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when is the new incredibles 2 coming out | Incredibles 2 - wikipedia
Incredibles 2 is an upcoming American 3D computer - animated superhero film, and is the sequel to The Incredibles (2004). It is in production by Pixar Animation Studios and will be released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is being written and directed by Brad Bird, the first film 's writer and director. Craig T. Nelson, Holly Hunter, Sarah Vowell, Samuel L. Jackson, John Ratzenberger and Bird reprise their characters from the first film. They are joined by Huck Milner and Jonathan Banks, in roles from the first film; with Bob Odenkirk, Catherine Keener, Sophia Bush and Isabella Rossellini, voicing new characters.
Incredibles 2 is scheduled to be released on June 15, 2018, and will include an IMAX 3D version.
Incredibles 2 resumes where the first Incredibles film ends, with the introduction of the villain The Underminer (John Ratzenberger). The Parr family struggles to maintain normal lives while Helen (Holly Hunter), as Elastigirl, continues to fight crime and campaign for the return of "supers ''; while Bob (Craig T. Nelson), AKA Mr. Incredible, stays at home caring for their children Violet (Sarah Vowell), Dash (Huck Milner) and Jack - Jack, discovering the baby 's secret powers in the process. The Parrs and their ally Frozone (Samuel L. Jackson) find they must battle a new villain with a sinister plan.
Following The Incredibles, Brad Bird directed his next film for Pixar, Ratatouille, which was released in June 2007. Near its premiere, Bird said he was open to an idea of a sequel to The Incredibles, but only if it could be even better than the original. He stated, "I have pieces that I think are good, but I do n't have them all together. ''
In a May 2013 interview, Bird reiterated his interest in a sequel: "I have been thinking about it. People think that I have not been, but I have -- because I love those characters, and love that world. '' He added: "I am stroking my chin and scratching my head. I have many, many elements that I think would work really well in another Incredibles film, and if I can get ' em to click all together, I would probably wan na do that. ''
At the Disney shareholder meeting in March 2014, Disney CEO / chairman Bob Iger confirmed that Pixar was working on an Incredibles sequel, and that Bird would return as writer. Bird started the script around April 2015, and said that the Incredibles sequel would be his next film after Tomorrowland.
Bird said the film would not reflect trends in the superhero genre since the first film 's release, explaining, "I do n't think that kind of idea stays interesting for very long. For me, the interesting thing was never the superhero part of it. It was more the family dynamic, and how do superhero things play into that. '' He said he wanted to include some unused ideas that "did n't fit '' in the first film, and that the new story would focus on Helen Parr / Elastigirl.
Pixar announced that Holly Hunter and Samuel L. Jackson would reprise their roles.. At the July 2017 D23 Expo, it was announced that Craig T. Nelson and Sarah Vowell would also return; and that Dash would be voiced by young newcomer Huck Milner -- as Spencer Fox, the original voice of Dash, had experienced puberty since the first film 's release.
It was also announced that John Ratzenberger would return as the Underminer, continuing the story from the first film 's conclusion; and that Bird would continue to voice Edna Mode. Bob Odenkirk and Catherine Keener signed onto then - undisclosed roles in November 2017. On January 22, 2018, it was announced that Jonathan Banks, Sophia Bush and Isabella Rossellini would voice the new characters Voyd and The Ambassador; and that Jonathan Banks would voice Rick Dicker, originally voiced by Bud Luckey. In 2015, Bird confirmed that Michael Giacchino would return to compose the score,. Giacchino began work on it around May 2017.
The Incredibles confront the Underminer in the 2005 video game The Incredibles: Rise of the Underminer. However, it is unknown whether the new Incredibles film will follow a similar storyline.
Incredibles 2 was originally scheduled for theatrical release on June 21, 2019. It was then moved up to June 15, 2018 and its former release date given to Toy Story 4, whose production was behind schedule. On February 22, 2017, it was announced that Incredibles 2 would include an IMAX 3D release as part of Disney 's new distribution deal with IMAX.
A 53 - second teaser trailer premiered on College GameDay, November 18, 2017. It received 113 million views in its first 24 hours, becoming the most viewed trailer for an animated film, and the 7th most - viewed trailer overall. A new sneak peek premiered during the 2018 Winter Olympics on February 14.
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what is the purpose of i have a dream speech | I have a Dream - wikipedia
"I Have a Dream '' is a public speech delivered by American civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963, in which he calls for an end to racism in the United States and called for civil and economic rights. Delivered to over 250,000 civil rights supporters from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the speech was a defining moment of the civil rights movement.
Beginning with a reference to the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed millions of slaves in 1863, King observes that: "one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free ''. Toward the end of the speech, King departed from his prepared text for a partly improvised peroration on the theme "I have a dream '', prompted by Mahalia Jackson 's cry: "Tell them about the dream, Martin! '' In this part of the speech, which most excited the listeners and has now become its most famous, King described his dreams of freedom and equality arising from a land of slavery and hatred. Jon Meacham writes that, "With a single phrase, Martin Luther King Jr. joined Jefferson and Lincoln in the ranks of men who 've shaped modern America ''. The speech was ranked the top American speech of the 20th century in a 1999 poll of scholars of public address.
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom was partly intended to demonstrate mass support for the civil rights legislation proposed by President Kennedy in June. Martin Luther King and other leaders therefore agreed to keep their speeches calm, also, to avoid provoking the civil disobedience which had become the hallmark of the Civil Rights Movement. King originally designed his speech as a homage to Abraham Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address, timed to correspond with the centennial of the Emancipation Proclamation.
King had been preaching about dreams since 1960, when he gave a speech to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) called "The Negro and the American Dream ''. This speech discusses the gap between the American dream and reality, saying that overt white supremacists have violated the dream, and that "our federal government has also scarred the dream through its apathy and hypocrisy, its betrayal of the cause of justice ''. King suggests that "It may well be that the Negro is God 's instrument to save the soul of America. '' In 1961, he spoke of the Civil Rights Movement and student activists ' "dream '' of equality -- "the American Dream... a dream as yet unfulfilled '' -- in several national speeches and statements, and took "the dream '' as the centerpiece for these speeches.
On November 27, 1962, King gave a speech at Booker T. Washington High School in Rocky Mount, North Carolina. That speech was longer than the version which he would eventually deliver from the Lincoln Memorial. And while parts of the text had been moved around, large portions were identical, including the "I have a dream '' refrain. After being rediscovered, the restored and digitized recording of the 1962 speech was presented to the public by the English department of North Carolina State University.
Martin Luther King had also delivered a "dream '' speech in Detroit, in June 1963, when he marched on Woodward Avenue with Walter Reuther and the Reverend C.L. Franklin, and had rehearsed other parts.
The March on Washington Speech, known as "I Have a Dream Speech '', has been shown to have had several versions, written at several different times. It has no single version draft, but is an amalgamation of several drafts, and was originally called "Normalcy, Never Again ''. Little of this, and another "Normalcy Speech '', ended up in the final draft. A draft of "Normalcy, Never Again '' is housed in the Morehouse College Martin Luther King Jr. Collection of the Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center and Morehouse College. The focus on "I have a dream '' comes through the speech 's delivery. Toward the end of its delivery, noted African American gospel singer Mahalia Jackson shouted to King from the crowd, "Tell them about the dream, Martin. '' King departed from his prepared remarks and started "preaching '' improvisationally, punctuating his points with "I have a dream. ''
The speech was drafted with the assistance of Stanley Levison and Clarence Benjamin Jones in Riverdale, New York City. Jones has said that "the logistical preparations for the march were so burdensome that the speech was not a priority for us '' and that, "on the evening of Tuesday, Aug. 27, (12 hours before the march) Martin still did n't know what he was going to say ''.
Leading up to the speech 's rendition at the Great March on Washington, King had delivered its "I have a dream '' refrains in his speech before 25,000 people in Detroit 's Cobo Hall immediately after the 125,000 - strong Great Walk to Freedom in Detroit, June 23, 1963. After the Washington, D.C. March, a recording of King 's Cobo Hall speech was released by Detroit 's Gordy Records as an LP entitled "The Great March To Freedom ''.
Widely hailed as a masterpiece of rhetoric, King 's speech invokes pivotal documents in American history, including the Declaration of Independence, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the United States Constitution. Early in his speech, King alludes to Abraham Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address by saying "Five score years ago... '' In reference to the abolition of slavery articulated in the Emancipation Proclamation, King says: "It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. '' Anaphora (i.e., the repetition of a phrase at the beginning of sentences) is employed throughout the speech. Early in his speech, King urges his audience to seize the moment; "Now is the time '' is repeated three times in the sixth paragraph. The most widely cited example of anaphora is found in the often quoted phrase "I have a dream '', which is repeated eight times as King paints a picture of an integrated and unified America for his audience. Other occasions include "One hundred years later '', "We can never be satisfied '', "With this faith '', "Let freedom ring '', and "free at last ''. King was the sixteenth out of eighteen people to speak that day, according to the official program.
Martin Luther King Jr. (1963)
Among the most quoted lines of the speech are "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character. I have a dream today! ''
According to U.S. Representative John Lewis, who also spoke that day as the president of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, "Dr. King had the power, the ability, and the capacity to transform those steps on the Lincoln Memorial into a monumental area that will forever be recognized. By speaking the way he did, he educated, he inspired, he informed not just the people there, but people throughout America and unborn generations. ''
The ideas in the speech reflect King 's social experiences of ethnocentric abuse, the mistreatment and exploitation of blacks. The speech draws upon appeals to America 's myths as a nation founded to provide freedom and justice to all people, and then reinforces and transcends those secular mythologies by placing them within a spiritual context by arguing that racial justice is also in accord with God 's will. Thus, the rhetoric of the speech provides redemption to America for its racial sins. King describes the promises made by America as a "promissory note '' on which America has defaulted. He says that "America has given the Negro people a bad check '', but that "we 've come to cash this check '' by marching in Washington, D.C.
King 's speech used words and ideas from his own speeches and other texts. For years, he had spoken about dreams, quoted from Samuel Francis Smith 's popular patriotic hymn "America '' ("My Country, ' Tis of Thee ''), and of course referred extensively to the Bible. The idea of constitutional rights as an "unfulfilled promise '' was suggested by Clarence Jones.
The final passage from King 's speech closely resembles Archibald Carey Jr. 's address to the 1952 Republican National Convention: both speeches end with a recitation of the first verse of "America '', and the speeches share the name of one of several mountains from which both exhort "let freedom ring ''.
King also is said to have used portions of Prathia Hall 's speech at the site of a burned - down African American church in Terrell County, Georgia, in September 1962, in which she used the repeated phrase "I have a dream ''. The church burned down after it was used for voter registration meetings.
The speech also alludes to Psalm 30: 5 in the second stanza of the speech. Additionally, King quotes from Isaiah 40: 4 -- 5 ("I have a dream that every valley shall be exalted... '') and Amos 5: 24 ("But let justice roll down like water... ''). He also alludes to the opening lines of Shakespeare 's Richard III ("Now is the winter of our discontent / Made glorious summer... '') when he remarks that "this sweltering summer of the Negro 's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn... ''
The "I Have a Dream '' speech can be dissected by using three rhetorical lenses: voice merging, prophetic voice, and dynamic spectacle. Voice merging is the combining of one 's own voice with religious predecessors. Prophetic voice is using rhetoric to speak for a population. A dynamic spectacle has origins from the Aristotelian definition as "a weak hybrid form of drama, a theatrical concoction that relied upon external factors (shock, sensation, and passionate release) such as televised rituals of conflict and social control. ''
Voice merging is a common technique used amongst African American preachers. It combines the voices of previous preachers and excerpts from scriptures along with their own unique thoughts to create a unique voice. King uses voice merging in his peroration when he references the secular hymn "America. ''
The rhetoric of King 's speech can be compared to the rhetoric of Old Testament prophets. During King 's speech, he speaks with urgency and crisis giving him a prophetic voice. The prophetic voice must "restore a sense of duty and virtue amidst the decay of venality. '' An evident example is when King declares that, "now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God 's children. ''
Why King 's speech was powerful is debated, but essentially, it came at a point of many factors combining at a key cultural turning point. Executive speechwriter Anthony Trendl writes, "The right man delivered the right words to the right people in the right place at the right time. ''
"Given the context of drama and tension in which it was situated '', King 's speech can be classified as a dynamic spectacle. A dynamic spectacle is dependent on the situation in which it is used. It can be considered a dynamic spectacle because it happened at the correct time and place: during the Civil Rights Movement and the March on Washington.
The speech was lauded in the days after the event, and was widely considered the high point of the March by contemporary observers. James Reston, writing for The New York Times, said that "Dr. King touched all the themes of the day, only better than anybody else. He was full of the symbolism of Lincoln and Gandhi, and the cadences of the Bible. He was both militant and sad, and he sent the crowd away feeling that the long journey had been worthwhile. '' Reston also noted that the event "was better covered by television and the press than any event here since President Kennedy 's inauguration '', and opined that "it will be a long time before (Washington) forgets the melodious and melancholy voice of the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. crying out his dreams to the multitude. '' An article in The Boston Globe by Mary McGrory reported that King 's speech "caught the mood '' and "moved the crowd '' of the day "as no other '' speaker in the event. Marquis Childs of The Washington Post wrote that King 's speech "rose above mere oratory ''. An article in the Los Angeles Times commented that the "matchless eloquence '' displayed by King -- "a supreme orator '' of "a type so rare as almost to be forgotten in our age '' -- put to shame the advocates of segregation by inspiring the "conscience of America '' with the justice of the civil - rights cause.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which viewed King and his allies for racial justice as subversive, also noticed the speech. This provoked the organization to expand their COINTELPRO operation against the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and to target King specifically as a major enemy of the United States. Two days after King delivered "I Have a Dream '', Agent William C. Sullivan, the head of COINTELPRO, wrote a memo about King 's growing influence:
In the light of King 's powerful demagogic speech yesterday he stands head and shoulders above all other Negro leaders put together when it comes to influencing great masses of Negroes. We must mark him now, if we have not done so before, as the most dangerous Negro of the future in this Nation from the standpoint of communism, the Negro and national security.
The speech was a success for the Kennedy administration and for the liberal civil rights coalition that had planned it. It was considered a "triumph of managed protest '', and not one arrest relating to the demonstration occurred. Kennedy had watched King 's speech on television and been very impressed. Afterwards, March leaders accepted an invitation to the White House to meet with President Kennedy. Kennedy felt the March bolstered the chances for his civil rights bill.
Meanwhile, some of the more radical Black leaders who were present condemned the speech (along with the rest of the march) as too compromising. Malcolm X later wrote in his autobiography: "Who ever heard of angry revolutionaries swinging their bare feet together with their oppressor in lily pad pools, with gospels and guitars and ' I have a dream ' speeches? ''
The March on Washington put pressure on the Kennedy administration to advance its civil rights legislation in Congress. The diaries of Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., published posthumously in 2007, suggest that President Kennedy was concerned that if the march failed to attract large numbers of demonstrators, it might undermine his civil rights efforts.
