to the management team of the bank, but he remains a powerful executive and continues to use the same office he has had since it was first shown in Season 1. Despite this, he has suggested there is the possibility he will one day wash up on shore with no teeth or fingerprints and supposedly has come under attack by ninjas in the past during work. In Season 4, during the episode "Happily Ever After '', Barney states to a woman that he is an "Attorney in Law '', though this was probably just part of a pick - up line as he immediately followed it with "Let 's talk about getting you off ''. His video resume was published in Season 4 episode "The Possimpible ''. In a season 8 episode, it was implied that the full extent of Barney 's career might never be revealed.
In the Season 9 episode "Unpause '', he drunkenly reveals that his job is to "Provide Legal Exculpation And Sign Everything '' (P.L.E.A.S.E.), setting him up to be the fall guy for his company 's nefarious activities. Unknown to his company, he has been conspiring with the federal government as part of a long - term plan to get revenge on his boss, who stole his girlfriend prior to the start of the series.
Ted is Barney 's self - proclaimed best friend and "wing man ''. They meet in 2001 at MacLaren 's, and Barney takes it upon himself to "teach Ted how to live ''. While Ted is often annoyed by Barney 's antics, he considers him a good friend, and in "Miracles, '' says that Barney is like a brother to him. Their friendship has been tested, however; in "The Goat '', Ted finds out that Barney and Robin slept together and ends their friendship, and refuses to speak to him for several episodes. In the third - season finale, "Miracles '', however, Ted forgives Barney after Barney severely injures himself while trying to help him. They remain an important part of each other 's lives for the rest of the series, with Barney comforting Ted after he is left at the altar in "Shelter Island '' and Ted teaching Barney how to be a good boyfriend to Robin in "Robin 101 ''. Ted is the best man at Barney 's wedding, and, along with the other main characters, is present for the birth of his child.
Barney meets Marshall around the same time as Ted, and takes it upon himself to give Marshall unwanted advice on picking up women. While Marshall makes fun of Barney 's promiscuity and ethical lapses, however, Barney has helped him many times throughout the series. For example, Barney gets him an internship at Altrucell in "Life Among the Gorillas '', keeps him from sleeping with other women in "The Scorpion and the Toad '', persuades Lily to come back to him in "Bachelor Party '', and gets him a job at Goliath National Bank in "The Best Burger in New York ''. Barney is "co-best man '' with Ted at Marshall 's wedding. Along with the other main characters, Marshall is present for the birth of Barney 's daughter. In the episode "Slap Bet '', Barney loses a bet with Marshall and agrees to let Marshall slap him five times at random occasions "throughout eternity ''. This is later extended to eight slaps in the episode "Disaster Averted ''. Marshall administers these slaps in the episodes "Slap Bet '', "Stuff '', "Slapsgiving '', "Slapsgiving 2: Revenge of the Slap '', "Slapsgiving 3: Slappointment in Slapmarra '', and "The End of the Aisle ''.
Barney makes many unwelcome sexual advances toward Lily throughout the series, and frequently implies that Lily is secretly attracted to him, despite all evidence to the contrary. Nevertheless, he considers Lily a confidante, seeking her advice on winning Robin over and telling her deeply personal secrets, such as his failed ambition to be a concert violinist. He also admires her skill at lying and manipulating people, considering it to be on par with his own. While Lily calls Barney "the world 's biggest pervert '' and a "womanizing creep '', she also considers him one of her best friends. Along with the other main characters, Lily is present for the birth of Barney 's daughter.
Barney and Robin start out as friends, but he falls in love with her after they impulsively sleep together in "Sandcastles in the Sand ''. Throughout Season 4, he struggles with his feelings for her, until they finally get together in the season finale "The Leap ''. They become a full - fledged couple in season 5, but they break up in "The Rough Patch '' when they find that they are making each other miserable. They never truly get over each other, however, even while they are dating other people. In the eighth season, he launches an elaborate plan to win Robin 's heart (encouraged by Ted 's future wife) that ends with Barney proposing to her. She accepts, and they get engaged. The final season revolves around their wedding weekend. After much doubt and soul - searching, they get married in "The End of the Aisle ''. The series finale, "Last Forever '', reveals that, after three years of marriage, they get divorced because Robin 's work schedule prevents them from spending any time together. They do not see each other again for several years, until Ted 's wedding.
Barney and Robin start out as friends, but he falls in love with her after they impulsively sleep together in "Sandcastles in the Sand ''. Throughout Season 4, he struggles with his feelings for her, until they finally get together in the season finale "The Leap ''. They become a full - fledged couple in season 5, but they break up in "The Rough Patch '' when they find that they are making each other miserable. They never truly get over each other, however, even while they are dating other people. In the eighth season, he launches an elaborate plan to win Robin 's heart (encouraged by Ted 's future wife) that ends with Barney proposing to her. She accepts, and they get engaged. The final season revolves around their wedding weekend. After much doubt and soul - searching, they get married in "The End of the Aisle ''. The series finale, "Last Forever '', reveals that, after three years of marriage, they get divorced because Robin 's work schedule prevents them from spending any time together. They do not see each other again for several years, until Ted 's wedding.
Barney has two other serious girlfriends throughout the series: Nora (Nazanin Boniadi), on whom he cheats with Robin; and Quinn (Becki Newton), a stripper to whom he proposes, but with whom he breaks up upon realizing that they do n't trust each other.
In 2008, the book The Bro Code, ostensibly written by Barney, was published. Three other books ostensibly written by Barney, Bro on the Go (2009), The Playbook (2010), and Bro Code for Parents: What to Expect When You 're Awesome (2012), were also published.
In 2010, Barney was featured in a Super Bowl commercial that showed him in the stands at the Super Bowl with a sign stating "Hey Ladies Call Barney Stinson 1 - 877 - 987 - 6401. '' A recorded message by Neil Patrick Harris was played if the number was dialed.
In the show 's pilot, Barney first utters the phrase, "Suit up! '', as he tells others to dress like him to go out. The phrase "Suit up! '' came from an ad for a suit sale in a later episode about his past with Shannon. According to creator Thomas, this is a sign that Barney "thought of his suit as some kind of superhero outfit that separated him from the pack. '' The phrase is repeated in many episodes, and is often modified to fit whatever clothing Barney is wearing, such as "Flight suit up '', "Snow suit up '', and even "Birthday suit up ''. He also uses the word "awesome '' to describe anything that he finds remotely pleasing, and invents different kinds of "high - fives '' for every occasion. However, Barney 's arguably most famous catch phrase is "Legendary! '' which he uses to describe anything and everything fun and exciting (In fact, Ted says that he over-uses it). When saying something is legendary, he typically says "it 's going to be Legen... wait for it... dary! Legendary! '' He also says "wait for it '' quite often. And also he often uses the word "Nice '' to express when he glad in something or someone.
In the show Barney frequently approaches attractive women with Ted in tow and asks "Haaaaaave you met Ted? '' as a way to start a conversation with strangers. Thomas says that this phrase is based in real life, as a one - time friend of his often used a similar line to meet women. He is also prone to saying "Daddy 's Home '' as either a chat - up line or for grand entrances, and "True Story '' as an ending to stories or theories that are generally erroneous.
Barney often uses the phrase "Challenge accepted '' when someone mentions an outlandish task that supposedly can not be done; he takes this as a personal challenge and attempts, usually successfully, to perform the task.
According to The Early Show, Barney is one of the main reasons that the show has been a success. Maclean 's stated that Barney is the show 's most popular character and explains that the most likeable characters are often those with the best catchphrases. In 2006, TV Land named Barney 's "Suit Up '' one of the 100 Best Catchphrases. Barney 's signature phrase is one of only four from contemporary television shows, as writers are now less likely to have a character repeat a phrase in many episodes. In June 2010, Entertainment Weekly named him one of the 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years. Paste included him in their list of the 20 Best Characters of 2011, ranking him No. 4.
From 2007 -- 10, Harris was nominated for a Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series for his work playing Barney. In 2008, Fireside published The Bro Code. Ostensibly written by Stinson, although actually penned by Matt Kuhn, a writer for the show, the book reveals the code by which the character supposedly lives his life (though he has been shown disregarding and / or violating a large portion of the articles in the book). Oxford Dictionaries recognized Stinson as "the quintessence of a certain iteration of the contemporary bro '' and noted how his language uses the word liberally.
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who played mrs. landers on leave it to beaver | Sue Randall - wikipedia
Marion Burnside Randall, who acted under the name Sue Randall (October 8, 1935 -- October 26, 1984), was an American actress best known for her role as the kindly Miss Alice Landers, Theodore "Beaver '' Cleaver 's elementary school teacher in the CBS and ABC sitcom Leave It to Beaver.
Born in Philadelphia and the daughter of a prominent real - estate consultant, Sue Randall began acting on stage at the age of ten in a production of the Alden Park Players. In 1953 she completed her early education at the Lankenau School for Girls in the historic Germantown District of Philadelphia and then moved to New York, where she attended the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, graduating from that prestigious institution with honors.
Randall 's credited debut on the small screen came in the 1955 episode "Golden Victory '' of the series Star Tonight. She was one of the actresses who had the role of Diane Emerson in the television version of Valiant Lady (1953 - 1957). In 1954, she also portrayed a character named Diane Emerson on the CBS drama Woman with a Past.
Randall appeared in several other television productions before performing as the character Ruthie Saylor, a reference - desk worker, in the 1957 film Desk Set starring Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn.
Randall 's reoccurring role as a teacher on Leave It to Beaver spanned the years 1958 to 1962, when the actress was in her twenties. She appeared in twenty - eight episodes of the popular sitcom after replacing Diane Brewster, who played "Miss Canfield '' both during the first season and in the 1980s television movies based on the series. Sue Randall 's first appearance as Miss Landers was in the Leave It to Beaver episode "Ward 's Problem, '' which originally aired on October 16, 1958.
Primarily, Randall 's roles on television were as a featured actor or supporting character, often in westerns. For example, she was cast as Kathy O'Hara, an aspiring concert pianist, in the episode "The Mysterious Stranger '' (February 17, 1959) on the ABC / Warner Brothers series Sugarfoot, with Will Hutchins in the title role. She was cast too in the ABC series The Rebel as Elaine, the daughter of a man sentenced to hang; but Nick Adams, the star, saves him. That episode is titled "Judgment Day '' and was first broadcast on October 11, 1959.
In the late 1950s, however, television - series producers did cast Randall as a co-star with actress Theodora Davitt in a proposed weekly sitcom titled Up on Cloud Nine. A pilot for this comedy was completed, but no potential sponsors opted to buy or underwrite the series about "the daffy misadventures '' of two airline stewardesses. In the pilot episode 's storyline, described by one later reviewer as "painfully unfunny, '' Randall and Davitt 's characters insult passengers and frighten them while in flight by mistakenly preparing their plane for a crash landing.
Sue Randall appeared in many other series, including CBS 's The Twilight Zone, Have Gun -- Will Travel, Gunsmoke, The Aquanauts, Pete and Gladys, and Hennesey, NBC 's Bonanza and The Man and the Challenge, and ABC 's The Real McCoys, The Dakotas, 77 Sunset Strip, The Fugitive, and The Rifleman. In addition, she made three guest appearances on Sea Hunt with Lloyd Bridges in 1961. That same year she also guest starred as Ellen, with Adolphe Menjou as Fitch and Orson Bean as her husband John Monroe, in the episode "The Secret Life of James Thurber '', based on the works of the American humorist James Thurber, in the CBS anthology series The DuPont Show with June Allyson. She made two guest appearances as well on Perry Mason, both times as the defendant: Betty Wilkins in the 1960 episode, "The Case of the Ill - Fated Faker, '' and Arnell Stiller, alias Amy Scott, in the 1964 episode, "The Case of the Garrulous Go - Between. ''
Randall appeared too in five episodes of the long - running, syndicated western anthology Death Valley Days. Her last performance in that series was in 1966, when she was cast as Carrie Huntington in the episode "The Courtship of Carrie Huntington, '' set in the future Washington State. In the storyline Jesse Pearson plays Henry Windsor, who is hired to take Carrie to her sister 's wedding after she misses the stagecoach. Henry and Carrie engage in a mock wedding, but on the return trip Henry wins her over after they are held by Indians and Carrie nurses a sick child to health. Helen Kleeb, a native of Washington State, plays Carrie 's mother, and Dub Taylor was cast in a cameo role as a station agent.
Randall retired from her television acting career at an early age, reportedly due to lingering complications from injuries she suffered in 1967 in an automobile accident. Her last credited television performance did, in fact, occur in 1967. She played the part of "Ruth '' in an episode of Vacation Playhouse, a summer replacement series that showcased a variety of unsold pilots. Two years after her work on Vacation Playhouse, Randall returned to her hometown of Philadelphia, where she became involved with a variety of professional associations and participated in telethons and other charitable events to raise money to support programs and research battling arthritis, multiple sclerosis, blindness, and poor childhood education.
Randall died October 26, 1984, at Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at age 49. In 1982 she had been diagnosed with both lung and larynx cancer. Her death followed treatments for the malignancies, including the removal of her larynx. Randall was survived by her two sons, Blake and Kenneth; and, in accordance with her wishes, her body was donated for medical science to the Humanity Gifts Registry in Philadelphia.
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lyrics to don't bring me down by elo | Do n't Bring Me Down - wikipedia
"Do n't Bring Me Down '' is the ninth and final track on the English rock band the Electric Light Orchestra 's 1979 album Discovery. It is their highest charting hit in the United States to date.
"Do n't Bring Me Down '' is the band 's second highest charting hit in the UK where it peaked at number 3 and their biggest hit in the United States, peaking at number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. It also charted well in Canada (number 1) and Australia (number 6). This was the first song by ELO not to include a string section.
The drum track is in fact a tape loop, coming from "On the Run '' looped and slowed down.
The song ends with the sound of a door slamming. According to producer Jeff Lynne, this was a metal fire door at Musicland Studios where the song was recorded.
The song was dedicated to the NASA Skylab space station, which re-entered the Earth 's atmosphere and burned up over the Indian Ocean and Western Australia on 11 July 1979.
On 4 November 2007, Lynne was awarded a BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc) Million - Air certificate for "Do n't Bring Me Down '' for the song having reached two million airplays.
A common mondegreen in the song is the perception that, following the title line, Lynne shouts "Bruce! ''. In the liner notes of the ELO compilation Flashback and elsewhere, Lynne has explained that he is singing a made - up word, "Grooss, '' which some have suggested sounds like the German expression "Gruß. '' After the song 's release, so many people had misinterpreted the word as "Bruce '' that Lynne actually began to sing the word as "Bruce '' for fun at live shows.
A music video for the song was produced, which showed video of the band performing the song interspersed with various animations relating to the song 's subject matter, including big - bottomed majorettes and a pulsating neon frankfurter. The band 's three resident string players are depicted playing keyboards in the music video.
Jeff Lynne re-recorded the song in his own home studio. It was released in a compilation album with other re-recorded ELO songs and under the ELO name called Mr. Blue Sky: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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your dead song what we do in the shadows | Norma Tanega - wikipedia
Norma Cecilia Tanega (born January 30, 1939) is an American folk and pop singer - songwriter, painter, and experimental musician. In the 1960s she had a hit with the single "Walkin ' My Cat Named Dog '' and wrote songs for Dusty Springfield and other prominent musicians. In recent decades Tanega has worked mostly as a percussionist, playing various styles of music in the bands Baboonz, hybridVigor and Ceramic Ensemble.
Norma Tanega was born in Vallejo, California, near San Francisco, and moved to Long Beach at the age of two. Her mother, Philda Tanega, was Panamanian, and her father, Tomas Tanega, was Filipino and worked as a bandmaster for 30 years in the United States Navy aboard the USS Hornet before moving on to lead his own band. Norma 's older brother Rudy went into the United States Air Force.
Tanega began classical piano lessons at age nine. She entered Long Beach Polytechnic High School in 1952 and in her senior year directed the school 's art gallery. By age 16 she was exhibiting her paintings at both Long Beach 's Public Library and its Municipal Art Center, play Beethoven and Bartok at piano recitals, and writing poetry. At age 17 she entered Scripps College on a scholarship and continued her studies at Claremont Graduate School, achieving an MFA in 1962.
Tanega spent a summer backpacking around Europe and moved to New York City to pursue her artistic career. Living in Greenwich Village she became involved in the folk music scene and political activism, including early opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War.
Tanega worked for a short time at a mental hospital, where she sang and played songs for patients. She spent her summers working as a camp counselor upstate in the Catskill Mountains. One summer Brooklyn - based record producer Herb Bernstein happened to be visiting the camp and saw Tanega performing some of her songs. impressed by what he saw, Bernstein took her to meet Four Seasons songwriter Bob Crewe and in 1966 the two men produced a number of recordings that comprised Tanega 's first album and singles to be released on Crewe 's New Voice Records label.
Her first single, "Walkin ' My Cat Named Dog '', went on to be an international hit, peaking at number 22 on both the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and the UK Singles Charts, and entered Canada 's top 10. Tanega 's impetus for the song came from living in a New York City apartment building that did n't allow dogs, so she kept a cat instead, named the cat "dog '' and took the cat out for walks. The single 's success landed her appearances on American Bandstand and Where the Action Is, and also a slot as the only woman on a North American tour with Gene Pitney, Bobby Goldsboro, Chad and Jeremy and The McCoys. On that tour Tanega was initially backed up by members of The Outsiders, who ended up not being able to follow Tanega 's more idiosyncratic music and she had to take on session players to accompany her onstage. While some of her songs riffed off of traditional tunes like "Hey Girl '', derived from Lead Belly 's take on "In the Pines '', many of her songs diverged from the structure of typical pop and folk music, such as her song "No Stranger Am I '', set to a 5 / 4 time signature.
With Tanega 's next three singles having less commercial success than "Walkin ' My Cat Named Dog '', her debut album was named for its big hit and its popularity spawned several cover versions by contemporary artists. A month after Tanega 's single entered the charts, Barry McGuire cut a version on the heels of his number one hit "Eve of Destruction ''. The T - Bones did an instrumental take on it later that year, and both the Jazz Crusaders and Art Blakey released jazz treatments of the song in 1967. International versions adapted the song into other languages. Madagascar yé - yé group Les Surfs translated it as "Mon Chat Qui S'Appelle Médor '' for the French - speaking and African markets, Belgium 's Lize Marke released it as "Wanneer Komt Het Geluk Voor Mij '' ("When Comes This Happiness For Me '') in Dutch, and Jytte Elga Olga interpretted it as "Min Kat -- Herr Hund '' ("My Cat, Mister Dog '') on a Danish 45.
In 1967 Tanega traveled to England to promote her music. Her tour included a perforformance on the BBC program Ready, Steady, Go! where she met British pop singer Dusty Springfield. After Tanega returned to the U.S. Springfield made many transatlantic calls to talk to her regularly, and Springfield accrued a large phone bill. On a visit to New York, Springfield entered a romantic relationship with Tanega, and the two went back to England and lived together for five years.
The couple took up residence in London 's Kensington district where Tanega continued to paint and play music. She contributed guitar tracks to Springfield 's 1967 album Where Am I Going? and Springfield recorded many of Tanega 's songs. These included "No Stranger Am I '', the 5 / 4 number that originally appeared on Tanega 's first album; "The Colour of Your Eyes '', which Tanega wrote for Springfield in Venice, California; "Earthbound Gypsy '' and "Midnight Sounds '', both co-written in New York with Tanega 's high school friend Dan White; and "Come for a Dream '', co-written with bossa nova musician Antônio Carlos Jobim. Tanega also penned the English language lyrics for Springfield 's version of "Morning '', a cover of the song "Bom Dia '' by Gilberto Gil and Nana Caymmi. In 1970 Tanega teamed up with jazz pianist Blossom Dearie to write a song about Springfield for Dearie 's album That 's Just the Way I Want to Be.
Most of Tanega 's songs appeared as non-album B - sides to Springfield 's singles. Some, like the outtake "Go My Love '', appeared only on collections released years after their recording. Tanega also went uncredited for many of her collaborations with Springfield, and by 1970 their relationship was deteriorating. Tanega 's time in the U.K. secured her a contract with British division of RCA Records for whom she recorded the album I Do n't Think It Will Hurt If You Smile in 1971 with producer / keyboardist Mike Moran and Don Paul of British rock group The Viscounts. When Tanega ended up returning to the U.S. before the album 's promotion, it was n't met with the chart success of her earlier work. Dusty Springfield biographer Annie J. Randall said of the record, "I hear many references to Norma 's relationship with Dusty on this album. It stands to reason that Dusty would be the object of affection in the love songs. ''
In 1972 Tanega moved back to Claremont, California and took jobs teaching both music and English as a second language. She returned to painting and exhibiting her artwork. with frequent support from the Claremont Museum of Art. and sometimes combined with her own musical performances. Musically she switched from playing guitar to percussion and her style evolved from folk - rock singer - songwriting to more instrumental and experimental music. In the 1980s she was a member of Scripps ceramics professor Brian Ransom 's Ceramic Ensemble, a group that played Ransom 's handmade earthenware instruments. Over the years Ceramic Ensemble played at universities, folk festivals, and art museums.
In the 1990s Tanega founded the group hybridVigor, starting as a duo with Mike Henderson for their first album, then expanding to a trio with the addition of Rebecca Jamm for their second album. In 1998 Tanega formed the Latin Lizards with Robert Grajeda, and the duo released the album Dangerous in 2003.
Her next band was called Baboonz with guitarist Tom Skelly and bassist Mario Verlangieri. The trio released a selt - titled CD in 2008, the album Ah! In 2009, and a third called 8 Songs Ate Brains in 2010. Other recording projects soon followed, including the album Push with John Zeretzke, Twin Journey with Steve Rushingwind Ruiz, and a return collaboration with Ceramic Ensemble sound sculptor Brian Ransom for their album Internal Medicine.
Beyond the mid-60s buzz around Tanega 's sole hit single and the number of songs she contributed to Dusty Springfield 's repertoire, many other musicians have continued to record their own versions of Tanega 's early work. Garage rock group Thee Oh Sees covered "What Are We Craving? '' on their 2011 album Castlemania. Her one chart hit, "Walkin ' My Cat Named Dog '' has continued its rounds in other musicians ' repertoires. Dr. Hook included it in a 1996 three - disc collection, Yo La Tengo performed it 2010, and They Might Be Giants recorded it in 2013 for release on their 2015 children 's album Why?
In 2014, Tanega 's song ' You 're Dead ' was used in the opening credits of the New Zealand vampire comedy film What We Do In The Shadows and was remixed to become a running theme for its characters. In 2015 Sienna Sebek portrayed Tanega in a London stage production based on the life of Dusty Springfield. Critics panned the show, one writing that the Tanega - Springfield relationship was reduced to, "they meet, fall in love, have a relationship and break up all within the space of a 10 minutes or so. '' Anabello Rodrigo reprised the role for a 2016 production featuring 3 - D virtual effects.
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can i watch dc universe on xbox one | DC Universe (streaming service) - wikipedia
DC Universe is a video on demand service operated by DC Entertainment and Warner Bros. Digital Networks. It was announced in April 2017, with the title and service formally announced in May 2018. The service includes original television programming, access to select animated series and films from DC 's back catalogue, a rotating selection of comics from DC Comics, forum discussion space, and a merchandise store. DC Universe launched in a beta state in late August 2018, with its full release on September 15, 2018.
In April 2017, DC Universe was announced as an untitled service with original television programming, with its title announced a year later in May 2018. The next month, the features of the service beyond original programming were revealed, including access to older DC live - action and animated films and animated series for a select period of time, a rotating selection of comics, forum discussion space, a merchandise store, and DC encyclopedia. Sam Ades, the general manager and senior vice-president at Warner Bros. Digital Network, will manage the service.
The service 's first slate of programming, Titans and Young Justice: Outsiders, was revealed in April 2017. That November, a Harley Quinn half - hour animated series was announced for the service. In January 2018, a Superman prequel series titled Metropolis was announced, focusing on Lois Lane and Lex Luthor. In May 2018, the live - action series Swamp Thing and Doom Patrol were announced, and Metropolis was being redeveloped. In July, a live action Stargirl series was announced, which would also feature additional members of the Justice Society of America. A month later, the daily news program DC Daily was announced. In early September 2018, it was revealed the service would be available in Canada at an unspecified date.
DC Universe launched in the U.S. on September 15, 2018, and is available on iOS, Android, Roku, Apple TV, and Android TV, in addition to web and mobile web access. Each subscription to DC Universe can be used on two devices at a time. Pre-orders for the streaming service became available starting on July 19, 2018, while an early beta - version was made available to select users in August 2018.
At launch, the service included the four Christopher Reeve Superman films, Batman Begins, The Dark Knight, animated television series Batman: The Animated Series, Static Shock, Young Justice, Teen Titans, Batman Beyond, Batman: The Brave and the Bold, and Justice League, live - action television series Lois & Clark and Wonder Woman, the latter remastered in high - definition, and animated films including Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox, Green Lantern: First Flight, and Wonder Woman, among others. The content is expected to be updated monthly.
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who was the teacher who married her student | Mary Kay Letourneau - wikipedia
Mary Kay Fualaau (née Schmitz, formerly Mary Kay Letourneau; born January 30, 1962) is an American former schoolteacher who pleaded guilty to two counts of felony second - degree rape of a child, her 12 - year - old student, Vili Fualaau. While awaiting sentencing, she gave birth to Fualaau 's child. Her plea agreement called for six months in jail, with three months suspended, and no contact with Fualaau for life. The case gained national attention.
Shortly after her three - month stint in jail, Letourneau was caught by police having sex with Fualaau in a car. Judge Linda Lau found that she was in violation of the conditions of the plea agreement, vacated her probation, and re-sentenced her to the maximum of seven years in prison. She soon gave birth to a second daughter, while in prison. She was incarcerated from 1998 to 2004.
When Letourneau was released in 2004, Fualaau, by then over 18 years old, asked the court to dissolve the no - contact order. Judge Lau complied. Letourneau and Fualaau married in May 2005, and she took his last name. In May 2017, Fualaau filed for legal separation, though he later withdrew the request.
Mary Katherine Schmitz was born in 1962 in Tustin, California, the daughter of Mary E. (née Suehr), a chemist, and John G. Schmitz (1930 -- 2001), a university professor. She was known as Mary Kay to her family and called "Cake '' by her father. She was the fourth of seven children, raised in a "strict Catholic household. '' When Mary Kay was two years old, her father began his political career and successfully ran as a Republican for a seat in the state legislature. He held positions as a California state senator and U.S. Congressman, winning a special election for an unexpired term in 1970 and the general election later that year. After a primary defeat in 1972, he changed parties and ran for president as an ultra-conservative American Independent Party candidate in the 1972 U.S. presidential election.
In 1973, her three - year - old brother drowned in the family pool at their home in the Spyglass Hill section of Corona del Mar, California. Although the death was ruled accidental and no one held responsible, Mary Kay often blamed herself as she promised to look after her brother, and was the first to report to her parents the boy was not breathing.
She attended Cornelia Connelly High School, an all - girls ' Catholic school in Anaheim, California, where she was a member of the cheerleading squad for Servite High School. During her high school years, she was reported to have "liked parties, boys, and traveling. '' She was also a student at Arizona State University, where it was claimed she was a "party - animal. ''
In 1978, her father was elected once again as a Republican to the California State Senate. He intended to run for the U.S. Senate in 1982, but his political career was permanently damaged that year when it was revealed that he had fathered two children out of wedlock during an affair with a former student at Santa Ana College, where he had taught political science. Her father 's affair caused her parents to separate, but they later reconciled. According to friends, Mary Kay felt betrayed and thought her mother was a cold person who "drove him to it '' by denying her father affection.
Her brother John Patrick Schmitz was the deputy counsel to President George H.W. Bush. Her other brother, Joseph E. Schmitz, was Inspector General of the U.S. Department of Defense under George W. Bush, was a senior executive with Blackwater Worldwide, and is a foreign policy adviser to President Donald Trump.
While attending Arizona State University, Mary Kay Schmitz met and married fellow student Steve Letourneau. They had four children. Their first child was conceived while she was a student at Arizona State. She said that she was not in love with Steve and married him after being urged to do so by her parents. The couple left the university and moved to Anchorage, Alaska, where Steve found work as a baggage handler for Alaska Airlines. After a year in Alaska, her husband was transferred to Seattle, Washington, and she gave birth to their second child. Her husband attended night classes at Seattle University and graduated in 1989. Later, Mary Kay began teaching second grade at Shorewood Elementary School in the Seattle suburb of Burien.
The Letourneaus ' marriage reportedly suffered; they had financial problems and both participated in extramarital affairs. Her attorney, former neighbor, and friend David Gehrke, said that she was "emotionally and physically abused by her husband '' during their marriage, and twice "went to the hospital for treatment, and police were called, '' although no charges were ever filed. She gave birth to two more children. While incarcerated for child rape in May 1999, she divorced her husband, and he gained custody of their four children.
Vili Fualaau was one of the students in Letourneau 's second - grade class at Shorewood Elementary School in Burien, Washington. Fualaau was born in 1983 and is Samoan - American. Letourneau later taught a sixth - grade class in which Fualaau was also a student. When she was 34 in 1996, her relationship with the 12 - year - old Fualaau turned from friendship to sexual in the summer of that year. Letourneau was arrested in March 1997 after a relative of her husband Steve contacted the police. Her first child with Fualaau, a daughter, was born in May 1997 while Letourneau awaited the conclusion of her trial.
She pleaded guilty and was convicted of two counts of second - degree child rape. She was sentenced to six months (three of which were suspended) in the county jail and three years of sex offender treatment. At that time, she was not required to register as a sex offender, and, as long as she complied with the terms of her plea agreement, she would not be required to serve any additional time in jail. As part of her plea bargain, Letourneau agreed to avoid any further contact with Fualaau.
On February 3, 1998, two weeks after completing her jail sentence, Letourneau was found having sexual relations with Fualaau in her car and was impregnated a second time by Fualaau. She was arrested and police found $6,200 in cash, baby clothes, and her passport inside the car. Letourneau was sentenced to seven - and - a-half years in state prison for violating the terms of her probation.
In October 1998, while serving her sentence, Letourneau gave birth to her second daughter by Fualaau. That year, Letourneau and Fualaau co-authored a book, which was published in France, called Only One Crime, Love (French: Un seul crime, l'amour). In 1999 a second book appeared, this one published in the United States, but written with only minimal cooperation from her (and none from Fualaau): If Loving You Is Wrong. During her imprisonment, Letourneau was allowed visits from her children but was denied permission to attend her father 's funeral. While in prison Letourneau tutored fellow inmates, created audio books for blind readers, participated in the prison choir and "rarely missed Mass. '' Because of her notoriety, Letourneau was unpopular with other inmates, "sassed guards and balked at work '' and, reportedly as punishment for this, spent "18 of her first 24 months '' in solitary confinement.
In 2002, Fualaau 's family sued the Highline School District and the city of Des Moines, Washington, for emotional suffering, lost wages, and the costs of rearing his two children, claiming the school and the Des Moines Police Department had failed to protect him from Letourneau. Following a ten - week trial, the defendants prevailed and no damages were awarded. Attorney Anne Bremner represented the Des Moines Police Department. Lawyer Michael Patterson represented the Highline School District.
Letourneau was released to a community placement program on August 4, 2004, and the following day she registered with the King County Sheriff 's Office as a Level 2 sex offender.
After Letourneau 's release from prison in 2004, Fualaau, then age 21, filed a motion in court, requesting a reversal of the no - contact order against Letourneau. A few days later the request was granted. Letourneau and Fualaau were married on May 20, 2005, in the city of Woodinville, Washington, in a ceremony at the Columbia Winery. Exclusive access to the wedding was given to the television show Entertainment Tonight, and photographs were released through other media outlets. Letourneau said she planned to have another child and return to the teaching profession and indicated that by law she was permitted to teach at private schools and community colleges.
Letourneau and her husband were the DJ and hosts for three "Hot for Teacher Night '' promotions at a Seattle night club. During an Inside Edition interview, Fualaau said, "I 'm not a victim. I 'm not ashamed of being a father. I 'm not ashamed of being in love with Mary Kay. '' Attorney Anne Bremner, who met Letourneau in 2002 during Fualaau 's civil suit, said that Letourneau considered her affair with Fualaau to be "eternal and endless ''. According to Bremner, "Nothing could have kept the two of them apart. ''
On May 9, 2017, after almost 12 years of marriage, Fualaau filed for separation from Letourneau. Fualaau later withdrew the separation filing, and the two are still married.
Notes
Further reading
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which of the following cranial nerves are assessed when you ask a patient to follow your finger | Cranial nerve examination - wikipedia
The cranial nerve exam is part of the neurological examination. It is used to identify problems with the cranial nerves by physical examination. Can assist in testing the vestibulocochlear cranial nerve.
This test is usually skipped on a cranial nerve exam.
Visual fields are assessed by asking the patient to cover one eye while the examiner tests the opposite eye. The examiner wiggles the finger in each of the four quadrants and asks the patient to state when the finger is seen in the periphery. The examiner 's visual fields should be normal, since it is used as the baseline.
Fundoscopy
The patient stares into the distance as the examiner shines the penlight obliquely into each pupil. Pupillary constriction is tested for on the eye examined (direct response) and on the opposite eye (consensual response). The swinging flashlight test involves moving the light between the two pupils. Normally both direct and consensual responses are ellicited when the light shines on an eye, and some dilation will occur during the swing between.
Extraocular movements: First, inspect for ptosis, eye position and nystagmus. The pupil size is measured, its shape and any asymmetry is tested. A commonly used abbreviation to describe normal pupils is PERRLA (pupils equal, round and reactive to light and accommodation).
The examiner tests ocular movements by standing one meter in front of the patient and asking the patient to follow a target with eyes only, and not the head. The target is moved in an "H '' shape and the patient is asked to report any diplopia. Then, the target is held at the lateral ends of the patient 's visual field. Nystagmus is tested for. One or two beats is a normal finding. The accommodation reflex is tested by moving the target towards the patient 's nose. As the eyes converge, the pupils should constrict. The optokinetic nystagmus test is optional and involves asking the patient to look at a moving strip of horizontal lines. Nystagmus is normally observed.
Corneal reflex is conducted along with the facial nerve section of the test. Note the sensory innervation of the cornea is provided by the trigeminal nerve while the motor innervation for blinking the eye is provided by the facial nerve. -
Muscles of mastication (temporalis, masseter) should be inspected for atrophy. Palpate the temporalis and masseter as the patient clenches the jaw. The pterygoids can be tested by asking the patient to keep the mouth open against resistance, and move from side to side against resistance. A jaw jerk reflex can be tested by placing a finger over the patient 's chin and then tapping the finger with a reflex hammer. Normally the jaw moves minimally.
1) Raise both eyebrows
2) Frown
3) Close both eyes tightly so that you can not open them. Test muscular strength by trying to open them
4) Show both upper and lower teeth
5) Smile
6) Puff out both cheeks
Cranial nerve examinations are a common type of role - play in the ASMR community. The performer will pretend to perform the examination on the viewer as a way of triggering an autonomous sensory meridian response, with primary attention given to visual and auditory cues.
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what is the order of the oceans 11 movies | Ocean 's (film series) - wikipedia
The Ocean 's series is a collection of American heist films anchored by a trilogy edited, directed or produced by Steven Soderbergh. The original three films were written by George C. Johnson, George Nolfi, along with Brian Koppelman and David Levien, for each respective film. Released from 2001 to 2007, the trilogy is often cited as defining its genre and leading to a proliferation and commercialization of heist films throughout the world.
Based on the 1960 Rat Pack film, Ocean 's 11, the series has seen mixed to favorable critical reception and substantial commercial success. Collectively grossing US $ 1.17 billion worldwide, the most commercially successful rendition was the first, Ocean 's Eleven (2001). It established the ensemble cast of George Clooney, Matt Damon, and Brad Pitt, as Danny Ocean, Linus Caldwell, and Rusty Ryan, respectively. A long list of supporting cast members maintain the trilogy. The first sequel, Ocean 's Twelve was released in 2004 with the third and final film, Ocean 's Thirteen, following in 2007. An all - female spin - off written and directed by Gary Ross, Ocean 's 8 was released on June 8, 2018, 11 years to the day after Thirteen 's release.
The Ocean 's film series was inspired by the 1960 heist film, Ocean 's 11, directed by Lewis Milestone and starring five of the Rat Pack: Peter Lawford, Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr., and Joey Bishop.
Master thief Danny Ocean (George Clooney), just out of prison, plans an elaborate Las Vegas three - casino - heist to win back his ex-wife, Tess (Julia Roberts). To that end, he recruits eight other thieves and con men to pull off the complex job, eventually stealing US $ 160 million.
The Ocean 's crew is blackmailed by the Casino owner they stole from -- Terry Benedict (Andy Garcia) -- into paying him $198 million (their loot plus interest). The team is given two weeks to come up with the money so they travel to Europe to execute three heists. In order to extend the deadline they attempt to steal world 's oldest stock certificate, issued by the Dutch East India Company in 1602. Worth € 2.5 million, the certificate is stolen just before the crew get there by a rival thief -- "The Night Fox '' (Vincent Cassel). The rival thief proposes to the crew a competition to steal Hermitage Museum 's Imperial Coronation Egg in order to find out who is the best there is in the world. In exchange for the competition, the rival thief offers to pay back the $198 million debt they have with Terry Benedict. With only a week left, the crew agrees and eventually loses the competition after a Europol detective, Agent Isabel Lahiri (Catherine Zeta - Jones), catches them in the act. After this it is revealed that The Night Fox 's mentor, Gaspar LeMarc, was behind the heist all along. He told the Ocean 's crew to go to the museum beforehand, switch out the real egg for a fake one and convince The Night Fox to steal it. After Danny Ocean explains this plot, he is given the $198 million promised and pays off Terry Benedict.
Ocean and his crew plan to rig a new casino 's opening night after its ruthless owner Willy Bank (Al Pacino) double crosses one of the gang, with plans to make his life a worthless cesspit of misery, a figurative Tartarus of unending misfortune which needs no explanation apart from a vengeful crew of incredibly skilled thieves.
Soderbergh and George Clooney initially downplayed the possibility of an Ocean 's Fourteen or subsequent sequels due to Bernie Mac 's death in 2008. However, a new Ocean 's Eleven spin - off with an all - female cast led by Sandra Bullock as the sister of George Clooney 's Danny Ocean was put in development. It was conceived by producer Jerry Weintraub, Soderbergh and Clooney. Olivia Milch is to write the screenplay, and Gary Ross is to direct. Helena Bonham Carter, Cate Blanchett and Mindy Kaling were later announced to star in the film. Elizabeth Banks had previously been attached to the project, but a deal between her and Warner Bros. could not be reached.
The title of the spin - off was later revealed to be Ocean 's Eight. In August 2016, Anne Hathaway, Rihanna and Nora "Awkwafina '' Lum were also confirmed to join the cast. The night after her Emmy win, Sarah Paulson was announced as the final cast member of the titular eight. The film was released in the United States on June 8, 2018.
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list of all oscar winning actors and actresses | Academy award for Best actress - wikipedia
The Academy Award for Best Actress is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It is given in honor of an actress who has delivered an outstanding performance in a leading role while working within the film industry.
The 1st Academy Awards ceremony was held in 1929 with Janet Gaynor receiving the award for her roles in 7th Heaven, Street Angel, and Sunrise. Currently, nominees are determined by single transferable vote within the actors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by a plurality vote from the entire eligible voting members of the Academy.
In the first three years of the awards, actresses were nominated as the best in their categories. At that time, all of their work during the qualifying period (as many as three films, in some cases) was listed after the award. However, during the 3rd ceremony held in 1930, only one of those films was cited in each winner 's final award, even though each of the acting winners had two films following their names on the ballots.
The following year, this unwieldy and confusing system was replaced by the current system in which an actress is nominated for a specific performance in a single film. Starting with the 9th ceremony held in 1937, the category was officially limited to five nominations per year. One actress has been nominated posthumously, Jeanne Eagels. Only three film characters have been nominated more than once in this category: Elizabeth I of England (two times by Cate Blanchett), Leslie Crosbie in The Letter, and Esther Blodgett in A Star Is Born. Six women on the list have received an Honorary Academy Award for their acting; they are Greta Garbo, Barbara Stanwyck, Mary Pickford, Deborah Kerr, Gena Rowlands, and Sophia Loren.
Since its inception, the award has been given to 75 actresses. Katharine Hepburn has won the most awards in this category, with four Oscars. Meryl Streep, who has a total of 21 Oscar nominations (three wins), has been nominated in this category on 17 occasions, resulting in two awards. As of the 2018 ceremony, Frances McDormand is the most recent winner in this category for her role as Mildred Hayes in Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri.
In the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release in Los Angeles County; the ceremonies are always held the following year. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months from August 1 to July 31. For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933. Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.
The following individuals received two or more Best Actress awards:
The following individuals received four or more Best Actress nominations:
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when was the movie by the sea made | By the Sea (2015 film) - wikipedia
By the Sea is a 2015 American romantic drama film written and directed by Angelina Jolie, and produced by and starring Jolie and her husband Brad Pitt. The film was released on November 13, 2015, by Universal Pictures.
In the 1970s, in France, an American couple, former dancer Vanessa and her husband Roland, a successful writer, have been married 14 years. They drive to a coastal hotel. Roland wants to write a story while staying there. The two are barely on speaking terms; Vanessa is withdrawn and grieving for an unknown reason. Roland appears to drink too much and seems unhappy that Vanessa is no longer interested in him sexually.
Roland becomes friendly with the local cafe owner, an older man still grieving his much - loved late wife, but who carries on, cheerfully accepting what life has given him. Vanessa watches a local fisherman who goes out every day on the outgoing tide and returns on the incoming one, catching few fish, but contented.
Vanessa and Roland strike up a friendship with an attractive young couple staying in the room next to them. Soon after, they discover that the wall between their two rooms has a disused radiator pipe hole, enabling them to watch the couple in their bedroom talking and having sex.
Gradually their experiences at the hotel enable Vanessa and Roland to start patching up their relationship. However, Vanessa attempts a liaison with the young husband in the next room, interrupted violently by Roland, who has been watching through the wall. He bruises the husband, who must later explain to his wife and does so truthfully, seriously damaging the relationship between the young couple. This also triggers a confrontation between Vanessa and Roland, during which he tells her that if she wishes to hurt him, she should just go ahead and hurt him physically. Roland asserts that her seduction of the husband was motivated by his wife 's envy of the young couple - particularly of their ability to bear children. Roland physically restrains Vanessa against a wall and makes her speak of herself being barren which they have n't been able to talk about. After a short struggle, Vanessa breaks down and weeps for her loss. Later, Roland explains to the young wife that two miscarriages caused Vanessa 's lasting grief, withdrawal and behavior toward her husband.
Having finally come to terms with their life together, Vanessa seems able to go on and Roland is able to finish writing a new book. It seems also that the young couple next door may be able to work their way through the episode as well, and come out stronger on the other side.
As Vanessa and Roland leave the hotel and drive away, they appear to be reconciled.
In May 2014, it was announced that Angelina Jolie would co-star with Brad Pitt in a film titled By the Sea, to be written and directed by Jolie. The Hollywood Reporter speculated it would be a relationship drama that Jolie wrote several years ago, centering on a couple with issues who take a vacation in a last - ditch effort to save their marriage.
This was the first cinematic collaboration between the two since Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005). Prime Minister Joseph Muscat of Malta confirmed the project, stating that it would be partially filmed at Mġarr ix - Xini.
Jolie has stated that the film "at its core, is about grief '' further noting that the loss of her mother in 2007 caused a great deal of sadness for her. To that end, the movie resembles movies of the 1960s and ' 70s; Jolie stated that her mother "loved films of that period ''. Christian Berger is the cinematographer; he used mostly natural light throughout filming, while Jon Hutman is the production designer. Principal photography and production began on August 19, 2014, in Gozo, Malta, and ended on November 10, 2014.
In May 2015, the film was slated for a November 13, 2015 release.
Stills from the film were released on September 15, 2014. On August 6, 2015, a teaser trailer for the film was released.
By the Sea was released on DVD & Blu - ray in Australia and Germany on June 9, 2016, in the United Kingdom on June 20, 2016, and in Canada and the United States on July 5, 2016.
By the Sea opened theatrically in ten venues, earning $96,250, ranking number 38 in the domestic box office. As of December 10, the film has grossed $538,460 in the United States and Canada, and $2,796,467 overseas for a worldwide total of $3,334,927.
The film received mixed to negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 34 %, based on 135 reviews, with an average rating of 4.8 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "By the Sea may intrigue celebrity voyeurs or fans of a certain type of arthouse cinema, but for most viewers, its beauty wo n't be enough to offset its narrative inertia. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 44 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Justin Chang, Chief Film Critic for variety.com said: "By the Sea always offers something to tickle the eye and ear, even as it leaves the heart and mind coolly unstirred. ''
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who plays the russian girl in the movie dodgeball | Missi Pyle - wikipedia
Andrea Kay "Missi '' Pyle (born November 16, 1972) is an American actress and singer. She has appeared in several films, including the award - winning films The Artist, Galaxy Quest, DodgeBall: A True Underdog Story, Big Fish, 50 First Dates, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay and Gone Girl.
She has also appeared in various television roles, on shows such as Mad About You, Friends, Heroes, Two and a Half Men, Frasier, My Name Is Earl, 2 Broke Girls, Jennifer Falls, and Mom. She is also half of Smith & Pyle, a desert country - rock band, with actress Shawnee Smith, and has appeared in the music video for Foo Fighters ' single "Run '' as a nurse.
Pyle, the youngest daughter of Linda and Frank Pyle, was born in Houston, Texas, and raised in Memphis, Tennessee. She has two older sisters, Debbie and Julie, two older brothers, Sam and Paul, one younger half - brother, Gordon, and a half - sister, Meredith. Pyle attended the North Carolina School of the Arts in Winston - Salem, North Carolina and graduated in 1995. For her achievements, Pyle was honored by the Poplar Pike Playhouse at her alma mater Germantown High School in Germantown, Tennessee.
Pyle has guest starred on many television shows, including Heroes, Mad About You, Boston Legal, Frasier, The Sarah Silverman Program, and 2 Broke Girls. She started her film career with a minor role in As Good as It Gets, starring Helen Hunt and Jack Nicholson. After her breakout role in Galaxy Quest, she had supporting roles in Bringing Down the House (for which she and Queen Latifah were nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Fight), Josie and the Pussycats, Home Alone 4, Exposed, Big Fish, Along Came Polly, Soul Plane, Stormbreaker, and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. She was also the female lead in BachelorMan. She also appears in Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story. She also had a brief appearance in 50 First Dates and starred in A Cinderella Story: Once Upon a Song.
Pyle played Jake 's Elementary School teacher Ms. Pasternak on Two and a Half Men. The role was recast in 2009 for undisclosed reasons, but Pyle returned to the series in the same role in 2011 and again in the series finale "Of Course He 's Dead '' in 2015.
In 2008, Missi starred in the Broadway play Boeing - Boeing opposite Christine Baranski, Mark Rylance, Greg Germann, Paige Davis and Rebecca Gayheart. The play closed in January 2009.
Pyle was scheduled to ring the closing bell for the trading day at the New York Stock Exchange on September 29, 2008 to promote Boeing - Boeing, but backed out minutes before the close of trading in order to not associate herself with ending a calamitous day of financial turmoil which resulted in the Dow Jones Industrial Average losing 778 points, the largest point loss ever in a session in the wake of the global financial crisis of September -- October 2008. She watched from the floor as an NYSE staffer pushed the button and gaveled the end of trading instead.
She was part of a country music group with actress Shawnee Smith called Smith & Pyle. The two actresses met while filming an ABC comedy pilot titled Traveling in Packs. The band started after Smith invited Pyle to join her in attending the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. While stuck in traffic, Pyle talked about her dream to be a rock star and Smith agreed to form a band with her. Their first album, "It 's OK to Be Happy '', was released digitally through iTunes and Amazon.com in July 2008. The debut album was recorded in Joshua Tree, California at Rancho de la Luna and was produced by Chris Goss. The two actresses have also become business partners and formed their own record label called Urban Prairie Records, under which "It 's OK to be Happy '' was released. According to an interview Smith did with pretty-scary.net in August 2008, a Smith & Pyle television or webisode series might be in the works. Smith also mentioned the idea of a series on Fangoria radio with Dee Snider. Currently there are 3 videos posted on YouTube that show the making of the record. They also have a 10 - minute "making of '' video on Vimeo called Smith & Pyle: Desert Sessions.
Pyle was married to author Antonio Sacre from 2000 to 2005.
Pyle married naturalist Casey Anderson on September 12, 2008. The wedding was country - western themed and took place in Montana. Wedding guests included bandmate Shawnee Smith and comedian Steve Agee. Anderson 's pet grizzly bear, Brutus, served as his best man in the ceremony. Pyle and Anderson appeared in "Grizzly Dogs '', the October 22, 2010 episode of Dog Whisperer, in which they sought the help of Cesar Millan to rehabilitate their dog. Pyle confirmed their breakup in 2013.
Pyle "married '' actress and bandmate Shawnee Smith in a faux ceremony at the All Love is Equal Launch Party in West Hollywood on November 18, 2009. The two actresses pretended to get married in support of repealing Prop 8 in California. Actor Hal Sparks dressed as a priest and performed the ceremony with them using rainbow - colored hula hoops as rings.
The drag queen "Pissi Myles '' is named after her.
American Crude
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national federation of coffee growers of colombia (fnc) | National Federation of coffee growers of Colombia - wikipedia
The National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia, (Spanish: Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia) often abbreviated Fedecafé, is a non-profit business association, popularly known for its "Juan Valdez '' marketing campaign. The federation was founded in 1927 as a business cooperative that promotes the production and exportation of Colombian coffee. It currently represents more than 500,000 producers, most of whom are small family owned farms.
While many factors contributed to the impressive increase in production and revenue, the rise and success of the Colombian coffee industry reflects the Federation 's rigid adherence to the three objectives which were originally offered to justify its creation: 1) to protect the industry, 2) to study its problems, and 3) to further its interests.
The federation supports research and development in the production of coffee through grants to local universities and through federation sponsored research institutes. The federation also monitors production to ensure export quality standards are met.
The highly successful Juan Valdez branding concept was developed in 1981 to distinguish 100 % Colombian coffee from coffee blended with beans from other countries. The trademark made its first TV appearance in 1983 featuring a country farmer (campesino) carrying coffee on his mule Conchita.
First cultivated in the Dutch East Indies, the species of Coffea arabica came to Americas around the year 1690. The Dutch sent the coffee seeds to their colonies in Surinam, and thereafter to the French Guiana and Brazil. The French, through other routes, took it to Guadeloupe and Martinique, their main two colonies in the Caribbean.
It seems that the Jesuits were the first to introduce seeds of coffee in the "Nueva Granada '' (today Colombia) by the year 1723. The first experiments in growing coffee in Colombia are recorded in the 18th century. Although some coffee plantations were initiated during the first half of the 19th century, it was not until the second half of the Century that the coffee industry was consolidated as an economic generator of employment, wealth, and hard currencies.
Coffee seeds arrived late in Colombia, compared with other Latin American countries. According to historians, the first seeds came in through Cúcuta, coming from the Venezuelan Andés, and penetrated all across the Santander provinces. From there, its cultivation spread to Cundinamarca and other provinces.
Nobody knows for sure who brought the first coffee seeds into the country. Some historians give credit to the Jesuits monks, who had farming lands in the "Llanos Orientales '', Valle del Cauca and other regions. Other historians point to father Romero, the parochial priest of Salazar de las Palmas, Norte de Santander. There are stories that narrate that father Romero would impose to his parishioners, in penance for their sins, to plant coffee seeds in their backyards.
It was during the 19th century that the transformation of the Colombian economy took place, going from a system of mules, tobacco and gold into a system based on coffee, railways and the banks, which created the favorable conditions for a robust economic growth. The initiative for the development, investment and expansion of coffee growing in Colombia came from a group of national dignitaries and pioneers, who devoted their personal talents and resources into a venture of slow turnaround and high risk. Especially Colombian magnate Mr. Carlos Pinzón, virtually the founder of Colombia 's modern coffee export business. In many ways, Mr. Carlos Pinzon _́ s coffee empire was the precursor of the present - day Coffee Grower 's Federation, overlording consignments, tying up export orders, arranging insurance, and, in many cases, financing.
From 1870 on, large coffee plantations began to flourish, and this translated into a vigorous expansion of the nation 's economy in international trade and commerce. The Colombian coffee industry began to operate as a powerful engine for the development of the nation 's economy.
In 1879, the Colombian Congress passed the Coffee Act, known as the Law 29, by which the government would foment and sponsor the growing of coffee in the provinces better qualified for it, according to climate and terroir. As a result of this promotional effort, the production of coffee in Colombia grew enormously, which between 1880 and 1920 went from 107,000 to 2.4 million bags per year (60 kilograms per bag).
By 1920, small growers had done more to develop the industry than any other group. For many decades they planted, processed and sold their coffee virtually unnoticed by Colombia 's government. On the other hand, the large growers began voicing their opinions and grievances against the Government through the Agricultural Society of Colombia (Sociedad de Agricultores de Colombia). By the start of the 20th century, there were about 750 coffee farms and plantations. Between 1910 and 1932, this number had increased to more than 150,000 farms and plantations, according to the Coffee Census of 1932.
Given the positive advancement of coffee growing in Colombia, an important group of coffee growers, dedicated to the export of the beans, organized an association to regulate the market. Thus, in 1904, the coffee producers organization ("Sociedad de Productores de Café '') was established. Although its good intentions, it failed to regulate the industry and the market. It was a difficult task, as the global conditions were complicated due to overproduction, price volatility and the events of World War I. The coffee industry in the nation was evolving and growers, merchants and exporters could not agree on policies and regulations to organize and consolidate it.
In the province of Antioquia, Epifánio Montoya Uribe, a tenacious and visionary coffee grower, promoted the creation of an association to look after the interest of the coffee growers. He created this organization under the name of Colombian coffee union ("Unión Cafetera Colombiana ''). His ideas and association efforts were well received by the industry and took hold and, the institution prospered.
On August 25, 1920, the First National Congress of Coffee Growers to convene in Bogotá, promoted and sponsored by the Agricultural Society of Colombia ("Sociead e Agricultores de Colombia '') (S.A.C.). This first congress was presided over by Epifánio Montoya. Other dignitaries that attended this event were General Ramón González Valencia (former Vice-President of the country), General Alfredo Vásquez Cobo (presidential candidate), Antonio Samper (president of S.A.C.), Tulio Ospina Vásquez, José de Jesús Salazar, Germán del Corral, Luis Montoya Santamaría, Gabriel Ortiz Williamson and Lucas Caballero. This congress laid the foundation for the successful organization and establishment of the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia. Much was analyzed and discussed during this congress, mainly regarding transportation infrastructure, financial institutions, trade association and protection of the industry. The magnitude of the issues studied and the challenges addressed by the delegates were overwhelming. At the end, the congress adjourned without any major resolution adopted. Nevertheless, the delegates returned to their provinces with a fervent desire to create a national trade association capable to protect the industry and guide its members.
The response to the efforts and foundations laid by the First National Congress of Coffee Growers would take seven years to materialize. In June 1927, the "Agrarian Association of Antioquia '', ("Sociead Antioqueña de Agricultores '') (S.A.A.), decide to make a second effort to try to organize and confederate the nation 's coffee growers. Thus, the Second National Congress of Coffee Growers convened in Medellín in 1927. The main speaker was former President of Colombia Carlos Eugenio Restrepo, who gave the opening speech. Twenty nine delegates participated in this Congress and several dignitaries from the political and economic elite of the nation, and among them two of the sons of Tulio Ospina Vásquez, Rafael Ospina Pérez (president of the S.A.A.) who presided over this Congress and Mariano Ospina Pérez, future president of Colombia. Other participants were Daniel Uribe Botero (vice-president of the S.A.A.), Epifánio Montoya, Julio C. Gaitán (representing the government), Pedro Bernal Escobar and Joaquín Santamaría.
By the end of deliberations, the Second National Congress of Coffee Growers had agreed to establish the "National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia '' (Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia). The Federation was created as a trade association, private entity and non-profit organization.
Few months later that same year of 1927, the National Congress approved the Law 76, by which duties were imposed on all exports of the country and gave to the National Federation of Coffee Growers the authority to administer and manage all these revenue. Thus, the Federation and the national government signed a contract, on October 15, 1928, by which the government was obliged to transfer to the Federation all revenue generated by this tax. This revenue propelled and fortified the Federation and these resources were used to create the National Coffee Fund.
In 1928, the first regional committee was established as the Coffee Growers Committee of Antioquia (Comité de Cafeteros de Antioquia). Mariano Ospina Pérez was its first President, and the first registered member of the association.
The first Board of Directors of the newly organized Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia assembled in Bogotá, on August 3, 1929. Its first members were Mariano Ospina Vásquez, Alberto Camilo Suárez, Gabriel Ortiz Williamson, Carlos Caballero, Jesús del Corral and Mariano Ospina Pérez, for whom the organization of the national coffee industry was one of his most serious and ambitious concerns.
In December 1930, the Fourth National Congress of Coffee Growers convened in Bogotá. Due to the knowledge and experience of the coffee industry, acquired by running his own coffee business, Mariano Ospina Pérez was summoned by the Minister of Industry, Francisco J. Chaux, and by President Enrique Olaya Herrera to preside over this congress. At the adjournment of this congress, Ospina Pérez was elected, by the unanimous vote of the delegates, as General Director of the Federation serving in this position for four years, until 1934.
In the election of members of the Board of Directors in 1954, Ospina Pérez was installed as President of the Board of Directors. His return to the Federation marked the reappearance of one of Colombia 's most important coffee names in an active role in the industry. Under Ospina Pérez ' aegis, the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia successfully consolidated the nation 's coffee industry and promoted it in the world markets to great effect. Colombia became the largest producer of prime Coffea arabica coffee in the world. He laid a very solid corporative foundation, and today, the Colombian Coffee Federation congregates and supports over 500,000 independent coffee growers and small farmers.
The general managers or directors of the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia do not just function as business managers or administrators, given the fact that in furtherance of their normal business activities in running efficiently and effectively a private enterprise, they actively participate in the formulation and implementation of national policy for the coffee industry and they may substantially influence the macro-economic policy of the country. The general Managers have had a seat in the Board of Directors of the Banco de la República, in the Council of Economic and Social Policy (Consejo de Política Económica y Social) and in the Council of International Trade and Commerce. Furthermore, they direct and preside the diplomatic missions that represent the nation in international conferences and forums, which may influence foreign policy as well.
Three of the most influential "Gerentes '' (general managers) of the 20th century have been Mariano Ospina Pérez, Manuel Mejía Jaramillo and Arturo Gómez Jaramillo. Ospina Pérez (1930 -- 1934), consolidated the organizational structure of the raising institution, promoted the creation of the national network of "almacenes generals de deposito '' and established the "Caja Agraria '' (a credit and financial institution to aid the small farmers and coffee growers). Mejía Jaramillo (1937 -- 1958), gave to the national coffee industry the international prestige that it now enjoys, was instrumental in the creation of the "Flota Mercante Grancolombiana '' (the nation 's ocean freighter company), the creation of the "Banco Cafetero '', and the "Compañia Agrícola de Seguros ''. Arturo Gómez (1958 -- 1982), was the leader of the international economic policy in the global markets and the "Convenios Internacionales del Café '' (International Coffee Agreement). Arturo Gómez, during his 18 years tenure as "Gerente de la Federación '', had a wonderful collaborator as second in command, Jorge Cárdenas Gutiérrez, as deputy General Manager. Cárdenas Gutiérrez was a lawyer with a master 's degree in administration. Prior to working for the Federation he had been vice-president of Ecopetrol. Cárdenas Gutiérrez was appointed as "Gerente de la Federación '' in 1983, and managed extreme situations form "crisis '' to "bonanza ''. By 2001, he was considered as the most experienced coffee leader in the world ".
The Colombian Coffee Federation has created and promoted various enterprises to further support and provide adequate service to the coffee growers. The most significant of these enterprises are the "Flota Mercanmte Grancolombiana '', the "Banco Cafetero '' and the "Compañia Agricola de Seguros ''. Although some of these institutions have faced financial difficulties, and one has been sold, it is relevant to describe the nature of their services and performance.
The "Flota Mercante Grancolombiana '' (Colombian ocean freight merchant fleet) was created in 1946, with the purpose of establishing new routes and offering better rates for the exportation of Colombian coffee, and thus, to make this commodity more accessible and affordable in international markets. At that time, the shipping consortium "Grace Line '' dominated the ocean forwarding lines and had very high freight rates.
During the time of the postwar, "la Flota '' (the fleet) facilitated the sale and shipping of increasing quantities of coffee to the European and Asian markets. In addition to the substantial reduction in freight costs, "la Flota '' contributed significant dividends to its major shareholder, the "Fondo Nacional del Café '' (the national coffee fund).
The globalization of world economies and the interdependence of the ocean freight industry during the decade of the 90s, made shipping business more efficient and competitive. Major shipping companies sought strategic alliances and partners. In order to compete in the global market, "la Flota '', in 1996 - 97, entered in partnership with the "Transportacion Marítima Mexicana '', a Mexican company with ample experience in ocean shipping. The "Fondo Nacional del Café '' acquired 40 % of the new company, called "Transportacion Marítima Grancolombiana ''.
"El Banco Cafetero '' (the bank of the coffee growers) was established in 1954 because "la Caja Agraria '' (agricultural financial institution), also created by the Coffee Federation during the 1930s, was not providing adequate service to the coffee growers. This banking and financial institution was created with the purpose of facilitating and financing the production, harvesting, processing, transport and exporting of coffee and other agricultural products.
Eventually, the bank established over 300 branches throughout the country; its assets amounted to 10 % of the nation 's banking assets and handled over one million seven hundred thousand bank accounts. It became the third largest bank in Colombia, offering every financial services to all the industries and sectors of the national economy.
The "Compañia Agrícola de Seguros '' (agrarian insurance company) was created in 1952. The Coffee Federation decided to establish this insurance company because the premiums being charged to its members to insure and protect the warehousing and transportation of coffee, by commercial insurance companies were ever increasing.
The company eventually extended its services to cover production risk and liability, hedging, calamity, auto, life and health insurance to all of the members of the Coffee Federation, offering if lower premiums and higher benefits. The company suffered heavy losses during the earthquake that destroyed Armenia, as this was a highly concentrated area of coffee growers.
The national coffee fund ("Fondo Nacional del Café '') (FNC) has served for several decades as the primary instrument of Colombian coffee policy formulation and implementation. The FNC has two main investment sub-funds, the stabilizer fund and the investment fund. The stabilizer fund manages resources for the internal and external administration of product, prices and commerce. The investment fund manages the resources for the investment in the Federation 's enterprises and, for the lines of credit and production financing for coffee growers.
During the 20th century, Colombia became the number one producer and exporter of premium mild washed coffee in the world. This has been a very significant achievement, attained by the combined efforts of the private sector, the gremial organizations and the Federation 's institutions. The successful model of Colombian coffee production and commerce is the outcome of a well balanced combination of efficient private enterprise and a well planned macroeconomic policy by the government. This economic model has become the organizational archetype for more than fifty coffee producing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
The 21st century has brought new challenges to the coffee industry, such as the volatility of international prices, the erosion of international agreements and the increased production by Brazil and Vietnam. In order to keep the edge, Colombia must increase its efficiency and productivity, by investing in new technologies, infrastructure, training and replanting. Here is where the Federation and the FNC play a decisive role.
The program for restructuring and modernizing the coffee industry in Colombia has estimated an investment of two billion dollars. These monetary funds need to be generated from domestic and international sources. The Colombian coffee institutions and the policy making entities are facing the new realities of globalization and monetary volatility and economic uncertainties. Technological advances are being made in electronic commerce, production engineering and quality control, in an effort to reduce production costs and increase productivity. The historical evidence demonstrates that the institutions, organizations and policy making instruments of the coffee industry in Colombia are very dynamic and shall continue to adapt to changing circumstances and perform with leadership, innovation and positive results.
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when was the last time the steelers played the panthers | Pittsburgh Steelers - wikipedia
National Football League (1933 -- present)
Black, Gold
League championships (6)
Conference championships (8)
Division championships (23)
The Pittsburgh Steelers are a professional American football team based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Steelers compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) North division. Founded in 1933, the Steelers are the oldest franchise in the AFC.
In contrast with their status as perennial also - rans in the pre-merger NFL, where they were the oldest team never to win a league championship, the Steelers of the post-merger (modern) era are one of the most successful NFL franchises. Pittsburgh has won more Super Bowl titles (6) and both played in (16) and hosted more conference championship games (11) than any other NFL team. The Steelers have won 8 AFC championships, tied with the Denver Broncos, but behind the New England Patriots ' record 9 AFC championships. The Steelers share the record for second most Super Bowl appearances with the Broncos, and Dallas Cowboys (8). The Steelers lost their most recent championship appearance, Super Bowl XLV, on February 6, 2011.
The Steelers, whose history traces to a regional pro team that was established in the early 1920s, joined the NFL as the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 8, 1933, owned by Art Rooney and taking its original name from the baseball team of the same name, as was common practice for NFL teams at the time. To distinguish them from the baseball team, local media took to calling the football team the Rooneymen, an unofficial nickname which persisted for decades after the team adopted its current nickname. The ownership of the Steelers has remained within the Rooney family since its founding. Art 's son, Dan Rooney owned the team from 1988 until his death in 2017. Much control of the franchise has been given to Dan 's son Art Rooney II. The Steelers enjoy a large, widespread fanbase nicknamed Steeler Nation. The Steelers currently play their home games at Heinz Field on Pittsburgh 's North Side in the North Shore neighborhood, which also hosts the University of Pittsburgh Panthers. Built in 2001, the stadium replaced Three Rivers Stadium which hosted the Steelers for 31 seasons. Prior to Three Rivers, the Steelers had played their games in Pitt Stadium and Forbes Field.
The Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL first took to the field as the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 20, 1933, losing 23 -- 2 to the New York Giants. Through the 1930s, the Pirates never finished higher than second place in their division, or with a record better than. 500 (1936). Pittsburgh did make history in 1938 by signing Byron White, a future Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to what was at the time the biggest contract in NFL history, but he played only one year with the Pirates before signing with the Detroit Lions. Prior to the 1940 season, the Pirates renamed themselves the Steelers.
During World War II, the Steelers experienced player shortages. They twice merged with other NFL franchises to field a team. During the 1943 season, they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles forming the "Phil - Pitt Eagles '' and were known as the "Steagles ''. This team went 5 -- 4 -- 1. In 1944, they merged with the Chicago Cardinals and were known as Card - Pitt (or, mockingly, as the "Carpets ''). This team finished 0 -- 10, marking the only winless team in franchise history.
The Steelers made the playoffs for the first time in 1947, tying for first place in the division at 8 -- 4 with the Philadelphia Eagles. This forced a tie - breaking playoff game at Forbes Field, which the Steelers lost 21 -- 0. That would be Pittsburgh 's only playoff game for the next 25 years; they did qualify for a "Playoff Bowl '' in 1962 as the second - best team in their conference, but this was not considered an official playoff.
In 1970, the year they moved into Three Rivers Stadium and the year of the AFL -- NFL merger, the Pittsburgh Steelers were one of three old - guard NFL teams to switch to the newly formed American Football Conference (the others being the Cleveland Browns and the Baltimore Colts), in order to equalize the number of teams in the two conferences of the newly merged league. The Steelers also received a $3 million ($18.5 million today) relocation fee, which was a windfall for them; for years they rarely had enough to build a true contending team.
The Steelers ' history of bad luck changed with the hiring of coach Chuck Noll for the 1969 season. Noll 's most remarkable talent was in his draft selections, taking Hall of Famers "Mean '' Joe Greene in 1969, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount in 1970, Jack Ham in 1971, Franco Harris in 1972, and finally, in 1974, pulling off the incredible feat of selecting four Hall of Famers in one draft year, Lynn Swann, Jack Lambert, John Stallworth, and Mike Webster. The Pittsburgh Steelers ' 1974 draft was their best ever; no other team has ever drafted four future Hall of Famers in one year, and only very few (including the 1970 Steelers) have drafted two or more in one year.
The players drafted in the early 1970s formed the base of an NFL dynasty, making the playoffs in eight seasons and becoming the only team in NFL history to win four Super Bowls in six years, as well as the first to win more than two. They also enjoyed a regular season streak of 49 consecutive wins (1971 -- 1979) against teams that would finish with a losing record that year.
The Steelers suffered a rash of injuries in the 1980 season and missed the playoffs with a 9 -- 7 record. The 1981 season was no better, with an 8 -- 8 showing. The team was then hit with the retirements of all their key players from the Super Bowl years. "Mean '' Joe Greene retired after the 1981 season, Lynn Swann and Jack Ham after 1982 's playoff berth, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount after 1983 's divisional championship, and Jack Lambert after 1984 's AFC Championship Game appearance.
After those retirements, the franchise skidded to its first losing seasons since 1971. Though still competitive, the Steelers would not finish above. 500 in 1985, 1986, and 1988. In 1987, the year of the players ' strike, the Steelers finished with a record of 8 -- 7, but missed the playoffs. In 1989, they would reach the second round of the playoffs on the strength of Merrill Hoge and Rod Woodson before narrowly missing the playoffs in each of the next two seasons.
Noll 's career record with Pittsburgh was 209 -- 156 -- 1.
In 1992, Chuck Noll retired and was succeeded by Kansas City Chiefs defensive coordinator Bill Cowher, a native of the Pittsburgh suburb of Crafton.
Cowher led the Steelers to the playoffs in each of his first six seasons, a feat that had been accomplished only by legendary coach Paul Brown of the Cleveland Browns. In those first six seasons, Cowher coached them as deep as the AFC Championship Game three times and following the 1995 season an appearance in Super Bowl XXX on the strength of the "Blitzburgh '' defense. However, the Steelers lost to the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XXX, two weeks after a thrilling AFC Championship victory over the Indianapolis Colts. Cowher produced the franchise 's record - tying fifth Super Bowl win in Super Bowl XL over the National Football Conference champion Seattle Seahawks ten years later. With that victory, the Steelers became the third team to win five Super Bowls, and the first sixth - seeded playoff team to reach and win the Super Bowl since the NFL expanded to a 12 - team post-season tournament in 1990. He coached through the 2006 season which ended with an 8 -- 8 record, just short of the playoffs. Overall Cowher 's teams reached the playoffs 10 of 15 seasons with six AFC Championship Games, two Super Bowl berths and a championship.
Cowher 's career record with Pittsburgh was 149 -- 90 -- 1 in the regular season and 161 -- 99 -- 1 overall, including playoff games.
On January 7, 2007, Cowher resigned from coaching the Steelers, citing a need to spend more time with his family. He did not use the term "retire '', leaving open a possible return to the NFL as coach of another team. A three - man committee consisting of Art Rooney II, Dan Rooney, and Kevin Colbert was set up to conduct interviews for the head coaching vacancy. The candidates interviewed included: offensive coordinator Ken Whisenhunt, offensive line coach Russ Grimm, former offensive coordinator Chan Gailey, Minnesota Vikings defensive coordinator Mike Tomlin, and Chicago Bears defensive coordinator Ron Rivera. On January 22, 2007, Mike Tomlin was announced as Cowher 's successor as head coach. Tomlin is the first African - American to be named head coach of the Pittsburgh Steelers in its 75 - year history. Tomlin became the third consecutive Steelers Head Coach to go to the Super Bowl, equaling the Dallas Cowboys (Tom Landry, Jimmy Johnson and Barry Switzer) in this achievement. He was named the Motorola 2008 Coach of the Year. On February 1, 2009, Tomlin led the Steelers to their second Super Bowl of this decade, and went on to win 27 -- 23 against the Arizona Cardinals. At age 36, he was the youngest head coach to ever win the Super Bowl, and he is only the second African - American coach to ever win the Super Bowl (Tony Dungy was the first). The 2010 season made Tomlin the only coach to reach the Super Bowl twice before the age of 40. Tomlin led the team to his second Super Bowl (Super Bowl XLV) on Feb. 6, 2011. However, the Steelers were defeated in their eighth Super Bowl appearance by the Green Bay Packers by the score of 31 -- 25. The Steelers recorded their 400th victory in 2012 after defeating the Washington Redskins.
Through the 2016 season, Tomlin 's record is 111 -- 63, including playoffs. He is the first Pittsburgh coach without a losing season. The 2013 -- 2017 seasons were noted for record performances from the "killer B 's ''. This trio consisted of Antonio Brown, Ben Roethlisberger and Le'Veon Bell. Occasionally, the "Killer B 's '' has also included kicker Chris Boswell due to his ability to hit game - winning field goals.
Since the NFL merger in 1970, the Pittsburgh Steelers have compiled a regular season record of 444 -- 282 -- 2 (. 635) and an overall record of 480 - 305 - 2 (. 635) including the playoffs, reached the playoffs 30 times, won their division 22 times, played in 16 AFC championship games, and won six of eight Super Bowls. They are also the only NFL team not to have a season with twelve or more losses since the league expanded to a 16 - game schedule in 1978.
Since 2008, the Rooney family has brought in several investors for the team while retaining control of the team itself. This came about so that the team could comply with NFL ownership regulations. Dan Rooney, and his son, Art Rooney II, president of the franchise, wanted to stay involved with the franchise, while two of the brothers -- Timothy and Patrick -- wanted to further pursue racetracks that they own in Florida and New York. Since 2006, many of the racetracks have added video slot machines, causing them to violate "NFL policy that prohibits involvement with racetrack and gambling interests ''.
Upon Dan Rooney 's death in 2017, he and Art Rooney II retained control of the team with the league - minimum 30 %, the following make up the other investors:
Through the end of the 2015 season, the Steelers have an all - time record of 624 -- 552 -- 21, including playoffs. In recent seasons the Steelers have generally performed well, qualifying for the playoffs six times in the past ten seasons and winning the Super Bowl twice since 2005.
In the NFL 's "modern era '' (since the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970) the Steelers have posted the best record in the league. The franchise has won the most regular season games, the most playoff games (33 playoff wins; the Dallas Cowboys are second with 32), won the most divisional titles (20), has played in the most conference championship games (15), hosted the most conference championship games (11), and is tied with the Dallas Cowboys, the Denver Broncos and the New England Patriots for the most Super Bowl appearances (8). The Steelers have the best winning percentage (including every expansion team), earned the most All - Pro nominations, and have accumulated the most Super Bowl wins (6) since the modern game started in 1970. Since the merger, the team 's playoff record is 33 -- 19 (. 635), which is second best in terms of playoff winning percentage behind the Green Bay Packers ' playoff record of 28 -- 16 (. 636), through January 23, 2011.
The franchise, along with the Rooney family have for generations been strong advocates for equality of opportunity for both minorities and women. Among these achievements of the Steelers was the first to hire an African - American Assistant Coach (September 29, 1957 with Lowell Perry), the first to start an African - American quarterback (December 3, 1973 with Joe Gilliam), the first team to boast of an African - American Super Bowl MVP (January 12, 1975 with Franco Harris), the first to hire an African - American Coordinator (September 2, 1984 with Tony Dungy), the first owner to push for passage of an "equal opportunity '' mandating that at least one minority candidate is given an interview in all head coach hiring decisions throughout the league (the Rooney Rule in the early 2000s), and the first to hire a female as full - time athletic trainer (Ariko Iso on July 24, 2002). Note: Although Marlin Briscoe is sometimes erroneously cited as the first African - American starting quarterback in 1968, this was not for an NFL team and not in an NFL game, additionally the vast majority of Briscoe 's career was not as quarterback.
The Steelers have used black and gold as their colors since the club 's inception, the lone exception being the 1943 season when they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles and formed the "Steagles ''; the team 's colors at that time were green and white as a result of wearing Eagles uniforms. Originally, the team wore solid gold - colored helmets and black jerseys. The Steelers ' black and gold colors are now shared by all major professional teams in the city, including the Pittsburgh Pirates in baseball and the Pittsburgh Penguins in ice hockey, and also the Pittsburgh Power of the re-formed Arena Football League, and the Pittsburgh Passion of the Independent Women 's Football League. The shade of gold differs slightly among teams: the Penguins have previously used "Vegas Gold '', a color similar to metallic gold, and the Pirates ' gold is a darker mustard yellow - gold, while the Steelers "gold '' is more of a bright canary yellow. Black and gold are also the colors of the city 's official flag.
The Steelers logo was introduced in 1962 and is based on the "Steelmark '', originally designed by Pittsburgh 's U.S. Steel and now owned by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). In fact, it was Cleveland - based Republic Steel that suggested the Steelers adopt the industry logo. It consists of the word "Steelers '' surrounded by three astroids (hypocycloids of four cusps). The original meanings behind the astroids were, "Steel lightens your work, brightens your leisure, and widens your world. '' Later, the colors came to represent the ingredients used in the steel - making process: yellow for coal, red for iron ore, and blue for scrap steel. While the formal Steelmark logo contains only the word "Steel '', the team was given permission to add "ers '' in 1963 after a petition to AISI.
The Steelers are the only NFL team that puts its logo on only one side of the helmet (the right side). Longtime field and equipment manager Jack Hart was instructed to do this by Art Rooney as a test to see how the logo appeared on the gold helmets; however, its popularity led the team to leave it that way permanently. A year after introducing the logo, they switched to black helmets to make it stand out more.
The Steelers, along with the New York Giants, are one of only two teams in the National Football League to have the players ' uniform numbers on both the front and back of the helmets.
The current uniform designs were introduced in 1968. The design consists of gold pants and either black jerseys or white jerseys, except for the 1970 and 1971 seasons when the Steelers wore white pants with their white jerseys. In 1997, the team switched to rounded numbers on the jersey to match the number font (Futura Condensed) on the helmets, and a Steelers logo was added to the left side of the jersey.
The 2007 -- 2011 third uniform, consisting of a black jersey with gold lettering, white pants with black and gold stripes, and a gold helmet were first used during the Steelers ' 75th anniversary season in 2007. They were meant to evoke the memory of the 1963 -- 1964 era uniforms. The uniforms were so popular among fans that the Steelers ' organization decided to keep them and use them as a third option during home games only.
In 2012, the Steelers introduced a new third uniform, consisting of a yellow jersey with black horizontal lines (making a bumble bee like pattern) with black lettering and black numbers placed inside a white box, to represent the jerseys worn by the Steelers in their 1933 season. The rest of the uniform consists of beige pants, yellow with black horizontal stripped socks, and the Steelers regular black helmet. The uniforms were used for the Steelers ' 80th anniversary season. Much like the previous alternate these jerseys were so popular that they were used up through the 2016 season. The jerseys were nicknamed the "bumblebee jerseys '' due to looking like the pattern of a bumble bee. The jerseys were retired after the 2016 season.
In 2008 -- 2009, the Steelers became the first team in NFL history to defeat an opponent three times in a single season using three different uniforms. They defeated the Baltimore Ravens in Pittsburgh in Week 4 in their third jerseys, again Week 15 in Baltimore in their road whites, and a final time in the AFC Championship in Pittsburgh in their home black jerseys.
In 1979, the team owners were approached by then - Iowa Hawkeyes Head Coach Hayden Fry about designing his fading college team 's uniforms in the image of the Steelers. Three days later, the owners sent Fry the reproduction jerseys (home and away versions) of then quarterback Terry Bradshaw. Today, the Hawkeyes still retain the 1979 Steelers uniforms as their home, and away colors.
The Pittsburgh Steelers have three primary rivals, all within their division: (Cleveland Browns, Baltimore Ravens, and Cincinnati Bengals). They also have rivalries with other teams that arose from post-season battles in the past, most notably the New England Patriots, Oakland Raiders, Tennessee Titans and Dallas Cowboys. They also have an intrastate rivalry with the Philadelphia Eagles, but under the current scheduling the teams play each other only once every four years.
Prior to the 2007 season, the Steelers introduced Steely McBeam as their official mascot. As part of the 75th anniversary celebrations of the team, his name was selected from a pool of 70,000 suggestions submitted by fans of the team. Diane Roles of Middlesex Township, Butler County, Pennsylvania submitted the winning name which was "meant to represent steel for Pittsburgh 's industrial heritage, "Mc '' for the Rooney family 's Irish roots, and Beam for the steel beams produced in Pittsburgh, as well as for Jim Beam, her husband 's favorite alcoholic beverage. '' Steely McBeam is visible at all home games and participates in the team 's charitable programs and other club - sponsored events. Steely 's autograph is known to be drawn with an oversized ' S ' and the "L '' is drawn to look like a beam of steel.
The Steelers have a tradition of having a large fanbase, which has spread from Pittsburgh. In August 2008, ESPN.com ranked the Steelers ' fans as the best in the NFL, citing their "unbelievable '' sellout streak of 299 consecutive games. The team gained a large fan base nationally based on its success in the 1970s, but many consider the collapse of the city 's steel industry at the end of the 1970s dynasty into the 1980s (and the resulting diaspora) to be a large catalyst for the size of the fan base in other cities. The Steelers have sold out every home game since the 1972 season.
The Pittsburgh Steelers have numerous unofficial fan clubs in many cities throughout the country, that typically meet in bars or taverns on game days. This phenomenon is known to occur for other NFL teams as well, but "Steeler bars '' are more visible than most, including representative establishments even in cities that field their own NFL teams.
The Terrible Towel has been described by the Associated Press as "arguably the best - known fan symbol of any major pro sports team ''. Conceived of by broadcaster Myron Cope in 1975, the towel 's rights have since been given to the Allegheny Valley School in Coraopolis, Pennsylvania, which cares for over 900 people with intellectual disability and physical disabilities, including Cope 's autistic son. Since 1996, proceeds from the Terrible Towel have helped raise more than $2.5 million for the school.
The Steelers have no official fight song, but many fan versions of Here we go Steelers and the Steelers Polka (the latter a parody of Pennsylvania Polka) by ethnic singer Jimmy Pol, both originating in the 1970s, have been recorded. Since 1994, the song Here We Go by local singer Roger Wood has been popular among fans. During Steelers games, Styx 's Renegade is often used to rally the crowd.
During the offseason, the Steelers have long participated in charity basketball games throughout Western Pennsylvania and neighboring areas. The games usually feature six active players as well as their player - coach playing against a group of local civic leaders. The players, whose participants are n't announced until the day the game, sign free autographs for fans during halftime.
In 2001, the Steelers moved into Heinz Field. The franchise dating back to 1933 has had several homes. For thirty - one seasons, the Steelers shared Forbes Field with the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1933 to 1963. In 1958, though they started splitting their home games at Pitt Stadium three blocks away at the University of Pittsburgh. From 1964 to 1969, the Steelers played exclusively at the on campus facility before moving with the Pirates to Three Rivers Stadium on the city 's Northside. Three Rivers is remembered fondly by the Steeler Nation as where Chuck Noll and Dan Rooney turned the franchise into a powerhouse, winning four Super Bowls in just six seasons and making the playoffs 11 times in 13 seasons from 1972 to 1984, the AFC title game seven times. Since 2001 however a new generation of Steeler greats has made Heinz Field legendary with multiple AFC Championship Games being hosted and two Super Bowl championships.
The Steelers hold training camp east of the city at Saint Vincent College in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. The site is one of the most storied in the league with Peter King of SI.com describing it as: "... I love the place. It 's the perfect training - camp setting, looking out over the rolling hills of the Laurel Highlands in west - central Pennsylvania, an hour east of Pittsburgh. On a misty or foggy morning, standing atop the hill at the college, you feel like you 're in Scotland. Classic, wonderful slice of Americana. If you can visit one training camp, this is the one to see.
The team has its headquarters and practice facilities at the state - of - the - art University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Sportsplex on Pittsburgh 's Southside. Constructed in 2000, the facility combines the vast expertise of sports medical professionals and researchers as well as hosting the University of Pittsburgh Panthers football team.
The Rooney family has long had a close relationship with Duquesne University in the city and from the teams founding in the 1930s to the late 1990s used Art Rooney Field and other facilities on campus as either its primary or secondary in - season training site as well as Greenlee Field during the 1930s.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the team had season scrimmages at South Park in the suburban south hills of Pittsburgh. During various seasons including the strike season of 1987, the Steelers used Point Stadium in nearby Johnstown, Pennsylvania for game week practices. During the 1950s St. Bonaventure University and suburban Ligonier also served as a pre-season training camp sites.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated December 19, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 8 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
The Steelers retired Stautner 's # 70 in 1964 before creating a 50 - year tradition of not retiring numbers. The team retired Greene 's # 75 in 2014 and left the possibility open that they would retire other players ' jersey numbers at later dates. Other numbers are no longer issued since the retirement of the players who wore them, including:
The Steelers boast the third most "primary '' inductees into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, i.e. inductees that spent most or all of their NFL careers in Pittsburgh. They also can claim the most honorees of any franchise founded on or after 1933 and the only franchise with three members of ownership in the Hall.
The following Steelers players have been named to the Pro Bowl:
The following Steelers were named to NFL All - Decade Teams (and 75th Anniversary All - Time Team selected in 1994). Only those who spent time with Pittsburgh during the respective decades are listed.
NFL 1930s All - Decade Team Johnny "Blood '' McNally, HB (1934, 1937 -- 38)
NFL 1940s All - Decade Team Bill Dudley, HB (1942, 1945 -- 46) Bucko Kilroy, T (1943) Vic Sears, T (1943) Al Wistert, T (1943)
NFL 1950s All - Decade Team Bobby Layne, QB (1958 -- 62) Ernie Stautner, DT (1950 -- 63) Jack Butler, DB (1951 -- 59)
NFL 1960s All - Decade Team No players selected
NFL 1970s All - Decade Team Terry Bradshaw, QB (1970 -- 83) Franco Harris, RB (1972 -- 83) Lynn Swann, WR (1974 -- 82) Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) L.C. Greenwood, DE (1969 -- 81) Joe Greene, DT (1969 -- 81) Jack Lambert, MLB (1974 -- 84) Jack Ham, OLB (1971 -- 82) Chuck Noll, Coach (1969 -- 91)
NFL 1980s All - Decade Team Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) Jack Lambert, MLB (1974 -- 84) Mel Blount, CB (1970 -- 83) Gary Anderson, K (1982 -- 94) Chuck Noll, Coach (1969 -- 91)
NFL 1990s All - Decade Team Dermontti Dawson, C (1988 -- 2000) Kevin Greene, LB (1993 -- 95) Hardy Nickerson, LB (1987 -- 92) Levon Kirkland, LB (1992 -- 2000) Rod Woodson, CB (1987 -- 96) Carnell Lake, S (1989 -- 98) Gary Anderson, K (1982 -- 94)
NFL 75th Anniversary All - Time Team Johnny Unitas, QB (1955) Marion Motley, FB (1955) Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) Joe Greene, DT (1969 -- 81) Jack Lambert, LB (1974 -- 84) Jack Ham, LB (1971 -- 82) Mel Blount, CB (1970 -- 83) Rod Woodson, CB (1987 -- 96)
NFL 2000s All - Decade Team Alan Faneca, G (1998 -- 2007) Joey Porter, LB (1999 -- 2006) Troy Polamalu, S (2003 -- 14)
In 2007, in celebration of the franchise 's 75th season, the team announced an updated All - Time team of the 33 best players who have ever played for the Steelers. This team supplanted the previous All - Time team of 24 players named as part of the 50th anniversary commemoration in 1982.
A "Legends team '' consisting of the club 's best pre-1970s players was released concurrently with the latest All - Time team.
The regional Dapper Dan Charities has since 1939 named the "Sportsman of the Year '' in the Pittsburgh region. 18 Steelers have won the award in 22 events:
The Pittsburgh Steelers Hall of Honor was established on August 1, 2017. There have been 27 inductees.
The Steelers have had 16 coaches through their history. They have cycled through the least amount of head coaches in the modern NFL history. Their first coach was Forrest Douds, who coached them to a 3 -- 6 -- 2 record in 1933. Chuck Noll had the longest term as head coach with the Steelers; he is one of only four coaches to coach a single NFL team for 23 years. Hired prior to the 2007 season, the Steelers current coach is Mike Tomlin.
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As of 2006, the Steelers ' flagship radio stations were WDVE 102.5 FM and WBGG 970 AM. Both stations are owned by iHeartMedia. Games are also available on 51 radio stations in Pennsylvania, Western Maryland, Ohio, and Northern West Virginia. The announcers are Bill Hillgrove and Tunch Ilkin. Craig Wolfley is the sideline reporter. Myron Cope, the longtime color analyst and inventor of the "Terrible Towel '', retired after the 2004 season, and died in 2008.
Pre-season games not shown on one of the national broadcasters are seen on CBS O&O KDKA - TV, channel 2; sister CW O&O WPCW, channel 19; and AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. KDKA - TV 's Bob Pompeani and former Steelers quarterback Charlie Batch do the announcing for the pre-season games, as well as the two hosting the pre-game program Steelers Kickoff during the regular season prior to the national airing of The NFL Today. Pompeani and former Steelers lineman Chris Hoke also host the Xfinity Xtra Point following the game on days when CBS does not have that week 's NFL doubleheader. When CBS has a week 's doubleheader, the show airs on WPCW. Coach Mike Tomlin 's weekly press conference is shown live on AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. Both Batch and Hoke replaced former Steelers lineman Edmund Nelson, who retired from broadcasting in 2015.
Thursday Night Football broadcasts are shown locally on KDKA, while national ESPN broadcasts are shown locally on WTAE - TV, channel 4. (WTAE - TV is owned by the Hearst Corporation, which owns a 20 % stake in ESPN.) By virtue of being members of the AFC, most of the Steelers ' games air on CBS except for home games against NFC opponents, which air locally on WPGH - TV, which is a Fox affiliate. NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by WPXI, channel 11, in the market.
The Steelers hold a national contract with Grupo Imagen for radio rights to their games in Mexico; Imagen broadcasts the Steelers on their stations in 17 Mexican cities.
The Steelers franchise has a rich history of producing well - known sportscasters over the years. The most famous of these is probably Myron Cope, who served as a Steelers radio color commentator for 35 seasons (1970 -- 2004).
Several former Steelers players have gone on to careers in media after completing their playing careers.
The Steelers Digest is the only official newspaper for the Pittsburgh Steelers. It has been published for 22 years and is currently published by Dolphin / Curtis Publishing in Miami, Florida, which also handles several other publications. The newspaper is very widely acknowledged by Steelers fans. Issues are mailed out to paying subscribers weekly through the season after every regular season game and continues through playoffs as long as the Steelers do. After a Super Bowl victory, a bonus issue is published, which is followed by a draft preview, draft recap, and training camp edition every other month, then leading into the pre-season. There are typically 24 issues of the paper within a publishing year. The newspaper is listed on the official Steelers.com page.
The Steelers success over several decades has permeated film and literature. The Steelers are portrayed in the following big - budget Hollywood films:
The protagonist of John Grisham 's novel "The Associate '' is a staunch Steelers fan.
The Steelers helped launch the Chuck Noll Foundation for Brain Injury Research in November 2016 by donating $1 million. The Foundation, started by Steelers president Art Rooney II, focuses on education and research regarding brain injuries and sports - related concussions.
In June 2017, the Steelers announced an inaugural charity walk to raise money for the foundation.
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where does the fruit garcinia cambogia come from | Garcinia gummi - gutta - wikipedia
Garcinia gummi - gutta is a tropical species of Garcinia native to Indonesia. Common names include Garcinia cambogia (a former scientific name), as well as brindleberry, Malabar tamarind, and kudam puli (pot tamarind). This fruit looks like a small pumpkin and is green to pale yellow in color.
Although it has received considerable media attention purporting its effects on weight loss, there is liver toxicity associated with commercial preparations of the fruit extract with clinical evidence indicating it has no significant effect on weight loss.
Garcinia gummi - gutta is grown for its fruit in Southeast Asia, coastal Karnataka / Kerala, India, and west and central Africa. It thrives in most moist forests.
G. gummi - gutta is one of several closely related Garcinia species from the plant family Clusiaceae. With thin skin and deep vertical lobes, the fruit of G. gummi - gutta and related species range from about the size of an orange to that of a grapefruit; G. gummi - gutta looks more like a small yellowish, greenish, or sometimes reddish pumpkin. The color can vary considerably. When the rinds are dried and cured in preparation for storage and extraction, they are dark brown or black in color.
Along the west coast of South India, G. gummi - gutta is popularly termed "Malabar tamarind '', and shares culinary uses with the tamarind (Tamarindus indica). The latter is a small and the former a quite large evergreen tree. G. gummi - gutta is also called goraka or, in some areas, simply kattcha puli (souring fruit). It is called uppage in Kannada language and fruits are collected and dried for selling to dealers in Sirsi, Karnataka.
G. gummi - gutta is used in cooking, including in the preparation of curries. The fruit rind and extracts of Garcinia species are called for in many traditional recipes, and various species of Garcinia are used similarly in food preparation in Assam (India), Thailand, Malaysia, Burma, and other Southeast Asian countries. In the Indian Ayurvedic medicine, "sour '' flavors are said to activate digestion. The extract and rind of G. gummi - gutta is a curry condiment in India. It is an essential souring ingredient in the southern Thai variant of kaeng som, a sour curry.
G. gummi - gutta is used commercially in fish curing, especially in Sri Lanka and South India. The trees can be found in forested areas and also are protected in plantations otherwise given over to pepper, spice, and coffee production.
In late 2012, a United States celebrity doctor, Dr. Oz, promoted Garcinia cambogia extract as "an exciting breakthrough in natural weight loss ''. Dr. Oz 's endorsements of dietary supplements having no or little scientific evicence of efficacy have often led to a substantial increase in consumer purchases of the promoted products.
While it has received considerable media attention purporting impact on weight loss, the evidence for Garcinia cambogia supports no clear effect, while gastrointestinal adverse events were two-fold more common over the placebo in a 2011 meta - analysis indicating the extract may be unsafe for human consumption. Adverse events associated with use of such supplements ("side effects '') -- especially, hepatotoxicity, as well as gastrointestinal issues -- led to one preparation being withdrawn from the market.
Orally, 500 mg of hydroxycitric acid four times daily can cause nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, and headaches.
There have been several case reports of patients developing "Serotonin Syndrome '' after combining their serotonergic medicines with Garcinia cambogia. Caution should be exercised in patients treated with the following class of medications who are looking to manage their weight issue using Garcinia cambogia:
Cross section
Drying in sun
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revved up like a deuce another runner in the night meaning | Blinded by the Light - wikipedia
Side one
Side two
"Blinded by the Light '' is a song written and recorded by Bruce Springsteen which first appeared on his 1973 debut album Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.. A cover by British rock band Manfred Mann 's Earth Band reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States in February 1977 and was also a top ten hit in the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Canada.
The song came about when Columbia president Clive Davis, upon listening to an early version of Greetings from Asbury Park N.J., felt the album lacked a potential single. Springsteen wrote this and "Spirit in the Night '' in response.
According to Springsteen, the song came about from going through a rhyming dictionary in search of appropriate words. The first line of the song, "Madman drummers, bummers, and Indians in the summers with a teenage diplomat '' is autobiographical -- "Madman drummers '' is a reference to drummer Vini Lopez, known as "Mad Man '' (later changed to "Mad Dog ''); "Indians in the summer '' refers to the name of Springsteen 's old Little League team; "teenage diplomat '' refers to himself. The remainder of the song tells of many unrelated events, with the refrain of "Blinded by the light, cut loose like a deuce, another runner in the night ''.
"Blinded by the Light '' was the first song on, and first single from Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J. Springsteen 's version was commercially unsuccessful and did not appear on the music charts.
Manfred Mann 's Earth Band released a version of the song on their 1976 album The Roaring Silence. Their version includes the "Chopsticks '' melody played on piano near the end of the bridge of the song. The track reached # 1 on both the Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian RPM charts. Manfred Mann 's Earth Band 's recording of "Blinded by the Light '' is Springsteen 's only # 1 single as a songwriter on the Hot 100 (he never had a # 1 as a performer except as part of USA for Africa).
In 2002, Danish act Funkstar De Luxe released its disco version of this song. A "jazzified '' version can be found on Springsteen 's 2007 video and audio release Live in Dublin, recorded with The Sessions Band.
The song is used in the films Blow, Running with Scissors and Super Troopers 2.
Manfred Mann 's Earth Band 's recording of the song changes the lyrics. The most prominent change is in the chorus, where Springsteen 's "cut loose like a deuce '' is replaced with "revved up like a deuce. '' This is commonly misheard as "wrapped up like a douche '' (the V sound in "revved '' is almost unpronounced, and the S sound in "deuce '' comes across as "SH '' due to a significant lisp). The lyric is actually a reference to a hot rod "deuce coupe ''. Springsteen was fond of classic hot rods in his youth, hence the line "revved up like a deuce, another runner in the night ''. Springsteen himself has joked about the controversy, claiming that it was not until Manfred Mann rewrote the song to be about a feminine hygiene product that it became popular.
Original version
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Manfred Mann 's Earth Band cover
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who played hotchner's wife in criminal minds | Meredith Monroe - wikipedia
Meredith Monroe (born December 30, 1969) is an American actress best known for portaying Andie McPhee on Dawson 's Creek from 1998 to 2000, and her recurring role as Haley Hotchner on Criminal Minds.
Monroe was born on December 30, in Houston, Texas. Her parents divorced when she was two, and she was subsequently raised in Hinsdale, Illinois. She studied at Hinsdale Central High School and after graduating moved to New York to pursue a modeling career. In 1995, she appeared in a number of TV commercials and magazine advertisements for L'Oreal hair - care, Disney Resort, Huffy bicycles, Ford cars, and Mattel toys.
In 1996, Monroe made the transition into acting when she was cast as Tracy Dalken in ABC series Dangerous Minds, which led to a small recurring role on Sunset Beach as Rachel a pregnant teenager, eventually leading to her break being cast as part of a series regular on Dawson 's Creek in seasons 2 and 3, appeared in several episodes at the beginning and end of season 4, and was a special guest star in the series finale in season 6, though her scenes were cut from the televised episode, appearing only on the DVD extended - cut release.
She is also known for her role in Criminal Minds as Haley Hotchner, Aaron Hotchner 's wife. Monroe left the series after her character was murdered by a recurring villain, The Boston Reaper (C. Thomas Howell), in its 100th episode.
Not My Life Anita / Ana TV Movie
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which of the following statements is not a reason why citizens should use their right to vote | Compulsory voting - Wikipedia
Compulsory voting refers to laws which require eligible citizens to register and vote in national and / or local elections. Effective compulsory voting imposes penalties on citizens or constituents who fail to cast a vote in an official election and actively pursues eligible citizens who fail to register as voters as required by law. As of August 2013, 11 democracies -- about 5 % of all United Nations members -- enforce compulsory voting out of 22 countries listed worldwide as having a compulsory voting system.
Athenian democracy held that it was every citizen 's duty to participate in decision making, but attendance at the assembly was voluntary. Sometimes there was some form of social opprobrium to those not participating. For example, Aristophanes 's comedy Acharnians 17 -- 22, in the 5th century BC, shows public slaves herding citizens from the agora into the assembly meeting place (Pnyx) with a red - stained rope. Those with red on their clothes were fined. This usually happened if fewer than 6,000 people were in attendance, and more were needed for the assembly to continue.
Belgium has the oldest existing compulsory voting system. Compulsory voting was introduced in 1893 for men and in 1948 for women, following universal female suffrage. Belgians aged 18 and over and registered non-Belgian voters are obliged to present themselves in their polling station; while they do n't have to cast a vote, those who fail to present themselves (without proper justification, or having appointed a proxy) at their polling station on election Sunday can face prosecution and a moderate fine. If they fail to vote in at least four elections, they can lose the right to vote for 10 years. Non-voters also might face difficulties getting a job in the public sector.
Australia introduced compulsory enrolment for voting at federal elections in 1912, 11 years after independence from its colonial parent Great Britain; the State of Queensland imposed compulsory marking against name on the voting register at a polling station at state elections some three years later, the first of Australia 's six states to do so. It is not compulsory to vote after having one 's name marked on the voter list. At that time both men and women were afforded the right to vote, a liberty which (in South Australia and Western Australia) preceded official independence from Great Britain. However, voting rights were confined to British subjects 21 years of age and over who were qualified to vote in state elections specifically. Compulsory voting for national elections was introduced in Australia in 1924, following a pronounced fall in turnout at the 1922 federal election. Moreover, in the states of Queensland and Western Australia, indigenous Australians were specifically disqualified, even though they were officially recognised as British subjects. Voting for Aboriginal Australians was introduced in 1949, but enrolment and having one 's name marked on the voting register was not compulsory for indigenous Australians until 1984.
Compulsory voting is a generalised view that democratic election of governing representatives is the responsibility of citizens, rather than a right afforded citizens constitutionally to nominate representatives. Equating in kind to similar civil responsibilities such as taxation, jury duty, compulsory education or military service, voting in these democracies is regarded as one of the "duties to community '' mentioned in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This view asserts that, by introducing an obligation to vote, all citizens governed by a democracy partake in the responsibility for the government appointed by democratic election. In practice, this appears to produce governments with more stability, legitimacy and a genuine mandate to govern, which in turn benefits all individuals even if an individual voter 's preferred candidate or party is not elected to power.
This notion is especially reinforced when both men and women are required to vote, and further sustained by diligent enforcement of laws requiring registration of all eligible voters (deemed adult, and without exclusion of any significant community within the population).
The idea that compulsory voting results in a higher degree of political legitimacy is based on higher voter turnout. Referring back to the Australian experience, voluntary voting prior to 1924 accounted between 47 % and 78 % turnout of eligible voters. Following the introduction of compulsory federal voting in 1924, this figure jumped to between 91 % and 96 %. with only 5 % of eligible voters accounted as not enrolled.
Venezuela and the Netherlands are countries that have moved from compulsory voting to voluntary participation. The last Dutch compulsory election was in 1967. Turnout in the subsequent national poll decreased by around 20 %. Venezuela saw a drop in attendance of 30 % in 1993 once compulsion was removed.
In the UK, voter turnout peaked at 72 % for the European Union membership referendum in 2016. Also in 2016, turnout for the US Presidential election was a mere 58 %.
Supporters of compulsory voting also argue that voting addresses the paradox of voting, which is that for a rational, self - interested voter, the costs of voting will normally exceed the expected benefits. The paradox disproportionately affects the socially disadvantaged, for whom the costs of voting tend to be greater. Australian academic and supporter of compulsory voting, Lisa Hill, has argued that a prisoner 's dilemma situation arises under voluntary systems for marginalised citizens: it seems rational for them to abstain from voting, under the assumption that others in their situation are also doing so, in order to conserve their limited resources. However, since these are people who have a pronounced need for representation, this decision is irrational. Hill argues that the introduction of compulsory voting removes this dilemma.
However, the advent of contemporary technology could preserve the integrity of secret balloting, whilst at the same time ensure a compelled voter casts a valid vote, which could further legitimise the absolute accuracy of ballots. In cases when the distribution of votes is very close, the elimination of the invalid vote of the resentful voter may be crucial in determining the outcome. For example, if a voter is presented with a stand - alone touch - screen device, the integrity of the secret ballot is preserved yet the participant is unable to bypass their compulsory obligation: the device computer software must register a valid option before it progresses to its function of printing a paper copy of the voter 's choice, while the electoral law is adjusted so that the voter can not be registered as legitimate until they produce a paper copy of their vote and insert it into an official ballot box.
Supporters of compulsory voting also argue that the secret ballot is designed to prevent interference with the votes actually cast, compelling voters to the polls for an election removes interference with accessing a polling place, reducing the impact that external factors such as the weather, transport, or restrictive employers might have. If everybody must vote, restrictions on voting are identified and steps are taken to remove them.
The impact of technology and recent social trends are indicating a growing voter preference towards pre-polling: where the voter fulfils their obligation more at their own convenience prior to polling day rather than trying to arrange release from their responsibilities on the nominated date of polling.
Other perceived advantages to compulsory voting are the stimulation of broader interest politics, as a sort of civil education and political stimulation, which creates a better informed population, although no studies have been undertaken to demonstrate that the populations of Belgium or Australia for instance, where compulsory voting has long existed, are better informed and more politically aware than the populations of New Zealand, France, Canada or the Scandinavian countries, where voting has never been compulsory. It is also argued that since campaign funds are not needed to goad voters to the polls, the role of money in politics decreases. With non-compulsory voting, the ability of a political machine to get out the vote of its supporters may influence the outcome. High levels of participation decreases the risk of political instability created by crises or charismatic but sectionally focused demagogues.
A 2005 Inter-American Development Bank working paper purported to show that there was a correlation between compulsory voting, when enforced strictly, and improved income distribution, as measured by the Gini coefficient and the bottom income quintiles of the population. However, a more recent Conference Board of Canada study on World income inequality -- also relying on the Gini index -- shows that income inequality is lowest in the Scandinavian countries, where compulsory voting has never existed, while Australia, and to a lesser extent Belgium, which strictly enforces their compulsory voting legislation, have a higher income inequality level than a number of other Western countries, such as Canada, France, Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands, where compulsory voting does not exist.
Monash University political scientist Waleed Aly argues that whether compulsory voting favors the right or the left is beside the point, because the most beneficial aspect of compulsory voting is that it will improve the caliber of individuals who run for office and the quality of the decisions that they make: "In a compulsory election, it does not pay to energize your base to the exclusion of all other voters. Since elections can not be determined by turnout, they are decided by swing voters and won in the center... That is one reason Australia 's version of the far right lacks anything like the power of its European or American counterparts. Australia has had some bad governments, but it has n't had any truly extreme ones and it is n't nearly as vulnerable to demagogues. ''
Voting may be seen as a civic right rather than a civic duty. While citizens may exercise their civil rights (free speech, right to an attorney, etc.) they are not compelled to. Furthermore, compulsory voting may infringe other rights. For example, most Christadelphians believe that they should not participate in political events. Forcing them to vote ostensibly denies them their freedom of religious practice. Jehovah 's Witnesses view voting as a personal decision to be made based on each one 's conscience and understanding of their responsibility to God and to the State. Witnesses do not vote, while taking care to preserve neutrality and not compromise their faith. The law can also allow people to give a valid reason for why they did not vote.
Another argument against compulsory voting, prevalent among legal scholars in the United States, is that it is essentially a compelled speech act, which violates freedom of speech because the freedom to speak necessarily includes the freedom of not to speak. Allowing voters to turn in a blank ballot overcomes this objection.
Some do not support the idea of voters being compelled to vote for candidates they have no interest in or knowledge of. Others may be well - informed, but have no preference for any particular candidate, or may have no wish to give support to the incumbent political system. In compulsory voting areas, such people often vote at random simply to fulfill legal requirements: the so - called donkey vote may account for sufficient percentage which has the potential to change the result in close races. (Robson rotation can be used to distribute the donkey vote equally among all candidates, however.) Similarly, citizens may vote with a complete absence of knowledge of any of the candidates or deliberately skew their ballot to slow the polling process and disrupt the election, or vote for frivolous or jokey candidates. Such arguments are frequently aired in Brazil, where opposition to compulsory voting has increased from 43 % in 2008 to 61 % in 2014 and where two out of ten voters have abstained from voting in recent elections.
Former Australian opposition leader Mark Latham urged Australians to lodge blank votes for the 2010 election. He stated the government should not force citizens to vote or threaten them with a fine. At the 2013 federal election, considering the threat of a non-voting fine of up to $170, there was a turnout of 92 %, of whom 6 % lodged either informal or blank ballot papers.
Compulsory voting is increasingly resented by citizens in some countries such as Brazil, the largest country where compulsory voting is enforced: at the last presidential election in 2014, some 30 million voters, about 21 % of registered voters, did not vote, despite the fact that Brazil has some of the most severe penalties enforced against non voters.
A study of a Swiss canton where compulsory voting was enforced found that compulsory voting significantly increased electoral support for leftist policy positions in referenda by up to 20 percentage points. Another study found that the effects of universal turnout in the United States would likely be small in national elections, but that universal turnout could matter in close elections, such as the presidential elections of 2000 and 2004. In the United States, Democrats would most likely fare better under universal voting (as nonvoters are generally more Democratic) but due to the dearth of close races in the United States, universal voting would change "very few election outcomes. '' Research on compulsory voting in Australia found that it increased the vote shares and seat shares of the Australian Labor Party by 7 to 10 percentage points and led to greater pension spending at the national level. While (weakly enforced) compulsory voting in Austria increased overall turnout by roughly 10 percentage points, there is "no evidence that this change in turnout affected government spending patterns (in levels or composition) or electoral outcomes. '' A 2016 study finds that compulsory voting reduces the gender gap in electoral engagement in several ways. A 2016 study of the Netherlands found that the abolition of compulsory voting increased the vote share of Dutch social democratic parties while reducing the vote share of "minor and extreme parties ''.
Research suggests that higher rates of voter turnout lead to higher top tax rates.
As of August 2013, 22 countries were recorded as having compulsory voting. Of these, only 10 countries (additionally one Swiss canton and one Indian state) enforce it. Of the 30 member states of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 10 had forms of compulsory voting.
These are the countries and sub-national entities that enforce compulsory voting:
Countries that have compulsory voting by law but do not enforce it:
Although voting in a country may be compulsory, penalties for failing to vote are not always strictly enforced. In Australia and Brazil, providing a legitimate reason for not voting (such as illness) is accepted. In Argentina, those who were ill on voting day are excused by requesting a doctor to prove their condition; those over 500 km (310 mi) away from their voting place are also excused by asking for a certificate at a police station near where they are. Belgian voters can vote in an embassy if they are abroad or can empower another voter to cast the vote in their name; the voter must give a "permission to vote '' and carry a copy of the eID card and their own on the actual elections.
States that sanction nonvoters with fines generally impose small or nominal penalties. However, penalties for failing to vote are not limited to fines and legal sanctions. Belgian voters who repeatedly fail to vote in elections may be subject to disenfranchisement. Singaporean voters who fail to vote in a general election or presidential election will be subjected to disenfranchisement until a valid reason is given or a fine is paid. Goods and services provided by public offices may be denied to those failing to vote in Peru and Greece. In Brazil, people who fail to vote in an election are barred from obtaining a passport and subject to other restrictions until settling their situation before an electoral court or after they have voted in the two most recent elections. If a Bolivian voter fails to participate in an election, the person may be denied withdrawal of the salary from the bank for three months.
A postal vote may be available for those for whom it is difficult to attend a polling station. Pre-polling at nominated polling stations in Australia has been increasing in recent years.
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who bears the risk if the subject is insured against that particular risk | Insurance policy - wikipedia
In insurance, the insurance policy is a contract (generally a standard form contract) between the insurer and the insured, known as the policyholder, which determines the claims which the insurer is legally required to pay. In exchange for an initial payment, known as the premium, the insurer promises to pay for loss caused by perils covered under the policy language.
Insurance contracts are designed to meet specific needs and thus have many features not found in many other types of contracts. Since insurance policies are standard forms, they feature boilerplate language which is similar across a wide variety of different types of insurance policies.
The insurance policy is generally an integrated contract, meaning that it includes all forms associated with the agreement between the insured and insurer. In some cases, however, supplementary writings such as letters sent after the final agreement can make the insurance policy a non-integrated contract. One insurance textbook states that generally "courts consider all prior negotiations or agreements... every contractual term in the policy at the time of delivery, as well as those written afterward as policy riders and endorsements... with both parties ' consent, are part of the written policy ''. The textbook also states that the policy must refer to all papers which are part of the policy. Oral agreements are subject to the parol evidence rule, and may not be considered part of the policy if the contract appears to be whole. Advertising materials and circulars are typically not part of a policy. Oral contracts pending the issuance of a written policy can occur.
The insurance contract or agreement is a contract whereby the insurer promises to pay benefits to the insured or on their behalf to a third party if certain defined events occur. Subject to the "fortuity principle '', the event must be uncertain. The uncertainty can be either as to when the event will happen (e.g. in a life insurance policy, the time of the insured 's death is uncertain) or as to if it will happen at all (e.g. in a fire insurance policy, whether or not a fire will occur at all).
Insurance contracts were traditionally written on the basis of every single type of risk (where risks were defined extremely narrowly), and a separate premium was calculated and charged for each. Only those individual risks expressly described or "scheduled '' in the policy were covered; hence, those policies are now described as "individual '' or "schedule '' policies. This system of "named perils '' or "specific perils '' coverage proved to be unsustainable in the context of the Second Industrial Revolution, in that a typical large conglomerate might have dozens of types of risks to insure against. For example, in 1926, an insurance industry spokesman noted that a bakery would have to buy a separate policy for each of the following risks: manufacturing operations, elevators, teamsters, product liability, contractual liability (for a spur track connecting the bakery to a nearby railroad), premises liability (for a retail store), and owners ' protective liability (for negligence of contractors hired to make any building modifications).
In 1941, the insurance industry began to shift to the current system where covered risks are initially defined broadly in an "all risk '' or "all sums '' insuring agreement on a general policy form (e.g., "We will pay all sums that the insured becomes legally obligated to pay as damages... ''), then narrowed down by subsequent exclusion clauses (e.g., "This insurance does not apply to... ''). If the insured desires coverage for a risk taken out by an exclusion on the standard form, the insured can sometimes pay an additional premium for an endorsement to the policy that overrides the exclusion.
Insurers have been criticized in some quarters for the development of complex policies with layers of interactions between coverage clauses, conditions, exclusions, and exceptions to exclusions. In a case interpreting one ancestor of the modern "products - completed operations hazard '' clause, the Supreme Court of California complained:
In the United States, property and casualty insurers typically use similar or even identical language in their standard insurance policies, which are drafted by advisory organizations such as the Insurance Services Office and the American Association of Insurance Services. This reduces the regulatory burden for insurers as policy forms must be approved by states; it also allows consumers to more readily compare policies, albeit at the expense of consumer choice. In addition, as policy forms are reviewed by courts, the interpretations become more predictable as courts elaborate upon the interpretation of the same clauses in the same policy forms, rather than different policies from different insurers.
In recent years, however, insurers have increasingly modified the standard forms in company - specific ways or declined to adopt changes to standard forms. For example, a review of home insurance policies found substantial differences in various provisions. In some areas such as directors and officers liability insurance and personal umbrella insurance there is little industry - wide standardization.
For the vast majority of insurance policies, the only page that is heavily custom - written to the insured 's needs is the declarations page. All other pages are standard forms that refer back to terms defined in the declarations as needed. However, certain types of insurance, such as media insurance, are written as manuscript policies, which are either custom - drafted from scratch or written from a mix of standard and nonstandard forms. By analogy, policy endorsements which are not written on standard forms or whose language is custom - written to fit the insured 's particular circumstances are known as manuscript endorsements.
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acute heart failure vs. acute decompensated heart failure | Acute decompensated heart failure - wikipedia
Acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF) is a sudden worsening of the signs and symptoms of heart failure, which typically includes difficulty breathing (dyspnea), leg or feet swelling, and fatigue. ADHF is a common and potentially serious cause of acute respiratory distress. The condition is caused by severe congestion of multiple organs by fluid that is inadequately circulated by the failing heart. An attack of decompensation can be caused by underlying medical illness, such as myocardial infarction, an abnormal heart rhythm, infection, or thyroid disease.
Treatment consists of reducing the fluid level with diuretics and improving heart function with nitrates, or levosimendan; other treatments such as aquapheresis ultra-filtration may also be required.
Difficulty breathing, a cardinal symptom of left ventricular failure, may manifest with progressively increasing severity as the following:
Other cardiac symptoms of heart failure include chest pain / pressure and palpitations. Common noncardiac signs and symptoms of heart failure include loss of appetite, nausea, weight loss, bloating, fatigue, weakness, low urine output, waking up at night to urinate, and cerebral symptoms of varying severity, ranging from anxiety to memory impairment and confusion.
Chronic stable heart failure may easily decompensate. This most commonly results from an intercurrent illness (such as pneumonia), myocardial infarction (a heart attack), abnormal heart rhythms (such as atrial fibrillation), uncontrolled high blood pressure, or the person 's failure to maintain a fluid restriction, diet, or medication. Other well recognized precipitating factors include anemia and hyperthyroidism which place additional strain on the heart muscle. Excessive fluid or salt intake, and medication that causes fluid retention such as NSAIDs and thiazolidinediones, may also precipitate decompensation.
Acute myocardial infarction can precipitate acute decompensated heart failure and will necessitate emergent revascularization with thrombolytics, percutaneous coronary intervention, or coronary artery bypass graft.
A jugular venous distension is the most sensitive clinical sign for acute decompensation.
In acute decompensated heart failure, the immediate goal is to re-establish adequate perfusion and oxygen delivery to end organs. This entails ensuring that airway, breathing, and circulation are adequate. Management consists of propping up the head of the patient, giving oxygen to correct hypoxemia, administering morphine, diuretics like furosemide, addition of an ACE inhibitor, use of nitrates and use of digoxin if indicated for the heart failure and if arrhythmic.
Supplemental oxygen may be administered if blood levels of oxygen are low; the Heart Failure Society of America, however, has recommended that it not be used routinely.
Initial therapy of acute decompensated heart failure usually includes some combination of a vasodilator such as nitroglycerin, a loop diuretic such as furosemide, and non-invasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV).
Even if symptoms of heart failure are not present, medications can be used to treat the symptoms that are being experienced. These medicines work to control these symptoms as well as treat other health problems that might be present. They can work to improve the quality of life, slow down the progression of heart failure and reduce the risk for other complications that can occur due to heart failure. It is very important to take proper medicines exactly as prescribed by the physician.
A number of different medications are required for people who are experiencing heart failure. Common types of medications that are prescribed for heart failure patients include ACE inhibitors, vasodilators, beta blockers, aspirin, calcium channel blockers, and cholesterol lowering medications such as statins. Depending on the type of damage a patient has suffered and the underlying cause of the heart failure, any of these drug classes or a combination of them can be prescribed. Patients with heart pumping problems will use a different medication combination than those who are experiencing problems with the heart 's ability to fill properly during diastole. Potentially dangerous drug interactions can occur when different drugs mix together and work against each other.
Nitrates such as nitroglycerin are often used as part of the initial therapy for ADHF.
Another option is nesiritide, although it should only be considered if conventional therapy has been ineffective or contraindicated as it is much more expensive than nitroglycerine and has not been shown to be of any greater benefit.
Heart failure is usually associated with a volume overloaded state. Therefore, those with evidence of fluid overload should be treated initially with intravenous loop diuretics. In the absence of symptomatic low blood pressure intravenous nitroglycerin is often used in addition to diuretic therapy to improve congestive symptoms.
Volume status should still be adequately evaluated. Some heart failure patients on chronic diuretics can undergo excessive diuresis. In the case of diastolic dysfunction without systolic dysfunction, fluid resuscitation may, in fact, improve circulation by decreasing heart rate, which will allow the ventricles more time to fill. Even if the patient is edematous, fluid resuscitation may be the first line of treatment if the person 's blood pressure is low. The person may, in fact, have too little fluid in their blood vessels, but if the low blood pressure is due to cardiogenic shock, the administration of additional fluid may worsen the heart failure and associated low blood pressure. If the person 's circulatory volume is adequate but there is persistent evidence of inadequate end - organ perfusion, inotropes may be administered. In certain circumstances, a left ventricular assist device (LVAD) may be necessary.
Once the person is stabilized, attention can be turned to treating pulmonary edema to improve oxygenation. Intravenous furosemide is generally the first line. However, people on long - standing diuretic regimens can become tolerant, and dosages must be progressively increased. If high doses of furosemide are inadequate, boluses or continuous infusions of bumetanide may be preferred. These loop diuretics may be combined with thiazide diuretics such as oral metolazone or intravenous chlorothiazide for a synergistic effect. Intravenous preparations are physiologically preferred because of more predictable absorption due to intestinal edema, however, oral preparations can be significantly more cost effective.
The effectiveness and safety of ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers acutely in ADHF have not been well studied, but are potentially harmful. A person should be stabilized before therapy with either of these medication classes is initiated. Individuals with poor kidney perfusion are especially at risk for kidney impairment inherent with these medications.
Beta - blockers are stopped or decreased in people with acutely decompensated heart failure and a low blood pressure. However, continuation of beta - blockers may be appropriate if the blood pressure is adequate.
Inotropes are indicated if low blood pressure (SBP < 90 mmHg) is present.
Opioids have traditionally been used in the treatment of the acute pulmonary edema that results from acute decompensated heart failure. A 2006 review, however, found little evidence to support this practice.
Continuous positive airway pressure may be applied using a face mask; this has been shown to improve symptoms more quickly than oxygen therapy alone, and has been shown to reduce the risk of death. Severe respiratory failure requires treatment with endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation.
Ultrafiltration can be used to remove fluids in people with ADHF associated with kidney failure. Studies have found that it decreases health care utilization at 90 days.
Certain scenarios will require emergent consultation with cardiothoracic surgery. Heart failure due to acute aortic regurgitation is a surgical emergency associated with high mortality. Heart failure may occur after rupture of ventricular aneurysm. These can form after myocardial infarction. If it ruptures on the free wall, it will cause cardiac tamponade. If it ruptures on the intraventricular septum, it can create a ventricular septal defect. Other causes of cardiac tamponade may also require surgical intervention, although emergent treatment at the bedside may be adequate. It should also be determined whether the patient had a history of a repaired congenital heart disease as they often have complex cardiac anatomy with artificial grafts and shunts that may sustain damage, leading to acute decompensated heart failure.
In some cases, doctors recommend surgery to treat the underlying problem that led to heart failure. Different procedures are available depending on the level of necessity and include coronary artery bypass surgery, heart valve repair or replacement, or heart transplantation. During these procedures, devices such as heart pumps, pacemakers, or defibrillators might be implanted. The treatment of heart disease is rapidly changing and thus new therapies for acute heart failure treatment are being introduced to save more lives from these massive attacks.
Bypass surgery is performed by removing a vein from the arm or leg, or an artery from the chest and replacing the blocked artery in the heart. This allows the blood to flow more freely through the heart. Valve repair is where the valve that is causing heart failure is modified by removing excess valve tissues that cause them to close too tightly. In some cases, annuloplasty is required to replace the ring around the valves. If the repair of the valve is not possible, it is replaced by an artificial heart valve. The final step is heart replacement. When severe heart failure is present and medicines or other heart procedures are not effective, the diseased heart needs to be replaced.
Another common procedure used to treat heart failure patients is an angioplasty. Is a procedure used to improve the symptoms of coronary artery disease (CAD), reduce the damage to the heart muscle after a heart attack, and reduce the risk of death in some patients. This procedure is performed by placing a balloon in the heart to open an artery that is blocked by atherosclerosis or a buildup of plaque on the artery walls. People who are experiencing heart failure because of CAD or recent heart attack can benefit from this procedure.
A pacemaker is a small device that 's placed in the chest or abdomen to help control abnormal heart rhythms. They work by sending electric pulses to the heart to prompt it to beat at a rate that is considered to be normal and are used to treat patients with arrhythmias. They can be used to treat hearts that are classified as either a tachycardia that beats too fast, or a bradycardia that beats too slow.
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who has entered the royal rumble the most | Royal Rumble - wikipedia
The Royal Rumble is a professional wrestling event, produced every January since 1988 by professional wrestling promotion WWE. It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a battle royal whose participants enter at timed intervals.
After the initial event was broadcast as a television special on USA Network, the Royal Rumble has been shown on pay - per - view and is one of WWE 's "Big Four '', along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series.
The Royal Rumble is a pay - per - view consisting of the Royal Rumble match, title matches, and various other matches. The first Royal Rumble event took place on January 24, 1988, and was broadcast live on the USA Network. The following year, the event started to be broadcast on pay - per - view and thus became one of WWE 's "big four '' pay - per - views, along with WrestleMania, Survivor Series, and SummerSlam.
The men 's Royal Rumble match is usually located at the top of the card, though there have been exceptions, such as the 1988, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2006, 2013, and 2018 events. Due to the Rumble match taking up a large amount of time (most Rumble matches last roughly one hour), the Rumble event tends to have a smaller card than most other pay - per - view events, which routinely have six to eight matches per card. The 2008 Royal Rumble was the first WWE pay - per - view to be available in high - definition. The 2018 Royal Rumble was the first to feature a women 's Royal Rumble match, which was the main event for that year.
The Royal Rumble is based on the classic Battle Royal match, in which a number of wrestlers (traditionally 30) aim at eliminating their competitors by tossing them over the top rope, with both feet touching the floor. The winner of the event is the last wrestler remaining after all others have been eliminated. According to Hornswoggle, who worked for WWE from 2006 until 2016 and participated in two Rumbles, participants may learn their eliminations by knowing the two wrestlers who are eliminated before them and which wrestlers are entering the Royal Rumble in between their elimination.
The Royal Rumble differs from the classical Battle Royal as the contestants do not enter the ring at the same time, but instead are assigned entry numbers, usually via a lottery, although desirable spots are occasionally assigned by other means, the most common being winning a match. This lottery is usually staged right before the event begins. The match begins with the two wrestlers who have drawn entry numbers one and two, with the remaining wrestlers entering the ring at regular timed intervals, either 90 seconds or two minutes, according to their entry number. This format is credited to Pat Patterson. To date, only four men who have been one of the starting wrestlers have won the Royal Rumble: Shawn Michaels, Vince McMahon, Chris Benoit, and Rey Mysterio. The most common number to win is number 27.
The Royal Rumble match traditionally involves 30 wrestlers and usually lasts an hour, with the longest match, at the 2011 event, lasting over one hour and nine minutes of a three - hour pay - per - view. However, the first televised Rumble match, contested in 1988, involved only 20 men, and lasted 33 minutes of the two - hour broadcast. The 1998 Royal Rumble nominally had the traditional 30 - man field, but only 28 individual wrestlers competed; Mick Foley entered the Royal Rumble match three different times -- first as Cactus Jack, then as Mankind, and finally as Dude Love. The 2011 Royal Rumble was the first and only to have a 40 - man field, out of whom Alberto Del Rio was victorious. The 2018 Royal Rumble was the first to feature a women 's Royal Rumble match, with Stephanie McMahon making the official announcement on the December 18, 2017 edition of Raw. The women 's Royal Rumble match has all of the same rules as the men 's match, including having 30 participants.
The match has no stipulations or rules other than that elimination must occur by a participant being placed over the top rope and both feet touching the floor. A wrestler who only touches the floor with one foot is not eliminated from the match, a rule which greatly affected the 1995 match, allowing Shawn Michaels to re-enter the ring and win the match. This has been popularized by Kofi Kingston, who although has not won a match, he has found various ways to keep both of his feet from touching the floor. Subsequently, a wrestler who exits the ring without going over the top rope is not eliminated from the contest. For example, during the 1999 match, both Vince McMahon and Steve Austin left the ring, only to return later in the match. In the 1994 match, the last two participants, Bret Hart and Lex Luger, were declared co-winners when it was decided that both of their feet touched the floor at exactly the same time. A similar situation occurred in the 2005 match. However, the match was instead restarted after Batista and John Cena eliminated each other at the same time (as their simultaneous elimination was actually an accident); Batista eliminated Cena afterwards to win the match. Though various referees are charged with observing the match, some eliminations have gone unnoticed to allow the eliminated participants to sneak back into the ring to continue. Steve Austin was able to win in this way during the 1997 match after re-entering following an unacknowledged elimination and eventually tossed Bret Hart, who was the last legal wrestler in the ring, over the top.
Although the vast majority of eliminations are caused by active participants, eliminations caused by other means have occurred, and have been ruled legitimate, including self - eliminations (such as Andre the Giant jumping out of the ring after seeing a snake in 1989, Kane eliminating himself in 1999, and Drew Carey eliminating himself in 2001; however, Randy Savage 's jump over the top rope in 1992 was not ruled as self - elimination), elimination from previously - eliminated participants (such as The Undertaker eliminating Maven in 2002, Kurt Angle eliminating Shawn Michaels in 2005, Kane eliminating CM Punk in 2014, and The Wyatt Family eliminating Brock Lesnar in 2016), and elimination from non-participants (such as Shane McMahon eliminating Shawn Michaels in 2006 and The Miz eliminating John Cena in 2011). Furthermore, if an injured wrestler is taken away by medical staff, he can return to the match as long as the match is still ongoing (such as Steve Austin in 1999 or Roman Reigns in 2016), but if the match ends without the injured wrestler returning, he is deemed eliminated (such as Scotty 2 Hotty in 2005 or Curtis Axel in 2015).
Since 1993, the winner of the Royal Rumble match is traditionally awarded a title match for WWE 's top championship at WrestleMania -- presently, there are two top championships, the Universal Championship on Raw and the WWE Championship on SmackDown. Similarly, the winner of the women 's Royal Rumble match (first contested in 2018) is awarded a match at WrestleMania for either of WWE 's top two women 's championships, the Raw Women 's Championship or the SmackDown Women 's Championship.
With the brand extension introduced in mid-2002, the 30 male entrants from 2003 to 2006 consisted of 15 wrestlers from both the Raw and SmackDown brands. At first, the winner of the match received a shot at their brand 's top champion. Starting in 2004, the Rumble winner had the option of challenging any brand 's champion. For instance, Chris Benoit switched brands after winning the 2004 Royal Rumble and won the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XX. From 2007 to 2010, participants from the ECW brand competed along with the Raw and SmackDown brands, with the ECW World Championship added as an option for the winner to challenge for, although no winners ever did. During ECW 's participation, the entries for each brand were not evenly divided. The ECW Championship was deactivated in 2010, and the World Heavyweight Championship was unified into the WWE Championship in 2013, leaving the latter as the only title to challenge for until July 2016, when the brand extension returned. With the new brand extension, the winner of the 2017 event earned a match for their brand 's top championship, Raw 's Universal Championship or SmackDown 's WWE Championship, but beginning in 2018, the winner has a choice. Conversely, beginning with the 2018 event, women receive a title opportunity of their choice for a women 's championship: the Raw or SmackDown Women 's Championship. Due to free agents, Hall of Famers, and wrestlers from the NXT brand also participating, there has not been an even division of wrestlers (in either the men 's or women 's Rumbles) between Raw and SmackDown since the second brand extension went into effect.
WWE 's top championship has been booked as on the line during the Royal Rumble match on two occasions. In 1992, the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship was contested in the 1992 Royal Rumble match, eventually won by Ric Flair, while in 2016, Roman Reigns was scheduled to defend his WWE World Heavyweight Championship as a participant of that year 's Royal Rumble match and was entrant number one. This marked the first time that a reigning champion had to defend his title in the match, which was ultimately won by Triple H, who eliminated Reigns before lastly eliminating Dean Ambrose to win. Reigns would go on to earn a match against Triple H at WrestleMania 32 and won back the title.
From 2001 to 2007, the Royal Rumble match winner had gone on to win a world championship title at WrestleMania. After winning the 2008 match, John Cena became the first winner to use his championship opportunity at an event (No Way Out 2008) other than WrestleMania. He also became the first since The Rock in 2000 to win the Royal Rumble match but fail to win the title in his championship opportunity.
The Royal Rumble winner may also choose to put his championship opportunity on the line in a match. This was first done in 1996, when Shawn Michaels risked his WrestleMania XII title shot in a match against Owen Hart at In Your House 6. The second time was in 1999, when Stone Cold Steve Austin offered to forfeit his title opportunity to the Big Boss Man, who won third place in the Rumble (Austin was actually the runner - up in that rumble, but the winner, Vince McMahon himself, had voluntarily given up his title opportunity) if McMahon could beat him in a cage match at St. Valentine 's Day Massacre: In Your House, which Austin would go on to win. The third time was in 2002, when Kurt Angle convinced Triple H to put his WrestleMania X8 championship spot on the line at No Way Out, a match which Angle won. However, Triple H would later defeat Angle and regain his WrestleMania championship spot. The fourth time was in 2006, when Randy Orton goaded Rey Mysterio into putting his main event spot at WrestleMania 22 on the line at No Way Out, a match which Orton won. Mysterio was eventually reinserted into the main event at WrestleMania, making it a triple threat match, and went on to win the World Heavyweight Championship. On the February 25, 2013, edition of Raw, John Cena successfully defended his WrestleMania 29 WWE Championship opportunity in a match against CM Punk. On February 22, 2015, at Fastlane, Roman Reigns defended his WrestleMania 31 WWE World Heavyweight Championship opportunity against Daniel Bryan.
In 2000, The Rock was declared the victor, as the storyline intended. However, it was later revealed that his feet had actually touched before those of the Big Show. A singles match was held at No Way Out, the event following the Royal Rumble, to determine who received the WrestleMania title shot against the reigning champion Triple H. Big Show won with the help of Shane McMahon. Rock then defeated Big Show in a rematch in March on Raw with the help of Vince McMahon, which earned him a title shot and converted the match at WrestleMania into a triple threat that was later made a four - way match when Linda McMahon inserted the recently retired Mick Foley into the match.
WWE has booked several Royal Rumble matches outside of the annual Royal Rumble event:
Note: There was no WrestleMania title opportunity for the winners of the 1992 and 2016 Royal Rumble matches. In 1992, Ric Flair won the Royal Rumble match, which was for the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship. In 2016, Triple H won the Royal Rumble match in which Roman Reigns defended the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. Both ultimately lost their championship defenses at WrestleMania (to Randy Savage and Reigns, respectively).
Top 20 individual longest times in a single Royal Rumble match. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Note: bold indicates the winner of that year 's match
Only wrestlers who have spent more than 3 cumulative hours are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Only wrestlers who spent 10 seconds or less in a single rumble are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
(*) - WWE 's official source mistakenly reports the time as 20 seconds.
Several times, wrestlers were drawn to compete in the match but did not actually compete. Their participation is counted as zero seconds, with the exception of # 6 Hornswoggle:
Several times, wrestlers were drawn to compete and were instead either attacked backstage or pulled from the match at the last minute, and replaced by other wrestlers.
Top wrestlers with most eliminations in a single match. Only wrestlers with at least seven eliminations are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Top wrestlers with the most eliminations. Only wrestlers with at least 20 eliminations are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Only wrestlers with at least 10 appearances are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
As of the 2018 Royal Rumble, only one match has occurred; the top ten times are shown.
Note: bold indicates the winner of that year 's match
As of the 2018 Royal Rumble, only one match has occurred; the top ten times are shown.
As only one match has occurred, only wrestlers with at least three eliminations are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Note: bold indicates the winner of that year 's match
In March 2007, WWE released a complete DVD box set titled Royal Rumble: The Complete Anthology, which showcases every Royal Rumble event in its entirety, up to the 2007 Royal Rumble.
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who were the sepoys and what did they do | Sepoy - Wikipedia
A sepoy (/ ˈsiːpɔɪ /) was formerly the designation given to an Indian soldier. In the modern Nepali, Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi Army it remains in use for the rank of private soldier.
The British East India Company recruited largely Indian troops, the lowest ranking being the sepoys, and trained them along European lines.
The term sepoy is derived from the Persian word sepāhī (سپاهی) meaning "infantry soldier '' in the Mughal Empire. In the Ottoman Empire the term sipahi was used to refer to cavalry troopers. In its most common application, sepoy was the term used in the British Indian Army, and earlier in that of the British East India Company, for an infantry private (a cavalry trooper was a sowar).
The term sepoy came into use in the forces of the British East India Company in the eighteenth century, where it was one of many, such as peons, gentoos, mestees and topasses used for various categories of native soldier. Initially it referred to Hindu or Muslim soldiers without regular uniform or discipline. It later generically referred to all native soldiers in the service of the European powers in India. Close to ninety - six percent of the British East India Company 's army of 300,000 men were native to India and these sepoys played a crucial role in securing the subcontinent for the company.
A Sipahi or a sepoy was an infantryman in both the Mughal Empire and the Kingdom of Mysore. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (reigned 1658 -- 1707) raised battalions of sepoys variously armed with matchlocks, rockets, and grenades. These troops were successfully employed in siege warfare, particularly during the Siege of Bidar, the Siege of Bijapur and the Siege of Golconda.
The East India Company initially recruited sepoys from the local communities in the Madras and Bombay Presidencies. The emphasis here favored tall and soldierly recruits, broadly defined as being "of a proper caste and of sufficient size ''. In the Bengal Army however, recruitment was only amongst high caste Brahmin and Rajput communities, mainly from the present day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar regions. Recruitment was undertaken locally by battalions or regiments often from the same community, village and even family. The commanding officer of a battalion became a form of substitute for the village chief or gaon bura. He was the mai - baap or the "father and mother '' of the sepoys making up the paltan (from "platoon ''). There were many family and community ties amongst the troops and numerous instances where family members enlisted in the same battalion or regiment. The izzat ("honour '') of the unit was represented by the regimental colours; the new sepoy having to swear an oath in front of them on enlistment. These colours were stored in honour in the quarter guard and frequently paraded before the men. They formed a rallying point in battle. The oath of fealty by the sepoy was given to the East India Company and included a pledge of faithfulness to the salt that one has eaten.
The salary of the sepoys employed by the East India Company, while not substantially greater than that paid by the rulers of Indian states, was usually paid regularly. Advances could be given and family allotments from pay due were permitted when the troops served abroad. There was a commisariat and regular rations were provided. Weapons, clothing and ammunition were provided centrally, in contrast to the soldiers of local kings whose pay was often in arrears. In addition local rulers usually expected their sepoys to arm themselves and to sustain themselves through plunder.
This combination of factors led to the development of a sense of shared honour and ethos amongst the well drilled and disciplined Indian soldiery who formed the key to the success of European feats of arms in India and abroad.
Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the surviving East India Company regiments were merged into a new Indian Army under the direct control of the British Crown. The designation of "sepoy '' was retained for Indian soldiers below the rank of lance naik, except in cavalry where the equivalent ranks were sowar or "trooper ''.
Following the formation of the French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes) in 1719, companies of Indian sepoys (cipayes) were raised to augment the French regulars and Swiss mercenary troops available. By 1720 the sepoys in French service numbered about 10,000. Although much reduced in numbers after their decisive defeat in India at the Battle of Wandewash in 1760, France continued to maintain a Military Corps of Indian Sepoys (corps militaire des cipayes de l'Inde) in Pondicherry until it was disbanded and replaced by a locally recruited gendarmerie in 1898.
Sepoys were also recruited in Portuguese India. The term cipaio (sepoy) was also applied by the Portuguese to African soldiers in Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea, plus African rural police officers. Cipaios from Angola provided part of the garrison of Goa during the final years of Portuguese rule of that Indian territory.
The same Persian word reached English via another route in the forms of sipahi and spahi. Zipaio, the Basque version of the word, is used by leftist Basque nationalists as an insult for members of the Basque Police, implying that they are not a national police but servants of a foreign occupier.
In Hispanic American countries, especially in Argentina, the word cipayo has historically been used as a pejorative colloquial expression referring to individuals considered as serving foreign interests, especially those of the United States or Britain.
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floyd mayweather jr vs arturo gatti full fight | Arturo Gatti vs. Floyd Mayweather Jr.. - Wikipedia
Arturo Gatti vs. Floyd Mayweather Jr., billed as "Thunder & Lightning '', was a professional boxing match contested on June 25, 2005 for the WBC super lightweight championship.
The Gatti -- Mayweather bout had been in the making for over a year. After a tough trilogy with Mickey Ward, Gatti earned a shot at the vacant WBC super lightweight (AKA light welterweight) championship, winning the title on January 21, 2004 with a unanimous decision victory over Gianluca Branco. Four months later, Mayweather would vacate his WBC and The Ring lightweight title and move up to the light welterweight division. Initially, Mayweather was set to face the undefeated former IBF lightweight champion Paul Spadafora to determine who would be the mandatory challenger to Gatti 's title, but the fight was nixed due to Spadafora 's legal troubles. Instead, Mayweather was matched up against former WBO light welterweight champion DeMarcus Corley in a WBC "eliminator '' bout on May 22, 2004. In his light welterweight debut, Mayweather had Corley down on the canvas no less than seven times (though only two were declared official knockdowns) and cruised to an easy, lopsided unanimous decision that not only made him the number one contender to Gatti 's title, but also the number one pound - for - pound fighter in boxing. After a successful defense against Leonard Dorin, Gatti announced his intentions to face Mayweather. However, several disagreements hindered the negotiations and the two sides would not reach an agreement until March of 2005 for a June 25th fight in New Jersey. Prior to the fight, Mayweather repeatedly bashed Gatti in the press, calling him, among other things, a "C - plus fighter '', "club fighter '' and a "bum. '' For the most part, Gatti refused to appear at press conferences with Mayweather, saying "I just do n't want to be bothered by his mouth. '' Mayweather, however, crashed a Gatti press conference, referring to him as a "paper champion '' and lampooning his struggle to make weight by loading food on a plate.
In his Pay Per View debut, Mayweather dominated Gatti through six rounds. Late in the first round as Gatti bent forwards, Mayweather leaned on him and the referee instructed, "Stop punching. '' Mayweather continued to punch and Gatti looked to the referee to complain. With Gatti 's attention turned towards the referee, Mayweather landed a left hook that sent Gatti into the ropes and on his knee. Despite the violation of his instruction, the referee counted the knockdown. Things would only go downhill for Gatti as Mayweather continued to overwhelm the champion with his quickness and hand speed, landing combinations at will. After losing all six rounds on the scorecards and having landed only 41 total punches to Mayweather 's 168, Gatti 's trainer and cornerman Buddy McGirt stopped the fight following the sixth round, giving Mayweather an automatic technical knockout victory.
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what happens when oxygen molecules interact with the nitrogen fixation process | Nitrogen fixation - wikipedia
Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen in the Earth 's atmosphere is converted into ammonia (NH) or other molecules available to living organisms. Atmospheric nitrogen or molecular dinitrogen (N) is relatively inert: it does not easily react with other chemicals to form new compounds. The fixation process frees nitrogen atoms from their triply bonded diatomic form, N ≡ N, to be used in other ways.
Nitrogen fixation is essential for some forms of life because inorganic nitrogen compounds are required for the biosynthesis of the basic building blocks of plants, animals and other life forms, e.g., nucleotides for DNA and RNA, the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide for its role in metabolism (transferring electrons between molecules), and amino acids for proteins. Therefore, as part of the nitrogen cycle, it is essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer. It is also, indirectly, relevant to the manufacture of all chemical compounds that contain nitrogen, which includes explosives, most pharmaceuticals, dyes, etc. Nitrogen fixation is carried out naturally in the soil by nitrogen fixing bacteria such as Azotobacter. Some nitrogen - fixing bacteria have symbiotic relationships with some plant groups, especially legumes. Looser relationships between nitrogen - fixing bacteria and plants are often referred to as associative or non-symbiotic, as seen in nitrogen fixation occurring on rice roots. It also occurs naturally in the air by means of NOx production by lightning.
All biological nitrogen fixation is done by way of metalloenzymes called nitrogenases. These enzymes contain iron, often with a second metal, usually molybdenum but sometimes vanadium. Microorganisms that can fix nitrogen are prokaryotes (both bacteria and archaea, distributed throughout their respective Domains) called diazotrophs. Some higher plants, and some animals (termites), have formed associations (symbiosis) with diazotrophs.
Nitrogen can be fixed by lightning converting nitrogen and oxygen into NOx (nitrogen oxides), if there is oxygen in the air. NOx may react with water to make nitrite acid, which seeps into the soil, where it makes nitrate, which is of use to growing plants.
Biological nitrogen fixation was discovered by the German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) occurs when atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by an enzyme called a nitrogenase. The overall reaction for BNF is:
The process is coupled to the hydrolysis of 16 equivalents of ATP and is accompanied by the co-formation of one molecule of H. The conversion of N into ammonia occurs at a cluster called FeMoco, an abbreviation for the iron - molybdenum cofactor. The mechanism proceeds via a series of protonation and reduction steps wherein the FeMoco active site hydrogenates the N substrate.
In free - living diazotrophs, the nitrogenase - generated ammonium is assimilated into glutamate through the glutamine synthetase / glutamate synthase pathway.
The microbial genes required for nitrogen fixation are widely distributed in diverse environments.
Enzymes responsible for nitrogenase action are very susceptible to destruction by oxygen. For this reason, many bacteria cease production of the enzyme in the presence of oxygen. Many nitrogen - fixing organisms exist only in anaerobic conditions, respiring to draw down oxygen levels, or binding the oxygen with a protein such as leghemoglobin.
Diazotrophs are a diverse group of prokaryotes that includes cyanobacteria (e.g. the highly significant Trichodesmium and Cyanothece), as well as green sulfur bacteria, Azotobacteraceae, rhizobia and Frankia.
Cyanobacteria inhabit nearly all illuminated environments on Earth and play key roles in the carbon and nitrogen cycle of the biosphere. In general, cyanobacteria can use various inorganic and organic sources of combined nitrogen, like nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, urea, or some amino acids. Several cyanobacterial strains are also capable of diazotrophic growth, an ability that may have been present in their last common ancestor in the Archean eon. Nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria in coral reefs can fix twice as much nitrogen as on land -- around 1.8 kg of nitrogen is fixed per hectare per day (around 660 kg / ha / year). The colonial marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium is thought to fix nitrogen on such a scale that it accounts for almost half of the nitrogen fixation in marine systems globally.
Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include those of the legume family -- Fabaceae -- with taxa such as kudzu, clovers, soybeans, alfalfa, lupines, peanuts, and rooibos. They contain symbiotic bacteria called rhizobia within nodules in their root systems, producing nitrogen compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants. When the plant dies, the fixed nitrogen is released, making it available to other plants; this helps to fertilize the soil. The great majority of legumes have this association, but a few genera (e.g., Styphnolobium) do not. In many traditional and organic farming practices, fields are rotated through various types of crops, which usually include one consisting mainly or entirely of clover or buckwheat (non-legume family Polygonaceae), often referred to as "green manure ''.
The efficiency of nitrogen fixation in soil is dependent on many factors, including the legume as well as air and soil conditions. For example, nitrogen fixation by red clover can range from 50 - 200 lb / acre depending on these variables.
Inga alley farming relies on the leguminous genus Inga, a small tropical, tough - leaved, nitrogen - fixing tree.
Although by far the majority of plant species able to form nitrogen - fixing root nodules are in the legume family Fabaceae, there are exceptions:
The ability to fix nitrogen is present in the families listed below. They belong to the orders Cucurbitales, Fagales, and Rosales, which together with the Fabales form a clade of eurosids. The ability to fix nitrogen is not universally present in these families. For example, of 122 genera in the Rosaceae, only 4 genera are capable of fixing nitrogen. Fabales were the first lineage to branch off this nitrogen - fixing clade; thus, the ability to fix nitrogen may be plesiomorphic and subsequently lost in most descendants of the original nitrogen - fixing plant; however, it may be that the basic genetic and physiological requirements were present in an incipient state in the last common ancestors of all these plants, but only evolved to full function in some of them.
Betulaceae: Alnus (alders)
Cannabaceae: Trema
Casuarinaceae:
......
Coriariaceae: Coriaria
Datiscaceae: Datisca
Elaeagnaceae:
......
Myricaceae:
......
Rhamnaceae:
......
Rosaceae:
There are also several nitrogen - fixing symbiotic associations that involve cyanobacteria (such as Nostoc):
Rhopalodia gibba, a diatom alga, is a eukaryote with cyanobacterial N - fixing endosymbiont organelles. The spheroid bodies reside in the cytoplasm of the diatoms and are inseparable from their hosts.
The possibility that atmospheric nitrogen reacts with certain chemicals was first observed by Desfosses in 1828. He observed that mixtures of alkali metal oxides and carbon react at high temperatures with nitrogen. With the use of barium carbonate as starting material the first commercially used process became available in the 1860s developed by Margueritte and Sourdeval. The resulting barium cyanide could be reacted with steam yielding ammonia. In 1898 Adolph Frank and Nikodem Caro decoupled the process and first produced calcium carbide and in a subsequent step reacted it with nitrogen to calcium cyanamide. The Ostwald process for the production of nitric acid was discovered in 1902. Frank - Caro process and Ostwald process dominated the industrial fixation of nitrogen until the discovery of the Haber process in 1909. Prior to 1900, Nikola Tesla also experimented with the industrial fixation of nitrogen "by using currents of extremely high frequency or rate of vibration ''.
Artificial fertilizer production is now the largest source of human - produced fixed nitrogen in the Earth 's ecosystem. Ammonia is a required precursor to fertilizers, explosives, and other products. The most common method is the Haber process. The Haber process requires high pressures (around 200 atm) and high temperatures (at least 400 ° C), routine conditions for industrial catalysis. This highly efficient process uses natural gas as a hydrogen source and air as a nitrogen source.
Much research has been conducted on the discovery of catalysts for nitrogen fixation, often with the goal of reducing the energy required for this conversion. However, such research has thus far failed to even approach the efficiency and ease of the Haber process. Many compounds react with atmospheric nitrogen to give dinitrogen complexes. The first dinitrogen complex to be reported was Ru (NH) (N).
Catalytic chemical nitrogen fixation at ambient conditions is an ongoing scientific endeavor. Guided by the example of nitrogenase, this area of homogeneous catalysis is ongoing, with particular emphasis on hydrogenation to give ammonia.
Metallic lithium has long been known for burning in an atmosphere of nitrogen and then converting to lithium nitride. Hydrolysis of the resulting nitride gives ammonia. In a related process, trimethylsilyl chloride, lithium, and nitrogen react in the presence of a catalyst to give tris (trimethylsilyl) amine. Tris (trimethylsilyl) amine can then be used for reaction with α, δ, ω - tri ketones to give tricyclic pyrroles. Processes involving lithium metal are however of no practical interest since they are noncatalytic and re-reducing the Li ion residue is difficult.
Beginning in the 1960s several homogeneous systems were identified that convert nitrogen to ammonia, sometimes even catalytically but often operating via ill - defined mechanisms. The original discovery is described in an early review:
"Vol'pin and co-workers, using a non-protic Lewis acid, aluminium tribromide, were able to demonstrate the truly catalytic effect of titanium by treating dinitrogen with a mixture of titanium tetrachloride, metallic aluminium, and aluminium tribromide at 50 ° C, either in the absence or in the presence of a solvent, e.g. benzene. As much as 200 mol of ammonia per mol of TiCl was obtained after hydrolysis.... ''
The quest for well defined intermediates led to the characterization of many transition metal dinitrogen complexes. Few of these well defined complexes function catalytically, their behavior illuminated likely stages in nitrogen fixation. Most fruitful of all of these early studies focused on M (N) (dppe) (M = Mo, W). For example, double protonation of such low valent complexes gave intermediates with the linkage M = N − NH. In 1995, a molybdenum (III) amido complex was discovered that cleaved N to give the corresponding molybdenum (VI) nitride. This and related terminal nitrido complexes have been used to make nitriles.
In 2003 a related molybdenum amido complex was found to catalyze the reduction of N. In addition to a source of protons, the catalyst requires a strong reducing agent. However, this catalytic reduction fixates only a few nitrogen molecules. In these systems, like the biological one, hydrogen is provided to the substrate heterolytically, by means of protons and reducing equivalents rather than with H itself.
In 2011 Arashiba et al. reported yet another system with a catalyst again based on molybdenum but with a diphosphorus pincer ligand. Photolytic nitrogen splitting is also considered.
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function of the 3 parts of the small intestine | Small intestine - wikipedia
The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions -- the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins. It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi. The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, using small finger - like protrusions called villi.
The length of the small intestine can vary greatly, from as short as 2.75 m (9.0 ft) to as long as 10.49 m (34.4 ft). The typical length in a living person is 3m - 5m. The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured. Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty.
It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age, and 2.5 -- 3 cm (1 inch) in diameter in adults. On abdominal X-rays, the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3 cm. On CT scans, a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated. The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa, due to enlargement caused by folds, villi and microvilli, averages 30 square meters.
The small intestine is divided into three structural parts.
The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery. The mesentery is part of the peritoneum. Arteries, veins, lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery.
The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery. These are both branches of the aorta. The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery. These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose. The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery. Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades, which may be several layers deep. Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves.
The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level, but there are some important differences. The parts of the intestine are as follows:
The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube. By the fifth week of embryological life, the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate, forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop. The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus. By week 10, the loop retracts back into the abdomen. Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine.
Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter.
The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.
The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates:
Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger - like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for "shaggy hair ''). The individual epithelial cells also have finger - like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.
Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries (amino acids and carbohydrates) and lacteals (lipids). The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body. The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.
Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum, with the following notable exceptions:
The small intestine supports the body 's immune system. The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host 's immune system. Peyer 's patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract 's local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70 % of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum. Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa, such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6. Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum, for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells.
The small intestine is a complex organ, and as such, there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel. A few of them are listed below, some of which are common, with up to 10 % of people being affected at some time in their lives, while others are vanishingly rare.
The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish 's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch - like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu
In tetrapods, the ileocaecal valve is always present, opening into the colon. The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts, but is especially so in herbivores, as well as in mammals and birds, which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles. The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates, but only in mammals do these develop into true villi.
The boundaries between the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans, and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals, or are essentially arbitrary.
There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as sharks, sturgeons, and lungfish. Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine, connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods.
In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.
In traditional Chinese medicine, the small intestine is a yang organ.
Small intestine in situ, greater omentum folded upwards.
Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400
Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium (lesser omentum) have been cut. The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint.
First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum, seen from the side (diagrammatic). From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum.
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it's not right but it's okay (thunderpuss remix) | It 's Not Right But It 's Okay - wikipedia
"It 's Not Right but It 's Okay '' is a song by American singer Whitney Houston, from her fourth studio album, My Love Is Your Love. It was written by LaShawn Daniels, Rodney Jerkins, Fred Jerkins III, Isaac Phillips, Toni Estes, and produced by Darkchild. The song examines a woman confronting her lover about his infidelity.
The music video was directed by Kevin Bray. Houston won the 2000 Grammy Award for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance for this song.
The original Rodney Jerkins production was released, but mainstream radio airplay and sales were given for the Thunderpuss Remix. The remixed version was released on Houston 's 2000 Whitney: The Greatest Hits collection, and the original album version appears on 2007 's The Ultimate Collection.
The Johnny Vicious remixes were included on the domestic CD maxi - single of "Heartbreak Hotel '' as well as the on the import single and are currently available as iTunes downloads. The KCC remix was included on the US version of the "My Love Is Your Love '' maxi - single and is also available as an iTunes download. Rodney Jerkins ' remixes are the closest to the album version; Club 69 (Peter Rauhofer) also remixed the track for play in the UK. In the US, when it was released as a stand - alone single, the versions that appear are the Rodney Jerkins, Thunderpuss and Club 69 remixes. There is also a ballad version, entitled "Smooth Mix ''.
"It 's Not Right but It 's Okay '' is a neo-R&B song. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, it is written in the key of C minor with a tempo of 130 beats per minute. Houston 's vocals span from G to A ♭ in the song.
Billboard highlighted this song on Houston 's album. The Baltimore Sun 's J.D. Consodine wrote about the song: "So when we hear her telling her abusive, less - than - faithful lover off in "It 's Not Right But It 's Okay, '' we 're not to imagine the lyrics have anything to do with the rumored infidelity of her real - life husband, Bobby Brown. ''
It became the album 's third single and peaked at No. 4 on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart on July 3, 1999. The single also peaked at number one on Billboard 's Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart, No. 7 on the top 100 Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks chart, and was certified Gold by the RIAA. The song reached No. 3 in Canada and the United Kingdom -- in March 1999, where it stayed in the chart for 15 weeks, becoming a hugely popular radio hit in the country.
Special bonus cut:
"I Will Always Love You '' (Hex Hector Club Mix) -- 9: 50
Note: A ^ In New Zealand, "Heartbreak Hotel '' was released as a double A-side single with "It 's Not Right But It 's Okay ''
The song was covered by Darren Criss on the hit Fox TV show Glee. Criss ' character, Blaine, was confronting his own ' cheating ' lover in the Whitney Houston tribute special, "Dance with Somebody ''. It was also covered on the "Lies '' single and The Mother We Share EP by CHVRCHES. The song was heavily sampled in Mak & Pasteman 's "It Ai n't Right ''.
The song was used as the "Lip - sync For the Crown '' song during the Finale of the ninth season of RuPaul 's Drag Race. The last two contestants, Sasha Velour and Peppermint, performed the song 's Thunderpuss Remix as a lip - sync to determine who would be crowned America 's Next Drag Superstar.
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game of thrones battle of the bastards cast | Battle of the Bastards - wikipedia
"Battle of the Bastards '' is the ninth episode of the sixth season of HBO 's fantasy television series Game of Thrones and its 59th episode overall. It was written by series co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, and directed by Miguel Sapochnik.
Jon Snow and Ramsay Bolton, face off in a battle for control of Winterfell. The Bolton army defeats most of Jon 's force, mostly composed of Wildlings. Meanwhile, Daenerys Targaryen defeats the Masters in Meereen and begins making new alliances.
"Battle of the Bastards '' was praised as one of the series ' best episodes, with several reviewers calling it a "masterpiece ''. Critics described the battle in the North as "terrifying, gripping and exhilarating '' and Daenerys 's reunion with her dragons at the beginning of the episode as "thrilling ''. Its eponymous battle took 25 days to film and required 500 extras, 600 crew members and 70 horses. In the United States, the episode had a viewership of 7.66 million in its initial broadcast. It earned Game of Thrones several Primetime Emmy Awards (including Outstanding Directing and Outstanding Writing); the episode was Harington 's choice to support his nomination for the Outstanding Supporting Actor. Sapochnik also won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series for the episode.
Daenerys Targaryen and Tyrion Lannister discuss dealing with the slaver fleet. Daenerys, Tyrion, Missandei and Grey Worm meet with the Masters, who offer to let Daenerys return to Westeros in return for keeping Missandei and the Unsullied and killing the dragons. She counters that the meeting was called to discuss the Masters ' surrender and rides Drogon into the bay with Rhaegal and Viserion and burns the fleet. Missandei tells the Masters that Daenerys has ordered one of them to die as punishment for their crimes. Although they offer the lowborn Yezzan, Grey Worm kills the other two masters instead and Tyrion tells Yezzan to warn the other masters of Daenerys 's power. Daario Naharis leads the Dothraki to slaughter the Sons of the Harpy, who are massacring freedmen outside the city.
Daenerys and Tyrion meet with Theon and Yara Greyjoy, who offer Daenerys their fleet of ships in exchange for help in overthrowing Euron and recognizing Yara 's claim to the Iron Islands. Daenerys agrees to assist them if the Ironborn will stop reaving the mainland; Yara reluctantly agrees.
Jon Snow, Sansa Stark, Tormund Giantsbane and Davos Seaworth meet with Ramsay Bolton and his advisers before the battle. Ramsay offers to pardon Jon for breaking his Night 's Watch vows if he hands Sansa over. Jon offers to settle their dispute with single combat; Ramsay refuses, saying that he may be unable to defeat Jon but the Bolton army can beat the Stark loyalists. When Smalljon Umber proves that Rickon Stark is captured by presenting Shaggydog 's head, Sansa tells Ramsay that he will die the next day and rides off. Ramsay gloats that he has been starving his hounds in anticipation of feeding them Jon and his advisers.
After Jon discusses the battle plan with Tormund and Davos, Sansa criticizes him for attacking without gathering more men and predicts that Ramsay will defeat them. Jon insists that the army is the largest one possible. When Jon asks Melisandre not to resurrect him if he dies in battle, she says that it is up to the Lord of Light. Davos and Tormund discuss their time serving Stannis and Mance and acknowledge that they may have served the wrong king all along. Davos discovers the pyre where Shireen and the wooden stag he carved for her were burned.
The armies gather outside Winterfell the next morning. Ramsay brings Rickon out and has him run to Jon while firing arrows at him. Jon rushes to intercept Rickon but just before escaping, Rickon is killed by an arrow. Jon charges at Ramsay, who orders the Bolton archers to fire and his cavalry to charge; Davos orders the Stark force to shield Jon. The battle leaves hundreds of Bolton and Stark soldiers dead from hand - to - hand combat and from Bolton arrows, creating a wall of corpses. The Bolton infantry forms a circle around the Stark forces. Although the giant Wun Wun kills some Bolton soldiers, Tormund panics and sends the Wildlings towards the wall of bodies and Smalljon 's forces, who easily cut them down. Jon is trampled by the Wildlings but struggles to his feet. The Stark forces appear doomed when a horn sounds in the distance as Petyr Baelish and Sansa arrive with the Knights of the Vale, who smash the Bolton army; Tormund kills Smalljon in the chaos.
Ramsay retreats to Winterfell, followed by Jon, Wun Wun and Tormund. Wun Wun breaks down Winterfell 's gates and the Stark loyalists overwhelm the remnants of the Bolton garrison. A mortally wounded Wun Wun is finished off by Ramsay, who tells Jon that he has reconsidered the offer of single combat. Jon blocks Ramsay 's arrows with a shield, overpowers and attempts to beat Ramsay to death, stopping when he sees Sansa and ordering him imprisoned, leaving Winterfell once more in the hands of House Stark. Bolton banners are shown falling off the walls and battlements of Winterfell to be replaced by the Stark direwolf. Sansa visits Ramsay after he is placed in the kennels with his hounds and despite Ramsay 's insistence that his hounds will not turn on him, they devour him face - first as Sansa walks away, smiling.
"Battle of the Bastards '' was written by the series ' creators, David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. Elements of the episode are based on the sixth novel in the A Song of Ice and Fire series, The Winds of Winter, which author George R.R. Martin hoped to complete before the sixth season aired. In an "Inside the Episode '' segment published by HBO shortly after the episode aired, Benioff and Weiss said that the final battle was primarily inspired by the Battle of Cannae and the American Civil War. According to Weiss, "We went back to the Roman fight against the Carthaginians in the Battle of Cannae where the Romans got caught in an encirclement by Hannibal and just slaughtered to the man. We used that as our model ''. Benioff said, "The ' Battle of the Bastards ' becomes incredibly compact. All these men, all these combatants, crammed into this incredibly tight space on the battlefield. You read accounts of the battles in the Civil War where the bodies were piled so thick it was actually an obstruction on the battlefield ''. Episode director Miguel Sapochnik said in an interview that the Battle of Agincourt was the original inspiration but the concept was adapted to fit budgetary constraints.
Weiss said that they wanted to depict a full - fledged battle, "From the beginning we knew that one thing we 'd never had on the show was a true medieval pitched battle where two sides bring all the forces they can into play in some battlefield that 's somehow negotiated or agreed upon and they go at each other until one of them wins and the other one loses. This is a staple of human history, and we started to look through film samples of it. There really was n't one that both made you feel what it was like to be there on the ground and gave you a sense of the geography of the battle. '' According to Benioff, they also wanted to demonstrate the role luck plays in battle, "Just to feel the kind of randomness of it where there 's arrows falling from everywhere, people are getting killed, people are getting trampled by horses, and so much of it is just luck. Jon Snow is a very skilled combatant, but part of the reason he survives this battle is just he gets lucky ''.
In the "Inside the Episode '' featurette Benioff said about Daenerys Targaryen 's transformation during the series, "I think Dany 's been becoming a Targaryen ever since the beginning of Season 1 ''. According to Weiss, "She 's not her father and she 's not insane and she 's not a sadist, but there 's a Targaryen ruthlessness that comes with even the good Targaryens ''. Benioff concluded, "If you 're one of the lords of Westeros or one of her potential opponents in the wars to come and you get word of what happened here in Meereen, you have to be pretty nervous because this is an unprecedented threat. You 've got a woman who has somehow formed an alliance where she has a Dothraki horde, a legion of Unsullied, she 's got the mercenary army of the Second Sons, and she has three dragons who are now pretty close to full grown. So if she can make it all the way across the Narrow Sea and get to Westeros, who 's going to stand in her way? ''
"Battle of the Bastards '' was the final episode for actor Iwan Rheon, who had played Ramsay Bolton since Game of Thrones ' third season. His first appearance was in "Dark Wings, Dark Words '', as a then - unnamed "boy '' who helps a captured Theon Greyjoy. Before he was cast as Ramsay, Rheon auditioned for the role of Jon Snow. In an interview, he described learning about his character 's fate: "I had received half the scripts, five episodes, then I got the call. They joked, ' Is n't it great Ramsay ends up on the Iron Throne? ' As soon as they said that I said, ' He 's dead, is n't he? ' It 's cool. I 've had four lovely seasons here. It 's been great to be involved with such an amazing show. I think it 's kind of right he goes down. Because what else is he going to do after this? He 's done so many things. It 's justified and it 's the right thing to do. It 's the right path. He 's reached his peak. It 's nice for the audience that he goes out on this high, if you will. '' In that interview, Kit Harington talked about Rheon: "I love Iwan 's work. He 's an incredibly detailed actor who 's created a character who 's remarkable and despicable. ''
"Battle of the Bastards '' was also the last episode for recurring character Rickon Stark (Art Parkinson), who had appeared since the series premiere episode "Winter Is Coming ''. In an IGN interview, Parkinson said that he was tipped off about his character 's death: "Whenever I was told that I was coming back for Season 6, before they sent me through the scripts and stuff, they sent me through a ring just to say, ' Listen, so that you do n't get a shock whenever you read the scripts, just know that you die this season. ' '' He continued, "Whenever I came back, I was excited to come back, and the scenes all seemed pretty amazing. I was so happy to re-embrace the character. '' According to Parkinson, he was sorry that Rickon would die but his manner of death was a compensation: "It was a cool death, and it was always going to be a good death, so at the same time, I was pretty happy. ''
Another character departure was Smalljon Umber, played by Dean S. Jagger. In an interview, Jagger talked about his casting: "I prayed for it. When I heard I got the part my knees buckled. It was a life - changing moment. '' Before becoming a professional actor, Jagger dug trenches and worked at a mattress factory to pay his way through acting school and was a professional rollerblader. Ian Whyte also made his last appearance in "Battle of the Bastards '' as the giant, Wun Wun; he had played Gregor Clegane during the show 's second season. Special - effects supervisor Joe Bauer said about Whyte 's casting as Wun Wun, "We wanted a large performer because somebody who would be 14, 15 feet tall would have more weight and mass to move around, and a person who 's a normal size would have a very difficult time pulling that off ''.
"Battle of the Bastards '' was directed by Miguel Sapochnik, who had directed the fifth - season episodes "The Gift '' and "Hardhome ''. In an Entertainment Weekly interview before the episode aired, Sapochnik said he was brought on board by Benioff and Weiss after his previous - season success; "Hardhome '' won several awards, including Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. About how the episode should be shot, he said: "Every battle on Thrones is unique. I think that 's why Benioff and Weiss keep doing them. In the case of ' Battle of the Bastards ' -- or ' BOB ' as we affectionately called it in production -- David and Dan wanted to do a thing of spectacle, a strategic pitchfield battle they had n't had the resources to do back in season 1 or 2. I was particularly interested in depicting both the horror of war and the role of luck in battle. '' Benioff called Sapochnik 's work on the episode some of the best in the series ' history.
It took 25 days to film, requiring 500 extras, 600 crew members and 70 horses. Benioff described the difficulty of coordinating horses in battle scenes, which is why they are rarely used except in "big budget war films ''. Weiss added, "Miguel 's really outdone himself. Fully fleshed out medieval battles require a tremendous amount of resources and choreography to get them right. It feels like we 're doing something fresh that you do n't see on TV and movies very often. '' Four camera crews were used for the battle scene. The 500 extras were largely the Snow and Bolton armies as Wildlings, archers, swordsmen and spearmen. Each army was trained separately to create off - screen rivalry between the two groups, and visual effects were used to expand the army to thousands. Kristofer Hivju, who plays Tormund Giantsbane, said about the intensity of filming the scenes: "It was pretty intense, actually. When you have 20 people running around getting squeezed together, and you 're trying to chop at another bearded guy with a sword, you are not out of danger. You 're laying down in the mud, and one wrong step, you wo n't have a face anymore. It was very intense, and Miguel insisted on making it that muddy and messy. War is not beautiful. Sometimes you see action sequences where battles seem organized. I know that from how the Vikings fought. It 's not beautiful. It 's hard. It 's hard work. We had to shoot moment - to - moment, chronologically. We would shoot one sequence 80 times per day. ''
In an interview after the episode aired, Sapochnik detailed the process of filming the battle and called Akira Kurosawa 's Ran an inspiration in shooting the scenes: "I watched every pitch field battle I could find (footage of real ones too), looking for patterns -- for what works, what does n't, what takes you out of the moment, what keeps you locked in. Interestingly one of the things I noticed is that staging of these battles through the years has changed dramatically. Back in the day you 'd see these huge aerial shots of horse charges and there were two big differences. First, it was all real -- no CGI or digital replication. And second, often when the horses would go down, you can kind of tell they got really hurt. Nowadays you 'd never get away with that, and nor would you want to. ''
Asked about the greatest challenge in filming the battle, Sapochnik said: "Every time we charge the horses it takes 25 minutes to reset all the fake snow on the field and rub out the horseshoe prints. So how many times can we afford to charge the horses each day knowing we need to give time for a reset that 's 10 times longer than the actual shot? Another thing was how to make 500 extras look like 8,000 when you are shooting in a field where there 's just nowhere to hide your shortfall. It becomes a bit like a bonkers math equation. And finally: How do you get these guys riled up enough to run at each other and get covered in mud and stand in the rain and then run at each other again and again for 25 days, 10 hours a day, without them just telling you to piss off? '' In an interview, he said that the single most difficult thing he was asked to depict was "having 3,000 horses running at each other, especially after we discovered that horses can not touch each other. It 's illegal -- it 's a very valid rule about protecting the horses. So the very thing we were trying to do was not allowed. And we only had 70 horses... (The solution was) you would have one guy run into the frame, and then the horse rider would pull the horse, which means make the horse fall and lie down on its side. Later we would digitally superimpose another C.G.I. horse and make it seem like it had impacted the live one. ''
According to the director, the scene was filmed on privately owned land in Saintfield, Northern Ireland, and they had only 12 days to shoot. After reading the script Sapochnik came up with a 48 - day shooting schedule, which was whittled down to 25 days. The CGI of Ghost, Jon Snow 's direwolf, in the episode presented difficulties; he was "in there in spades originally, but it 's also an incredibly time consuming and expensive character to bring to life. Ultimately we had to choose between Wun Wun and the direwolf, so the dog bit the dust. '' Sapochnik said that a crucial scene was filmed off - script. After three days of rain, unable to finish filming as scripted, he suggested a scene in which Jon Snow was trampled and nearly buried alive by bodies; the director described the character pushing his way out as "rebirthing. ''
In an interview about the "rebirthing '' scene, Kit Harington said that it intended to mirror the Daenerys Targaryen scene at the end of the third - season episode "Mhysa '' when Daenerys is held up by freed Yunkai slaves; in "Battle of the Bastards '', Jon Snow emerges from the crushing crowd of the battle: "When the crush starts happening, he slows down, and there 's that thing of peace where he thinks: ' I could just stay here and let it all end. ' And then something drives him to fight up, and that moment when he comes up and grasps for breath, he is reborn again, which I found weirdly reflective of the scene where Dany is held aloft at the end of season three. ''
"Battle of the Bastards '' was the first episode in which Kit Harington and Iwan Rheon filmed scenes together and met on - screen. Rheon said that he had always wanted to film scenes with Jon Snow: "Anyone who has asked me, ' Who would you like Ramsay to meet? ' My answer has always been, ' Jon Snow. ' He 's the antithesis of Ramsay. They 're almost a yin and a yang. They both come from such a similar place yet they 're so different. And even though they 're enemies, they 've both risen so far as bastards, which is almost incomprehensible, and now they 're both here facing each other. They could n't be any more different, yet more similar. '' In an interview, Harington talked about the fight scene with Rheon: "I actually did punch Iwan in the face twice by accident, which he took really well. He was really nice about it. '' According to Rheon, "The way I see it, if you do n't get hit a couple of times doing that, you 're not doing it properly. ''
For the Daenerys scene at the beginning of the episode where the three dragons burn part of the Masters ' fleet, Sapochnik credited VFX supervisor Joe Bauer and producer Steve Kullback for post-production work: "For this sequence David and Dan said that what they wanted to see was a ' demonstration ' of what 's to come. So I tried to approach it in the most elegant, epic, big - movie way I could. '' The director tried to design the shots with relative realism, inspired by footage of World War II Supermarine Spitfires in action. He based the dragon shots on wildlife footage, allowing them to break the frame: "These things should be so big and fast it 's hard to keep up with them. '' To insert Emilia Clarke (as Daenerys Targaryen) into the scene, she rode a "multi-directional, computer - controlled hydraulic gimbal device shaped like the upper shoulders of the dragon ''; Clarke was filmed separately in Belfast, Northern Ireland.
"Battle of the Bastards '' featured the first meeting of Daenerys Targaryen and Yara and Theon Greyjoy, and Yara 's first meeting with Tyrion Lannister. Gemma Whelan, who plays Yara, talked about filming the scene: "Oh my goodness -- I was so excited when I saw that I had a scene with those two (Daenerys and Tyrion). '' About the dynamic between the two women, Whelan said: "It 's clear as the scene plays out that Yara quite likes Dany. We share a lot of little looks and there 's some playful language in how we talk to one another -- Dany asks if the Iron Islands ever had a queen, and Yara says, ' No more than Westeros. ' They recognize the girl - power undertow between the two of them. ''
Not merely the obvious -- Sansa letting slip the dogs of war to turn her sadistic tormenter and the show 's biggest villain into kibbles and bits -- but everything else was pitch - perfect thrilling, too. We wanted a massive battle that 's unlike anything we 've seen before, and we got it. We wanted to see Dany 's three dragons fighting an enemy all at once. We wanted Theon and Yara to meet Dany and form an alliance. We wanted to see resurrected Jon Snow in action - hero mode. We wanted Davos to get a clue about Shireen. We wanted Jon and Ramsay to have an actual conversation -- and for them to fight one on one. We wanted the Starks to reclaim their home. And of course, yes, we wanted comeuppance for Ramsay and sweet revenge for Sansa.
"Battle of the Bastards '' was watched by 7.66 million American households in its initial telecast on HBO, slightly more than the previous week 's rating (7.60 million viewers) for "No One ''. The episode competed with game seven of the 2016 NBA Finals. It had a 3.9 rating in the 18 -- 49 demographic, the highest - rated show on cable television that night. In the United Kingdom, the episode was seen by 2.450 million viewers on Sky Atlantic (the channel 's highest - rated broadcast that week) and had 0.118 million timeshift viewers.
"Battle of the Bastards '' was praised as one of the series ' best episodes by critics and viewers, with Matt Fowler of IGN calling it a "masterpiece. '' Critics cited the size and scope of the battle in the North and Daenerys 's scene with her dragons at the beginning of the episode. It has a 98 % rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes from 50 reviews, with an average score of 9.2 out of 10. According to the site consensus, "' Battle of the Bastards ' delivered one of the greatest battle sequences in the show 's history, and some savagely satisfying vengeance as well. ''
IGN 's Matt Fowler wrote in his review, "At this point, it seems like the pattern when it comes to the ninth episode of a given season of Game of Thrones is tragic death, amazing battle, tragic death, amazing battle, and so on. And this being Season 6, it was time to land on a phenomenal clash of swords and shields - and ' Battle of the Bastards ' certainly delivered. '' He continued, "Game of Thrones did not disappoint when it came to this season 's great northern battle, as Jon and Sansa 's differences were spectacularly highlighted in a savagely strong war chapter that saw House Stark overcome huge odds to reclaim their home. Plus, Daenerys got to soar, as her dragons quickly stopped a violent siege with fury and fire. '' Fowler gave the episode a top score of 10. Jeremy Egner of The New York Times also praised the episode: "As directed by Miguel Sapochnik, who also oversaw last season 's terrific ' Hardhome ' episode, the lengthy sequence was terrifying, gripping and exhilarating, sometimes all at once, a sweeping display of all the different ways one can die on the battlefield. '' Egner called Ramsay 's death an episode highlight ("Ramsay Bolton 's demise was arguably the most eagerly anticipated death ever on Game of Thrones and the show handled it with flair, dispatching him in a poetic, canine - fueled fashion that was no less satisfying for being telegraphed early on ''), and concluded about Daenerys 's scene: "Daenerys Stormborn had a few words for the slave masters who launched their attack last week. Those words included ' surrender or die ' and ' thanks for the ships ', as we saw another thrilling action sequence that I believe reunited the dragon triplets for the first time since they were quite young. '' Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club wrote in his review, "This battle works as a climactic moment for Game of Thrones as a cultural event, selling us on the scale and ambition of the producers and their production teams, all who should be commended for the accomplishments from a technical perspective. '' According to James Hibberd of Entertainment Weekly, "Was this the show 's best episode? It 's hard to immediately process that question. Maybe? Probably. It 's almost certainly the most exciting hour and had the most jaw - dropping battle sequence we 've seen yet on TV. ''
Ed Power of The Daily Telegraph discussed the episode 's refreshing strong - women theme: "Game of Thrones has been justly criticised for employing young actresses as wobbly - wobbly window dressing and, though the toplessness has been dialed back this season, it 's still very much a calling card. However there are reasons for suspecting that the series is attempting to make amends -- by arguing that Westeros would be far better off with women in charge. Even as Sansa was turning the tide at Winterfell, in Meereen, Daenerys and Yara Greyjoy were striking up a lady bromance -- and seemingly rock - solid alliance -- for the ages. '' Laura Prudom of Variety agreed: "After seasons of criticism over the show 's misogyny (sometimes earned, sometimes not), it 's thrilling to see an episode like ' Battle of the Bastards ', where women like Dany, Sansa and Yara -- and emasculated men (either figuratively or literally) like Tyrion and Theon -- break the gears of war and the familiar patterns of violence by attempting to ' leave the world better than we found it ', despite the examples set by the evil white cisgendered men who came before them. '' According to Sarah Larson of The New Yorker, "Sansa watches calmly, then smiles. You 've come a long way, baby. Or she 's become a monster, and so have I. The women of Westeros are on the warpath. ''
The episode received a record six Primetime Emmy Awards, including awards for writing and direction. "Battle of the Bastards '' has been nominated for 32 awards and has won 19.
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importance of a performance bond in a contract | Performance bond - wikipedia
A performance bond, also known as a contract bond, is a surety bond issued by an insurance company or a bank to guarantee satisfactory completion of a project by a contractor. The term is also used to denote a collateral deposit of good faith money, intended to secure a futures contract, commonly known as margin.
Performance bonds have been around since 2,750 BC. The Romans developed laws of surety around 150 AD, the principles of which still exist.
A job requiring a payment and performance bond will usually require a bid bond, to bid the job. When the job is awarded to the winning bid, a payment and performance bond will then be required as a security to the job completion. For example, a contractor may cause a performance bond to be issued in favor of a client for whom the contractor is constructing a building. If the contractor fails to construct the building according to the specifications laid out by the contract (most often due to the bankruptcy of the contractor), the client is guaranteed compensation for any monetary loss up to the amount of the performance bond.
Performance bonds are commonly used in the construction and development of real property, where an owner or investor may require the developer to assure that contractors or project managers procure such bonds in order to guarantee that the value of the work will not be lost in the case of an unfortunate event (such as insolvency of the contractor). In other cases, a performance bond may be requested to be issued in other large contracts besides civil construction projects. Another example of this use is in commodity contracts where the seller is asked to provide a Bond to reassure the buyer that if the commodity being sold is not in fact delivered (for whatever reason) the buyer will at least receive compensation for his lost costs.
Performance bonds are generally issued as part of a ' Performance and Payment Bond ', where a payment bond guarantees that the contractor will pay the labour and material costs they are obliged to.
Surety bond companies calculate the premium they charge for surety bonds based on three primary criteria: bond type, bond amount, and the applicant 's risk. Once the bond type, amount, and applicant risk are adequately assessed, a surety bond underwriter is able to assign an appropriate surety bond price.
Surety bond companies have actuarial information on the lifetime claims history for each bond type. Over time, surety bond underwriters are able to determine that some surety bonds are more risky than others. For example, a California Motor Vehicle Dealer bond has significantly more claims than a straightforward notary bond. If a given surety bond type has paid out a high percentage of claims, then the premium amount paid by applicants will be higher.
Surety bond companies attempt to predict the risk that an applicant represents. Those who are perceived to be a higher risk will pay a higher surety bond premium. Since surety bond companies are providing a financial guarantee on the future work performance of those who are bonded, they must have a clear picture of the individual 's history.
In the United States, under the Miller Act of 1932, all Construction Contracts issued by the Federal Government must be backed by performance and payment bonds. States have enacted what is referred to as "Little Miller Act '' statutes requiring performance and payment bonds on State Funded projects as well.
There are over 25,000 types of Surety Bonds in the United States. Each bond has a designated bond amount. Surety bond companies will determine bond rate based on risk and then charge a surety bond premium in the range 1 - 15 % of the bond amount.
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who was the movie fear and loathing in las vegas about | Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (film) - wikipedia
Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas is a 1998 American black comedy road film adapted from Hunter S. Thompson 's novel of the same name. It was co-written and directed by Terry Gilliam, starring Johnny Depp as Raoul Duke and Benicio del Toro as Dr. Gonzo. The two embark on an initially assigned journey with journalistic purpose which turns out to be an exploration of the Las Vegas setting under the effect of psychoactive substances.
Though a critical and financial failure, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas has since become a cult film due in large part to its release on DVD, including a Special Edition released by The Criterion Collection.
In 1971, Raoul Duke and Dr. Gonzo speed across the Nevada desert. Duke, under the influence of mescaline, complains of a swarm of giant bats, before going through the pair 's inventory of psychoactive drugs. Shortly afterward, the duo stop to pick up a young hitchhiker, and explain what they are doing. Duke has been assigned by an unnamed magazine to travel to Las Vegas and cover the Mint 400 motorcycle race. However, they have also decided to take advantage of the trip by purchasing a large number of drugs, and rent a red Chevrolet Impala convertible. The young man soon becomes terrified of the antics of the duo, and flees on foot. Trying to reach Vegas before the hitchhiker can go to the police, Gonzo gives Duke part of a sheet of Sunshine Acid, then informs him that there is little chance of making it before the drug kicks in. By the time they reach the strip, Duke is in the full throes of his trip, and barely makes it through the check - in, all the while hallucinating that the hotel clerk is a moray eel, and that his fellow bar patrons are lizards in the depths of an orgy.
The next day, Duke arrives at the race, and heads out with his photographer, a man by the name of Lacerda. During the coverage, Duke becomes irrational and believes that they are in the middle of a battlefield, so he fires Lacerda and returns to the hotel. After consuming more mescaline, as well as huffing diethyl ether, Duke and Gonzo arrive at the Bazooko Circus casino, but leave shortly afterwards, the chaotic atmosphere frightening Gonzo. Back in the hotel room, Duke leaves Gonzo unattended, and tries his luck at a quick round of Big Six. When Duke returns, he finds that Gonzo, after consuming a full sheet of LSD, has trashed the room, and is sitting fully clothed in the bathtub, attempting to pull the tape player in with him, as he wants to hear the song better. He pleads with Duke to throw the machine into the water when the song "White Rabbit '' peaks. Duke agrees, but instead throws a grapefruit at Gonzo 's head before running outside.
The next morning, Duke awakens to an exorbitant room service bill, and no sign of Gonzo (who has returned to Los Angeles while Duke slept), and attempts to leave town. As he nears Baker, California, a highway patrolman pulls him over for speeding, and advises him to sleep at a nearby rest stop. Duke instead heads to a payphone and calls Gonzo, learning that he has a suite in his name at the Flamingo Las Vegas so he can cover a district attorney 's convention on narcotics. Duke checks into his suite, only to be met by an LSD - tripping Gonzo, and a young girl by the name of Lucy he has brought with him. Gonzo explains that Lucy has come to Las Vegas to meet Barbra Streisand, and that he gave her LSD on the plane not realizing she had never taken it before. Sensing the trouble this could get them into, Duke convinces Gonzo to ditch Lucy in another hotel before her trip wears off.
Gonzo accompanies Duke to the D.A. 's convention, and the pair discreetly snort cocaine as the guest speaker delivers a comically out - of - touch speech about "marijuana addicts '' before showing a brief film. Unable to take it, Duke and Gonzo flee back to their room, only to discover that Lucy has called. Their trips mostly over, Gonzo deals with Lucy over the phone (pretending that he is being savagely beaten by thugs), as Duke attempts to mellow out by trying some of Gonzo 's stash of adrenochrome. However, the trip spirals out of control, and Duke is reduced to an incoherent mess before he blacks out.
After an unspecified amount of time passes, Duke wakes up to a complete ruin of the once pristine suite. After discovering his tape recorder, he attempts to remember what has happened. As he listens, he has brief memories of the general mayhem that has taken place, including a heated encounter with a waitress at a diner, convincing a distraught cleaning woman that they are police officers investigating a drug ring, and attempting to buy an orangutan.
Duke drops Gonzo off at the airport, after missing the entrance, driving across the tarmac and pulling up right next to the plane, before returning to the hotel one last time to finish his article. Duke then speeds back to Los Angeles.
Hunter S. Thompson also has a brief cameo in the film while Duke has a flashback to a San Francisco music club, The Matrix, where Thompson can be seen sitting at a table as Depp walks by narrating his inner monologue, "There I was... Mother of God, there I am! Holy fuck! Clearly I was a victim of the drug explosion. ''
Martin Scorsese and Oliver Stone each tried to get the film off the ground, but were unsuccessful and moved on.
Rhino Films began work on a film version as early as 1992. Head of Production and the film 's producer Stephen Nemeth originally wanted Lee Tamahori to direct, but he was n't available until after the January 1997 start date. Depp wanted Bruce Robinson to direct, but he was "unavailable... by choice ''. Rhino appealed to Thompson for an extension on the film rights but the author and his lawyers denied the extension. Under pressure, Rhino countered by green - lighting the film and hiring Alex Cox to direct within a few days. According to Nemeth, Cox could "do it for a price, could do it quickly and could get this movie going in four months. ''
Rhino hired Terry Gilliam and was granted an extension from Thompson but only with the stipulation that the director made the film. Rhino did not want to commit to Gilliam in case he did n't work out. Thompson remembers, "They just kept asking for more (time). I got kind of agitated about it, because I thought they were trying to put off doing it. So I began to charge them more... I wanted to see the movie done, once it got started. '' The studio threatened to make the film with Cox and without Depp and del Toro. The two actors were upset when producer Laila Nabulsi told them of Rhino 's plans. Universal Pictures stepped in to distribute the film and Depp and Gilliam were paid $500,000 each but the director still did not have a firm deal in place. In retaliation, Depp and Gilliam locked Rhino out of the set during filming.
During the initial development to get the film made, Jack Nicholson and Marlon Brando were originally considered for the roles of Duke and Gonzo but they both grew too old. Afterward, Dan Aykroyd and John Belushi were considered for the duo, but that fell apart when Belushi died. John Malkovich was later considered for the role of Duke, but he grew too old too. At one point John Cusack was almost cast (Cusack had previously directed the play version of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, with his brother playing Duke). However, after Hunter S. Thompson met with Johnny Depp he became convinced that no one else could play him. When Cox and Davies started writing the screenplay, Depp and del Toro committed to starring in the film.
Gilliam said in an interview that his films are actor - led, the performance of the two characters in fear and loathing is hyper realistic but truthful. ' I am interested in real people in bizarre, twisted environments that force them to act... to react against. '
Dr. Gonzo is based on Thompson 's friend Oscar Zeta Acosta, who disappeared sometime in 1974. Thompson changed Acosta 's ethnic identity to "Samoan '' to deflect suspicion from Acosta, who was in trouble with the Los Angeles County Bar Association. He was the "Chicano lawyer '' notorious for his party binges.
The lead actors undertook extraordinary preparations for their respective roles. Del Toro gained more than 45 pounds (18 kg) in nine weeks before filming began, and extensively researched Acosta 's life. In the spring of 1997, Depp moved into the basement of Thompson 's Owl Farm home and lived there for four months, doing research for the role as well as studying Thompson 's habits and mannerisms. The actor went through Thompson 's original manuscript, mementos and notebooks that he kept during the actual trip. Depp remembers, "He saved it all. Not only is (the book) true, but there 's more. And it was worse. '' Depp even traded his car for Thompson 's red Chevrolet Caprice convertible, known to fans as The Great Red Shark, and drove it around California during his preparation for the role. Many of the costumes that Depp wears in the film are genuine articles of clothing that Depp borrowed from Thompson, and the writer himself shaved Depp 's head to match his own natural male pattern baldness. Other props, such as Duke 's cigarette filter (a TarGard Permanent Filter System), Hawaiian shirts, hats, a patchwork jacket, a silver medallion (given to him by Oscar Acosta) and IDs, belonged to Thompson.
Cox started writing the screenplay with Tod Davies, a UCLA Thompson scholar. During pre-production, Cox and producer Laila Nabulsi had "creative differences '' and she forced Rhino to choose between her and Cox. She had an arrangement with Thompson to produce the film and the studio fired Cox and paid him $60,000 in script fees. Thompson 's disapproval of the Cox / Davies script treatment is documented in the film Breakfast with Hunter.
The decision was made to not use the Cox / Davies script, which gave Gilliam only ten days to write another. Gilliam has stated in an interview "When we were writing the script, we really tried not to invent anything. We sort of cannibalized the book. '' The director enlisted the help of Tony Grisoni and they wrote the script at Gilliam 's home in May 1997. Grisoni remembers, "I 'd sit at the keyboard, and we 'd talk and talk and I 'd keep typing. '' One of the most important scenes from the book that Gilliam wanted to put in the film was the confrontation between Duke and Dr. Gonzo and the waitress of the North Star Coffee Lounge. The director said, "This is two guys who have gone beyond the pale, this is unforgivable -- that scene, it 's ugly. My approach, rather than to throw it out, was to make that scene the low point. ''
Initially, the studio wanted Gilliam to update the book for the 1990s, which he considered, "And then I looked at the film and said, ' No, that 's apologizing. I do n't want to apologize for this thing. It is what it is. ' It 's an artifact. If it 's an accurate representation of that book, which I thought was an accurate representation of a particular time and place and people. '' Terry Gilliam, while speaking to Sight & Sound magazine, highlighted if he had updated the movie to the 1990s it would just "be a story about two people going to excess '' by keeping it set in the 70 's, using the backdrop of the Vietnam War and a perceived loss of the American dream, offers reasoning to the characters actions.
When the film approached release, Gilliam learned that the Writers Guild of America (WGA) would not allow Cox and Davies to be removed from the credits even though none of their material was used in the production of the film. According to WGA rules, Gilliam and Grisoni had to prove that they wrote 60 % of their script. The director said, "But there have been at least five previous attempts at adapting the book, and they all come from the book. They all use the same scenes. '' Gilliam remarked in an interview, "The end result was we did n't exist. As a director, I was automatically deemed a ' production executive ' by the guild and, by definition, discriminated against. But for Tony to go without any credit would be really unfair. '' David Kanter, agent for Cox and Davies, argued, "About 60 percent of the decisions they made on what stays in from the book are in the film -- as well as their attitude of wide - eyed anarchy. '' According to the audio commentary by Gilliam on the Criterion Collection DVD, during the period where it appeared that only Cox and Davies would be credited for the screenplay, the film was to begin with a short scene in which it is explained that no matter what is said in the credits, no writers were involved in the making of the film. When this changed in early May 1998 after the WGA revised its decision and gave credit to Gilliam and Grisoni first and Cox and Davies second, the short was not needed. Angered over having to share credit, Gilliam publicly burned his WGA card at a May 22 book signing on Broadway.
According to Gilliam, there was no firm budget in place when filming started. Cinematographer Gilliam felt that it was not a well - organized film and said, "Certain people did n't... I 'm not going to name names but it was a strange film, like one leg was shorter than the other. There was all sorts of chaos. '' While Depp was on location in Los Angeles, he got a phone call from comedian Bill Murray who had played Thompson in Where the Buffalo Roam. He warned Depp, "Be careful or you 'll find yourself ten years from now still doing him... Make sure your next role is some drastically different guy. ''
Shooting on location in Las Vegas began on August 3, 1997 and lasted 56 days. The production ran into problems when they wanted to shoot in a casino. They were only allowed to film between two and six in the morning, given only six tables to put extras around and insisted that the extras really gamble. '' Exterior shots of the Bazooko Casino were filmed in front of the Stardust hotel / casino with the interiors constructed with a Warner Bros. Hollywood soundstage. To get the period look of Vegas in the 1970s, Gilliam and Pecorini used rear - projection footage from the old television show, Vega $. According to the cinematographer, this footage heightened the film 's "already otherworldly tone an extra notch. ''
Nicola Pecorini was hired based on an audition reel he sent Gilliam that made fun of the fact that he had only one eye (he lost the other to retinal cancer). According to Pecorini, the look of the film was influenced by the paintings of Robert Yarber that are "very hallucinatory: the paintings use all kinds of neon colors, and the light sources do n't necessarily make sense. '' According to Gilliam, they used him as a guide "While mixing our palette of deeply disturbing fluorescent colors. ''
For the desert scenes, Pecorini wanted a specific, undefined quality without a real horizon to convey the notion that the landscape never ended and to emphasize "a certain kind of unreality outside the characters ' car, because everything that matters to them is within the Red Shark. '' For the scene where Duke hallucinates a lounge full of lizards, the production was supposed to have 25 animatronic reptiles but they only received seven or eight. The production used motion - control techniques to make it look like they had a whole room of them and made multiple passes with the cameras outfitting the lizards with different costumes each time.
During production, it was Gilliam 's intention that it should feel like a drug trip from beginning to end. He said in an interview, "We start out at full speed and it 's WOOOO! The drug kicks in and you 're on speed! Whoah! You get the buzz -- it 's crazy, it 's outrageous, the carpet 's moving and everybody 's laughing and having a great time. But then, ever so slowly, the walls start closing in and it 's like you 're never going to get out of this fucking place. It 's an ugly nightmare and there 's no escape. '' To convey the effects of the various drugs, Gilliam and Pecorini assembled a list of "phases '' that detailed the "cinematic qualities '' of each drug consumed. For ether, Pecorini said they used a "loose depth of field; everything becomes non-defined ''; for adrenochrome, "everything gets narrow and claustrophobic, move closer with lens ''; mescaline was simulated by having "colors melt into each other, flares with no sources, play with color temperatures ''; for amyl nitrite, the "perception of light gets very uneven, light levels increase and decrease during the shots ''; and for LSD, "everything extremely wide, hallucinations via morphs, shapes, colors, and sound. ''
Pecorini and Gillam decided they want the film to be shot wide - angle but because of the small budget they could n't afford the downfalls of anamorphic lenses so they paired the Arriflex 535, Arri BL - 4S and the Arri 35 - iii with a set of Zeiss Standard Primes and the Kodak 's 250D Vision 5246 filmstock in order to achieve the saturated look the film has.
The music belongs to the psychedelic rock and classic rock genre. The soundtrack contains songs used in the film with sound bites of the film before each song. Most of the music is present in the soundtrack with a few exceptions; The Lennon Sisters ' version of "My Favorite Things '' (from The Sound of Music) which plays at the beginning of the picture, Jefferson Airplane "Somebody to Love (Jefferson Airplane song) '' which is heard during a flashback, Debbie Reynolds "Tammy (song) '', Perry Como "Magic Moments '', Beck, Bogert & Appice "Lady '', Tom Jones (singer) "It 's Not Unusual '', Frank Sinatra "You 're Getting To Be A Habit With Me '', Combustible Edison "Spy vs Spy (Australian band) '', The Out - Islanders "Moon Mist '' Polynesian Fantasy (album), and a recording of "Ball and Chain '' by Janis Joplin.
The Rolling Stones song "Jumping Jack Flash '' is heard at the conclusion of the film as Thompson drives out of Las Vegas. Gilliam could not pay $300,000 (half of the soundtrack budget) for the rights to "Sympathy for the Devil '' by The Rolling Stones, which plays a prominent role in the book.
The Dead Kennedys rendition of "Viva Las Vegas '' is heard at the very end of the closing credits.
Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas underwent preview test screenings -- a process that Gilliam does not enjoy. "I always get very tense in those (test screenings), because I 'm ready to fight. I know the pressure from the studio is, ' somebody did n't like that, change it! ' '' The filmmaker said that it was important to him that Thompson like the film and recalls the writer 's reaction at a screening, "Hunter watched it for the first time at the premiere and he was making all this fucking noise! Apparently it all came flooding back to him, he was reliving the whole trip! He was yelling out and jumping on his seat like it was a roller coaster, ducking and diving, shouting ' SHIT! LOOK OUT! GODDAMN BATS! ' That was fantastic -- if he thought we 'd captured it, then we must have done it! '' Thompson himself stated, "Yeah, I liked it. It 's not my show, but I appreciated it. Depp did a hell of a job. His narration is what really held the film together, I think. If you had n't had that, it would have just been a series of wild scenes. ''
Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas debuted at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival and Gilliam said, "I 'm curious about the reaction... If I 'm going to be disappointed, it 's because it does n't make any waves, that people are not outraged. ''
By the time Fear and Loathing was released as a Criterion Collection DVD in 2003, Thompson showed his approval of the Gilliam version by recording a full - length audio commentary for the film and participating in several DVD special features.
On an audio commentary track in the Criterion edition of the DVD, Gilliam expresses great pride in the film and says it was one of the few times where he did not have to fight extensively with the studio during the filming. Gilliam chalks this up to the fact that many of the studio executives read Thompson 's book in their youth and understood it could not be made into a conventional Hollywood film. However, he does express frustration with the advertising campaign used during its initial release, which he says tried to sell it as wacky comedy. The film was later released by Universal Studios on HD DVD and, subsequently, Blu - ray; Criterion released the film on Blu - ray on April 26, 2011.
The film was labeled with an R - Restricted MPAA rating for pervasive extreme drug use and related bizarre behavior, strong language, and brief nudity and also rated 18 + in the UK.
The film opened in wide release on May 22, 1998 and grossed $3.3 million in 1,126 theaters on its first weekend. The film went on to gross $10.6 million, well below its budget of $18.5 million. However, the movie reignited interest in Thompson 's novel. Vintage Press reported an initial reprint of 100,000 copies to tie in with the film 's release, but demand was higher than expected and forced the novel to go back to print a further five times.
Gilliam wanted to provoke strong reactions to his film as he said in an interview, "I want it to be seen as one of the great movies of all time, and one of the most hated movies of all time. '' Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas polarized critics; it currently has a 49 % "Rotten '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes.
In The New York Times, Stephen Holden wrote, "Even the most precise cinematic realizations of Mr. Thompson 's images do n't begin to match the surreal ferocity of the author 's language. '' Stephen Hunter, in his review for the Washington Post, wrote, "It tells no story at all. Little episodes of no particular import come and go... But the movie is too grotesque to be entered emotionally. '' Mike Clark, of USA Today, found the film, "simply unwatchable. '' In The Guardian, Gaby Wood wrote, "After a while, though, the ups and downs do n't come frequently enough even for the audience, and there 's an element of the tedium usually found in someone else 's druggy experiences. '' Roger Ebert thought the movie was a disgrace. He gave the film one star out of four and said it was "a horrible mess of a movie, without shape, trajectory or purpose -- a one joke movie, if it had one joke. The two characters wander witlessly past the bizarre backdrops of Las Vegas (some real, some hallucinated, all interchangeable) while zonked out of their minds. Humor depends on attitude. Beyond a certain point, you do n't have an attitude, you simply inhabit a state. ''
Gene Siskel 's "thumbs - up '' review at the time also noted the film successfully captured the book 's themes into film, adding "What the film is about and what the book is about is using Las Vegas as a metaphor for -- or a location for -- the worst of America, the extremes of America, the money obsession, the visual vulgarity of America. '' Michael O'Sullivan gave the film a positive review in the Washington Post. "What elevates the tale from being a mere drug chronicle is the same thing that lifted the book into the realm of literature. It 's the sense that Gilliam, like Thompson, is always totally in command of the medium, while abandoning himself utterly to unpredictable forces beyond his control. '' Empire magazine voted the film the 469th greatest film in their "500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' list.
Since the film 's release on home media, including The Criterion Collection Special Edition, the film had attained cult status. This led to the film being re-screened at various cinemas such as The Prince Charles Cinema in Leicester Square, London and a special screening from original VHS tape at Swordtail Studio London in 2016.
The increased attention for the film has also led to some news outlets to reconsider the mixed original reception of the film; Joe Queenan of The Guardian argued that "No, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas is not breathtakingly self - indulgent and just plain awful; it is actually jaw - droppingly great. Those of you who do not share this opinion are idiots. '' Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club argued in his more recent review of the film that "the film would have had a greater impact had it been produced at the time, when Brewster McCloud proved that anything was possible, but short of a time machine, Gilliam does what he can to bring the era back to life. ''.
The film was nominated for a variety of awards that both praised and condemned it. Terry Gilliam was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival 1998 while Johnny Depp won the best foreign actor award from the Russian Guild of Film Critics in 1998.
However Depp and Del Toro were also nominated by the Stinkers Bad Movie Awards for worst on - screen couple, and during the same awards Del Toro 's portrayal of Dr. Gonzo was also nominated for the worst supporting actor.
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what are the meanings for the metric prefixes milli centi and kilo | Metric prefix - wikipedia
A metric prefix is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a multiple or fraction of the unit. While all metric prefixes in common use today are decadic, historically there have been a number of binary metric prefixes as well. Each prefix has a unique symbol that is prepended to the unit symbol. The prefix kilo -, for example, may be added to gram to indicate multiplication by one thousand: one kilogram is equal to one thousand grams. The prefix milli -, likewise, may be added to metre to indicate division by one thousand; one millimetre is equal to one thousandth of a metre.
Decimal multiplicative prefixes have been a feature of all forms of the metric system, with six dating back to the system 's introduction in the 1790s. Metric prefixes have even been prepended to non-metric units. The SI prefixes are standardized for use in the International System of Units (SI) by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in resolutions dating from 1960 to 1991. Since 2009, they have formed part of the International System of Quantities.
The BIPM specifies twenty prefixes for the International System of Units (SI).
Each prefix name has a symbol that is used in combination with the symbols for units of measure. For example, the symbol for kilo - is ' k ', and is used to produce ' km ', ' kg ', and ' kW ', which are the SI symbols for kilometre, kilogram, and kilowatt, respectively. Where Greek letters are unavailable, the symbol for micro ' μ ' is commonly replaced by ' u '.
Prefixes corresponding to an integer power of one thousand are generally preferred. Hence 100 m is preferred over 1 hm (hectometre) or 10 dam (decametres). The prefixes hecto, deca, deci, and centi are commonly used for everyday purposes, and the centimetre (cm) is especially common. However, some modern building codes require that the millimetre be used in preference to the centimetre, because "use of centimetres leads to extensive usage of decimal points and confusion ''.
Prefixes may not be used in combination. This also applies to mass, for which the SI base unit (kilogram) already contains a prefix. For example, milligram (mg) is used instead of microkilogram (μkg).
In the arithmetic of measurements having units, the units are treated as multiplicative factors to values. If they have prefixes, all but one of the prefixes must be expanded to their numeric multiplier, except when combining values with identical units. Hence,
When units occur in exponentiation, for example, in square and cubic forms, the multiplication prefix must be considered part of the unit, and thus included in the exponentiation.
The use of prefixes can be traced back to the introduction of the metric system in the 1790s, long before the 1960 introduction of the SI. The prefixes, including those introduced after 1960, are used with any metric unit, whether officially included in the SI or not (e.g., millidynes and milligauss). Metric prefixes may also be used with non-metric units.
The choice of prefixes with a given unit is usually dictated by convenience of use. Unit prefixes for amounts that are much larger or smaller than those actually encountered are seldom used.
In use, the kilogram, gram, milligram, microgram, and smaller are fairly common. However, megagram (and gigagram, teragram, etc.) are rarely used; tonnes (and kilotonnes, megatonnes, etc -- although these units generally are not used as a measure of mass per se, but rather TNT energy equivalent of a mass) or scientific notation are used instead. Megagram is occasionally used to disambiguate the metric tonne from the various non-metric tons. An exception is pollution emission rates, which are typically on the order of Tg / yr. Sometimes, only one element or compound is denoted for an emission, such as Tg C / yr or Tg N / yr.
Alone among SI units, the base unit of mass, the kilogram, already includes a prefix. The prefixes consequently do not indicate corresponding multipliers of the base unit in the case of mass; for example, a megagram is 7003100000000000000 ♠ 1 × 10 kg, whereas mega - indicates a multiplier of 7006100000000000000 ♠ 10.
The litre (equal to a cubic decimetre), millilitre (equal to a cubic centimetre), microlitre, and smaller are common. In Europe, the centilitre is often used for packaged products (such as wine) and the decilitre less frequently. (The latter two items include prefixes corresponding to an exponent that is not divisible by three.)
Larger volumes are usually denoted in kilolitres, megalitres or gigalitres, or else in cubic metres (1 cubic metre = 1 kilolitre) or cubic kilometres (1 cubic kilometre = 1 teralitre). For scientific purposes, the cubic metre is usually used.
The kilometre, metre, centimetre, millimetre, and smaller are common. (However, the decimetre is rarely used.) The micrometre is often referred to by the non-SI term micron. In some fields, such as chemistry, the ångström (equal to 0.1 nm) historically competed with the nanometre. The femtometre, used mainly in particle physics, is sometimes called a fermi. For large scales, megametre, gigametre, and larger are rarely used. Instead, non-metric units are used, such as astronomical units, light years, and parsecs; the astronomical unit is mentioned in the SI standards as an accepted non-SI unit.
The second, millisecond, microsecond, and shorter are common. The kilosecond and megasecond also have some use, though for these and longer times one usually uses either scientific notation or minutes, hours, and so on.
Official policies about the use of these prefixes vary slightly between the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) and the American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST); and some of the policies of both bodies are at variance with everyday practice. For instance, the NIST advises that "to avoid confusion, prefix symbols (and prefixes) are not used with the time - related unit symbols (names) min (minute), h (hour), d (day); nor with the angle - related symbols (names) ° (degree), ′ (minute), and '' (second). ''
The BIPM 's position on the use of SI prefixes with units of time larger than the second is the same as that of the NIST, but their position with regard to angles differs: they state "However astronomers use milliarcsecond, which they denote mas, and microarcsecond, μas, which they use as units for measuring very small angles. '' The SI unit of angle is the radian, but, as mentioned above, degrees, minutes and seconds see some scientific use.
Official policy also varies from common practice for the degree Celsius (° C). NIST states: "Prefix symbols may be used with the unit symbol ° C and prefixes may be used with the unit name ' degree Celsius '. For example, 12 m ° C (12 millidegrees Celsius) is acceptable. '' In practice, it is more common for prefixes to be used with the kelvin when it is desirable to denote extremely large or small absolute temperatures or temperature differences. Thus, temperatures of star interiors may be given in units of MK (megakelvins), and molecular cooling may be described in mK (millikelvins).
There exist a number of definitions for the non-SI unit, the calorie. There are gram calories and kilogram calories. One kilogram calorie, which equals one thousand gram calories, often appears capitalized and without a prefix (i.e. ' Cal ') when referring to "dietary calories '' in food. It is common to apply metric prefixes to the gram calorie, but not to the kilogram calorie: thus, 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 1 Cal.
Metric prefixes are widely used outside the system of metric units. Common examples include the megabyte and the decibel. Metric prefixes rarely appear with imperial or US units except in some special cases (e.g., microinch, kilofoot, kilopound or ' kip '). They are also used with other specialized units used in particular fields (e.g., megaelectronvolt, gigaparsec, millibarn). They are also occasionally used with currency units (e.g., gigadollar), mainly by people who are familiar with the prefixes from scientific usage. In geology and paleontology, the year, with symbol a (from the Latin annus), is commonly used with metric prefixes: ka, Ma, and Ga.
When an SI prefix is affixed to a root word, the prefix carries the stress, while the root drops its stress but retains a full vowel in the syllable that is stressed when the root word stands alone. For example, kilobyte is / ˈkɪlɒbaɪt /, with stress on the first syllable. However, words in common use outside the scientific community may follow idiosyncratic stress rules. In English speaking countries, kilometre is often pronounced / kɪˈlɒmɪtər /, with reduced vowels on both syllables of metre.
The prefix giga is usually pronounced in English as / ˈɡɪɡə /, with hard 〈 g 〉 as in "get '', but sometimes / ˈdʒɪɡə /, with soft 〈 g 〉 as in "gin ''.
The LaTeX typesetting system features an SIunitx package in which the units of measurement are spelled out, for example, \ SI (3) (\ tera \ hertz) formats as "3 THz ''.
Some of the prefixes formerly used in the metric system have fallen into disuse and were not adopted into the SI. The decimal prefix myria - (sometimes also written as myrio -) (ten thousand) as well as the binary prefixes double - and demi -, denoting a factor of 2 and 1 / 2 (one half), respectively, were parts of the original metric system adopted by France in 1795. These were not retained when the SI prefixes were internationally adopted by the 11th CGPM conference in 1960.
Other metric prefixes used historically include hebdo - (10) and micri - (10).
Double prefixes have been used in the past, such as micromillimetres or "millimicrons '' (now nanometres), micromicrofarads (now picofarads), kilomegatons (now gigatons), hectokilometres (now 100 kilometres) and the derived adjective hectokilometric (typically used for qualifying the fuel consumption measures). These were disallowed with the introduction of the SI.
Other obsolete double prefixes included "decimilli - '' (10), which was contracted to "dimi - '' and standardized in France up to 1961.
In 2010, UC Davis student Austin Sendek started a petition to designate "hella '' as the SI prefix for one octillion (10). The petition gathered over 60,000 supporters by circulating through Facebook and receiving a significant amount of media coverage. Although the Consultative Committee for Units considered the proposal, it was rejected. However, hella has been adopted by certain websites, such as Google Calculator and Wolfram Alpha.
Brian C. Lacki follows Z and Y with the adopted prefixes X, W and V to mean 7027100000000000000 ♠ 10, 7030100000000000000 ♠ 10 and 7033099999999999999 ♠ 10 respectively, thus continuing the inverse alphabetical order.
In written English, the symbol K is often used informally to indicate a multiple of thousand in many contexts. For example, one may talk of a 40K salary (40 000), or call the Year 2000 problem the Y2K problem. In these cases, an uppercase K is often used with an implied unit (although it could then be confused with the symbol for the kelvin temperature unit if the context is unclear). This informal postfix is read or spoken as "thousand '' or "grand '', or just "k '', but never "kilo '' (despite that being the origin of the letter).
The financial and general news media mostly use m / M, b / B and t / T as abbreviations for million, billion (10) and trillion (10) for large quantities, typically currency and population.
The medical and automotive fields in the United States use the abbreviations "cc '' or "ccm '' for cubic centimetres. 1 cubic centimetre is equivalent to 1 millilitre.
For nearly a century, the electrical construction industry used the abbreviation "MCM '' to designate a "thousand circular mils '' in specifying thicknesses of large electrical cables. Since the mid-1990s, "kcmil '' has been adopted as the "official '' designation of a thousand circular mils, but the designation "MCM '' still remains in wide use. A similar system is used in natural gas sales in the United States: m (or M) for thousands and mm (or MM) for millions of British thermal units or therms, and in the oil industry, where ' MMbbl ' is the symbol for ' millions of barrels '. This usage of the capital letter M for ' thousand ' is from Roman numerals, in which M means 1,000.
In some fields of information technology, it has been common to designate non-decimal multiples based on powers of 1024, rather than 1000, for some SI prefixes (kilo, mega, giga), contrary to the definitions in the International System of Units (SI). This practice has been sanctioned by some industry associations, including JEDEC. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standardized the system of binary prefixes (kibi, mebi, gibi, etc.) for this purpose.
This article is based on material taken from the Free On - line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing '' terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
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in its efforts to help workers the american federation of labor (afl) sought | American Federation of Labor - wikipedia
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was a national federation of labor unions in the United States founded in Columbus, Ohio, in December 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers ' International Union was elected president at its founding convention and reelected every year, except one, until his death in 1924. The AFL was the largest union grouping in the United States for the first half of the 20th century, even after the creation of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) by unions which were expelled by the AFL in 1935 over its opposition to industrial unionism. The Federation was founded and dominated by craft unions throughout its first fifty years, after which many craft union affiliates turned to organizing on an industrial union basis to meet the challenge from the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in the 1940s.
In 1955, the AFL merged with the CIO to create the AFL - CIO, which has comprised the longest lasting and most influential labor federation in the United States to this day.
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) organized as an association of trade unions in 1886. The organization emerged from a dispute with the Knights of Labor (K of L) organization, in which the leadership of that organization solicited locals of various craft unions to withdraw from their International organizations and to affiliate with the K of L directly, an action which would have taken funds from the various unions and enriched the K of L 's coffers. The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor.
One of the organizations embroiled in this controversy was the Cigar Makers ' International Union (CMIU), a group subject to competition from a dual union, a rival "Progressive Cigarmakers ' Union, '' organized by members suspended or expelled by the CMIU. The two cigar unions competed with one another in signing contracts with various cigar manufacturers, who were at this same time combining themselves into manufacturers ' associations of their own in New York City, Detroit, Cincinnati, Chicago, and Milwaukee.
In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers ' Association of New York City attempted to flex its muscle by announcing a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers ' International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were locked out by the owners. A strike lasting four weeks ensued. Just when it appeared that the strike might be won, the New York District Assembly of the Knights of Labor leaped into the breach, offering to settle with the 19 factories at a lower wage scale than that proposed by the CMIU, so long as only the Progressive Cigarmakers ' Union was employed.
The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the national officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, and the latter was exonerated. The American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions.
On April 25, 1886, a circular letter was issued by Strasser of the Cigar Makers and P.J. McGuire of the Carpenters, addressed to all national trade unions and calling for their attendance of a conference in Philadelphia on May 18. The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing "malicious work '' and causing "incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms and dissensions in the labor movement. '' The call was signed by Strasser and McGuire, along with representatives of the Granite Cutters, the Iron Molders, and the secretary of the Federation of Trades of North America, a forerunner of the AFL founded in 1881.
Forty - three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates and letters of approval from 12 other unions. At this preliminary gathering, held in Donaldson Hall on the corner of Broad and Filbert Streets, the K of L was charged with conspiring with anti-union bosses to provide labor at below going union rates and with making use of individuals who had crossed picket lines or defaulted on payment of union dues. The body authored a "treaty '' to be presented to the forthcoming May 24, 1886, convention of the Knights of Labor, which demanded that the K of L cease attempting to organize members of International Unions into its own assemblies without permission of the unions involved and that K of L organizers violating this provision should suffer immediate suspension.
For its part, the Knights of Labor considered the demand for the parcelling of the labor movement into narrow craft - based fiefdoms to be anathema, a violation of the principle of solidarity of all workers across craft lines. Negotiations with the dissident craft unions were nipped in the bud by the governing General Assembly of the K of L, however, with the organization 's Grand Master Workman, Terence V. Powderly refusing to enter into serious discussions on the matter. The actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld.
Convinced that no accommodation with the leadership of the Knights of Labor was possible, the heads of the five labor organizations which issued the call for the April 1886 conference issued a new call for a convention to be held December 8, 1886 in Columbus, Ohio in order to construct "an American federation of alliance of all national and international trade unions. '' Forty - two delegates representing 13 national unions and various other local labor organizations responded to the call, agreeing to form themselves into an American Federation of Labor.
Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a "per - capita tax '' of its member organizations, set at the rate of one - half cent per member per month (i.e. six cents per year). Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union. The founding convention voted to make the President of the new federation a full - time official at a salary of $1,000 per year, and Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers ' International Union was elected to the position. Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year save one until his death nearly four decades later.
Although the founding convention of the AFL had authorized the establishment of a publication for the new organization, Gompers made use of the existing labor press to generate support for the position of the craft unions against the Knights of Labor. Powerful opinion - makers of the American labor movement such as the Philadelphia Tocsin, Haverhill Labor, the Brooklyn Labor Press, and the Denver Labor Enquirer granted Gompers space in their pages, in which he made the case for the unions against the attacks of employers, "all too often aided by the K of L. ''
Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies. Some assemblies of the K of L supported the Cigar Makers ' position and departed the organization: in Baltimore, 30 locals left the organization, while the membership of the Knights in Chicago fell from 25,000 in 1886 to just 3,500 in 1887. Factional warfare broke out in the K of L, with Terence Powderly blaming the organization 's travails on "radicals '' in its ranks, while those opposing Powderly called for an end to what they perceived as "autocratic leadership. ''
In the face of the steady disintegration of its rival, the fledgling American Federation of Labor struggled to maintain itself, with the group showing very slow and incremental growth in its first years, only cracking the 250,000 member mark in 1892. The group from the outset concentrated upon the income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The AFL 's founding convention declaring "higher wages and a shorter workday '' to be "preliminary steps toward great and accompanying improvements in the condition of the working people. '' Participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the group 's constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates.
This fundamentally conservative "pure and simple '' approach limited the AFL to matters pertaining to working conditions and rates of pay, relegating political goals to its allies in the political sphere. The Federation favored pursuit of workers ' immediate demands rather than challenging the property rights of owners, and took a pragmatic view of politics which favored tactical support for particular politicians over formation of a party devoted to workers ' interests. The AFL 's leadership believed the expansion of the capitalist system was seen as the path to betterment of labor, an orientation making it possible for the AFL to present itself as what one historian has called "the conservative alternative to working class radicalism. ''
The AFL faced its first major reversal when employers launched an open shop movement in 1903 designed to drive unions out of construction, mining, longshore and other industries. Membership in the AFL 's affiliated unions declined between 1904 and 1914 in the face of this concerted anti-union drive, which made effective use of legal injunctions against strikes, court rulings given force when backed with the armed might of the state. At its November 1907 Convention in Norfolk, Virginia the AFL founded the future North America 's Building Trades Unions (NABTU) as Department of Building Trades.
Ever the pragmatist, Gompers argued that labor should "reward its friends and punish its enemies '' in both major parties. However, in the 1900s (decade), the two parties began to realign, with the main faction of the Republican Party coming to identify with the interests of banks and manufacturers, while a substantial portion of the rival Democratic Party took a more labor - friendly position. While not precluding its members from belonging to the Socialist Party or working with its members, the AFL traditionally refused to pursue the tactic of independent political action by the workers in the form of the existing Socialist Party or the establishment of a new labor party. After 1908, the organization 's tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong.
Some unions within the AFL helped form and participated in the National Civic Federation. The National Civic Federation was formed by several progressive employers who sought to avoid labor disputes by fostering collective bargaining and "responsible '' unionism. Labor 's participation in this federation, at first tentative, created internal division within the AFL. Socialists, who believed the only way to help workers was to remove large industry from private ownership, denounced labor 's efforts at cooperation with the capitalists in the National Civic Federation. The AFL nonetheless continued its association with the group, which declined in importance as the decade of the 1910s drew to a close.
By the 1890s, Gompers was planning an international federation of labor, starting with the expansion of AFL affiliates in Canada, especially Ontario. He helped the Canadian Trades and Labour Congress with money and organizers, and by 1902, the AFL came to dominate the Canadian union movement.
The AFL vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages. Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. Nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its Euro - American members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 Emergency Quota Act and the Immigration Act of 1924, and seeing that they were strictly enforced.
Mink (1986) concludes that the link between the AFL and the Democratic Party rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.
The AFL reached a zenith of sorts during the administration of Democrat Woodrow Wilson. Particularly during the years of World War I, American unions were given considerable government protection and cooperation between capital and labor was actively sought as the best means of rationalizing and increasing American production on behalf of the war effort. Unions, including the AFL itself, welcomed governmental intervention in favor of collective bargaining during World War I. Unions in the packinghouse industry were able to form due to governmental pressure on the largest employers to recognize the unions rather than face a strike. The organized labor movement expanded and by 1920 the AFL had nearly 4 million members.
During World War I, the AFL -- motivated by fear of government repression, and hope of aid (often in the form of pro-AFL labor policies) -- had worked out an informal agreement with the United States government, in which the AFL would coordinate with the government both to support the war effort and to join "into an alliance to crush radical labor groups '' such as the Industrial Workers of the World and Socialist Party of America.
In the pro-business environment of the 1920s, business launched a large - scale offensive on behalf of the so - called "open shop '', which meant that a person did not have to be a union member to be hired. AFL unions lost membership steadily until 1933. In 1924, following the death of Samuel Gompers, UMWA member and AFL vice president William Green became the president of the labor federation.
The organization endorsed pro-labor progressive Robert M. La Follette Sr. in the 1924 presidential election. He only carried his home state of Wisconsin. The campaign failed to establish a permanent independent party closely connected to the labor movement, however, and thereafter the Federation embraced ever more closely the Democratic Party, despite the fact that many union leaders remained Republicans. Herbert Hoover in 1928 won the votes of many Protestant AFL members.
The Great Depression were hard times for the unions, and membership fell sharply across the country. As the national economy began to recover in 1933, so did union membership. The New Deal of president Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, strongly favored labor unions. He made sure that relief operations like the Civilian Conservation Corps did not include a training component that would produce skilled workers who would compete with union members in a still glutted market. The major legislation was the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, called the Wagner Act. It greatly strengthened organized unions, especially by weakening the company unions that many workers belonged to. It was to the members advantage to transform a company union into a local of an AFL union, and thousands did so, dramatically boosting the membership. The Wagner Act also set up to the National Labor Relations Board, which used its powers to rule in favor of unions and against the companies. However, the NLRB was later taken over by leftist elements who favored the CIO over the AFL.
In the early 1930 's AFL president William Green (president, 1924 -- 1952) experimented with an industrial approach to organizing in the automobile and steel industries. The AFL made forays into industrial unionism by chartering federal labor unions, which would organize across an industry and be chartered by the Federation, not through existing craft unions, guilds, or brotherhoods. As early as 1923, the AFL had chartered federal labor unions, including six news writer locals that had formerly been part of the International Typographical Union. However in the 1930 's the AFL began chartering these federal labor unions as an industrial organizing strategy. The dues in these federal labor unions (FLUs) were kept intentionally low to make them more accessible to low paid industrial workers; however, these low dues later allowed the Internationals in the Federation to deny members of FLUs voting membership at conventions. In 1933, Green sent William Collins to Detroit to organize automobile workers into a federal labor union. That same year workers at the Westinghouse plant in East Springfield MA, members of federal labor union 18476, struck for recognition. In 1933, the AFL received 1,205 applications for charters for federal labor unions, 1006 of which were granted. By 1934, the AFL had successfully organized 32,500 autoworkers using the federal labor union model. Most of the leadership of the craft union internationals that made up the federation, advocated for the FLU 's to be absorbed into existing craft union internationals and for these internationals to have supremacy of jurisdiction. At the 1933 AFL convention in Washington, DC John Frey of the Molders and Metal Trades pushed for craft union internationals to have jurisdictional supremacy over the FLU 's; the Carpenters headed by William Hutchenson and the IBEW also pushed for FLU 's to turn over their members to the authority of the craft internationals between 1933 and 1935. In 1934, one hundred FLUs met separately and demanded that the AFL continue to issue charters to unions organizing on an industrial basis independent of the existing craft union internationals. In 1935 the FLUs representing autoworkers and rubber workers both held conventions independent of the craft union internationals. By the 1935 AFL convention, Green and the advocates of traditional craft unionism faced increasing dissension led by John L. Lewis of the coal miners, Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated, David Dubinsky of the Garment Workers, Charles Howard of the ITU, Thomas McMahon of the Textile Workers, and Max Zaritsky of the Hat, Cap, and Millinery Workers, in addition to the members of the FLU 's themselves. Lewis argued that the AFL was too heavily oriented toward traditional craftsmen, and was overlooking the opportunity to organize millions of semiskilled workers, especially those in industrial factories that made automobiles, rubber, glass and steel. In 1935 Lewis led the dissenting unions in forming a new Congress for Industrial Organization (CIO) within the AFL. Both the new CIO industrial unions, and the older AFL crafts unions grew rapidly after 1935. In 1936 union members enthusiastically supported Roosevelt 's landslide reelection. Proposals for the creation of an independent labor party were rejected.
Unions now became a major component of the New Deal coalition, along with big - city machines, Catholics and Jews, poorer farmers, and the white South. The AFL continued to concentrate its legislative efforts on obtaining political protection for the right of unions to organize and strike, rather than on obtaining social change through legislative action.
The AFL retained close ties to the Democratic machines in big cities through the 1940s. Its membership surged during the war and it held on to most of its new members after wartime legal support for labor was removed. Despite its close connections to many in Congress, the AFL was not able to block the Taft -- Hartley Act in 1947.
In 1955, the AFL and CIO merged to form the AFL -- CIO, headed by George Meany.
During its first years, the AFL admitted nearly anyone. Gompers opened the AFL to radical and socialist workers and to some semiskilled and unskilled workers. Women, African Americans, and immigrants joined in small numbers. But by the 1890s, the Federation had begun to organize only skilled workers in craft unions and became an organization of mostly white men. Although the Federation preached a policy of egalitarianism in regard to African American workers, it actively discriminated against black workers. The AFL sanctioned the maintenance of segregated locals within its affiliates -- particularly in the construction and railroad industries -- a practice which often excluded black workers altogether from union membership and thus from employment in organized industries.
In 1901, the AFL lobbied Congress to reauthorize the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, and issued a pamphlet entitled "Some reasons for Chinese exclusion. Which shall survive? '' The AFL also began one of the first organized labor boycotts when they began putting white stickers on the cigars made by unionized white cigar rollers while simultaneously discouraging consumers from purchasing cigars rolled by Chinese workers.
In most ways, the AFL 's treatment of women workers paralleled its policy towards black workers. The AFL never adopted a strict policy of gender exclusion and, at times, even came out in favor of women 's unionism. But despite such rhetoric, the Federation only half - heartedly supported women 's attempts to organize and, more often, took pains to keep women out of unions and the workforce altogether. Only two national unions affiliated with the AFL at its founding openly included women, and others passed by - laws barring women 's membership entirely. The AFL hired its first female organizer, Mary Kenney O'Sullivan, only in 1892, released her after five months, and it did not replace her or hire another woman national organizer until 1908. Women who organized their own unions were often turned down in bids to join the Federation, and even women who did join unions found them hostile or intentionally inaccessible. AFL unions often held meetings at night or in bars when women might find it difficult to attend and where they might feel uncomfortable, and male unionists heckled women who tried to speak at meetings.
Generally the AFL viewed women workers as competition, as strikebreakers, or as an unskilled labor reserve that kept wages low. As such, the Federation often opposed women 's employment entirely. When it did organize women workers, most often it did so to protect men 's jobs and earning power and not to improve the conditions, lives, or wages of women workers. In response, most women workers remained outside the labor movement. In 1900, only 3.3 % of working women were organized into unions. In 1910, even as the AFL surged forward in membership, the number had dipped to 1.5 %. And while it improved to 6.6 % over the next decade, women remained mostly outside of unions and practically invisible inside of them into the mid-1920s.
Attitudes gradually changed within the AFL due to the pressure of organized female workers. Female - domination began to emerge in the first two decades of the 20th century, including particularly the International Ladies Garment Workers ' Union. Women organized independent locals among New York hat makers, in the Chicago stockyards, and among Jewish and Italian waist makers, to name only three examples. Through the efforts of middle class reformers and activists, often of the Women 's Trade Union League, these unions joined the AFL.
Donkey Mothers
From the beginning, unions affiliated with the AFL found themselves in conflict when both unions claimed jurisdiction over the same groups of workers: both the Brewers and Teamsters claimed to represent beer truck drivers, both the Machinists and the International Typographical Union claimed to represent certain printroom employees, and the Machinists and a fledgling union known as the "Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union '' sought to organize the same employees -- even though neither union had made any effort to organize or bargain for those employees. In some cases the AFL mediated the dispute, usually favoring the larger or more influential union. The AFL often reversed its jurisdictional rulings over time, as the continuing jurisdictional battles between the Brewers and the Teamsters showed. In other cases the AFL expelled the offending union, as it did in 1913 in the case of the Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union (which quickly disappeared).
These jurisdictional disputes were most frequent in the building trades, where a number of different unions might claim the right to have work assigned to their members. The craft unions in this industry organized their own department within the AFL in 1908, despite the reservations of Gompers and other leaders about creation of a separate body within the AFL that might function as a federation within a federation. While those fears were partly borne out in practice, as the Building Trades Department did acquire a great deal of practical power gained through resolving jurisdictional disputes between affiliates, the danger that it might serve as the basis for schism never materialized.