In the wake of the speech and march, King was named Man of the Year by TIME magazine for 1963, and in 1964, he was the youngest person ever awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The full speech did not appear in writing until August 1983, some 15 years after King 's death, when a transcript was published in The Washington Post.
In 1990, the Australian alternative comedy rock band Doug Anthony All Stars released an album called Icon. One song from Icon, "Shang - a-lang '', sampled the end of the speech.
In 1992, the band Moodswings, incorporated excerpts from Martin Luther King Jr. 's "I Have a Dream '' speech in their song "Spiritual High, Part III '' on the album Moodfood.
In 2002, the Library of Congress honored the speech by adding it to the United States National Recording Registry. In 2003, the National Park Service dedicated an inscribed marble pedestal to commemorate the location of King 's speech at the Lincoln Memorial.
The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial was dedicated in 2011. The centerpiece for the memorial is based on a line from King 's "I Have A Dream '' speech: "Out of a mountain of despair, a stone of hope. '' A 30 feet (9.1 m) - high relief of King named the "Stone of Hope '' stands past two other pieces of granite that symbolize the "mountain of despair. ''
In August 2012, the Dutch DJ and producer Bakermat released the single "One Day '', which consists of an integrated sample of the speech. The re-release in 2014 became a hit in several European countries.
On August 26, 2013, UK 's BBC Radio 4 broadcast "God 's Trombone '', in which Gary Younge looked behind the scenes of the speech and explored "what made it both timely and timeless ''.
On August 28, 2013, thousands gathered on the mall in Washington D.C. where King made his historic speech to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the occasion. In attendance were former U.S. Presidents Bill Clinton and Jimmy Carter, and incumbent President Barack Obama, who addressed the crowd and spoke on the significance of the event. Many of King 's family were in attendance.
On October 11, 2015, The Atlanta Journal - Constitution published an exclusive report about Stone Mountain officials considering installation of a new "Freedom Bell '' honoring King and citing the speech 's reference to the mountain "Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. '' Design details and a timeline for its installation remain to be determined. The article mentioned inspiration for the proposed monument came from a bell - ringing ceremony held in 2013 in celebration of the 50th anniversary of King 's speech.
On April 20, 2016, Treasury Secretary Jacob Lew announced that the U.S. $5 bill, which has featured the Lincoln Memorial on its back, would undergo a redesign prior to 2020. Lew said that a portrait of Lincoln would remain on the front of the bill, but the back would be redesigned to depict various historical events that have occurred at the memorial, including an image from King 's speech.
In October 2016, Science Friday in a segment on its crowd sourced update to the Voyager Golden Record included the speech.
Because King 's speech was broadcast to a large radio and television audience, there was controversy about its copyright status. If the performance of the speech constituted "general publication '', it would have entered the public domain due to King 's failure to register the speech with the Register of Copyrights. However, if the performance only constituted "limited publication '', King retained common law copyright. This led to a lawsuit, Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc., which established that the King estate does hold copyright over the speech and had standing to sue; the parties then settled. Unlicensed use of the speech or a part of it can still be lawful in some circumstances, especially in jurisdictions under doctrines such as fair use or fair dealing. Under the applicable copyright laws, the speech will remain under copyright in the United States until 70 years after King 's death, until 2038.
As King waved goodbye to the audience, he handed George Raveling the original typewritten "I Have a Dream '' speech. Raveling, an All - American Villanova Wildcats college basketball player, had volunteered as a security guard for the event and was on the podium with King at that moment. In 2013, Raveling still had custody of the original copy, for which he had been offered $3,000,000, but he has said he does not intend to sell it.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 21.48 '' N 77 ° 3 ′ 0.40 '' W / 38.8893000 ° N 77.0501111 ° W / 38.8893000; - 77.0501111
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haan maine bhi pyaar kiya akshay kumar ka | Haan Maine Bhi pyaar Kiya - wikipedia
Haan Maine Bhi Pyaar Kiya (Yes I Have Loved As Well) is a 2002 Bollywood romantic drama film starring Abhishek Bachchan, Karisma Kapoor and Akshay Kumar. At the time the film was made, Kapoor and Bachchan were dating. The movie is a remake of the 1981 film Mouna Geethangal. The film 's music was composed by the duo Nadeem - Shravan.
The plot begins with Shiv (Abhishek Bachchan) and Pooja (Karisma Kapoor) who are looking for a job. They happen to be interviewed the same day in the same company and both are equally qualified for the job. At the interview venue, when Pooja sees that it will be difficult for her to get the job, she fools Shiv and gets the job. But later on, when Shiv too gets a job in that company, he comes to know that Pooja fooled him. After a lot of pranks and fun they fall in love and happily get married to each other but sometimes they get into the most petty arguments coming from the way they approach life. Shiv takes each day as it comes whilst Pooja 's imagination sometimes gets the best of her. Pooja gives up her career for him and settles down as a housewife. They go on their honeymoon to Switzerland and there they meet Meghna (Simone Singh), who happens to be Shiv 's college friend. One day when Shiv returns from a conference, he finds that Meghna is stuck on the road since her car is damaged. So Shiv decides to give a lift to Meghna since they happen to be staying in the same hotel. On account of the weather getting worse, they are unable to return to the hotel on time, so they have to stay in a hotel midway. The indifference between Shiv and Pooja gets worse when Shiv ends up spending the night with Meghna. Pooja overhears them talking about how they should put their one - night stand behind them. Shocked and disturbed, she asks for a divorce straight away and leaves him. Pooja then moves to Mumbai where she gets a job as the secretary of Raj (Akshay Kumar) who is a film star. Raj has everything anyone could ask for: money, fame, but not love. She happily works as his secretary and Raj falls in love with Pooja and she also likes him. One day they go for shooting in Naini Hills and Pooja finds that Shiv happens to be the manager of the hotel where they stay. Pooja tells Shiv that she can still not forgive Shiv for what happened in the past. Raj asks Shiv to be the best man at his wedding. So Shiv decides that he will not interfere in Pooja 's life anymore. But on the day of the wedding, Pooja realizes that she is still in love with Shiv and should have forgiven him. Raj overhears this and decides to reunite Pooja and Shiv. They both get married again and live happily ever after.
The soundtrack of the movie was composed by the duo of Nadeem - Shravan with lyrics by Sameer and the album became very popular with songs like ' Mubarak Mubarak ' and ' Hum pyaar hain tumhare ' being played in almost all wedding functions. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 18, 00,000 units sold, this film 's soundtrack album was the year 's eleventh highest - selling.
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what is the average ambient temperature in saudi arabia | Climate of Saudi Arabia - Wikipedia
The climate of Saudi Arabia is marked by high temperatures during the day and low temperatures at night. Most of the country follows the pattern of the desert climate, with the exception of the southwest, which features a semi-arid climate.
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what is the natural process that is causing the depletion of the ozone layer | Ozone depletion - Wikipedia
Ozone depletion describes two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth 's (atmosphere)) (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth 's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric events.
The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is man - made chemicals, especially man - made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam - blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone - depleting substances (ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by the winds after being emitted at the surface. Once in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O) into oxygen (O). Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased.
Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over increased cancer risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth 's atmosphere. These wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn, and cataracts, which were projected to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals. These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone - depleting chemicals.
The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover in the 2000s. Recovery is projected to continue over the next century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre-1980 levels by around 2075. The Montreal Protocol is considered the most successful international environmental agreement to date.
Three forms (or allotropes) of oxygen are involved in the ozone - oxygen cycle: oxygen atoms (O or atomic oxygen), oxygen gas (O or diatomic oxygen), and ozone gas (O or triatomic oxygen). Ozone is formed in the stratosphere when oxygen molecules photodissociate after intaking ultraviolet photons. This converts a single O into two atomic oxygen radicals. The atomic oxygen radicals then combine with separate O molecules to create two O molecules. These ozone molecules absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, following which ozone splits into a molecule of O and an oxygen atom. The oxygen atom then joins up with an oxygen molecule to regenerate ozone. This is a continuing process that terminates when an oxygen atom recombines with an ozone molecule to make two O molecules.
O + O → 2 O
The total amount of ozone in the stratosphere is determined by a balance between photochemical production and recombination.
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts; the most important are the hydroxyl radical (OH), nitric oxide radical (NO), chlorine radical (Cl) and bromine radical (Br). The dot is a notation to indicate that each species has an unpaired electron and is thus extremely reactive. All of these have both natural and man - made sources; at the present time, most of the OH and NO in the stratosphere is naturally occurring, but human activity has drastically increased the levels of chlorine and bromine. These elements are found in stable organic compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons, which can travel to the stratosphere without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are released from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light, e.g.
CFCl + electromagnetic radiation → Cl + CFCl
Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that easily reduces to the more stable oxygen form with the assistance of a catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a variety of catalytic cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O), taking an oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen molecule (O). The ClO can react with a second molecule of ozone, releasing the chlorine atom and yielding two molecules of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas - phase reactions is:
The overall effect is a decrease in the amount of ozone, though the rate of these processes can be decreased by the effects of null cycles. More complicated mechanisms have also been discovered that lead to ozone destruction in the lower stratosphere.
A single chlorine atom would continuously destroy ozone (thus a catalyst) for up to two years (the time scale for transport back down to the troposphere) were it not for reactions that remove them from this cycle by forming reservoir species such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (ClONO). Bromine is even more efficient than chlorine at destroying ozone on a per atom basis, but there is much less bromine in the atmosphere at present. Both chlorine and bromine contribute significantly to overall ozone depletion. Laboratory studies have also shown that fluorine and iodine atoms participate in analogous catalytic cycles. However, fluorine atoms react rapidly with water and methane to form strongly bound HF in the Earth 's stratosphere, while organic molecules containing iodine react so rapidly in the lower atmosphere that they do not reach the stratosphere in significant quantities.
A single chlorine atom is able to react with an average of 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed from the catalytic cycle. This fact plus the amount of chlorine released into the atmosphere yearly by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) demonstrates the danger of CFCs and HCFCs to the environment.
The ozone hole is usually measured by reduction in the total column ozone above a point on the Earth 's surface. This is normally expressed in Dobson units; abbreviated as "DU ''. The most prominent decrease in ozone has been in the lower stratosphere. Marked decreases in column ozone in the Antarctic spring and early summer compared to the early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).
Reductions of up to 70 percent in the ozone column observed in the austral (southern hemispheric) spring over Antarctica and first reported in 1985 (Farman et al.) are continuing. Antarctic total column ozone in September and October have continued to be 40 -- 50 percent lower than pre-ozone - hole values since the 1990s. A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016. In 2017, NASA announced that the ozone hole was the weakest since 1988 because of warm stratospheric conditions. It is expected to recover around 2070.
The amount lost is more variable year - to - year in the Arctic than in the Antarctic. The greatest Arctic declines are in the winter and spring, reaching up to 30 percent when the stratosphere is coldest.
Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an important role in enhancing ozone depletion. PSCs form more readily in the extreme cold of the Arctic and Antarctic stratosphere. This is why ozone holes first formed, and are deeper, over Antarctica. Early models failed to take PSCs into account and predicted a gradual global depletion, which is why the sudden Antarctic ozone hole was such a surprise to many scientists.
It is more accurate to speak of ozone depletion in middle latitudes rather than holes. Total column ozone declined below pre-1980 values between 1980 and 1996 for mid-latitudes. In the northern mid-latitudes, it then increased from the minimum value by about two percent from 1996 to 2009 as regulations took effect and the amount of chlorine in the stratosphere decreased. In the Southern Hemisphere 's mid-latitudes, total ozone remained constant over that time period. There are no significant trends in the tropics, largely because halogen - containing compounds have not had time to break down and release chlorine and bromine atoms at tropical latitudes.
Large volcanic eruptions have been shown to have substantial albeit uneven ozone - depleting effects, as observed with the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinotubo in the Philippines.
Ozone depletion also explains much of the observed reduction in stratospheric and upper tropospheric temperatures. The source of the warmth of the stratosphere is the absorption of UV radiation by ozone, hence reduced ozone leads to cooling. Some stratospheric cooling is also predicted from increases in greenhouse gases such as CO and CFCs themselves; however, the ozone - induced cooling appears to be dominant.
Predictions of ozone levels remain difficult, but the precision of models ' predictions of observed values and the agreement among different modeling techniques have increased steadily. The World Meteorological Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project -- Report No. 44 comes out strongly in favor of the Montreal Protocol, but notes that a UNEP 1994 Assessment overestimated ozone loss for the 1994 -- 1997 period.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS) are mainly responsible for man - made chemical ozone depletion. The total amount of effective halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the stratosphere can be calculated and are known as the equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC).
CFCs were invented by Thomas Midgley, Jr. in the 1930s. They were used in air conditioning and cooling units, as aerosol spray propellants prior to the 1970s, and in the cleaning processes of delicate electronic equipment. They also occur as by - products of some chemical processes. No significant natural sources have ever been identified for these compounds -- their presence in the atmosphere is due almost entirely to human manufacture. As mentioned above, when such ozone - depleting chemicals reach the stratosphere, they are dissociated by ultraviolet light to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms act as a catalyst, and each can break down tens of thousands of ozone molecules before being removed from the stratosphere. Given the longevity of CFC molecules, recovery times are measured in decades. It is calculated that a CFC molecule takes an average of about five to seven years to go from the ground level up to the upper atmosphere, and it can stay there for about a century, destroying up to one hundred thousand ozone molecules during that time.
1, 1, 1 - Trichloro - 2, 2, 2 - trifluoroethane, also known as CFC - 113a, is one of four man - made chemicals newly discovered in the atmosphere by a team at the University of East Anglia. CFC - 113a is the only known CFC whose abundance in the atmosphere is still growing. Its source remains a mystery, but illegal manufacturing is suspected by some. CFC - 113a seems to have been accumulating unabated since 1960. Between 2010 and 2012, emissions of the gas jumped by 45 percent.
Scientists have attributed ozone depletion to the increase of man - made (anthropogenic) halogen compounds from CFCs by combining observational data with computer models. These complex chemistry transport models (e.g. SLIMCAT, CLaMS -- Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere) work by combining measurements of chemicals and meteorological fields with chemical reaction rate constants. They identify key chemical reactions and transport processes that bring CFC photolysis products into contact with ozone.
The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33 percent of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50 percent of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.
As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine - containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl - catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).
These polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark, consisting of 3 months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills air. Temperatures hover around or below − 80 ° C. These low temperatures form cloud particles. There are three types of PSC clouds -- nitric acid trihydrate clouds, slowly cooling water - ice clouds, and rapid cooling water - ice (nacerous) clouds -- provide surfaces for chemical reactions whose products will, in the spring lead to ozone destruction.