Affiliates within the AFL formed "departments '' to help resolve these jurisdictional conflicts and to provide a more effective voice for member unions in given industries. The Metal Trades Department engaged in some organizing of its own, primarily in shipbuilding, where unions such as the Pipefitters, Machinists and Iron Workers joined together through local metal workers ' councils to represent a diverse group of workers. The Railway Employees Department dealt with both jurisdictional disputes between affiliates and pursued a common legislative agenda for all of them. Even that sort of structure did not prevent AFL unions from finding themselves in conflict on political issues. For example, the International Seamen 's Union opposed passage of a law applying to workers engaged in interstate transport that railway unions supported. The AFL bridged these differences on an ad hoc basis.
The AFL made efforts in its early years to assist its affiliates in organizing: it advanced funds or provided organizers or, in some cases, such as the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the Teamsters and the American Federation of Musicians, helped form the union. The AFL also used its influence (including refusal of charters or expulsion) to heal splits within affiliated unions, to force separate unions seeking to represent the same or closely related jurisdictions to merge, or to mediate disputes between rival factions where both sides claimed to represent the leadership of an affiliated union. The AFL also chartered "federal unions '' -- local unions not affiliated with any international union -- in those fields in which no affiliate claimed jurisdiction.
The AFL also encouraged the formation of local labor bodies (known as central labor councils) in major metropolitan areas in which all of the affiliates could participate. These local labor councils acquired a great deal of influence in some cases. For example, the Chicago Federation of Labor spearheaded efforts to organize packinghouse and steel workers during and immediately after World War I. Local building trades councils also became powerful in some areas. In San Francisco, the local Building Trades Council, led by Carpenters official P.H. McCarthy, not only dominated the local labor council but helped elect McCarthy mayor of San Francisco in 1909. In a very few cases early in the AFL 's history, state and local bodies defied AFL policy or chose to disaffiliate over policy disputes.
Though Gompers had contact with socialists and such as AFL co-founder Peter J. McGuire, the AFL adopted a philosophy of "business unionism '' that emphasized unions ' contribution to businesses ' profits and national economic growth. The business unionist approach also focused on skilled workers ' immediate job - related interests, while refusing to "rush to the support of any one of the numerous society - saving or society destroying schemes '' involved in larger political issues. This approach was set by Gompers, who was influenced by a fellow cigar maker (and former socialist) Ferdinand Laurrel. Despite his socialist contacts, Gompers himself was not a socialist.
In some respects the AFL leadership took a pragmatic view toward politicians, following Gompers ' slogan to "reward your friends and punish your enemies '' without regard to party affiliation. Over time, after repeated disappointments with the failure of labor 's legislative efforts to protect workers ' rights, which the courts had struck down as unconstitutional, Gompers became almost anti-political, opposing some forms of protective legislation, such as limitations on working hours, because they would detract from the efforts of unions to obtain those same benefits through collective bargaining.
Employers discovered the efficacy of labor injunctions, first used with great effect by the Cleveland administration during the Pullman Strike in 1894. While the AFL sought to outlaw "yellow dog contracts, '' to limit the courts ' power to impose "government by injunction '' and to obtain exemption from the antitrust laws that were being used to criminalize labor organizing, the courts reversed what few legislative successes the labor movement won.
The AFL concentrated its political efforts during the last decades of the Gompers administration on securing freedom from state control of unions -- in particular an end to the court 's use of labor injunctions to block the right to organize or strike and the application of the anti-trust laws to criminalize labor 's use of pickets, boycotts and strikes. The AFL thought that it had achieved the latter with the passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act in 1914 -- which Gompers referred to as "Labor 's Magna Carta ''. But in Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering, 254 U.S. 443 (1921), the United States Supreme Court narrowly read the Act and codified the federal courts ' existing power to issue injunctions rather than limit it. The court read the phrase "between an employer and employees '' (contained in the first paragraph of the Act) to refer only to cases involving an employer and its own employees, leaving the courts free to punish unions for engaging in sympathy strikes or secondary boycotts.
The AFL 's pessimistic attitude towards politics did not, on the other hand, prevent affiliated unions from pursuing their own agendas. Construction unions supported legislation that governed entry of contractors into the industry and protected workers ' rights to pay, rail and mass production industries sought workplace safety legislation, and unions generally agitated for the passage of workers ' compensation statutes.
At the same time, the AFL took efforts on behalf of women in supporting protective legislation. It advocated fewer hours for women workers, and based its arguments on assumptions of female weakness. Like efforts to unionize, most support for protective legislation for women came out of a desire to protect men 's jobs. If women 's hours could be limited, reasoned AFL officials, they would infringe less on male employment and earning potential. But the AFL also took more selfless efforts. Even from the 1890s, the AFL declared itself vigorously in favor of women 's suffrage. It often printed pro-suffrage articles in its periodical, and in 1918, it supported the National Union of Women 's Suffrage.
The AFL relaxed its rigid stand against legislation after the death of Gompers. Even so, it remained cautious. Its proposals for unemployment benefits (made in the late 1920s) were too modest to have practical value, as the Great Depression soon showed. The impetus for the major federal labor laws of the 1930s came from the New Deal. The enormous growth in union membership came after Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 and National Labor Relations Act in 1935. The AFL refused to sanction or participate in the mass strikes led by John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers and other left unions such as the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America. After the AFL expelled the CIO in 1936, the CIO undertook a major organizing effort. The AFL responded with its own massive organizing drive that kept its membership totals 50 percent higher than the CIO 's.
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who founded the philosophical school known as analytic philosophy | Analytic philosophy - wikipedia
Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a style of philosophy that became dominant in the Western world at the beginning of the 20th century. The term can refer to one of several things:
According to a characteristic paragraph by Russell:
Modern analytical empiricism (...) differs from that of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume by its incorporation of mathematics and its development of a powerful logical technique. It is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than of philosophy. It has the advantage, in comparison with the philosophies of the system - builders, of being able to tackle its problems one at a time, instead of having to invent at one stroke a block theory of the whole universe. Its methods, in this respect, resemble those of science.
In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Scandinavia, the majority of university philosophy departments today identify themselves as "analytic '' departments. Analytic philosophy is often understood in contrast to other philosophical traditions, most notably continental philosophies such as existentialism and phenomenology, and also Thomism and Marxism.
British idealism, as taught by philosophers such as F.H. Bradley (1846 -- 1924) and Thomas Hill Green (1836 -- 1882), dominated English philosophy in the late 19th century. With reference to this intellectual basis the initiators of analytic philosophy, G.E. Moore and Bertrand Russell, articulated early analytic philosophy.
Since its beginning, a basic goal of analytic philosophy has been conceptual clarity, in the name of which Moore and Russell rejected Hegelianism for being obscure -- see for example Moore 's "A Defence of Common Sense '' and Russell 's critique of the doctrine of internal relations. Inspired by developments in modern logic, the early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions. An important aspect of British idealism was logical holism -- the opinion that there are aspects of the world that can be known only by knowing the whole world. This is closely related to the opinion that relations between items are internal relations, that is, properties of the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgenstein, in response promulgated logical atomism and the doctrine of external relations -- the belief that the world consists of independent facts.
Russell, during his early career, along with his collaborator Alfred North Whitehead, was much influenced by Gottlob Frege (1848 -- 1925), who developed predicate logic, which allowed a much greater range of sentences to be parsed into logical form than was possible using the ancient Aristotelian logic. Frege was also influential as a philosopher of mathematics in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. In contrast to Edmund Husserl 's 1891 book Philosophie der Arithmetik, which argued that the concept of the cardinal number derived from psychical acts of grouping objects and counting them, Frege argued that mathematics and logic have their own validity, independent of the judgments or mental states of individual mathematicians and logicians (which were the basis of arithmetic according to the "psychologism '' of Husserl 's Philosophie). Frege further developed his philosophy of logic and mathematics in The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884) and The Basic Laws of Arithmetic (German: Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, 1893 -- 1903), where he provided an alternative to psychologistic accounts of the concept of number.
Like Frege, Russell argued that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals in The Principles of Mathematics (1903). Later, his book written with Whitehead, Principia Mathematica (1910 -- 1913), encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of symbolic logic. Additionally, Russell adopted Frege 's predicate logic as his primary philosophical method, a method Russell thought could expose the underlying structure of philosophical problems. For example, the English word "is '' has three distinct meanings which predicate logic can express as follows:
Russell sought to resolve various philosophical problems by applying such logical distinctions, most famously in his analysis of definite descriptions in "On Denoting '' (1905).
From about 1910 to 1930, analytic philosophers like Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein emphasized creating an ideal language for philosophical analysis, which would be free from the ambiguities of ordinary language that, in their opinion, often made philosophy invalid. This philosophical trend can be termed "ideal - language analysis '' or "formalism ''. During this phase, Russell and Wittgenstein sought to understand language (and hence philosophical problems) by using formal logic to formalize the way in which philosophical statements are made. Wittgenstein developed a comprehensive system of logical atomism in his Tractatus Logico - Philosophicus (German: Logisch - Philosophische Abhandlung, 1921). He thereby argued that the universe is the totality of actual states of affairs and that these states of affairs can be expressed by the language of first - order predicate logic. Thus a picture of the universe can be construed by means of expressing atomic facts in the form of atomic propositions, and linking them using logical operators.
During the late 1920s, to 1940s, a group of philosophers of the Vienna Circle and the Berlin Circle developed Russell and Wittgenstein 's formalism into a doctrine known as "logical positivism '' (or logical empiricism). Logical positivism used formal logical methods to develop an empiricist account of knowledge. Philosophers such as Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach, along with other members of the Vienna Circle, claimed that the truths of logic and mathematics were tautologies, and those of science were verifiable empirical claims. These two constituted the entire universe of meaningful judgments; anything else was nonsense. The claims of ethics, aesthetics and theology were consequently reduced to pseudo-statements, neither empirically true nor false, and therefore meaningless. In reaction to what he considered excesses of logical positivism, Karl Popper 's insisted on the role of falsification in the philosophy of science -- although his general method was also part of the analytic tradition. With the coming to power of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1933, many members of the Vienna and Berlin Circles fled to Britain and America, which helped to reinforce the dominance of logical positivism and analytic philosophy in Anglophone countries.
Logical positivists typically considered philosophy as having a very limited function. For them, philosophy concerned the clarification of thoughts, rather than having a distinct subject matter of its own. The positivists adopted the verification principle, according to which every meaningful statement is either analytic or is capable of being verified by experience. This caused the logical positivists to reject many traditional problems of philosophy, especially those of metaphysics or ontology, as meaningless.
After World War II, during the late 1940s and 1950s, analytic philosophy became involved with ordinary - language analysis. This resulted in two main trends. One continued Wittgenstein 's later philosophy, which differed dramatically from his early work of the Tractatus. The other, known as "Oxford philosophy '', involved J.L. Austin. In contrast to earlier analytic philosophers (including the early Wittgenstein) who thought philosophers should avoid the deceptive trappings of natural language by constructing ideal languages, ordinary - language philosophers claimed that ordinary language already represents many subtle distinctions not recognized in the formulation of traditional philosophical theories or problems. While schools such as logical positivism emphasize logical terms, supposed to be universal and separate from contingent factors (such as culture, language, historical conditions), ordinary - language philosophy emphasizes the use of language by ordinary people. The most prominent ordinary - language philosophers during the 1950s were Austin and Gilbert Ryle.
Ordinary - language philosophers often sought to dissolve philosophical problems by showing them to be the result of misunderstanding ordinary language. Examples include Ryle, who tried to dispose of "Descartes ' myth '', and Wittgenstein.
Although contemporary philosophers who self - identify as "analytic '' have widely divergent interests, assumptions, and methods -- and have often rejected the fundamental premises that defined analytic philosophy before 1960 -- analytic philosophy today is usually considered to be defined by a particular style, characterized by precision and thoroughness about a specific topic, and resistance to "imprecise or cavalier discussions of broad topics ''.
During the 1950s, logical positivism was challenged influentially by Wittgenstein in the Philosophical Investigations, Quine in "Two Dogmas of Empiricism '', and Sellars in Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind. After 1960, Anglophone philosophy began to incorporate a wider range of interests, opinions, and methods. Still, many philosophers in Britain and America still consider themselves "analytic philosophers ''. They have done so largely by expanding the notion of "analytic philosophy '' from the specific programs that dominated Anglophone philosophy before 1960 to a much more general notion of an "analytic '' style. This interpretation of the history is far from universally accepted, and its opponents would say that it grossly downplays the role of Wittgenstein during the 1960s and 1970s.
Many philosophers and historians have attempted to define or describe analytic philosophy. Those definitions often include an emphasis on conceptual analysis: A.P. Martinich draws an analogy between analytic philosophy 's interest in conceptual analysis and analytic chemistry, which aims to determine chemical compositions. Steven D. Hales described analytic philosophy as one of three types of philosophical method practiced in the West: "(i) n roughly reverse order by number of proponents, they are phenomenology, ideological philosophy, and analytic philosophy ''.
Scott Soames agrees that clarity is important: analytic philosophy, he says, has "an implicit commitment -- albeit faltering and imperfect -- to the ideals of clarity, rigor and argumentation '' and it "aims at truth and knowledge, as opposed to moral or spiritual improvement (...) the goal in analytic philosophy is to discover what is true, not to provide a useful recipe for living one 's life ''. Soames also states that analytic philosophy is characterised by "a more piecemeal approach. There is, I think, a widespread presumption within the tradition that it is often possible to make philosophical progress by intensively investigating a small, circumscribed range of philosophical issues while holding broader, systematic questions in abeyance ''.
A few of the most important and active topics and subtopics of analytic philosophy are summarized by the following sections.
Motivated by the logical positivists ' interest in verificationism, logical behaviorism was the most prominent theory of mind of analytic philosophy for the first half of the 20th century. Behaviorists tended to opine either that statements about the mind were equivalent to statements about behavior and dispositions to behave in particular ways or that mental states were directly equivalent to behavior and dispositions to behave. Behaviorism later became much less popular, in favor of type physicalism or functionalism, theories that identified mental states with brain states. During this period, topics of the philosophy of mind were often related strongly to topics of cognitive science such as modularity or innateness. Finally, analytic philosophy has featured a certain number of philosophers who were dualists, and recently forms of property dualism have had a resurgence; the most prominent representative is David Chalmers.
John Searle suggests that the obsession with the philosophy of language during the 20th century has been superseded by an emphasis on the philosophy of mind, in which functionalism is currently the dominant theory. In recent years, a central focus of research in the philosophy of mind has been consciousness. While there is a general consensus for the global neuronal workspace model of consciousness, there are many opinions as to the specifics. The best known theories are Daniel Dennett 's heterophenomenology, Fred Dretske and Michael Tye 's representationalism, and the higher - order theories of either David M. Rosenthal -- who advocates a higher - order thought (HOT) model -- - or David Armstrong and William Lycan -- who advocate a higher - order perception (HOP) model. An alternative higher - order theory, the higher - order global states (HOGS) model, is offered by Robert van Gulick.
Philosophers working with the analytic tradition have gradually come to distinguish three major types of moral philosophy.
The first half of the 20th century was marked by skepticism toward, and neglect of, normative ethics. Related subjects, such as social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and philosophy of history, became only marginal topics of English - language philosophy during this period.
During this time, utilitarianism was the only non-skeptical type of ethics to remain popular. However, as the influence of logical positivism began to decrease mid-century, analytic philosophers had renewed interest in ethics. G.E.M. Anscombe 's 1958 "Modern Moral Philosophy '' sparked a revival of Aristotle 's virtue ethical approach and John Rawls 's 1971 A Theory of Justice restored interest in Kantian ethical philosophy. Today, contemporary normative ethics is dominated by three schools: utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and deontology.
Twentieth - century meta - ethics has two origins. The first is G.E. Moore 's investigation into the nature of ethical terms (e.g., good) in his Principia Ethica (1903), which identified the naturalistic fallacy. Along with Hume 's famous is / ought distinction, the naturalistic fallacy was a major topic of investigation for analytical philosophers.
The second is in logical positivism and its attitude that statements which are unverifiable are meaningless. Although that attitude was adopted originally to promote scientific investigation by rejecting grand metaphysical systems, it had the side effect of making (ethical and aesthetic) value judgments (as well as religious statements and beliefs) meaningless. But because value judgments are of major importance in human life, it became incumbent on logical positivism to develop an explanation of the nature and meaning of value judgements. As a result, analytic philosophers avoided normative ethics, and instead began meta - ethical investigations into the nature of moral terms, statements, and judgments.
The logical positivists opined that statements about value -- - including all ethical and aesthetic judgments -- - are non-cognitive; that is, they can not be objectively verified or falsified. Instead, the logical positivists adopted an emotivist theory, which was that value judgments expressed the attitude of the speaker. For example, in this view, saying, "Killing is wrong '', is equivalent to saying, "Boo to murder '', or saying the word "murder '' with a particular tone of disapproval.
While non-cognitivism was generally accepted by analytic philosophers, emotivism had many deficiencies, and evolved into more sophisticated non-cognitivist theories such as the expressivism of Charles Stevenson, and the universal prescriptivism of R.M. Hare, which was based on J.L. Austin 's philosophy of speech acts.
These theories were not without their critics. Philippa Foot contributed several essays attacking all these theories. J.O. Urmson 's article "On Grading '' called the is / ought distinction into question.
As non-cognitivism, the is / ought distinction, and the naturalistic fallacy began to be called into question, analytic philosophers showed a renewed interest in the traditional questions of moral philosophy. Perhaps the most influential being Elizabeth Anscombe, whose monograph Intention was called by Donald Davidson "the most important treatment of action since Aristotle ''. A favorite student and friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein, her 1958 article "Modern Moral Philosophy '' introduced the term "consequentialism '' into the philosophical lexicon, declared the "is - ought '' impasse to be unproductive, and resulted in a revival of virtue ethics.
A significant feature of analytic philosophy since approximately 1970 has been the emergence of applied ethics -- - an interest in the application of moral principles to specific practical issues.
Topics of special interest for applied ethics include environmental issues, animal rights, and the many challenges created by advancing medical science.
In Analytic Philosophy of Religion, Harris noted that
analytic philosophy has been a very heterogeneous ' movement '... some forms of analytic philosophy have proven very sympathetic to the philosophy of religion and have actually provided a philosophical mechanism for responding to other more radical and hostile forms of analytic philosophy.
As with the study of ethics, early analytic philosophy tended to avoid the study of philosophy of religion, largely dismissing (as per the logical positivists) the subject as part of metaphysics and therefore meaningless. The demise of logical positivism renewed interest in philosophy of religion, prompting philosophers like William Alston, John Mackie, Alvin Plantinga, Robert Merrihew Adams, Richard Swinburne, and Antony Flew not only to introduce new problems, but to re-study classical topics such as the nature of miracles, theistic arguments, the problem of evil, (see existence of God) the rationality of belief in God, concepts of the nature of God, and many more.
Plantinga, Mackie and Flew debated the logical validity of the free will defense as a way to solve the problem of evil. Alston, grappling with the consequences of analytic philosophy of language, worked on the nature of religious language. Adams worked on the relationship of faith and morality. Analytic epistemology and metaphysics has formed the basis for a number of philosophically - sophisticated theistic arguments, like those of the reformed epistemologists like Plantinga.
Analytic philosophy of religion has also been preoccupied with Wittgenstein, as well as his interpretation of Søren Kierkegaard 's philosophy of religion. Using first - hand remarks (which was later published in Philosophical Investigations, Culture and Value, and other works), philosophers such as Peter Winch and Norman Malcolm developed what has come to be known as contemplative philosophy, a Wittgensteinian school of thought rooted in the "Swansea tradition, '' and which includes Wittgensteinians such as Rush Rhees, Peter Winch, and D.Z. Phillips, among others. The name "contemplative philosophy '' was first coined by D.Z. Phillips in Philosophy 's Cool Place, which rests on an interpretation of a passage from Wittgenstein 's "Culture and Value. '' This interpretation was first labeled, "Wittgensteinian Fideism, '' by Kai Nielsen but those who consider themselves Wittgensteinians in the Swansea tradition have relentlessly and repeatedly rejected this construal as a caricature of Wittgenstein 's considered position; this is especially true of D.Z. Phillips. Responding to this interpretation, Kai Nielsen and D.Z. Phillips became two of the most prominent philosophers on Wittgenstein 's philosophy of religion.
Current analytic political philosophy owes much to John Rawls, who in a series of papers from the 1950s onward (most notably "Two Concepts of Rules '' and "Justice as Fairness '') and his 1971 book A Theory of Justice, produced a sophisticated defence of a generally liberal egalitarian account of distributive justice. This was followed soon by Rawls 's colleague Robert Nozick 's book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, a defence of free - market libertarianism. Isaiah Berlin also had a lasting influence on both analytic political philosophy and Liberalism with his lecture the Two Concepts of Liberty.
During recent decades there have also been several critiques of liberalism, including the feminist critiques of Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, the communitarian critiques of Michael Sandel and Alasdair MacIntyre (although neither of them endorses the term), and the multiculturalist critiques of Amy Gutmann and Charles Taylor. Although not an analytic philosopher, Jürgen Habermas is another important -- - if controversial -- - author of contemporary analytic political philosophy, whose social theory is a blend of social science, Marxism, neo-Kantianism, and American pragmatism.
Consequentialist libertarianism also derives from the analytic tradition.
Another development of political philosophy was the emergence of the school of Analytical Marxism. Members of this school seek to apply techniques of analytic philosophy modern social science such as rational choice theory to clarify the theories of Karl Marx and his successors. The best - known member of this school is G.A. Cohen, whose 1978 work, Karl Marx 's Theory of History: A Defence, is generally considered to represent the genesis of this school. In that book, Cohen used logical and linguistic analysis to clarify and defend Marx 's materialist conception of history. Other prominent Analytical Marxists include the economist John Roemer, the social scientist Jon Elster, and the sociologist Erik Olin Wright. The work of these later philosophers have furthered Cohen 's work by bringing to bear modern social science methods, such as rational choice theory, to supplement Cohen 's use of analytic philosophical techniques in the interpretation of Marxian theory.
Cohen himself would later engage directly with Rawlsian political philosophy to advance a socialist theory of justice that contrast with both traditional Marxism and the theories advanced by Rawls and Nozick. In particular, he indicates Marx 's principle of from each according to his ability, to each according to his need.
Communitarians such as Alasdair MacIntyre, Charles Taylor, Michael Walzer, and Michael Sandel advance a critique of Liberalism that uses analytic techniques to isolate the main assumptions of Liberal individualists, such as Rawls, and then challenges these assumptions. In particular, Communitarians challenge the Liberal assumption that the individual can be considered as fully autonomous from the community in which he lives and is brought up. Instead, they argue for a conception of the individual that emphasizes the role that the community plays in forming his or her values, thought processes and opinions.
One striking difference with respect to early analytic philosophy was the revival of metaphysical theorizing during the second half of the 20th century. Philosophers such as David Kellogg Lewis and David Armstrong developed elaborate theories on a range of topics such as universals, causation, possibility and necessity, and abstract objects.
Among the developments that resulted in the revival of metaphysical theorizing were Quine 's attack on the analytic - synthetic distinction, which was generally considered to weaken Carnap 's distinction between existence questions internal to a framework and those external to it. Important also for the revival of metaphysics was the further development of modal logic, including the work of Saul Kripke, who argued in Naming and Necessity and elsewhere for the existence of essences and the possibility of necessary, a posteriori truths.
Metaphysics remains a fertile topic of research, having recovered from the attacks of A.J. Ayer and the logical positivists. Although many discussions are continuations of old ones from previous decades and centuries, the debate remains active. The philosophy of fiction, the problem of empty names, and the debate over existence 's status as a property have all become major concerns, while perennial issues such as free will, possible worlds, and the philosophy of time have been revived.
Science has also had an increasingly significant role in metaphysics. The theory of special relativity has had a profound effect on the philosophy of time, and quantum physics is routinely discussed in the free will debate. The weight given to scientific evidence is largely due to widespread commitments among philosophers to scientific realism and naturalism.
Philosophy of language is a topic that has decreased during the last four decades, as evidenced by the fact that few major philosophers today treat it as a primary research topic. Indeed, while the debate remains fierce, it is still strongly influenced by those authors from the first half of the century: Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, J.L. Austin, Alfred Tarski, and W.V.O. Quine.
In Saul Kripke 's publication Naming and Necessity, he argued influentially that flaws in common theories of proper names are indicative of larger misunderstandings of the metaphysics of necessity and possibility. By wedding the techniques of modal logic to a causal theory of reference, Kripke was widely regarded as reviving theories of essence and identity as respectable topics of philosophical discussion.
Another influential philosopher, Pavel Tichý initiated Transparent Intensional Logic, an original theory of the logical analysis of natural languages -- the theory is devoted to the problem of saying exactly what it is that we learn, know and can communicate when we come to understand what a sentence means.
Reacting against both the verificationism of the logical positivists as well as the critiques of the philosopher of science Karl Popper, who had suggested the falsifiability criterion on which to judge the demarcation between science and non-science, discussions of philosophy of science during the last 40 years were dominated by social constructivist and cognitive relativist theories of science. Thomas Samuel Kuhn with his formulation of paradigm shifts and Paul Feyerabend with his epistemological anarchism are significant for these discussions. The philosophy of biology has also undergone considerable growth, particularly due to the considerable debate in recent years over the nature of evolution, particularly natural selection. Daniel Dennett and his 1995 book Darwin 's Dangerous Idea, which defends Neo-Darwinism, stand at the foreground of this debate.
Owing largely to Gettier 's 1963 paper "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge? '', epistemology resurged as a topic of analytic philosophy during the last 50 years. A large portion of current epistemological research is intended to resolve the problems that Gettier 's examples presented to the traditional justified true belief model of knowledge, including developing theories of justification in order to deal with Gettier 's examples, or giving alternatives to the justified true belief model. Other and related topics of contemporary research include debates between internalism and externalism, basic knowledge, the nature of evidence, the value of knowledge, epistemic luck, virtue epistemology, the role of intuitions in justification, and treating knowledge as a primitive concept.
As a result of attacks on the traditional aesthetic notions of beauty and sublimity from post-modern thinkers, analytic philosophers were slow to consider art and aesthetic judgment. Susanne Langer and Nelson Goodman addressed these problems in an analytic style during the 1950s and 1960s. Since Goodman, aesthetics as a discipline for analytic philosophers has flourished. Rigorous efforts to pursue analyses of traditional aesthetic concepts were performed by Guy Sircello in the 1970s and 1980s, resulting in new analytic theories of love, sublimity, and beauty.
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who hit a homerun and scored a touchdown in the same week | Deion Sanders - wikipedia
Deion Luywnn Sanders Sr. (/ ˈdiːɒn /; born August 9, 1967), nicknamed "Primetime '', is a former American football and baseball player who works as an analyst for CBS Sports and the NFL Network. He is currently the offensive coordinator at Trinity Christian - Cedar Hill high school where his sons go to school. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2011.
Sanders played football primarily at cornerback, but also as a kick returner, punt returner, and occasionally wide receiver. He played in the National Football League (NFL) for the Atlanta Falcons, the San Francisco 49ers, the Dallas Cowboys, the Washington Redskins and the Baltimore Ravens, winning the Super Bowl with both the 49ers and the Cowboys. An outfielder in baseball, he played professionally for the New York Yankees, the Atlanta Braves, the Cincinnati Reds and the San Francisco Giants, and participated in the 1992 World Series with the Braves. He attended Florida State University, where he was recognized as a two - time All - American in football, and also played baseball and ran track.
Sanders founded the Prime Prep Academy charter school in 2012 and has coached at the school. The school was closed January 30, 2015, due to financial insolvency. In 2014, he debuted his new show, the Deion Family Playbook.
Sanders was born in Fort Myers, Florida. He attended North Fort Myers High School in North Fort Myers, and was a letterman and All - State honoree in football, basketball and baseball. In 1985, Sanders was named to the Florida High School Association All - Century Team which selected the top 33 players in the 100 - year history of high school football in the state.
The Kansas City Royals selected Sanders out of North Fort Myers High School in the sixth round of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft. He did not sign with the Royals.
Sanders enrolled at Florida State University and played three sports for the Florida State Seminoles: football, baseball, and track. Beginning his freshman year, he started in the Seminoles ' secondary, played outfield for the baseball team that finished fifth in the nation, and helped lead the track and field team to a conference championship.
Under head coach Bobby Bowden, Sanders was a two - time consensus All - American cornerback in 1987 and 1988, and a third team All - American in 1986, intercepting 14 passes in his career, including three in bowl games, and managed to return one interception 100 yards for a touchdown breaking Fred Biletnikoff 's interception return record by one yard. He won the Jim Thorpe Award in 1988. He was also a standout punt returner for Florida State, leading the nation in 1988 with his punt return average, and breaking the school 's record for career punt return yards. Sanders made an interception with 5 seconds left to seal Florida State 's 13 - 7 win over Auburn in the 1989 Sugar Bowl, during the 1988 postseason. Based on those accolades, his jersey at Florida State, # 2, was retired in 1995. He finished his career with 126 punt returns for 1,429 yards. Bowden would later state that Sanders was his "measuring stick for athletic ability ''.
While playing baseball under head coach Mike Martin at Florida State, Sanders hit. 331 in 1986; he was known more for base stealing, compiling 27 stolen bases in 1987.
Sanders once played the first game of a baseball doubleheader, ran a leg of a 4 × 100 relay, then returned to play another baseball game.
Sanders played a nine - year, part - time baseball career, playing left and center field in 641 games with 4 teams. He was originally drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the 6th round of the 1985 draft, but did not sign with them. The New York Yankees selected Sanders in the 30th round of the 1988 Major League Baseball draft, and he signed with the team on June 22. He opened the 1989 season with the Albany - Colonie Yankees of the Class AA Eastern League. Though he planned to leave the Yankees in July to attend NFL training camp, he became embroiled in a contract dispute with the Falcons, and used the Yankees as leverage. He received a promotion to the major leagues, and spent the summer with the Columbus Clippers of the Class AAA International League. He made his major league baseball debut on May 31, 1989.
Sanders made the Yankees ' Opening Day roster for the 1990 season. On May 22, 1990, Sanders became involved in a dispute with Chicago White Sox ' catcher Carlton Fisk. Sanders started by stepping up to the plate with one out and a runner on third, drawing a dollar sign in the dirt before the pitch and then failed to run to first base after hitting a routine pop fly to shortstop, trotting back to the dugout instead. The Yankee fans booed, and Fisk told Sanders to "run the fucking ball out '' and called Sanders a "piece of shit. '' Later in the game, Sanders told Fisk that "the days of slavery are over. '' Fisk was furious. "He comes up and wants to make it a racial issue, there 's no racial issue involved. There is a right way and a wrong way to play this game. ''
By mid-July, Sanders expressed that he was unsure if he would remain with the Yankees or report to NFL training camp for the upcoming NFL season. He requested a $1 million salary for the 1991 season, and the Yankees ended negotiations on a contract extension with Sanders. He left the team, finishing the 1990 season with a. 158 batting average and three home runs in 57 games. In September 1990, the Yankees placed Sanders on waivers with the intention of giving him his release, as Yankees ' general manager Gene Michael said that Sanders ' football career was stunting his baseball development.
Sanders later signed with the Atlanta Braves for the 1991 MLB season. On July 31, Sanders hit a key three - run homer to spark a comeback win against the Pittsburgh Pirates during the Braves ' run to the National League West Division title. However, he had to leave the Braves the very next day to report to the Atlanta Falcons because of a clause in his NFL contract and missed the postseason. Before the 1992 season, Sanders reworked his NFL deal whereby he still reported to the Falcons for training camp in August, but was allowed to rejoin the Braves for the postseason.
During his most productive year in the majors, the 1992 season, he hit. 304 for the team, stole 26 bases, and led the NL with 14 triples in 97 games. During the 1989 season, he hit a major league home run and scored a touchdown in the NFL in the same week, the only player ever to do so. Sanders is also the only man to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series.
In four games of the 1992 World Series, Sanders batted. 533 with 4 runs, 8 hits, 2 doubles, and 1 RBI while playing with a broken bone in his foot. Despite Sanders 's performance, the Braves ultimately lost to the Toronto Blue Jays in six games. In Game 3, he narrowly avoided being a victim of what would have been only the second triple play in World Series history (following Bill Wambsganss 's unassisted triple play in 1920). With Sanders on second base and Terry Pendleton on first, David Justice hit a deep fly ball to center field that Blue Jays center fielder Devon White unexpectedly caught with a leaping effort. Pendleton passed Sanders on the bases for the second out, but umpire Bob Davidson called Sanders safe after he scampered back to second base. Replays showed that Toronto third baseman Kelly Gruber tagged him on the heel before he returned to second.
In 1997, Sanders finished 2nd in the NL with 56 stolen bases in 115 games while with the Cincinnati Reds before leaving baseball for three years.
Sanders returned to the Reds in 2001, but was released after playing in only 29 games and batting just. 173. Following his release from the Reds he signed a minor league contract with the Toronto Blue Jays triple - A affiliate, Syracuse Chiefs. Sanders was hitting. 252 for Syracuse before the Washington Redskins found a loophole in his contract which compelled him to return to the Redskins. His football contract had been negotiated to allow for Sanders to play both baseball and football, but the terms of the contract stated that Sanders could miss NFL training camp and the first few games of the season only if he were playing Major League Baseball. Since he was not then on an MLB roster, Sanders had to leave Syracuse and return to the Redskins so he would not violate his NFL contract. But before arriving at training camp, Sanders informed Redskins personnel he was retiring from professional baseball. In his final professional baseball game, Sanders hit a solo home run and an RBI single in Syracuse 's 12 - 6 win over the Toledo Mud Hens. As those in MLB and the NFL urged Sanders to concentrate on only one sport, he would often explain, "football is my wife and baseball is my mistress. ''
At the 1989 NFL Scouting Combine, Sanders ran a 4.27 second 40 - yard dash. He was the fifth pick overall in the 1989 NFL Draft by the Atlanta Falcons, where he played until 1993. Despite fumbling (and recovering) his first NFL punt (which was re-kicked on a penalty), Sanders ran for a touchdown on his second attempt of his first game. During his time in Atlanta, he intercepted 24 passes (including a career - high 7 in 1993), three of which he returned for touchdowns. In 1992, he also led the league in kickoff return yards (1,067), yards per return (26.7) and return touchdowns (2). On October 11, 1992, Sanders played in a Falcons game in Miami and then flew to Pittsburgh, hoping to play in the Braves ' League Championship Series game against the Pirates that evening and become the first athlete to play in two professional leagues in the same day. Sanders ultimately did not, however, appear in the baseball game that night. Over his five years with the Falcons, Sanders scored ten touchdowns (three defensive, three kick returns, two punt returns, and two receptions).
After five seasons Sanders signed on to play the 1994 season with the San Francisco 49ers, where he had arguably his best season as a professional football player, recording six interceptions and returning them for an NFL best and a then - NFL record 303 yards and three touchdowns. Two of his interceptions were returned for a gain of at least 90 yards, making him the first player to do this in NFL history. On October 16, 1994, Sanders made his dramatic return to the Georgia Dome in a 49er uniform. After getting into a scuffle with his former Falcon teammate Andre Rison, Sanders intercepted a pass from quarterback Jeff George and returned it 93 yards while mockingly staring down the entire Falcons sideline before high - stepping into the end zone. Sanders was later voted the 1994 NFL Defensive Player of the Year and recorded an interception in the 49ers 49 -- 26 victory over the San Diego Chargers in Super Bowl XXIX, earning him his first championship ring.
Following his successful season with the 49ers, Sanders, along with his agent Eugene Parker, courted numerous teams in need of a cornerback. The several teams in the "Deion Sweepstakes '', as it was called by the media, were the Philadelphia Eagles, Oakland Raiders, Miami Dolphins, New Orleans Saints, San Francisco 49ers and the Dallas Cowboys, who had lost their starting cornerback Kevin Smith to injury for the rest of the season.
On September 9, 1995 (which fell in Week 2 of that NFL season), Sanders signed a lucrative contract with the Dallas Cowboys (seven years, $35 million with a $12.999 million signing bonus, because owner Jerry Jones was superstitious of the number 13), essentially making him, at the time, the highest - paid defensive player in the NFL. Sanders later stated in his book Power, Money & Sex: How Success Almost Ruined My Life that the Oakland Raiders offered him more money than any other team, but he chose to play in Dallas for more time on the offensive side of the ball, a chance to win back - to - back Super Bowls, and because of his friendship with Cowboys wide receiver Michael Irvin. Arthroscopic surgery kept him sidelined until his debut in Week 9, which was once again in Atlanta against the Falcons; the Cowboys won, 28 - 13. He went on to help the Cowboys win their third title in four years in Super Bowl XXX against the Pittsburgh Steelers, where he returned a punt for 11 yards and caught a 47 - yard reception on offense, setting up Dallas ' first touchdown of the game and a 27 -- 17 victory. Sanders played four more seasons with Dallas, earning Pro Bowl selection in all of them. On June 2, 2000, he was released in a salary cap move.
Soon after being released by the Cowboys, the Washington Redskins and Daniel Snyder signed Sanders to a hefty $56 million, 7 - year contract. At the end of the 2000 season and an above - average statistical year, Sanders abruptly retired after only playing one year with the Redskins.
In 2004, Sanders announced that he was going to end his retirement, after being lured back to football by Ravens cornerback Corey Fuller, linebacker Ray Lewis and best friend Joe Zorovich. A major reason for doing so was to play with Ray Lewis. He signed a 1 - year deal with the Baltimore Ravens to be a nickelback. Sanders chose to wear the number 37, which matched his age at the time, to preemptively let people know that he was well aware of his relative senior status as an NFL player (additionally, the number 21, used by Sanders throughout his career, was already being worn by Ravens Pro Bowl cornerback Chris McAlister). Against the Buffalo Bills in Week 7 of 2004, Sanders scored his ninth career interception return touchdown, moving him into a tie for second place with Ken Houston and Aeneas Williams, and behind Rod Woodson (with 12) for all - time in the statistical category.
In January 2006, after playing two seasons as a corner and safety for Baltimore in which the Ravens did not qualify for the postseason, Sanders once again retired from the NFL and became an analyst for the NFL Network.
During his 14 - year NFL career, Sanders was a perennial All - Pro and one of the strongest pass defenders ever. He was known for being a relatively poor tackler and he was not much of a factor in run support.
Sanders also occasionally lined up with his team 's offense. During the 1996 season, Sanders skipped the baseball season, concentrating on football, and attended the first NFL training camp of his career to better familiarize himself with the nuances of the wide receiver position. He became only the second two - way starter (after the Cardinals ' Roy Green) in the NFL since Chuck Bednarik for the first half of the season due.
Sanders is the only man to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series, to hit an MLB home run and score an NFL touchdown in the same week, and to have both a reception and an interception in the Super Bowl. He is one of two players to score an NFL touchdown six different ways.
During his career, Sanders intercepted 53 passes for 1,331 yards (a 25.1 yards per return average), recovered four fumbles for 15 yards, returned 155 kickoffs for 3,523 yards, gained 2,199 yards on 212 punt returns, and caught 60 passes for 784 yards. Sanders amassed 7,838 all - purpose yards and scored 22 touchdowns: nine interception returns, six punt returns, three kickoff returns, three receiving, and one fumble recovery. His 19 defensive and return touchdowns was an NFL record (now held by Devin Hester with 20 return touchdowns). In the postseason, Sanders added 5 more interceptions, as well as 3 receptions for 95 yards, 4 carries for 39 yards, and two touchdowns (one rushing and one receiving). He was selected to eight Pro Bowls and won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award in 1994.
Sanders also had a rushing TD in the playoffs (against the Philadelphia Eagles in January 1996). This makes him (including post season) one of only two players in NFL history (Bill Dudley being the other) to score a touchdown six different ways (interception return, punt return, kickoff return, receiving, rushing, and a fumble recovery).
On February 6, 2011, at Super Bowl XLV in Arlington, Texas, Sanders performed the pre-game coin toss.
Sanders did not attend classes or take final exams during the fall semester of his senior year at Florida State, yet played in the Sugar Bowl against Auburn. This caused the Florida State Legislature to create the ' Deion Sanders rule ', whereby a football athlete at any state university could not play in a bowl game if he failed to successfully complete the previous semester.
In 1995, he signed with the Dallas Cowboys for a minimum yearly base salary and a nearly $13 million signing bonus in an attempt to circumvent the NFL 's salary cap. This caused the NFL to institute its own ' Deion Sanders rule ' whereby a prorated portion of a player 's signing bonus counted against the salary cap.
Sanders became known for sporting a "do - rag '' or bandana and for his high - stepping into the end zone followed by his touchdown dance celebrations. At the end of his Hall of Fame speech, he put a bandana on his bust.
His "Prime Time '' nickname was given to him by a friend and high - school teammate, Florida Gators defensive back Richard Fain. The two played pickup basketball games together during the prime time television hour, and Sanders ' athletic display during those games earned him the nickname. His other nickname is "Neon Deion ''.
Following his first Super Bowl victory with the San Francisco 49ers, Sanders hosted Saturday Night Live, broadcast on February 18, 1995.
In January 1995, Sanders became the official spokesman of the Sega Sports line of video games. Sanders has also appeared in television commercials for such companies as Nike, Pepsi, Burger King, Pizza Hut, and American Express. These included a Road Runner Pepsi ad, with Sanders as Wile E. Coyote, and a Pizza Hut commercial in which he appeared with Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones. He also makes a cameo as himself in the film Celtic Pride.
Sanders, known for his custom - made showy suits and flashy jewelry, frequently capitalized on his image. On December 26, 1994, Sanders released Prime Time, a rap album on Bust It Records (MC Hammer 's label, of whom Sanders is a friend) that featured the singles "Must Be the Money '' and "Prime Time Keeps on Tickin ' ''. The album was universally panned by critics, and despite Sanders ' fame, neither the album nor its singles charted in the Top 40.
Sanders also appeared in Hammer 's "Too Legit to Quit '' music video, and his alter - ego "Prime Time '' showed up in Hammer 's "Pumps and a Bump '' video. Hammer, a big sports fan, had launched a new enterprise during his career called Roll Wit It Entertainment & Sports Management and boasted such clients as Evander Holyfield, Deion Sanders and Reggie Brooks. In 1995, Hammer released "Straight to My Feet '' (with Deion Sanders) from the Street Fighter soundtrack (released in December 1994). The song charted # 57 in the UK.
After retiring from the NFL, Sanders worked as a pre-game commentator for CBS ' The NFL Today until 2004, when contract negotiations failed. Sanders turned down a 30 % salary increase demanding to be paid $2.5 million, the highest of any NFL TV analyst. He was replaced by Shannon Sharpe. During Sanders ' run, he participated in several sketches. The first was "Primetime and 21st '', a mock street corner where Sanders (not yet a regular panelist) would give his opinions. Another was his "Sanders Claus '' persona, one of numerous sketches that involved young kids in football jerseys, representing NFL players, receiving a sarcastic gift from Sanders. Deion actually debuted as "Sanders Claus '' in a set of Nike commercials. Sanders still takes presents at Christmas time to local children 's hospitals in his area dressed as "Sanders Claus ''.
Sanders frequently made guest appearances on ESPN, especially on the ESPN Radio Dallas affiliate, and briefly hosted a show called The New American Sportsman. He also hosted the 2002 Miss USA pageant.
Sanders also was co-host of the 2004 GMA Music Awards broadcast, taped in late April 2004, and slated for air on UPN in May 2004. When negotiations with fellow Viacom property CBS failed (see above) two weeks before the broadcast, and he signed a deal with ESPN, UPN promptly canceled the broadcast, and the show aired on the i Network in December 2004 (both UPN and CBS are now owned by CBS Corporation).
Sanders works at NFL Network as an analyst on a number of the network 's shows. Prior to the Sunday night game, Sanders, alongside host Rich Eisen and Steve Mariucci, breaks down all the action from the afternoon games on NFL GameDay. At the conclusion of all the action on Sunday, Sanders, Mariucci, Michael Irvin and host Fran Charles recap the day 's action with highlights, analysis and postgame interviews. For the 2010 season, Sanders joined Eisen, Mariucci and Marshall Faulk on the road for Thursday Night Kickoff presented by Lexus, NFL Network 's two - hour pregame show leading into Thursday Night Football. The group broadcasts live from the stadium two hours prior to all eight live Thursday Night Football games and returns for the Sprint halftime show and Kay Jewelers postgame show. Sanders also has a segment called "Let 's Go Primetime '' on NFL Network.
In 2008, Sanders and his wife starred in the reality show Deion & Pilar: Prime Time Love, centering on them and their five children living in the small town of Prosper, Texas.
Sanders appeared as himself in the fourth season of The League, playing a prospective buyer of Andre 's apartment.
In 2014, Sanders was featured in an episode of Running Wild with Bear Grylls, where he and Grylls hiked in the desert of southern Utah for two days, rappelling down canyon walls and later climbing up a mesa.
Sanders served as an alumni captain for Team Sanders in the 2014 Pro Bowl.
In 2014, he rejoined CBS Sports as a studio analyst for Thursday games only. He still works for the NFL Network on Sundays.
Sanders and his girlfriend Tracey Edmonds were featured together on an episode of Tiny House Nation that first aired on January 21, 2017.
In addition to his sports career, Sanders also had a career in music as a rapper. He released his debut album, Prime Time, through Hammer 's Bust It Records label via Capitol Records, in 1994.
Sanders moved on to other ventures after his retirement. In 2003, Sanders took interest in Devin Hester, a return specialist from Miami. Sanders mentored Hester, counseling and advising him during various points of his collegiate career. The Chicago Bears drafted Hester in the second round of the 2006 NFL Draft. Since then, Hester has broken the record for the most total returns for touchdowns in NFL history with 15 punt returns and 5 kick off returns. Hester has cited Sanders as one of his major inspirations and idols, and thanked him for his training and advice. Hester, also known as "Anytime '', occasionally performs Sanders ' signature touchdown dance and high - steps in homage to his mentor.
Sanders also tried to adopt a high school running back, Noel Devine, who was one of the top recruits in 2007. Sanders was advised against this, but responded, "He does n't have parents; they died. God put this young man in my heart. This is not about sports. This is about a kid 's life. '' He now mentors Devine, and was a factor in Devine 's extended wait to sign a letter - of - intent to West Virginia University. Devine eventually signed to play football for the Mountaineers. Sanders has also been a mentor to Oakland Raiders wide receiver Michael Crabtree, as well as Dallas Cowboys wide receiver, Dez Bryant.
In January 2004, Sanders was hired as an assistant coach to the Dallas Fury, a women 's professional basketball team in the National Women 's Basketball League, even though Sanders had never played organized basketball either in college or the professional level.
On September 2, 2005, in response to the after - effects of Hurricane Katrina, Sanders challenged all professional athletes in the four major sports to donate $1,000 each to relief efforts, hoping to raise between $1.5 and $3 million total. Sanders said "Through unity, we can touch thousands... I have friends and relatives that feel this pain. Help in any way you can. '' In April 2006, Sanders became an owner of the Austin Wranglers, an Arena Football League team.
Sanders has occasionally served as a celebrity spokesperson, such as representing Monitronics, a security system firm, at an industry conference in the spring of 2010.
In 2012, he co-founded Prime Prep Academy, a grouping of charter schools in Texas. The school was plagued by ethical, legal, and financial issues, and closed on January 30, 2015, due to financial insolvency.
Sanders has been married twice -- to Carolyn Chambers (1989 -- 1998), with whom he has two children (Deion Jr. and Deiondra), and Pilar Biggers - Sanders (1999 -- 2013) with whom he has three children (Shilo, Shelomi Golenzer and Shedeur).
Sanders, along with J.M. Black, published his autobiography, Power, Money & Sex: How Success Almost Ruined My Life. World Publishing 1998. The book was inspired after he began counseling with Bishop T.D. Jakes. He notes his agent Eugene E. Parker as another person who influenced his life.
He appeared with his family on the NBC show Celebrity Family Feud which premiered on June 24, 2008.
On September 22, 2011, he served Pilar Biggers - Sanders with divorce papers. He then backed away from the story and denied he and Pilar would be divorcing. By December 17, 2011, he had followed through with filing for divorce. On March 12, 2013, he was awarded primary custody of his two sons, Shilo and Shedeur, and Pilar was awarded primary custody of their daughter Shelomi. However, one week later, a judge awarded custody of Shelomi to him as well. During the divorce battle, Pilar made several accusations of abuse against him on social media and in interviews, leading him to file a Defamation of Character lawsuit against her. In 2015, he seemed to have won when the court awarded him a $2.2 million judgment against his ex-wife in the case. However, in August, 2017, on appeal the case went against him.
Sanders is presented as a devout Christian speaker with a fee range of $30,001 - $50,000. He has been in a relationship with Tracey Edmonds since 2012.
Sanders has made an effort to coach at several different stops. His first being with the charter school Prime Prep Academy in 2012 which he helped found, but was later fired as the coach after a school staffer alleged Sanders assaulted the staffer. Sanders denied the claim and the charter school later shut down in 2015 due to financial mismanagement. In 2015, Sanders was named the CEO of FOCUS Academies and granted the head coaching position at the Triple A Academy where Sanders led them to face his alma mater North Fort Myers high school in Florida and featured a key matchup between several ranked recruits.. On August 17, 2017 it was announced by CBS Sports that Deion Sanders would be switching coaching positions at a new high school to become the offensive coordinator at Trinity Christian - Cedar Hill high school in Cedar Hill, Texas. The move was significant for Sanders as both his sons play at the high school. Sanders will serve on the staff as offensive coordinator under former Dallas Cowboy Aveion Cason.
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where is niagara falls located in the usa | Niagara Falls - wikipedia
Niagara Falls is the collective name for three waterfalls that straddle the international border between the Canadian province of Ontario and the American state of New York. They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge.
From largest to smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls. The Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the United States ' side, separated by Goat Island. The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the United States ' side, separated from the American Falls by Luna Island.
Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, the combined falls form the highest flow rate of any waterfall in North America that has a vertical drop of more than 165 feet (50 m). During peak daytime tourist hours, more than six million cubic feet (168,000 m) of water goes over the crest of the falls every minute. Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by flow rate.
The falls are 17 miles (27 km) north - northwest of Buffalo, New York, and 75 miles (121 km) south - southeast of Toronto, between the twin cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, New York. Niagara Falls was formed when glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation (the last ice age), and water from the newly formed Great Lakes carved a path through the Niagara Escarpment en route to the Atlantic Ocean.
Niagara Falls is famed both for its beauty and as a valuable source of hydroelectric power. Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century.
The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet (57 m), while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet (21 and 30 m) because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet (790 m) wide, while the American Falls are 1,060 feet (320 m) wide. The distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet (1,039 m).
The peak flow over Horseshoe Falls was recorded at 225,000 cubic feet (6,400 m) per second. The average annual flow rate is 85,000 cubic feet (2,400 m) per second. Since the flow is a direct function of the Lake Erie water elevation, it typically peaks in late spring or early summer. During the summer months, at least 100,000 cubic feet (2,800 m) per second of water traverses the falls, some 90 % of which goes over the Horseshoe Falls, while the balance is diverted to hydroelectric facilities. This is accomplished by employing a weir -- the International Control Dam -- with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The falls ' flow is further halved at night, and, during the low tourist season in the winter, remains a minimum of 50,000 cubic feet (1,400 m) per second. Water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control (IJC).
The verdant green colour of the water flowing over the Niagara Falls is a byproduct of the estimated 60 tonnes / minute of dissolved salts and "rock flour '' (very finely ground rock) generated by the erosive force of the Niagara River itself.
The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago. The same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by a continental ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes, and damming others with debris. Scientists argue there is an old valley, St David 's Buried Gorge, buried by glacial drift, at the approximate location of the present Welland Canal.
When the ice melted, the upper Great Lakes emptied into the Niagara River, which followed the rearranged topography across the Niagara Escarpment. In time, the river cut a gorge through the north - facing cliff, or cuesta. Because of the interactions of three major rock formations, the rocky bed did not erode evenly. The top rock formation was composed of erosion - resistant limestone and Lockport dolostone. That hard layer of stone eroded more slowly than the underlying materials. The aerial photo on the right clearly shows the hard caprock, the Lockport Formation (Middle Silurian), which underlies the rapids above the falls, and approximately the upper third of the high gorge wall.
Immediately below the hard - rock formation, comprising about two thirds of the cliff, lay the weaker, softer, sloping Rochester Formation (Lower Silurian). This formation was composed mainly of shale, though it has some thin limestone layers. It also contains ancient fossils. In time, the river eroded the soft layer that supported the hard layers, undercutting the hard caprock, which gave way in great chunks. This process repeated countless times, eventually carving out the falls.
Submerged in the river in the lower valley, hidden from view, is the Queenston Formation (Upper Ordovician), which is composed of shales and fine sandstones. All three formations were laid down in an ancient sea, their differences of character deriving from changing conditions within that sea.
About 10,900 years ago, the Niagara Falls was between present - day Queenston, Ontario, and Lewiston, New York, but erosion of their crest has caused the waterfalls to retreat approximately 6.8 miles (10.9 km) southward. The Horseshoe Falls, which are approximately 2,600 feet (790 m) wide, have also changed their shape through the process of erosion; evolving from a small arch, to a horseshoe bend, to the present day gigantic V. Just upstream from the falls ' current location, Goat Island splits the course of the Niagara River, resulting in the separation of the mostly Canadian Horseshoe Falls to the west from the American and Bridal Veil Falls to the east. Engineering has slowed erosion and recession.
The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot (0.30 m) per year, down from a historical average of 3 feet (0.91 m) per year. According to the timeline of the far future, in roughly 50,000 years Niagara Falls will have eroded away the remaining 20 miles (32 km) to Lake Erie and ceased to exist.
Theories differ as to the origin of the name of the falls. According to Iroquoian scholar Bruce Trigger, Niagara is derived from the name given to a branch of the local native Neutral Confederacy, who are described as being called the Niagagarega people on several late - 17th - century French maps of the area. According to George R. Stewart, it comes from the name of an Iroquois town called Onguiaahra, meaning "point of land cut in two ''.
Henry Schoolcraft reported:
Niagara Falls. This name is Mohawk. It means, according to Mrs. Kerr, the neck; the term being first applied to the portage or neck of land, between lakes Erie and Ontario. By referring to Mr. Elliott 's vocabulary, (chapter xi) it will be seen that the human neck, that is, according to the concrete vocabulary, his neck, is onyara. Red Jacket pronounced the word Niagara to me, in the spring of 1820, as if written O - ne - au - ga - rah.
A number of figures have been suggested as first circulating a European eyewitness description of Niagara Falls. The Frenchman Samuel de Champlain visited the area as early as 1604 during his exploration of Canada, and members of his party reported to him the spectacular waterfalls, which he described in his journals. The Finnish - Swedish naturalist Pehr Kalm explored the area in the early 18th century and is credited with the first scientific description of the falls. The consensus honoree for the first description is the Belgian missionary Louis Hennepin, who observed and described the falls in 1677, earlier than Kalm, after traveling with the explorer René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, thus bringing the falls to the attention of Europeans. Further complicating matters, there is credible evidence the French Jesuit missionary Paul Ragueneau visited the falls some 35 years before Hennepin 's visit, while working among the Huron First Nation in Canada. Jean de Brébeuf also may have visited the falls, while spending time with the Neutral Nation.
In 1762, Captain Thomas Davies, a British Army officer and artist, surveyed the area and painted the watercolor, An East View of the Great Cataract of Niagara, the first eyewitness painting of the falls.
During the 19th century, tourism became popular, and by mid-century, it was the area 's main industry. Theodosia Burr Alston (daughter of Vice President Aaron Burr) and her husband Joseph Alston were the first recorded couple to honeymoon there in 1801. Napoleon Bonaparte 's brother Jérôme visited with his bride in the early 19th century.
In 1837 during the Caroline affair, a rebel supply ship, the Caroline, was burned and sent over the falls. In March 1848, ice blockage caused the falls to stop; no water (or at best a trickle) fell for as much as 40 hours. Waterwheels stopped, mills and factories shut down for having no power.
Later that year, demand for passage over the Niagara River led to the building of a footbridge and then Charles Ellet 's Niagara Suspension Bridge. This was supplanted by German - born John Augustus Roebling 's Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge in 1855. After the American Civil War, the New York Central Railroad publicized Niagara Falls as a focus of pleasure and honeymoon visits. With increased railroad traffic, in 1886, Leffert Buck replaced Roebling 's wood and stone bridge with the predominantly steel bridge that still carries trains over the Niagara River today. The first steel archway bridge near the falls was completed in 1897. Known today as the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge, it carries passenger vehicles and trains between Canada (through Canadian Customs Border Control) and the U.S.A. just downstream of the falls.
In about 1840, the English industrial chemist Hugh Lee Pattinson travelled to Canada, stopping at the Niagara Falls long enough to make the earliest known photograph of the falls, a daguerreotype in the collection of Newcastle University. It was once believed that the small figure standing silhouetted with a top hat was added by an engraver working from imagination as well as the daguerreotype as his source, but the figure is clearly present in the photograph. Because of the very long exposure required, of ten minutes or more, the figure is assumed by Canada 's Niagara Parks agency to be Pattinson himself. The image is left - right inverted, and taken from the Canadian side. Pattinson made other photographs of the Horseshoe Falls as well as of Rome and Paris. These were then transferred to engravings to illustrate Noël Marie Paymal Lerebours ' Excursions Daguerriennes (Paris, 1841 -- 1864).
After the First World War, tourism boomed again, as automobiles made getting to the falls much easier. The story of Niagara Falls in the 20th century is largely that of efforts to harness the energy of the falls for hydroelectric power, and to control the development on both sides that threaten the area 's natural beauty.
In 1941, the Niagara Falls Bridge Commission completed the third current crossing in the immediate area of Niagara Falls with the Rainbow Bridge, carrying both pedestrian and vehicular traffic between the two countries and Canadian and U.S. customs for each country.
A team from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers created a dam on the American Falls in June 1969 to clear rock from the base of the falls. Rock slides caused a significant buildup of rock at the bottom of the American side of the falls, and the engineers were to clean up the rock and repair some faults to prevent eventual erosion of the American side of the waterfall. A temporary dam was built to divert the flow of water to the Canadian side; the dam measured 600 ft (180 m) across and was made of nearly 30,000 tons of rock. The engineers cleared the rock debris and tested for safety, finishing the project in November of that year. Water flow was restored on November 25, 1969.
Before the late 20th century, the northeastern end of the Horseshoe Falls was in the United States, flowing around the Terrapin Rocks, which were once connected to Goat Island by a series of bridges. In 1955, the area between the rocks and Goat Island was filled in, creating Terrapin Point. In the early 1980s, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers filled in more land and built diversion dams and retaining walls to force the water away from Terrapin Point. Altogether, 400 ft (120 m) of the Horseshoe Falls were eliminated, including 100 ft (30 m) on the Canadian side. According to author Ginger Strand, the Horseshoe Falls is now entirely in Canada. Other sources say "most of '' Horseshoe Falls is in Canada.
The only recorded freeze up of the river and falls was due to an ice jam on March 29, 1848. Although the falls commonly ices up most winters, the river and the falls do not freeze completely. The years 1885, 1902, 1906, 1911, 1932, 1936, 2014 and 2017 are noted for the falls icing up. In 1912, much of the water coming over the American Falls froze, though a trickle still ran and the falls ran at the other two sites.
The enormous energy of Niagara Falls has long been recognized as a potential source of power. The first known effort to harness the waters was in 1759, when Daniel Joncaire built a small canal above the falls to power his sawmill. Augustus and Peter Porter purchased this area and all of American Falls in 1805 from the New York state government, and enlarged the original canal to provide hydraulic power for their gristmill and tannery. In 1853, the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Mining Company was chartered, which eventually constructed the canals that would be used to generate electricity. In 1881, under the leadership of Jacob F. Schoellkopf, the Niagara River 's first hydroelectric generating station was built. The water fell 86 feet (26 m) and generated direct current electricity, which ran the machinery of local mills and lit up some of the village streets.
The Niagara Falls Power Company, a descendant of Schoellkopf 's firm, formed the Cataract Company headed by Edward Dean Adams, with the intent of expanding Niagara Falls ' power capacity. In 1890, a five - member International Niagara Commission headed by Sir William Thomson among other distinguished scientists deliberated on the expansion of Niagara hydroelectric capacity based on seventeen proposals, but could not select any as the best combined project for hydraulic development and distribution. In 1893, Westinghouse Electric (which had built the smaller - scale Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant near Ophir, Colorado, two years earlier) was hired to design a system to generate alternating current on Niagara Falls, and three years after that this large - scale AC power system was created (activated on August 26, 1895). The Adams Power Plant Transformer House remains as a landmark of the original system.
By 1896, financing from moguls including J.P. Morgan, John Jacob Astor IV, and the Vanderbilts had fueled the construction of giant underground conduits leading to turbines generating upwards of 100,000 horsepower (75 MW), sent as far as Buffalo, 20 miles (32 km) away. Some of the original designs for the power transmission plants were created by the Swiss firm Faesch & Piccard, which also constructed the original 5,000 hp waterwheels.
Private companies on the Canadian side also began to harness the energy of the falls. The Government of Ontario eventually brought power transmission operations under public control in 1906, distributing Niagara 's energy to various parts of the Canadian province.
Other hydropower plants were also being built along the Niagara River. But in 1956, disaster struck when the region 's largest hydropower station was partially destroyed in a landslide. This drastically reduced power production and put tens of thousands of manufacturing jobs at stake. In 1957, Congress passed the Niagara Redevelopment Act, which granted the New York Power Authority the right to fully develop the United States ' share of the Niagara River 's hydroelectric potential.
In 1961, when the Niagara Falls hydroelectric project went online, it was the largest hydropower facility in the Western world. Today, Niagara is still the largest electricity producer in New York state, with a generating capacity of 2.4 gigawatts (million kilowatts). Up to 375,000 U.S. gallons (1,420 m) of water a second is diverted from the Niagara River through conduits under the city of Niagara Falls to the Lewiston and Robert Moses power plants. Currently between 50 % and 75 % of the Niagara River 's flow is diverted via four huge tunnels that arise far upstream from the waterfalls. The water then passes through hydroelectric turbines that supply power to nearby areas of Canada and the United States before returning to the river well past the falls. This water spins turbines that power generators, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. When electricity demand is low, the Lewiston units can operate as pumps to transport water from the lower bay back up to the plant 's reservoir, allowing this water to be used again during the daytime when electricity use peaks. During peak electrical demand, the same Lewiston pumps are reversed and actually become generators, similar to those at the Moses plant.
To preserve Niagara Falls ' natural beauty, a 1950 treaty signed by the U.S. and Canada limited water usage by the power plants. The treaty allows higher summertime diversion at night when tourists are fewer and during the winter months when there are even fewer tourists. This treaty, designed to ensure an "unbroken curtain of water '' flowing over the falls, states that during daylight time during the tourist season (April 1 to October 31) there must be 100,000 cubic feet per second (2,800 m / s) of water flowing over the falls, and during the night and off - tourist season there must be 50,000 cubic feet per second (1,400 m / s) of water flowing over the falls. This treaty is monitored by the International Niagara Board of Control, using a NOAA gauging station above the falls. During winter, the Power Authority of New York works with Ontario Power Generation to prevent ice on the Niagara River from interfering with power production or causing flooding of shoreline property. One of their joint efforts is an 8,800 - foot - long (2,700 m) ice boom, which prevents the buildup of ice, yet allows water to continue flowing downstream. In addition to minimum water volume, the crest of the Horseshoe falls was reduced to maintain an uninterrupted "curtain of water. ''
The most powerful hydroelectric stations on the Niagara River are the Sir Adam Beck 1 and 2 on the Canadian side and the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant and the Lewiston Pump Generating Plant on the American side. Together, Niagara 's generating stations can produce about 4.4 gigawatts of power.
In August 2005 Ontario Power Generation, which is responsible for the Sir Adam Beck stations, started a major civil engineering project, called the Niagara Tunnel Project, to increase power production by building a new 12.7 - metre (42 ft) diameter, 10.2 - kilometre - long (6.3 mi) water diversion tunnel. It was officially placed into service in March 2013, helping to increase the generating complex 's nameplate capacity by 150 megawatts. It did so by tapping water from farther up the Niagara River than was possible with the preexisting arrangement. The tunnel provided new hydroelectricity for approximately 160,000 homes.
Ships can bypass Niagara Falls by means of the Welland Canal, which was improved and incorporated into the Saint Lawrence Seaway in the mid-1950s. While the seaway diverted water traffic from nearby Buffalo and led to the demise of its steel and grain mills, other industries in the Niagara River valley flourished with the help of the electric power produced by the river. However, since the 1970s the region has declined economically.
The cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, and Niagara Falls, New York, United States, are connected by two international bridges. The Rainbow Bridge, just downriver from the falls, affords the closest view of the falls and is open to non-commercial vehicle traffic and pedestrians. The Whirlpool Rapids Bridge lies one mile (1.6 km) north of the Rainbow Bridge and is the oldest bridge over the Niagara River. Nearby Niagara Falls International Airport and Buffalo Niagara International Airport were named after the waterfall, as were Niagara University, countless local businesses, and even an asteroid.
Niagara Falls have long been a source of inspiration for explorers, travelers, artists, authors, filmmakers, residents and visitors, few of whom realize the falls were nearly devoted solely to industrial and commercial use. In the 1870s, sightseers had limited access to Niagara Falls and often had to pay for a glimpse, and industrialization threatened to carve up Goat Island to further expand commercial development. Other industrial encroachments and lack of public access led to a conservation movement in the U.S. known as Free Niagara, led by such notables as Hudson River School artist Frederic Edwin Church, landscape designer Frederick Law Olmsted, and architect Henry Hobson Richardson. Church approached Lord Dufferin, governor - general of Canada, with a proposal for international discussions on the establishment of a public park.
Goat Island was one of the inspirations for the American side of the effort. William Dorsheimer, moved by the scene from the island, brought Olmsted to Buffalo in 1868 to design a city park system and helped promote Olmsted 's career. In 1879, the New York state legislature commissioned Olmsted and James T. Gardner to survey the falls and to create the single most important document in the Niagara preservation movement, a Special Report on the preservation of Niagara Falls. The report advocated for State purchase, restoration and preservation through public ownership of the scenic lands surrounding Niagara Falls. Restoring the former beauty of the falls was described in the report as a "sacred obligation to mankind. '' In 1883, New York Governor Grover Cleveland drafted legislation authorizing acquisition of lands for a state reservation at Niagara, and the Niagara Falls Association, a private citizens group founded in 1882, mounted a great letter - writing campaign and petition drive in support of the park. Professor Charles Eliot Norton and Olmsted were among the leaders of the public campaign, while New York Governor Alonzo Cornell opposed.
Preservationists ' efforts were rewarded on April 30, 1885, when Governor David B. Hill signed legislation creating the Niagara Reservation, New York 's first state park. New York State began to purchase land from developers, under the charter of the Niagara Reservation State Park. In the same year, the province of Ontario established the Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park for the same purpose. On the Canadian side, the Niagara Parks Commission governs land usage along the entire course of the Niagara River, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.
In 1887, Olmsted and Calvert Vaux issued a supplemental report detailing plans to restore the falls. Their intent was "to restore and conserve the natural surroundings of the Falls of Niagara, rather than to attempt to add anything thereto, '' and the report anticipated fundamental questions. How would preservationists provide access without destroying the beauty of the falls? How would they restore natural landscapes damaged by man? They planned a park with scenic roadways, paths and a few shelters designed to protect the landscape while allowing large numbers of visitors to enjoy the falls. Commemorative statues, shops, restaurants, and a 1959 glass and metal observation tower were added later. Preservationists continue to strive to strike a balance between Olmsted 's idyllic vision and the realities of administering a popular scenic attraction.
Preservation efforts continued well into the 20th century. J. Horace McFarland, the Sierra Club, and the Appalachian Mountain Club persuaded the United States Congress in 1906 to enact legislation to preserve the falls by regulating the waters of the Niagara River. The act sought, in cooperation with the Canadian government, to restrict diversion of water, and a treaty resulted in 1909 that limited the total amount of water diverted from the falls by both nations to approximately 56,000 cubic feet (1,600 m) per second. That limitation remained in effect until 1950.
Erosion control efforts have always been of extreme importance. Underwater weirs redirect the most damaging currents, and the top of the falls has also been strengthened. In June 1969, the Niagara River was completely diverted from the American Falls for several months through construction of a temporary rock and earth dam (clearly visible in the photo at right). During this time, two bodies were removed from under the falls, including a man who had been seen jumping over the falls, and the body of a woman, which was discovered once the falls dried.
While the Horseshoe Falls absorbed the extra flow, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers studied the riverbed and mechanically bolted and strengthened any faults they found; faults that would, if left untreated, have hastened the retreat of the American Falls. A plan to remove the huge mound of talus deposited in 1954 was abandoned owing to cost, and in November 1969, the temporary dam was dynamited, restoring flow to the American Falls. Even after these undertakings, Luna Island, the small piece of land between the main waterfall and the Bridal Veil, remained off limits to the public for years owing to fears that it was unstable and could collapse into the gorge.
Commercial interests have continued to encroach on the land surrounding the state park, including the construction of several tall buildings (most of them hotels) on the Canadian side. The result is a significant alteration and urbanisation of the landscape. One study indicated it has caused the airflow near the falls to change direction. Students at the University of Guelph demonstrated, using scale models, that as air passes over the top of the new hotels it causes a breeze to roll down the south sides of the buildings and spill into the gorge below the falls, where it feeds into a whirlpool of moisture and air. The inference was that a documented rise in the number of "mist days '' was a result of these breezes, where mist days refers to the mist plume of the falls reaching landside. In 1996 there were 29 mist days recorded, but by 2003 that number had risen to 68. Another study has discounted this opinion and linked mist production to the difference in air and water temperature at the falls. However, this study does not offer opinion as to why mist days have been increasing, just that the hotel breezes are an unlikely cause.
In 2013, New York State began an effort to renovate The Sisters Islands located on Goat Island. New York State used funds from the re-licensing of the New York Power Authority hydroelectric plant downriver in Lewiston, New York, to rebuild walking paths on the Three Sisters Islands and to plant native vegetation on the islands. The state also renovated the area around Prospect Point at the brink of the American Falls in the state park.
In October 1829, Sam Patch, who called himself "the Yankee Leapster '', jumped from a high tower into the gorge below the falls and survived; this began a long tradition of daredevils trying to go over the falls.
On October 24, 1901, 63 - year - old Michigan school teacher Annie Edson Taylor became the first person to go over the falls in a barrel as a publicity stunt; she survived, bleeding, but otherwise unharmed. Soon after exiting the barrel, she said, "No one ought ever do that again. '' Before Taylor 's attempt, on October 19 her domestic cat named Iagara was sent over the Horseshoe Falls in her barrel to test its strength. Contrary to rumours at the time, the cat survived the plunge unharmed and later posed with Taylor in photographs. Since Taylor 's historic ride, 14 people have intentionally gone over the falls in or on a device, despite her advice. Some have survived unharmed, but others have drowned or been severely injured. Survivors face charges and stiff fines, as it is illegal, on both sides of the border, to attempt to go over the falls.
In 1918, there was a near disaster when a barge, known locally as the Niagara Scow, working upriver broke its tow, and almost plunged over the falls. Fortunately, the two workers on board saved themselves by grounding the vessel on rocks just short of the falls, where it has remained ever since.
Englishman Captain Matthew Webb, the first man to swim the English Channel, drowned in 1883 trying to swim the rapids downriver from the falls.
In the "Miracle at Niagara '', Roger Woodward, a seven - year - old American boy, was swept over the Horseshoe Falls protected only by a life vest on July 9, 1960, as two tourists pulled his 17 - year - old sister Deanne from the river only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the lip of the Horseshoe Falls at Goat Island. Minutes later, Woodward was plucked from the roiling plunge pool beneath the Horseshoe Falls after grabbing a life ring thrown to him by the crew of the Maid of the Mist boat.
On July 2, 1984, Canadian Karel Soucek from Hamilton, Ontario, plunged over the Horseshoe Falls in a barrel with only minor injuries. Soucek was fined $500 for performing the stunt without a license. In 1985, he was fatally injured while attempting to re-create the Niagara drop at the Houston Astrodome. His aim was to climb into a barrel hoisted to the rafters of the Astrodome and to drop 180 feet (55 m) into a water tank on the floor. After his barrel released prematurely, it hit the side of the tank and he died the next day from his injuries.
In August 1985, Steve Trotter, an aspiring stuntman from Rhode Island, became the youngest person ever (age 22) and the first American in 25 years to go over the falls in a barrel. Ten years later, Trotter went over the falls again, becoming the second person to go over the falls twice and survive. It was also the second - ever "duo ''; Lori Martin joined Trotter for the barrel ride over the falls. They survived the fall but their barrel became stuck at the bottom of the falls, requiring a rescue.
On September 28, 1989, Niagara natives Peter DeBernardi (age 42) and Jeffery James Petkovich (age 25) became the first "team '' to make it over the falls in a two - person barrel. The stunt was conceived by DeBenardi, who wanted to discourage youth from following in his path of addictive drug use. The pair emerged shortly after going over with minor injuries and were charged with performing an illegal stunt under the Niagara Parks Act.
On June 5, 1990, Jesse Sharp, a whitewater canoeist from Tennessee paddled over the falls in a closed deck canoe. He neglected to wear a helmet to make his face more visible for photographs of the event. He also did not wear a life vest because he believed it would hinder his escape from the hydraulics at the base of the falls. His boat flushed out of the falls, but his body was never found.
On September 27, 1993, John "David '' Munday, of Caistor Centre, Ontario, completed his second journey over the falls.
On October 1, 1995, Robert Douglas "Firecracker '' Overacker went over the falls on a Jet Ski to raise awareness for the homeless. His rocket - propelled parachute failed to open and he plunged to his death. Overacker 's body was recovered before he was pronounced dead at Niagara General Hospital.
Kirk Jones of Canton, Michigan, became the first known person to survive a plunge over the Horseshoe Falls without a flotation device on October 20, 2003. Though Jones had attempted to commit suicide, he survived the 16 - story fall with only battered ribs, scrapes, and bruises. Jones died in another attempt to go over the falls in an inflatable ball in 2017.
A second person survived an unprotected trip over the Horseshoe Falls on March 11, 2009, and when rescued from the river, was reported to be suffering from severe hypothermia and a large wound to his head. His identity has not been released. Eyewitnesses reported seeing the man intentionally enter the water.
On May 21, 2012, an unidentified man in his early 40s became the third person to survive an unprotected trip over the Horseshoe Falls. Eyewitness reports show he "deliberately jumped '' into the Niagara River after climbing over a railing.
Other daredevils have made crossing the gorge their goal, starting with the successful passage by Jean François "Blondin '' Gravelet, who crossed Niagara Gorge in 1859. Between 1859 and 1896 a wire - walking craze emerged, resulting in frequent feats over the river below the falls. One inexperienced walker slid down his safety rope. Only one man fell to his death, at night and under mysterious circumstances, at the anchoring place for his wire.
These tightrope walkers drew huge crowds to witness their exploits. Their wires ran across the gorge, near the current Rainbow Bridge, not over the waterfall itself. Among the many was Ontario 's William Hunt, who billed himself as "The Great Farini '' and competed with Blondin in performing outrageous stunts over the gorge. On three occasions Blondin carried his manager, Harry Colcord, on his back -- on the final time being watched by the Prince of Wales.
In 1876, 23 - year - old Italian Maria Spelterini was the only woman ever to cross the Niagara Gorge on a tightrope, making four crossings over 18 days. On July 12, she crossed wearing peach baskets strapped to her feet, on July 19 blind - folded, on July 22 with her ankles and wrists manacled and finally on July 26. Tightrope crossings of the falls ended -- by law -- in 1896, when James Hardy crossed.
On June 15, 2012, high wire artist Nik Wallenda became the first person to walk across the falls in 116 years, after receiving special permission from both governments. The full length of his tightrope was 1,800 feet (550 m). Wallenda crossed near the brink of the Horseshoe Falls, unlike walkers who had crossed farther downstream. According to Wallenda, it was the longest unsupported tightrope walk in history. He carried his passport on the trip and was required to present it upon arrival on the Canadian side of the falls.