The photochemical processes involved are complex but well understood. The key observation is that, ordinarily, most of the chlorine in the stratosphere resides in "reservoir '' compounds, primarily chlorine nitrate (ClONO) as well as stable end products such as HCl. The formation of end products essentially remove Cl from the ozone depletion process. The former sequester Cl, which can be later made available via absorption of light at shorter wavelengths than 400 nm. During the Antarctic winter and spring, however, reactions on the surface of the polar stratospheric cloud particles convert these "reservoir '' compounds into reactive free radicals (Cl and ClO). The process by which the clouds remove NO from the stratosphere by converting it to nitric acid in the PSC particles, which then are lost by sedimentation is called denitrification. This prevents newly formed ClO from being converted back into ClONO.
The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic ozone depletion is greatest during spring. During winter, even though PSCs are at their most abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive chemical reactions. During the spring, however, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive photochemical reactions and melt the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing considerable ClO, which drives the hole mechanism. Further warming temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex around mid-December. As warm, ozone and NO - rich air flows in from lower latitudes, the PSCs are destroyed, the enhanced ozone depletion process shuts down, and the ozone hole closes.
Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere, in contrast to the much smaller ozone depletion through homogeneous gas phase reactions, which occurs primarily in the upper stratosphere.
Public misconceptions and misunderstandings of complex issues like the ozone depletion are common. The limited scientific knowledge of the public led to a confusion with global warming or the perception of global warming as a subset of the "ozone hole ''. In the beginning, classical green NGOs refrained from using CFC depletion for campaigning, as they assumed the topic was too complicated. They became active much later, e.g. in Greenpeace 's support for a CFC - free fridge produced by the former East German company VEB dkk Scharfenstein.
The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) are not "exact '' in the scientific sense. The "ozone hole '' is more of a depression, less "a hole in the windshield ''. The ozone does not disappear through the layer, nor is there a uniform "thinning '' of the ozone layer. However they resonated better with non-scientists and their concerns. The ozone hole was seen as a "hot issue '' and imminent risk as lay people feared severe personal consequences such as skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean 's photic zone. Not only on the policy level, ozone regulation compared to climate change fared much better in public opinion. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays before legislation was enforced, while climate change failed to achieve comparable concern and public action. The sudden recognition in 1985 that there was a substantial "hole '' was widely reported in the press. The especially rapid ozone depletion in Antarctica had previously been dismissed as a measurement error. Scientific consensus was established after regulation.
While the Antarctic ozone hole has a relatively small effect on global ozone, the hole has generated a great deal of public interest because:
Since the ozone layer absorbs UVB ultraviolet light from the sun, ozone layer depletion increases surface UVB levels (all else equal), which could lead to damage, including increase in skin cancer. This was the reason for the Montreal Protocol. Although decreases in stratospheric ozone are well - tied to CFCs and to increases in surface UVB, there is no direct observational evidence linking ozone depletion to higher incidence of skin cancer and eye damage in human beings. This is partly because UVA, which has also been implicated in some forms of skin cancer, is not absorbed by ozone, and because it is nearly impossible to control statistics for lifestyle changes over time.
Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth 's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the slant - path thickness and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth 's surface. UV - driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.
In October 2008, the Ecuadorian Space Agency published a report called HIPERION. The study used ground instruments in Ecuador and the last 28 years ' data from 12 satellites of several countries, and found that the UV radiation reaching equatorial latitudes was far greater than expected, with the UV Index climbing as high as 24 in Quito; the WHO considers 11 as an extreme index and a great risk to health. The report concluded that depleted ozone levels around the mid-latitudes of the planet are already endangering large populations in these areas. Later, the CONIDA, the Peruvian Space Agency, published its own study, which yielded almost the same findings as the Ecuadorian study.
The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased surface UV radiation on human health. So far, ozone depletion in most locations has been typically a few percent and, as noted above, no direct evidence of health damage is available in most latitudes. If the high levels of depletion seen in the ozone hole were to be common across the globe, the effects could be substantially more dramatic. As the ozone hole over Antarctica has in some instances grown so large as to affect parts of Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and South Africa, environmentalists have been concerned that the increase in surface UV could be significant.
Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both positive (including production of Vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts). In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.
The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well understood -- absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By combining epidemiological data with results of animal studies, scientists have estimated that every one percent decrease in long - term stratospheric ozone would increase the incidence of these cancers by two percent.
Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15 -- 20 percent of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet fully understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the effect of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One study showed that a 10 percent increase in UVB radiation was associated with a 19 percent increase in melanomas for men and 16 percent for women. A study of people in Punta Arenas, at the southern tip of Chile, showed a 56 percent increase in melanoma and a 46 percent increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer over a period of seven years, along with decreased ozone and increased UVB levels.
Epidemiological studies suggest an association between ocular cortical cataracts and UVB exposure, using crude approximations of exposure and various cataract assessment techniques. A detailed assessment of ocular exposure to UVB was carried out in a study on Chesapeake Bay Watermen, where increases in average annual ocular exposure were associated with increasing risk of cortical opacity. In this highly exposed group of predominantly white males, the evidence linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the strongest to date. Based on these results, ozone depletion is predicted to cause hundreds of thousands of additional cataracts by 2050.
Increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone. Ground - level ozone is generally recognized to be a health risk, as ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant properties. The risks are particularly high for young children, the elderly, and those with asthma or other respiratory difficulties. At this time, ozone at ground level is produced mainly by the action of UV radiation on combustion gases from vehicle exhausts.
Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet light. Thus, higher UVB exposure raises human vitamin D in those deficient in it. Recent research (primarily since the Montreal Protocol) shows that many humans have less than optimal vitamin D levels. In particular, in the U.S. population, the lowest quarter of vitamin D (< 17.8 ng / ml) were found using information from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to be associated with an increase in all - cause mortality in the general population. While blood level of Vitamin D in excess of 100 ng / ml appear to raise blood calcium excessively and to be associated with higher mortality, the body has mechanisms that prevent sunlight from producing Vitamin D in excess of the body 's requirements.
A November 2010 report by scientists at the Institute of Zoology in London found that whales off the coast of California have shown a sharp rise in sun damage, and these scientists "fear that the thinning ozone layer is to blame ''. The study photographed and took skin biopsies from over 150 whales in the Gulf of California and found "widespread evidence of epidermal damage commonly associated with acute and severe sunburn '', having cells that form when the DNA is damaged by UV radiation. The findings suggest "rising UV levels as a result of ozone depletion are to blame for the observed skin damage, in the same way that human skin cancer rates have been on the increase in recent decades. ''
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its increase. "Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair the effects of increased ultraviolet radiation, plants have a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, therefore plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation. ''
The full extent of the damage that CFCs have caused to the ozone layer is not known and will not be known for decades; however, marked decreases in column ozone have already been observed. The Montreal and Vienna conventions were installed long before a scientific consensus was established or important uncertainties in the science field were being resolved. The ozone case was understood comparably well by lay persons as e.g. Ozone shield or ozone hole were useful "easy - to - understand bridging metaphors ''. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays, resulting in a 50 percent sales loss even before legislation was enforced.
After a 1976 report by the United States National Academy of Sciences concluded that credible scientific evidence supported the ozone depletion hypothesis a few countries, including the United States, Canada, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, moved to eliminate the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans. At the time this was widely regarded as a first step towards a more comprehensive regulation policy, but progress in this direction slowed in subsequent years, due to a combination of political factors (continued resistance from the halocarbon industry and a general change in attitude towards environmental regulation during the first two years of the Reagan administration) and scientific developments (subsequent National Academy assessments that indicated that the first estimates of the magnitude of ozone depletion had been overly large). A critical DuPont manufacturing patent for Freon was set to expire in 1979. The United States banned the use of CFCs in aerosol cans in 1978. The European Community rejected proposals to ban CFCs in aerosol sprays, and in the U.S., CFCs continued to be used as refrigerants and for cleaning circuit boards. Worldwide CFC production fell sharply after the U.S. aerosol ban, but by 1986 had returned nearly to its 1976 level. In 1993, DuPont Canada closed its CFC facility.
The U.S. Government 's attitude began to change again in 1983, when William Ruckelshaus replaced Anne M. Burford as Administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Under Ruckelshaus and his successor, Lee Thomas, the EPA pushed for an international approach to halocarbon regulations. In 1985 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone - depleting substances. That same year, the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole was announced, causing a revival in public attention to the issue. In 1987, representatives from 43 nations signed the Montreal Protocol. Meanwhile, the halocarbon industry shifted its position and started supporting a protocol to limit CFC production. However, this shift was uneven with DuPont acting more quickly than their European counterparts. DuPont may have feared court action related to increased skin cancer especially as the EPA had published a study in 1986 claiming that an additional 40 million cases and 800,000 cancer deaths were to be expected in the U.S. in the next 88 years. The EU shifted its position as well after Germany gave up its defence of the CFC industry and started supporting moves towards regulation. Government and industry in France and the UK tried to defend their CFC producing industries even after the Montreal Protocol had been signed.
At Montreal, the participants agreed to freeze production of CFCs at 1986 levels and to reduce production by 50 percent by 1999. After a series of scientific expeditions to the Antarctic produced convincing evidence that the ozone hole was indeed caused by chlorine and bromine from manmade organohalogens, the Montreal Protocol was strengthened at a 1990 meeting in London. The participants agreed to phase out CFCs and halons entirely (aside from a very small amount marked for certain "essential '' uses, such as asthma inhalers) by 2000 in non-Article 5 countries and by 2010 in Article 5 (less developed) signatories. At a 1992 meeting in Copenhagen, the phase - out date was moved up to 1996. At the same meeting, methyl bromide (MeBr), a fumigant used primarily in agricultural production, was added to the list of controlled substances. For all substances controlled under the protocol, phaseout schedules were delayed for less developed (' Article 5 (1) ') countries, and phaseout in these countries was supported by transfers of expertise, technology, and money from non-Article 5 (1) Parties to the Protocol. Additionally, exemptions from the agreed schedules could be applied for under the Essential Use Exemption (EUE) process for substances other than methyl bromide and under the Critical Use Exemption (CUE) process for methyl bromide.
Civil society including especially NGOs, played critical roles at all stages of policy development leading up to the Vienna Conference, the Montreal Protocol, and in assessing compliance afterwards. The major companies claimed that no alternatives to HFC existed. An ozone - safe hydrocarbon refrigerant was developed at a Hamburg technological institute in Germany, and in 1992 came to the attention of the non-governmental organization (NGO) Greenpeace. Greenpeace was given the patent, called it "Greenfreeze, '' and left the patent as open source. The NGO then worked successfully first with a small and struggling company to market an appliance beginning in Europe, then Asia and later Latin America, receiving a 1997 UNEP award. By 1995, Germany had already made CFC refrigerators illegal. Since 2004, corporations like Coca - Cola, Carlsberg, and IKEA have been forming a coalition to promote the ozone - safe Greenfreeze units. Production spread to companies like Electrolux, Bosch, and LG, with sales reaching some 300 million refrigerators by 2008. In Latin America, a domestic Argentinian company began Greenfreeze production in 2003, while the giant Bosch in Brazil began a year later. By 2013 it was being used by some 700 million refrigerators, making up about 40 percent of the market. In the U.S., however, change has been much slower. To some extent, CFCs were being replaced by the less damaging hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), although concerns remain regarding HCFCs also. In some applications, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were being used to replace CFCs. HFCs, which contain no chlorine or bromine, do not contribute at all to ozone depletion although they are potent greenhouse gases. The best known of these compounds is probably HFC - 134a (R - 134a), which in the United States has largely replaced CFC - 12 (R - 12) in automobile air conditioners. In laboratory analytics (a former "essential '' use) the ozone depleting substances can be replaced with various other solvents. Chemical companies like Du Pont, whose representatives even disparaged Greenfreeze as "that German technology, '' maneuvered the EPA to block the technology in the U.S. until 2011. Ben & Jerry 's of Unilever and General Electric, spurred by Greenpeace, had expressed formal interest in 2008 which figured in the EPA 's final approval.
More recently, policy experts have advocated for efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts. Many ODS are also greenhouse gases, some thousands of times more powerful agents of radiative forcing than carbon dioxide over the short and medium term. Thus policies protecting the ozone layer have had benefits in mitigating climate change. In fact, the reduction of the radiative forcing due to ODS probably masked the true level of climate change effects of other GHGs, and was responsible for the "slow down '' of global warming from the mid-90s. Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.
The IMO has amended MARPOL Annex VI Regulation 12 regarding ozone depleting substances. As from July 1, 2010, all vessels where MARPOL Annex VI is applicable should have a list of equipment using ozone depleting substances. The list should include name of ODS, type and location of equipment, quantity in kg and date. All changes since that date should be recorded in an ODS Record book on board recording all intended or unintended releases to the atmosphere. Furthermore, new ODS supply or landing to shore facilities should be recorded as well.
Since the adoption and strengthening of the Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in the emissions of CFCs, atmospheric concentrations of the most - significant compounds have been declining. These substances are being gradually removed from the atmosphere; since peaking in 1994, the Effective Equivalent Chlorine (EECl) level in the atmosphere had dropped about 10 percent by 2008. The decrease in ozone - depleting chemicals has also been significantly affected by a decrease in bromine - containing chemicals. The data suggest that substantial natural sources exist for atmospheric methyl bromide (CH Br). The phase - out of CFCs means that nitrous oxide (N O), which is not covered by the Montreal Protocol, has become the most highly emitted ozone - depleting substance and is expected to remain so throughout the 21st century.
A 2005 IPCC review of ozone observations and model calculations concluded that the global amount of ozone has now approximately stabilized. Although considerable variability is expected from year to year, including in polar regions where depletion is largest, the ozone layer is expected to begin to recover in coming decades due to declining ozone - depleting substance concentrations, assuming full compliance with the Montreal Protocol.
The Antarctic ozone hole is expected to continue for decades. Ozone concentrations in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica will increase by 5 -- 10 percent by 2020 and return to pre-1980 levels by about 2060 -- 2075. This is 10 -- 25 years later than predicted in earlier assessments, because of revised estimates of atmospheric concentrations of ozone - depleting substances, including a larger predicted future usage in developing countries. Another factor that may prolong ozone depletion is the drawdown of nitrogen oxides from above the stratosphere due to changing wind patterns. A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016.
The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the Earth 's stratosphere were discovered by Sydney Chapman in 1930. Short - wavelength UV radiation splits an oxygen (O) molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone is removed when an oxygen atom and an ozone molecule "recombine '' to form two oxygen molecules, i.e. O + O → 2O. In the 1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in particular hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination reaction, reducing the overall amount of ozone. These free radicals were known to be present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the natural balance -- it was estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it currently is.