Already a huge tourist attraction and favorite spot for honeymooners, Niagara Falls visits rose sharply in 1953 after the release of Niagara, a movie starring Marilyn Monroe and Joseph Cotten. In 1956, the Woody Woodpecker series released the episode Niagara Fools. The 1974 ABC Movie of the Week, The Great Niagara, featuring Richard Boone and Randy Quaid and filmed on location, told the story of a family of daredevils who challenged the falls. The falls was a featured location in the 1980 movie Superman II, and was itself the subject of a popular IMAX movie, Niagara: Miracles, Myths and Magic. Much of the episode "Return of the Technodrome '' in the 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles cartoon series takes place near the Niagara Falls and its hydroelectric plant. Illusionist David Copperfield performed a trick in which he appeared to travel over the Horseshoe Falls in 1990.
The falls, or more particularly, the tourist - supported complex near the falls, was the setting of the short - lived Canadian - shot US television show Wonderfalls in early 2004. Location footage of the falls was shot in October 2006 to portray "World 's End '' of the movie Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End. Professional kayaker Rafa Ortiz 's preparation to paddle over the falls in a kayak is documented in the 2015 film Chasing Niagara.
Composer Ferde Grofé was commissioned by the Niagara Falls Power Generation project in 1960 to compose the Niagara Falls Suite in honor of the completion of the first stage of hydroelectric work at the falls. Each movement is dedicated to the falls, or to the history of the greater Buffalo region. In 1997, composer Michael Daugherty composed Niagara Falls, a piece for concert band inspired by the falls.
The Niagara Falls area features as the base camp for a German aerial invasion of the United States in the H.G. Wells novel The War in the Air.
Many poets have been inspired to write about the falls. Among them was the Cuban poet José Maria Heredia, who wrote the poem "Niagara ''. There are commemorative plaques on both sides of the falls recognising the poem.
In the original 1920s and 1930s Buck Rogers stories and newspaper cartoons, Buck Rogers, in his adventures in the 25th century that take place on Earth, helps in the fight for a free Northern America from the liberated zone around Niagara, New York (which by then has grown to a large metropolis -- the capital of the liberated zone -- that includes Niagara Falls, New York, Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Buffalo, New York), against the Red Mongol Empire, a Chinese empire of the future which in the 25th century rules most of North America.
Part of Mark Twain 's 1893 short story, "Extract from Adam 's Diary '' is set at Niagara Falls.
The Bulgarian writer Aleko Konstantinov portrays the impressiveness of the Niagara Falls in his book, "To Chicago and back ''.
In 2014, the writer Alessandro Baricco published the book ' Smith & Wesson ' counting the story of Rachel Green going over the falls.
Niagara Fälle. Les chûtes du Niagara. Niagara Falls (circa 1832): aquatint by Karl Bodmer
Albert Bierstadt 's (1830 -- 1902) oil painting of Niagara Falls
Arthur Parton, Niagara Falls (Brooklyn Museum)
View of Niagara Falls, by Ferdinand Richardt
Underneath Niagara Falls, by Richardt at the Met, 1862
Louis Rémy Mignot, Niagara, Brooklyn Museum
Thomas Cole, Distant View of Niagara Falls 1830, Art Institute of Chicago
Alvan Fisher, A General View of the Falls of Niagara, 1820, Smithsonian Institution
Frederic Edwin Church, Niagara Falls, 1857, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
William Morris Hunt, Niagara Falls, 1878
Peak visitor traffic occurs in the summertime, when Niagara Falls are both a daytime and evening attraction. From the Canadian side, floodlights illuminate both sides of the falls for several hours after dark (until midnight). The number of visitors in 2007 was expected to total 20 million, and by 2009 the annual rate was expected to top 28 million tourists.
The oldest and best known tourist attraction at Niagara Falls is the Maid of the Mist boat cruise, named for an ancient Ongiara Indian mythical character, which has carried passengers into the rapids immediately below the falls since 1846. Cruise boats operate from boat docks on both sides of the falls, with the Maid of the Mist operating from the American side and Hornblower Cruises from the Canadian side.
From the U.S. side, the American Falls can be viewed from walkways along Prospect Point Park, which also features the Prospect Point Observation Tower and a boat dock for the Maid of the Mist. Goat Island offers more views of the falls and is accessible by foot and automobile traffic by bridge above the American Falls. From Goat Island, the Cave of the Winds is accessible by elevator and leads hikers to a point beneath Bridal Veil Falls. Also on Goat Island are the Three Sisters Islands, the Power Portal where a huge statue of Nikola Tesla (the inventor whose patents for the AC induction motor and other devices for AC power transmission helped make the harnessing of the falls possible) can be seen, and a walking path that enables views of the rapids, the Niagara River, the gorge, and all of the falls. Most of these attractions lie within the Niagara Falls State Park.
The Niagara Scenic Trolley offers guided trips along the American Falls and around Goat Island. Panoramic and aerial views of the falls can also be viewed by helicopter. The Niagara Gorge Discovery Center showcases the natural and local history of Niagara Falls and the Niagara Gorge. A casino and luxury hotel was opened in Niagara Falls, New York, by the Seneca Indian tribe. The Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel occupies the former Niagara Falls Convention Center. The new hotel is the first addition to the city 's skyline since completion of the United Office Building in the 1920s.
On the Canadian side, Queen Victoria Park features manicured gardens, platforms offering views of both the American and Horseshoe Falls, and underground walkways leading into observation rooms that yield the illusion of being within the falling waters. The observation deck of the nearby Skylon Tower offers the highest view of the falls, and in the opposite direction gives views as far as Toronto. Along with the Minolta Tower (formerly the Seagrams Tower and the Konica Minolta Tower, and since 2010 called the Tower Hotel), it is one of two towers in Canada with a view of the falls.
Along the Niagara River, the Niagara River Recreational Trail runs 35 miles (56 km) from Fort Erie to Fort George, and includes many historical sites from the War of 1812.
The Whirlpool Aero Car, built in 1916 from a design by Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo, is a cable car that takes passengers over the Niagara Whirlpool on the Canadian side. The Journey Behind the Falls consists of an observation platform and series of tunnels near the bottom of the Horseshoe Falls on the Canadian side.
There are two casinos on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls, the Niagara Fallsview Casino Resort and Casino Niagara.
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where was the cowboys with john wayne filmed | The Cowboys - wikipedia
The Cowboys is a 1972 American western film starring John Wayne, Roscoe Lee Browne, Slim Pickens, Colleen Dewhurst and Bruce Dern. Robert Carradine made his film debut with fellow child actor Stephen Hudis, as cowboys. It was filmed at various locations in New Mexico, Colorado and at Warner Brothers Studio in Burbank, California. Based on the novel by William Dale Jennings, the screenplay was written by Irving Ravetch, Harriet Frank, Jr., and Jennings, and directed by Mark Rydell.
When his ranch hands abandon him to join a gold rush, aging rancher Wil Andersen (John Wayne) is forced to find replacement drovers for his upcoming 400 - mile (640 km) long cattle drive. He rides into deserted Bozeman, Montana. There, Anse Peterson (Slim Pickens) suggests using local schoolboys. Andersen visits the school but departs unconvinced. The next morning, a group of the boys show up at Andersen 's ranch to volunteer for the drive. Andersen tests the boys ' ability to stay on a bucking horse. As the boys successfully take turns, Cimarron (A Martinez), another young man slightly older than the others, rides up. After successfully subduing and riding the test horse, Cimarron gets into a fight with Slim (Robert Carradine), the oldest of the boys. Andersen, though impressed by Cimarron 's abilities, has misgivings because of his angry nature and sends him away. Andersen reluctantly decides to hire the boys.
While Andersen and the boys prepare for the cattle drive, a group of mysterious men led by "Long Hair '' Asa Watts (Bruce Dern) show up asking for work. Andersen catches Watts in a lie about his past, and refuses to hire them. Jebediah "Jeb '' Nightlinger (Roscoe Lee Browne), a Black camp cook arrives with a chuck wagon, making Anderson 's trail crew complete.
Under Andersen 's continued tutelage, the boys learn to rope, brand and herd the cattle and horses. Much to Andersen 's concern, Cimarron follows the drive from afar. However, while crossing a river, Slim slips off his horse and, unable to swim, starts to drown. Although Slim is saved by Cimarron, Andersen berates one of the boys for his stuttering problem which nearly caused Slim 's death. The stuttering boy swears at Andersen repeatedly, losing his stutter in the process. Satisfied, Andersen decides to let Cimarron stay. During another episode, the boys steal Nightlinger 's whiskey and drink it, all of them getting severely drunk. Afterwards, one of the boys, Charlie, falls off his horse and is trampled to death by the herd. Slowly, the boys learn under Andersen 's tutelage and become rather good cowhands, impressing both Andersen and Nightlinger.
Soon after, Mr. Nightlinger 's chuck wagon throws a wheel. As the cowboys continue to drive the herd, Mr. Nightlinger stays behind to fix the wagon. The rustlers led by Watts begin paralleling the herd, and that night, surprise Andersen and the cowboys in their camp. Watts announces his intention to steal the herd and taunts the boys, but Andersen intervenes and tells Watts it 's between the two of them. A brutal fistfight then begins between Andersen and Watts in which Andersen ultimately gains the upper hand. An infuriated Watts grabs a gun, shoots the unarmed Andersen multiple times, and steals the herd.
The following day, Nightlinger catches up to the group to find the boys tending to the dying Andersen. Before succumbing to his wounds, Andersen tells the boys how proud he is of all of them, that every man wants his children to be better than he was, and that they have become so. Following Andersen 's burial and on a prearranged signal, the boys overpower and bind Nightlinger, seizing the weapons stored in his chuck wagon and vowing to re-take the herd and finish the trail drive. When the group catches up to the herd and the rustlers, Nightlinger offers to help the boys make a plan to overcome the outlaws. Using ruses, trickery, and ambush, the boys kill the rustlers to a man, including Watts, who is tangled in a horse 's harness. Cimarron shoots a gun in the air that spooks the horse and carries Watts to his death.
After the boys complete the drive to Belle Fourche and sell the cattle, they use some of the proceeds to pay a stonemason to carve a marker with Andersen 's name and the legend "Beloved Husband and Father, '' in clear reference to the position that Andersen had earned in their lives. They place the marker in the approximate location of Andersen 's grave and head for home.
Some critics debated the film 's implication that boys become men or confirm their manhood through acts of violence and vengeance. Jay Cocks of Time Magazine and Pauline Kael of The New York Times were especially critical of these aspects of the film.
Film historian Emanuel Levy noted that Wayne frequently appears in a fatherlike role: "Aware of his repetitive screen roles as a paternal figure, (Wayne) said the movie was based on a formula that worked in Goodbye Mr. Chips and Sands of Iwo Jima. In all three films, an adult takes a group of youngsters and initiates them into manhood by instructing them the ' right ' skills and values. Wayne did not hesitate to appear in The Cowboys, despite the fact that ' no actor in his right mind, would try to match the antics of eleven kids on screen, ' but for him it became ' the greatest experience of my life. ' ''
The film won the Bronze Wrangler Award (best theatrical motion picture of the year) from the Western Heritage Awards.
The Cowboys received a 75 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
In 1974, Warner Bros. developed The Cowboys as a television series for ABC starring Jim Davis, Diana Douglas, and Moses Gunn. David Dortort, best known for Bonanza, The High Chaparral, and The Restless Gun, produced the series. Only A Martinez, Robert Carradine, Sean Kelly and Clay O'Brien were in both the film and the television series; the first two reprised their roles from the film, but the latter two did not. At the last moment, ABC decided to change the show 's format by reducing its run time from one hour to a half hour, a change which made it difficult to tell stories effectively with the show 's large cast. Only 13 episodes were filmed before the series was cancelled.
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what is the name of the narrator in romeo and juliet | Romeo and Juliet (1968 film) - wikipedia
Romeo and Juliet is a 1968 British - Italian romantic drama film based on the play of the same name (1591 -- 1595) by William Shakespeare.
The film was directed and co-written by Franco Zeffirelli, and stars Leonard Whiting and Olivia Hussey. It won Academy Awards for Best Cinematography (Pasqualino De Santis) and Best Costume Design (Danilo Donati); it was also nominated for Best Director and Best Picture, making it the last Shakespearean film to be nominated for Best Picture to date. Sir Laurence Olivier spoke the film 's prologue and epilogue and reportedly dubbed the voice of the Italian actor playing Lord Montague, but was not credited in the film.
Being the most financially successful film adaptation of a Shakespeare play at the time of its release, it was popular among teenagers partly because it was the first film to use actors who were close to the age of the characters from the original play. Several critics also welcomed the film enthusiastically.
One summer morning in Verona, Italy, a longstanding feud between the Montague and the Capulet clans breaks out in a street brawl. The brawl is broken up by the Prince, who warns both families that any future violence between them will result in harsh consequences. That night, two teenagers of the two families -- Romeo and Juliet -- meet at a Capulet masked ball and become deeply infatuated. Later, Romeo stumbles into the secluded garden under Juliet 's bedroom balcony and the two exchange impassioned pledges. They are secretly married the next day by Romeo 's confessor and father figure, Friar Laurence, with the assistance of Juliet 's nursemaid.
That afternoon, Juliet 's first cousin Tybalt, enraged that Romeo had attended his family 's ball, insults him and challenges him to a brawl. Romeo regards Tybalt as family and he refuses to fight him, which leads Romeo 's best friend, Mercutio, to fight Tybalt instead. Despite Romeo 's efforts to stop the fight, Tybalt badly wounds Mercutio, who curses both the Montague and Capulet houses before dying. Enraged over his friend 's death, Romeo retaliates by fighting Tybalt and killing him. Romeo is subsequently punished by the Prince with banishment from Verona, with the threat of death if he ever returns. Romeo, however, sees his banishment as worse than the death penalty, as Verona is the only home he has known and he does not want to be separated from Juliet. Friar Laurence eventually convinces Romeo that he is very lucky and that he should be more thankful for what he has. Romeo then secretly spends his wedding night together with Juliet and the couple consummate their marriage before Romeo flees.
Juliet 's father and mother, unaware of their daughter 's secret marriage, have arranged for Juliet to marry wealthy Count Paris. Juliet pleads with her parents to postpone the marriage, but they refuse and threaten to disown her. Juliet seeks out Friar Laurence for help, hoping to escape her arranged marriage to Paris and remain faithful to Romeo. At Friar Laurence 's behest, she reconciles with her parents and agrees to their wishes. On the night before the wedding, Juliet consumes a potion prepared by Friar Laurence intended to make her appear dead for forty - two hours. Friar Laurence plans to inform Romeo of the hoax so that Romeo can meet Juliet after her burial and escape with her when she recovers from her swoon, so he sends Friar John to give Romeo a letter describing the plan. However, when Balthasar, Romeo 's servant, sees Juliet being buried under the impression that she is dead, he goes to tell Romeo and reaches him before Friar John. In despair, Romeo goes to Juliet 's tomb and kills himself by drinking poison. Soon afterwards, Juliet awakens and discovers her husband dead. Juliet refuses to leave Romeo and kills herself by piercing her abdomen with his dagger. Later, the two families attend their joint funeral and are chastised by the Prince.
It is often rumored that Franco Zeffirelli considered Paul McCartney of The Beatles for the role of Romeo. Although Zeffirelli does not mention it in his autobiography, McCartney provided plenty of details on this account (including meeting with Olivia Hussey and exchanging telegrams with her) in his co-written autobiography
The director engaged in a worldwide search for unknown teenage actors to play the parts of the two lovers. Leonard Whiting was 17 at the time, and Olivia Hussey was 16, and Zeffirelli adapted the play in such a way as to play to their strengths and hide their weaknesses: for instance, long speeches were trimmed, and he emphasized reaction shots.
Laurence Olivier 's involvement in the production was by happenstance. He was in Rome to film The Shoes of the Fisherman and visited the studio where Romeo and Juliet was being shot. He asked Zeffirelli if there was anything he could do, and was given the Prologue to read, then ended up dubbing the voice of Lord Montague as well as other assorted roles.
Set in a 14th - century Renaissance Italy in varying locations:
The film earned $14.5 million in domestic rentals at the North American box office during 1969. It was re-released in 1973 and earned $1.7 million in rentals.
Film critic Roger Ebert has written: "I believe Franco Zeffirelli 's Romeo and Juliet is the most exciting film of Shakespeare ever made ''.
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a ' Fresh ' score of 97 % based on 34 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8 / 10; it is accompanied by the consensus: "The solid leads and arresting visuals make a case for Zeffirelli 's Romeo and Juliet as the definitive cinematic adaptation of the play. ''.
Academy Awards
Golden Globe Awards
BAFTA Awards
Other accolades for Romeo and Juliet included the David di Donatello and National Board of Review awards for Best Director for Zeffirelli, as well as appearing on the National Board of Review 's Top Ten Films list for 1968.
Two releases of the score of the film, composed by Nino Rota, have been made.
"Love Theme from Romeo and Juliet '' The film 's love theme was widely disseminated, notably in "Our Tune '', a segment of BBC disc jockey Simon Bates 's radio show. In addition, various versions of the theme have been recorded and released, including a highly successful one by Henry Mancini, whose instrumental rendition was a Number One success in the United States during June 1969.
There are two different sets of English lyrics to the song.
Notes
Further reading
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where does the water from the colorado river come from | Colorado River - wikipedia
The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico (the other being the Rio Grande). The 1,450 - mile - long (2,330 km) river drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states. Starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U.S., the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona -- Nevada border, where it turns south toward the international border. After entering Mexico, the Colorado approaches the mostly dry Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora.
Known for its dramatic canyons, whitewater rapids, and eleven U.S. National Parks, the Colorado River system is a vital source of water for 40 million people in southwestern North America. The river and its tributaries are controlled by an extensive system of dams, reservoirs, and aqueducts, which in most years divert its entire flow for agricultural irrigation and domestic water supply. Its large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power, and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West. Intensive water consumption has dried up the lower 100 miles (160 km) of the river, which has rarely reached the sea since the 1960s.
Beginning with small bands of nomadic hunter - gatherers, Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8,000 years. Between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago, the river and its tributaries fostered large agricultural civilizations -- some of the most sophisticated indigenous cultures in North America -- which eventually faded due to a combination of severe drought and poor land use practices. Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from other groups that settled in the region beginning about 1,000 years ago. Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century, when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area, which later became part of Mexico upon its independence in 1821. Early contact between Europeans and Native Americans was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river.
After most of the Colorado River basin became part of the U.S. in 1846, the bulk of the river 's course was still the subject of myths and speculation. Several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid-19th century -- one of which, led by John Wesley Powell, was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon. American explorers collected valuable information that was later used to develop the river for navigation and water supply. Large - scale settlement of the lower basin began in the mid - to late - 19th century, with steamboats providing transportation from the Gulf of California to landings along the river that linked to wagon roads to the interior. Lesser numbers settled in the upper basin, which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s.
Large engineering works began around the start of the 20th century, with major guidelines established in a series of international and U.S. interstate treaties known as the "Law of the River ''. The U.S. federal government was the main driving force behind the construction of dams and aqueducts, although many state and local water agencies were also involved. Most of the major dams were built between 1910 and 1970; the system keystone, Hoover Dam, was completed in 1935. The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world, with every drop of its water fully allocated.
The environmental movement in the American Southwest has opposed the damming and diversion of the Colorado River system because of detrimental effects on the ecology and natural beauty of the river and its tributaries. During the construction of Glen Canyon Dam, environmental organizations vowed to block any further development of the river, and a number of later dam and aqueduct proposals were defeated by citizen opposition. As demands for Colorado River water continue to rise, the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy.
The Colorado begins at La Poudre Pass in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, at just under 2 miles (3 km) above sea level. After a short run south, the river turns west below Grand Lake, the largest natural lake in the state. For the first 250 miles (400 km) of its course, the Colorado carves its way through the mountainous Western Slope, a sparsely populated region defined by the portion of the state west of the Continental Divide. As it flows southwest, it gains strength from many small tributaries, as well as larger ones including the Blue, Eagle and Roaring Fork rivers. After passing through De Beque Canyon, the Colorado emerges from the Rockies into the Grand Valley, a major farming and ranching region where it meets one of its largest tributaries, the Gunnison River, at Grand Junction. Most of the upper river is a swift whitewater stream ranging from 200 to 500 feet (60 to 150 m) wide, the depth ranging from 6 to 30 feet (2 to 9 m), with a few notable exceptions, such as the Blackrocks reach where the river is nearly 100 feet (30 m) deep. In a few areas, such as the marshy Kawuneeche Valley near the headwaters and the Grand Valley, it exhibits braided characteristics.
Arcing northwest, the Colorado begins to cut across the eponymous Colorado Plateau, a vast area of high desert centered at the Four Corners of the southwestern United States. Here, the climate becomes significantly drier than that in the Rocky Mountains, and the river becomes entrenched in progressively deeper gorges of bare rock, beginning with Ruby Canyon and then Westwater Canyon as it enters Utah, now once again heading southwest. Farther downstream it receives the Dolores River and defines the southern border of Arches National Park, before passing Moab and flowing through "The Portal '', where it exits the Moab Valley between a pair of 1,000 - foot (300 m) sandstone cliffs.
In Utah, the Colorado flows primarily through the "slickrock '' country, which is characterized by its narrow canyons and unique "folds '' created by the tilting of sedimentary rock layers along faults. This is one of the most inaccessible regions of the continental United States. Below the confluence with the Green River, its largest tributary, in Canyonlands National Park, the Colorado enters Cataract Canyon, named for its dangerous rapids, and then Glen Canyon, known for its arches and erosion - sculpted Navajo sandstone formations. Here, the San Juan River, carrying runoff from the southern slope of Colorado 's San Juan Mountains, joins the Colorado from the east. The Colorado then enters northern Arizona, where since the 1960s Glen Canyon Dam near Page has flooded the Glen Canyon reach of the river, forming Lake Powell for water supply and hydroelectricity generation.
In Arizona, the river passes Lee 's Ferry, an important crossing for early explorers and settlers and since the early 20th century the principal point where Colorado River flows are measured for apportionment to the seven U.S. and two Mexican states in the basin. Downstream, the river enters Marble Canyon, the beginning of the Grand Canyon, passing under the Navajo Bridges on a now southward course. Below the confluence with the Little Colorado River, the river swings west into Granite Gorge, the most dramatic portion of the Grand Canyon, where the river cuts up to one mile (1.6 km) into the Colorado Plateau, exposing some of the oldest visible rocks on Earth, dating as long ago as 2 billion years. The 277 miles (446 km) of the river that flow through the Grand Canyon are largely encompassed by Grand Canyon National Park and are known for their difficult whitewater, separated by pools that reach up to 110 feet (34 m) in depth.
At the lower end of Grand Canyon, the Colorado widens into Lake Mead, the largest reservoir in the continental United States, formed by Hoover Dam on the border of Arizona and Nevada. Situated southeast of metropolitan Las Vegas, the dam is an integral component for management of the Colorado River, controlling floods and storing water for farms and cities in the lower Colorado River basin. Below the dam the river passes under the Mike O'Callaghan -- Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge -- which at nearly 900 feet (270 m) above the water is the highest concrete arch bridge in the Western Hemisphere -- and then turns due south towards Mexico, defining the Arizona -- Nevada and Arizona -- California borders.
After leaving the confines of the Black Canyon, the river emerges from the Colorado Plateau into the Lower Colorado River Valley (LCRV), a desert region dependent on irrigation agriculture and tourism and also home to several major Indian reservations. The river widens here to a broad, moderately deep waterway averaging 500 to 1,000 feet (150 to 300 m) wide and reaching up to ⁄ mile (400 m) across, with depths ranging from 8 to 60 feet (2 to 20 m). Before channelization of the Colorado in the 20th century, the lower river was subject to frequent course changes caused by seasonal flow variations. Joseph C. Ives, who surveyed the lower river in 1861, wrote that "the shifting of the channel, the banks, the islands, the bars is so continual and rapid that a detailed description, derived from the experiences of one trip, would be found incorrect, not only during the subsequent year, but perhaps in the course of a week, or even a day. ''
The LCRV is one of the most densely populated areas along the river, and there are numerous towns including Bullhead City, Arizona, Needles, California, and Lake Havasu City, Arizona. Here, many diversions draw from the river, providing water for both local uses and distant regions including the Salt River Valley of Arizona and metropolitan Southern California. The last major U.S. diversion is at Imperial Dam, where over 90 percent of the river 's remaining flow is moved into the All - American Canal to irrigate California 's Imperial Valley, the most productive winter agricultural region in the United States.
Below Imperial Dam, only a small portion of the Colorado River makes it beyond Yuma, Arizona, and the confluence with the intermittent Gila River -- which carries runoff from western New Mexico and most of Arizona -- before defining about 24 miles (39 km) of the Mexico -- United States border. At Morelos Dam, the entire remaining flow of the Colorado is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley, among Mexico 's most fertile agricultural lands. Below San Luis Río Colorado, the Colorado passes entirely into Mexico, defining the Baja California -- Sonora border; in most years, the stretch of the Colorado between here and the Gulf of California is dry or a trickle formed by irrigation return flows. The Hardy River provides most of the flow into the Colorado River Delta, a vast alluvial floodplain covering about 3,000 square miles (7,800 km) of northwestern Mexico. A large estuary is formed here before the Colorado empties into the Gulf about 75 miles (120 km) south of Yuma. Before 20th - century development dewatered the lower Colorado, a major tidal bore was present in the delta and estuary; the first historical record was made by the Croatian missionary in Spanish service Father Ferdinand Konščak on July 18, 1746. During spring tide conditions, the tidal bore -- locally called El Burro -- formed in the estuary about Montague Island in Baja California and propagated upstream.
The Colorado is joined by over 25 significant tributaries, of which the Green River is the largest by both length and discharge. The Green takes drainage from the Wind River Range of west - central Wyoming, from Utah 's Uinta Mountains, and from the Rockies of northwestern Colorado. The Gila River is the second longest and drains a greater area than the Green, but has a significantly lower flow because of a more arid climate and larger diversions for irrigation and cities. Both the Gunnison and San Juan rivers, which derive most of their water from Rocky Mountains snowmelt, contribute more water than the Gila did naturally.
In its natural state, the Colorado River poured about 16.3 million acre feet (20.1 km) into the Gulf of California each year, amounting to an average flow rate of 22,500 cubic feet per second (640 m / s). Its flow regime was not at all steady -- indeed, "prior to the construction of federal dams and reservoirs, the Colorado was a river of extremes like no other in the United States. '' Once, the river reached peaks of more than 100,000 cubic feet per second (2,800 m / s) in the summer and low flows of less than 2,500 cubic feet per second (71 m / s) in the winter annually. At Topock, Arizona, about 300 miles (480 km) upstream from the Gulf, a maximum historical discharge of 384,000 cubic feet per second (10,900 m / s) was recorded in 1884 and a minimum of 422 cubic feet per second (11.9 m / s) was recorded in 1935. In contrast, the regulated discharge rates on the lower Colorado below Hoover Dam rarely exceed 35,000 cubic feet per second (990 m / s) or drop below 4,000 cubic feet per second (110 m / s). Annual runoff volume has ranged from a high of 22.2 million acre feet (27.4 km) in 1984 to a low of 3.8 million acre feet (4.7 km) in 2002, although in most years only a small portion of this flow, if any, reaches the Gulf.
Between 85 and 90 percent of the Colorado River 's discharge originates in snowmelt, mostly from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and Wyoming. The three major upper tributaries of the Colorado -- the Gunnison, Green, and San Juan -- alone deliver almost 9 million acre feet (11 km) per year to the main stem, mostly from snowmelt. The remaining 10 to 15 percent comes from a variety of sources, principally groundwater base flow and summer monsoon storms. The latter often produces heavy, highly localized floods on lower tributaries of the river, but does not often contribute significant volumes of runoff. Most of the annual runoff in the basin occurs with the melting of Rocky Mountains snowpack, which begins in April and peaks during May and June before exhausting in late July or early August.
Flows at the mouth have steadily declined since the beginning of the 20th century, and in most years after 1960 the Colorado River has run dry before reaching the sea. Irrigation, industrial, and municipal diversions, evaporation from reservoirs, natural runoff, and likely climate change have all contributed to this substantial reduction in flow, threatening the future water supply. For example, the Gila River -- formerly one of the Colorado 's largest tributaries -- contributes little more than a trickle in most years due to use of its water by cities and farms in central Arizona. The average flow rate of the Colorado at the northernmost point of the Mexico -- United States border (NIB, or Northerly International Boundary) is about 2,060 cubic feet per second (58 m / s), 1.49 million acre feet (1.84 km) per year -- less than a 10th of the natural flow -- due to upstream water use. Below here, all of the remaining flow is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley, leaving a dry riverbed from Morelos Dam to the sea that is supplemented by intermittent flows of irrigation drainage water. There have been exceptions, however, namely in the early to mid-1980s, when the Colorado once again reached the sea during several consecutive years of record - breaking precipitation and snowmelt. In 1984, so much excess runoff occurred that some 16.5 million acre feet (20.4 km), or 22,860 cubic feet per second (647 m / s), poured into the sea.
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) operates or has operated 46 stream gauges to measure the discharge of the Colorado River, ranging from the headwaters near Grand Lake to the Mexico -- U.S. border. The tables at right list data associated with eight of these gauges. River flows as gauged at Lee 's Ferry, Arizona, about halfway along the length of the Colorado and 16 miles (26 km) below Glen Canyon Dam, are used to determine water allocations in the Colorado River basin. The average discharge recorded there was approximately 14,800 cubic feet per second (420 m / s), 10.72 million acre feet (13.22 km) per year, from 1921 to 2010. This figure has been heavily affected by upstream diversions and reservoir evaporation, especially after the completion of the Colorado River Storage Project in the 1970s. Prior to the completion of Glen Canyon Dam in 1964, the average discharge recorded between 1912 and 1962 was 17,850 cubic feet per second (505 m / s), 12.93 million acre feet (15.95 km) per year.
The drainage basin or watershed of the Colorado River encompasses 246,000 square miles (640,000 km) of southwestern North America, making it the seventh largest on the continent. About 238,600 square miles (618,000 km), or 97 percent of the watershed, is in the United States. The river and its tributaries drain most of western Colorado and New Mexico, southwestern Wyoming, eastern and southern Utah, southeastern Nevada and California, and nearly all of Arizona. The areas drained within Baja California and Sonora are very small and do not contribute measurable runoff. Most of the basin is arid, defined by the Sonoran and Mojave deserts and the expanse of the Colorado Plateau, although significant expanses of forest are found in the Rocky Mountains; the Kaibab, Aquarius, and Markagunt plateaus in southern Utah and northern Arizona; the Mogollon Rim through central Arizona; and other smaller mountain ranges and sky islands. Elevations range from sea level at the Gulf of California to 14,321 feet (4,365 m) at the summit of Uncompahgre Peak in Colorado, with an average of 5,500 feet (1,700 m) across the entire basin.
Climate varies widely across the watershed. Mean monthly high temperatures are 25.3 ° C (77.5 ° F) in the upper basin and 33.4 ° C (92.1 ° F) in the lower basin, and lows average − 3.6 and 8.9 ° C (25.5 and 48.0 ° F), respectively. Annual precipitation averages 6.5 inches (164 mm), ranging from over 40 inches (1,000 mm) in some areas of the Rockies to just 0.6 inches (15 mm) along the Mexican reach of the river. The upper basin generally receives snow and rain during the winter and early spring, while precipitation in the lower basin falls mainly during intense but infrequent summer thunderstorms brought on by the North American Monsoon.
As of 2010, approximately 12.7 million people lived in the Colorado River basin. Phoenix in Arizona and Las Vegas in Nevada are the largest metropolitan areas in the watershed. Population densities are also high along the lower Colorado River below Davis Dam, which includes Bullhead City, Lake Havasu City, and Yuma. Other significant population centers in the basin include Tucson, Arizona; St. George, Utah; and Grand Junction, Colorado. Colorado River basin states are among the fastest - growing in the U.S.; the population of Nevada alone increased by about 66 percent between 1990 and 2000 as Arizona grew by some 40 percent.
The Colorado River basin shares drainage boundaries with many other major watersheds of North America. The Continental Divide of the Americas forms a large portion of the eastern boundary of the watershed, separating it from the basins of the Yellowstone River and the Platte River -- both tributaries of the Missouri River -- on the northeast, and from the headwaters of the Arkansas River on the east. Both the Missouri and Arkansas rivers are part of the Mississippi River system. Further south, the Colorado River basin borders on the Rio Grande drainage, which along with the Mississippi flows to the Gulf of Mexico, as well as a series of endorheic (closed) drainage basins in southwestern New Mexico and extreme southeastern Arizona.
For a short stretch, the Colorado watershed meets the drainage basin of the Snake River, a tributary of the Columbia River, in the Wind River Range of western Wyoming. Southwest of there, the northern divide of the Colorado watershed skirts the edge of the Great Basin, bordering on the closed drainage basins of the Great Salt Lake and the Sevier River in central Utah, and other closed basins in southern Utah and Nevada. To the west in California, the Colorado River watershed borders on those of small closed basins in the Mojave Desert, the largest of which is the Salton Sea drainage north of the Colorado River Delta. On the south, the watersheds of the Sonoyta, Concepción, and Yaqui rivers, all of which drain to the Gulf of California, border that of the Colorado.
As recently as the Cretaceous period 100 million years ago, much of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean. Tectonic forces from the collision of the Farallon Plate with the North American Plate pushed up the Rocky Mountains between 75 and 50 million years ago in a mountain - building episode known as the Laramide orogeny. The Colorado first formed as a west - flowing stream draining the southwestern portion of the range, and the uplift also diverted the Green River from its original course to the Mississippi River west towards the Colorado. About 30 to 20 million years ago, volcanic activity related to the orogeny led to the Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare - up, which created smaller formations such as the Chiricahua Mountains in Arizona and deposited massive amounts of volcanic ash and debris over the watershed. The Colorado Plateau first began to rise during the Eocene, between about 55 and 34 million years ago, but did not attain its present height until about 5 million years ago, about when the Colorado River established its present course into the Gulf of California.
The time scale and sequence over which the river 's present course and the Grand Canyon were formed is uncertain. Before the Gulf of California was formed around 12 to 5 million years ago by faulting processes along the boundary of the North American and Pacific plates, the Colorado flowed west to an outlet on the Pacific Ocean -- possibly Monterey Bay on the Central California coast, forming the Monterey submarine canyon. The uplift of the Sierra Nevada mountains began about 4.5 million years ago, diverting the Colorado southwards towards the Gulf. As the Colorado Plateau continued to rise between 5 and 2.5 million years ago, the river maintained its ancestral course (as an antecedent stream) and began to cut the Grand Canyon. Antecedence played a major part in shaping other peculiar geographic features in the watershed, including the Dolores River 's bisection of Paradox Valley in Colorado and the Green River 's cut through the Uinta Mountains in Utah.
Sediments carried from the plateau by the Colorado River created a vast delta made of more than 10,000 cubic miles (42,000 km) of material that walled off the northernmost part of the gulf in approximately 1 million years. Cut off from the ocean, the portion of the gulf north of the delta eventually evaporated and formed the Salton Sink, which reached about 260 feet (79 m) below sea level. Since then the river has changed course into the Salton Sink at least three times, transforming it into Lake Cahuilla, which at maximum size flooded up the valley to present - day Indio, California. The lake took about 50 years to evaporate after the Colorado resumed flowing to the Gulf. The present - day Salton Sea can be considered the most recent incarnation of Lake Cahuilla, though on a much smaller scale.
Between 1.8 million and 10,000 years ago, massive flows of basalt from the Uinkaret volcanic field in northern Arizona dammed the Colorado River within the Grand Canyon. At least 13 lava dams were formed, the largest of which was more than 2,300 feet (700 m) high, backing the river up for nearly 500 miles (800 km) to present - day Moab, Utah. The lack of associated sediment deposits along this stretch of the Colorado River, which would have accumulated in the impounded lakes over time, suggests that most of these dams did not survive for more than a few decades before collapsing or being washed away. Failure of the lava dams caused by erosion, leaks and cavitation caused catastrophic floods, which may have been some of the largest ever to occur in North America, rivaling the late - Pleistocene Missoula Floods of the northwestern United States. Mapping of flood deposits indicate that crests as high as 700 feet (210 m) passed through the Grand Canyon, reaching peak discharges as great as 17 million cubic feet per second (480,000 m / s).
The first humans of the Colorado River basin were likely Paleo - Indians of the Clovis and Folsom cultures, who first arrived on the Colorado Plateau about 12,000 years ago. Very little human activity occurred in the watershed until the rise of the Desert Archaic Culture, which from 8,000 to 2,000 years ago constituted most of the region 's human population. These prehistoric inhabitants led a generally nomadic lifestyle, gathering plants and hunting small animals (though some of the earliest peoples hunted larger mammals that became extinct in North America after the end of the Pleistocene epoch). Another notable early group was the Fremont culture, whose peoples inhabited the Colorado Plateau from 2,000 to 700 years ago. The Fremont were likely the first peoples of the Colorado River basin to domesticate crops and construct masonry dwellings; they also left behind a large amount of rock art and petroglyphs, many of which have survived to the present day.
Beginning in the early centuries A.D., Colorado River basin peoples began to form large agriculture - based societies, some of which lasted hundreds of years and grew into well - organized civilizations encompassing tens of thousands of inhabitants. The Ancient Puebloan (also known as Anasazi or Hisatsinom) people of the Four Corners region were descended from the Desert Archaic culture. The Puebloan people developed a complex distribution system to supply drinking and irrigation water in Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico.
The Puebloans dominated the basin of the San Juan River, and the center of their civilization was in Chaco Canyon. In Chaco Canyon and the surrounding lands, they built more than 150 multi-story pueblos or "great houses '', the largest of which, Pueblo Bonito, is composed of more than 600 rooms. The Hohokam culture was present along the middle Gila River beginning around 1 A.D. Between 600 and 700 A.D. they began to employ irrigation on a large scale, and did so more prolifically than any other native group in the Colorado River basin. An extensive system of irrigation canals was constructed on the Gila and Salt rivers, with various estimates of a total length ranging from 180 to 300 miles (290 to 480 km) and capable of irrigating 25,000 to 250,000 acres (10,000 to 101,000 ha). Both civilizations supported large populations at their height; the Chaco Canyon Puebloans numbered between 6,000 and 15,000 and estimates for the Hohokam range between 30,000 and 200,000.
These sedentary peoples heavily exploited their surroundings, practicing logging and harvesting of other resources on a large scale. The construction of irrigation canals may have led to a significant change in the morphology of many waterways in the Colorado River basin. Prior to human contact, rivers such as the Gila, Salt and Chaco were shallow perennial streams with low, vegetated banks and large floodplains. In time, flash floods caused significant downcutting on irrigation canals, which in turn led to the entrenchment of the original streams into arroyos, making agriculture difficult. A variety of methods were employed to combat these problems, including the construction of large dams, but when a megadrought hit the region in the 14th century A.D. the ancient civilizations of the Colorado River basin abruptly collapsed. Some Puebloans migrated to the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico and south - central Colorado, becoming the predecessors of the Hopi, Zuni, Laguna and Acoma people in western New Mexico. Many of the tribes that inhabited the Colorado River basin at the time of European contact were descended from Puebloan and Hohokam survivors, while others already had a long history of living in the region or migrated in from bordering lands.
The Navajo were an Athabaskan people who migrated from the north into the Colorado River basin around 1025 A.D. They soon established themselves as the dominant Native American tribe in the Colorado River basin, and their territory stretched over parts of present - day Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado -- in the original homelands of the Puebloans. In fact, the Navajo acquired agricultural skills from the Puebloans before the collapse of the Pueblo civilization in the 14th century. A profusion of other tribes have made a continued, lasting presence along the Colorado River. The Mohave have lived along the rich bottomlands of the lower Colorado below Black Canyon since 1200 A.D. They were fishermen -- navigating the river on rafts made of reeds to catch Gila trout and Colorado pikeminnow -- and farmers, relying on the annual floods of the river rather than irrigation to water their crops. Ute peoples have inhabited the northern Colorado River basin, mainly in present - day Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, for at least 2,000 years, but did not become well established in the Four Corners area until 1500 A.D. The Apache, Cocopah, Halchidhoma, Havasupai, Hualapai, Maricopa, Pima, and Quechan are among many other groups that live along or had territories bordering on the Colorado River and its tributaries.
Beginning in the 17th century, contact with Europeans brought significant changes to the lifestyles of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin. Missionaries sought to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity -- an effort sometimes successful, such as in Father Eusebio Francisco Kino 's 1694 encounter with the "docile Pimas of the Gila Valley (who) readily accepted Father Kino and his Christian teachings ''. The Spanish introduced sheep and goats to the Navajo, who came to rely heavily on them for meat, milk and wool. By the mid-16th century, the Utes, having acquired horses from the Spanish, introduced them to the Colorado River basin. The use of horses spread through the basin via trade between the various tribes and greatly facilitated hunting, communications and travel for indigenous peoples. More warlike groups such as the Utes and Navajos often used horses to their advantage in raids against tribes that were slower to adopt them, such as the Goshutes and Southern Paiutes.
The gradual influx of European and American explorers, fortune seekers and settlers into the region eventually led to conflicts that forced many Native Americans off their traditional lands. After the acquisition of the Colorado River basin from Mexico in the Mexican -- American War in 1846, U.S. military forces commanded by Kit Carson forced more than 8,000 Navajo men, women and children from their homes after a series of unsuccessful attempts to confine their territory, many of which were met with violent resistance. In what is now known as the Long Walk of the Navajo, the captives were marched from Arizona to Fort Sumner in New Mexico, and many died along the route. Four years later, the Navajo signed a treaty that moved them onto a reservation in the Four Corners region that is now known as the Navajo Nation. It is the largest Native American reservation in the United States, encompassing 27,000 square miles (70,000 km) with a population of over 180,000 as of 2000.
The Mohave were expelled from their territory after a series of minor skirmishes and raids on wagon trains passing through the area in the late 1850s, culminating in an 1859 battle with American forces that concluded the Mohave War. In 1870, the Mohave were relocated to a reservation at Fort Mojave, which spans the borders of Arizona, California and Nevada. Some Mohave were also moved to the 432 - square - mile (1,120 km) Colorado River Indian Reservation on the Arizona -- California border, originally established for the Mohave and Chemehuevi people in 1865. In the 1940s, some Hopi and Navajo people were also relocated to this reservation. The four tribes now form a geopolitical body known as the Colorado River Indian Tribes.
Water rights of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin were largely ignored during the extensive water resources development carried out on the river and its tributaries in the 19th and 20th centuries. The construction of dams has often had negative impacts on tribal peoples, such as the Chemehuevi when their riverside lands were flooded after the completion of Parker Dam in 1938. Ten Native American tribes in the basin now hold or continue to claim water rights to the Colorado River. The U.S. government has taken some actions to help quantify and develop the water resources of Native American reservations. The first federally funded irrigation project in the U.S. was the construction of an irrigation canal on the Colorado River Indian Reservation in 1867. Other water projects include the Navajo Indian Irrigation Project, authorized in 1962 for the irrigation of lands in part of the Navajo Nation in north - central New Mexico. The Navajo continue to seek expansion of their water rights because of difficulties with the water supply on their reservation; about 40 percent of its inhabitants must haul water by truck many miles to their homes. In the 21st century, they have filed legal claims against the governments of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah for increased water rights. Some of these claims have been successful for the Navajo, such as a 2004 settlement in which they received a 326,000 - acre - foot (402,000 ML) allotment from New Mexico.
During the 16th century, the Spanish began to explore and colonize western North America. An early motive was the search for the Seven Cities of Gold, or "Cibola '', rumored to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest. According to a United States Geological Survey publication, it is likely that Francisco de Ulloa was the first European to see the Colorado River when in 1536 he sailed to the head of the Gulf of California. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 's 1540 -- 1542 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold, but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west, he sent García López de Cárdenas to lead a small contingent to find it. With the guidance of Hopi Indians, Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon. Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon, assuming the width of the Colorado River at 6 feet (1.8 m) and estimating 300 - foot (91 m) - tall rock formations to be the size of a man. After failing at an attempt to descend to the river, they left the area, defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather.
In 1540, Hernando de Alarcón and his fleet reached the mouth of the river, intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado 's expedition. Alarcón may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present - day California -- Arizona border. Coronado never reached the Gulf of California, and Alarcón eventually gave up and left. Melchior Díaz reached the delta in the same year, intending to establish contact with Alarcón, but the latter was already gone by the time of Díaz 's arrival. Díaz named the Colorado River Rio del Tizon ("Firebrand River '') after seeing a practice used by the local natives for warming themselves. The name Tizon lasted for the next 200 years, while the name Rio Colorado ("Red River '') was first applied to a tributary of the Gila River, possibly the Verde River, circa 1720. The first known map to label the main stem as the Colorado was drawn by French cartographer Jacques - Nicolas Bellin in 1743.
During the 18th and early 19th centuries, many Americans and Spanish believed in the existence of the Buenaventura River, purported to run from the Rocky Mountains in Utah or Colorado to the Pacific Ocean. The name Buenaventura was given to the Green River by Silvestre Vélez de Escalante as early as 1776, but Escalante did not know that the Green drained to the Colorado. Many later maps showed the headwaters of the Green and Colorado rivers connecting with the Sevier River (Rio San Ysabel) and Utah Lake (Lake Timpanogos) before flowing west through the Sierra Nevada into California. Mountain man Jedediah Smith reached the lower Colorado by way of the Virgin River canyon in 1826. Smith called the Colorado the "Seedskeedee '', as the Green River in Wyoming was known to fur trappers, correctly believing it to be a continuation of the Green and not a separate river as others believed under the Buenaventura myth. John C. Frémont 's 1843 Great Basin expedition proved that no river traversed the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada, officially debunking the Buenaventura myth.
Between 1850 and 1854 the U.S. Army explored the lower reach of the Colorado River from the Gulf of California, looking for the river to provide a less expensive route to supply the remote post of Fort Yuma. First in November 1850 to January 1851, by its transport schooner, Invincible under Captain Alfred H. Wilcox and then by its longboat commanded by Lieutenant George Derby. Later Lieutenant Derby, in his expedition report, recommended that a shallow draft sternwheel steamboat would be the way to send supplies up river to the fort. The next contractors George Alonzo Johnson with his partner Benjamin M. Hartshorne, brought two barges and 250 tons of supplies arriving at the river 's mouth in February 1852, on the United States transport schooner Sierra Nevada under Captain Wilcox. Poling the barges up the Colorado, the first barge sank with its cargo a total loss. The second was finally, after a long struggle poled up to Fort Yuma, but what little it carried was soon consumed by the garrison. Subsequently, wagons again were sent from the fort to haul the balance of the supplies overland from the estuary through the marshes and woodlands of the Delta. At last Derby 's recommendation was heeded and in November 1852, the Uncle Sam, a 65 - foot long side - wheel paddle steamer, built by Domingo Marcucci, became the first steamboat on the Colorado River. It was brought by the schooner Capacity from San Francisco to the delta by the next contractor to supply the fort, Captain James Turnbull. It was assembled and launched in the estuary, 30 miles above the mouth of the Colorado River. Equipped with only a 20 - horsepower engine, the Uncle Sam could only carry 35 tons of supplies, taking 15 days to make the first 120 - mile trip. It made many trips up and down the river, taking four months to finish carrying the supplies for the fort, improving its time up river to 12 days. Negligence caused it to sink at its dock below Fort Yuma, and was then washed away before it could be raised, in the spring flood of 1853. Turnbull in financial difficulty, disappeared. Nevertheless, he had shown the worth of steamboats to solve Fort Yuma 's ls supply problem.
George Alonzo Johnson with his partner Hartshorne and a new partner Captain Alfred H. Wilcox (formerly of the Invincible and Sierra Nevada), formed George A. Johnson & Company and obtained the next contract to supply the fort. Johnson and his partners, all having learned lessons from their failed attempts ascending the Colorado and with the example of the Uncle Sam, brought the parts of a more powerful side - wheel steamboat, the General Jesup, with them to the mouth of the Colorado from San Francisco. There it was reassembled at a landing in the upper tidewater of the river and reached Fort Yuma, January 18, 1854. This new boat, capable of carrying 50 tons of cargo, was very successful making round trips from the estuary to the fort in only four or five days. Costs were cut from $200 to $75 per ton.
Lorenzo Sitgreaves led the first Corps of Topographical Engineers mission across northern Arizona to the Colorado River (near modern Bullhead City, Arizona), and down its east bank to the river crossings of the Southern Immigrant Trail at Fort Yuma in 1851.
The second Corps of Topographical Engineers expedition passed along and crossed the Colorado was the 1853 - 1854 Pacific Railroad Survey expedition along the 35th parallel north from Oklahoma to Los Angeles, led by Lt. Amiel Weeks Whipple.
George A. Johnson was instrumental in getting the support for Congressional funding a military expedition up the river. With those funds Johnson expected to provide the transportation for the expedition but was angry and disappointed when the commander of the expedition Lt. Joseph Christmas Ives rejected his offer of one of his steamboats. Before Ives could finish reassembling his steamer in the delta, George A. Johnson set off from Fort Yuma on December 31, 1857, conducting his own exploration of the river above the fort in his steamboat General Jesup. He ascended the river in twenty one days as far as the first rapids in Pyramid Canyon, over 300 miles (480 km) above Fort Yuma and 8 miles (13 km) above the modern site of Davis Dam. Running low on food he turned back. He as he returned he encountered Lieutenant Ives, Whipple 's assistant, who was leading an expedition to explore the feasibility of using the Colorado River as a navigation route in the Southwest. Ives and his men used a specially built steamboat, the shallow - draft U.S.S. Explorer, and traveled up the river as far as Black Canyon. He then took a small boat up beyond the canyon to Fortification Rock and Las Vegas Wash. After experiencing numerous groundings and accidents and having been inhibited by low water in the river, Ives declared: "Ours has been the first, and will doubtless be the last, party of whites to visit this profitless locality. It seems intended by nature that the Colorado River, along the greater portion of its lonely and majestic way, shall be forever unvisited and undisturbed. ''
Until 1866, El Dorado Canyon was the actual head of navigation on the Colorado River. In that year Captain Robert T. Rogers, commanding the steamer Esmeralda with a barge and ninety tons of freight, reached Callville, Nevada, on October 8, 1866. Callville remained the head of navigation on the river until July 7, 1879, when Captain J.A. Mellon in the Gila left El Dorado Canyon landing, steamed up through the rapids in Black Canyon, making record time to Callville and tied up overnight. Next morning he to steamed up through the rapids in Boulder Canyon to reach the mouth of the Virgin River at Rioville July 8, 1879. From 1879 to 1887, Rioville, Nevada was the high water Head of Navigation for the steamboats and the mining company sloop Sou'Wester that carried the salt needed for the reduction of silver ore from there to the mills at El Dorado Canyon.
Up until the mid-19th century, long stretches of the Colorado and Green rivers between Wyoming and Nevada remained largely unexplored due to their remote location and dangers of navigation. Because of the dramatic drop in elevation of the two rivers, there were rumors of huge waterfalls and violent rapids, and Native American tales strengthened their credibility. In 1869, one - armed Civil War veteran John Wesley Powell led an expedition from Green River Station in Wyoming, aiming to run the two rivers all the way down to St. Thomas, Nevada, near present - day Hoover Dam. Powell and nine men -- none of whom had prior whitewater experience -- set out in May. After braving the rapids of the Gates of Lodore, Cataract Canyon and other gorges along the Colorado, the party arrived at the mouth of the Little Colorado River, where Powell noted down arguably the most famous words ever written about the Grand Canyon of the Colorado:
We are now ready to start on our way down the Great Unknown. Our boats, tied to a common stake, are chafing each other, as they are tossed by the fretful river. They ride high and buoyant, for their loads are lighter than we could desire. We have but a month 's rations remaining. The flour has been re-sifted through the mosquito net sieve; the spoiled bacon has been dried, and the worst of it boiled; the few pounds of dried apples have been spread in the sun, and re-shrunken to their normal bulk; the sugar has all melted, and gone on its way down the river; but we have a large sack of coffee. The lighting of the boats has this advantage: they will ride the waves better, and we shall have little to carry when we make a portage.
We are three - quarters of a mile in the depths of the earth, and the great river shrinks into insignificance, as it dashes its angry waves against the walls and cliffs, that rise to the world above; they are but puny ripples, and we but pigmies, running up and down the sands, or lost among the boulders.
On August 28, 1869, three men deserted the expedition, convinced that they could not possibly survive the trip through the Grand Canyon. They were killed by Native Americans after making it to the rim of the canyon; two days later, the expedition ran the last of the Grand Canyon rapids and reached St. Thomas. Powell led a second expedition in 1871, this time with financial backing from the U.S. government. The explorers named many features along the Colorado and Green rivers, including Glen Canyon, the Dirty Devil River, Flaming Gorge, and the Gates of Lodore. In what is perhaps a twist of irony, modern - day Lake Powell, which floods Glen Canyon, is also named for their leader.
Starting in the latter half of the 19th century, the lower Colorado below Black Canyon became an important waterway for steamboat commerce. In 1852, the Uncle Sam was launched to provide supplies to the U.S. Army outpost at Fort Yuma. Although this vessel accidentally foundered and sank early in its career, commercial traffic quickly proliferated because river transport was much cheaper than hauling freight over land. Navigation on the Colorado River was dangerous because of the shallow channel and flow variations, so the first sternwheeler on the river, the Colorado of 1855, was designed to carry 60 short tons (54 t) while drawing less than 2 feet (0.6 m) of water. The tidal bore of the lower Colorado also presented a major hazard; in 1922, a 15 - foot (4.6 m) - high wave swamped a ship bound for Yuma, killing between 86 and 130 people. Steamboats quickly became the principal source of communication and trade along the river until competition from railroads began in the 1870s, and finally the construction of dams along the lower river in 1909, none of which had locks to allow the passage of ships.
During the Manifest Destiny era of the mid-19th century, American pioneers settled many western states but generally avoided the Colorado River basin until the 1850s. Under Brigham Young 's grand vision for a "vast empire in the desert '', (the State of Deseret) Mormon settlers were among the first whites to establish a permanent presence in the watershed, Fort Clara or Fort Santa Clara, in the winter of 1855 - 1856 along the Santa Clara River, tributary of the Virgin River. In the lower Colorado mining was the primary spur to economic development, copper mining in southwestern New Mexico Territory the 1850s then the Mohave War and a gold rush on the Gila River in 1859, the El Dorado Canyon Rush in 1860 and Colorado River Gold Rush in 1862.
In 1860, anticipating the American Civil War, the Mormons established a number of settlements to grow cotton along the Virgin River in Washington County, Utah. From 1863 to 1865, Mormon colonists founded St. Thomas and other colonies on the Muddy and Virgin rivers in northwestern Arizona Territory, (now Clark County, Nevada). Stone 's Ferry was established by these colonists on the Colorado at the mouth of the Virgin River to carry their produce on a wagon road to the mining districts of Mohave County, Arizona to the south. Also, in 1866, a steamboat landing was established at Callville, intended as an outlet to the Pacific Ocean via the Colorado River, for Mormon settlements in the Great Basin. These settlements reached a peak population of about 600 before being abandoned in 1871, and for nearly a decade these valleys became a haven for outlaws and cattle rustlers. One Mormon settler Daniel Bonelli, remained, operating the ferry and began mining salt in nearby mines, bring it in barges, down river to El Dorado Canyon where it was used to process silver ore. From 1879 to 1887, Colorado Steam Navigation Company steamboats carried the salt, operating up river in the high spring flood waters, through Boulder Canyon, to the landing at Rioville at the mouth of the Virgin River. From 1879 to 1882 the Southwestern Mining Company, largest in El Dorado Canyon, brought in a 56 - foot sloop the Sou'Wester that sailed up and down river carrying the salt in the low water time of year until it was wrecked in the Quick and Dirty Rapids of Black Canyon.
Mormons founded settlements along the Duchesne River Valley in the 1870s, and populated the Little Colorado River valley later in the century, settling in towns such as St. Johns, Arizona. They also established settlements along the Gila River in central Arizona beginning in 1871. These early settlers were impressed by the extensive ruins of the Hohokam civilization that previously occupied the Gila River valley, and are said to have "envisioned their new agricultural civilization rising as the mythical phoenix bird from the ashes of Hohokam society ''. The Mormons were the first whites to develop the water resources of the basin on a large scale, and built complex networks of dams and canals to irrigate wheat, oats and barley in addition to establishing extensive sheep and cattle ranches.
One of the main reasons the Mormons were able to colonize Arizona was the existence of Jacob Hamblin 's ferry across the Colorado at Lee 's Ferry (then known as Pahreah Crossing), which began running in March 1864. This location was the only section of river for hundreds of miles in both directions where the canyon walls dropped away, allowing for the development of a transport route. John Doyle Lee established a more permanent ferry system at the site in 1870. One reason Lee chose to run the ferry was to flee from Mormon leaders who held him responsible for the Mountain Meadows Massacre, in which 120 emigrants in a wagon train were killed by a local militia disguised as Native Americans. Even though it was located along a major travel route, Lee 's Ferry was very isolated, and there Lee and his family established the aptly named Lonely Dell Ranch. In 1928, the ferry sank, resulting in the deaths of three men. Later that year, the Navajo Bridge was completed at a point 5 miles (8 km) downstream, rendering the ferry obsolete.
Gold strikes from the mid-19th to early 20th centuries played a major role in attracting settlers to the upper Colorado River basin. In 1859, a group of adventurers from Georgia discovered gold along the Blue River in Colorado and established the mining boomtown of Breckenridge. During 1875, even bigger strikes were made along the Uncompahgre and San Miguel rivers, also in Colorado, and these led to the creation of Ouray and Telluride, respectively. Because most gold deposits along the upper Colorado River and its tributaries occur in lode deposits, extensive mining systems and heavy machinery were required to extract them. Mining remains a substantial contributor to the economy of the upper basin and has led to acid mine drainage problems in some regional streams and rivers.
Prior to 1921, the upper Colorado River above the confluence with the Green River in Utah had assumed various names. Fathers Dominguez and Escalante named it Rio San Rafael in 1776. Through the mid-1800s, the river between Green River and the Gunnison River was most commonly known as the Grand River. The river above the junction with the Gunnison River, however, was known variously as the Bunkara River, the North Fork of the Grand River, the Blue River, and the Grand River. The latter name did not become consistently applied until the 1870s.
In 1921, U.S. Representative Edward T. Taylor of Colorado petitioned the Congressional Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce to rename the Grand River as the Colorado River. Taylor saw the fact that the Colorado River started outside the border of his state as an "abomination ''. On July 25, the name change was made official in House Joint Resolution 460 of the 66th Congress, over the objections of representatives from Wyoming, Utah, and the USGS, which noted that the Green River was much longer and had a larger drainage basin above its confluence with the Grand River, although the Grand contributed a greater flow of water.
Today, between 36 and 40 million people depend on the Colorado River 's water for agricultural, industrial and domestic needs. Southern Nevada Water Authority called the Colorado River one of the "most controlled, controversial and litigated rivers in the world ''. Over 29 major dams and hundreds of miles of canals serve to supply thirsty cities, provide irrigation water to some 4 million acres (1.6 million hectares), and meet peaking power demands in the Southwest, generating more than 12 billion kWh of hydroelectricity each year. Often called "America 's Nile '', the Colorado is so carefully managed -- with basin reservoirs capable of holding four times the river 's annual flow -- that each drop of its water is used an average of 17 times in a single year.
One of the earliest water projects in the Colorado River basin was the Grand Ditch, a 16 - mile (26 km) diversion canal that sends water from the Never Summer Mountains, which would naturally have drained into the headwaters of the Colorado River, to bolster supplies in Colorado 's Front Range Urban Corridor. Constructed primarily by Japanese and Mexican laborers, the ditch was considered an engineering marvel when completed in 1890, delivering 17,700 acre feet (21,800 ML) across the Continental Divide each year. Because roughly 75 percent of Colorado 's precipitation falls west of the Rocky Mountains while 80 percent of the population lives east of the range, more of these interbasin water transfers, locally known as transmountain diversions, followed. While first envisioned in the late 19th century, construction on the Colorado - Big Thompson Project (C - BT) did not begin until the 1930s. The C - BT now delivers more than 11 times the Grand Ditch 's flow from the Colorado River watershed to cities along the Front Range.
Meanwhile, large - scale development was also beginning on the opposite end of the Colorado River. In 1900, entrepreneurs of the California Development Company (CDC) looked to the Imperial Valley of southern California as an excellent location to develop agriculture irrigated by the waters of the river. Engineer George Chaffey was hired to design the Alamo Canal, which split off from the Colorado River near Pilot Knob, curved south into Mexico, and dumped into the Alamo River, a dry arroyo which had historically carried flood flows of the Colorado into the Salton Sink. With a stable year - round flow in the Alamo River, irrigators in the Imperial Valley were able to begin large - scale farming, and small towns in the region started to expand with the influx of job - seeking migrants. By 1903, more than 100,000 acres (40,000 ha) in the valley were under cultivation, supporting a growing population of 4,000.
It was not long before the Colorado River began to wreak havoc with its erratic flows. In autumn, the river would drop below the level of the canal inlet, and temporary brush diversion dams had to be constructed. In early 1905, heavy floods destroyed the headworks of the canal, and water began to flow uncontrolled down the canal towards the Salton Sink. On August 9, the entire flow of the Colorado swerved into the canal and began to flood the bottom of the Imperial Valley. In a desperate gamble to close the breach, crews of the Southern Pacific Railroad, whose tracks ran through the valley, attempted to dam the Colorado above the canal, only to see their work demolished by a flash flood. It took seven attempts, more than $3 million, and two years for the railroad, the CDC, and the federal government to permanently block the breach and send the Colorado on its natural course to the gulf -- but not before part of the Imperial Valley was flooded under a 45 - mile - long (72 km) lake, today 's Salton Sea. After the immediate flooding threat passed, it was realized that a more permanent solution would be needed to rein in the Colorado.
In 1922, six U.S. states in the Colorado River basin signed the Colorado River Compact, which divided half of the river 's flow to both the Upper Basin (the drainage area above Lee 's Ferry, comprising parts of Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming and a small portion of Arizona) and the Lower Basin (Arizona, California, Nevada, and parts of New Mexico and Utah). Each was given rights to 7.5 million acre feet (9.3 km) of water per year, a figure believed to represent half of the river 's minimum flow at Lee 's Ferry. This was followed by a U.S. -- Mexico treaty in 1944, allocating 1.5 million acre feet (1.9 km) of Colorado River water to the latter country per annum. Arizona refused to ratify the Colorado River Compact in 1922 because it feared that California would take too much of the lower basin allotment; in 1944 a compromise was reached in which Arizona would get a firm allocation of 2.8 million acre feet (3.5 km), but only if California 's 4.4 - million - acre - foot (5.4 km) allocation was prioritized during drought years. These and nine other decisions, compacts, federal acts and agreements made between 1922 and 1973 form what is now known as the Law of the River.
On September 30, 1935, the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) completed Hoover Dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River. Behind the dam rose Lake Mead, the largest artificial lake in the U.S., capable of holding more than two years of the Colorado 's flow. The construction of Hoover was a major step towards stabilizing the lower channel of the Colorado River, storing water for irrigation in times of drought, and providing much - needed flood control as part of a program known as the Boulder Canyon Project. Hoover was the tallest dam in the world at the time of construction and also had the world 's largest hydroelectric power plant. Flow regulation from Hoover Dam opened the doors for rapid development on the lower Colorado River; Imperial and Parker dams followed in 1938, and Davis Dam was completed in 1950.
Completed in 1938 some 20 miles (32 km) above Yuma, Imperial Dam diverts nearly all of the Colorado 's flow into two irrigation canals. The All - American Canal, built as a permanent replacement for the Alamo Canal, is so named because it lies completely within the U.S., unlike its ill -- fated predecessor. With a capacity of over 26,000 cubic feet per second (740 m / s), the All - American is the largest irrigation canal in the world, supplying water to 500,000 acres (2,000 km) of California 's Imperial Valley. Because the valley 's warm and sunny climate lends to a year - round growing season in addition to the large water supply furnished by the Colorado, the Imperial Valley is now one of the most productive agricultural regions in North America. In 1957, the USBR completed a second canal, the Gila Gravity Main Canal, to irrigate about 110,000 acres (450 km) in southwestern Arizona with Colorado River water as part of the Gila Project.
The Lower Basin states also sought to develop the Colorado for municipal supplies. Central Arizona initially relied on the Gila River and its tributaries through projects such as the Theodore Roosevelt and Coolidge Dams -- completed in 1911 and 1928, respectively. Roosevelt was the first large dam constructed by the USBR and provided the water needed to start large - scale agricultural and urban development in the region. The Colorado River Aqueduct, which delivers water nearly 250 miles (400 km) from near Parker Dam to 10 million people in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, was completed in 1941. The San Diego Aqueduct branch, whose initial phase was complete by 1947, furnishes water to nearly 3 million people in San Diego and its suburbs. The Las Vegas Valley of Nevada experienced rapid growth in part due to Hoover Dam construction, and Las Vegas had tapped a pipeline into Lake Mead by 1937. Nevada officials, believing that groundwater resources in the southern part of the state were sufficient for future growth, were more concerned with securing a large amount of the dam 's power supply than water from the Colorado; thus they settled for the smallest allocation of all the states in the Colorado River Compact.
Through the early decades of the 20th century, the Upper Basin states, with the exception of Colorado, remained relatively undeveloped and used little of the water allowed to them under the Colorado River Compact. Water use had increased significantly by the 1950s, and more water was being diverted out of the Colorado River basin to the Front Range corridor, the Salt Lake City area in Utah, and the Rio Grande basin in New Mexico. Such projects included the Roberts Tunnel, completed in 1956, which diverts 63,000 acre feet (78,000 ML) per year from the Blue River to the city of Denver, and the Fryingpan - Arkansas Project, which delivers 69,200 acre feet (85,400 ML) from the Fryingpan River to the Arkansas River basin each year. Without the addition of surface water storage in the upper basin, there was no guarantee that the upper basin states would be able to use the full amount of water given to them by the compact. There was also the concern that drought could impair the upper basin 's ability to deliver the required 7.5 million acre feet (9.3 × 10 m) past Lee 's Ferry per year as stipulated by the compact. A 1956 act of Congress cleared the way for the USBR 's Colorado River Storage Project (CRSP), which entailed the construction of large dams on the Colorado, Green, Gunnison and San Juan Rivers.
The initial blueprints for the CRSP included two dams on the Green River within Dinosaur National Monument 's Echo Park Canyon, a move criticized by both the U.S. National Park Service and environmentalist groups such as the Sierra Club. Controversy reached a nationwide scale, and the USBR dropped its plans for the Dinosaur dams in exchange for a dam at Flaming Gorge and a raise to an already - proposed dam at Glen Canyon. The famed opposition to Glen Canyon Dam, the primary feature of the CRSP, did not build momentum until construction was well underway. This was primarily because of Glen Canyon 's remote location and the result that most of the American public did not even know of the existence of the impressive gorge; the few who did contended that it had much greater scenic value than Echo Park. Sierra Club leader David Brower fought the dam both during the construction and for many years afterwards until his death in 2000. Brower strongly believed that he was personally responsible for the failure to prevent Glen Canyon 's flooding, calling it his "greatest mistake, greatest sin ''.
Agricultural and urban growth in Arizona eventually outstripped the capacity of local rivers; these concerns were reflected in the creation of a Pacific Southwest Water Plan in the 1950s, which aimed to build a project that would permit Arizona to fully utilize its 2.8 - million - acre - foot (3.5 km) allotment of the river. The Pacific Southwest Water Plan was the first major proposal to divert water to the Colorado Basin from other river basins -- namely, from the wetter northwestern United States. It was intended to boost supplies for the Lower Basin states of Arizona, California and Nevada as well as Mexico, thus allowing the Upper Basin states to retain native Colorado River flows for their own use. Although there was still a surplus of water in the Colorado Basin during the mid-20th century, the Bureau of Reclamation predicted, correctly, that eventually population growth would outstrip the available supply and require the transfer of water from other sources.
The original version of the plan proposed to divert water from the Trinity River in northern California to reduce Southern California 's dependence on the Colorado, allowing more water to be pumped, by exchange, to central Arizona. Because of the large amount of power that would be required to pump Colorado River water to Arizona, the CAP originally included provisions for hydroelectric dams at Bridge Canyon and Marble Canyon, which would have flooded large portions of the Colorado within the Grand Canyon and dewatered much of the remainder. When these plans were publicized, the environmental movement -- still reeling from the Glen Canyon controversy -- successfully lobbied against the project. As a result, the Grand Canyon dams were removed from the CAP agenda, the boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park were extended to preclude any further development in the area, and the pumping power was replaced by the building of the coal - fired Navajo Generating Station near Page, Arizona, in 1976. The resulting Central Arizona Project (CAP) irrigates more than 830,000 acres (3,400 km) and provides municipal supplies to over 5 million people from Phoenix to Tucson using water from the Colorado River.
Historically, the Colorado transported from 85 to 100 million short tons (77,000,000 to 91,000,000 t) of sediment or silt to the Gulf of California each year -- second only to the Mississippi among North American rivers. This sediment nourished wetlands and riparian areas along the river 's lower course, particularly in its 3,000 - square - mile (7,800 km) delta, once the largest desert estuary on the continent. Currently, the majority of sediments carried by the Colorado River are deposited at the upper end of Lake Powell, and most of the remainder ends up in Lake Mead. Various estimates place the time it would take for Powell to completely fill with silt at 300 to 700 years. Dams trapping sediment not only pose damage to river habitat but also threaten future operations of the Colorado River reservoir system.
Reduction in flow caused by dams, diversions, water for thermoelectric power stations, and evaporation losses from reservoirs -- the latter of which consumes more than 15 percent of the river 's natural runoff -- has had severe ecological consequences in the Colorado River Delta and the Gulf of California. Historically, the delta with its large freshwater outflow and extensive salt marshes provided an important breeding ground for aquatic species in the Gulf. Today 's desiccated delta, at only a fraction of its former size, no longer provides suitable habitat, and populations of fish, shrimp and sea mammals in the gulf have seen a dramatic decline. Since 1963, the only times when the Colorado River has reached the ocean have been during El Niño events in the 1980s and 1990s.
Reduced flows have led to increases in the concentration of certain substances in the lower river that have impacted water quality. Salinity is one of the major issues and also leads to the corrosion of pipelines in agricultural and urban areas. The lower Colorado 's salt content was about 50 parts per million (ppm) in its natural state, but by the 1960s, it had increased to well over 2000 ppm. By the early 1970s, there was also serious concern about salinity caused by salts leached from local soils by irrigation drainage water, which were estimated to add 10 million short tons (9,100,000 t) of excess salt to the river per year. The Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act was passed in 1974, mandating conservation practices including the reduction of saline drainage. The program reduced the annual load by about 1.2 million short tons (1,100,000 t), but salinity remains an ongoing issue. In 1997, the USBR estimated that saline irrigation water caused crop damages exceeding $500 million in the U.S. and $100 million in Mexico. Further efforts have been made to combat the salt issue in the lower Colorado, including the construction of a desalination plant at Yuma. In 2011, the seven U.S. states agreed upon a "Plan of Implementation '', which aims to reduce salinity by 644,000 short tons (584,000 t) per year by 2030. In 2013, the Bureau of Reclamation estimated that around $32 million was spent each year to prevent around 1.2 million tons of salt from entering and damaging the Colorado River.
Agricultural runoff containing pesticide residues has also been concentrated in the lower river in greater amounts. Toxins derived from pesticides have led to fish kills; six of these events were recorded between 1964 and 1968 alone. The pesticide issue is even greater in streams and water bodies near agricultural lands irrigated by the Imperial Irrigation District with Colorado River water. In the Imperial Valley, Colorado River water used for irrigation overflows into the New and Alamo rivers and into the Salton Sea. Both rivers and the sea are among the most polluted bodies of water in the United States, posing dangers not only to aquatic life but to contact by humans and migrating birds. Pollution from agricultural runoff is not limited to the lower river; the issue is also significant in upstream reaches such as Colorado 's Grand Valley, also a major center of irrigated agriculture.
Large dams such as Hoover and Glen Canyon typically release water from lower levels of their reservoirs, resulting in stable and relatively cold year - round temperatures in long reaches of the river. The Colorado 's average temperature once ranged from 85 ° F (29 ° C) at the height of summer to near freezing in winter, but modern flows through the Grand Canyon, for example, rarely deviate significantly from 46 ° F (8 ° C). Changes in temperature regime have caused declines of native fish populations, and stable flows have enabled increased vegetation growth, obstructing riverside habitat. These flow patterns have also made the Colorado more dangerous to recreational boaters; people are more likely to die of hypothermia in the colder water, and the general lack of flooding allows rockslides to build up, making the river more difficult to navigate.
In the 21st century, there has been renewed interest in restoring a limited water flow to the delta. In November 2012, the U.S. and Mexico reached an agreement, known as Minute 319, permitting Mexico storage of its water allotment in U.S. reservoirs during wet years, thus increasing the efficiency with which the water can be used. In addition to renovating irrigation canals in the Mexicali Valley to reduce leakage, this will make about 45,000 acre feet (56,000,000 m) per year available for release to the delta on average. The water will be used to provide both an annual base flow and a spring "pulse flow '' to mimic the river 's original snowmelt - driven regime. The first pulse flow, an eight - week release of 105,000 acre feet (130,000,000 m), was initiated on March 21, 2014, with the aim of revitalising 2,350 acres (950 hectares) of wetland. This pulse reached the sea on May 16, 2014, marking the first time in 16 years that any water from the Colorado flowed into the ocean, and was hailed as "an experiment of historic political and ecological significance '' and a landmark in U.S. -- Mexican cooperation in conservation. The pulse will be followed by the steady release of 52,000 acre feet (64,000,000 m) over the following three years, just a small fraction of its average flow before damming.
When the Colorado River Compact was drafted in the 1920s, it was based on barely 30 years of streamflow records that suggested an average annual flow of 17.5 million acre feet (21.6 km) past Lee 's Ferry. Modern studies of tree rings revealed that those three decades were probably the wettest in the past 500 to 1,200 years and that the natural long - term annual flow past Lee 's Ferry is probably closer to 13.5 million acre feet (16.7 km), as compared to the natural flow at the mouth of 16.3 million acre feet (20.1 km). This has resulted in more water being allocated to river users than actually flows through the Colorado. Droughts have exacerbated the issue of water over-allocation, including the Texas drought of the 1950s, which saw several consecutive years of notably low water and has often been used in planning for "a worst - case scenario ''.
The most severe drought on record began in the early 21st century, in which the river basin produced normal or above - average runoff in only four years between 2000 and 2012. Major reservoirs in the basin dropped to historic lows, with Lake Powell falling to just one - third of capacity in early 2005, the lowest level on record since 1969, when the reservoir was still in the process of filling. The watershed is experiencing a warming trend, which is accompanied by earlier snowmelt and a general reduction in precipitation. A 2004 study showed that a 1 -- 6 percent decrease of precipitation would lead to runoff declining by as much as 18 percent by 2050. Average reservoir storage declined by at least 32 percent, further crippling the region 's water supply and hydropower generation. A study by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 2008 predicted that both Lake Mead and Lake Powell stand an even chance of dropping to useless levels or "dead pool '' by 2021 if current drying trends and water usage rates continue.
In late 2010, Lake Mead dropped to just 8 feet (2.4 m) above the first "drought trigger '' elevation, a level at which Arizona and Nevada would have to begin rationing water as delineated by the Colorado River Compact. Despite above - average runoff in 2011 that raised the immense reservoir more than 30 feet (9.1 m), record drought conditions returned in 2012 and 2013. Reservoir levels were low enough at the beginning of water year 2014 that the Bureau of Reclamation cut releases from Lake Powell by 750,000 acre feet (930,000,000 m) -- the first such reduction since the 1960s, when Lake Powell was being filled for the first time. This resulted in Lake Mead dropping to its lowest recorded level since 1937, when it was first being filled. Rapid development and economic growth further complicate the issue of a secure water supply, particularly in the case of California 's senior water rights over those of Nevada and Arizona: in case of a reduction in water supply, Nevada and Arizona would have to endure severe cuts before any reduction in the California allocation, which is also larger than the other two combined. Although stringent water conservation measures have been implemented, the threat of severe shortfalls in the Colorado River basin continues to increase each year.
The Colorado River and its tributaries often nourish extensive corridors of riparian growth as they traverse the arid desert regions of the watershed. Although riparian zones represent a relatively small proportion of the basin and have been affected by engineering projects and river diversion in many places, they have the greatest biodiversity of any habitat in the basin. The most prominent riparian zones along the river occur along the lower Colorado below Davis Dam, especially in the Colorado River Delta, where riparian areas support 358 species of birds despite the reduction in freshwater flow and invasive plants such as tamarisk (salt cedar). Reduction of the delta 's size has also threatened animals such as jaguars and the vaquita porpoise, which is endemic to the gulf. Human development of the Colorado River has also helped to create new riparian zones by smoothing the river 's seasonal flow, notably through the Grand Canyon.
More than 1,600 species of plants grow in the Colorado River watershed, ranging from the creosote bush, saguaro cactus, and Joshua trees of the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts to the forests of the Rocky Mountains and other uplands, composed mainly of ponderosa pine, subalpine fir, Douglas - fir and Engelmann spruce. Before logging in the 19th century, forests were abundant in high elevations as far south as the Mexico -- U.S. border, and runoff from these areas nourished abundant grassland communities in river valleys. Some arid regions of the watershed, such as the upper Green River valley in Wyoming, Canyonlands National Park in Utah and the San Pedro River valley in Arizona and Sonora, supported extensive reaches of grassland roamed by large mammals such as buffalo and antelope as late as the 1860s. Near Tucson, Arizona, "where now there is only powder - dry desert, the grass once reached as high as the head of a man on horse back ''.
Rivers and streams in the Colorado basin were once home to 49 species of native fish, of which 42 were endemic. Engineering projects and river regulation have led to the extinction of four species and severe declines in the populations of 40 species. Bonytail chub, razorback sucker, Colorado pikeminnow, and humpback chub are among those considered the most at risk; all are unique to the Colorado River system and well adapted to the river 's natural silty conditions and flow variations. Clear, cold water released by dams has significantly changed characteristics of habitat for these and other Colorado River basin fishes. A further 40 species that occur in the river today, notably the brown trout, were introduced during the 19th and 20th centuries, mainly for sport fishing.
Famed for its dramatic rapids and canyons, the Colorado is one of the most desirable whitewater rivers in the United States, and its Grand Canyon section -- run by more than 22,000 people annually -- has been called the "granddaddy of rafting trips ''. Grand Canyon trips typically begin at Lee 's Ferry and take out at Diamond Creek or Lake Mead; they range from one to eighteen days for commercial trips and from two to twenty - five days for private trips. Private (noncommercial) trips are extremely difficult to arrange because the National Park Service limits river traffic for environmental purposes; people who desire such a trip often have to wait more than 10 years for the opportunity.
Several other sections of the river and its tributaries are popular whitewater runs, and many of these are also served by commercial outfitters. The Colorado 's Cataract Canyon and many reaches in the Colorado headwaters are even more heavily used than the Grand Canyon, and about 60,000 boaters run a single 4.5 - mile (7.2 km) section above Radium, Colorado, each year. The upper Colorado also includes many of the river 's most challenging rapids, including those in Gore Canyon, which is considered so dangerous that "boating is not recommended ''. Another section of the river above Moab, known as the Colorado "Daily '' or "Fisher Towers Section '', is the most visited whitewater run in Utah, with more than 77,000 visitors in 2011 alone. The rapids of the Green River 's Gray and Desolation Canyons and the less difficult "Goosenecks '' section of the lower San Juan River are also frequently traversed by boaters.
Eleven U.S. national parks -- Arches, Black Canyon of the Gunnison, Bryce Canyon, Canyonlands, Capitol Reef, Grand Canyon, Mesa Verde, Petrified Forest, Rocky Mountain, Saguaro, and Zion -- are in the watershed, in addition to many national forests, state parks, and recreation areas. Hiking, backpacking, camping, skiing, and fishing are among the multiple recreation opportunities offered by these areas. Fisheries have declined in many streams in the watershed, especially in the Rocky Mountains, because of polluted runoff from mining and agricultural activities. The Colorado 's major reservoirs are also heavily traveled summer destinations. Houseboating and water - skiing are popular activities on Lakes Mead, Powell, Havasu, and Mojave, as well as Flaming Gorge Reservoir in Utah and Wyoming, and Navajo Reservoir in New Mexico and Colorado. Lake Powell and surrounding Glen Canyon National Recreation Area received more than two million visitors per year in 2007, while nearly 7.9 million people visited Lake Mead and the Lake Mead National Recreation Area in 2008. Colorado River recreation employs some 250,000 people and contributes $26 billion each year to the Southwest economy.
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what is the town of centralia pennsylvania famous for | Centralia, Pennsylvania - wikipedia
Centralia is a borough and near - ghost town in Columbia County, Pennsylvania, United States. Its population has dwindled from more than 1,000 residents in 1980 to 63 by 1990, to only seven in 2013 -- a result of the coal mine fire which has been burning beneath the borough since 1962. Centralia, which is part of the Bloomsburg -- Berwick metropolitan area, is the least - populated municipality in Pennsylvania. It is completely surrounded by Conyngham Township.
All real estate in the borough was claimed under eminent domain in 1992 and therein condemned by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Centralia 's ZIP code was discontinued by the Postal Service in 2002. State and local officials reached an agreement with the seven remaining residents on October 29, 2013, allowing them to live out their lives there, after which the rights to their houses will be taken through eminent domain.
Many of the Native American tribes in what is now Columbia County sold the land that makes up Centralia to colonial agents in 1749 for the sum of £ 500. In 1770, during the construction of the Reading Road, which stretched from Reading to Fort Augusta (present - day Sunbury), settlers surveyed and explored the land. A large portion of the Reading Road was developed later as Route 61, the main highway east into and south out of Centralia.
In 1793, Robert Morris, a hero of the Revolutionary War and a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, acquired a third of Centralia 's valley land. When he declared bankruptcy in 1798, the land was surrendered to the Bank of the United States. A French sea captain named Stephen Girard purchased Morris ' lands for $30,000, including 68 tracts east of Morris '. He had learned that there was anthracite coal in the region.
The Centralia coal deposits were largely overlooked before the construction of the Mine Run Railroad in 1854. In 1832, Johnathan Faust opened the Bull 's Head Tavern in what was called Roaring Creek Township; this gave the town its first name, Bull 's Head. In 1842, Centralia 's land was bought by the Locust Mountain Coal and Iron Company. Alexander Rae, a mining engineer, moved his family in and began planning a village, laying out streets and lots for development. Rae named the town Centreville, but in 1865 changed it to Centralia because the U.S. Post Office already had a Centreville in Schuylkill County. The Mine Run Railroad was built in 1854 to transport coal out of the valley.
The first two mines in Centralia opened in 1856, the Locust Run Mine and the Coal Ridge Mine. Afterward came the Hazeldell Colliery Mine in 1860, the Centralia Mine in 1862, and the Continental Mine in 1863. The Continental was located on Stephen Girard 's former estate. Branching from the Lehigh Valley Railroad, the Lehigh and Mahanoy Railroad was constructed to Centralia in 1865; it enabled transport and expansion of Centralia 's coal sales to markets in eastern Pennsylvania.
Centralia was incorporated as a borough in 1866. Its principal employer was the anthracite coal industry. Alexander Rae, the town 's founder, was murdered in his buggy by members of the Molly Maguires on October 17, 1868, during a trip between Centralia and Mount Carmel. Three men were eventually convicted of his death and were hanged in the county seat of Bloomsburg, on March 25, 1878.
Several other murders and incidents of arson also took place during the violence, as Centralia was a hotbed of Molly Maguires activity during the 1860s to organize a mineworkers union in order to improve wages and working conditions. A legend among locals in Centralia tells that Father Daniel Ignatius McDermott, the first Roman Catholic priest to call Centralia home, cursed the land in retaliation for being assaulted by three members of the Maguires in 1869. McDermott said that there would be a day when St. Ignatius Roman Catholic Church would be the only structure remaining in Centralia. Many of the Molly Maguires ' leaders were hanged in 1877, ending their crimes. Legends say that a number of descendants of the Molly Maguires still lived in Centralia up until the 1980s.
According to numbers of Federal census records, the town of Centralia reached its maximum population of 2,761 in the year 1890. At its peak the town had seven churches, five hotels, 27 saloons, two theaters, a bank, a post office, and 14 general and grocery stores. Thirty - seven years later the production of anthracite coal had reached its peak in Pennsylvania. In the following years, production declined, as many young miners from Centralia enlisted in the military when the US entered World War I.
In 1929 the crash of the stock market resulted in the Lehigh Valley Coal Company closing five of its Centralia - local mines. Bootleg miners continued mining in several idle mines, using techniques such as what was called "pillar - robbing, '' where miners would extract coal from coal pillars left in mines to support their roofs. This caused the collapse of many idle mines, further complicating the prevention of the mine fire in 1962. Efforts to seal off the abandoned mines ran into the collapsed areas.
In the year 1950, Centralia Council acquired the rights to all anthracite coal beneath Centralia through a state law passed in 1949 that enabled the transaction. That year, the federal census counted 1,986 residents in Centralia.
Coal mining continued in Centralia until the 1960s, when most of the companies shut down. Bootleg mining continued until 1982, and strip and open - pit mining are still active in the area. An underground mine about three miles to the west employs about 40 people.
Rail service ended in 1966. Centralia operated its own school district, including elementary schools and a high school. There were also two Catholic parochial schools. By 1980, it had 1,012 residents. Another 500 or 600 lived nearby.
Analysts disagree about the specific cause of the Centralia fire. Writer David Dekok concluded that it started with an attempt to clean up the town landfill. In May 1962, the Centralia Borough Council hired five members of the volunteer fire company to clean up the town landfill, located in an abandoned strip - mine pit next to the Odd Fellows Cemetery just outside the borough limits. This had been done prior to Memorial Day in previous years, when the landfill was in a different location.
On May 27, 1962, the firefighters, as they had in the past, set the dump on fire and let it burn for some time. Unlike in previous years, however, the fire was not fully extinguished. An unsealed opening in the pit allowed the fire to enter the labyrinth of abandoned coal mines beneath Centralia.
By contrast, Joan Quigley states in her book The Day the Earth Caved In (2007) that the fire had started the previous day, when a trash hauler dumped hot ash or coal discarded from coal burners into the open trash pit. She noted that borough council minutes from June 4, 1962 referred to two fires at the dump, and that five firefighters had submitted bills for "fighting the fire at the landfill area. '' The borough, by law, was responsible for installing a fire - resistant clay barrier between each layer of the landfill, but fell behind schedule, leaving the barrier incomplete. This allowed the hot coals to penetrate the vein of coal underneath the pit and start the subsequent subterranean fire.
Another theory proposes that the Bast Colliery fire of 1932 was never fully extinguished, and that fire reached the landfill area by 1962; however, a miner named Frank Jurgill Sr. disputes that theory. Jurgill claims he operated a bootleg mine with his brother near the landfill from 1960 to 1962. If the Bast Colliery fire had not been extinguished, the brothers would likely have been overcome or killed by the noxious gases via many interconnected tunnels in the area.
In 1979, locals became aware of the scale of the problem when a gas - station owner, then - mayor John Coddington, inserted a dipstick into one of his underground tanks to check the fuel level. When he withdrew it, it seemed hot. He lowered a thermometer into the tank on a string and was shocked to discover that the temperature of the gasoline in the tank was 172 ° F (77.8 ° C).
Statewide attention to the fire began to increase, culminating in 1981 when a 12 - year - old resident named Todd Domboski fell into a sinkhole, 4 feet (1.2 m) wide by 150 feet (46 m) deep, that suddenly opened beneath his feet in a backyard. His cousin, 14 - year - old Eric Wolfgang, pulled Domboski out of the hole and saved his life. The plume of hot steam billowing from the hole was tested and found to contain a lethal level of carbon monoxide.
Although there was physical, visible evidence of the fire, residents of Centralia were bitterly divided over the question of whether or not the fire posed a direct threat to the town. In The Real Disaster is Above Ground, Steve Kroll - Smith and Steve Couch identified at least six community groups, each organized around varying interpretations of the amount and kind of risk posed by the fire. In 1983, the Congress allocated more than $42 million for relocation efforts. The vast majority of residents accepted the government 's buyout offers. More than 1,000 people moved out of the town, and 500 structures were demolished.
In 1992, Pennsylvania governor Bob Casey invoked eminent domain on all property in the borough, condemning all the buildings within. A subsequent legal effort by residents to overturn the action failed. In 2002, the U.S. Postal Service discontinued Centralia 's ZIP code, 17927. In 2009, Governor Ed Rendell began the formal eviction of the remaining Centralia residents.
The Centralia mine fire extended beneath the village of Byrnesville, a short distance to the south, and required it also to be abandoned.
Few homes remain standing in Centralia. Most of the abandoned buildings have been demolished by the Columbia County Redevelopment Authority or reclaimed by nature. At a casual glance, the area now appears to be a field with many paved streets running through it. Some areas are being filled with new - growth forest. The remaining church in the borough, St. Mary 's, holds weekly services on Sunday. It has not yet been directly affected by the fire. The town 's four cemeteries -- including one on the hilltop that has smoke rising around and out of it -- are maintained in good condition.
The only indications of the fire, which underlies some 400 acres (160 ha) spreading along four fronts, are low round metal steam vents in the south of the borough. Several signs warn of underground fire, unstable ground, and dangerous levels of carbon monoxide. Additional smoke and steam can be seen coming from an abandoned portion of Pennsylvania Route 61, the area just behind the hilltop cemetery, and other cracks in the ground scattered about the area. Route 61 was repaired several times until it was closed.
The current route was formerly a detour around the damaged portion during the repairs and became a permanent route in 1993; mounds of dirt were placed at both ends of the former route, effectively blocking the road. Pedestrian traffic is still possible due to a small opening about two feet wide at the north side of the road. The underground fire is still burning and may continue to do so for 250 years. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania did not renew the relocation contract at the end of 2005.
The last remaining house on Locust Avenue was demolished in September 2007. It was notable for a period for the five chimney - like support buttresses along each of two opposite sides of the house. The house had formerly been supported by a row of adjacent buildings. Another house with similar buttresses was visible from the northern side of the cemetery, just north of the burning, partially subsumed hillside.
Residents John Comarnisky and John Lokitis, Jr. were evicted in May and July 2009, respectively. In May 2009, the remaining residents mounted another legal effort to reverse the 1992 eminent domain claim. In 2010, only five homes remain as state officials try to vacate the remaining residents and demolish what is left of the town. In March 2011, a federal judge refused to issue an injunction that would have stopped the condemnation.
The Borough Council still has regular meetings as of 2011. It was reported that the town 's highest bill at the meeting reported on came from PPL, a power utility, at $92 and the town 's budget was "in the black. ''
In February 2012, the Commonwealth Court ruled that a declaration of taking could not be re-opened or set aside on the basis that the purpose for the condemnation no longer exists; seven people, including the Borough Council president, had filed suit claiming the condemnation was no longer needed because the underground fire had moved and the air quality in the borough was the same as that in Lancaster. In October 2013, the remaining residents settled their lawsuit, receiving $218,000 in compensation for the value of their homes, along with $131,500 to settle additional claims, and the right to stay in their homes for the rest of their lives.
The town 's residents and former residents decided to open a time capsule buried in 1966 a few years earlier than planned after someone had attempted to unearth and steal the capsule in May 2014. The capsule was not scheduled to be opened until 2016. Items found in the footlocker - sized capsule, which had been inundated with about 12 inches (30 cm) of water, included a miner 's helmet, a miner 's lamp, some coal, a Bible, local souvenirs, and a pair of bloomers signed by the men of Centralia in 1966.
Several current and former Centralia residents believe the state 's eminent domain claim was a plot to gain the mineral rights to the anthracite coal beneath the borough. Residents have asserted its value to be in the hundreds of millions of dollars, although the exact amount of coal is not known.
This theory is based on the municipality laws of the state. According to state law, when the municipality can no longer form a functioning municipal government, i.e., when there are no longer any residents, the borough legally ceases to exist. At that point, the mineral rights, which are owned by the Borough of Centralia (they are not privately held) would revert to the ownership of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
As of the census of 2000, there were 21 people, 10 households, and 7 families residing in the borough. The population density was 87.5 people per square mile (3.38 km2). There were 16 housing units at an average density of 66.7 people per square mile (2.57 km2). The racial makeup of the borough was 100 % white.
There were 10 households, out of which 1 (10 %) had children under the age of 18 living with them, 5 (50 %) were married couples living together, 1 had a female householder with no husband present, and 3 (30 %) were non-families. 3 of the households were made up of individuals, and 1 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.10, and the average family size was 2.57.
In the borough the population was spread out, with 1 resident under the age of 18, 1 from 18 to 24, 4 from 25 to 44, 7 from 45 to 64, and 8 who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 62 years. There were 10 females and 11 males with 1 male under the age of 18.
The median income for a household in the borough was $23,750, and the median income for a family was $28,750. The per capita income for the borough was $16,083. None of the population was below the poverty line.
As of the census of 2010 there were 10 people (down 52 % since 2000), 5 households (down 50 %), and 3 families (down 57 %) residing in the borough. The population density was 42 people per square mile (16 / km2) (down 52 %). There were 6 housing units (down 62.5 %) at an average density of 0.4 units per square mile (. 015 units / km2). The racial makeup of the borough was 100 % white.
Of the five households, none had children under the age of 18. Two (40 %) were married couples living together, one (20 %) had a female householder with no spouse present, and two (40 %) were non-families. One of those non-family households was an individual, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.0 persons, and the average family size was 2.33 persons.
There were no residents under the age of 18, one aged 25 -- 29, one aged 50 -- 54, one aged 55 -- 59, four aged 60 -- 64, two aged 70 -- 74, and one aged 80 -- 84. The median age was 62.5 years, and there were five females and five males in total.
The borough is served by a small group of volunteer firefighters operating one fire engine that is more than 30 years old. The fire company 's ambulance was given to the nearby Wilburton Fire Company in Conyngham Township in 2012. The town 's Ukrainian Catholic church remains in use and attracts worshipers from surrounding towns including people who were once resident in the town. A geological survey found there was no coal under the church so it is not in danger of collapse due to the fire.
Centralia has been used as a model for many different ghost towns and physical manifestations of Hell. Prominent examples include Dean Koontz 's Strange Highways and David Wellington 's Vampire Zero.
Centralia was the inspiration for the Silent Hill film adaptation.
The 1982 PBS documentary Centralia Mine Fire contains interviews with residents and relates the story of the mine fire.
The 1987 film Made in U.S.A. opens in Centralia and the surrounding coal region of Pennsylvania.
The 2007 documentary The Town That Was is about the history of the town and its current and former residents.
Centralia had a segment entitled "City on Fire '' on the Travel Channel television series America Declassified which aired in 2013.
The Centralia story was explored in the documentary segment "Dying Embers '' from public radio station WNYC 's RadioLab.
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what is a box junction on the road | Box junction - wikipedia
A box junction is a road traffic control measure designed to prevent congestion and gridlock at junctions. The surface of the junction is typically marked with a criss - cross grid of diagonal painted lines (or only two lines crossing each other in the box), and vehicles may not enter the area so marked unless their exit from the junction is clear, or they are intending to turn right and are prevented from doing so by oncoming traffic, or other vehicles on the box waiting to turn right.
Box junctions were introduced in UK during 1967, following a successful trial in London. In both Ireland and the United Kingdom (where cars drive on the left), drivers may enter the box and wait when they want to turn right and are stopped from doing so only by oncoming traffic or by other vehicles waiting to turn right.
Similar yellow boxes may be painted on other areas of roadway which must be kept free of queuing traffic, such as exits from emergency vehicle depots or level crossings.
Box junctions are most widely used in many European countries such as Cyprus, Ireland, Malta, Portugal, Serbia and the United Kingdom; in parts of the United States, such as New York and Colorado; and other countries, including Canada, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, South Africa, Taiwan and Brazil.
In Australia, New Zealand and the European Union (excluding Ireland and the United Kingdom), road rules state that every intersection is a box: that is, the driver may not enter any intersection unless there is clear space on the other side, whether it is marked or not. In the EU this also applies to junctions with a minor road within the waiting area of a traffic light on the major road. This is generally respected, though rarely in Germany, but the diagonal grid is still painted on some congested intersections to remind drivers of the rule and on level crossings where blocking the intersection could cause an accident. The same rule applies at every intersection in Russia.
Several U.S. states have enacted laws intending to decrease gridlock at intersections, railroad crossings, and marked crosswalks which prohibit motorists from entering any of the three until they are certain their vehicle can clear it, as recommended by Uniform Vehicle Code section 11 - 1112. Examples include California, Florida, and Ohio. No special road markings are used to indicate this rule, but some governments post warning signs to increase awareness of the law at problematic intersections.
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muddy waters mannish boy (i'm a man) | Mannish Boy - wikipedia
"Mannish Boy '' (or "Manish Boy '' as it was originally titled) is a blues standard by Muddy Waters. First recorded in 1955, the song is both an arrangement of and an "answer song '' to Bo Diddley 's "I 'm a Man '', which was in turn inspired by Waters ' and Willie Dixon 's "Hoochie Coochie Man ''. "Mannish Boy '' features a repeating stop - time figure on one chord throughout the song and is credited to Waters, Mel London, and Bo Diddley.
As "Manish Boy '', the song was recorded in Chicago on May 24, 1955. It is the only recording by Muddy Waters between January 1953 and June 1957 that did not feature Little Walter on harmonica (who was on tour supporting his then - number one hit "My Babe '' and thus unavailable for the recording session) and is one of few studio recordings with Junior Wells. Also accompanying Muddy Waters are Jimmy Rogers on guitar, Fred Below on drums, and an unidentified female chorus.
Muddy Waters recorded several versions of "Mannish Boy '' during his career. In 1968, he recorded it for the Electric Mud album in Marshall Chess ' attempt to attract the rock market. After he left Chess, he recorded it for the 1977 Hard Again album which was produced by Johnny Winter. A live version with Winter appears on Muddy "Mississippi '' Waters - Live (1979). Muddy Waters also performed it at the Band 's farewell concert The Last Waltz, and the performance is included in the documentary film of the concert as well as on the film 's soundtrack of the same title.
The song reached number five during a stay of six weeks in the Billboard R&B chart. The song was Muddy Waters ' only chart appearance on the UK Singles Chart, peaking at number 51 in 1988.
In 1986, Muddy Waters ' original "Mannish Boy '' was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame "Classics of Blues Recordings '' category. It was also included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's list of the "500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll ''. "Mannish Boy '' is ranked number 230 in Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''.
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what does it take to get a gun license in america | Gun laws in the United states by state - wikipedia
Gun laws in the United States regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition. State laws (and the laws of Washington, D.C. and the U.S. territories) vary considerably, and are independent of existing federal firearms laws, although they are sometimes broader or more limited in scope than the federal laws.
State level laws vary significantly in their form, content, and level of restriction. Forty - four states have a provision in their state constitutions similar to the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which protects the right to keep and bear arms. The exceptions are California, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, and New York. In New York, however, the statutory civil rights laws contain a provision virtually identical to the Second Amendment. Additionally, the U.S. Supreme Court held in McDonald v. Chicago that the protections of the Second Amendment to keep and bear arms for self - defense in one 's home apply against state governments and their political subdivisions.
Firearm owners are subject to the firearm laws of the state they are in, and not exclusively their state of residence. Reciprocity between states exists in certain situations, such as with regard to concealed carry permits. These are recognized on a state - by - state basis. For example, Idaho recognizes an Oregon permit, but Oregon does not recognize an Idaho permit. Florida issues a license to carry both concealed weapons and firearms, but others license only the concealed carry of firearms. Some states do not recognize out - of - state permits to carry a firearm at all, so it is important to understand the laws of each state when traveling with a handgun.
In many cases, state firearms laws can be considerably less restrictive than federal firearms laws. This does not confer any de jure immunity against prosecution for violations of the federal laws. However, state and local police departments are not legally obligated to enforce federal gun law as per the U.S. Supreme Court 's ruling in Printz v. United States.
Firearm related matters that are often regulated by state or local laws include the following:
* Act 746 allows for concealed carry without permit when upon a journey (outside of one 's county of residence).
Enhanced concealed carry permits allow for carrying in some forbidden areas such as carrying at public colleges, most public buildings, non-secure locations in an airport, churches, and more.
Machine guns may not have ammunition. 30 in. or 7.63 mm or bigger unless the gun is registered to an ammunition corporation.
With the passage of Senate Bill 880 and Assembly Bill 1135 in June 2016, the state 's assault weapon ban has been expanded to include all semi-automatic center - fire rifles and shotguns that have a "bullet button '' detachable magazine; effectively repealing a prior law that made "bullet button '' magazines required on all newly manufactured weapons with detachable magazines. The sale or transfer of such weapons will be prohibited, effective January 1, 2017. Those purchased prior to January 1, 2017 must be registered with the DOJ by the start of 2018. The definition of types of weapons that are banned has been expanded, the exact definitions should be reviewed at the California DOJ website.
Section 32310 of the Penal Code states: "commencing January 1, 2000, any person in this state who manufactures or causes to be manufactured, imports into the state, keeps for sale, or offers or exposes for sale, or who gives, lends, buys, or receives any large - capacity magazine is punishable by imprisonment in a county jail not exceeding one year or imprisonment ''. Thus, the offenses listed can be charged as a felony or a misdemeanor at the discretion of the prosecutor. The section continues further by explaining that: "' manufacturing ' includes both fabricating a magazine and assembling a magazine from a combination of parts, including, but not limited to, the body, spring, follower, and floor plate or end plate, to be a fully functioning large - capacity magazine ''. Until January 1, 2014, it was only a crime to "manufacture, import, keep for sale, offer or expose for sale, or give or lend any large - capacity magazine ''. Assembly Bill 48 was signed by Governor Jerry Brown on October 11, 2013 and expanded previous prohibitions by making it illegal to buy or receive a large - capacity magazine or magazine rebuild kit. Peace officers (under Penal Code Section 830) and "person licensed pursuant to (CA Penal Code) Sections 26700 to 26915 '' are exempt this prohibition on the purchase and sale of large - capacity magazines for personal use. However, federal law enforcement officers are not exempt and must obtain large - capacity magazines through their agency. In November 2016 California voters approved Proposition 63. The referendum outlaws the possession of magazines that can hold more than ten rounds of ammunition, requires background checks for all ammunition sales, and mandates the reporting of lost or stolen firearms. On June 30, 2017, a federal judge blocked the enforcement of Proposition 63 's ban on the possession of magazines capable of holding more than 10 rounds of ammunition, pending the outcome of litigation concerning the ban. Magazines that would have been subject to the Proposition 63 ban are legal for private citizens to keep until the injunction is either lifted and / or the ban is upheld by the courts.
§ 27600 - 27750 (5)
On August 25, 2014, the California 's 10 - day waiting period for gun purchases was ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California which found that "the 10 - day waiting periods of Penal Code (sections 26815 (a) and 27540 (a)) violate the Second Amendment '' as applied to members of certain classifications (notably holders of concealed carry permits) and "burdens the Second Amendment rights of the Plaintiffs ''. On December 14, 2016 this ruling was overturned by a three - judge panel of the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. The plaintiffs ' petition for an en banc rehearing was denied April 4, 2017; a Supreme Court certiorari petition is pending.
There is a de facto registry of the sale (including the serial numbers) of handguns and long guns purchased in state that is maintained by the Department of Emergency Services and Public Protection (DESPP). Any transfer, be it from a dealer or private party, must be accompanied by an authorization number issued by the DESPP and a form containing personal and weapon identification (DPS - 3 - C) must be submitted to DESPP and local police. This form is collected and maintained on all guns purchased from FFL dealers as well. The DPS - 3 - C form is not required for long gun transfers made out of state, and there is no legal requirement / penalty to register firearms purchased out of state or lawfully obtained before April 1, 2014.
Connecticut has a two - step permitting process: a 60 - day Temporary permit issued by local authorities and a 5 - year Regular permit issued by the Department of Emergency Services and Public Protection (DESPP). Issuance of a Temporary permit is technically not a prerequisite to apply for a Regular permit, but in practice an applicant must await a decision from local authorities on the temporary permit application before applying to DESPP for the Regular permit. If the local permit is denied for any reason, instead one files an appeal to DESPP to have the state board re-examine the application. If the state board denies the permit (rare occurrence), a court appeal is possible. Permit needed to carry open or concealed. Exceptions for peace officers and Active - Duty military members. Out of state permits not valid in Connecticut, but non-residents may apply for a Connecticut non-resident carry permit through the mail. Non-residents must have a carry permit issued by a United States jurisdiction to apply.
HRS134 - 11 (3)
No laws against open carrying long guns.
As of July 1, 2017, persons who a) are at least 18 years old, b) are protected by a protection order, c) have applied for a license, and d) are not prohibited from possessing a handgun may carry a handgun without a license for 60 days from the date of the protection order being issued.
On May 9, 2017, the Indiana Supreme Court ruled that detaining an individual based solely upon their possession of a handgun (in order to verify that they are licensed) violates the Fourth Amendment absent any other reasonable articulable suspicion of a crime being committed.
707.6
Suppressors legal as of March 31, 2016. Short barreled rifle / shotgun legal as of April 13, 2017.
May carry concealed without permit as of July 1, 2015, however permits can be issued for those who wish to have them.
remains within the borders of Kansas is not subject to any federal law, suppressor that is manufactured in Kansas and remains within the borders of Kansas are not subject to any federal law, including the NFA. A firearm manufactured in Kansas must have the words "Made in Kansas '' clearly stamped on a central metallic part, such as the receiver or frame.
§ § 609.66, subd. 1f (https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/?id=609.66#stat.609.66.1f) and 624.7132, subd. 12 (1) (https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/?id=624.7132#stat.624.7132.12).
On April 15, 2016, the law was further expanded to include belt and shoulder holsters and sheaths. This effectively allows for constitutional carry in Mississippi. However, some forms of concealed carrying would still require a permit (e.g. Mexican carry or concealed in an ankle holster).
Licenses still available on a shall - issue basis, issued within 45 days. The license is valid for five years. An enhanced license allows for carrying at public universities and other places.
Concealed carry is not allowed in a k - 12 school, courthouse, police station, detention facility, government meeting place, polling place, establishment primarily devoted to dispensing alcoholic beverages, athletic event, parade or demonstration for which a permit is required, passenger terminal of an airport, "place of nuisance '' as defined in Mississippi Code section 95 -- 3 -- 1, or a location where a sign is posted and clearly visible from at least ten feet away saying that the "carrying of a pistol or revolver is prohibited ''. With an enhanced carry permit per Mississippi Code section 97 - 37 - 7 (2) as amended by House Bill 506 of the 2011 Regular Session, the prohibited locations to carry concealed are as follows: any police, sheriff or highway patrol station; any detention facility, prison or jail; courtrooms during a judicial proceeding; any "place of nuisance ''; and (not listed in the Mississippi statutes, but still relevant) any place where the carrying of firearms is prohibited by federal law. A license to carry a pistol or revolver is not required for open carry. A license is not required for transporting a concealed or visible firearm in a vehicle.
Concealed carry without a permit is generally allowed outside city, town, or logging camp limits.
* Nevada Attorney General Adam Laxalt opined that the law is unenforceable.
O.R.C. 2923.121
O.R.C. 2923.17
In 2011, the Oregon Court of Appeals ruled that public universities no longer have the authority to prohibit firearms on their grounds, however may still prohibit them inside buildings. This effectively legalized campus carry on grounds.
The practice of not issuing permits on a true ' shall issue ' basis has been the subject of recent litigation. In April 2015, the Rhode Island Supreme Court has ruled that a police chief must accept and review carry permit applications and must render a decision and the reasons for that decision. More significantly, the court ruled that the issuing authority must "show cause '' for denying an applicant a carry license.
Permits issued by local authorities and the Attorney General 's office are valid for concealed carry statewide.
As of July 1, 2014, due to the enhanced Castle Doctrine law, a person may keep a loaded handgun or long gun in their private vehicle without a permit.
As of July 1, 2017, persons who can legally possess / purchase a firearm and are protected by a protection order may carry a handgun without a license for 60 days from the date of the protection order being issued.
* Loaded long gun carry in public is generally illegal, with exceptions for activities such as hunting in approved areas. Unloaded long gun carry is not prohibited.
Public four - year universities (as of August 1, 2016) and public two - year colleges (as of August 1, 2017) must allow concealed carry in campus buildings as well. Universities will be allowed to designate certain sensitive areas as "gun free zones ''; these will be subject to legislative analysis.
As of 2004, may carry at public universities.
Open carry of a loaded firearm (e.g., a live round of ammunition in the firing chamber) is allowed with a permit
"(g) a nonresident traveling in or through the state, provided that any firearm is: (i) unloaded; and (ii) securely encased as defined in Section 76 - 10 - 501. '' Handguns may be loaded in any vehicle under the person 's control.
"(1) A person is justified in using force against another when and to the extent that he reasonably believes that the force is necessary to prevent or terminate the other 's unlawful entry into or attack upon his habitation; however, he is justified in the use of force which is intended or likely to cause death or serious bodily injury only if: (a) the entry is made or attempted in a violent and tumultuous manner, surreptitiously, or by stealth, and he reasonably believes that the entry is attempted or made for the purpose of assaulting or offering personal violence to any person, dwelling, or being in the habitation and he reasonably believes that the force is necessary to prevent the assault or offer of personal violence; or (b) he reasonably believes that the entry is made or attempted for the purpose of committing a felony in the habitation and that the force is necessary to prevent the commission of the felony. (2) The person using force or deadly force in defense of habitation is presumed for the purpose of both civil and criminal cases to have acted reasonably and had a reasonable fear of imminent peril of death or serious bodily injury if the entry or attempted entry is unlawful and is made or attempted by use of force, or in a violent and tumultuous manner, or surreptitiously or by stealth, or for the purpose of committing a felony. ''
"(1) (a) A person is justified in threatening or using force against another when and to the extent that the person reasonably believes that force or a threat of force is necessary to defend the person or a third person against another person 's imminent use of unlawful force. (b) A person is justified in using force intended or likely to cause death or serious bodily injury only if the person reasonably believes that force is necessary to prevent death or serious bodily injury to the person or a third person as a result of another person 's imminent use of unlawful force, or to prevent the commission of a forcible felony. ''
§ 18.2 - 287.4 § 18.2 - 282.
For open carry in a vehicle, the firearm must be "properly secured in a container or compartment within the vehicle '' (ie glove box, center console, trunk, etc). The container / compartment does not have to be locked, the firearm may be within the reach of the driver or a passenger, and the firearm may be loaded. This does not preempt an employer from prohibiting firearms "at a place of employment if there is a company policy or signage prohibiting firearms on the premises. '' Furthermore, a "county or city may by ordinance make it unlawful for any person to transport, possess or carry a loaded shotgun or loaded rifle in any vehicle on any public street, road, or highway within such locality. '' However, this does not "apply to duly authorized law - enforcement officers or military personnel in the performance of their lawful duties, nor to any person who reasonably believes that a loaded rifle or shotgun is necessary for his personal safety in the course of his employment or business. ''
In addition, a firearm may be considered "open carry '' in a vehicle if the firearm is openly visible, though this is not as well established as the "secured in a container / compartment '' rule.
§ 18.2 - 308.2: 01 § 18.2 - 308.7
§ 18.2 - 282.
RCW 09.41. 110 (9) (a) and (b)
RCW 09.41. 050 CCW Reciprocity
RCW 09.41. 290 RCW 09.41. 300
RCW 09.41. 190 RCW 09.41. 220 RCW 09.41. 225 RCW 09.41. 250 (1) (c)
RCW 09.41. 050 RCW 09.41. 060 18 USC § 926A CCW Reciprocity
§ 61 - 7 - 7
Campus carry is allowed, but buildings may be exempted if signs forbidding firearms are posted.
941.26
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where does the deoxygenated blood enter the heart | Pulmonary circulation - wikipedia
The pulmonary circulation is the portion of the circulatory system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle of the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium and ventricle of the heart. The term pulmonary circulation is readily paired and contrasted with the systemic circulation. The vessels of the pulmonary circulation are the pulmonary arteries and the pulmonary veins.
A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the heart, goes to the lungs, and then re-enters the heart; Deoxygenated blood leaves through the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery. From the right atrium, the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve (or right atrioventricular valve), into the right ventricle. Blood is then pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary valve and into the main pulmonary artery.
The pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is picked up during respiration. Arteries are further divided into very fine capillaries which are extremely thin - walled. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
The oxygenated blood then leaves the lungs through pulmonary veins, which return it to the left heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. This blood then enters the left atrium, which pumps it through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. From the left ventricle, the blood passes through the aortic valve to the aorta. The blood is then distributed to the body through the systemic circulation before returning again to the pulmonary circulation.
From the right ventricle, blood is pumped through the semilunar pulmonary valve into the left and right main pulmonary arteries (one for each lung), which branch into smaller pulmonary arteries that spread throughout the lungs.
The pulmonary circulation loop is virtually bypassed in fetal circulation. The fetal lungs are collapsed, and blood passes from the right atrium directly into the left atrium through the foramen ovale: an open conduit between the paired atria, or through the ductus arteriosus: a shunt between the pulmonary artery and the aorta. When the lungs expand at birth, the pulmonary pressure drops and blood is drawn from the right atrium into the right ventricle and through the pulmonary circuit. Over the course of several months, the foramen ovale closes, leaving a shallow depression known as the fossa ovalis.
A number of medical conditions can affect the pulmonary circulation.
Pulmonary circulation was first described by the Arab physician Ibn al - Nafis in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna 's Canon (1242). Ibn al - Nafis described pulmonary circulation as:
"the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit... ''
It was later described by Michael Servetus in the "Manuscript of Paris '' (near 1546, never published) and later published in his Christianismi Restitutio (1553). Since it was a theology work condemned by most of the Christian factions of his time, the discovery remained mostly unknown until the dissections of William Harvey in 1616.
In 1559, Realdo Colombo explained the Pulmonary function. Prior to Colombo 's work, anatomists such as Galen and Vesalius examined blood vessels separately from the organs of the body. Colombo instead considered these vessels together with the organs they support, and from this was able to conceptualize the flow of blood to and from each organ, supporting his discovery of pulmonary transition of the blood. Colombo also viewed the lungs separately from the heart, and assigned it as having a special role in respiration.
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what is the plot of the opera norma | Norma (opera) - wikipedia
Norma (Italian: (ˈnɔrma)) is a tragedia lirica or opera in two acts by Vincenzo Bellini with libretto by Felice Romani after Norma, ou L'infanticide (Norma, or The Infanticide) by Alexandre Soumet. It was first produced at La Scala in Milan on 26 December 1831.
The opera is regarded as a leading example of the bel canto genre, and the soprano prayer Casta diva in Act I is a famous piece. Notable exponents of the title role in the post-war period have been Maria Callas, Joan Sutherland, Montserrat Caballé and, in the 2007, Biondi - Minasi critical edition based on Bellini 's autograph score, Cecilia Bartoli.
Crivelli and Company were managing both La Scala and La Fenice in Venice, and as a result, in April -- May 1830 Bellini was able to negotiate a contract with them for two operas, one at each theatre. The opera for December 1831 at La Scala became Norma and while the one for the 1832 Carnival season at La Fenice became Beatrice di Tenda.
With Bellini 's La sonnambula successfully staged in March 1831 and Giuditta Pasta having demonstrated her extensive vocal and dramatic ranges in creating the role of Amina, the Swiss village maiden, she had been engaged by La Scala for her debut during the following season. Bellini and Romani then began to consider the subject of the coming autumn 's opera. By the summer, they had decided to base it on Alexandre Soumet 's play which was being performed in Paris at around that time and which Pasta would have seen.
For the forthcoming autumn / winter season, La Scala had engaged Giulia Grisi (the sister of Giuditta Grisi) and the well - known tenor Domenico Donzelli, who had made a name for himself with Rossini roles, especially that of Otello. They would fill the roles of Adalgisa and Pollione. Donzelli provided Bellini with precise details of his vocal capabilities which were confirmed by a report which the Neapolitan composer Saverio Mercadante also provided. By the end of August it appears that Romani had completed a considerable amount of the libretto, enough at least to allow Bellini to begin work, which he certainly did in the first weeks of September as the verses were supplied. He reported in a letter to Pasta on 1 September:
I hope that you will find this subject to your liking. Romani believes it to be very effective, and precisely because of the all - inclusive character for you, which is that of Norma. He will manipulate the situations so that they will not resemble other subjects at all, and he will retouch, even change, the characters to produce more effect, if need be.
Norma was completed by about the end of November. While, for Romani, it became "the most beautiful rose in the garland '' of all his work with Bellini, it was not achieved without some struggles. Bellini, now at the height of his powers, was very demanding of his librettist and required many re-writes before he was satisfied enough to set it to music.
After rehearsals began on 5 December, Pasta balked at singing the Casta diva in act 1, now one of the most famous arias of the nineteenth century. She felt that it was "ill adapted to her vocal abilities '', but Bellini was able to persuade her to keep trying for a week, after which she adapted to it and confessed her earlier error. At the opening night, the opera was received with what Weinstock describes as "chill indifference ''. To his friend Francesco Florimo, on the night of the premiere, Bellini wrote "Fiasco! Fiasco! Solemn fiasco! '' and proceeded to tell him of the indifference of the audience and how it affected him.
In addition, in a letter to his uncle on 28 December, Bellini tried to explain the reasons for the reactions. As other commentators have also noted, some problems were innate to the structure and content of the opera, while others were external to it. Bellini discusses the tiredness of the singers (after rehearsing the entire second act on the day of the premiere) as well as noting how certain numbers failed to please -- and failed to please the composer as well! But then he explains that most of the second act was very effective. It appears from the letter that the second evening 's performance was more successful and Weinstock reports it was from this performance forward that it "was recognised as a successful and important opera '' with 208 performances given at La Scala alone by the end of the 19th century.
Among the external reasons, Bellini cited the adverse reaction caused by "hostile factions in the audience '' consisting of both the owner of a journal (and his claque) and also of "a very rich woman '', who is identified by Weinstock as Contessa Giulia Samoyloff, the mistress of the composer Giovanni Pacini. On Bellini 's part, there had long been a feeling of rivalry with Pacini ever since the failure of his own Zaira in Parma and his return to Milan in June 1829. With no firm contract for a new opera for Bellini, Pacini 's success with his Il Talismano at La Scala -- where it received 16 performances -- fueled this rivalry, at least in Bellini 's head. It was only when he staged a triumphant revival of his own with Il pirata with the original cast that he felt vindicated. Pirata received 24 consecutive performances between 16 July and 23 August 1829, thus outnumbering those for Pacini 's opera. However, Bellini also noted that on the second performance evening of Norma, the theatre was full.
In all, Norma was given 34 performances in its first season at La Scala, and reports from elsewhere, especially those from Bergamo, when it was staged in late 1832, suggested that it was becoming more and more popular. Between 1831 and 1850 Weinstock provides details of the dozens of performances given in numerous cities outside of Italy, and then he gives details of those beyond.
Bellini left Milan for Naples, and then Sicily, on 5 January 1832 and, for the first time since 1827, 1832 became a year in which he did not write an opera. Norma quickly "(conquered) the whole of Europe in the space of a few years ''.
Richard Wagner conducted Norma at Riga in 1837. Following the common nineteenth - century practice of adding interpolated arias, he wrote an aria for the bass and men 's chorus for this production. However, that aria has not entered the general repertoire. Wagner wrote at the time that Norma was "indisputably Bellini 's most successful composition ''. "In this opera, Bellini has undoubtedly risen to the greatest heights of his talent. In these days of romantic extravaganzas and the hyper - excitement of the so - called musical attractions he presents a phenomenon which can hardly be overrated. The action, free from all theatrical coups and dazzling effects, reminds one instinctively of a Greek tragedy. Perhaps the views expressed by Schiller in his ' Bride of Messina ' to the effect that he had hopes for the full revival of the tragedy of the ancients upon our stage, in the form of the opera, will receive new justification in this Norma! Let anyone name me a spiritual painting of its kind, more fully carried out, than that of this wild Gaelic prophetess... Every emotional moment stands out plastically; nothing has been vaguely swept together... ''
Wagner also praised Romani 's libretto:
Here, where the poem rises to the tragic height of the ancient Greeks, this kind of form, which Bellini has certainly ennobled, serves only to increase the solemn and imposing character of the whole; all the phases of passion, which are rendered in so peculiarly clear a light by his art of song, are thereby made to rest upon a majestic soil and ground, above which they do not vaguely flutter about, but resolve themselves into a grand and manifest picture, which involuntarily calls to mind the creations of Gluck and Spontini.
The opera was given its British premiere in London on 20 June 1833 and its US premiere at the St. Charles Theatre in New Orleans on 1 April 1836. In the late 1840s and during the Risorgimento era, some of the music was used in demonstrations of nationalistic fervour, one such example being the 1848 celebration of the liberation of Sicily from the rule of the Bourbons held in the cathedral in Palermo. There, the Guerra, guerra ("War, war! '') chorus from act 2 was sung.
During the 20th century, with the bel canto revival, the most prolific Norma was the Greek - American soprano Maria Callas, who gave 89 stage performances (several of which exist on live recordings as well as two on studio versions made in 1954 and 1960). Callas 's first appearances in the role began at the Teatro Comunale di Firenze in November / December 1948 followed by the second at the Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires in June 1949, both of which were conducted by Tullio Serafin. The following year, she appeared in the role at La Fenice in Venice in January 1950, this time under Antonino Votto, and in Mexico in May 1950 conducted by Guido Picco. In London in 1952, Callas sang Norma at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden in November (where the role of Clotilde was sung by Joan Sutherland); she made her American debut singing the role at the Lyric Opera of Chicago in November 1954 under Nicola Rescigno; and then she appeared at the Metropolitan Opera in New York under Fausto Cleva in October / November 1956. In 1960, she performed Norma in the Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus in Greece with the collaboration of the Greek National Opera.
Many other notable sopranos have performed the role, so that in modern times, Norma continues to be quite widely performed. Operabase shows 274 performances of 62 productions in 51 cities given or planned to be given since 1 January 2012.
The title role -- "one of the most taxing and wide - ranging parts in the entire repertory '' -- is one of the most difficult in the soprano repertoire. It calls for great vocal control of range, flexibility, and dynamics as well as containing a wide range of emotions: conflict of personal and public life, romantic life, maternal love, friendship, jealousy, murderous intent, and resignation. The German soprano Lilli Lehmann once remarked that the singing of all three Brünnhilde roles of Wagner 's opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen in one evening would be less stressful than the singing of one Norma. She also commented "When you sing Wagner, you are so carried away by the dramatic emotion, the action, and the scene that you do not have to think how to sing the words. That comes of itself. But in Bellini, you must always have a care for beauty of tone and correct emission. '' According to the Met Opera Archives Lehmann said this to Herald Tribune critic Henry Krehbiel.
Throughout the 20th century, many singers have taken the role of Norma. In the early 1920s, it was Rosa Raisa, Claudia Muzio, and Rosa Ponselle who were each admired. Maria Callas emerged as a major force in the role in the post-World War II period. She made two studio recordings of the opera for EMI, and several broadcasts of her live performances have been preserved from the early 1950s through her final performances of the role in Paris in 1964.
In the 1960s, two very different performers took the role: the Australian Dame Joan Sutherland and the Turk Leyla Gencer. Following Sutherland 's 1964 debut as Norma, Luciano Pavarotti called her "the greatest female voice of all time. ''
The Dutch coloratura Cristina Deutekom tackled the role in 1970. Throughout the decade, four other bel canto specialists debuted their Normas: Radmila Bakočević, Montserrat Caballé, Beverly Sills, and Renata Scotto. Also singing Norma during this period were Grace Bumbry and Shirley Verrett, the American divas who began as mezzo - sopranos and eventually started singing soprano repertoire.
During the 1980s and 1990s, the role of Norma was performed by such different singers as Katia Ricciarelli, Anna Tomowa - Sintow, Marisa Galvany, Dame Gwyneth Jones, and Jane Eaglen. Other Normas include Hasmik Papian, Fiorenza Cedolins, Galina Gorchakova, Maria Guleghina, Nelly Miricioiu, June Anderson, Edita Gruberová and Carmela Remigio (who performs more frequently the role of Adalgisa).
In 2008, Daniela Dessì performed as Norma at Teatro Comunale di Bologna. In 2010 (in Dortmund) and 2013 (at the Salzburg Festival) the role was taken by mezzo - soprano Cecilia Bartoli: this version was also recorded with coloratura soprano Sumi Jo as Adalgisa. In 2011, Sondra Radvanovsky also added the role to her repertory, one to which she returned in the autumn 2014 at the San Francisco Opera and in the autumn of 2017 at the Metropolitan Opera in New York. On 13 April 2013, the Italian bel canto soprano, Mariella Devia, after a career of 40 years and one day after turning 65, successfully made her debut as Norma at the Teatro Comunale di Bologna.
Oroveso leads the Druids in a procession in the forest to pray for victory against the invading Romans: (Oroveso and Druids: Ite sul colle, o Druidi / "Go up on the hill, O Druids. Go and observe the skies and see when the new moon will show her silver crescent ''). The Druids pray that Norma will come and have the courage to broker peace with the Romans: (Druids and Oroveso: Dell'aura tua profetica / "With thy prophetic aura, imbue her, O terrible God ''.) All leave to go to the temple.
Pollione and Flavio enter. Although Norma has secretly broken her vows in order to love him and has borne him two children, Pollione tells Flavio that he no longer loves her, having fallen in love with the priestess Adalgisa. But he expresses some remorse, describing his dream in which Adalgisa was beside him at the altar of Venus and a huge storm arose: (Pollione, aria: Meco all'altar di Venere / "With me at the altar in Rome was Adalgisa dressed in white, veiled all in white. '') The storm presaged disaster for them both: "Thus does Norma punish her faithless lover, '' he declares. They hear the trumpets sounding to announce Norma 's arrival. Flavio urges his friend to leave, but Pollione stands firm, proclaiming that he will confront them with a superior power and overthrow their altars: (Cabaletta: Me protegge, me difende / "I am protected and defended by a power greater than theirs / I am inspired by the thought of the one I love... '')
As Norma leads the Druids and Priestesses, the crowd proclaims: Norma viene / "Norma is coming '' and, as Oroveso awaits her, they describe her dress and manner. All kneel as she approaches. "The time is not ripe for our revenge, '' she declares, stating that Rome will perish one day by being worn down. Then, with the mistletoe in hand, she approaches the altar with a plea to the moon (the "Chaste Goddess ''): (cavatina: Casta diva / "Chaste goddess... turn upon us thy fair face, unclouded and unveiled ''). Continuing, she pleads that the goddess shed upon earth that peace which she has created in heaven. She calls for all to complete the rites and then clear the uninitiated from the grove. To herself, she declares that she can not hurt Pollione, but desires that things return to where they used to be: (Cabaletta: Ah! bello a me ritorna / "Return to me, O beautiful one, as in the bloom of our true love ''). The assembled crowd accepts her cautious approach, and all leave the grove.
Later that night: The Temple of Irminsul in the grove
Adalgisa prays at the temple, remembering with some sorrow how she became involved with Pollione. He enters, telling her that she prays to a cruel god and is not trying to invoke the god of love. While she appears to reject him, he declares (Aria: Va crudele / "Go, O cruel one, to your god: make an offering of my blood '') but he is convinced that he can not leave her; he is distraught, but she is equally torn, until the moment when he declares that he must return to Rome the following day. He begs Adalgisa to go with him: (Duet: Pollione, then Adalgisa, then together: Vieni in Roma / "Come to Rome, my darling; Love and joy and life are there ''). She resists him, but finally appears to agree that they will leave together the following day.
Norma appears to be upset and orders her maid, Clotilde, to take the two children away from her, expressing very conflicted feelings about them. She tells Clotilde that Pollione has been recalled to Rome, but does not know if he will take her or how he feels about leaving his children. As Adalgisa approaches, the children are taken away.
Adalgisa tells Norma she has fallen in love with a Roman, whom she does not name. As she describes how she fell in love while waiting at the temple and seeing "his handsome face '' appear, Norma recalls (as an aside) her own feelings for Pollione ("my passions, too, burned like this ''), and more and more, their experiences of falling in love run parallel: (Norma and Adalgisa, duet: Sola, furtiva al tempio / "Often I would wait for him, At the temple, alone and in secret ''). Adalgisa pleads for help and forgiveness, and Norma pledges that she will do that and will also free her from her vows as a priestess: (Norma: Ah! sì, fa core, abbracciami, Perdono e ti compiango / "Yes, take heart, embrace me. I forgive you, and sympathise with you ''. Adalgisa: Ripeti, o ciel, ripetimi / "Say that again, heavens, say again, Such wonderful words: Through you my long suffering is calmed. '')
Norma asks Adalgisa to describe the man whom she loves. Responding, she tells her that he is a Roman, and, at that moment, turns to indicate that it is Pollione who is just then entering the room. As Norma furiously turns to confront Pollione, Adalgisa is confused: Norma: Oh! non tremare, o perfido, per lei. Essa non è colpevole, Il malfattor tu sei / "O faithless man, Do not tremble for her. She is not guilty, You are the wicked one. ''
Forcing the priestess to realise that she is the victim of a huge deception, Norma addresses Adalgisa. (Trio: each sings in succession, beginning with Norma: Oh! di qual sei tu vittima / "Oh, you are the victim of such a bitter, deadly deception. It would have been better to die, than to know this man! ''; then Adalgisa: Oh! qual traspare orribile, Dal tuo parlar mistero / "Your mysterious words, reveal such horror ''; then the two women together, followed by Pollione alone: Norma! de ' tuoi rimproveri, segno non farmi adesso / "Norma, do not reproach me now '', continuing with "Please give this wretched girl some respite ''; after which all three repeat their words, singing at first singly, then together.)
There follow angry exchanges among the three, Norma declaring Pollione to be a traitor; he trying to persuade Adalgisa to leave with him; and she angrily telling him to go away. When he declares that it is his fate to leave Norma, she encourages the young priestess to go with him, but the latter declares that she would rather die. Norma then demands that her lover go, leaving behind his children -- and his honour. (Finale: brief duet, Adalgisa and Pollione: he declares his love, and she her desire to Norma not to be the cause of grief to her. Trio: Norma continues to rage at Pollione, Adalgisa repeats her desire to make him return to Norma, and Pollione curses the day when he met Norma.) Then the sound of the Druids calling Norma to the temple is heard. They report that the angry god, Irminsul, has spoken. Pollione storms out.
Norma looks at both of her sons, who are asleep. She considers killing them. Advancing towards them with knife upraised, she hesitates. (Recitative: Dormono entrambi... non vedran la mano che li percuote / "They are both asleep... they shall not see the hand which strikes them. '') But she can not bring herself to do it: (Aria: Teneri, teneri figli, Essi, pur dianzi delizia mia / "My dear, dear sons; a moment ago they were my delight, in their smiles, I thought I saw the forgiveness of heaven. '') The children wake up and she calls for Clotilde, demanding that Adalgisa be brought to her.
The young priestess enters, concerned at how pale Norma looks. Norma makes her swear to do everything she asks and, upon her agreement, tells her that she is entrusting the two children to her care and states that they should be taken to the Roman camp to their father Pollione, a man whom she hopes will make a better mate for Adalgisa than he was for her. Adalgisa is aghast. Norma: "I beg you for his children 's sake. '' (Duet, first Norma: Deh! con te, con te li prendi, Li sostieni, li difendi / "Please, take them with you, support them and protect them; I do n't ask you for honour or power, let that be kept for your own children. '') Adalgisa tells her that she 'll never leave Gaul and only agreed to the request in order to do what was good for Norma. (Duet, Adalgisa: Vado al campo, ed all'ingrato Tutti io reco i tuoi lamenti.) In the duet, Adalgisa agrees to go to the Roman camp and tell Pollione of Norma 's grief but her hope is to persuade him to return to Norma. She then renounces Pollione: (Duet: Mira, o Norma / "O Norma, look at your dear children of yours on your knees. Be moved by pity for them, even if you have no pity for yourself. '') They sing together, each expressing her own thoughts and feelings until Norma realises that Adalgisa will give up Pollione and remain with her: (Cabaletta: Duet, Norma and Adalgisa: Si fino all'ore estreme, compagna tua m'avrai / "Yes, you will have me as your friend until your last hour; the world is large enough to be a shelter to both of us together. '')
The Druid warriors gather and prepare themselves to attack the Romans. Oroveso enters with news from the gods: the time has not arrived to strike. Somewhat frustrated, the soldiers accept the decision.
Norma enters. (Aria: Ei tornerà. Si, mia fidanza è posta in Adalgisa / "He will come back. Yes, I place my trust in Adalgisa: he will come back repentant, imploring, full of love. '') Then Clotilde arrives with news that Adalgisa has failed to persuade Pollione to return. Although Norma questions whether she should have trusted her, she then learns from her servant that Adalgisa is returning and wishes to take her vows at the altar and that the Roman has sworn to abduct her from the temple. In anger, Norma strikes a gong - like shield as a summons to war. Trumpets sound and Oroveso and the Druids all rush in, demanding to know what is happening. They hear Norma 's answer and the soldiers take up the refrain: Guerra, guerra! / "War, war! '', while Norma proclaims "Blood, blood! Revenge! ''
In order for Norma to complete the rites to authorise going to war, Oroveso demands to know who will be the sacrificial victim. At that moment, Clotilde rushes in to announce that a Roman has desecrated the temple, but that he has been apprehended. It is Pollione who is led in, and Norma is urged to take the sacrificial knife to stab him but, approaching him, she is unable to perform the deed. The assembled crowd demands to know why, but she dismisses them, stating that she needs to question her victim.
The crowd departs: (Duet, Norma and Pollione: In mia man alfin tu sei / "At last you are in my hands; no one can cut your bonds. I can ''). Norma demands that he forever shun Adalgisa; only then will she release him and never see him again. He refuses, and she vents her anger by telling him that she will then kill her children. "Strike me instead '', he demands, "so that only I alone will die '', but she quickly asserts that not only will all the Romans die, but so will Adalgisa, who has broken her vows as a priestess. This prompts him to plead for her life. (Cabaletta: Norma and Pollione: Già mi pasco ne ' tuoi sguardi / "Already I take pleasure in the look you give me, your grief and in her death; at last I can make you as miserable as I ''.) When Pollione demands the knife, she calls the priests to assemble. Norma announces that it would be better to sacrifice a priestess who has broken her vows, and orders the pyre to be lit. Oroveso demands to know who is to be sacrificed while Pollione demands that she keep silent, but Norma then reveals that it is she who is to be the victim because she is the guilty one, a high Priestess who has broken her vows, has become involved with the enemy, and has borne his children. (Aria, Norma to Pollione: Qual cor tradisti / "May this awful moment now show you the heart you betrayed and lost ''; Duet: Norma and Pollione; Ensemble, Norma, Oroveso, Pollione, Druids, Priests: each expresses his / her sorrow, anger, pleas to Norma, with Oroveso learning for the first time that Norma is a mother.)
In the concerted finale, Norma pleads with Oroveso to spare her children (Deh! non volerli vittime / "Please do n't make them suffer ''). As she prepares to leap into the flames, the re-enamoured Pollione joins her, declaring "your pyre is mine as well. There, a holier and everlasting love will begin ''.
It was Giuseppe Verdi who -- late in his life -- made some perceptive comments in a letter of May 1898 to Camille Belaigue, who had recently published a book on Bellini. In the letter, Verdi states:
Bellini is poor, it is true, in harmony and instrumentation; but rich in feeling and in an individual melancholy of his own! Even in the least well - known of his operas, in La straniera, in Il pirata, there are long, long, long melodies such as no - one before him had produced. And what truth and power of declamation, as for example in the duet between Pollione and Norma! (See act 2, scene 3 above. Norma: In mia man alfin tu sei / "At last you are in my hands '') And what elation of thought in the first phrase of the introduction (to the duet)... no - one ever has created another more beautiful and heavenly.
Therefore, commenting on the overall quality of the music in Norma, David Kimbell states that:
... Bellini 's most astonishing achievement in Norma is, amid all the more obvious excitements of musical Romanticism, to have asserted his belief that the true magic of opera depended on a kind of incantation in which dramatic poetry and song are perfectly fused. Additionally, Kimbell provides examples of how the composer 's art is revealed in this opera, but also noting that the ability to achieve a "fusion of music and dramatic meaning is to be found elsewhere in Bellini 's work ''
Schopenhauer claimed that tragedy causes the spectator to lose the will to live. "The horrors on the stage hold up to him the bitterness and worthlessness of life, and so the vanity of all its efforts and endeavors. The effect of this impression must be that he becomes aware, although only in an obscure feeling, that it is better to tear his heart away from life, to turn his willing away from it, not to love the world and life. '' He praised Norma for its artistic excellence in producing this effect. "... (T) he genuinely tragic effect of the catastrophe, the hero 's resignation and spiritual exaltation produced by it, seldom appear so purely motivated and distinctly expressed as in the opera Norma, where it comes in the duet Qual cor tradisti, qual cor perdesti. (What a heart you betrayed, what a heart you lost.) Here the conversion of the will is clearly indicated by the quietness suddenly introduced into the music. Quite apart from its excellent music, and from the diction that can only be that of a libretto, and considered only according to its motives and to its interior economy, this piece is in general a tragedy of extreme perfection, a true model of the tragic disposition of the motives, of the tragic progress of the action, and of tragic development, together with the effect of these on the frame of mind of the heroes, which surmounts the world. This effect then passes on to the spectator.... ''
Norma, or A Politician 's Love (Danish: Norma eller En Politikers Kjærlighed) is an eight - page drama written as an opera parody by Henrik Ibsen. It is influenced by Bellini 's Norma, which Ibsen saw in 1851, but the characters are contemporary politicians. The play was first printed anonymously in the satirical magazine Andhrimner in 1851. The first book edition came in 1909, and the first performance of the play was at a student theatre in Trondheim 1994.
Writer Marion Zimmer Bradley acknowledged that the plot of her 1993 Historical Novel / Fantasy book "The Forest House '' was based on that of "Norma '' -- relocated from Gaul to Britain, but sharing the basic plot outline of a love affair between a Druidic priestess and a Roman officer. Bradley further stated that, in homage to Bellini, the hymns in Chapter Five and Twenty - two of her book are adapted from libretto of the opera 's Act I Scene i, and those in Chapter Thirty from Act II scene ii.
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when did italy win the last world cup | Italy national football team - wikipedia
The Italy national football team (Italian: Nazionale di calcio dell'Italia) represents Italy in association football and is controlled by the Italian Football Federation (FIGC), the governing body for football in Italy.
Italy is one of the most successful national teams in the history of the World Cup, having won four titles (1934, 1938, 1982, 2006) and appearing in two other finals (1970, 1994), reaching a third place (1990) and a fourth place (1978). In 1938, they became the first team to defend their previous World Cup tournament victory and due to the outbreak of World War II retained the title for a record 16 years. Italy also won a European Championship (1968), as well as appearing in two other finals (2000, 2012), one Olympic football tournament (1936) and two Central European International Cups. Italy 's highest finish at the FIFA Confederations Cup was in 2013, when the squad achieved a third - place finish.
The national football team is known as Gli Azzurri (The Blues) from the traditional colour of Italian national teams and athletes representing Italy. In its first two matches, the Italian national team wore white shirts with shorts from the club of each player; the azure shirts were introduced in the third match; (azzurro, in Italian) comes from the "Azzurro Savoia '' (Savoy Blue), the colour traditionally linked to the royal dynasty which unified Italy in 1861, and maintained in the official standard of the Italian President. Even though azzurro was first adopted by the national football team in 1911, the origins of blue as the national colour date back to 1366.
The primary training ground is at the FIGC headquarters in Coverciano, Florence, and the team plays their home matches at various stadiums throughout Italy.
The team 's first match was held in Milan on 15 May 1910. Italy defeated France by a score of 6 -- 2, with Italy 's first goal scored by Pietro Lana. Some turmoil kept the players of Pro Vercelli, who were the best team in the league, out of the game. At the end of the match, the players received some cigarette packets thrown by the 4,000 spectators as a prize. The Italian team played with a (2 -- 3 -- 5) system and consisted of: De Simoni; Varisco, Calì; Trerè, Fossati, Capello; Debernardi, Rizzi, Cevenini I, Lana, Boiocchi. First captain of the team was Francesco Calì.
The first success in an official tournament came with the bronze medal in 1928 Summer Olympics, held in Amsterdam. After losing the semi-final against Uruguay, an 11 -- 3 victory against Egypt secured third place in the competition. In the 1927 -- 30 and 1933 -- 35 Central European International Cup, Italy achieved the first place out of five Central European teams, topping the group with 11 points in both editions of the tournament.
After declining to participate in the first World Cup (1930, in Uruguay) the Italian national team won two consecutive editions of the tournament in 1934 and 1938, under the direction of coach Vittorio Pozzo and the performance of Giuseppe Meazza, who is considered one of the best Italian football players of all time by some. Other stars of that era included Luis Monti, Giovanni Ferrari, Giuseppe Ruffino and Virginio Rosetta. The hosts, Azzurri, defeated Czechoslovakia 2 -- 1 in extra time in Rome, with goals by Raimundo Orsi and Angelo Schiavio to achieve their first World cup title in 1934. They achieved their second title in 1938 in a 4 -- 2 defeat of Hungary, with two goals by Gino Colaussi and two goals by Silvio Piola in the World Cup that followed. Rumour has it, before the 1938 finals fascist Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini was to have sent a telegram to the team, saying "Vincere o morire! '' (literally translated as "Win or die! ''). However, no record remains of such a telegram, and World Cup player Pietro Rava said, when interviewed, "No, no, no, that 's not true. He sent a telegram wishing us well, but no never ' win or die '. ''
In 1949, 10 of the 11 players in the team 's initial line - up were killed in the Superga air disaster that affected Torino, winners of the previous five Serie A titles. Italy did not advance further than the first round of the 1950 World Cup, as they were weakened severely due to the air disaster. The team had travelled by boat rather than by plane, fearing another accident.
In the World Cup finals of 1954 and 1962, Italy failed to progress past the first round, and did not qualify for the 1958 World Cup due to a 2 -- 1 defeat to Northern Ireland in the last match of the qualifying round. Italy did not take part in the first edition of the European Championship in 1960 (then known as the European Nations Cup), and was knocked out by the Soviet Union in the round of 16 of the 1964 European Championship.
Their participation in the 1966 World Cup was ended by a 0 -- 1 defeat at the hands of North Korea. Despite being the tournament favourites, the Azzurri, whose 1966 squad included Gianni Rivera and Giacomo Bulgarelli, were eliminated in the first round by the semi-professional North Koreans. The Italian team was bitterly condemned upon their return home, while North Korean scorer Pak Doo - ik was celebrated as the David who killed Goliath.
In 1968, the Azzurri won their first major competition since the 1938 World Cup, beating Yugoslavia in Rome for the European Championship title. The match holds the distinction of being the only European Championship or World Cup final to go to a replay. After extra time the final ended in a 1 -- 1 draw, and in the days before penalty shootouts, the rules required the match to be replayed a few days later. Italy won the replay 2 -- 0 (with goals from Luigi Riva and Pietro Anastasi) to take the trophy.
In the 1970 World Cup, exploiting the performances of European champions ' players like Giacinto Facchetti, Gianni Rivera and Luigi Riva and with a new center - forward Roberto Boninsegna, the team were able to come back to a World Cup final match after 32 years. They reached this result after one of the most famous matches in football history: Italy vs. West Germany 4 -- 3, which is known as the "Game of the Century ''. They were defeated by Brazil in the final. The cycle of international successes ended in the 1974 World Cup, when the team was eliminated by Grzegorz Lato 's Polish team in the first round.
In the 1978 FIFA World Cup in Argentina, a new generation of Italian players, the most famous being Paolo Rossi, came to the international stage. Italy were the only team in the tournament to beat the eventual champions and host team Argentina. Second - round games against West Germany (0 -- 0), Austria (1 -- 0) and Netherlands (1 -- 2) led Italy to the third - place final, where the team was defeated by Brazil 2 -- 1. In the match that eliminated Italy from the tournament against the Netherlands, Italian goalkeeper Dino Zoff was beaten by a long - distance shot from Arie Haan, and Zoff was criticized for the defeat. Italy hosted the 1980 UEFA European Football Championship, the first edition to be held between eight teams instead of four, automatically qualifying for the finals as hosts. After two draws with Spain and Belgium and a narrow 1 -- 0 win over England, Italy were beaten by Czechoslovakia in the third - place match on penalties 9 -- 8 after Fulvio Collovati missed his kick.
After a scandal in Serie A where some National team players such as Paolo Rossi were prosecuted and suspended for match fixing and illegal betting. The Azzurri qualified for the second round of the 1982 World Cup after three uninspiring draws against Poland, Peru and Cameroon. Having been loudly criticized, the Italian team decided on a press black - out from then on, with only coach Enzo Bearzot and captain Dino Zoff appointed to speak to the press.
Italy 's regrouped in the second round group, a group of death with Argentina and Brazil. In the opener, Italy prevailed 2 -- 1 over Argentina, with Italy 's goals, both left - footed strikes, were scored by Marco Tardelli and Antonio Cabrini. After Brazil defeated Argentina 3 -- 1, Italy needed to win in order to advance to the semi-finals. Twice Italy went in the lead with Paolo Rossi 's goals, and twice Brazil came back. When Falcão scored to make it 2 -- 2, Brazil would have been through on goal difference, but in the 74th minute Rossi scored the winning goal, for a hat - trick, in a crowded penalty area to send Italy to the semifinals after one of the greatest games in World Cup history. Italy then progressed to the semi final where they defeated Poland with two goals from Rossi.
In the final, Italy met West Germany, who had advanced by a penalty shootout victory against France. The first half ended scoreless, after Antonio Cabrini missed a penalty awarded for a Hans - Peter Briegel foul on Bruno Conti. In the second half Paolo Rossi again scored the first goal, and while the Germans were pushing forward in search of an equaliser, Marco Tardelli and substitute Alessandro Altobelli finalised two contropiede counterattacks to make it 3 -- 0. Paul Breitner scored home West Germany 's consolation goal seven minutes from the end.
Tardelli 's cry, "Gol! Gol! '' was one of the defining images of Italy 's 1982 World Cup triumph. Paolo Rossi won the Golden Boot with six goals as well as the Golden Ball Award for the best player of the tournament, and 40 - year - old captain - goalkeeper Dino Zoff became the oldest player to win the World Cup.
However, Italy failed to qualify for the 1984 European Championship. Italy then entered as reigning champions in the 1986 World Cup but were eliminated by reigning European Champions, France, in the round of 16.
1986 also led to Bearzot 's departure, with Azeglio Vicini appointed in his place. New coach conceded a chance to young players, such as Ciro Ferrara and Gianluca Vialli: Sampdoria striker scored goals that gave Italy 1988 European Championship pass. He was also shown like Altobelli 's possibly successor, having his same goal attitude. Both forwards stroke the target in Germany, where Soviet Union defeated azzurri in semi-finals.
Italy hosted the World Cup for the second time in 1990. The Italian attack featured talented forwards Salvatore Schillaci and a young Roberto Baggio. Italy played nearly all of their matches in Rome and did not concede a single goal in their first five matches, however, Italy lost in the semi-final to defending champion Argentina in Naples, losing 4 -- 3 on penalty kicks following a 1 -- 1 draw after extra time. Schillaci 's first half opener was equalised in the second half by Claudio Caniggia 's header for Argentina. Aldo Serena missed the final penalty kick (with Roberto Donadoni also having his penalty saved by goalkeeper Sergio Goycochea). Italy went on to defeat England 2 -- 1 in the third place match in Bari, with Schillaci scoring the winning goal on a penalty to become the tournament 's top scorer with six goals. Italy then failed to qualify for the 1992 European Championship. In November 1993, FIFA ranked Italy first in the FIFA World Rankings for the first time.
At the 1994 World Cup in the United States, Italy lost the opening match against Ireland 0 -- 1 at the Giants Stadium near New York City. After a 1 -- 0 win against Norway in New York City and a 1 -- 1 draw with Mexico at the RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C., Italy advanced from Group E based on goals scored among the four teams tied on points. During their round of 16 match at the Foxboro Stadium near Boston, Italy was down 0 -- 1 late against Nigeria, but Baggio rescued Italy with an equaliser in the 88th minute and a penalty in extra time to take the win. Baggio scored another late goal against Spain at their quarter - final match in Boston to seal a 2 -- 1 win and two goals against Bulgaria in their semi-final match in New York City for another 2 -- 1 win.
In the final, which took place in Los Angeles 's Rose Bowl stadium 2,700 miles (4,320 km) and three time zones away from the Atlantic Northeast part of the United States where they had played all their previous matches, Italy, who had 24 hours less rest than Brazil, played 120 minutes of scoreless football, taking the match to a penalty shootout, the first time a World Cup final was settled in a penalty shootout. Italy lost the subsequent shootout 3 -- 2 after Baggio, who had been playing with the aid of a pain - killer injection and a heavily bandaged hamstring, missed the final penalty kick of the match, shooting over the crossbar.
Italy did not progress beyond the group stage at the finals of Euro 1996. Having defeated Russia 2 -- 1 but losing to the Czech Republic by the same score, Italy required a win to be sure of progressing. Gianfranco Zola failed to convert a decisive penalty in a 0 -- 0 draw against Germany, who eventually won the tournament. During the qualifying campaign for the 1998 World Cup, Italy drew 0 -- 0 to England on the last day of Group 2 matches as Italy finished in second place, one point behind England. Italy were then required to go through the play - off against Russia, advancing 2 -- 1 on aggregate on 15 November 1997 with the winner coming from Pierluigi Casiraghi. In the final tournament, Italy found themselves in another critical shootout for the third World Cup in a row. The Italian side, where Alessandro Del Piero and Baggio renewed the controversial staffetta ("relay '') between Mazzola and Rivera from 1970, held the eventual World Champions and host team France to a 0 -- 0 draw after extra time in the quarter - finals, but lost 4 -- 3 in the shootout. With two goals scored in this tournament, Baggio is still the only Italian player to have scored in three different FIFA World Cup editions.
In the Euro 2000, another shootout decided Italy 's fate but this time in their favour when defeating the co-hosts the Netherlands in the semi final. Italian goalkeeper Francesco Toldo saved one penalty during the match and two in the shootout, while the Dutch players missed one other penalty during the match and one during the shootout with a rate of one penalty scored out of six attempts. Emerging star Francesco Totti scored his penalty with a cucchiaio ("spoon '') chip. Italy finished the tournament as runners - up, losing the final 2 -- 1 against France (to a golden goal in extra time) after conceding les Bleus equalising goal just 30 seconds before the expected end of injury time (93rd minute). After the defeat, coach Dino Zoff resigned in protest after being criticized by Milan club president and politician Silvio Berlusconi.
In the 2002 World Cup, a 2 -- 0 victory against Ecuador with two Christian Vieri goals was followed by a series of controversial matches. During the match against Croatia, two goals were disallowed resulting in a 2 -- 1 defeat for Italy. Despite two goals being ruled for borderline offsides, a late headed goal from Alessandro Del Piero helped Italy to a 1 -- 1 draw with Mexico proving enough to advance to the knockout stages. However, co-host country South Korea eliminated Italy in the round of 16 by a score of 2 -- 1. The game was highly controversial with members of the Italian team, most notably striker Francesco Totti and coach Giovanni Trapattoni, suggesting a conspiracy to eliminate Italy from the competition. Trapattoni even obliquely accused FIFA of ordering the official to ensure a Korean victory so that one of the two host nations would remain in the tournament. The most contentious decisions by the game referee Byron Moreno were an early penalty awarded to South Korea (saved by Buffon), a golden goal by Damiano Tommasi ruled offside, and the sending off of Totti after being presented with a second yellow card for an alleged dive in the penalty area. FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that the linesmen had been a "disaster '' and admitted that Italy suffered from bad offside calls during the group matches, but he denied conspiracy allegations. While questioning Totti 's sending off by Moreno, Blatter refused to blame Italy 's loss entirely on the referees, stating: "Italy 's elimination is not only down to referees and linesmen who made human not premeditated errors... Italy made mistakes both in defense and in attack. ''
A three - way five point tie in the group stage of the 2004 European Championship left Italy as the "odd man out '', as they failed to qualify for the quarter finals after finishing behind Denmark and Sweden on the basis of number of goals scored in matches among the tied teams. Italy 's winning goal scored during stoppage time giving them a 2 -- 1 victory over Bulgaria by Antonio Cassano proved futile, ending the team 's tournament.