In 1970 Paul Crutzen pointed out that emissions of nitrous oxide (N O), a stable, long - lived gas produced by soil bacteria, from the Earth 's surface could affect the amount of nitric oxide (NO) in the stratosphere. Crutzen showed that nitrous oxide lives long enough to reach the stratosphere, where it is converted into NO. Crutzen then noted that increasing use of fertilizers might have led to an increase in nitrous oxide emissions over the natural background, which would in turn result in an increase in the amount of NO in the stratosphere. Thus human activity could affect the stratospheric ozone layer. In the following year, Crutzen and (independently) Harold Johnston suggested that NO emissions from supersonic passenger aircraft, which would fly in the lower stratosphere, could also deplete the ozone layer. However, more recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, found that the drop in ozone would be from 1 -- 2 percent if a fleet of 500 supersonic passenger aircraft were operated. This, Fahey expressed, would not be a showstopper for advanced supersonic passenger aircraft development.
In 1974 Frank Sherwood Rowland, Chemistry Professor at the University of California at Irvine, and his postdoctoral associate Mario J. Molina suggested that long - lived organic halogen compounds, such as CFCs, might behave in a similar fashion as Crutzen had proposed for nitrous oxide. James Lovelock had recently discovered, during a cruise in the South Atlantic in 1971, that almost all of the CFC compounds manufactured since their invention in 1930 were still present in the atmosphere. Molina and Rowland concluded that, like N O, the CFCs would reach the stratosphere where they would be dissociated by UV light, releasing chlorine atoms. A year earlier, Richard Stolarski and Ralph Cicerone at the University of Michigan had shown that Cl is even more efficient than NO at catalyzing the destruction of ozone. Similar conclusions were reached by Michael McElroy and Steven Wofsy at Harvard University. Neither group, however, had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of stratospheric chlorine -- instead, they had been investigating the possible effects of HCl emissions from the Space Shuttle, which are very much smaller.
The Rowland -- Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The Chair of the Board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale... a load of rubbish... utter nonsense ''. Robert Abplanalp, the President of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland 's public statements. Nevertheless, within three years most of the basic assumptions made by Rowland and Molina were confirmed by laboratory measurements and by direct observation in the stratosphere. The concentrations of the source gases (CFCs and related compounds) and the chlorine reservoir species (HCl and ClONO) were measured throughout the stratosphere, and demonstrated that CFCs were indeed the major source of stratospheric chlorine, and that nearly all of the CFCs emitted would eventually reach the stratosphere. Even more convincing was the measurement, by James G. Anderson and collaborators, of chlorine monoxide (ClO) in the stratosphere. ClO is produced by the reaction of Cl with ozone -- its observation thus demonstrated that Cl radicals not only were present in the stratosphere but also were actually involved in destroying ozone. McElroy and Wofsy extended the work of Rowland and Molina by showing that bromine atoms were even more effective catalysts for ozone loss than chlorine atoms and argued that the brominated organic compounds known as halons, widely used in fire extinguishers, were a potentially large source of stratospheric bromine. In 1976 the United States National Academy of Sciences released a report concluding that the ozone depletion hypothesis was strongly supported by the scientific evidence. In response the United States, Canada and Norway banned the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans in 1978. Early estimates were that, if CFC production continued at 1977 levels, the total atmospheric ozone would after a century or so reach a steady state, 15 to 18 percent below normal levels. By 1984, when better evidence on the speed of critical reactions was available, this estimate was changed to 5 to 9 percent steady - state depletion.
Crutzen, Molina, and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on stratospheric ozone.
The discovery of the Antarctic "ozone hole '' by British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin (first reported in a paper in Nature in May 1985) came as a shock to the scientific community, because the observed decline in polar ozone was far larger than anyone had anticipated. Satellite measurements showing massive depletion of ozone around the south pole were becoming available at the same time. However, these were initially rejected as unreasonable by data quality control algorithms (they were filtered out as errors since the values were unexpectedly low); the ozone hole was detected only in satellite data when the raw data was reprocessed following evidence of ozone depletion in in situ observations. When the software was rerun without the flags, the ozone hole was seen as far back as 1976.
Susan Solomon, an atmospheric chemist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), proposed that chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused a massive, though localized and seasonal, increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone - destroying forms. The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low temperatures, as low as − 80 ° C, and early spring conditions. In such conditions the ice crystals of the cloud provide a suitable surface for conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily.
Moreover, the polar vortex formed over Antarctica is very tight and the reaction occurring on the surface of the cloud crystals is far different from when it occurs in atmosphere. These conditions have led to ozone hole formation in Antarctica. This hypothesis was decisively confirmed, first by laboratory measurements and subsequently by direct measurements, from the ground and from high - altitude airplanes, of very high concentrations of chlorine monoxide (ClO) in the Antarctic stratosphere.
Alternative hypotheses, which had attributed the ozone hole to variations in solar UV radiation or to changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, were also tested and shown to be untenable.
Meanwhile, analysis of ozone measurements from the worldwide network of ground - based Dobson spectrophotometers led an international panel to conclude that the ozone layer was in fact being depleted, at all latitudes outside of the tropics. These trends were confirmed by satellite measurements. As a consequence, the major halocarbon - producing nations agreed to phase out production of CFCs, halons, and related compounds, a process that was completed in 1996.
Since 1981 the United Nations Environment Programme, under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization, has sponsored a series of technical reports on the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, based on satellite measurements. The 2007 report showed that the hole in the ozone layer was recovering and the smallest it had been for about a decade. The 2010 report found, "Over the past decade, global ozone and ozone in the Arctic and Antarctic regions is no longer decreasing but is not yet increasing. The ozone layer outside the Polar regions is projected to recover to its pre-1980 levels some time before the middle of this century. In contrast, the springtime ozone hole over the Antarctic is expected to recover much later. '' In 2012, NOAA and NASA reported "Warmer air temperatures high above the Antarctic led to the second smallest season ozone hole in 20 years averaging 17.9 million square kilometres. The hole reached its maximum size for the season on Sept 22, stretching to 21.2 million square kilometres. '' A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016.
The hole in the Earth 's ozone layer over the South Pole has affected atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere all the way to the equator. The ozone hole has influenced atmospheric circulation all the way to the tropics and increased rainfall at low, subtropical latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.
On March 3, 2005, the journal Nature published an article linking 2004 's unusually large Arctic ozone hole to solar wind activity.
On March 15, 2011, a record ozone layer loss was observed, with about half of the ozone present over the Arctic having been destroyed. The change was attributed to increasingly cold winters in the Arctic stratosphere at an altitude of approximately 20 km (12 mi), a change associated with global warming in a relationship that is still under investigation. By March 25, the ozone loss had become the largest compared to that observed in all previous winters with the possibility that it would become an ozone hole. This would require that the quantities of ozone to fall below 200 Dobson units, from the 250 recorded over central Siberia. It is predicted that the thinning layer would affect parts of Scandinavia and Eastern Europe on March 30 -- 31.
On October 2, 2011, a study was published in the journal Nature, which said that between December 2010 and March 2011 up to 80 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere at about 20 kilometres (12 mi) above the surface was destroyed. The level of ozone depletion was severe enough that scientists said it could be compared to the ozone hole that forms over Antarctica every winter. According to the study, "for the first time, sufficient loss occurred to reasonably be described as an Arctic ozone hole. '' The study analyzed data from the Aura and CALIPSO satellites, and determined that the larger - than - normal ozone loss was due to an unusually long period of cold weather in the Arctic, some 30 days more than typical, which allowed for more ozone - destroying chlorine compounds to be created. According to Lamont Poole, a co-author of the study, cloud and aerosol particles on which the chlorine compounds are found "were abundant in the Arctic until mid March 2011 -- much later than usual -- with average amounts at some altitudes similar to those observed in the Antarctic, and dramatically larger than the near - zero values seen in March in most Arctic winters ''.
As winters that are colder are more affected, at times there is an ozone hole over Tibet. In 2006, a 2.5 million square kilometer ozone hole was detected over Tibet. Also again in 2011 an ozone hole appeared over mountainous regions of Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai and the Hindu Kush, along with an unprecedented hole over the Arctic, though the Tibet one is far less intense than the ones over the Arctic or Antarctic.
Research in 2012 showed that the same process that produces the ozone hole over Antarctica occurs over summer storm clouds in the United States, and thus may be destroying ozone there as well.
Among others, Robert Watson had a role in the science assessment and in the regulation efforts of ozone depletion and global warming. Prior to the 1980s, the EU, NASA, NAS, UNEP, WMO and the British government had dissenting scientific reports and Watson played a role in the process of unified assessments. Based on the experience with the ozone case, the IPCC started to work on a unified reporting and science assessment to reach a consensus to provide the IPCC Summary for Policymakers.
There are various areas of linkage between ozone depletion and global warming science:
Since CFC molecules are heavier than air (nitrogen or oxygen), it is commonly believed that the CFC molecules can not reach the stratosphere in significant amount. However, atmospheric gases are not sorted by weight; the forces of wind can fully mix the gases in the atmosphere. Lighter CFCs are evenly distributed throughout the turbosphere and reach the upper atmosphere, although some of the heavier CFCs are not evenly distributed.
Another misconception is that "it is generally accepted that natural sources of tropospheric chlorine are four to five times larger than man - made ones. '' While strictly true, tropospheric chlorine is irrelevant; it is stratospheric chlorine that affects ozone depletion. Chlorine from ocean spray is soluble and thus is washed by rainfall before it reaches the stratosphere. CFCs, in contrast, are insoluble and long - lived, allowing them to reach the stratosphere. In the lower atmosphere, there is much more chlorine from CFCs and related haloalkanes than there is in HCl from salt spray, and in the stratosphere halocarbons are dominant. Only methyl chloride, which is one of these halocarbons, has a mainly natural source, and it is responsible for about 20 percent of the chlorine in the stratosphere; the remaining 80 percent comes from manmade sources.
Very violent volcanic eruptions can inject HCl into the stratosphere, but researchers have shown that the contribution is not significant compared to that from CFCs. A similar erroneous assertion is that soluble halogen compounds from the volcanic plume of Mount Erebus on Ross Island, Antarctica are a major contributor to the Antarctic ozone hole.
Nevertheless, a 2015 study showed that the role of Mount Erebus volcano in the Antarctic ozone depletion was probably underestimated. Based on the NCEP / NCAR reanalysis data over the last 35 years and by using the NOAA HYSPLIT trajectory model, researchers showed that Erebus volcano gas emissions (including hydrogen chloride (HCl)) can reach the Antarctic stratosphere via high - latitude cyclones and then the polar vortex. Depending on Erebus volcano activity, the additional annual HCl mass entering the stratosphere from Erebus varies from 1.0 to 14.3 kt.
G.M.B. Dobson (Exploring the Atmosphere, 2nd Edition, Oxford, 1968) mentioned that when springtime ozone levels in the Antarctic over Halley Bay were first measured in 1956, he was surprised to find that they were ~ 320 DU, or about 150 DU below spring Arctic levels of ~ 450 DU. These were at that time the only known Antarctic ozone values available. What Dobson describes is essentially the baseline from which the ozone hole is measured: actual ozone hole values are in the 150 -- 100 DU range.
The discrepancy between the Arctic and Antarctic noted by Dobson was primarily a matter of timing: during the Arctic spring ozone levels rose smoothly, peaking in April, whereas in the Antarctic they stayed approximately constant during early spring, rising abruptly in November when the polar vortex broke down.
The behavior seen in the Antarctic ozone hole is completely different. Instead of staying constant, early springtime ozone levels suddenly drop from their already low winter values, by as much as 50 percent, and normal values are not reached again until December.
Some people thought that the ozone hole should be above the sources of CFCs. However, CFCs are well mixed globally in the troposphere and stratosphere. The reason for occurrence of the ozone hole above Antarctica is not because there are more CFCs concentrated but because the low temperatures help form polar stratospheric clouds. In fact, there are findings of significant and localized "ozone holes '' above other parts of the earth.
In 1994, the United Nations General Assembly voted to designate September 16 as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer, or "World Ozone Day '', to commemorate the signing of the Montreal Protocol on that date in 1987.
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how many episodes are in season 3 of switched at birth | Switched at Birth (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of ABC Family drama television series Switched at Birth began on January 13, 2014, and will consist of 22 episodes. The season is produced by ABC Family, Pirates ' Cove Entertainment, and Suzy B Productions, with Paul Stupin and series creator Lizzy Weiss serving as executive producers.
The one - hour scripted drama revolves around two young women who discover they were switched at birth and grew up in very different environments. While balancing school, jobs, and their unconventional family, the girls, along with their friends and family, experience deaf culture, relationships, class differences, racism, audism, and other social issues.
After the blackmailing incident, Daphne is ordered to do community service at a free clinic. She meets Campbell (RJ Mitte), a former snowboarder who sustained serious injuries after an accident. Her relationship with John continues to be tense. The deaf students at Carlton are unhappy about the new students that were forced to relocate to the school due to district budget cuts. Daphne starts off on bad terms with a troubled girl named Sharee. Meanwhile, Bay is taking a college art class and is partnered up with a fraternity pledge, Tank (Max Adler). Toby finds his life as a newlywed at a standstill while Nikki is off doing missionary work in Peru. When her boss decides to sell the business, Regina hopes to buy the place with Angelo 's help. Kathryn has started seeing a psychiatrist after going through a bout of depression and finds light in taking dance classes, which she hides from John.
Daphne and Toby try to convince Bay to join the newly - formed field hockey team so that they 'll have enough players. Bay 's confidence in her artistic abilities goes down when her teacher says that her piece on Tank lacks depth. Tank narrowly escapes being kicked out of the class after he fails to complete his portrait of Bay from the night of the party. John finds out that Kathryn has been hanging out with other people and sneaking off to dance classes, so Kathryn invites her dance friend, Renzo, over for dinner. At the clinic, Daphne and Campbell have to track down a patient after Daphne let him go before properly checking out. She also tries to recruit Sharee to join field hockey after Toby finds out that Sharee is a star athlete. Meanwhile, after Emmett catches the Carlton vandal on camera, he suspects that the one who has been targeting the deaf students is one of his deaf friends.
Bay asks her new art teacher for a letter of recommendation for an art school application and gets invited to an art show in Minneapolis. Tank joins them. Emmett is put in a tough position after confronting a fellow deaf student about the vandalism, with Travis encouraging him to keep quiet so that the new hearing students can take the blame. Sharee is mistakenly blamed for the tire slashing, but Daphne helps argue her case and get her expulsion rescinded. However, Sharee and Daphne clash and both end up in detention, making them miss their field hockey game, to Toby 's frustration.