The summer of 2004 marked the choice, by FIGC, to appoint Marcello Lippi for Italy 's bench. He made his debut in an upset 2 -- 0 defeat in Iceland but then managed to qualify for 2006 World Cup. Italy 's campaign in the tournament hosted by Germany was accompanied by open pessimism due to the controversy caused by the 2006 Serie A scandal, however these negative predictions were then refuted, as the Azzurri eventually won their fourth World Cup.
Italy won their opening game against Ghana 2 -- 0, with goals from Andrea Pirlo (40th minute) and substitute Vincenzo Iaquinta (83rd minute). The team performance was judged the best among the opening games by FIFA President Sepp Blatter.
The second match was a less convincing 1 -- 1 draw with United States, with Alberto Gilardino 's diving header equalized by a Cristian Zaccardo own goal. After the equaliser, midfielder Daniele De Rossi and the United States 's Pablo Mastroeni and Eddie Pope were sent off, leaving only nine men on the field for nearly the entirety of the second half, but the score remained unchanged despite a controversial decision when Gennaro Gattuso 's shot was deflected in but disallowed because of an offside ruling. The same happened at the other end when U.S. winger DaMarcus Beasley 's goal was not given due to teammate Brian McBride being ruled offside. De Rossi was suspended for four matches for elbowing McBride in the face and would only return for the final match.
Italy finished first in Group E with a 2 -- 0 win against the Czech Republic, with goals from defender Marco Materazzi (26th minute) and striker Filippo Inzaghi (87th minute), advancing to the Round of 16 in the knockout stages, where they faced Australia. In this match, Materazzi was controversially sent off early in the second half (53rd minute) after an attempted two - footed tackle on Australian midfielder Marco Bresciano. In stoppage time a controversial penalty kick was awarded to the Azzurri when referee Luis Medina Cantalejo ruled that Lucas Neill fouled Fabio Grosso. Francesco Totti converted into an upper corner of the goal past Mark Schwarzer for a 1 -- 0 win.
In the quarterfinals Italy beat Ukraine 3 -- 0. Gianluca Zambrotta opened the scoring early (in the sixth minute) with a left - footed shot from outside the penalty area after a quick exchange with Totti created enough space. Luca Toni added two more goals in the second half (59th and 69th minute), as Ukraine pressed forward but were not able to score, hitting the crossbar and requiring several saves from Gianluigi Buffon and a goal - line clearance from Zambrotta. Afterwards, manager Marcello Lippi dedicated the victory to former Italian international Gianluca Pessotto, who was in the hospital recovering from an apparent suicide attempt.
In the semi-finals, Italy beat hosts Germany 2 -- 0 with the two goals coming in the last two minutes of extra time. After a back - and - forth half - hour of extra time during which Alberto Gilardino and Gianluca Zambrotta struck the post and the crossbar respectively, Fabio Grosso scored in the 119th minute after a disguised Andrea Pirlo pass found him open in the penalty area for a bending left - footed shot into the far corner past German goalkeeper Jens Lehmann 's dive. Substitute striker Alessandro Del Piero then sealed the victory by scoring with the last kick of the game at the end of a swift counterattack by Cannavaro, Totti and Gilardino.
The Azzurri won their fourth World Cup, defeating their long - time rivals France in Berlin, on 9 July, 5 -- 3 on penalty kicks after a 1 -- 1 draw at the end of extra time in the final. French captain Zinedine Zidane opened the scoring in the seventh minute with a chipped penalty kick, awarded for a controversial foul by Materazzi on Florent Malouda. Twelve minutes later, a header by Materazzi from a corner kick by Pirlo brought Italy even. In the second half, a potential winning goal by Toni was disallowed for a very close offside call by linesman Luc La Rossa. In the 110th minute, Zidane (playing in the last match of his career) was sent off by referee Horacio Elizondo for headbutting Materazzi in the chest after a verbal exchange; Italy then won the penalty shootout 5 -- 3; the crucial penalty miss being David Trezeguet 's, the same player who scored the golden goal for France in the Euro 2000. Trezeguet 's attempt hit the crossbar, then shot down after its impact, and just stayed ahead of the line.
Ten different players scored for Italy in the tournament, and five goals out of twelve were scored by substitutes, while four goals were scored by defenders. Seven players -- Gianluigi Buffon, Fabio Cannavaro, Gianluca Zambrotta, Andrea Pirlo, Gennaro Gattuso, Francesco Totti and Luca Toni -- were named to the 23 - man tournament All Star Team. Buffon also won the Lev Yashin Award, given to the best goalkeeper of the tournament; he conceded only two goals in the tournament 's seven matches, the first an own goal by Zaccardo and the second from Zidane 's penalty kick in the final, and remained unbeaten for 460 consecutive minutes. In honour of Italy winning the FIFA World Cup for a fourth time, all members of the World Cup - winning squad were awarded the Italian Order of Merit of Cavaliere Ufficiale.
After the Italian triumph in the World Cup, 1994 World Cup star Roberto Donadoni was announced the new coach of the Azzurri. He replaced Marcello Lippi, who had announced his resignation before the World Cup 's start. Italy played in the 2008 UEFA European Football Championship qualifying Group B, along with France. Italy won the group, with France being the runner - up. On 14 February 2007, FIFA ranked Italy first in the FIFA World Rankings, with a total of 1,488 points, 37 points ahead of second ranked Argentina. This moved them up one from their previous rank, second. This was the second time in the Azzurri 's history that it had been ranked in first place, the first time being in 1993.
In Euro 2008, the Azzurri lost 0 -- 3 to the Netherlands. The following game against Romania ended 1 -- 1, with a goal by Christian Panucci that came only one minute after Romania 's Adrian Mutu capitalized on a mistake by Gianluca Zambrotta to give Romania the lead. The result was preserved by Gianluigi Buffon who saved a penalty kick from Mutu in the 80th minute.
The final group game against France, a rematch of the 2006 World Cup Final, was a 2 -- 0 Italy win. Andrea Pirlo scored from the penalty spot after a foul and red card for France defender Éric Abidal, and later a free kick by Daniele De Rossi took a deflection resulting Italy 's second goal. Romania, entering the day a point ahead of the Italians in Group C, lost to the Netherlands 2 -- 0, allowing Italy to pass into the quarter finals against eventual champions Spain, where they lost 2 -- 4 on penalties after a 0 -- 0 draw after 120 minutes. Within a week after the game, Roberto Donadoni 's contract was terminated and Marcello Lippi was rehired as coach.
By virtue of winning the World Cup, Italy qualified for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, held in South Africa in June 2009. They won their opening match 3 -- 1 against the United States, but subsequent defeats to Egypt (0 -- 1) and Brazil (0 -- 3) meant that they only finished third in the group on goals scored, and were eliminated.
The national football team of Italy qualified for the 2010 FIFA World Cup after playing home games at Stadio Friuli, Stadio Via del Mare, Stadio San Nicola, Stadio Olimpico di Torino and Stadio Ennio Tardini. In October 2009, they achieved qualification after drawing with the Republic of Ireland 2 -- 2. On 4 December 2009, the draw for the World Cup was made: Italy would be in Group F alongside three underdog teams: Paraguay, New Zealand and Slovakia.
At the 2010 World Cup in South Africa, reigning champions Italy were unexpectedly eliminated in the first round, finishing last place in their group. After being held to 1 -- 1 draws by Paraguay and New Zealand, they suffered a 3 -- 2 loss to Slovakia. It was the first time Italy failed to win a single game at a World Cup finals tournament, and in doing so became the third nation to be eliminated in the first round while holding the World Cup crown; the first being Brazil in 1966 and the second France in 2002. Coincidentally, France who had been Italy 's adversaries and the losing finalist in the 2006 World Cup, were also eliminated without winning a game in the first round in South Africa, making it the first time ever that neither finalist of the previous edition were able to reach the second round.
Marcello Lippi stepped down after Italy 's World Cup campaign and was replaced by Cesare Prandelli, although Lippi 's successor had already been announced before the tournament. Italy began their campaign with Prandelli with a disappointing 0 -- 1 loss to the Ivory Coast in a friendly match. Then, during a Euro 2012 qualifier, Italy came back from behind to defeat Estonia 2 -- 1. In the next Euro qualifier, Italy dominated the Faroe Islands 5 -- 0. Italy then tied 0 -- 0 with Northern Ireland. Five days later, Italy played Serbia; however, Serbian fans in Stadio Luigi Ferraris began to riot, throwing flares and shooting fireworks onto the pitch, subsequently causing the abandonment of the game. Upon UEFA Disciplinary Review, Italy was awarded a 3 -- 0 victory that propelled them to the top of their group. In their first match of 2011, Italy drew 1 -- 1 a friendly with Germany at Dortmund, in the same stadium where they beat Germany 2 -- 0 to advance to the final of the 2006 World Cup. In March 2011, Italy won 1 -- 0 over Slovenia to again secure its spot at the top of the qualification table. They then defeated Ukraine 2 -- 0 in a friendly, despite being reduced to ten men for the late stages of the match. With their 3 -- 0 defeat of Estonia in another Euro 2012 qualifier, Prandelli 's Italy secured the table lead and also achieved 9 undefeated games in a row since their initial debacle. The streak was ended on 7 June 2011 by Trapattoni 's current charges, the Republic of Ireland, with Italy losing 0 -- 2 in a friendly in Liège.
At the beginning of the second season under coach Prandelli, on 10 August 2011, Italy defeated the reigning world champions Spain for 2 -- 1 in a friendly match played in Bari 's Stadio San Nicola, but lost in a friendly to the United States, 1 -- 0, on home soil on 29 February 2012.
Italy started their Euro 2012 campaign with a 1 -- 1 draw to current reigning European and world champions Spain. Following this they met Croatia and were also held to a 1 -- 1 draw. They finished second in their group behind Spain by beating the Republic of Ireland 2 -- 0, which earned them a quarter final match against the winners of group D, England. After a mostly one - sided affair in which Italy failed to take their chances, they managed to best England on penalty kicks, even though they were down early in the shootout. A save by goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon put them ahead after a chip shot from Andrea Pirlo. Prandelli 's side won the shootout 4 -- 2.
In their next game, the first semi-final of the competition, they faced Germany team who were tipped by many to be the next European champions. However, two first - half goals by Mario Balotelli saw Germany sent home, and the Italians went through to the finals to face the title defenders Spain.
In the final, however, they were unable to repeat their earlier performance against Spain, falling 4 -- 0 to lose the championship. Prandelli 's men were further undone by the string of injuries which left them playing with ten men for the last half - hour, as substitute Thiago Motta was forced to go off after all three substitutions had been made.
During the 2013 Confederations Cup in Brazil, Italy started in a group with Mexico, Japan and Brazil. After beating Mexico 2 -- 1 and Japan 4 -- 3, Italy eventually lost their final group game against tournament hosts Brazil 4 -- 2. Italy then faced Spain in the semi-finals, in a rematch of the Euro 2012 final. Italy lost 7 -- 6 (0 -- 0 after extra time) in a penalty shoot - out after Leonardo Bonucci failed to score his kick. Prandelli was praised for his tactics against the current World Cup and European champions. Italy was then able to win the match for the third place by defeating Uruguay with the penalty score of 5 -- 4 (2 -- 2 after extra time).
Italy was drawn in UEFA Group B for the 2014 World Cup qualification campaign. They won the qualifying group without losing a match. Despite this successful run they were not seeded in pot 1 for the final seeding. In December 2013, Italy was drawn in Group D against Costa Rica, England and Uruguay. In its first match, Italy defeated England 2 -- 1. However, in the second group stage match, underdogs Costa Rica beat the Italians 1 -- 0. In Italy 's last group match, they were knocked out by Uruguay 1 -- 0, due in part to two controversial calls from referee Marco Antonio Rodríguez (Mexico): in the 59th minute, midfielder Claudio Marchisio was sent off for a questionable tackle. Later in the 80th minute, with the teams knotted at 0 -- 0 which would have sent Italy to the next round, Uruguayan striker Luis Suárez bit defender Giorgio Chiellini on the shoulder but was not sent off. Uruguay went on to score moments later in the 81st minute with a Diego Godín header from a corner kick, winning the game 1 -- 0 and eliminating Italy. This marked Italy 's second consecutive failure to reach the round of 16 at the World Cup finals. Shortly after this loss, coach Cesare Prandelli resigned.
The successful former Juventus manager Antonio Conte was selected to replace Cesare Prandelli as coach after the 2014 World Cup. Conte 's debut as manager was against 2014 World Cup semi-finalists the Netherlands, in which Italy won 2 -- 0. Italy 's first defeat under Conte came ten games in to his empowerment from a 1 -- 0 international friendly loss against Portugal on 16 June 2015. On 10 October 2015, Italy qualified for Euro 2016, courtesy of a 3 -- 1 win over Azerbaijan; the result meant that Italy had managed to go 50 games unbeaten in European qualifiers. Three days later, with a 2 -- 1 win over Norway, Italy topped their Euro 2016 qualifying group with 24 points; four points clear of second placed Croatia. However, with a similar fate to the 2014 World Cup group stage draw, Italy were not top seeded into the first pot. This had Italy see a draw with Belgium, Sweden and the Republic of Ireland in Group E.
On 4 April 2016, it was announced that Antonio Conte would step down as Italy coach after Euro 2016 to become head coach of English club Chelsea at the start of the 2016 -- 17 Premier League season. The 23 - man squad saw notable absences with Andrea Pirlo and Sebastian Giovinco controversially left out and Claudio Marchisio and Marco Verratti omitted due to injury. Italy opened Euro 2016 with a 2 -- 0 victory over Belgium on 13 June. Italy qualified for the round of 16 with one game to spare on 17 June with a lone goal by Éder for the victory against Sweden; the first time they won the second group game in a major international tournament since Euro 2000. Italy also finished top of the group for the first time in a major tournament since the 2006 World Cup. Italy defeated reigning European champions Spain 2 -- 0 in the round of 16 match on 27 June. Italy then faced off against the reigning World champions, rivals Germany, in the quarter - finals. Mesut Özil opened the scoring in the 65th minute for Germany, before Leonardo Bonucci converted a penalty in the 78th minute for Italy. The score remained 1 -- 1 after extra time and Germany beat Italy 6 -- 5 in the ensuing penalty shoot - out. It was the first time Germany overcame Italy in a major tournament, however, since the win occurred on penalties, it is statistically considered a draw.
For 2018 FIFA World Cup Qualification Italy were placed into the second pot due to being in 17th place in the FIFA World Rankings at the time of the group draws; Italy were drawn with Spain from pot one on 25 July 2015. After Conte 's planned departure following Euro 2016, Gian Piero Ventura took over as manager for the team, on 18 July 2016, signing a two - year contract. His first match at the helm was a friendly against France, held at the Stadio San Nicola on 1 September, which ended in a 3 -- 1 loss. Four days later, he won his first competitive match in charge of Italy, the team 's opening 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Israel at Haifa, which ended in a 3 -- 1 victory for Italy.
After Italy won all of their qualifying matches except for a 1 -- 1 draw at home to Macedonia, as well as a 1 -- 1 draw with Spain at home on 6 October 2016, and a 3 -- 0 loss away to Spain on 2 September 2017, Italy finished in Group G in second place, five points behind Spain. Italy were then required to go through the play - off against Sweden. After a 1 -- 0 aggregate loss to Sweden, on 13 November 2017, Italy failed to qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, the first time they failed to qualify for the World Cup since 1958. Immediately following the match, veterans Giorgio Chiellini, Andrea Barzagli, Daniele De Rossi and captain Gianluigi Buffon all declared their retirement from the national team. On 15 November 2017, Ventura was dismissed as head coach and on 20 November 2017, Carlo Tavecchio resigned as president of the Italian Football Federation. On 5 February 2018, the Italy U21 manager Luigi Di Biagio was appointed as the caretaker manager of the senior team. On 17 March 2018, despite the initial decision to retire by veterans Buffon and Chiellini, they were both called up for Italy 's March 2018 friendlies by caretaker manager Di Biagio. Following the March friendlies against Argentina and England in which Italy were defeated and drew respectively, on 12 April 2018, Italy dropped six places to their lowest ever FIFA World Ranking, to 20th place. On 14 May 2018, Roberto Mancini was announced as the new manager. On 28 May 2018, Italy won their first match under Mancini, a 2 -- 1 victory in a friendly over Saudi Arabia.
Italy 's traditional kit is a blue jersey, white shorts and, blue socks, the traditional away kit is typically the reverse of these colours; white shirt, blue shorts, and white socks. The kit has been manufactured by Puma since 2003, with the most recent contract extension signed in 2015. Previous manufacturers in chronological order include Italo Sport, Fedeli, Adidas, Le Coq Sportif, Diadora, Nike and Kappa.
For the all - time record, see Italy national football team all - time record.
Champions Runners - up Third Place Fourth Place
Minor titles:
Other Awards:
Current technical staff:
During the earliest days of Italian nation football, it was common for a Technical Commission to be appointed. The Commission took the role that a standard coach would currently play. Ever since 1967, the national team has been controlled by the coaches only.
For this reason, the coach of the Italian national team is still called Technical Commissioner (Commissario tecnico or CT, the use of this denomination has since then expanded into other team sports in Italy).
Win Draw Loss
The following players were called up for the friendly matches against Saudi Arabia on 28 May 2018, France on 1 June 2018 and Netherlands on 4 June 2018. Caps and goals as of 4 June 2018, after the match against Netherlands
The following players have also been called up to the Italy squad within the last 12 months. Players that have retired from the national team and are not available for selection anymore are not displayed.
As of 4 June 2018, the players with the most appearances for Italy are:
Players in bold are still active in the national football team.
As of 4 June 2018, the players with the most goals for Italy are:
Players in bold are still active in the national football team.
List of captaincy periods of the various captains throughout the years.
For head to head records against other countries, see Italy national football team head to head.
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what is a pick 6 in american football | Pick 6 - wikipedia
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the big bang theory season 7 episode 14 | The Big Bang Theory (season 7) - wikipedia
The seventh season of the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory aired on CBS from September 26, 2013, to May 15, 2014.
Kaley Cuoco was credited as "Kaley Cuoco - Sweeting '' from "The Convention Conundrum '' and onwards after her wedding with Ryan Sweeting on December 31, 2013. Mayim Bialik submitted the episode "The Indecision Amalgamation '' for consideration due to her nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards. Jim Parsons won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards for the episode "The Relationship Diremption ''. Bob Newhart submitted the episode "The Proton Transmogrification '' for consideration due to his nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. Lucasfilm helped with the creation of the episode.
On March 12, 2014, The Big Bang Theory was renewed for an additional three years, extending it through the 2016 -- 17 season for a total of ten seasons. Production for the seventh season began on August 14, 2013.
During the summer Penny and Sheldon bond over missing Leonard. Penny calls Leonard, who is partying on the ship, clearly not missing her. Penny suggests exchanging secrets with Sheldon, saying she was topless in an unreleased horror movie - not new to Sheldon, as Howard found the clip when they first met. Sheldon 's "secret '' is disliking YouTube 's new rating system - trivial to Penny, who almost leaves in annoyance, but stays and apologizes on realizing she hurt Sheldon 's feelings. Leonard shows his shipmates Penny 's movie. Meanwhile, Raj talks to the recently divorced Mrs. Davis at a university function, apologizing to her after initially insulting her with inappropriate statements. He insists he is not hitting on her, but later tells Howard they "had a moment ''. At a biology convention, Amy and Bernadette are surprised when two men buy them drinks. Bernadette implies Amy 's enthusiasm stems from her hunger for romantic affection from Sheldon, but they make up until Bernadette reveals she was attracted to the man resembling Sheldon, Amy preferring the one resembling Howard.
Leonard surprises Penny by arriving back early and hiding in her apartment. He asks her to keep it a secret from Sheldon, so they can spend some time alone. Sheldon suspects that Penny is cheating on Leonard when he finds clear signs that someone else is in her apartment. Bursting into Penny 's place to catch her in the act, he and Amy find Leonard there. Sheldon gets mad at Leonard for not telling him he is home, and refuses to believe anything he says, though with Howard 's help they eventually reconcile. Meanwhile, Howard experiences weight gain and mood swings; he had applied estrogen ointment to his mother without gloves, so absorbing it through his skin. Raj reassures him in a way that 's just too intimate, shocking Bernadette.
After the gang blows off Raj 's murder - mystery party, he creates a scavenger hunt with ten clues to guide the winner to the location of a gold coin. They first propose making each couple a team, but Leonard suggests picking names out of a hat instead. Penny gets angry, assuming Leonard proposed this to avoid being stuck with her. The teams are Sheldon and Penny, Howard and Amy, and Leonard and Bernadette. Penny and Sheldon both do well figuring out clues as they race around Pasadena. Bernadette is very competitive, whilst Leonard is more worried that Penny is mad at him. Amy and Howard, who have not been alone before, bond over a mutual love of Neil Diamond music. Finally, Raj reveals he slipped a gold coin into everyone 's pocket so that all would win: his goal was to teach the value of friendship. To his dismay, Leonard, Penny and Bernadette are angry there is no clear winner despite all their efforts, and chase him out of the apartment. Howard and Amy abandon the hunt and sing Neil Diamond songs in The Cheesecake Factory.
Amy and Sheldon watch Raiders of the Lost Ark. When he asks her what she thought of it, Amy considers Indiana Jones superfluous as the story 's outcome would have been the same with or without him. After spoiling the movie for Sheldon, he tries to find something Amy loves and spoil it for her. Sheldon watches Amy 's favorite TV show Little House on the Prairie with her and points out historical inaccuracies. Amy, realizing his purpose, says he should just let her know if he is angry, not seek revenge. He complies; Amy apologizes. For her psychology class, Penny buys The Disappointing Child (in which Leonard 's mother wrote about his childhood problems), upsetting Leonard. So Penny goes out of her way to comfort him; he takes advantage of her sympathy. Howard finds out and unsuccessfully tries it with Bernadette, who tells Penny about Howard 's trick. Penny now sees through Leonard and takes revenge by wearing a babydoll outfit, only to leave a pantless Leonard skyping with his mother. Meanwhile, Raj and Stuart, depressed when women checking out their newly - uploaded online dating site profiles leave no messages, realize they do n't need dating sites, and decide to move on.
Amy tells Sheldon she will be working on an experiment at Caltech and asks Sheldon how he feels about it - no problem for Sheldon until Howard explains he would not want to work with Bernadette and be with her day and night. Sheldon withdraws his approval, but Amy says she will still take the job. The next day, Amy is even madder at Sheldon when he embarrasses her at lunch in front of her colleagues. At home, Penny and Leonard explain to him that Amy is right, so he goes to her apartment and apologizes, but re-offends her by saying she can be difficult to put up with. Sheldon mentions Howard 's comments to Bernadette, who then confronts Howard and gets mad after he tries to deny his statements, forcing Howard to stay at Raj 's place. Bernadette later comes over to apologize. Howard promises to spend more time with her, but only after he and Raj finish their video game, once again enraging Bernadette. At the Cheesecake Factory, both Amy and Bernadette are upset with their significant others. Penny assures them that Leonard will set them straight; instead, the guys play skeet shooting with lasers and balloons.
Sheldon calculates how to synthesize a new, stable superheavy element, but then realizes that his discovery was erroneous, which spoils his achievement and makes him feel a fraud. His friends, co-workers and the scientific community praise him, but Sheldon just wants it to stop. Amy finally tells him he does not deserve the attention, for Sheldon the most romantic thing Amy could ever say. Howard has everyone join him in performing a song he wrote for Bernadette to commemorate the anniversary of their first date. When Bernadette is quarantined after an accident at her lab, Howard and the gang sing the song for her at the hospital. Leonard says Penny never does anything romantic for him. Even Raj 's advice fails to inspire her, and she tells Leonard she wishes she could be as romantic as he, showing him a box of dozens of mementos, examples of his romantic gestures during their time together. Leonard is shocked, finding it incredibly romantic that Penny kept these things.
Sheldon, Leonard and Amy run into Dr. Arthur Jeffries (Professor Proton) at the drug store. Arthur emails Leonard to ask him to review his recent paper. Sheldon wonders why he was not asked; Amy says he comes across as annoying. Sheldon goes to apologize to Arthur, but annoys him more. The next day, Sheldon informs them his new friend is another famous TV scientist, Bill Nye "the science guy ''. After Sheldon and Bill leave, Arthur asks Leonard why lives with Sheldon. Leonard explains he is the smartest person he knows, despite his quirks, and they need each other. As Leonard 's answer moves him, Arthur asks Sheldon to read his paper and even stays for a cup of tea but only after seeing Penny in the guys ' apartment. Meanwhile, Howard crashes in on Raj and the girls making jewellery during girls ' night, and takes over by offering them better equipment, upsetting Raj. Howard joins the girls again for another girls ' night; Raj feels left out but can not express his feelings. Raj mocks Howard, who apologizes on discovering how much Raj 's feelings were hurt. Feeling bad, Raj makes a pair of lightsaber belt buckles using techniques Howard taught him.
While rummaging through their closet, Leonard finds a DVD he rented using Sheldon 's card, that should have been returned seven years before. Leonard desperately asks Sheldon not to flip out, and he shockingly remains calm and agrees. He makes Leonard wear an itchy sweater until the DVD issue is resolved, so that Leonard can, metaphorically, walk in Sheldon 's shoes. Leonard searches for the DVD store (long out of business), then for the owner (deceased), then the owner 's (nonexistent) next - of - kin, all the while getting a bad rash from the sweater. Sheldon eventually tells Leonard he had discovered the DVD and paid the fine years before, and that he just wanted him to learn the lesson. Penny meets Lucy, Raj 's ex-girlfriend, at the Cheesecake Factory and is mad at her for breaking up with him by email. Lucy calls Raj to have coffee to apologize. Raj hopes they can get back together, but Lucy reveals she is now dating someone else. Penny then sets up Raj on a date with her friend Lizzy, but Raj freaks out in front of her.
The gang spends Thanksgiving at Mrs. Wolowitz 's house. As she is laid up in bed, Raj, Bernadette and Amy cook. Penny recalls her Thanksgiving in Las Vegas with her ex-boyfriend Zack, and a "fake '' wedding. Her friends tell her the wedding was real, so she is legally married, causing tension between her and Leonard. Howard vainly tries to bond with his father - in - law, Mike, who instead starts to bond over football with Sheldon, who is apparently very knowledgeable as he was forced to watch the game with his father as a child. After Mike shares beers with Sheldon to comfort him because his father died while he was young, they continue to hit it off. Amy orders Sheldon to apologize to Howard after insulting him. A now - drunk Sheldon gestures to Amy, says to Mike, "Ai n't she great? '', and then swats her on the rear and suggests she get them more beers. Amy is shocked, but delighted at the physical attention. Meanwhile, Penny has invited Zack over to sign the annulment papers to end their marriage (to the excitement of Raj, Bernadette and Amy). Zack is at first reluctant to sign, expressing concern at how ending the marriage will affect their non-existent kids. Penny demands he sign, and he does. Mike finally compliments Howard, but then attributes his kindness to being drunk. Penny and Leonard reconcile.
Sheldon walks out of an interview with Ira Flatow on NPR 's Science Friday after Flatow refers to Sheldon 's heavy element discovery being accidental. Amy has Wil Wheaton talk with Sheldon about how to deal with unwanted fame. Later, Leonard reveals having disproved the existence of Sheldon 's heavy element. This infuriates Sheldon, who can now deal with fame and feels Leonard took away the one thing that made him famous. Sheldon 's fury peaks when Barry Kripke berates him over Leonard 's findings. Sheldon and Leonard argue with each other on Science Friday, while an embarrassed Amy and Penny listen. While Raj 's apartment building is being fumigated, he and his dog, Cinnamon, move in with Howard and Bernadette for a week. Though Raj is very kind and helpful, his presence highlights deficiencies in Howard and Bernadette 's relationship, leading them to quarrel. Eventually Raj is thrown out, and moves in with Leonard and Sheldon. He immediately gives Amy and Sheldon relationship advice; after he advises Amy to be patient with Sheldon 's limits on physical contact, she makes Raj leave.
Sheldon is in Texas to help with his sister 's home birth, but is as usual totally self - absorbed and unsympathetic to his sister 's discomfort, and no help at all. Between video calls, his friends wonder how their lives would be had they never met him (as in It 's a Wonderful Life). Penny notes Leonard would have been too afraid to date her, Bernadette thinks she would not be with Howard because of his strange friendship with Raj, and Leonard speculates Penny would be living with Zack, who would trade money for useless items such as beans. Amy suggests that if Leonard had not moved in, Penny would have tried to seduce Sheldon in Leonard 's absence, while Howard notes he would be caring for his mother even after her death (as in Psycho), and Raj and Leonard suggest they would be obese flatmates owing to Raj 's cooking and Leonard 's loneliness. Amy thinks she would be sad and alone. After Amy encourages Sheldon to be with his newborn nephew, Raj observes that Amy has significantly influenced Sheldon, and Leonard shows her her picture on Sheldon 's screensaver, among the other scientists Sheldon admires the most. On returning home, Sheldon tells Amy he would have preferred her to have been in Texas with him (or instead of him). In a final Cheesecake Factory scene with Howard and the obese Raj and Leonard, Leonard asks Penny out; she turns him down to reveal she is dating an extremely cool Stuart. The scene changes to reveal this as Stuart 's fantasy whilst sitting alone in the restaurant.
Penny is ecstatic to get a minor role on NCIS but is devastated when her scene is cut. Whilst comforting her, Leonard accidentally suggests her scene would have made no difference to her career, which upsets her. She demands he honestly tell her his opinion on her acting, and he admits to believing she has unrealistic ambitions for success. Later realizing his honesty may have hurt Penny, Leonard brings her an offer to audition for a part in the new Star Wars movie by submitting a video. Penny gets drunk and proposes to Leonard after thinking the only good thing in her life is him. Because Penny is upset and drunk, Leonard hesitates to answer, so Penny leaves, and Leonard is left wondering if their relationship might be over. Raj and Stuart go to the mall to improve their ability to talk to women but only talk to the security guard. After realizing no - one finds him funny, Sheldon wants to learn to become more humorous and attempts to develop a universal theory of humor. He bores Amy by asking which words she finds funny. Amy meets up with Howard and Bernadette. Bernadette admits to Howard she often fakes a laugh at his jokes.
The day after her drunk proposal, Penny admits to Leonard that he did the right thing stopping her, and that she has quit the Cheesecake Factory to concentrate on her acting career. Despite saying he supports her, Leonard is not thrilled with her quitting. Meanwhile Sheldon, forced into taking vacation time, ends up tagging along with Penny. He says he supports her decision, comparing it to his devoting his life to becoming a physicist. Leonard eventually says that though he could not take a risk like hers, he is proud of Penny for doing so. Geologist Bert brings Amy pretty rocks each day to hit on her. She is oblivious until Howard and Raj point it out. Despite telling Bert she has a boyfriend, Amy is guilt - tripped into attending a "mineral and rock show '' with him. Howard and Raj talk to Bert to get Amy out of it, and they attend the show with Bert instead. Bernadette accidentally damages one of Howard 's comic books, and heads to Stuart for help. As he does not have the issue, he reluctantly takes her to a rival store. The owner, Jesse, insults Stuart, so Bernadette scolds Jesse and leaves without the comic. She later returns to Jesse 's store alone and continues to berate him, nevertheless purchasing the comic.
After the guys fail to obtain Comic - Con tickets, Sheldon wants to create his own comic book convention. He decides to ask James Earl Jones, the voice of Darth Vader, to be the celebrity guest at his new event. Sheldon finds out where Jones is eating and approaches him. Unlike most of Sheldon 's idols, Jones is not turned off by Sheldon 's obsessive personality and hero - worship. Jones takes Sheldon out for a night on the town, visiting an ice cream parlor, a carnival, and a strip club, doing karaoke together ("The Lion Sleeps Tonight ''), ringing Carrie Fisher 's doorbell and running away, and finally visiting a sauna, where Sheldon begins to get somewhat sick of Jones 's company. After he learns the guys did not get Comic - Con tickets, Jones invites Sheldon and his friends to be his guests and promises to take Sheldon to Tijuana every night. Meanwhile, Leonard, Raj, and Howard plan to meet with a ticket scalper to get tickets, but chicken out to avoid trouble. The girls go to a tea room to "feel adult '', but only mothers and their daughters are there so they move on to the bar and wonder what is so great about being adults since acting as "proper '' grown - ups is quite boring.
Amy plans a romantic Valentine 's Day for her and Sheldon by having dinner with Howard and Bernadette on the Napa Valley Wine Train. Sheldon finds a friend in Eric who is equally crazy about trains, ruining Amy 's plan. After she confronts him, Sheldon points out that Amy proposed the trip in the first place, prompting her to confess her trick and say she "deserves romance ''. Sheldon gets angry and offers her various sarcastic romantic gestures, including drinking wine, staring into each other 's eyes, and kissing; however, the supposedly fake kiss becomes a real one, marking the first time Sheldon initiated physical contact between the two. Sheldon even seems to like the intimacy, as he invites Amy to visit the train 's engine with him. While Leonard and Penny are supposed to be sitting Raj 's dog Cinnamon, she eats the chocolates Penny gave Leonard. They rush her to the vet and are joined by an outraged Raj, who connects with the vet, Yvette, since both own dogs and disapprove of what Leonard and Penny did. At home, a surprised Raj discovers she gave him her phone number.
Leonard and Penny decide to get a dining table for the apartment so that they no longer have to eat around the coffee table. Sheldon objects to the change, blaming Penny for changing Leonard, though she points out that Amy has changed Sheldon. Unhappy with this and that Amy told her about the kiss, he decides to break up with Amy. Amy, who has been alerted, agrees to break up, but blocks Sheldon 's plan by convincing him that Leonard is manipulating him. Amy feeds Sheldon arguments against Leonard, but goes too far when she suggests they move in together. Finally, Amy and Sheldon eat together on the sofa, with the others at the table, until everyone pities Sheldon and all end up back at the coffee table. NASA asks Howard to revisit the International Space Station. He has forgotten his horrible first time, and eagerly wants to return. Bernadette holds an intervention where Howard is reminded he would have to go through survival training again. Howard finds a way out by phoning his mother during his blood pressure test, thus failing his physical.
Penny informs the group she has turned down a role in the sequel to the bad horror movie she starred in. Later, Penny 's car breaks down leaving her no way to get to auditions, so she considers resuming her Cheesecake Factory job. Leonard surprises her with a new car, so she can further pursue her acting career. Sheldon insults Howard, and Bernadette wants to know why he always does so. Sheldon details a decade of abuse. Howard wants to be a better friend, and invites Sheldon to a weekend in Houston when Sheldon can visit NASA and his mother. On the flight, both are frightened by clear - air turbulence and each admits respecting the other as a friend without whom life would be empty. Raj asks Amy to reply to Emily who contacted his dating website. Raj thus appears too passive, turning her off. She and Amy have much in common and enjoy tea together until Raj interrupts them, putting off Emily and ruining any chance of friendship with either.
Sheldon and Howard drop in on Sheldon 's mother Mary, but flee after Sheldon sees her having sex. Sheldon returns, gets into an argument, and is sent to his room. After Howard tells him he once drove away an admirer of his mother, Sheldon apologizes to Mary, saying he will outwardly accept her choice whilst inwardly condemning her hypocrisy in going against her religious beliefs. She forgives him and commends his good Christian attitude. The rest of the gang is roped into a murder mystery dinner arranged by Raj, with Stuart as the corpse. "Traveling '' to the future envisioned by Raj, Leonard and Penny broke up because of their successful careers. The pair argue what they would do if one were required to abandon a dream for the other 's success. Stuart says they are the best couple he knows. Penny accidentally reveals being the murderer, ruining Raj 's game. Whatever happens, Leonard suggests they all meet in front of the apartment in 20 years for dinner. In that future, only Stuart shows up.
Decision time: Raj must decide if to date both Emily and Lucy, Penny must decide whether to accept a role in a horrible horror movie, Serial Apeist 2, and Sheldon is torn between buying a PlayStation 4 or an Xbox One. Sheldon 's decision ramblings really annoy Amy, during their dinner date where she fakes exaggerated interest, then pondering his choices for hours at Best Buy. Leonard and Penny talk to Wil Wheaton, who is depressed about the acting industry. After accepting the job, Penny discovers Wil is the bikini - clad orang - utan she must wrestle in the film. Emily tells Raj she does n't mind him dating someone else, so he keeps on seeing her. Meanwhile, after signing a card for a co-worker who is retiring, Bernadette discovers her message is highly inappropriate as the card is actually a "get well '' card for the woman, who has been in a terrible accident.
Raj and Howard double - date so that the Wolowitzes can meet Emily before Raj scares her off. At first Raj is afraid Howard will joke about his shortcomings; however, Howard becomes the butt of all the jokes. He had a blind date with Emily years before, and due to a stomach problem, he severely blocked her toilet and ran out on her. Howard gained the nickname "Clogzilla ''. Recent big bang theory discoveries lead Sheldon to believe he wasted his life trying to prove string theory. On Penny 's advice he decides to get rid of all his string theory books and move to a new field. Over frustration at all his possible choices, Sheldon jokes he might as well take up geology, which he believes is not real science. Leonard and Penny tell him not to rush it. Eventually, Amy puts a drunken Sheldon to bed. When he awakes, he is horrified to see what he holds in his arms: a geology book. Whilst calling Amy to apologize for scaring her off, he also discovers he made several drunk calls to Stephen Hawking 's answering machine.
After reinstating "Anything Can Happen Thursday '', Sheldon, Leonard and Penny wander around town looking for a new restaurant. They find Amy and Bernadette having dinner after lying to their friends. They were tired of hearing Sheldon moan about searching for a new research field and Penny complain about her horrible movie. Leonard sympathizes, so Sheldon and Penny storm off. Bernadette admits lying to Howard too. Amy tells Leonard she is jealous of how comfortable Sheldon is with Penny. Penny calls Howard and says Bernadette lied to him, but Bernadette says she will just put on a Catholic schoolgirl uniform to make it up to him. Raj and Howard watch a horror film, which both find disturbing, to prepare Raj for watching it with Emily. Emily later says she too finds the film disturbing, but Raj watches it with her after she says it also turns her on. After dinner, Penny drags Sheldon to a psychic who says all his problems will be solved if he commits more to Amy. A rattled Sheldon scoffs at this "malarkey ''. Later, Amy shows up at Sheldon 's door dressed as a Catholic schoolgirl to apologize for lying, but Sheldon acts unmoved.
The guys prepare for Star Wars Day and plan to watch all six films. Leonard tells Sheldon that Arthur Jeffries (Professor Proton), their childhood hero, has died. While Sheldon claims he is fine and prepares to start the film marathon with Raj and Howard, Penny and Leonard attend Jeffries ' funeral on the same day and start discussing their regrets in life; he regrets not having accepted her marriage proposal. As Leonard is more upset about her turning his two proposals down than him turning her one down, Penny proposes to make him feel better. He chooses to tease her in hesitating to answer, frustrating her. While Sheldon is sleeping through the film marathon, Jeffries appears to him dressed as a Jedi Master. He knows neither why he is there nor what advice to give Sheldon, but once Sheldon confides that all his male idols in his family died, he tells him to cherish the people around him in the present. After Leonard returns home, Sheldon wakes up and hugs him, taking Arthur 's advice. Bernadette and Amy make a Death Star cake for the guys while talking about why they became scientists. Finally, Sheldon has another dream where Arthur asks him if watching Star Wars is a useful way to spend his life and Sheldon sees nothing wrong in it.
Howard, Bernadette, and Raj move a treadmill up to Howard 's old room at his mother 's house as her doctor says she needs more exercise. The treadmill slides back down the stairs, breaking Howard 's mother 's leg. The couple later struggle to care for her, as if for a newborn baby, but finally hire a live - in nurse. Leonard visits the movie set of "Serial Ape - ist 2: Monkey See, Monkey Kill '' where Penny contradicts the director on repeating a take, and she and Wil are fired. They and Leonard commiserate at a bar until Wil is called to audition for Sharknado 2. At home, Penny tells Leonard she must make better life decisions and suggests they marry. He wants assuring this is n't just because she was fired and feels sorry for herself. Penny says to be happy she needs only Leonard, not fame. He formally proposes, and she happily accepts. At the movies, Sheldon and Raj run into Emily dating another man. Raj and Sheldon later discuss why women do n't like Raj. Sheldon suggests Raj has to overcome his fear of being alone. Emily later explains to Raj that the other guy did her last tattoo and asked her out for months; she gave in to get the date over with. She invites Raj to inspect her three tattoos "on my shoulder; not on my shoulder; definitely not on my shoulder '' and spends the night with him.
Leonard and Penny tell the group they are engaged; all are happy, but make a bigger deal of Raj and Emily having had sex. Leonard 's mother is unmoved by his engagement, but accepts Penny because Sheldon is very fond of her. Sheldon is angered the university will not let him change research fields and considers quitting. He is further upset that Leonard and Penny do not want to live with him when married. He is disturbed at Amy 's suggestion they could live together, and his last nerve breaks on discovering Stuart 's comic book store was destroyed by fire. Sheldon decides to leave town to figure out what he wants. Leonard protests but Penny says they should let him go. Sheldon calls Amy to say he is all right, after which a distraught Amy attacks Leonard with a pillow for letting him go. Howard 's mother drives away all nurses hired to look after her, even Penny. Howard offers Stuart the job, giving him money and a home while he gets back on his feet after losing his store. He loves the job, becoming surprisingly close to Howard 's mother.
The seventh season received positive reviews. Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club criticized some of the humor, particularly stereotypes written for the female characters, although noting that "these actors make it very funny '', but praised the series on a whole; "the major strides made with Sheldon, Penny, and Leonard compensate for some of the more distasteful humor, making this a strong start for this show 's seventh season ''. Carla Day of TV Fanatic wrote that "There were definitely some funny moments, but in its entirety it was n't one of my favorites ''. Euan Ferguson of The Guardian wrote that "The Big Bang Theory is now pretty well established... And just gets ever better ''.
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where was the movie snow white and the huntsman filmed | Snow White and the Huntsman - wikipedia
Snow White and the Huntsman is a 2012 American fantasy film based on the German fairy tale "Snow White '' compiled by the Brothers Grimm. The film is the directorial debut of Rupert Sanders. The screenplay was by Evan Daugherty, John Lee Hancock, and Hossein Amini, from a screen story by Daugherty. In the film 's retelling of the tale, Snow White grows up imprisoned by her evil stepmother, Queen Ravenna, a powerful sorceress. After Snow White escapes into the forest, Ravenna tells Eric, the Huntsman that she will bring back his dead wife if he captures Snow White.
The cast includes Kristen Stewart as Snow White, Charlize Theron as Queen Ravenna, Chris Hemsworth as Eric, the huntsman, Sam Claflin as William, Snow White 's childhood friend, and Bob Hoskins as the dwarf seer in his final film appearances. The film received two Academy Award nominations for Best Visual Effects and Best Costume Design at the 85th Academy Awards. It was a success at the box office, earning $396.6 million worldwide against a $170 million budget. Although critics praised the production design, visual effects, Theron and Hemsworth 's performances, musical score, and action sequences; Stewart and Claflin 's performances received mixed reviews, and the screenplay was heavily criticized.
A prequel / sequel, titled The Huntsman: Winter 's War, directed by the first film 's visual effects supervisor Cedric Nicolas - Troyan, was released on April 22, 2016, with Stewart (only through the use of archive footage), Hemsworth, Theron, Claflin and Nick Frost reprising their roles.
While admiring a rose blooming in the winter, Queen Eleanor of the kingdom of Tabor pricks her finger on one of its thorns. Three drops of blood fall onto the snow - covered ground, and she wishes for a daughter as white as the snow, with lips as red as the blood, hair as black as a raven 's wings and a heart as strong and defiant as the rose. Queen Eleanor gives birth to her daughter Snow White, but soon after falls ill and dies. After her death, Snow White 's father, King Magnus, and his army battle an invading Dark Army of demonic glass soldiers. Upon rescuing their prisoner Ravenna, he becomes enchanted with her beauty and marries her.
Ravenna, is in fact a powerful sorceress and the Dark Army 's master. On their wedding night, Magnus, enchanted, throws Ravenna into the bed and proceeds to make love. Ravenna confesses there was a king much like Magnus that spoiled her. During foreplay, she declares she can not be a weak queen and kills Magnus. Snow White 's childhood friend William and his father Duke Hammond escape the castle but are unable to rescue her, and she is captured by Ravenna 's brother Finn, and locked away in the north tower of the castle for many years.
Tabor is ruined under Queen Ravenna 's rule as she periodically drains the youth from the kingdom 's young women in order to maintain a spell cast over her as a child by her mother which allows her to keep her youthful beauty. When Snow White comes of age, Queen Ravenna learns from her Magic Mirror, in the form of a golden, reflective liquid shaped like a man, that her stepdaughter Snow White is destined to destroy her unless Queen Ravenna consumes the young girl 's heart, which will make her truly immortal. Queen Ravenna orders Finn to bring her Snow White 's heart, but Snow White escapes into the Dark Forest, where Ravenna has no power. Queen Ravenna makes a bargain with Eric the Huntsman, a widower and drunkard, to capture Snow White, promising to bring his wife back to life in exchange. The Huntsman tracks down Snow White, but when Finn reveals that Queen Ravenna does not actually have the power to do what she promised, the Huntsman fights him and his men while Snow White runs away. When the Huntsman catches up with her, she promises him gold if he will escort her to Duke Hammond 's castle. Meanwhile, Finn gathers another band of men to find her, and Duke Hammond and his son William learn that she is alive. William leaves the castle on his own to find her, joining Finn 's band as a bowman.
The Huntsman and Snow White leave the Dark Forest, where she saves his life by charming a huge troll that attacks them. They make their way to a fishing village populated by women who have disfigured themselves to save their own lives, becoming useless to Queen Ravenna, who wants to use their beauty and youth to extend and prolong hers, as she does with Gretta whilst Snow White is still imprisoned. While there, the Huntsman learns Snow White 's true identity, and initially leaves her in the care of the women. He soon returns when he sees the village being burned down by Finn 's men. Snow White and the Huntsman evade them and eventually meet a band of eight dwarves named Beith, Muir, Quert, Coll, Duir, Gort, Nion, and Gus. The blind Muir perceives that Snow White is the daughter of the former king, and the only person who can defeat Ravenna and end her reign.
As they travel through a fairy sanctuary, Snow White encounters a magical reindeer that was only in tales of legend, but as the reindeer and Snow White are about to embrace, the group is attacked by Finn and his men. The Huntsman battles Finn and eventually kills him, and William reveals himself and helps defeat Finn 's men. However, Gus is killed when he sacrifices himself to take an arrow meant for Snow White. William joins the group which continues the journey to Hammond 's castle.
Halfway to Duke Hammond 's castle, Queen Ravenna disguises herself as William and tempts Snow White into eating a poisoned apple, but is forced to flee when the Huntsman and William discover her. William kisses Snow White, whom he believes to be dead and does not notice a tear fall from one of her eyes. She is taken to Hammond 's castle. As she lies in repose, the Huntsman professes his regret for not saving Snow White, who reminds him of his late wife, Sara; and he kisses her, not noticing a second tear coming from her other eye falling. The spell broken by the love of two men she treasures, Snow White awakens and walks into the courtyard; rallying the Duke 's army to mount a siege against Queen Ravenna.
The dwarves infiltrate the castle through the sewers and open the gates, allowing the Duke 's army inside. Snow White confronts Queen Ravenna, but is overpowered. Queen Ravenna is about to kill Snow White and consume her heart. Eventually, Snow White uses a move the Huntsman taught her and mortally wounds Queen Ravenna, and Duke Hammond 's army is victorious. With Queen Ravenna defeated, the kingdom once again enjoys peace and harmony as Snow White is crowned queen.
Evan Daugherty initially wrote the screenplay in 2003, when he was studying at NYU. At the time reboots of fairy tales were not a popular film genre and according to Daugherty "no one really knew what to do with it '' More problems came when the release of Terry Gilliam 's The Brothers Grimm (2005) flopped at the box office which caused potential buyers to be hesitant about the script. The script was finally greenlit after the success of Tim Burton 's Alice in Wonderland (2010).
Film producers considered casting a lesser - known actress for the role of Snow White, with mention of Riley Keough, Felicity Jones, Bella Heathcote, Alicia Vikander, and Rachel Maxwell as possible picks. This idea became less likely as known actresses Dakota Fanning and Kristen Stewart were later rumored to be short - listed for the role. On March 4, 2011 a series of tweets from co-producer Palak Patel confirmed that Stewart was offered the role. Winona Ryder was initially considered to play Queen Ravenna, before the role went to Charlize Theron. Tom Hardy was supposedly first offered the role of Eric, the Huntsman, but turned down the offer. The role was then apparently offered to Michael Fassbender, and then Johnny Depp, but both claim to have declined it. Viggo Mortensen was said to have been in negotiations with Universal for the part, but supposedly turned down the role, too. It was claimed that Hugh Jackman was offered the role, but that he declined. In 2011, Thor star Chris Hemsworth was eventually cast in the role of the Huntsman. The Dwarfs were played by actors of average height who had their faces digitally superimposed onto small bodies. This caused a protest from the Little People of America.
Principal photography took place in the United Kingdom. The beach scenes were predominantly filmed in Pembrokeshire, on the Marloes Sands beach near the village of Marloes between September 26 and 29, 2011. Though the beach was not closed to the public during filming, as filming progressed, certain parts were advised to be off limits. A computer - generated castle was set on nearby Gateholm island. A field above the beach was used for production purposes, and a special wooden ramp was built for vehicles and horses to access the beach. The film used academic consultants from the University of Chichester and the University of Oxford for back - up research on fairy tales and medieval battles. The English band Florence and the Machine recorded "Breath of Life '' exclusively for the film, which was reportedly inspired by Theron 's character Queen Ravenna.
The film had its premiere on May 14, 2012, at the Empire, Leicester Square, in London.
The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray in Region 1 on September 11, 2012, with both the theatrical version (127 minutes) and an extended version (132 minutes) available on both formats. The film was released on the same formats in Region 2 on October 1, 2012.
Snow White and the Huntsman earned $155,332,381 in North America, along with $241,260,448 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $396,592,829. In North America, the film earned $1,383,000 from midnight showings. For its opening day, the film topped the box office with $20,468,525. It debuted in first place at the box office during its opening weekend with $56,217,700. It is the seventeenth highest - grossing 2012 film. Outside North America, Snow White and the Huntsman had an opening of $39.3 million, ranking second overall for the weekend behind Men in Black 3; however, it ranked number 1 in 30 countries.
Snow White and the Huntsman received mixed reviews from critics. The film has a 49 % "rotten '' score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 218 reviews, with an average rating of 5.6 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "While it offers an appropriately dark take on the fairy tale that inspired it, Snow White & the Huntsman is undone by uneven acting, problematic pacing, and a confused script. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 57 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. CinemaScore polls conducted revealed the average grade that filmgoers gave the film was a "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
David Edelstein of New York praised the film 's revisionist tone and said the film was "strongly influenced by a lot of smart, feminist thinking ''. Roger Ebert gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised Theron 's performance and also wrote, "Though it is an ambitious -- at times mesmerizing -- application of the latest cinematic technology, the movie tries to recapture some of the menace of the stories that used to be told to scare children rather than console them. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "Ravenna hates living in a world where men can feed on women 's beauty and then toss them away. She 's a fascist of feminism, and Theron 's acting has the blood of operatic anger coursing through it. '' Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times said the film is, "an absolute wonder to watch and creates a warrior princess for the ages. But what this revisionist fairy tale does not give us is a passionate love -- its kisses are as chaste as the snow is white. '' Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers called it "a visual marvel '' while noting that Stewart "morphs convincingly from a skittish girl into a determined warrior princess. '' MSN news said that Stewart "grows into her character, it seems, and eventually got this reviewer completely on her side. Colin Covert of the Minneapolis Star Tribune gave the film 4 / 4 stars. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian said that while the film is "less jokey than the recent Mirror Mirror '', "this Twilightified fairytale has the same basic problem, '' and that, "The result is tangled and overblown. '' Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle called it "(a) slow, boring film that has no charm and is highlighted only by a handful of special effects and Charlize Theron 's truly evil queen. '' Michael O'Sullivan of the Washington Post also gave the film a negative review: "Overlong, overcrowded, overstimulating and with an over-the - top performance by Charlize Theron as the evil queen Ravenna, the movie is a virtual orchard of toxic excess, starting with the unnecessarily sprawling cast of characters. '' Lisa Kennedy of the Denver Post gave the film two out of four stars and said, "Only Bob Hoskins as the blind seer Muir comes close to making us care. We can almost glean Snow White 's heroic possibilities through his clouded eyes. As much as we 'd like to, we certainly ca n't from Stewart 's efforts. '' Scott Foundas states that "Stewart 's Snow White... pouts her lips, bats her bedroom eyes, and scarcely seems to have more on her mind than who might take her to the senior prom -- let alone the destiny of an entire kingdom. '' Richard Roeper gave the movie a B+, calling it "Vastly superior to Mirror, Mirror '', and praising Theron and Stewart 's performances.
A sequel was planned, with director Rupert Sanders in talks to return. In August 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that the sequel was shelved in the aftermath of the scandal involving Sanders cheating on his wife with Stewart and that a spin - off film concentrating on the Huntsman was planned instead, which would not star Stewart. Universal announced a few days later that they were not shelving the sequel. A 2012 report stated that Universal has authorized a sequel and Stewart was set to reprise her role, but without Sanders to return as the director due to the scandal. The script was written and production was set to begin in 2013.
The film was originally scheduled for release in 2015. In September 2013, Chris Hemsworth stated he did not know anything about the sequel while speaking to E!. On June 4, 2014, Deadline reported that Frank Darabont, Gavin O'Connor and Andrés Muschietti were on the shortlist to direct the sequel. On June 26, 2014, Deadline reported that Darabont was in talks to direct the sequel. Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and Legendary Pictures were set to co-finance the film with Universal but dropped out and were replaced by Perfect World Pictures. On July 31, 2014, the project was described as a prequel titled The Huntsman scheduled for April 22, 2016, which would not star Stewart as Snow White. In January 2015, Darabont left the project as director, but the third leading role was set with Emily Blunt. It was later announced that Cedric Nicolas - Troyan would take over as the new director for the film. Nick Frost will return as Dwarf Nion and Jessica Chastain will star. On March 18, 2015, Rob Brydon, Alexandra Roach and Sheridan Smith were added to the cast as dwarves. TheWrap confirmed on May 7, 2015, that Sam Claflin would return as William in this sequel.
It was later revealed that the film would feature Ravenna 's sister, the Ice Queen, and would reveal the origins of the Huntsman, while also continuing the story of the first film.
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how much memory does an ipad mini have | IPad Mini - Wikipedia
1st generation: November 2, 2012 (2012 - 11 - 02) 2: November 12, 2013 (2013 - 11 - 12) 3: October 22, 2014 (2014 - 10 - 22)
1st generation, 2 & 3: Wi - Fi 802.11 a / b / g / n @ 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz 4: Wi - Fi 802.11 a / b / g / n / ac @ 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz 1st generation, 2 & 3: Bluetooth 4.0 4: Bluetooth 4.2
The iPad Mini family (branded and marketed as iPad mini) is a line of mini tablet computers designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. It is a sub-series of the iPad line of tablets, with a reduced screen size of 7.9 inches, in contrast to the standard 9.7 inches. The first generation iPad Mini was announced on October 23, 2012, and was released on November 2, 2012, in nearly all of Apple 's markets. It features similar internal specifications to the iPad 2, including its display resolution.
The second generation iPad Mini, with a faster processor and a Retina Display, was announced on October 22, 2013 and released on November 12, 2013. The third generation iPad Mini was announced on October 16, 2014 and was released on October 22, 2014; it features the same external hardware as the Mini 2 and the addition of a Touch ID fingerprint sensor compatible with Apple Pay. On September 9, 2015, Apple released the iPad Mini 4.
On October 16, 2012, Apple announced plans for a media event on October 23 at the California Theatre in San Jose, California. The company did not give the subject of the event, but it was widely expected to be the iPad Mini. At the event, Apple CEO Tim Cook introduced a new version of MacBook family and new generations of the MacBook Pro, Mac Mini, and the iMac, then unveiled the fourth - generation iPad and the iPad Mini.
The iPad Mini comes with several pre-installed applications, including Siri, Safari, Mail, Photos, Video, Music, iTunes, App Store, Maps, Notes, Calendar, Game Center, Photo Booth, and Contacts. Like all iOS devices, the iPad can sync content and other data with a Mac or PC using iTunes and to Apple 's iCloud online service. Although the tablet is not designed to make telephone calls over a cellular network, users can use a headset or the built - in speaker and microphone and place phone calls over Wi - Fi or cellular using a VoIP application, such as Skype. iPads offer dictation when connected to a Wi - Fi or cellular network.
Applications from Apple and third - party developers can be downloaded through the App Store, an application distribution market for iOS that is maintained and regulated by Apple. The service allows users to browse and purchase applications. Optional apps from Apple that can be purchased through the App Store include GarageBand, iMovie, iPhoto, and the iWork apps (Pages, Keynote, and Numbers) are available.
The device has an optional iBooks application, which displays books and other ePub - format content downloaded from the iBookstore. Several major book publishers including Penguin Books, HarperCollins, Simon & Schuster and Macmillan have committed to publishing books for the device. Despite the iPad being a direct competitor to both the Amazon Kindle and Barnes & Noble Nook, both Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble offer e-reader apps for the iPad.
On June 8, 2015, it was announced at the WWDC that all four generations of the iPad Mini would support iOS 9. However, certain new multitasking features, such as Slide Over and Picture in Picture, will be limited to the second, third generation, and the fourth generation. Split View, another new multitasking feature, is only available on the iPad Mini 4.
The current version of iOS, iOS 11, is supported on iPad Mini 2 and up. An upgrade to this version is available as a free download.
The first generation iPad Mini shipped with iOS 6.0 and the highest supported version is iOS 9.3. 5.
There are four buttons and one switch on the iPad Mini, including a "home '' button near the display that returns the user to the home screen, and three aluminum buttons on the right side and top: wake / sleep and volume up and volume down, plus a software - controlled switch whose function varies with software updates. The tablet is manufactured either with or without the capability to communicate over a cellular network. All models can connect to a wireless LAN via Wi - Fi. The iPad Mini is available with 16, 32, 64 and 128 GB of internal flash memory, with no expansion option. Apple sells a "camera connection kit '' with an SD card reader, but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos.
The first generation iPad Mini features partially the same hardware as the iPad 2. Both screens have resolutions of 1024x768, but the iPad Mini has a smaller screen and thus higher pixel density than iPad 2 (163 PPI vs. 132 PPI). Unlike the iPad 2, it has 5 MP and 1.2 MP cameras and the Lightning connector. The system - on - chip is A5, which is the same one found in the later revision of the iPad 2 (32 nm). The audio processor is the same found in iPhone 5 and iPad 4th generation, which allows the iPad Mini to have Siri and voice dictation unlike the iPad 2. The graphics processor (GPU) of the first generation iPad Mini is the same one found in the iPad 2 (PowerVR SGX 543MP2).
iPads with a data connection can download data through cellphone networks, but can not make voice calls. They can act as a hotspot, sharing the Internet connection over Wi - Fi, Bluetooth, or USB.
The Smart Cover, introduced with the iPad 2, is a screen protector that magnetically attaches to the face of the iPad. A smaller version is now available for iPad Mini. The cover has three folds, which allow it to convert into a stand, held together by magnets. Smart Covers have a microfiber bottom that cleans the front of the iPad, and wakes up the unit when the cover is removed. It comes in six colors of polyurethane.
Apple offers other accessories, including a Bluetooth keyboard, several types of earbuds or headphones and many adapters for the Lightning connector. AppleCare and free engraving are also available for the iPad Mini.
The most recent model is the iPad Mini 4. The iPad models are listed in a comparison grid.
Reviews of the first generation iPad Mini have been positive, with reviewers praising the device 's size, design, and availability of applications, while criticizing its use of a proprietary power connector and its lack of expandable storage and Retina Display for the first generation iPad Mini. The device competes with tablets such as the Amazon Kindle Fire HD, Google Nexus 7, and Barnes & Noble Nook HD. Joshua Topolsky of The Verge praised the industrial design of the iPad Mini, however panned its lack of Retina Display and price. The iPad Mini 2 was well received, praising the Retina Display and Apple A7 chip performance, with criticisms on the price increase and the quality of the camera.
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discuss the impact of brexit on uk economy | Economic effects of Brexit - wikipedia
The economic effects of Brexit were a major area of debate during the Referendum on UK membership of the European Union, and the debate continues after the Leave vote. Supporters of remaining, including the UK treasury, argued that being in the EU has a strong positive effect on trade and as a result the UK 's trade would be worse off if it left the EU. Supporters of withdrawal from the EU have argued that the cessation of net contributions to the EU would allow for some cuts to taxes or increase in government spending.
Supporters of withdrawal argued that ending net contributions to the EU would allow for tax cuts or government spending increases. The Institute for Fiscal Studies noted that the majority of forecasts of the impact of Brexit on the UK economy indicated that the government would have less money to spend even if it no longer had to pay into the EU.
According to Paul Krugman, Brexiteers assertions suggesting that leaving the single market and customs union might increase UK export more to the rest of the world are wrong. He considers the costs of Brexit might be of around 2 per cent of GDP..
Prior to the referendum, the UK treasury estimated that leaving the EU would be bad for the UK 's trade.
On 10 August the Institute for Fiscal Studies published a report funded by the Economic and Social Research Council which warned that Britain faced some very difficult choices as it could n't retain the benefits of full EU membership whilst restricting EU migration. The IFS claimed the cost of reduced economic growth would cost the UK around £ 70 billion, more than the £ 8 billion savings in membership fees. It did not expect new trade deals to make up the difference.
On 5 January 2017, Andy Haldane, the Chief Economist and the Executive Director of Monetary Analysis and Statistics at the Bank of England, admitted that forecasts predicting an economic downturn due to the referendum were inaccurate and noted strong market performance after the referendum. Despite this prices are rising faster than wages.
European experts from the World Pensions Council (WPC) and the University of Bath have argued that, beyond short - lived market volatility, the long term economic prospects of Britain remain high, notably in terms of country attractiveness and foreign direct investment (FDI): "Country risk experts we spoke to are confident the UK 's economy will remain robust in the event of an exit from the EU. ' The economic attractiveness of Britain will not go down and a trade war with London is in no one 's interest, ' says M Nicolas Firzli, director - general of the World Pensions Council (WPC) and advisory board member for the World Bank Global Infrastructure Facility (...) Bruce Morley, lecturer in economics at the University of Bath, goes further to suggest that the long - term benefits to the UK of leaving the Union, such as less regulation and more control over Britain 's trade policy, could outweigh the short - term uncertainty observed in the (country risk) scores. ''
The mooted importance of the UK 's membership of the EU as a lure for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has long been stressed by supporters of the UK 's continued involvement in the EU. In this view, foreign firms see the UK as a gateway to other EU markets, with the UK economy benefiting from its resulting attractiveness as a location for activity. The UK is certainly a major recipient of FDI. In 2014, it held the second largest stock of inward investment in the world, amounting to just over £ 1 trillion or almost 7 % of the global total. This was more than double the 3 % accounted for by Germany and France. On a per capita basis, the UK is the clear front - runner among major economies with a stock of FDI around three times larger than the level in other major European economies and 50 % larger than in the US.
The BBC reported on 28 April 2017 that property investment firm JLL (company) data shows Asian investors accounted for 28 % of the transactions in the UK property market in 2016, up from the 17 % the year before -- indicating that Brexit is not dissuading Asian property investors. The BBC also cited Chinese international property portal Juwai.com, which reported a 60 % increase in enquiries into UK property in the prior 12 months. Property firm CBRE Group said in January 2017 that Brexit has increased risk in UK property markets by creating new uncertainties.
When the London Stock Exchange opened on Friday 24 June, the FTSE 100 fell from 6338.10 to 5806.13 in the first ten minutes of trading. It recovered to 6091.27 after a further 90 minutes before further recovering to 6162.97 by the end of the day 's trading. This equated to a fall of 3 % by the close of trading. When the markets reopened the following Monday, the FTSE 100 showed a steady decline, losing over 2 % by mid-afternoon. Upon opening later on the Friday after the referendum, the US Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped nearly 450 points or about 2.5 % in less than half an hour. The Associated Press called the sudden worldwide stock market decline a stock market crash. Internationally, more than US $ 2 trillion of wealth in equities markets was wiped out in the highest one - day sell - off in recorded history, in absolute terms. The stock market losses amounted to a total of 3 trillion US dollars by 27 June; up to the same date, the FTSE 100 index had lost £ 85 billion. Near the close of trading on 27 June, the domestically - focused FTSE 250 Index was down approximately 14 % compared to the day before the referendum results were published.
However, by 1 July the FTSE 100 had risen above pre-referendum levels, to a ten - month high. Taking the previous fall into account, this represented the index 's largest single - week rise since 2011. On 11 July, it officially entered bull market territory, having risen by more than 20 % from its February low. The FTSE 250 moved above its pre-referendum level on 27 July. In the US, the S&P 500, a broader market than the Dow Jones, reached an all - time high on 11 July.
On the morning of 24 June, the pound sterling fell to its lowest level against the US dollar since 1985, marking the pound down 10 % against the US dollar and 7 % against the euro. The drop from $1.50 to $1.37 was the biggest move for the currency in any two - hour period in history. The pound remained low, and on 8 July became the worst performing currency of the year, against 31 other major currencies, performing worse than the Argentine peso, the previous lowest currency. By contrast, the pound 's trade - weighted index is only back at levels seen in the period 2008 -- 2013.
The referendum result also had an immediate economic effect on a number of other countries. The South African rand experienced its largest single - day decline since 2008, dropping in value by over 8 % against the US dollar. Other countries negatively affected included Canada, whose stock exchange fell 1.70 %, Nigeria, and Kenya. This was partly due to a general global financial shift out of currencies seen as risky and into the US dollar, and partly due to concerns over how the UK 's withdrawal from the EU would affect the economies and trade relations of countries with close economic links to the United Kingdom.
However, by September 2016 British media had reported that ignoring so - called ' Project Fear ' scaremongering had rewarded those shareholders who ignored the associated pessimism, after the FTSE250 broke all records in the months following the referendum.
On 5 January 2017, Andy Haldane, the Chief Economist and the Executive Director of Monetary Analysis and Statistics at the Bank of England, admitted that forecasts predicting an economic downturn due to the referendum have so far been inaccurate and noted strong market performance since the referendum.
On 27 June, Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne attempted to reassure financial markets that the UK economy was not in serious trouble. This came after media reports that a survey by the Institute of Directors suggested that two - thirds of businesses believed that the outcome of the referendum would produce negative results as well as falls in the value of sterling and the FTSE 100. Some British businesses had also predicted that investment cuts, hiring freezes and redundancies would be necessary to cope with the results of the referendum. Osborne indicated that Britain was facing the future "from a position of strength '' and there was no current need for an emergency Budget. "No - one should doubt our resolve to maintain the fiscal stability we have delivered for this country... And to companies, large and small, I would say this: the British economy is fundamentally strong, highly competitive and we are open for business. ''
On 14 July Philip Hammond, Osborne 's successor as Chancellor, told BBC News the referendum result had caused uncertainty for businesses, and that it was important to send "signals of reassurance '' to encourage investment and spending. He also confirmed there would not be an emergency budget: "We will want to work closely with the governor of the Bank of England and others through the summer to prepare for the Autumn Statement, when we will signal and set out the plans for the economy going forward in what are very different circumstances that we now face, and then those plans will be implemented in the Budget in the spring in the usual way. ''
It was expected that the weaker pound would also benefit aerospace and defence firms, pharmaceutical companies, and professional services companies; the share prices of these companies were boosted after the EU referendum.
On 12 July, the global investment management company BlackRock predicted the UK would experience a recession in late 2016 or early 2017 as a result of the vote to leave the EU, and that economic growth would slow down for at least five years because of a reduction in investment. On 18 July, the UK - based economic forecasting group EY ITEM club suggested the country would experience a "short shallow recession '' as the economy suffered "severe confidence effects on spending and business ''; it also cut its economic growth forecasts for the UK from 2.6 % to 0.4 % in 2017, and 2.4 % to 1.4 % for 2018. The group 's chief economic adviser, Peter Soencer, also argued there would be more long - term implications, and that the UK "may have to adjust to a permanent reduction in the size of the economy, compared to the trend that seemed possible prior to the vote ''. Senior City investor Richard Buxton also argued there would be a "mild recession ''. On 19 July, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reduced its 2017 economic growth forecast for the UK from 2.2 % to 1.3 %, but still expected Britain to be the second fastest growing economy in the G7 during 2016; the IMF also reduced its forecasts for world economic growth by 0.1 % to 3.1 % in 2016 and 3.4 % in 2017, as a result of the referendum, which it said had "thrown a spanner in the works '' of global recovery.
On 20 July, a report released by the Bank of England said that although uncertainty had risen "markedly '' since the referendum, it was yet to see evidence of a sharp economic decline as a consequence. However, around a third of contacts surveyed for the report expected there to be "some negative impact '' over the following year.
In September 2016, following three months of positive economic data after the referendum, commentators suggested that many of the negative statements and predictions promoted from within the "remain '' camp had failed to materialise, but by December, analysis began to show that Brexit was having an effect on inflation.
On the day after the referendum, Bank of England Governor Mark Carney told a press conference:
The capital requirements of our largest banks are now 10 times higher than before the financial crisis. The Bank of England has stress - tested those banks against scenarios far more severe than our country currently faces. As a result of these actions UK banks have raised over a £ 130bn of new capital and now have more than £ 600bn of high quality liquid assets. That substantial capital and huge liquidity gives banks the flexibility they need to continue to lend to UK businesses and households even during challenging times. Moreover, as a backstop to support the functioning of the markets the Bank of England stands ready to provide more than £ 250bn of additional funds through its normal market operations. The Bank of England is also able to provide substantial liquidity in foreign currency if required. We expect institutions to draw on this funding if and when appropriate. It will take some time for the UK to establish a new relationship with Europe and the rest of the world. So some market and economic volatility can be expected as this process unfolds, but we are well prepared for this. Her Majesty 's Treasury and the Bank of England have engaged in extensive contingency planning and the chancellor and I have remained in close contact including through the night and this morning. The Bank of England will not hesitate to take additional measure as required, as markets adjust.
Nonetheless, share prices of the five largest British banks fell an average of 21 % on the morning after the referendum. Shares in many other non-UK banks also fell by more than 10 %. By the end of Friday 's trading, both HSBC and Standard Chartered had fully recovered, while Lloyds, RBS Group and Barclays remained more than 10 % down. All of the Big Three credit rating agencies reacted negatively to the vote: Standard & Poor 's cut the UK credit rating from AAA to AA, Fitch Group cut from AA+ to AA, and Moody 's cut the UK 's outlook to "negative ''.
To increase financial stability, on 5 July the Bank of England released £ 150 billion in lending by reducing the countercyclical capital buffers that banks are required to hold.
Fears of a fall in commercial property values led investors to begin redeeming investments in property funds, prompting Standard Life to bar withdrawals on 4 July, and Aviva followed suit the next day. Other investment companies including Henderson Group and M&G Investments cut the amount that investors cashing in their funds would receive. In the following weeks, the suspension of redemptions by several companies was lifted, replaced by exit penalties, and the exit penalties were successively reduced.
On 4 October 2016, the Financial Times assessed the potential effect of Brexit on banking. The City of London is world leading in financial services, especially in foreign exchange currency transactions, including euros. This position is enabled by the EU - wide "passporting '' agreement for financial products. Should the passporting agreement expire in the event of a Brexit, the British financial service industry might lose up to 35,000 of its 1 million jobs, and the Treasury might lose 5 billion pounds annually in tax revenue. Indirect effects could increase these numbers to 71,000 job losses and 10 billion pounds of tax annually. The latter would correspond to about 2 % of annual British tax revenue.
By July 2016 the Senate of Berlin had sent invitation letters encouraging UK - based start - ups to re-locate to Berlin. According to Anthony Browne of the British Banking Association, many major and minor banks may relocate outside the UK.
But the situation may be different when it comes to the fund management industry, as British asset owners, notably UK pension funds, often constitute an incommensurate share of total turnover for German, French, Dutch and other Continental European asset managers.
This imbalance could potentially give Britain some negotiating leverage e.g. power of retorsion in case the EU attempts to impose an abrupt cancellation of the mutually - binding obligations and advantages pertaining to the Markets in Financial Instruments Directive 2004 ("fund passporting ''). Research conducted by the World Pensions Council (WPC) shows that
"Assets owned by UK pension funds are more than 11 times bigger than those of all German and French pension funds put together (...) If need be, at the first hint of threat to the City of London, Her Majesty 's Government should be in a position to respond very forcefully. ''
In late July 2016, the IMF released a report warning that "' Brexit ' marks the materialisation of an important downside risk to global growth, '' and that considering the current uncertainty as to how the UK would leave the EU, there was "still very much unfolding, more negative outcomes are a distinct possibility ''.
Held in late July 2016 in Chengdu, China this summit of finance ministers of 20 major economies warned that the UK 's planned departure from the European Union was adding to uncertainty in the global economy and urged that the UK should remain a "close partner '' with the European Union to reduce turmoil. While the G20 agreed that other world factors, including terrorist acts, were creating problems, Brexit was at the forefront of their concerns.
In interviews while attending the G20 Summit, Philip Hammond, the UK 's recently appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer, said the country would attempt to minimise uncertainty by explaining in the near future "more clearly the kind of arrangement we envisage going forward with the European Union '' in the near future. He emphasised that "the uncertainty will only end when the deal is done '' but hoped that the UK and the EU would be able to announce some agreement by late 2016 as to how the exit would be staged. Hammond also reiterated previous Government comments indicating that steps would be taken to stimulate the economy including tax cuts or increased spending, though without specifics. The UK was also planning to increase bilateral trade with China, he told the BBC. "Once we are out of the European Union then I have no doubt on both sides we will want to cement that relationship into a firmer structure in a bilateral way that 's appropriate. ''
Although he was not addressing only the UK 's departure from the EU, Mark Carney, chair of the Financial Stability Board (and Governor of the Bank of England), sent a letter in late July 2016 to Finance Ministers attending the G20 Summit and to Central Bank Governors about the difficulties the global economy had weathered (including the effects of Brexit) and the steps the FSB was taking. The letter indicated that the financial system had "continued to function effectively '' in spite of the "spikes in uncertainty and risk aversion '', confirming that "this resilience in the face of stress demonstrates the enduring benefits of G20 post-crisis reforms. '' He emphasised the value of specific reforms that had been implemented by the Financial Stability Board stating that these had "dampened aftershocks from these events (world crises) rather than amplifying them ''. He expressed confidence in the FSB 's strategies: "This resilience in the face of stress demonstrates the enduring benefits of G20 post-crisis reforms. ''
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who came first red arrows or blue angels | Red Arrows - wikipedia
The Red Arrows, officially known as the Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team, is the aerobatics display team of the Royal Air Force based at RAF Scampton. The team was formed in late 1964 as an all - RAF team, replacing a number of unofficial teams that had been sponsored by RAF commands.
The Red Arrows have a prominent place in British popular culture, with their aerobatic displays a fixture of British summer events. The badge of the Red Arrows shows the aircraft in their trademark diamond nine formation, with the motto Éclat, a French word meaning "brilliance '' or "excellence ''.