Jorge invites Daphne to a family barbecue where she is confronted about the Senator Coto ordeal. Daphne continues to search for the patient she allowed to leave the clinic early. John surprises the family with an unusual purchase. Bay discovers that Emmett is dating again and has conflicting feelings. Regina and Angelo have a discussion about business.
John bonds with Nikki 's mom, Jennice, when they help Toby move into his new apartment. John invites her to his house to watch a boxing match and they end up kissing, which Regina sees through the window. Kathryn goes to New York City with Renzo to pitch an idea for a second book. Daphne tells Bay that Tank has a crush on her. Bay later rejoins the field hockey team for college admissions appeal. Daphne worries about Sharee after witnessing an altercation outside of Sharee 's house and Regina gets involved.
Kathryn and Renzo host a murder mystery - themed party to commemorate her recent book deal. The Kennishes and Vasquezes (minus Daphne) all attend, as well as Tank and Jennice. Jennice and John try to keep their kiss a secret and Regina decides whether or not to tell Kathryn. Bay realizes her feelings for Tank but worries about why he did n't invite her to a party at his fraternity. Meanwhile, Daphne throws a 21st birthday party for Campbell.
John temporarily moves in with Toby, who is unhappy about the situation. Toby and Bay try to get their parents to reconnect at a family outing, but Kathryn is adamant about finding her own independence. Melody preps Travis for an important college interview that he ends up skipping. Regina is in hot water with her boss after Adriana speaks out at a meeting against renovating East Riverside. Daphne tries to convince Sharee to get her mother some help with her mental issues. Bay comes across serious problems with her injured hand that could affect her future art career.
Daphne shows an interest in the medical profession and tries to take on more responsibility at the clinic. Bay struggles with the limitations of her injury. Travis tries to learn dancing before attending a school formal with Mary Beth. Bay 's art teacher shows no leniency about Bay 's hand injury and demands that she work harder, and Bay succeeds in finding new ways to create her art with the help of Emmett. John tries to earn Kathryn 's forgiveness, but fails to understand what she wants.
Good intentions lead to hurt feelings. John invites one of his former baseball colleagues over to get some dirt for Kathryn 's book. Toby tutors Sharee in physics to make sure she remains eligible for field hockey. Daphne is invited to a clinic fundraiser and Regina tries to help Angelo by suggesting that his restaurant cater the event. Campbell and Jorge both remain interested in Daphne. Bay 's relationship with Tank suffers because of Mary Beth 's disapproval.
Bay enlists Tank to help her strike back when the rivalry between Carlton and Buckner field hockey team get heated. Toby gets a surprise visit from Nikki, who tells him that she wants to live in Peru. Regina discovers Wes is scamming the people of East Riverside. Daphne must choose between Campbell and Jorge. Bay and Daphne prepare for the big game.
Kathryn 's new book is leaked to the public before its release. Daphne has an unexpected encounter at the clinic with a man from her past. Regina feels a sense of guilt about her behavior in East Riverside. Back at K&D designs, someone throws a brick through her studio 's window threatening her not to come back to East Riverside. Toby tries to go after Nikki. Meanwhile, Bay is skeptical about Emmett 's new girlfriend.
Toby travels to Iceland. Melody wants to put an end to Emmett getting bullied by Matthew. Meanwhile Bay feels torn between her feelings for Emmett and Tank and Emmett asks Bay if she 's going to break up with Tank. Daphne is determined to hunt down the individual who vandalized Regina 's studio. John discovers that Bay looked up where to buy morning after pills. Daphne asks Angelo to move into the guest house with her and Regina.
Bay and Emmett make an unexpected discovery as they deal with Matthew 's blackmail threat. Daphne receives an opportunity at the clinic but worries how it will affect her boyfriend Campbell. Bay breaks up with Tank telling him they should just go back to being friends but John mistakenly confronts a heartbroken Tank about Bay having to get the morning after pill. Someone from Kathryn 's past threatens the publication of her book. Regina is watched while going to work by a man sitting in his car waiting for her.
When Bay discovers Melody is considering an out - of - state move that would take Emmett with her, Bay encourages Emmett to strengthen his relationship with his father. Kathryn and John clash with Regina over funding Daphne 's college expenses. Daphne interviews for a Latina college scholarship. Mary - Beth surprises Travis when she tracks down football player Derrick Coleman. Cameron gives Emmett big news.
Toby returns from a soul - searching trip to Iceland after his failed marriage with a new perspective and surprising aspiration for his career. Bay gets a response from the Pratt Institute. Angelo helps Daphne redirect her senior year stresses with a baking challenge. Meanwhile Regina 's participation in the East Riverside project brings her to yet another moral crossroad. A terrible car accident puts Angelo in the hospital and it is unknown if he will survive.
A terrible accident has left Angelo in the hospital fighting to survive while others place blame as emotions run high. The Kennish and Vasquez families rally to support Angelo. Amid the emotion, decisions must be made and lives are changed forever. The doctors say that Angelo is brain dead. Bay and Emmett find Angelo 's will, which says that he wishes to be unhooked from machines keeping him alive. At the end of the episode, it is revealed that Angelo died from an aneurysm, caused by being really angry at Regina. Daphne blames Regina for Angelo 's death.
When John starts feeling a sense of built - up tension in Bay and Daphne, he suggests a trip to Chicago to find Bay 's second cousin from Angelo 's side of the family and give Daphne a chance to tour prospective colleges. But the trip goes south when Daphne uses the opportunity to act out and Bay receives news regarding Angelo 's family history.
Daphne and Travis get their admission results from Gallaudet University. Bay tries being Tank 's friend and supports him when he meets his dad for dinner. Toby and Lily get into a conflict regarding Sharee 's make - up exam.
Looking for a distraction, Daphne organizes a senior ditch day for her Carlton classmates, but things get out of hand. Meanwhile, Bay meets with Angelo 's doctor to discuss their family medical history. Kathryn brings Regina to her publisher 's author party in New York.
Bay has second thoughts about attending the prom when dress - code rules are enacted. Meanwhile, Kathryn, John and Regina are surprised to learn the severity of Daphne 's bad behavior; and Tank assists Toby with his new burgeoning business.
As their graduation day approaches, Bay and Daphne learn that Carlton will be closed forever, and join a group of students for a Senior Skip Day at Maui, Kansas. Daphne starts to become depressed as she realizes how her bad choices are sure to ruin her plans to attend medical school. Bay accompanies her as she surrenders to the police, and at the last minute Bay surprises everyone by falsely confessing to Daphne 's vandalism.
As Bay and Daphne rebel against their mothers ' Christmas traditions, a "Christmas miracle '' grants them their wish of alternate lives in which they were not switched. Daphne wakes up as Bay Kennish ("Bay - Daphne '') with her hearing intact, who is a skilled soccer player in training for the Olympics; while Bay wakes up as Daphne Sorrento ("Daphne - Bay ''), deaf but a recognized artist, with a brother, Angelo Junior (AJ). However, these benefits come at a price: workaholic cosmetics entrepreneur Kathryn and depressed, stay - at - home has - been John are on the verge of divorce; Toby is an angst - ridden Emo; Emmett is only Daphne - Bay 's platonic friend; and Regina has never conquered her alcoholism. When the girls decide this is worse, they fail at trying to reverse it at a disastrous Christmas - eve dinner party at the Kennishes, and succeed at waking up back to normal only after embracing the mothers ' traditions which they once hated.
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what is the difference between freshman and sophomore in college | Student - wikipedia
A student is primarily a person enrolled in a school or other educational institution who attends classes in a course to attain the appropriate level of mastery of a subject under the guidance of an instructor and who devotes time outside class to do whatever activities the instructor assigns that are necessary either for class preparation or to submit evidence of progress towards that mastery. In the broader sense, a student is anyone who applies themselves to the intensive intellectual engagement with some matter necessary to master it as part of some practical affair in which such mastery is basic or decisive.
In the United Kingdom and India, the term "student '' denotes those enrolled in secondary schools and higher (e.g., college or university); those enrolled in elementary schools are called "pupils. ''
In Nigeria, education is classified into four system known as 6 - 3 - 3 - 4 system of education. It implies six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary, three years in senior secondary and four years in the university. However, the number of years to be spent in university is mostly determined by the course of study. Some courses have longer study length than others. Those in primary school are often referred to as pupils. Those in university, as well as those in secondary school, are being referred to as students.
The Nigerian system of education also has other recognized categories like the polytechnics and colleges of education. The polytechnic gives out National Diploma and Higher National Diploma certifications after a period of two years and / or four years of study respectively.
Higher National Diploma (also known as HND) can be obtained in a different institution from where the National Diploma (also known as ND or OND) was obtained. However, the HND can not be obtained without the OND certificate.
On the other hand, colleges of education give out NCE (Nigerian Certificate in Education) after a two year period of study.
In South Africa, education is divided into four bands: Foundation Phase (grades 1 -- 3), Intermediate Phase (grades 4 -- 6), Senior Phase (grades 7 -- 9), and the Further Education and Training or FET Phase (grades 10 -- 12). However, because this division is newer than most schools in the country, in practice, learners progress through three different types of school: primary school (grades 1 -- 3), junior school (grades 4 -- 7), and high school (grades 8 -- 12). After the FET phase, learners who pursue further studies typically take three or four years to obtain an undergraduate degree or one or two years to achieve a vocational diploma or certificate. The number of years spent in university varies as different courses of study take different numbers of years. Those in the last year of high school (Grade 12) are referred to as ' Matrics ' or are in ' Matric ' and take the Grade 12 examinations accredited by the Umalusi Council (the South African board of education) in October and November of their Matric year. Exam papers are set and administered nationally through the National Department of Basic Education for government schools, while many (but not all) private school Matrics sit for exams set by the Independent Education Board (IEB), which operates with semi-autonomy under the requirements of Umalusi. (The assessment and learning requirements of both IEB and National exams are of roughly the same standard. The perceived better performance of learners within the IEB exams is largely attributable to their attending private, better resourced schools with much lower teacher: learner ratios and class sizes rather than because of fundamental differences in assessment or learning content). A school year for the majority of schools in South Africa runs from January to December, with holidays dividing the year into terms. Most public or government schools are 4 - term schools and most private schools are 3 - term school, but 3 - term government or public schools and 4 - term private schools are not rare.
Six years of primary school education in Singapore is compulsory.
There are also schools which have the integrated program, such as River Valley High School (Singapore), which means they stay in the same school from Secondary 1 to Junior College 2, without having to take the "O '' level examinations which most students take at the end of Secondary school.
International Schools are subject to overseas curriculums, such as the British, American, Canadian or Australian Boards.
Primary education is compulsory in Bangladesh. It is a near crime to not to send children to primary school when they are of age. But it is not a punishable crime (sending children to work instead of school is a crime). Because of the socio - economic state of Bangladesh, child labour is sometimes legal. But the guardian must ensure the primary education. Everyone who is learning in any institute or even online may be called a student in Bangladesh. Sometimes students taking undergraduate education are called undergraduates and students taking post-graduate education may be called post-graduates.
Education System Of Bangladesh:
Education is free in Brunei. Darussalam not limited to government educational institutions but also private educational institutions. There are mainly two types of educational institutions: government or public, and private institutions. Several stages have to be undergone by the prospective students leading to higher qualifications, such as Bachelor 's Degree.
It takes six and five years to complete the primary and secondary levels respectively. Upon completing these two crucial stages, students / pupils have freedom to progress to sixth - form centers, colleges or probably straight to employment. Students are permitted to progress towards university level programs in both government and private university colleges.
Education in Cambodia is free for all the students who study in Primary School, Secondary School or High School.
After basic education, students can opt to take a bachelor 's (undergraduate) degree at a higher education institution (i.e. a college or university), which normally lasts for four years though the length of some courses may be longer or shorter depending on the institution.
In India school is categorized in these stages: Pre-primary (Nursery, Lower Kindergarten or LKG, Upper Kindergarten or UKG), Primary (Class 1 - 5), Secondary (6 - 10) and Higher Secondary (11 - 12). For undergraduate it is 3 years except Engineering (BTech or BE) which is of 4 years degree course, Architecture (B. Arch) which is 5 years degree course and Medical (MBBS) which is of 4.5 years degree course and 1 year Internship, so 5.5 years.
In Nepal 12 - year school is categorized in three stages: Primary school, Secondary school and Higher Secondary school. For college it averages four years for a bachelor 's degree (except BVSc and AH which is five years programme and MBBS which is a five and half years programme) and two years master 's degree.
In Pakistan, 12 - year school is categorized in three stages: Primary school, Secondary school and Higher Secondary school. It takes five years for a student to graduate from Primary school, five years for Secondary school and five years for Higher Secondary school (also called College). Most bachelor 's degrees span over four years, followed by a two years master 's degree.
The Philippines is currently in the midst of a transition to a K - 12 (also called K + 12) basic education system. Education ideally begins with one year of kinder. Once the transition is complete, elementary or grade school comprises grades 1 to 6. Although the term student may refer to learners of any age or level, the term ' pupil ' is used by the Department of Education to refer to learners in the elementary level, particularly in public schools. Secondary level or high school comprises two major divisions: grades 7 to 10 will be collectively referred to as ' junior high school ', whereas grades 11 to 12 will be collectively referred to as ' senior high school '. The Department of Education refers to learners in grade 7 and above as students.
After basic education, students can opt to take a bachelor 's (undergraduate) degree at a higher education institution (i.e. a college or university), which normally lasts for four years though the length of some courses may be longer or shorter depending on the institution.
In Iran 12 - year school is categorized in two stages: Elementary school and High school. It takes six years for a student to graduate from elementary school and six years for high school. High school study is divided into two part: junior and senior high school. In senior high school, student can choose between the following six fields: Mathematics and physics, Science, Humanities, Islamic science, Vocational, or Work and knowledge. After graduating from high school, students acquire a diploma. Having a diploma, a student can participate in the Iranian University Entrance Exam or Konkoor in different fields of Mathematics, Science, Humanities, languages, and art. The university entrance exam is conducted every year by National Organization of Education Assessment, an organization under the supervision of the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology which is in charge of universities in Iran. Members of the Bahá'í religion, a much - persecuted minority, are officially forbidden to attend university, in order to prevent members of the faith becoming doctors, lawyers or other professionals; however, Muslim, Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian people are allowed entry to universities.
In Australia, Pre-school is optional for three and four year olds. At age five, children begin compulsory education at Primary School, known as Kindergarten in New South Wales, Preparatory School (prep) in Victoria, and Reception in South Australia, students then continue to year one through six (ages 6 to 12). Before 2014, primary school continued on to year seven in Western Australia, South Australia and Queensland. However, the state governments agreed that by 2014, all primary schooling will complete at year six. Students attend High School in year seven through twelve (ages 13 -- 18). After year twelve, students may attend tertiary education at University or vocational training at TAFE (Technical and Further Education).
In New Zealand, after kindergarten or pre-school, which is attended from ages three to five, children begin primary school, ' Year One ', at five years of age. Years One to Six are Primary School, where children commonly attend local schools in the area for that specific year group. Then Year Seven and Year Eight are Intermediate, and from Year Nine until Year Thirteen, a student would attend a secondary school or a college.
Europe uses the traditional, first form, second form, third form, fourth form, fifth form and six form grade system which is up to age eleven.
In Finland a student is called "opiskelija '' (plural being ' opiskelijat '), though children in compulsory education are called "oppilas '' (plural being ' oppilaat '). First level of education is "esikoulu '' (literally ' preschool '), which used to be optional, but has been compulsory since the beginning of year 2015. Children attend esikoulu the year they turn six, and next year they start attending "peruskoulu '' (literally "basic school '', corresponds to American elementary school, middle school and junior high), which is compulsory. Peruskoulu is divided to "alakoulu '' (years 1 through 6) and "yläkoulu '' (years 7 through 9). After compulsory education most children attend second level education (toisen asteen koulutus), either lukio (corresponds to high school) or ammattikoulu (Vocational School), at which point they are called students (opiskelija). Some attend "kymppiluokka '', which is a retake on some yläkoulu 's education.
To attend ammattikorkeakoulu (University of applied sciences) or a university a student must have a second level education. The recommended graduation time is five years. First year students are called "fuksi '' and students that have studied more than five years are called "N: nnen vuoden opiskelija '' (Nth year student).
The generic term "étudiant '' (lit. student) applies only to someone attending a University or a school of a similar level, that is to say pupils in a cursus reserved to people already owning a Baccalauréat. The general term for a person going to primary or secondary school is élève. In some French higher education establishments, a bleu or "bizuth '' is a first - year student. Second - year students are sometimes called "carrés '' (squares). Some other terms may apply in specific schools, some depending on the classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles attended.
In Germany, the German cognate term Student (male) or "Studentin '' (female) is reserved for those attending a university. University students in their first year are called Erstsemester or colloquially Ersties ("firsties ''). Different terms for school students exist, depending on which kind of school is attended by the student. The general term for a person going to school is Schüler or Schülerin. They begin their first four years in primary school or Volksschule. They then graduate to a secondary school called Gymnasium, which is a university preparatory school. Students attending this school are called Gymnasiasten, while those attending other schools are called Hauptschüler or Realschüler. Students who graduate with the Abitur are called Abiturienten. The abbreviation stud. + the abbreviation of the faculty p.e. phil. for philosophiae is a post-nominal for all students of a baccalaureus course. The abbreviation cand. for candidatus + the abbreviation of the faculty is given as a post-nominal to those close to the final exams. First name surname, stud. phil. or First name surname, cand. jur.
In Ireland, pupils officially start with primary school which consists of eight years: junior infants, senior infants, first class to sixth class (ages 5 -- 11). After primary school, pupils proceed to the secondary school level. Here they first enter the junior cycle, which consists of first year to third year (ages 11 -- 14). At the end of third year, all students must sit a compulsory state examination called the Junior Certificate. After third year, pupils have the option of taking a "transition year '' or fourth year (usually at age 15 - 16). In transition year pupils take a break from regular studies to pursue other activities that help to promote their personal, social, vocational and educational development, and to prepares them for their role as autonomous, participative and responsible members of society. It also provides a bridge to enable pupils to make the transition from the more dependent type of learning associated with the Junior Cert. to the more independent learning environment associated with the senior cycle.
After the junior cycle pupils advance to the senior cycle, which consists of fifth year and sixth year (usually ages between 16 and 18). At the end of the sixth year a final state examination is required to be sat by all pupils, known as the Leaving Certificate. The Leaving Cert. is the basis for all Irish pupils who wish to do so to advance to higher education via a points system. A maximum of 625 points can be achieved. All higher education courses have a minimum of points needed for admission.
At Trinity College, Dublin under - graduate students are formally called "junior freshmen '', "senior freshmen '', "junior sophister '' or "senior sophister '', according to the year they have reached in the typical four year degree course. Sophister is another term for a sophomore, though the term is rarely used in other institutions and is largely limited to Trinity College Dublin.
At university, the term "fresher '' is used to describe new students who are just beginning their first year. The term, "first year '' is the more commonly used and connotation - free term for students in their first year. The week at the start of a new year is called "Freshers ' Week '' or "Welcome Week '', with a programme of special events to welcome new students. An undergraduate in the last year of study before graduation is generally known as a "finalist. ''
In Italian, a matricola is a first - year student. Some other terms may apply in specific schools, some depending on the liceo classico or liceo scientifico attended.
According to the goliardic initiation traditions the grades granted (following approximately the year of enrollment at university) are: matricola (freshman), fagiolo (sophomore), colonna (junior), and anziano (senior), but most of the distinctions are rarely used outside Goliardia.
In Sweden, only those studying at university level are called students (student, plural studenter). To graduate from upper secondary school (gymnasium) is called ta studenten (literally "to take the student ''), but after the graduation festivities, the graduate is no longer a student unless he or she enrolls at university - level education. At lower levels, the word elev (plural elever) is used. As a general term for all stages of education, the word studerande (plural also studerande) is used, meaning ' studying (person) '.
Traditionally, the term "student '' is reserved for people studying at university level in the United Kingdom.
At universities in the UK, the term "fresher '' is used informally to describe new students who are just beginning their first year. Although it is not unusual to call someone a fresher after their first few weeks at university, they are typically referred to as "first years '' or "first year students ''.
The ancient Scottish University of St Andrews uses the terms "bejant '' for a first year (from the French "bec - jaune '' -- "yellow beak '', "fledgling ''). Second years are called "semi-bejants '', third years are known as "tertians '', and fourth years, or others in their final year of study, are called "magistrands ''.
In England and Wales, primary school begins with an optional "nursery '' year followed by reception and then move on to "year one, year two '' and so on until "year six ''. In state schools, children join secondary school when they are 11 -- 12 years old in what used to be called "first form '' and is now known as "year 7 ''. They go up to year 11 (formerly "fifth form '') and then join the sixth form, either at the same school or at a separate sixth form college. A pupil entering a private, fee - paying school (usually at age 13) would join the "third form '' -- equivalent to year 9. Many schools have an alternate name for first years, some with a derogatory basis, but in others acting merely as a description -- for example "shells '' (non-derogatory) or "grubs '' (derogatory).
In Northern Ireland and Scotland, it is very similar but with some differences. Pupils start off in nursery or reception aged 3 to 4, and then start primary school in "P1 '' (P standing for primary) or year 1. They then continue primary school until "P7 '' or year 7. After that they start secondary school at 11 years old, this is called "1st year '' or year 8 in Northern Ireland, or "S1 '' in Scotland. They continue secondary school until the age of 16 at "5th year '', year 12 or "S5 '', and then it is the choice of the individual pupil to decide to continue in school and (in Northern Ireland) do AS levels (known as "lower sixth '') and then the next year to do A levels (known as "upper sixth ''). In Scotland, students aged 16 -- 18 take Highers, followed by Advanced Highers. Alternatively, pupils can leave and go into full - time employment or to start in a technical college.
Large increases in the size of student populations in the UK and the effect this has had on some university towns or on areas of cities located near universities have become a concern in the UK since 2000. A report by Universities UK, "Studentification: A Guide to Opportunities, Challenges and Practice '' (2006) has explored the subject and made various recommendations. A particular problem in many locations is seen as the impact of students on the availability, quality and price of rented and owner - occupied property.
Education in Canada is within the constitutional jurisdiction of the provinces, and the overall curriculum is overseen by the provincial governments. As there is no overall national coordinating authority, the way the educational stages are grouped and named differs from region to region. Education is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education, and post-secondary education. Primary and secondary education are generally divided into numbered grades from 1 to 12, although the first grade may be preceded by kindergarten (optional in many provinces). Ontario and Quebec offer a pre-kindergarten, called a "junior kindergarten '' in Ontario, and a "garderie '' in Quebec.
Education in Ontario once involved an Ontario Academic Credit (OAC) as university preparation, but that was phased out in 2007, and now all provinces except Quebec have 12 grades. The OAC was informally known as "grade 13 '' and the name was also used to refer to the students who took it.
Education in Quebec differs from the other provinces in that it has an école primaire (literally "primary school '') consisting of grades 1 - 6, and an école secondaire (literally "secondary school '') consisting of secondaries I-V. Secondaries I-V are equivalent to grades 7 - 11. A student graduating from high school (grade 11) can then either complete a three - year college program or attend a two - year pre-university program required before attending university. In some English High Schools, as well as in most French schools, high school students will refer to secondary 1 - 5 as year one through five. So if someone in Secondary three is asked "what grade / year are you in? '' they will reply "three '' or "sec 3 ''. It is presumed that the person asking the question knows that they are not referring to "Grade 3 '' but rather "Secondary 3 ''. This can be confusing for those outside of Quebec.
In some provinces, grades 1 through 6 are called "elementary school '', grades 6 to 8 are called "middle school '' or "junior high school '', and grades 9 to 12 are considered high school. Other provinces, such as British Columbia, mainly divide schooling into elementary school (Kindergarten to grade 7) and secondary school (grades 8 through 12). In Alberta and Nova Scotia, elementary consists of kindergarten through grade 6. Junior high consists of Grades 7 - 9. High school consists of Grades 10 - 12. In English provinces, the high school (known as academy or secondary school) years can be referred to simply as first, second, third and fourth year. Some areas call it by grade such as grade 10, grade 11 and grade 12.
The difference between college and university is significantly different from in the United States or even the United Kingdom. A Canadian college is more similar to an American community college but also the British, French and other European and British Commonwealth such as Australian and New Zealand etc., on the other hand. In contrast, a Canadian university is also quite comparable to an American university as well as many other universities among the English - speaking world and Francosphere. In Canada, colleges are generally geared for individuals seeking applied careers, while universities are geared for individuals seeking more academic careers.
University students are generally classified as first, second, third or fourth - year students, and the American system of classifying them as "freshmen '', "sophomores '', "juniors '' and "seniors '' is seldom used or even understood in Canada. In some occasions, they can be called "senior ones '', "twos '', "threes '' and "fours ''.
In the United States, the first official year of schooling is called kindergarten, which is why the students are called kindergarteners. Kindergarten is optional in most states, but few students skip this level. Pre-kindergarten, also known as "preschool '' (and sometimes shortened to "Pre-K '') is becoming a standard of education as academic expectations for the youngest students continue to rise. Many public schools offer pre-kindergarten programs.
In the United States there are 12 years of mandatory schooling. The first eight are solely referred to by numbers (e.g. 1st grade, 5th grade) so students may be referred to as 1st graders, 5th graders, then once in middle school before high school you are ratio referred to as 6th, 7th, 8th graders. Upon entering high school, grades 9 through 12 (high school) also have alternate names for students, namely freshman, sophomore, junior and senior. The actual divisions of which grade levels belong to which division (whether elementary, middle, junior high or high school) is a matter decided by state or local jurisdictions.
Accordingly, college students are often called Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors (respectively), unless their undergraduate program calls for more than the traditional 4 years.
The first year of college or high school is referred to as Freshman year. A freshman (slang alternatives that are usually derogatory in nature include "fish '', "new - g '', "fresher '', "frosh '', "newbie '', "freshie '', "snotter '', "fresh - meat '', "skippie '', etc.) is a first - year student in college, university or high school.
In the U.S., a sophomore, also called a "soph, '' is a second - year student. Outside the United States, the term Sophomore is rarely used, with second - year students simply called "second years ''. Folk etymology indicates that the word means "wise fool ''; consequently "sophomoric '' means "pretentious, bombastic, inflated in style or manner; immature, crude, superficial '' (according to the Oxford English Dictionary). It is widely assumed to be formed from Greek "sophos '', meaning "wise '', and "moros '' meaning "foolish '', although the etymology suggests an origin from the now - defunct "sophumer '', an obsolete variant of "sophism ''.
In the U.S., a Junior is a student in the penultimate (usually third) year and a Senior is a student in the last (usually fourth) year of college, university, or high school. A student who takes more than the normal number of years to graduate is sometimes referred to as a "super senior ''. This term is often used in college, but can be used in high school as well. The term underclassman is used to refer collectively to Freshmen and Sophomores, and Upperclassman to refer collectively to Juniors and Seniors, sometimes even Sophomores. The term Middler is used to describe a third - year student of a school (generally college) that offers five years of study. In this situation, the fourth and fifth years would be referred to as Junior and Senior years, respectively, and the first two years would be the Freshman and Sophomore years.
A graduate student is a student who continues his / her education after graduation. Some examples of graduate programs are: business school, law school, medical school, and veterinary school. Degrees earned in graduate programs include the Master 's degree, a research doctoral degree, or a first professional degree.
Students attending vocational school focus on their jobs and learning how to work in specific fields of work. A vocational program typically takes much less time to complete than a four - year degree program, lasting 12 -- 24 months. Liberal Arts that are required in four - year Universities are less important to these students because the skills necessary for their careers take precedence in order for a timely completion of the program.
Students have their own current of politics and activism on and off campus. The student rights movement has centered itself on the empowerment of students similar to the labor movement.
A mature, non-traditional, or adult student in tertiary education (at a university or a college) is normally classified as an (undergraduate) student who is at least 21 -- 23 years old at the start of their course and usually having been out of the education system for at least two years. Mature students can also include students who have been out of the education system for decades, or students with no secondary education. Mature students also make up graduate and postgraduate populations by demographic of age.
University students have been associated with pranks and japes since the creation of universities in the Middle Ages. These can often involve petty crime, such as the theft of traffic cones and other public property, or hoaxes. It is also not uncommon for students from one school to steal or deface the mascot of a rival school. In fact, pranks play such a significant part in student culture that numerous books have been published that focus on the issue.
"Freshman '' and "sophomore '' are sometimes used figuratively, almost exclusively in the United States, to refer to a first or second effort ("the singer 's sophomore album ''), or to a politician 's first or second term in office ("freshman senator '') or an athlete 's first or second year on a professional sports team. "Junior '' and "senior '' are not used in this figurative way to refer to third and fourth years or efforts, because of those words ' broader meanings of "younger '' and "older. '' A junior senator is therefore not one who is in a third term of office, but merely one who has not been in the Senate as long as the other senator from their state. Confusingly, this means that it is possible to be both a "freshman Senator '' and a "senior Senator '' simultaneously: for example, if a Senator wins election in 2008, and then the other Senator from the same state steps down and a new Senator elected in 2010, the former Senator is both senior Senator (as in the Senate for two years more) and a freshman Senator (since still in the first term).