Initially, they were equipped with seven Folland Gnat trainers inherited from the RAF Yellowjacks display team. This aircraft was chosen because it was less expensive to operate than front - line fighters. In their first season, they flew at 65 shows across Europe. In 1966, the team was increased to nine members, enabling them to develop their Diamond Nine formation. In late 1979, they switched to the BAE Hawk trainer. The Red Arrows have performed over 4,700 displays in 56 countries worldwide.
The Red Arrows were not the first RAF aerobatics team. An RAF pageant was held at Hendon in 1920 with teams from front - line biplane squadrons.
In 1925, No. 32 Squadron RAF flew an air display six nights a week entitled "London Defended '' at the British Empire Exhibition. Similar to the display they had done the previous year, when the aircraft were painted black, it consisted of a night - time air display over the Wembley Exhibition flying RAF Sopwith Snipes which were painted red for the display and fitted with white lights on the wings, tail, and fuselage. The display involved firing blank ammunition into the stadium crowds and dropping pyrotechnics from the aeroplanes to simulate shrapnel from guns on the ground. Explosions on the ground also produced the effect of bombs being dropped into the stadium by the aeroplanes. One of the pilots in the display was Flying Officer C.W.A. Scott, who later became famous for breaking three England Australia solo flight records and winning the MacRobertson Air Race with co-pilot Tom Campbell Black in 1934.
In 1938, three Gloster Gladiators flew with their wing tips tied together. Formation aerobatics largely stopped during the Second World War.
In 1947, the first jet team of three de Havilland Vampires came from RAF Odiham Fighter Wing. Various teams flew the Vampire, and in 1950, No. 72 Squadron was flying a team of seven. No. 54 Squadron became the first RAF jet formation team to use smoke trails. Vampires were replaced by Gloster Meteors, No. 66 Squadron developing a formation team of six aircraft.
Hawker Hunter aircraft were first used for aerobatics teams in 1955, when No. 54 Squadron flew a formation of four.
The official RAF team was provided by No. 111 Squadron in 1956, and for the first time, the aircraft had a special colour scheme, which was an all - black finish. After a demonstration in France, they were hailed as "Les Fleches Noires '' and from then on known as the Black Arrows. This team became the first team to fly a five - Hunter formation. In 1958, the Black Arrows performed a loop and barrel roll of 22 Hunters, a world record for the greatest number of aircraft looped in formation. The Black Arrows were the premier team until 1961, when the Blue Diamonds (No. 92 Squadron) continued their role, flying 16 blue Hunters.
In 1960, the Tigers (No. 74 Squadron) were re-equipped with the supersonic English Electric Lightning and performed wing - overs and rolls with nine aircraft in tight formation. They sometimes gave co-ordinated displays with the Blue Diamonds. Yet another aerobatics team was formed in 1960 by No. 56 Squadron, the Firebirds, with nine red and silver Lightnings.
In 1964, the Red Pelicans, flying six BAC Jet Provost T Mk 4s, assumed the role of the RAF 's leading display team. In that same year, a team of five yellow Gnat trainers from No 4 Flying Training School displayed at the Farnborough Airshow. This team became known as the Yellowjacks after Flight Lieutenant Lee Jones 's call sign, "Yellowjack ''.
In 1964, all the RAF display teams were amalgamated, as it was feared pilots were spending too much time practising formation aerobatics rather than operational training. The new team name took the word "red '' from the fact that the Yellowjacks ' planes had been painted red (for safety reasons, as it was a far clearer and more visible colour in the sky) and "arrows '' after the Black Arrows; the official version, however, is that the red was a tribute to the Red Pelicans. Another reason for the change to red was that responsibility for the team moved from Fighter Command to the Central Flying School, whose main colour was red.
The Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team, the formal name of the Red Arrows, began life at RAF Fairford in Gloucestershire, then a satellite of the Central Flying School. The Red Arrows moved to RAF Kemble in 1966 after RAF Fairford became the place of choice for BAC to run test flights for Concorde. When RAF Scampton became the CFS headquarters in 1983, the Red Arrows moved there. As an economy measure, Scampton closed in 1995, so the Red Arrows moved just 20 miles to RAF Cranwell; however, as they still used the air space above Scampton, the emergency facilities and runways had to be maintained. Since 21 December 2000, the Red Arrows have been based again at RAF Scampton, near Lincoln.
The first team, led by Squadron Leader Lee Jones, had seven display pilots and flew the Folland Gnat T1 jet trainer. The first display in the UK was on 6 May 1965, at Little Rissington for a press day. At the subsequent National Air Day display, three days later, at Clermont Ferrand in France, one French journalist described the team as "Les Fleches Rouges '', confirming the name "The Red Arrows ''. By the end of their first season, the Red Arrows had displayed 65 times in Britain, France, Italy, Holland, Germany, and Belgium and were awarded the Britannia Trophy by the Royal Aero Club for their contribution to aviation.
In 1968, the then team leader (Sqn Ldr Ray Hanna) expanded the team from seven to nine jets, as he wanted to expand the team 's capabilities and the permutations of formation patterns. During this season, the ' Diamond Nine ' pattern was formed and it has remained the team 's trademark pattern ever since. Ray Hanna served as Red Leader for three consecutive years until 1968 and was recalled to supersede Squadron Leader Timothy Nelson for the 1969 display season, a record four seasons as Leader, which still stands. For his considerable achievements of airmanship with the team, Ray Hanna was awarded a bar to his existing Air Force Cross.
After displaying 1,292 times in the Folland Gnat, the Red Arrows took delivery of the BAE Hawk in the winter of 1979. Since being introduced into service with the Red Arrows, the Hawk has performed with the Red Arrows in 50 countries.
In July 2004, speculation surfaced in the British media that the Red Arrows would be disbanded, after a defence spending review, due to running costs between £ 5 million and £ 6 million. The Arrows were not disbanded and their expense has been justified through their public relations benefit of helping to develop business in the defence industry and promoting recruitment for the RAF. According to the BBC, disbanding the Red Arrows will be highly unlikely, as they are a considerable attraction throughout the world. This was reiterated by Prime Minister David Cameron on 20 February 2013, when he guaranteed the estimated £ 9m per annum costs while visiting India to discuss a possible sale of Hawk aircraft to be used by India 's military aerobatics team, the Surya Kiran.
With the planned closure of RAF Scampton, the future home of the Red Arrows became uncertain. On 20 May 2008, months of speculation were ended when it was revealed that the Ministry of Defence were moving the Red Arrows to nearby RAF Waddington. However, in December 2011, those plans were put under review. The Ministry of Defence confirmed in June 2012 that the Red Arrows would remain at RAF Scampton until at least the end of the decade. Scampton 's runway was resurfaced as a result.
Since 1966, the team has had nine display pilots each year, all volunteers. Pilots must have completed one or more operational tours on a fast jet such as the Tornado, Harrier, or Typhoon, have accumulated at least 1,500 flying hours, and have been assessed as above average in their operational role to be eligible. Even then, more than ten pilots apply for each place on the team. Pilots stay with the Red Arrows for a three - year tour of duty. Three pilots are changed every year, such that normally three first - year pilots, three second - year pilots, and three in their final year are on the team. The team leader also spends three years with the team. The ' Boss ', as he is known to the rest of the team, is always a pilot who has previously completed a three - year tour with the Red Arrows, often (although not always) including a season as the leader of the Synchro Pair.
During the second half of each display, the Red Arrows split into two sections. Reds 1 to 5 are known as ' Enid ' (named after Enid Blyton, author of the Famous Five books) and Reds 6 to 9 are known as ' Gypo ' (the nickname of one of the team 's pilots back in the 1960s). Enid continue to perform close - formation aerobatics, while Gypo perform more dynamic manoeuvres. Red 6 (Syncro Leader) and Red 7 (Synchro 2) make up the Synchro Pair and they perform a series of opposition passes during this second half. At the end of each season, one of that year 's new pilots will be chosen to be Red 7 for the following season, with that year 's Red 7 taking over as Red 6.
The Reds have no reserve pilots, as spare pilots would not perform often enough to fly to the standard required, nor would they be able to learn the intricacies of each position in the formation. If one of the pilots is not able to fly, the team flies an eight - plane formation. However, if the Team Leader, ' Red 1 ', is unable to fly, then the team does not display at all. Each pilot always flies the same position in the formation during a season. The pilots spend six months from October to April practising for the display season. Pilots wear green flying suits during training, and are only allowed to wear their red flying suits once they are awarded their Public Display Authority at the end of winter training.
The new pilots joining the team spend their first season flying at the front of the formation near the team leader. As their experience and proficiency improve, they move to positions further back in the formation in their second and third seasons. Pilots who start on the left of the formation stay on that side for the duration of their three - year tour; the pilots on the right side stay on the right. The exception to this are Reds 6 and 7 (the Synchro Pair), who fly in the ' stem ' of the formation - the two positions behind the team leader.
During an aerobatics display, Red Arrows pilots experience forces up to five times that of gravity (1 G), and when performing the aerobatic manoeuvre ' Vixen Break ', forces up to 7 G can be reached, close to the 8 - G structural limit of the aircraft.
As well as the nine pilots, ' Red 10 ', who is the team supervisor, is a fully qualified Hawk pilot who flies the tenth aircraft when the Red Arrows are away from base. This means the team have a reserve aircraft at the display site. Red 10 's duties include co-ordination of all practices and displays and acting as the team 's ground safety officer. Red 10 often flies TV cameramen and photographers for air - to - air pictures of the Red Arrows and also provides the commentary for all of the team 's displays.
On 13 May 2009, it was announced that the Red Arrows would include their first female display pilot. Flt Lt Kirsty Moore (née Stewart) joined for the 2010 season alongside fellow newcomer Flt Lt Ben Plank. Wing Commander Jas Hawker concluded his three - year tour of duty as the ' Boss ' and was replaced by 2009 Red Six, Squadron Leader Ben Murphy. Flt Lt Moore was not the first female to apply to become a Red Arrow, but was the first to be taken forward to the intense final selection process. She joined the RAF in 1998 and was a qualified flying instructor on the Hawk aircraft at RAF Valley. Prior to joining the team, she flew the Tornado GR4 at RAF Marham. Flt Lt Plank previously flew the Harrier GR9 at RAF Cottesmore.
The team for the 2011 season was announced on 13 September 2010 and subsequently undertook winter training in preparation for the 2011 display season. The team departed the UK on Friday 18 March 2011 and travelled to Cyprus to undertake Exercise SPRINGHAWK at RAF Akrotiri. The first 9 - ship practice was flown on the first day of training in Cyprus on Monday 21 March 2011. The team remained in Cyprus until the end of May whilst they took advantage of the good weather on offer to work up to display standard. The team gained their Public Display Authority (PDA) on 20 May 2011, just two days before their first planned public display in Crete.
On 13 September 2011, the team for 2012 was announced. The team received its PDA on 22 May 2012, having taken part in the Armed Forces Muster for Elizabeth II 's Diamond Jubilee at Windsor Castle three days earlier.
The engineering team that supports the Red Arrows is known as "The Blues '' and consists of 85 members who cover all of the various trades in the RAF. Each season nine members of the Blues are selected to be members of the ' Circus '. Each member of the Circus works with the same pilot for the duration of the season and is responsible for servicing their aircraft and preparing their flying kit prior to each display. The Circus also fly in the back seat of the jets during transit flights.
The team use the same two - seat training aircraft used for advanced pilot training, at first the Folland Gnat which was replaced in 1979 by the BAE Hawk T1. The Hawks are modified with an uprated engine and a modification to enable smoke to be generated; diesel is mixed with a coloured dye and ejected into the jet exhaust to produce either red, white or blue smoke.
The first display by the Red Arrows was at RAF Little Rissington on 6 May 1965. The display was to introduce the Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team to the media. However, the first public display was on 9 May 1965 in France, at the French National Air Day in Clermont - Ferrand. The first public display in the UK was on 15 May 1965 at the Biggin Hill International Air Fair. The first display with nine aircraft was on 8 July 1966 at RAF Little Rissington.
The first display in Germany was at RAF Laarbruch on 6 August 1965. The Red Arrows performed in Germany a further 170 times before formation aerobatics were banned in Germany following the Ramstein airshow disaster in 1988.
During displays, the aircraft do not fly directly over the crowd apart from entering the display area by flying over the crowd from behind; any manoeuvres in front of and parallel to the audience can be as low as 300 feet, the ' synchro pair ' can go as low as 100 feet straight and level, or 150 feet when in inverted flight. To carry out a full looping display the cloud base must be above 4,500 feet to avoid the team entering the cloud while looping. If the cloud base is less than 4,500 ft but more than 2,500 ft the Team will perform the Rolling Display, substituting wing - overs and rolls for the loops. If the cloud base is less than 2,500 ft the Team will fly the Flat Display, which consists of a series of fly - pasts and steep turns.
The greatest number of displays flown in any year was in 1995, when the Red Arrows performed 136 times. The smallest number of displays in one year was in 1975, after the 1973 oil crisis limited their appearances. At a charity auction in 2008, a British woman paid £ 1.5 million to fly with them.
By the end of the 2009 season, the Red Arrows had performed a total of 4,269 displays in 53 countries. The 4,000 th display was at RAF Leuchars during the Battle of Britain Airshow in September 2006.
Following the accidents during the 2011 season, the Red Arrows retained Red 8 and moved the original Red 10 to the Red 5 position to enable them to continue displaying with nine aircraft. In March 2012, the MOD announced that the Red Arrows would fly aerobatic displays with seven aircraft during the 2012 display season as Flt Lt Kirsty Stewart had moved into a ground based role with the team. It is believed this was due to the emotional stress she had been suffering over the loss of her two Red Arrows colleagues the previous year. As a consequence of this, Red 8 also dropped out of the display team to enable an odd number of aircraft to perform and thus maintain formation symmetry. However, the team carried out official flypasts with nine aircraft by utilising Red 8 as well as ex-Red Arrow display pilot and current Red 10 Mike Ling. The Red Arrows returned to a full aerobatic formation of nine aircraft in 2013.
In 2014, The Red Arrows celebrated 50 years of Aerobatic history as a display team returning to RAF Fairford for the Royal International Air Tattoo. For the entirety of the 2014 display season, the aircraft carried special 50th Anniversary markings on their tails instead of just the red, white and blue stripes.
After the 2016 display season, the Red Arrows embarked on an Asia - Pacific and Middle East Tour. They performed flypasts or displays in Karachi in Pakistan; Hindon and Hyderabad in India; Dhaka in Bangladesh; Singapore; Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia; Danang in Vietnam; Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan, Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Zhuhai in China; Muscat in Oman; Manama in Bahrain; Abu Dhabi and Kuwait. The programnme was the first time the team had displayed in China, and the first time a British military aircraft had deployed to Vietnam.
In 1977, a charge of £ 200 was introduced by the MOD for a Red Arrows display. By 2000, the charge had risen to £ 2,000 (including VAT and insurance). In 2011 the team manager quoted the charge as £ 9,000.
On a transit flight (getting to or from a display location) the team may fly at the relatively low altitude of 1,000 feet (300 m). This avoids the complication of moving though the cloud base in formation, and also avoids much controlled air space. Jets are more efficient at higher altitude, so longer flights are made at 35,000 to 42,000 feet (11,000 to 13,000 m). On transit flights, the formation can include spare planes. Sometimes a C - 130 Hercules accompanies them, carrying spare parts.
As the fuel capacity of the Hawk sets a limit to nonstop flight distance, and the Hawk is incapable of air - to - air refuelling, very long flights between display sites may need landings on the way to refuel. For example, a flight from RAF Scampton to Quebec for an international air display team competition had to be done in seven hops: RAF Scampton, RAF Kinloss (Scotland), Keflavík (Iceland), Kangerlussuaq (west Greenland), Narsarsuaq (south tip of Greenland), Goose Bay (Newfoundland), Bagotville, Quebec.
For the same reason, Red Arrows displays in New Zealand are unlikely because there is no land near enough for a Hawk to land and refuel to reach New Zealand on the most fuel that it can carry.
The smoke trails left by the team are made by releasing diesel into the exhaust; this vaporizes in the hot exhaust flow, then re-condenses into very fine droplets that give the appearance of a white smoke trail. Dyes can be added to produce the red and blue colour. The diesel is stored in the pod on the underside of the plane; it houses three tanks: one 50 - imperial - gallon (230 L) tank of pure diesel and two 10 - imperial - gallon (45 L) tanks of blue and red dyed diesel. The smoke system uses 10 - imperial - gallon (45 L) per minute; therefore each plane can trail smoke for a total of seven minutes: -- five minutes of white smoke, a minute of blue and a minute of red.
In 1985, Database Software released a flight simulator called Red Arrows, made in cooperation with the flight team. In the simulator, stunts have to be performed while flying in formation. It was available for the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC, Acorn Electron, BBC Micro and Atari.
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what is the chief executive officer on the county level | County Executive - wikipedia
A county executive is the head of the executive branch of government in a United States county.
The executive may be an elected or an appointed position. When elected, the executive typically functions either as a voting member of the elected county government, or may have veto power similar to other elected executives such as a governor, president or mayor. When appointed, the executive is usually hired for a specific period of time, but frequently can be dismissed prior to this. The position of an appointed county executive is analogous to that of a city manager (rather than that of an appointed governor common outside the US), and is similar to a chief administrative officer, depending on the state. The executive is generally given full responsibility for the total operation of all departments based on general directives provided by the elected county government that hired the executive.
The title for a person holding this position is "County Executive '' in many states but other titles are used, including County Judge (in Arkansas and Texas, and historically in Missouri and Tennessee), County Judge / Executive in Kentucky, and Mayor in some counties.
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do i have to have a rear view mirror | Rear - view mirror - Wikipedia
A rear - view mirror (or rearview mirror) is a mirror in automobiles and other vehicles, designed to allow the driver to see rearward through the vehicle 's rear window (rear windshield).
In cars, the rear - view mirror is usually affixed to the top of the windshield on a double - swivel mount allowing it to be adjusted to suit the height and viewing angle of any driver and to swing harmlessly out of the way if impacted by a vehicle occupant in a collision.
The rear - view mirror is augmented by one or more side - view mirrors, which serve as the only rear - vision mirrors on motorcycles and bicycles.
Among the rear - view mirror 's early uses is a mention by Dorothy Levitt in her 1909 book The Woman and the Car which noted that women should "carry a little hand - mirror in a convenient place when driving '' so they may "hold the mirror aloft from time to time in order to see behind while driving in traffic ''. However, earlier use is described in 1906, in a trade magazine noting mirrors for showing what is coming behind now popular on closed bodied automobiles, and to likely be widely adopted in a short time. The same year, a Mr. Henri Cain from France patented a "Warning mirror for automobiles ''. The Argus Dash Mirror, adjustable to any position to see the road behind, appeared in 1908. Earliest known rear - view mirror mounted on a racing vehicle appeared on Ray Harroun 's Marmon race car at the inaugural Indianapolis 500 race in 1911. Harroun himself claimed he got the idea from seeing a mirror used for a similar purpose on a horse - drawn vehicle in 1904. Harroun also claimed that the mirror vibrated constantly due to the rough brick surface, and it was rendered largely useless.
Elmer Berger is usually credited with inventing the rear - view mirror, though in fact he was the first to patent it (1921) and develop it for incorporation into production streetgoing automobiles by his Berger and Company.
Recently, rear - view video cameras have been built into many new model cars, this was partially in response to the rear - view mirrors ' inability to show the road directly behind the car, due to the rear deck or trunk obscuring as much as 3 -- 5 metres (10 -- 15 feet) of road behind the car. As many as 50 small children are killed by SUVs every year in the USA because the driver can not see them in their rear - view mirrors. Camera systems are usually mounted to the rear bumper or lower parts of the car, allowing for better rear visibility.
Aftermarket secondary rear - view mirrors are available. They attach to the main rear - view mirror and are independently adjustable to view the back seat. This is useful to enable adults to monitor children in the back seat.
A prismatic rear - view mirror -- sometimes called a "day / night mirror '' -- can be tilted to reduce the brightness and glare of lights, mostly for high - beam headlights of vehicles behind which would otherwise be reflected directly into the driver 's eyes at night. This type of mirror is made of a piece of glass that is wedge - shaped in cross section -- its front and rear surfaces are not parallel.
On manual tilt versions, a tab is used to adjust the mirror between "day '' and "night '' positions. In the day view position, the front surface is tilted and the reflective back side gives a strong reflection. When the mirror is moved to the night view position, its reflecting rear surface is tilted out of line with the driver 's view. This view is actually a reflection off the low - reflection front surface; only a much - reduced amount of light is reflected into the driver 's eyes.
"Manual tilt '' day / night mirrors first began appearing in the 1930s and became standard equipment on most passenger cars and trucks by the early 1970s.
In the 1949s, American inventor Jacob Rabinow developed a light - sensitive automatic mechanism for the wedge - type day / night mirror. Several Chrysler Corporation cars offered these automatic mirrors as optional equipment as early as 1959, but few customers ordered them for their cars and the item was soon withdrawn from the option lists. Several automakers began offering rear - view mirrors with automatic dimming again in 1983, and it was in the late 1980s that they began to catch on in popularity.
Current systems usually use photosensors mounted in the rear - view mirror to detect light and dim the mirror by means of electrochromism. This electrochromic feature has also been incorporated into side - view mirrors allowing them to dim and reduce glare as well.
On trucks and buses the load often blocks rearward vision out the backlight. In the U.S. virtually all trucks and buses have a side view mirror on each side, often mounted on the doors and viewed out the side windows, which are used for rear vision. These mirrors leave a large unviewable ("blind '') area behind the vehicle, which tapers down as the distance increases. This is a safety issue which the driver must compensate for, often with a person guiding the truck back in congested areas, or by backing in a curve. "Spot mirrors '', a convex mirror which provides a distorted image of the entire side of the vehicle, are commonly mounted on at least the right side of a vehicle. In the U.S. mirrors are considered "safety equipment '', and are not included in width restrictions.
Depending on the type of motorcycle, the motorcycle may or may not have rear - view mirrors. Street - legal motorcycles are generally required to have rear - view mirrors. Motorcycles for off - road use only normally do not have rear - view mirrors. Rear - view mirrors come in various shapes and designs, and have various methods of mounting the mirrors to the motorcycle, most commonly to the handlebars. Rear - view mirrors can also be attached to the rider 's motorcycle helmet.
Some bicycles are equipped with a rear - view mirror mounted on a handlebar. Rear - view mirrors may also be fitted to the bicycle frame, on a helmet or the frame of a pair of eyeglasses. This allows what is behind to be checked continuously without turning round. Rear - view mirrors almost never come with a new bicycle and require an additional purchase.
In 1956, the Civil Aeronautical Administration proposed a rear - view mirror mounted right above the pilot to keep an eye when private aircraft are landing or taxiing on the runway to prevent collisions. Fighter aircraft usually have one or more rear - view mirrors mounted on the front canopy frame to watch out for chasing aircraft.
Some computer monitors are fitted with rear - view mirrors to see if anyone is positioned behind the user where they can see sensitive information, such as names and passwords, being keyed in or on the screen. These are used especially on automated teller machines and similar.
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my big fat american gypsy wedding cast names | My Big Fat American gypsy wedding - wikipedia
My Big Fat American Gypsy Wedding is a controversial US reality television series that debuted on the TLC in April 2012. It claims to revolve around the marriage customs of Romani - Americans ("Gypsies '') -- allegedly members of Romanichal clans, although some are actually of Irish Traveller descent. It is a spin - off of Britain 's Channel 4 series Big Fat Gypsy Weddings.
It was announced in June 2012 that the series had been renewed for a second season, which debuted March 24, 2013. Season 4 premiered April 4, 2014 and Season 5 in February 2015.
My Big Fat American Gypsy Wedding has led to a spinoff series: Gypsy Sisters (2013).
Both the British original and the American version of the series have faced a number of controversies, including allegations of racism in its advertising and causing racially motivated bullying. The Romani Gypsy community has criticized the series for misrepresenting the ethnic minority with non-Romani characters posing as "Gypsy '', and Billy Welch -- a spokesman for Romani Gypsies -- stated:
The American version of the series has faced controversy and criticism from Romani - Americans, and from journalists and activists concerned with minority rights, claiming that the series is "wildly misleading, '' cultivating racist stereotypes, and misrepresenting the American Romani / Gypsy community.
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who holds the record for most sniper kills | List of snipers - wikipedia
A sniper is a trained marksman who operates alone, in a pair, or with a sniper team to maintain close visual contact with a target and engage the targets from concealed positions or distances exceeding the detection capabilities of enemy personnel.
Some notable military snipers include:
Not all snipers are highly trained professional soldiers. The term is sometimes used to describe criminals firing from cover at long range with a rifle and police sharpshooters. Some notable non-military snipers include:
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who sings the song you know how i feel | Feeling Good - wikipedia
"Feeling Good '' (also known as "Feelin ' Good '') is a song written by English composers Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse for the musical The Roar of the Greasepaint -- The Smell of the Crowd. It was first performed on stage in 1964 by Cy Grant on the UK tour and by Gilbert Price in 1965 with the original Broadway cast.
Nina Simone recorded "Feeling Good '' for her 1965 album I Put a Spell on You. The song has also been covered by Michael Bublé, John Coltrane, George Michael, and the rock band Muse.
Although Bricusse and Newley shared songwriting credits, the words of the song are usually attributed to Bricusse, with the music by Newley. The song was first performed in public by the Guyanese - British singer and actor Cy Grant on the opening night of The Roar of the Greasepaint -- The Smell of the Crowd at the Theatre Royal in Nottingham on 3 August 1964; Elaine Paige played the part of one of the "Urchins '' in the chorus. The show, directed by Newley, toured British provincial theatres, and was then taken to the US by theatre producer David Merrick. It opened on 16 May 1965 at the Shubert Theatre in New York City, where the role of "the Negro '', who sings "Feeling Good '', was taken by Gilbert Price.
In the show, Price 's character is asked to perform a game against the show 's hero "Cocky ''; but, as "Cocky '' and his master "Sir '' argue over the rules, "the Negro '' reaches the centre of the stage and "wins '', singing the song at his moment of triumph. It was described as a "booming song of emancipation '', and a Billboard review said it was "the kind of robust number that should have strong appeal. '' The original cast recording of the show, featuring Price 's version of the song, was released by RCA Victor in early 1965, before the show reached New York.
A version by Cy Grant with pianist Bill Le Sage -- much jazzier than the original stage version -- appeared on their 1965 album Cy & I. Anthony Newley 's own recording appeared on his 1965 album "Who Can I Turn To '' and other songs from "The Roar of the Greasepaint ''. One of the earliest recorded versions was a jazz treatment by saxophonist John Coltrane, which appeared on his album The John Coltrane Quartet Plays... Recorded on 18 February 1965, it also features Art Davis, Elvin Jones and McCoy Tyner. Versions were also released in 1965 by Nina Simone, Jean DuShon, Julie London, Chris Connor, Billy Eckstine, and Sammy Davis Jr...
Nina Simone 's version, arranged and produced by Hal Mooney, was recorded in New York in January 1965 and appeared on her album I Put a Spell on You. It was not released as a single at the time. In 1994, Simone 's recording was used in a British TV commercial for Volkswagen, and became popular. Released as a single, it reached no. 40 on the UK Singles Chart in July 1994.
Simone 's version was remixed by Joe Claussell in 2002 for the first volume of the Verve Remixed series.
The vocal track by Nina Simone and the music of "Feeling Good '' have been sampled in numerous songs. In 1997, it was sampled in "Feeling Good '' by Huff & Herb and the following year in "The Twister '' by Viper. Other uses include "How I Feel '' by Wax Tailor, from the 2005 album Tales of the Forgotten Melodies; "New Day '' from the debut collaborative studio album Watch the Throne by American rappers Jay - Z and Kanye West in 2011; "How I Feel '' by Flo Rida, from the 2013 album The Perfect 10; and, also in 2013, in the beginning of Bassnectar 's Immersive Music Mixtape Side One.
The track "About You '' on Mary J. Blige 's 2005 album The Breakthrough features an unusual take on the song. The bulk of the recording consists of new lyrics, composed by Mary J. Blige, will.i.am and Keith Harris; however, the chorus samples several lines from "Feeling Good '' as performed by Nina Simone. Nina 's original vocals are distorted so much that her voice is almost unrecognisable. For this reason, Simone receives a credit as a featured artist, and Newley and Bricusse receive credit as co-writers. "About You '' is produced by will.i.am. The original instrumental track to Nina Simone 's "Feeling Good '' was also used in Avicii 's song of the same name, used by Volvo.
Simone 's recording was used in the film Point of No Return, and it appears on soundtracks for the movies Repo Men (2010), Last Holiday (2006), and the TV soundtrack Six Feet Under, Vol. 2: Everything Ends. The song was used in "Chapter 6 '', a first - season episode of the television series Legion.
Although influenced by Simone, Billy Paul made an equally powerful and original recording in 1968. This recording was before Paul 's fame and was not commercially successful. Nonetheless, it continues to be an underground critical success.
The rock band Muse recorded a version for their 2001 album Origin of Symmetry. It was released as a single also featuring the song "Hyper Music ''.
In a poll by Total Guitar about best cover songs, Muse 's version was fifth. In September 2010, NME readers voted it the greatest cover song of all time over "Twist and Shout '' by The Beatles and "Hurt '' by Johnny Cash 's A BBC poll in 2014 placed it ninth.
The song appeared in the movie Seven Pounds (2008), one episode of the TV series Queer as Folk, and during the end credits of an episode of the TV series Luther. It was used by Nestlé without the band 's permission, so Nestlé replaced it with the Nina Simone version and paid Muse settlement money, which the band donated to Oxfam. Virgin Atlantic used the Muse version for a global television commercial which debuted in October 2010. The ad featured the song accompanying surreal vignettes of Virgin Atlantic cabin crew members. This sequence included imagery of flying people, a nod to the artwork of Muse 's album Absolution.
Muse 's version reached No. 137 on the singles chart in France and No. 24 on the singles chart in the UK.
"Feeling Good '' was covered by Canadian singer Michael Bublé as the lead single from his album, It 's Time. The single was released on 4 April 2005. The song was the opening track on his live album, Caught in the Act, and has appeared in television commercials, ESPN 's 2005 World Series of Poker Tournament, and the 2010 NBA Draft broadcast.
The single peaked at No. 162 in the United Kingdom, No. 70 in Australia, No. 36 in Germany, No. 66 in Austria, and No. 14 in Poland. The song has become one of his most popular singles and became a hit in May 2010 when it reached No. 69 on the UK Singles Chart after it was featured in British commercials.
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American girl group The Pussycat Dolls recorded "Feeling Good '' for their debut studio album, PCD (2005). It charted at number 23 on the Billboard Smooth Jazz Songs.
The Pussycat Dolls ' version of "Feeling Good '' received mostly negative reviews from critics. Nick Butler of Sputnikmusic criticised all four of the covers featured on the album. He singled out "Feeling Good '', writing that the song 's inclusion on the album serves as "a pretty pointless vocal workout for Nicole. '' He added that "None of them stand up to other covers of the same tracks, let alone the originals. '' John Murphy from musicOMH gave a negative review writing, "All the emotion and melodrama of the original is ripped out of the heart of the song and we 're left with a pointless, faux - jazz version. They may as well have strutted over to (Nina) Simone 's grave and performed a stiletto clad dance upon it. '' Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented that the "rendition of ' Feelin ' Good ' (...) is misguided at best. '' However, in contrast, Spence D. of IGN wrote that "Feeling Good '' "comes too late in the game to really save the album from spiraling into a melange of innocuous pop - cum - R&B studio crafted fluff. '' Spence D. praised the song for returning to the "retro vibe with wondrous results. '' On the Billboard Jazz Songs chart, the song peaked at number 23, becoming The Pussycat Dolls ' only song to appear on that chart.
The song is included on their 2006 Live from London as the fourth track of the DVD. The song is performed solely by Scherzinger. The song was also included on their first headlining tour, PCD World Tour. While delivering an a cappella version of the songs Scherzinger wears a "virginal hoodie - cum - headscarf. '' Helen Pidd of The Guardian while reviewing their show in Manchester commented that "she sure can sing. ''. It was additionally included the 2006 DVD Live from London as the fourth track.
Lauryn Hill covered "Feeling Good '' as a part of an album of covers in tribute to Nina Simone, which features various Black artists, entitled "Nina Revisited: A Tribute to Nina Simone ''. With Hill being considered one of the "second generation of contemporary soul stirrers '', she describes Simone 's music as a music she "fed on '' and states that "(Simone 's) example is clearly a form of sustenance to a generation needing to find theirs '', describing the great influence Simone has had on Black artists as the food that continues to give to their music. The Netflix film that featured the album, entitled "What Happened, Miss Simone? '' received critiques for its depiction of Nina Simone, with it failing to give Simone the credit as "one of America 's greatest geniuses '' being able to "(survive) America and (create) such searingly beautiful music ''. With the film blaming Simone 's "descent '' in the music industry on the idea that she "disappears in the Civil Rights Movement '', there is a lack of clear understanding on the significance that Simone 's music posed for the Black community during this time. The amount of times that "Feeling Good '' has been sampled alludes to the significance that Simone 's music had before, during, and after her involvement in the Civil Rights movement, displaying how the "assimilation of radical new material is the core practice around which a deeply conservative tradition has been built '', allowing for new artists to reassess how traditional styles of music can be applied to the experiences of today. Lauryn Hill 's reinvention of the classic "Feeling Good '' reminds us of the genius of the original, showing how a "sensitive soul felt and conveyed in music, the trauma of the Black experience ''.
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when did the vikings first go to iceland | Settlement of Iceland - wikipedia
The age of settlement of Iceland (Icelandic: landnámsöld) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the 9th century, when Norse settlers migrated across the North Atlantic. The reasons for the migration may be traced to a shortage of arable land in Scandinavia and civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the Norwegian king Harald I of Norway. Unlike the British Isles, Iceland was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants.
On the basis of Íslendingabók by Ari Thorgilsson, and Landnámabók, the years 870 and 874 have traditionally been considered the first years of settlement. Historian Gunnar Karlsson notes that these sources are largely unreliable in terms of dating settlement. Traditionally, the Icelandic Age of Settlement is considered to have lasted from 874 to 930, at which point most of the island had been claimed and Alþingi (Althingi), the assembly of the Icelandic Commonwealth, was founded in Þingvellir (Thingvellir). Almost everything known about the first settlers comes from Íslendingabók, and Landnámabók, two historical records preserved in skin manuscripts. Estimates of the number of initial settlers range between 311 and 436.
The Íslendingabók of Ari Thorgilsson claims that the Norse settlers encountered Gaelic monks from a Hiberno - Scottish mission when they arrived in Iceland. There is some archaeological evidence for a monastic settlement from the British Isles at Kverkarhellir cave, on the Seljaland farm in southern Iceland. Sediment deposits indicate people lived there around 800, and crosses consistent with the Hiberno - Scottish style were carved in the wall of a nearby cave. The oldest known source which mentions the name "Iceland '' is an 11th - century rune carving from Gotland, while the oldest archeological finds indicating settlement date back to the 9th century. The first written source to mention the existence of Iceland is a book by the Goidelic monk Dicuil, De mensura orbis terrae, which dates back to 825. Dicuilus claimed to have met some monks who had lived on the island of Thule. They said that darkness reigned during winter but that the summers were bright enough to pick lice from one 's clothing. While the veracity of this source may be questioned, there is little doubt that the inhabitants of the British Isles were aware of a sizeable land mass far up north. Additionally, Iceland is only about 450 kilometres from the Faroes, which had been visited by Irish monks in the 6th century, and settled by the Norse around 650.
A cabin in Hafnir was abandoned between 770 and 880, showing that it was built well before the traditional settlement date of 874. It is thought to have been an outpost only inhabited part of the year, but it is not known whether it was built by people from Scandinavia or the British Isles.
The Landnámabók claims that the first Norseman to rest his feet on Icelandic soil was a viking by the name of Naddoddr. Naddoddr stayed for only a short period of time, but gave the country a name: Snæland (Land of Snow). He was followed by the Swede Garðar Svavarsson, who was the first to stay over winter. At some time around 860, a storm pushed his ship far to the north until he reached the eastern coast of Iceland. Garðar approached the island from the east, sailed westward along the coast and then up north, building a house in Húsavík. He completed a full circle, circumnavigating the island and establishing that the landmass in question was indeed an island. He departed the following summer, never to return but not before giving the island a new name -- Garðarshólmur (literally, Garðar 's Island). One of his men, Náttfari, decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, close to Skjálfandi. Landnámabók maintains that Náttfari was not a permanent settler.
"There was a man by the name Flóki Vilgerðarson. He was a great Viking. He left to find Garðarshólmur. '' -- Landnámabók
The second Norseman to arrive in Iceland was named Flóki Vilgerðarson, but the year of his arrival is not clear. According to the story told in Landnámabók, he took three ravens to help him find his way. Thus, he was nicknamed Raven - Flóki (Icelandic: Hrafna - Flóki). Flóki set his ravens free near the Faroe Islands. The first raven flew back to the Faroes. The second flew up in the air and then returned to the ship. However, the third flew in front of the ship and they followed its direction to Iceland.
He landed in Vatnsfjörður in the Westfjords after passing what is now Reykjavík. One of his men, Faxi, remarked that they seemed to have found great land -- the bay facing Reykjavík is therefore known as Faxaflói. A harsh winter caused all of Flóki 's cattle to die -- he cursed this cold country, and when he spotted a drift ice in the fjord he decided to name it "Ísland '' (Iceland). Despite difficulties in finding food, he and his men stayed another year, this time in Borgarfjörður, but they headed back to Norway the following summer. Flóki would return much later and settle in what is now known as Flókadalur.
Another Norseman, by the name of Ingólfur Arnarson, had instigated a blood feud in his homeland, Norway. He and his foster - brother Hjörleifur went on an exploratory expedition to Iceland, and stayed over winter in what is now Álftafjörður. A few years later they returned to settle the land with their men. When they approached the island, Ingólfur cast his high seat pillars overboard and swore that he would settle where they drifted to shore. He then sent his slaves Vífill and Karli to search for the pillars. They found his foster - brother Hjörleifur murdered, and all his men gone. Ingólfur gave his foster - brother a heathen funeral in the Norse style and slew the murderers, who had fled to the Westman Islands.
As winter approached, Ingólfur 's slaves found the pillars by Arnarhvol. When summer came, he built a farmstead in Reykjavík and claimed all the land west of the rivers of Ölfusá, Öxará and Brynjudalsá. His slave Karli did not care for the location, and said to Ingólfur: "How ill that we should pass good land, to settle in this remote peninsula. ''
Written sources consider the age of settlement in Iceland to have begun with Ingólfur 's settlement, for he was the first to sail to Iceland with the purpose of settling the land. He was followed by many others -- within about sixty years, all the usable land had been taken. Landnámabók manuscripts mention 1,500 farm and place names, and more than 3,500 people. The material is arranged in a geographical fashion and seems to give a relatively complete picture of how the country was settled. Academic estimates of the number of people who migrated to the country during the Age of Settlement range between 4.300 - 24.000. Archeological evidence strongly suggests that the timing of settlement, as described in Landnámabók, is roughly accurate; "that the whole country was occupied within a couple of decades towards the end of the 9th century. ''
A number of reasons have been offered for the settlement of Iceland:
The notion that population pressure drove migration to Iceland remains unsupported in the academic literature.
Written sources say some settlers took land freely, others bought lands from earlier settlers, some were gifted land by earlier settlers, and that some settlers took lands from others through the use of force or threat of force. Lands were likely not rented during the Age of settlement. Medievalist Hans Kuhn argued that lands were given away or taken freely because earlier settlers had no need for such extensive lands. Historian Gunnar Karlsson notes that it could be rational for earlier settlers to encourage new settlers to settle lands nearby so as to ease maintenance of cattle and slaves, and as insurance in times of crisis.
Controversial results of recent carbon dating work, published in the journal Skírnir, suggest that the country may have been settled as early as the second half of the 7th century.
Ari Thorgilsson claims in Íslendingabók that the country had been "fully settled '' in 930. The age of settlement is considered to have ended in the year 930 with the establishment of Alþingi. Archeological evidence shows however "that immigrants continued to arrive in Iceland throughout the 10th century ''. The authors of one study speculate that "continued immigration may have been needed to sustain the population ''.
The Icelandic Commonwealth is considered to have begun in 930.
Scholars have argued that the settlers caused soil erosion through extensive deforestation and overgrazing. One study suggests that the primary motive for the deforestation was "clearance for pastures and home - fields '', not the "settlers ' requirements for fuel and building material ''.
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when was video killed the radio star released | Video Killed the Radio Star - wikipedia
"Video Killed the Radio Star '' is a song written by Trevor Horn, Geoff Downes and Bruce Woolley in 1978. It was first recorded by Bruce Woolley and The Camera Club (with Thomas Dolby on keyboards) for their album English Garden, and later by British group the Buggles, consisting of Horn and Downes. The track was recorded and mixed in 1979, released as their debut single on 7 September 1979 by Island Records, and included on their first album The Age of Plastic. The backing track was recorded at Virgin 's Town House in West London, and mixing and vocal recording would later take place at Sarm East Studios.
Like all the other tracks from the LP, "Video '' 's theme was promotion of technology while worrying about its effects. This song relates to concerns about mixed attitudes towards 20th - century inventions and machines for the media arts. Musically, the song performs like an extended jingle and the composition plays in the key of D - flat major in common time at a tempo of 132 beats per minute. The track has been positively received, with reviewers praising its unusual musical pop elements. Although the song includes several common pop characteristics and six basic chords are used in its structure, Downes and writer Timothy Warner described the piece as musically complicated, due to its use of suspended and minor ninth chords for enhancement that gave the song a "slightly different feel. ''
Commercially, "Video Killed the Radio Star '' was also a success. The track topped sixteen international music charts, including the official singles charts of the group 's home country of the UK and other nations such as Australia, Austria, France, Italy, Ireland, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland, as well as the Japanese Oricon International Chart. It also peaked within the top 10 in Canada, Germany, New Zealand and South Africa, the top 20 in Belgium and the Netherlands, and barely in the top 40 in the United States.
The song 's music video was written, directed, and edited by Russell Mulcahy, and is well - remembered as the first music video shown on MTV in the United States at 12: 01a. m. on 1 August 1981, and the first video shown on MTV Classic in the United Kingdom on 1 March 2010. The song has received several critical accolades, such as being ranked number 40 on VH1 's 100 Greatest One - Hit Wonders of the ' 80s. It has been covered by many recording artists. Trevor Horn has done performances of the song, both at Buggles reunion performances and with The Producers, since 1998.
The Buggles, which formed in 1977, first consisted of Trevor Horn, Geoff Downes and Bruce Woolley. They all wrote "Video Killed the Radio Star '' in an hour of one afternoon in 1978, six months before it was recorded, together in Downes ' apartment, which was located above a monumental stonemason 's in Wimbledon Park London. The piece was built up from a chorus riff developed by Woolley. It is one of the three Buggles songs that he assisted in writing, the two others being "Clean, Clean '' and "On TV. '' An early demo of the song they did helped the group get signed to Island Records to record and publish their debut album The Age of Plastic. Woolley left during recording to form his own band, The Camera Club, which did their own version of "Video '', as well as "Clean, Clean '' for their album English Garden.
Horn has said that the short story "The Sound - Sweep '', in which the title character -- a mute boy vacuuming up stray music in a world without it -- comes upon an opera singer hiding in a sewer, provided inspiration for "Video, '' and he felt "an era was about to pass. '' Horn claimed that Kraftwerk was another influence of the song: "... It was like you could see the future when you heard Kraftwerk, something new is coming, something different. Different rhythm section, different mentality. So we had all of that, myself and Bruce, and we wrote this song probably six months before we recorded it. ''
All the tracks of The Age of Plastic deal with positives and concerns of the impact of modern technology. The theme of "Video Killed the Radio Star '' is thus nostalgia, with the lyrics referring to a period of technological change in the 1960s, the desire to remember the past and the disappointment that children of the current generation would not appreciate the past. The lyrics relate to concerns of the varied behaviors towards 20th - century technical inventions and machines used and changed in media arts such as photography, cinema, radio, television, audio recording and record production. Woolley worried about the song 's name, given the existence of a band with the name Radio Stars and a song titled "Video King '' by singer Snips.
Musically, "Video Killed the Radio Star '' is a new wave and synthpop song. It performs like an extended jingle, sharing its rhythm characteristics with disco. The piece plays in common time at a bright tempo of 132 beats per minute. It is in the key of D ♭ major, and six basic chords are used in the song 's chord progression. According to Geoff Downes, "It 's actually a lot more complicated piece of music than people think, for instance part of the bridge is actually chords suspended and minor 9ths. A lot of people transcribed the song wrongly, they thought it was a straight F# chord. The song was written in D flat. The suspended gives it a slightly different feel. '' Writing in his book, Pop Music: Technology and Creativity: Trevor Horn and the Digital Revolution, Timothy Warner said that the "relatively quiet introduction '' helping the listener detect a high amount of "tape hiss '' generated through the use of analogue multi-track tape recorders, as well as the timbre of the synthesized instruments, give an indication of the technical process and time of producing the song.
The song was put in more than three months of production. The instrumental track was recorded at Virgin 's Town House in West London for twelve hours, with mixing and recording of vocals held at Sarm East Studios. The entire song was mixed through a Trident TSM console. "Video '' was the first track recorded for the group 's debut LP The Age of Plastic, which cost a sum of £ 60,000 (equivalent to £ 307,423 in 2014) to produce, and the song had been mixed by Gary Langan four or five times. According to Langan, "there was no total recall, so we just used to start again. We 'd do a mix and three or four days later Trevor would go, ' It 's not happening. We need to do this and we need to do that. ' The sound of the bass drum was one of his main concerns, along with his vocal and the backing vocals. It was all about how dry and how loud they should be in the mix without the whole thing sounding ridiculous. As it turned out, that record still had the loudest bass drum ever for its time. ''
The song includes instrumentation of drums, bass guitar, electric guitar, synth strings, piano, glockenspiel, marimbas and other futuristic, twinkly sounds, and vocals. Downes used a Solina, Minimoog and Prophet - 5 to create the overdubbed orchestral parts. Both the male and female voices differ to give a tonal and historical contrast. When Langan was interviewed in December 2011, he believed the male vocal was recorded through either a dynamic Shure SM57, SM58, Sennheiser 421, or STC 4038 ribbon microphone, and that four of five takes had to be done. The male voice echos the song 's theme in the tone of the music, initially limited in bandwidth to give a "telephone '' effect typical of early broadcasts, and uses a mid-Atlantic accent resembling that of British singers in the 1950s and ' 60s. The Vox AC30 amplifier was used to achieve the telephone effect, and Gary Langan says he was trying to make it "loud without cutting your head off '', in others words make the voice sound soft. Gary Langan and Trevor Horn also tried using a bullhorn, but they found it too harsh. Langan later compressed and EQ 'd the male vocals, and he said that doing the compression for old - style vocal parts was a "real skill. '' The female vocals are panned in the left and right audio channels, and sound more modern and have a New York accent.
The single version of "Video Killed the Radio Star '' lasts for 3 minutes and 25 seconds. The album version plays for 4 minutes and 13 seconds, about 48 seconds longer than the single version, as it fades into a piano and synth coda, which ends with a brief sampling of the female vocals.
"Video Killed the Radio Star '' was a huge commercial success, reaching number one on 16 different national charts. In the Buggles ' home country, the song made its debut on the UK Singles Chart in the top 40 at number 24, on the issue dated 29 September 1979. The next week, the track entered into the chart 's top ten at number six, before topping the chart on the week of 20 October. It was the 444th UK number - one hit in the chart 's entire archive. The single was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for UK sales of 500,000.
In Australia, "Video Killed the Radio Star '' reached number one, where it was the best - selling record for 27 years. The track went number one on the Italian Singles Chart in 1980, where it became the best - selling single of the same year. The song also made a number - one peak in France and Spain, where it was certified gold and platinum, respectively, as well as Austria, Ireland, Sweden and Switzerland. In other parts of Europe and Oceania, "Video Killed the Radio Star '' was a number - two hit in Germany and New Zealand, and also charted in Flanders on the Ultratop 50 and in the Netherlands, on the Nationale Hitparade Top 50 (now the Single Top 100) and Dutch Top 40.
"Video Killed the Radio Star '' did not start charting in North America, however, until November 1979. In the United States, the song appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 and Cash Box Top 100, barely breaking into the top 40 on both charts. In a 2015 list from Billboard, it tied with Marvin Gaye 's recording of "The End of Our Road '' as the "Biggest Hot 100 Hit '' at the peak of number 40. "Video Killed the Radio Star '' had debuted at number 86 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week of 10 November 1979, while on the Cashbox Top 100 it debuted at number 83 that same week. It started also at number 83 on the Canadian RPM Top Single Chart. By January 1980, it entered the top 40 at number 31, and on 2 February made it into the top 20 at number 11. Two weeks later, the song earned its peak in the top 10 at number 6 and issue dated 16 February 1980.
Ever since its release, the Buggles ' version of "Video Killed the Radio Star '' has been given a mostly positive reception from music critics. Originally, the song became a Billboard Top Single Pick on 3 November 1979, whom the publication found the chorus catchy and also highlighted the orchestral instruments supporting the backing singers. Although there had been a mixed review of the single from Smash Hits, who found the song to be "too tidy, like vymura '' (wallpaper), they listed it in a review of The Age of Plastic as one of the best tracks of the album, along with "Living in the Plastic Age ''. Timothy Warner wrote that, although several common pop elements were still present in the song, it included stronger originality for its own purpose than most other pop hits released at the time. These unusual pop music characteristics include the timbres of the male and female vocal parts, and the use of suspended fourth and ninths chords for enhancement in its progression. He also felt it was unnecessary to dislike it as a "novelty song. '' AllMusic 's Heather Phares said the track "can be looked on as a perfectly preserved new wave gem, '' "just as the song looks back on the radio songs of the ' 50s and ' 60s. '' She concluded her review by saying that it "still sounds as immediate as it did when it was released, however, and that may be the song 's greatest irony. ''
However, many writers called Woolley 's recording of "Video '' much better than the Buggles ' version. This included one critic who called both acts overall as of being very high quality, but felt that Woolley 's version was more faithful to the source material than that of The Buggles, noting the filtered vocals and cute, female vocals of the latter rendition as giving it a novelty feel. However, he also wrote of liking both versions of "Clean, Clean '' on the same level.
In October 2016, OnePoll 's Kevin Smith asked 2,000 listeners to vote for their favorite one - hit wonders for a poll; "Video Killed The Radio Star '' topped the list.
A rare live performance of the song by Horn and Downes came at a ZTT showcase in 1998. In 2004, The Buggles re-united again with Bruce Woolley at Wembley Arena to perform "Video Killed the Radio Star '' and "Living in the Plastic Age '' as part of a tribute event to Horn to raise money for The Prince 's Trust charity. They were joined by Debi Doss and Linda Jardim (now Linda Allan), who performed the background singing on the original recording. Paul Robinson, who played drums on the original, also appeared. Both Horn and Downes have performed the song live in other acts, including Yes (which Downes and Horn joined for the Drama album and tour in 1980), Downes in the 2006 -- 2009 revival of Asia with John Wetton singing lead and again in 2017 with Billy Sherwood singing lead, and Horn in his band The Producers, also in 2006.
In November 2006, The Producers played at their first gig in Camden Town. A video clip can be seen on ZTT Records of Horn singing lead vocals and playing bass in a performance of "Video Killed the Radio Star ''. Tina Charles appears on a YouTube video singing ' Slave to the Rhythm ' with The Producers and Horn reveals that Tina was the singer and originator of the "Oh Ah - Oh Ah - Oh '' part of ' Video '; fellow 5000 Volt member Martin Jay was also a session musician on The Buggles record.
Robbie Williams performed the song with Trevor Horn at the BBC Electric Proms on 20 October 2009.
Since 2010, Horn has performed "Video '' with both the Buggles and his new band, Producers. Since 2011, he has added new vocals to his live performance before the song 's final chorus:
Video killed the radio star, He hit him on the head with his old guitar, He tried to run away, but did n't get far, That 's how video killed the radio star
The music video for "Video Killed the Radio Star '', written, directed and edited by Australian Russell Mulcahy, was produced on a budget of $50,000. It was filmed in only a day in South London, and was edited in a couple of days. Mulcahy asked Virginia Hey, a friend who was a model and aspiring actress, to dress "in a silver costume and be lowered via wires in a test tube. '' There were about 30 takes required for shots of the actress in the tube. The tube falls over in the video, although Mulcahy claims it was not intended to be shown in the final edit. Hans Zimmer can be briefly seen wearing black playing a keyboard, and Debi Doss and Linda Jardim, who provided the female vocals for the song, are also seen.
The video starts with a girl sitting in front of a radio. A black - and - white shot of Trevor Horn singing into a radio - era microphone is superimposed over the girl by the radio. The radio blows up by the time of the first chorus, and then in the second verse, she is seen transported into the future, where she meets Horn and a silver - jumpsuited female in a clear plastic tube. Shots of Horn and Geoff Downes are shown during the remainder of the video.
The video was first released in 1979, when it originally aired on the BBC 's Top of the Pops for promotion of the single, rather than doing live performances. Zimmer recalled in 2001 that the video drew criticism from some viewers who watched it before it aired on MTV, due to being "too violent because we blew up a television. '' The video is best known as marking the debut of MTV, when the US channel started broadcasting at 12: 01 AM on 1 August 1981. On 27 February 2000, it became the one - millionth video to be aired on MTV. It also opened MTV Classic in the UK and Ireland, which replaced VH1 Classic on 1 March 2010, at 6 AM. The video marked the closing of MTV Philippines before its shutdown on 15 February 2010 at 11: 49 PM. MTV co-founder Bob Pittman said the video "made an aspirational statement. We did n't expect to be competitive with radio, but it was certainly a sea - change kind of video. '' In July 2013, multiple independent artists covered "Video '' for the launch of the TV channel Pivot, which launched with the music video of the cover on 1 August at 6 am.
Sources:
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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in theme for english b what type of music does the narrator like | Narration - wikipedia
Narration is the use of a written or spoken commentary to convey a story to an audience. Narration encompasses a set of techniques through which the creator of the story presents their story, including:
A narrator is a personal character or a non-personal voice that the creator (author) of the story develops to deliver information to the audience, particularly about the plot. In the case of most written narratives (novels, short stories, poems, etc.), the narrator typically functions to convey the story in its entirety. The narrator may be a voice devised by the author as an anonymous, non-personal, or stand - alone entity; as the author as a character; or as some other fictional or non-fictional character appearing and participating within their own story. The narrator is considered participant if he / she is a character within the story, and non-participant if he / she is an implied character or an omniscient or semi-omniscient being or voice that merely relates the story to the audience without being involved in the actual events. Some stories have multiple narrators to illustrate the storylines of various characters at the same, similar, or different times, thus allowing a more complex, non-singular point of view.
Narration encompasses not only who tells the story, but also how the story is told (for example, by using stream of consciousness or unreliable narration). In traditional literary narratives (such as novels, short stories, and memoirs), narration is a required story element; in other types of (chiefly non-literary) narratives, such as plays, television shows, video games, and films, narration is merely optional.
Narrative point of view or narrative perspective describes the position of the narrator, that is, the character of the storyteller, in relation to the story being told. It can be thought of as a camera mounted on the narrator 's shoulder that can also look back inside the narrator 's mind.
With the first - person point of view, a story is revealed through a narrator who is also explicitly a character within his or her own story. Therefore, the narrator reveals the plot by referring to this viewpoint character with forms of "I '' (i.e., the narrator is a person who openly acknowledges his or her own existence) or, when part of a larger group, "we ''. Frequently, the narrator is the protagonist, whose inner thoughts are expressed to the audience, even if not to any of the other characters. A conscious narrator, as a human participant of past events, is an incomplete witness by definition, unable to fully see and comprehend events in their entirety as they unfurl, not necessarily objective in their inner thoughts or sharing them fully, and furthermore may be pursuing some hidden agenda. Forms include temporary first - person narration as a story within a story, wherein a narrator or character observing the telling of a story by another is reproduced in full, temporarily and without interruption shifting narration to the speaker. The first - person narrator can also be the focal character.
In the second - person point of view, the narrator refers to at least one character directly as "you '', suggesting that the audience is a character within the story. This is a common type of narrative point of view for popular music lyrics (in which the narrator often directly "speaks '' to another person) and certain types of poetry, though it is quite rare in other common forms of literary narrative, such as novels or short stories. Half Asleep in Frog Pajamas is one such novel. One famous example of second - person pronouns purportedly referring to their literal addressee (i.e. whoever happens to be reading the words at a given time) is Italo Calvino 's postmodern novel If On a Winter 's Night a Traveler, which begins with the sentence "You are about to begin reading Italo Calvino 's new novel, If on a winter 's night a traveler '', and which follows "your '' fictive attempts to track down a complete version of the book.
In some cases, a narrator uses the second person to refer to her - or himself, thus providing an alienated, emotional, or ironic distance, as is commonly the situation in the short fiction of Lorrie Moore and Junot Diaz. A further example of this mode in contemporary literature is Jay McInerney 's Bright Lights, Big City, in which the second - person narrator is observing his life from a distance as a way to cope with a trauma he keeps hidden from readers for most of the book, e.g.:
"You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this time of the morning. But here you are, and you can not say that the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although the details are fuzzy. '' -- Opening lines of Jay McInerney 's Bright Lights, Big City (1984)
The use of "you '' as an addressee (as in poetry and song) is employed in the "Choose Your Own Adventure '' and "Fighting Fantasy '' series of books that were popular in the 1980s. It is also usual in interactive fiction, where the reader controls at least some of the protagonist 's actions.
The second person ("you '') is often used to address the reader personally and is therefore frequently used in persuasive writing and advertising. It is, in many languages, a very common technique of several popular and non - or quasi-fictional written genres such as guide books, self - help books, gamebooks, do - it - yourself manuals, role - playing games, and musical lyrics, and also blogs.
In the third - person narrative mode, each and every character is referred to by the narrator as "he '', "she '', "it '', or "they '', but never as "I '' or "we '' (first - person), or "you '' (second - person). This makes it clear that the narrator is an unspecified entity or uninvolved person who conveys the story and is not a character of any kind within the story, or at least is not referred to as such.
Traditionally, third - person narration is the most commonly used narrative mode in literature. It does not require that the narrator 's existence be explained or developed as a particular character, as with a first - person narrator. It thus allows a story to be told without detailing any information about the teller (narrator) of the story. Instead, a third - person narrator is often simply some disembodied "commentary '' or "voice '', rather than a fully developed character. Sometimes, third - person narration is called the "he / she '' perspective.
The third - person modes are usually categorized along two axes. The first is the subjectivity / objectivity axis, with third person subjective narration describing one or more character 's personal feelings and thoughts, and third person objective narration not describing the feelings or thoughts of any characters but, rather, just the exact facts of the story. The second axis is the omniscient / limited axis, a distinction that refers to the knowledge held by the narrator. A third person omniscient narrator has, or seems to have, access to knowledge of all characters, places, and events of the story, including any given characters ' thoughts; however, a third person limited narrator, in contrast, knows information about, and within the minds of, only a limited number of characters (often just one character). A limited narrator can not describe anything outside of a focal character 's particular knowledge and experiences.
While the general trend is for novels (or other narrative works) to adopt a single point of view throughout the novel 's entirety, some authors have experimented with other points of view that, for example, alternate between different narrators who are all first - person, or alternate between a first - and a third - person narrative perspective. The ten books of the Pendragon adventure series, by D.J. MacHale, switch back and forth between a first - person perspective (handwritten journal entries) of the main character along his journey and the disembodied third - person perspective of his friends back home. Margaret Atwood 's Alias Grace provides one character 's viewpoint from first - person as well as another character 's from third - person limited. Often, a narrator using the first person will try to be more objective by also employing the third person for important action scenes, especially those in which they are not directly involved or in scenes where they are not present to have viewed the events in firsthand. This mode is found in the novel The Poisonwood Bible.
Flora Rheta Schreiber, who wrote the book Sybil, used the third person omniscient view to explain the events of the title character 's alleged multiple personality disorder, her attempts to cope and her treatment, except in one chapter where Schreiber switches to first person (narrator - as - author) to describe when she had the opportunity to meet the actual person identified by the pseudonym Sybil (posthumously identified as Shirley Ardell Mason), and, under hypnosis, one of her alternate personalities.
Epistolary novels, which were common in the early years of the novel, generally consist of a series of letters written by different characters, and necessarily switching when the writer changes; the classic books Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, Dracula by Abraham "Bram '' Stoker and Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde take this approach. Sometimes, however, they may all be letters from one character, such as C.S. Lewis ' The Screwtape Letters and Helen Fielding 's Bridget Jones 's Diary. Robert Louis Stevenson 's Treasure Island switches between third and first person, as do Charles Dickens 's Bleak House and Vladimir Nabokov 's The Gift. Many of William Faulkner 's novels take on a series of first - person viewpoints. E.L. Konigsburg 's novella The View from Saturday uses flashbacks to alternate between third - person and first - person perspectives throughout the book, as does Edith Wharton 's novel Ethan Frome. After the First Death, by Robert Cormier, a novel about a fictional school bus hijacking in the late 1970s, also switches from first - to third - person narrative using different characters. The novel The Death of Artemio Cruz, by Mexican writer Carlos Fuentes, switches between the three persons from one chapter to the next, even though all refer to the same protagonist. The novel Dreaming in Cuban, by Cristina García alternates between third - person, limited and first - person perspectives, depending on the generation of the speaker: the grandchildren recount events in first - person viewpoints while the parents and grandparent are shown in the third - person, limited perspective.
The narrative voice describes how the story is conveyed: for example, by "viewing '' a character 's thought processes, reading a letter written for someone, retelling a character 's experiences, etc.
A stream of consciousness gives the (typically first - person) narrator 's perspective by attempting to replicate the thought processes -- as opposed to simply the actions and spoken words -- of the narrative character. Often, interior monologues and inner desires or motivations, as well as pieces of incomplete thoughts, are expressed to the audience but not necessarily to other characters. Examples include the multiple narrators ' feelings in William Faulkner 's The Sound and the Fury and As I Lay Dying, and the character Offred 's often fragmented thoughts in Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale. Irish writer James Joyce exemplifies this style in his novel Ulysses.
One of the most common narrative voices, used especially with first - and third - person viewpoints, is the character voice, in which a conscious "person '' (in most cases, a living human being) is presented as the narrator; this character is called a viewpoint character. In this situation, the narrator is no longer an unspecified entity; rather, the narrator is a more relatable, realistic character who may or may not be involved in the actions of the story and who may or may not take a biased approach in the storytelling. If the character is directly involved in the plot, this narrator is also called the viewpoint character. The viewpoint character is not necessarily the focal character: examples of supporting viewpoint characters include Doctor Watson, Scout in To Kill a Mockingbird, and Nick Carraway of The Great Gatsby.
Under the character voice is the unreliable narrative voice, which involves the use of a dubious or untrustworthy narrator. This mode may be employed to give the audience a deliberate sense of disbelief in the story or a level of suspicion or mystery as to what information is meant to be true and what is to be false. This lack of reliability is often developed by the author to demonstrate that the narrator is in some state of psychosis. The narrator of Poe 's "The Tell - Tale Heart, '' for example, is significantly biased, unknowledgeable, ignorant, childish, or is perhaps purposefully trying to deceive the audience. Unreliable narrators are usually first - person narrators; however, a third - person narrator may be unreliable.
Examples include Nelly Dean in Wuthering Heights, "Chief '' Bromden in One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, Holden Caulfield in the novel The Catcher In The Rye, Dr. James Sheppard in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Stark in Only Forward, Humbert Humbert in the novel Lolita, Charles Kinbote in the novel Pale Fire and John Dowell in the novel The Good Soldier.
A naive narrator is one who is so ignorant and inexperienced that they actually expose the faults and issues of their world. This is used particularly in satire, whereby the user can draw more inferences about the narrator 's environment than the narrator. Child narrators can also fall under this category.
The epistolary narrative voice uses a (usually fictional) series of letters and other documents to convey the plot of the story. Although epistolary works can be considered multiple - person narratives, they also can be classified separately, as they arguably have no narrator at all -- just an author who has gathered the documents together in one place. One example is Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein, which is a story written in a sequence of letters. Another is Bram Stoker 's Dracula, which tells the story in a series of diary entries, letters and newspaper clippings. Les Liaisons dangereuses (Dangerous Liaisons), by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, is again made up of the correspondence between the main characters, most notably the Marquise de Merteuil and the Vicomte de Valmont. Langston Hughes does the same thing in a shorter form in his story "Passing '', which consists of a young man 's letter to his mother.
The third - person narrative voices are narrative - voice techniques employed solely under the category of the third - person view.
The third - person subjective is when the narrator conveys the thoughts, feelings, opinions, etc. of one or more characters. If there is just one character, it can be termed third - person limited, in which the reader is "limited '' to the thoughts of some particular character (often the protagonist) as in the first - person mode, except still giving personal descriptions using "he '', "she '', "it '', and "they '', but not "I ''. This is almost always the main character (e.g., Gabriel in Joyce 's The Dead, Nathaniel Hawthorne 's Young Goodman Brown, or Santiago in Hemingway 's The Old Man and the Sea). Certain third - person omniscient modes are also classifiable as "third person, subjective '' modes that switch between the thoughts, feelings, etc. of all the characters.
This style, in both its limited and omniscient variants, became the most popular narrative perspective during the 20th century. In contrast to the broad, sweeping perspectives seen in many 19th - century novels, third - person subjective is sometimes called the "over the shoulder '' perspective; the narrator only describes events perceived and information known by a character. At its narrowest and most subjective scope, the story reads as though the viewpoint character were narrating it; dramatically this is very similar to the first person, in that it allows in - depth revelation of the protagonist 's personality, but it uses third - person grammar. Some writers will shift perspective from one viewpoint character to another, such as in Robert Jordan 's The Wheel of Time, or George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire.
The focal character, protagonist, antagonist, or some other character 's thoughts are revealed through the narrator. The reader learns the events of the narrative through the perceptions of the chosen character.
The third - person objective employs a narrator who tells a story without describing any character 's thoughts, opinions, or feelings; instead, it gives an objective, unbiased point of view. Often the narrator is self - dehumanized in order to make the narrative more neutral. This type of narrative mode, outside of fiction, is often employed by newspaper articles, biographical documents, and scientific journals. This narrative mode can be described as a "fly - on - the - wall '' or "camera lens '' approach that can only record the observable actions but does not interpret these actions or relay what thoughts are going through the minds of the characters. Works of fiction that use this style emphasize characters acting out their feelings observably. Internal thoughts, if expressed, are given voice through an aside or soliloquy. While this approach does not allow the author to reveal the unexpressed thoughts and feelings of the characters, it does allow the author to reveal information that not all or any of the characters may be aware of. A typical example of this so - called camera - eye perspective is Hills Like White Elephants by Ernest Hemingway.
This narrative mode is also called the third - person dramatic because the narrator, like the audience of a drama, is neutral and ineffective toward the progression of the plot -- merely an uninvolved onlooker. It was also used around the mid-20th century by French novelists writing in the nouveau roman tradition.
Historically, the third - person omniscient (or simply omniscient) perspective has been the most commonly used in narrative writing; it is seen in countless classic novels, including works by Charles Dickens, Leo Tolstoy, and George Eliot. A story in this narrative mode is presented by a narrator with an overarching point of view, seeing and knowing everything that happens within the world of the story, including what each of the characters is thinking and feeling. It sometimes even takes a subjective approach. One advantage of omniscience is that this mode enhances the sense of objective reliability (i.e. truthfulness) of the plot. The third - person omniscient narrator is the least capable of being unreliable -- although the character of omniscient narrator can have its own personality, offering judgments and opinions on the behavior of the story characters.
In addition to reinforcing the sense of the narrator as reliable (and thus of the story as true), the main advantage of this mode is that it is eminently suited to telling huge, sweeping, epic stories, and / or complicated stories involving numerous characters. The disadvantage of this mode is the increased distance between the audience and the story, and the fact that -- when used in conjunction with a sweeping, epic "cast - of - thousands '' story -- characterization tends to be limited, thus reducing the reader 's ability to identify with or sympathize with the characters. A classic example of both the advantages and disadvantages of this mode is J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings.
Some writers and literary critics make the distinction between the third - person omniscient and the universal omniscient, the difference being that the universal omniscient narrator reveals information that the characters do not have. Usually, the universal omniscient perspective reinforces the impression that the narrator is not connected to the events of the story.
The third person indirect style or free indirect style is a method of presenting a character 's voice freely and spontaneously in the middle of an otherwise third - person non-personal narrator.
Many stories, especially in literature, alternate between the third person limited and third person omniscient. In this case, an author will move back and forth between a more omniscient third - person narrator to a more personal third - person limited narrator. Typically, like the A Song of Ice and Fire series and the books by George R.R. Martin, a switch of third - person limited viewpoint on some character is done only at chapter boundaries. The Home and the World, written in 1916 by Rabindranath Tagore, is another example of a book switching among just three characters at chapter boundaries. In The Heroes of Olympus series the point of view changes between characters at intervals. The Harry Potter series is told in "third person limited '' (in which the reader is "limited '' to the thoughts of some particular character) for much of the seven novels. However, it deviates to omniscient on occasions, particularly during the opening chapters of later novels in the series, which switch from the limited view of the eponymous Harry to other characters (e.g. Snape).
The narrative tense or narrative time determines the grammatical tense of the story, meaning whether it is presented as occurring before, during, or after the time of narration: i.e., in the past, present, or future. In narration using the past tense, the events of the plot are depicted as occurring before the time at which the narrative was constructed or expressed to an audience or before the present moment; this is by far the most common tense in which stories are expressed. In the present tense, the events of the plot are depicted as occurring now -- at the current moment -- in real time. In English, this tense, also known as the "historical present '', is more common in spontaneous conversational narratives than in written literature, though it is sometimes used in literature to give a sense of immediacy of the actions. A recent example of novels narrated in the present tense are those of the Hunger Games trilogy by Suzanne Collins. The future tense is the most rare, portraying the events of the plot as occurring some time after the present moment, in a time - period yet to come. Often, these upcoming events are described such that the narrator has foreknowledge (or supposed foreknowledge) of the future, so many future - tense stories have a prophetic tone.
Narration has more than one meaning. In its broadest sense, narration encompasses all forms of storytelling, fictional or not: personal anecdotes, "true crime '', and historical narratives all fit here, along with many other non-fiction forms. More narrowly, however, the term narration refers to all written fiction. In its most restricted sense, narration is the fiction - writing mode whereby the narrator communicates directly to the reader.
Along with exposition, argumentation, and description, narration (broadly defined) is one of four rhetorical modes of discourse. In the context of rhetorical modes, the purpose of narration is to tell a story or to narrate an event or series of events. Narrative may exist in a variety of forms: biographies, anecdotes, short stories, or novels. In this context, all written fiction may be viewed as narration.
Narrowly defined, narration is the fiction - writing mode whereby the narrator is communicating directly to the reader. But if the broad definition of narration includes all written fiction, and the narrow definition is limited merely to that which is directly communicated to the reader, then what comprises the rest of written fiction? The remainder of written fiction would be in the form of any of the other fiction - writing modes. Narration, as a fiction - writing mode, is a matter for discussion among fiction writers and writing coaches.
The ability to use the different points of view is one measure of a person 's writing skill. The writing mark schemes used for National Curriculum assessments in England reflect this: they encourage the awarding of marks for the use of viewpoint as part of a wider judgment.
In literature, person is used to describe the viewpoint from which the narrative is presented. Although second - person perspectives are occasionally used, the most commonly encountered are first and third person. Third person omniscient specifies a viewpoint in which readers are provided with information not available to characters within the story; without this qualifier, readers may or may not have such information.
In movies and video games first - and third - person describe camera viewpoints. The first - person is from a character 's own perspective, and the third - person is the more familiar, "general '' camera showing a scene. A so - called second - person may also be used to show a main character from a secondary character 's perspective.
For example, in a horror film, the first - person perspective of an antagonist could become a second - person perspective on a potential victim 's actions. A third - person shot of the two characters could be used to show the narrowing distance between them.
In video games, a first - person perspective is used most often in the first - person shooter genre, such as in Doom, or in simulations (racing games, flight simulation games, and such). Third - person perspectives on characters are typically used in all other games. Since the arrival of 3D computer graphics in games it is often possible for the player to switch between first - and third - person perspectives at will; this is usually done to improve spatial awareness, but can also improve the accuracy of weapons use in generally third - person games such as the Metal Gear Solid franchise.
Text - based interactive fiction conventionally has descriptions written in the second person (though exceptions exist), telling the character what they are seeing and doing, such as Zork. This practice is also encountered occasionally in text - based segments of graphical games, such as those from Spiderweb Software which make ample use of second person flavor text in pop up text boxes with character and location descriptions. Charles Stross 's novel Halting State was written in second person as an allusion to this style.
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the four tops there's something about you baby | Something About You (Four Tops song) - wikipedia
"Something About You '' is a song written by Holland - Dozier - Holland and was first released by the Four Tops on their 1965 album Four Tops ' Second Album.
"Something About You '' was released as the third single from the Four Tops ' Second Album, following "I Ca n't Help Myself '' and "It 's the Same Old Song ''. The song reached # 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 and # 9 on the Billboard R&B chart. The B - side of the single was "Darling I Hum Our Song. '' "Something About You '' has appeared on numerous compilation albums, including The Ultimate Collection.
"Something About You '' is unusual for a Motown song in that a guitar riff is prominent. The Temptations ' "My Girl '' is one of the few other examples. The guitar riff in "Something About You '' is similar to that in the Rolling Stones ' "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction, '' although author Rikky Rooksby claims that the guitar sound in the Four Tops ' song is "cleaner. '' Author David A. Carson also remarks on the clean lead guitar at the beginning of the song. Robert White of the Funk Brothers played the guitar part on "Something About You, '' as he did on "My Girl. ''
Allmusic critic Ron Wynn praises the song as being "a great uptempo shouter. '' Wynn also praises its "vocal authority '' and "production genius. '' Author Bill Dahl praised the song 's "crackling shuffle rhythm '' and the way lead singer Levi Stubbs emotes "over punchy horns and low - end guitar. '' Rolling Stone Magazine critic Dave Marsh rated "Something About You '' to be the top 1001 singles of all time. Marsh praised the song 's sense of urgency, claiming that rhythm and blues is about "the kind of emotional expansiveness that erupts from these grooves, the pure tension between Motown formula and Levi 's (lead singer Levi Stubbs ') uncontrollable passions.
An early cover of the song was by fellow Motown artist Debbie Dean. Cilla Black covered the song on her 1976 album It Makes Me Feel Good. Dave Edmunds kicked off his 1984 album Riff Raff with a rendition faithful to the original. Graham Bonnet covered the song on his 1991 album Here Comes The Night. Phil Collins covered the song on his 2010 album, Going Back. Dusty Springfield later performed the song. Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band rehearsed the song for their 1988 Tunnel of Love Express Tour. The Australian band The Vibrants, from Adelaide, had a hit with the song in 1967.
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what does lcm scm scy mean in swimming | Short course - Wikipedia
In swimming, the term short course (abbreviated SC) is used to identify a pool that is 25 metres (27.34 yd) in length. The term is also often included in meet names when conducted in a short course pool. "Short course '' is the second type of pool configuration currently recognized by FINA and other swimming bodies for pool competition; the other / primary pool length being "long course '', where the pool is 50 meters in length. Olympic and the World Aquatics Championships are conducted in a long course pool.
In the United States, the term "short course '' is more commonly applied to 25 yards (22.86 m) competition, which is more common in that country. Short course yards is generally abbreviated as "SCY '' to differentiate it from short course meters (SCM). The US national federations, USA Swimming and United States Masters Swimming, both maintain SCY USA records, FINA does not currently recognize records set in SCY, but does recognize / keep SCM records. USA college (including NCAA competition) and high school swimming are traditionally swum in SCY.
Short course meter competitions are also denoted by listing of the actual meter distance: "25m '' (note: within swimming, a space is not placed between the number and the meter "m '').
Short course records are traditionally faster than long course records. This is assumed to be connected to increased number of wall push - offs, where speed is greatest.
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