International Students ' Day (17 November) remembers the anniversary of the 1939 Nazi storming of the University of Prague after student demonstrations against the German occupation of Czechoslovakia. Germans closed all Czech universities and colleges, sent over 1200 students to Nazi concentration camps, and had nine student leaders executed (on November 17).
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the symbols for units of length in order from largest to smallest are | Unit of length - wikipedia
A unit of length refers to any discrete, pre-established length or distance having a constant magnitude which is used as a reference or convention to express linear dimension. The most common units in modern use are U.S. customary units in the United States and metric units elsewhere. British Imperial units are still used for some purposes in the United Kingdom and some other countries. The metric system is sub-divided into SI and non-SI units.
The base unit in the International System of Units (SI) is the metre, defined as "the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of ⁄ seconds. '' It is approximately equal to 6999999987839999999 ♠ 1.0936 yd. Other units are derived from the metre by adding prefixes from the table below:
For example, a kilometre is 7003100000000000000 ♠ 1000 m.
In the Centimetre -- gram -- second system of units, the basic unit of length is the centimetre, or ⁄ of a metre. Other non-SI units are derived from decimal multiples of the metre.
The basic unit of length in the Imperial and U.S. customary systems is the yard, defined as exactly 6999914400000000000 ♠ 0.9144 m by international treaty in 1959.
Common Imperial units and U.S. customary units of length include:
In addition, the following are used by sailors:
Aviators use feet for altitude worldwide (except in Russia and China) and nautical miles for distance.
Surveyors in the United States continue to use:
Astronomical measure uses:
In atomic physics, sub-atomic physics, and cosmology, the preferred unit of length is often related to a chosen fundamental physical constant, or combination thereof. This is often a characteristic radius or wavelength of a particle. Some common natural units of length are included in this table:
Archaic units of distance include:
In everyday conversation, and in informal literature, it is common to see lengths measured in units of objects of which everyone knows the approximate width. Common examples are:
Horse racing and other equestrian activities keep alive:
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when did the sands hotel in las vegas close | Sands hotel and casino - wikipedia
The Sands Hotel and Casino was a historic hotel and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Nevada, United States, that operated from 1952 to 1996. Designed by the architect Wayne McAllister, with a prominent 56 - foot (17 m) high sign, the Sands was the seventh resort to open on the Strip. During its heyday, the Sands was the center of entertainment and "cool '' on the Strip, and hosted many famous entertainers of the day, most notably the Rat Pack and Jerry Lewis.
The hotel was established in 1952 by Texan oil tycoon Jake Freedman, who bought up the LaRue Restaurant, which had opened two years earlier. The hotel was opened on December 15, 1952 as a casino with 200 rooms, and was established less than three months after the opening of another notable landmark, Sahara Hotel and Casino. The hotel rooms were divided into four two - story motel wings, each with fifty rooms, and named after famous race tracks. The opening was widely publicized, and every guest was given a Chamois bag with silver dollars. Crime bosses such as Meyer Lansky and Frank Costello acquired shares in the hotel and attracted Frank Sinatra, who made his performing debut at Sands in October 1953. Sinatra later bought a share in the hotel himself. Sinatra and Sammy Davis, Jr. were instrumental throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s in bringing a change in racial policy in Sands, and after an incident in 1961, it began employing blacks. In 1960 the classic caper film Ocean 's 11 was shot at the hotel, and it subsequently attained iconic status, with regular performances by Sinatra, Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis, Sammy Davis Jr., Red Skelton and others, who performed regularly in the hotel 's world - renowned Copa Room. Much of the musical success of the Copa Room is credited to the room 's band leader and musical conductor Antonio Morelli, whose house orchestra performed in the recording of hundreds of albums over the years.
In the mid 1960s, Sands and its adjacent properties were bought by the reclusive businessman Howard Hughes, who built a 500 - room tower and modernized the hotel. After the 1970s it fell into decline until its final owner, Sheldon Adelson, made the decision to shut it down and to build a brand new resort. The last dice in the casino was rolled by Bob Stupak just after 6pm on June 30, 1996. On November 26 of that year, it was finally imploded and demolished, much to the dismay of longtime employees and sentimentalists. Today, The Venetian stands where the Sands once stood.
The LaRue Restaurant was established in December 1950 by Billy Wilkerson. The following year, oil tycoon Jake Freedman of Houston, Texas bought LaRue for $15,000. Freedman 's idea was to build the best hotel and casino in Las Vegas to specifically cater to the glamorous Hollywood film stars and executives in a $600,000 project. Numerous sources state that organized crime figures Meyer Lansky, Frank Costello and Joseph "Doc '' Stracher and illegal bookmakers like Mike Shapiro, Ed Levinson, and Sid Wyman were involved in the financing of Sands and had shares in it. Lansky and his mob assumed ownership of the Flamingo Hotel after the murder of Bugsy Siegel in 1947, and Lansky and Costello also had business interests in the Thunderbird Hotel and El Cortez Club in Downtown Las Vegas.
Construction began on Sands Hotel in early 1952, built to a design by Wayne McAllister. Freedman had initially intended naming the hotel "Holiday Inn '' after the film of the same name starring Bing Crosby, but after noticing that his socks became so full of sand decided to name it Sands. The tag line would be "A Place in the Sun '', named after a recently released film starring Montgomery Clift and Elizabeth Taylor, and quite suitable to the hot desert location of Las Vegas. The hotel was opened on December 15, 1952 as a casino with 200 rooms, and was established less than three months after the opening of another prominent landmark, Sahara Hotel and Casino. The opening was widely publicized, and the hotel was visited by some 12,000 people within a few hours. At the inauguration were 146 journalists and special guests such as Arlene Dahl, Fernando Lamas, Esther Williams, and Terry Moore. Every guest was given a Chamois bag with silver dollars, and Sands ended up losing $200,000 within the first eight hours. Danny Thomas, Jimmy McHugh and the Copa Girls, labelled "the most beautiful girls in the world '', performed in the Copa Room on opening night, and Ray Sinatra and his Orchestra were the initial house band. Thomas was hired to perform for the first two weeks, but strained his voice on the second night and developed laryngitis, and was replaced with performers such as Jimmy Durante, Frankie Laine, Jane Powell, the Ritz Brothers, and Ray Anthony.
Jack Entratter, who was formerly in charge of the New York nightclub, the Copacabana, became the hotel 's manager. Entratter made many show business friends during his time at the nightclub; he was able to use these connections to sign performers for the Sands Copa Room. Entratter was also able to offer entertainers an additional incentive to perform at the Sands. Headlining stars received "points '', or a percentage of ownership in the hotel and casino. Entratter 's personally selected "Copa Girls '' wore $12,000 worth of costumes on the hotel 's opening night; this surpassed the salary of the Copa Room 's star, Danny Thomas.
In the early years, Freedman and his wife Carolyn were one of its attractions, wearing "matching white, leather outfits, replete with identical cowboy boots and hats ''. Freedman offered Carolyn 's father Nathan a 5 % stake in Sands but he declined the offer.
Lansky and Costello brought the Sands to Frank Sinatra 's attention, and he began staying at the hotel and gambling there during breaks from Hollywood, though some sources state that he was not a hardcore gambler. Sinatra earned a notoriety for "keeping his winnings and ignoring his gambling losses '', but the mobsters running the hotel were not too concerned because Sinatra was great for business. He made his debut performing at the hotel on October 4, 1953, after an invitation by the manager Jack Entratter. Sinatra typically played at Sands three times a year, sometimes a two - week stint, which "brought in the big rollers, a lot of oil money from Texas ''. The big rollers left Vegas when Sinatra did, and other performers were reluctant to perform after him, feeling intimidated.
Entratter replaced Freedman as the president of the Sands Hotel following his death from heart surgery on January 20, 1958. Freedman 's last wife Sadie subsequently lived in a suite in the Belmont Park wing into the mid 1960s until her death. Sinatra, who had attempted to buy a share in the hotel soon after first visiting in 1953, but was denied by the Nevada Tax Commission, was now granted permission to buy a share in the hotel, due to his phenomenal impact upon business in Las Vegas. His share, variously described as from 2 to 9 %, aided Freedman 's wife in paying off her husband 's gambling debts.
In 1955, limited integration came to heavily segregated Las Vegas when the Sands first allowed Nat King Cole to stay at the hotel and perform. Sinatra noticed that he never saw Cole in the dining room, always eating his meals in solitude in his dressing room. When he asked his valet George to find out why, he learned that "Coloreds are n't allowed in the dining room at the Sands ''. Sinatra subsequently saw to it that if blacks were not permitted to eat their meals in the dining room with everybody else he would see to it that all of the waiters and waitresses were fired, and invited Cole to dine with him the following evening. Cole was allowed permission into the casino, as was another black performer, Harry Belafonte, who took a more aggressive approach by walking into the casino on his own accord and sitting at a blackjack table, which was not challenged by the bosses. Belafonte became the "first black man to play cards on the Las Vegas Strip ''.
Sammy Davis, Jr. was instrumental in bringing about a general change in policy. When the Will Mastin Trio began performing at Sands in 1958, Davis informed Entratter that his father and uncle must be allowed permission to stay at Sands while he was performing there. Entratter granted them permission but continued his objection to admitting other black guests. In 1961, an African - American couple entered the lobby of the hotel and were blocked by the security guard, witnessed by Sinatra and Davis. Sinatra told the guards that they were his guests and let them into the hotel. Sinatra subsequently swore profusely down the phone to Sands executive Carl Cohen at how ridiculous the situation was, and the following day, Davis approached Entratter and demanded that Sands begin employing blacks. Shortly afterwards the hotel changed its policy and it began hiring black waiters and busboys, and began permitting blacks entry into the casino.
In the late 1950s, Senator John F. Kennedy was occasionally a guest of Sinatra at the Sands. Arguably the hotel 's biggest claim to fame was a three - week period in 1960 during the filming of Ocean 's 11, after which it attained iconic status. During that time, the movie 's stars Sinatra, Dean Martin, Davis, Joey Bishop and Peter Lawford performed on stage together in the Copa Room. The performances were called the "Summit at the Sands '' and this is considered to be the birth of the Rat Pack.
When Howard Hughes purchased the hotel in the mid-1960s for $14.6 million, the architect Martin Stern, Jr. added a 500 - room circular tower, which opened in 1967, and the hotel became a Las Vegas landmark. Hughes grew particularly annoyed every time the Rat Pack were in his hotel, due to a hatred of Frank Sinatra which stemmed from the fact that he had been in love with Ava Gardner in the 50s and she had run off to marry him. The ill feeling was reciprocated by Sinatra. Hughes plotted to oust Sinatra from the Sands for good, and asked Robert Maheu to draw up a plan shortly after the new hotel opened in 1967. The hotel imposed restrictions on what Sinatra could gamble in the casino, to just $3,000 a night. Under previous management, Sinatra had no limits on the amount of credit extended to him by the Sands casino. His IOUs, chits or "markers '' were torn up at the end of Sinatra 's engagements because he was considered to be good for business - bringing the hotel more monetary value than the worth of his gambling losses. Hughes put a stop to this system, telling Jack Entratter to inform Sinatra of the new policy; Entratter did not do so because he was afraid.
Fuming, Sinatra began what The Los Angeles Times describes as a "weekend - long tirade '' against the "hotel 's management, employees and security forces ''. The FBI report says the incident began when Mia Farrow lost US $20,000 at the Sands casino. Sinatra bought US $50,000 in chips and made an attempt to win the money back. He lost this sum within a short period of time. Sinatra then asked for credit, which was denied. It culminated when Sinatra reportedly drove a golf cart through the window of the coffee shop where casino manager Carl Cohen was seated and began "screaming obscenities and anti-Semitic remarks '' at Cohen. Sinatra reportedly punched Cohen, a heavily built man, who responded with a smack in the mouth, bloodying Sinatra 's nose and knocking two of his teeth out. As a result, Sinatra never performed at the Sands again while Hughes owned it, and began performing at Caesars Palace. A number of the staff were not disappointed to see Sinatra leave the Sands. Numerous employees had been humiliated or intimidated over the years, including a busboy Sinatra tripped while he was carrying a tray with dishes. After Sinatra left, the mobsters pulled out of the Sands and gradually left Vegas in the 1970s. In the 1970s, it became associated with the likes of Wayne Newton and Liberace. At this time, some 30 % of the performers at Sands were Italian Americans. Frank Gagliardi became the drummer for the house orchestra in 1964, starting a twelve - year tenure.
In 1968, Hughes stated that he intended to expand Sands into a 4,000 - room resort, but his plans did not materialize. In 1983, Hughes ' company, the Summa Corporation, sold the Sands to the Pratt Corporation, but subsequently bought it back as they were unable to make a profit. MGM Grand, Inc. bought the hotel along with the neighboring Desert Inn in 1988 for a total of $167 million, and the property became known as the MGM Sands. The next year, MGM sold it for $110 million to Las Vegas Sands, a new company formed by the owners of The Interface Group, including Sheldon Adelson, Richard Katzeff, Ted Cutler, Irwin Chafetz and Jordan Shapiro. The same year, it was licensed by the Nevada Gaming Commission, and Adelson became a casino magnate. In the early 1990s, Adelson built the Sands Expo, a 1,000,000 square feet (93,000 m) convention centre.
In its final years, the Sands became a shadow of its former self -- a throwback to the old days - and it ultimately could not compete with the newer and more exciting megaresorts that were being built on the Strip. However, a 1990s travel guide stated that the hotel gardens and pool area still retained the ambiance of the classic Sands days. The decision was eventually made by its final owner, Sheldon Adelson, to shut it down and to build a brand new resort. The last dice in the casino was rolled by Bob Stupak just after 6pm on June 30, 1996. On November 26, 1996, it was imploded and demolished, much to the dismay of longtime employees and sentimentalists. Footage of the demolition also appeared in the closing credits of The Cooler. The climactic plane crash in 1997 's Con Air ended with the aircraft crashing into the soon - to - be-demolished Sands ' lobby.
On May 3, 1999, the new $1.5 billion megaresort The Venetian opened where the Sands had formerly been, a 35 - story hotel with 3,036 rooms, covering an area of 17,000,000 square feet (1,600,000 m). It became the largest AAA Five - Diamond landmark in North America.
Wayne McAllister designed the original $5.5 million Sands Hotel, an exotic - looking terracotta red - painted modern hotel with a prominent porte cochere at the front, surrounded by a zig - zag wall ornamented with tiled planters. The hotel is arguably most associated with its 56 feet (17 m) high sign, made iconic with photographs of the Rat Pack standing underneath it. The name "Sands '', written in elegant italics, featured a 36 feet (11 m) high letter "S '', and the name was sprawled across an egg crate grill, cantilevered from a pillar. The sign was receptive to the light and shadow of the desert, and during night time it was lit up, glowing neon red. It was the tallest sign on the strip for a number of years. Beneath "Sands '' was the tagline "A Place in the Sun '', written in smaller capital letters. Below that was the billing of the names of the performers appearing at Sands, very often photographed displaying names such as Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis, Sammy Davis, Jr. and Red Skelton in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Author Alan Hess wrote that the "sleek Modernism of the Sands leaped past the Flamingo to set a higher standard of sophistication for Las Vegas. For the first time, the sign was an integral part of the architectural design ''.
The porte - cochère of the hotel featured three great sharp - edged pillars jutting out in front of the glass - fronted building, angling down into the ground, which resembled fins. The two - story glass walled entry was bordered by a wall of imported Italian marble, and above the entrance area was a horizontal plane with copper lights suspended from the beams. Rather than being polished, the marble was unusual in that it was rough and grained. Natural and stained cork was used throughout the building. A.J. Leibling of The New Yorker described the hotel in 1953: "The main building of the Sands is a great rectangular hall, with the reception desk in one corner, slot machines along one long wall and a bar and cocktail lounge, complete with Latin trio, along the opposite wall. In the middle is a jumble of roulette and craps tables and 21 layouts. '' The casino, of substantial size, was accessed by three sets of terrazzo stairs, and was lit by low - hanging chandeliers. The bar featured bas - reliefs with a Western theme, including cowboys, racing wagons and Joshua trees, designed by Allan Stewart of Claremont College, California. The Garden Room restaurant overlooked the hotel 's pool and landscaped grounds.
The 200 guest rooms of the original hotel were divided into four two - story motel wings, each with fifty rooms, and named after famous race tracks. They were set out in a hacienda style, and surrounded by a half - moon shaped pool. The suites were luxuriously designed. Plush blue carpets and ivory colored chairs with white ceilings were the norm in the early days. An electric tram service, often attended by pretty showgirls, took the guests to their rooms. A 14 - story tower commenced construction in late 1965, and was opened in 1967. It existed until November 1996 when it was demolished.
The steam room of the hotel was a place of relaxation and good jest. It became a great place for socializing between the stars after 5 pm, including the Rat Pack, and Jerry Lewis, Steve Lawrence and Don Rickles. On one occasion they were having problems with the TV in the massage room, which was blurry and out of focus. Sinatra yelled "Move back, move back '', and the television was thrown into the pool. Manager Entratter permitted such activities, knowing that if he scolded Sinatra and asked him to pay damages he would not perform at Sands again.
The Copa Room was the showroom of Sands, named after the famed Copacabana Club in New York City. It contained 385 seats, designed in a Brazilian carnival style. Some of the more famed singers like Sinatra, Martin and Davis, Jr. had to sign contracts to ensure that they headline for a given number of weeks a year. Performers were extremely well paid for the period. It was common for some of them to be paid $25,000 per week, playing two shows a night, six days a week, and once on a Sunday for two to three weeks.
The greatest names in the entertainment industry graced the stage of the Copa Room. Notable performers included Judy Garland, Lena Horne (one of the first black performers at the hotel, billed as "The Satin Doll ''), Jimmy Durante, Dean Martin, Pat Cooper, Shirley MacLaine, Marlene Dietrich, Tallulah Bankhead, Shecky Greene, Martin and Lewis, Danny Thomas, Bobby Darin, Ethel Merman, Rich Little, Louis Armstrong, Jerry Lee Lewis, Nat King Cole, Robert Merrill, Wayne Newton, Red Skelton, and "The Copa Girls ''. Hollywood celebrities such as Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, Elizabeth Taylor, Yul Brynner, Kirk Douglas, Lucille Ball and Rosalind Russell were often photographed enjoying the headline acts.
A number of notable albums were recorded in the Copa Room. Among them are Dean Martin 's Live At The Sands - An Evening of Music, Laughter and Hard Liquor, Frank Sinatra 's Sinatra at the Sands, and Sammy Davis, Jr. 's The Sounds of ' 66 and That 's All!. The Rat Pack: Live at the Sands, a CD released in 2001, features Martin, Sinatra and Davis in a live performance at the hotel recorded in September 1963. Live at the Sands is an album featuring Mary Wilson, formerly of The Supremes. Morrissey 's B - side track, "At Amber '' (1990), takes place at the Sands Hotel, and recounts its by - then aging and somewhat seedy atmosphere. Much of the musical success of the Copa Room is credited to the room 's band leader and musical conductor Antonio Morelli. Morelli not only acted as the band leader and musical conductor for the Copa Room during the Hotel 's Rat Pack heyday in the 1950s and 1960s, but he also played that role on hundreds of recorded albums by those same entertainers who graced the stage of the Copa. Often the festivities would carry over after hours to Morrelli 's home in Las Vegas, nicknamed "The Morelli House '', which was eventually relocated and sanctioned an historical landmark by the State of Nevada.
The Silver Queen Lounge was another performing venue at Sands, with nightly acts starting at 5: 00 pm and running until 6: 00 am. It was particularly popular with the emerging rock ' n ' roll crowd. The Sands is where Freddie Bell and the Bell Boys performed the rock ' n ' roll - song "Hound Dog '', seen by Elvis Presley. After Presley saw that performance at The Sands, he decided to record the song himself, and it became a hit for him. Roberta Linn and the Melodaires and Gene Vincent were also regular performers.
Media related to Sands Hotel and Casino at Wikimedia Commons
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just as long as we have love the spinners | Pick of the Litter (the Spinners album) - wikipedia
Pick of the Litter is the sixth studio album by American R&B group The Spinners, released in August 1975 on the Atlantic label. The album was produced by Thom Bell and recorded at Sigma Sound Studios in Philadelphia.
Pick of the Litter is generally considered the last of the quartet of classic Bell - produced studio albums the Spinners released between 1973 and 1975, and to mark the end of the most creative phase of the group 's career -- while future releases would have memorable moments, contemporary critical opinion is that none of the group 's later material matches the enduring quality and top - notch consistency of these four albums.
Pick of the Litter became the Spinners ' highest placing album on the Billboard 200, reaching number eight; however it was the group 's first Atlantic album to miss the top of the R&B albums chart, peaking at number two. The album includes the distinctive "Games People Play '', one of the group 's signature songs, which became their fifth single to top the R&B chart and a top 5 hit on the Billboard singles chart. The second single "Love or Leave '' also made the R&B top 10.
Although not credited on the album sleeve, "Just as Long as We Have Love '' includes vocal contributions from Dionne Warwick.
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where was hallmark summer in the vineyard filmed | In the Vineyard - wikipedia
In the Vineyard is an American / Canadian film series starring Rachael Leigh Cook and Brendan Penny. It airs on Hallmark Channel. The series debuted with the first of three films, Autumn in the Vineyard premiering in 2016. The latest installment in the series Wedding in the Vineyard is set to debut in 2018. The films follow the story of Francesca (Frankie) Baldwin and Nate DeLuca from feuding wineries in the town of St. Madeleine, California as they are thrown together after their past romantic relationship that ended on a sour note.
The film series is based on the St. Helena Vineyard books by author Marina Adair.
The first film was shot in River Stone winery near Oliver and Osoyos in the South Okanagan Valley in British Columbia. The second installment of the film series, Summer in the Vineyard, was also shot in Okanagan Valley.
Frankie Baldwin has been working on her family winery but wants to do something of her own. When her father, Charles, hires an outsider to help out at the winery, on an impulse she buys the Sorrento farm from a friend who is in the middle of a divorce. It is only after the purchase that she finds out that she actually co-owns Sorrento with her former boyfriend and recently back - in - town Nate DeLuca who comes from the DeLuca winery. The two are forced to reach a compromise and decide to co-manage the property to bring in the harvest leading up to the Best Wine competition at the annual Autumn Harvest Festival.
As their first year at Sorrento Farms is coming to a close, they are looking forward to debuting their first vintage wine during the town 's annual ' Summerfest ' celebration. When the host winery for Summerfest pulls out at the last minute, Nate volunteers Sorrento to replace them, thinking it will be great publicity for their fledgling operation. Frankie, however, is more concerned with whether she can have their first Cabernet ready on time. The pressure is on them both to make a big splash for Sorrento at Summerfest to ensure the viability of their winery going forward. These two headstrong paramours are about to find out if you really can mix business with pleasure.
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who invented the microscope and the word animalcule | Animalcule - wikipedia
Animalcule ("little animal '', from Latin animal + the diminutive suffix - culum) is an older term for a microscopic animal or protozoan. The concept appears to have been understood at least as early as c. 30 BC, as evidenced by the following translation from Marcus Varro 's Rerum Rusticarum Libri Tres.
"Like precautions must be taken against swampy places for the same reasons and particularly because as they dry, swamps breed certain animalculae which can not be seen with the eyes and which we breathe through the nose and mouth into the body where they cause grave maladies. ''
Some better - known animalcules include:
The term was also used by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, the 17th - century preformationist and the discoverer of microorganisms, to describe them.
The word appears in adjectival form in the Major - General 's Song, in which Major - General Stanley sings, "I know the scientific names of beings animalculous... ''
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who's gonna make the gravy paul kelly | How to Make Gravy - wikipedia
How to Make Gravy is a four - track EP by Australian singer - songwriter Paul Kelly and was originally released on 4 November 1996 on White Label Records in Australia. The title track was written by Kelly and earned him a ' Song of the Year ' nomination at the 1998 Australasian Performing Rights Association (APRA) Music Awards. It tells the story of a newly imprisoned man writing a letter to his brother, in which the prisoner laments that he will be missing the family 's Christmas celebrations. The same character appears in Kelly 's earlier songs, "To Her Door '' (1987) and "Love Never Runs on Time '' (1994). The gravy recipe is genuine -- Kelly learnt it from his first father - in - law. It was covered by James Reyne on the 2003 tribute album, Stories of Me: A Songwriter 's Tribute to Paul Kelly and on Reyne 's 2005 acoustic album... And the Horse You Rode in On. It has also been covered by David Miles, Luca Brasi, From Nowhere, Semicolon, Ghostwriters, Karl Broadie and Lawrence Agar. In September 2010, Kelly titled his memoirs, How to Make Gravy. On 29 September 2012 Kelly performed "How to Make Gravy '' and "Leaps and Bounds '' at the 2012 AFL Grand Final.
Paul Kelly 's album, Wanted Man, was released in 1994 and reached No. 11 on the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Albums Chart. Kelly also composed music for the 1994 film Everynight... Everynight, directed by Alkinos Tsilimidos, it is set in the notorious H division of Victoria 's Pentridge Prison. Kelly 's next solo releases were Deeper Water in 1995 and Live at the Continental and the Esplanade in 1996. Between March and May 1995 Kelly undertook a seven - week tour of North America, appearing on several dates with Liz Phair and Joe Jackson.
By 1996, Paul Kelly Band members were Stephen Hadley (bass guitar, ex-Black Sorrows), Bruce Haymes (keyboards), Peter Luscombe (drums, ex-Black Sorrows) and Shane O'Mara (guitar). Spencer P. Jones (guitar, Beasts of Bourbon) guested on some performances. This line - up issued the CD - EP, How to Make Gravy, with the title track earning Kelly a ' Song of the Year ' nomination at the 1998 Australasian Performing Rights Association (APRA) Music Awards. In August 1996 Kelly performed the song at the Edmonton Folk Music Festival, with O'Mara on slide guitar, which was included on Edmonton Folk Festival Compilation Album (1996). The song was included in 1998 as an extra track on the US release of Words and Music by Vanguard Records. That year, "How to Make Gravy '' was also issued as a US single but with a different cover: it depicts a roasted fowl on a serving tray held by a smiling woman with the words ' Christmas Single ' included. Kelly and his nephew Dan Kelly recorded the song as part of Kelly 's A -- Z Tours from 2004 to 2010, it was issued on the 8 × CD album, The A -- Z Recordings (2010).
"How to Make Gravy '' is a song with a length of five minutes and ten seconds. The song is set in the key of E major and has a medium tempo with a piano range of B -- E and a vocal range of B -- E. Kelly is credited with both lyrics and music. The lyrics tell the story of a newly imprisoned man writing a letter to his brother, in which the prisoner laments that he will be missing the family 's Christmas celebrations. The same character is the protagonist in earlier songs by Kelly, "To Her Door '' (1987) and "Love Never Runs on Time '' (1994). All three tracks appear on Kelly 's live 8 × CD boxed set, The A -- Z Recordings (2010).
In 1996 Kelly was approached by Lindsay Fields, the guitarist and backing vocalist for John Farnham, to perform a Christmas - themed song or carol for a various artists charity record, The Spirit of Christmas, to raise money for the Salvation Army. Kelly originally selected "Christmas Must Be Tonight '' by Robbie Robertson (The Band) however that had already been performed by James Blundell on The Spirit of Christmas 1994, so he told Fields that he would have a go at writing one instead. Kelly later recalled, "I had a rough tune I 'd been kicking around with the band at sound check, but was having trouble getting started on the words. Kelly 's inspiration for the lyrics was subsequently drawn from Irving Berlin 's White Christmas, where "Irving intensifies the feeling of Christmas by not being there ''. He advised Fields, "I have a Christmas song but it does n't have a chorus and it 's set in a prison ''. Fields was overcome with emotion when he first heard it and convinced the Salvation Army 's selection group to accept it for the collection.
The gravy recipe is genuine -- Kelly learnt it from his father - in - law: "Just add flour, salt, a little red wine and do n't forget a dollop of tomato sauce ''. In the late 1970s, Kelly met his future wife, Hilary Brown, at one of his early gigs -- the relationship is described in the 1992 song, "When I First Met Your Ma '', written for their son, Declan (born 1980). In 1984 Brown and Kelly divorced.
It was covered by James Reyne on the 2003 tribute album, Stories of Me: A Songwriter 's Tribute to Paul Kelly and on Reyne 's 2005 acoustic album... And the Horse You Rode in On. It has also been covered by David Miles, From Nowhere, Semicolon, Ghostwriters, Karl Broadie and Lawrence Agar. John Butler performed the song at a Kelly tribute show which was recorded on the related triple album, Before Too Long (2010). Christine Anu covered the song on her 2014 Christmas album, Island Christmas. Tasmanian band Luca Brasi covered the song in June 2016 for Triple J 's Like A Version segment.
"How to Make Gravy '' was nominated as ' Song of the Year ' at the 1997 Australian Record Industry Association (ARIA) Awards, which was won by Savage Garden 's "Truly Madly Deeply ''. Kelly was also nominated and won ' Best Male Artist ' at that year 's ARIA Awards on the success of the song. It was also nominated as ' Song of the Year ' at the 1998 Australasian Performing Rights Association (APRA) Music Awards, which was won by Leonardo 's Bride 's "Even When I 'm Sleeping ''.
Allmusic 's Tom Hallet praised the track in his review of the US version of Words & Music, "cult maestro Kelly draws on a rich tapestry of characters and true to life situations, and has his finger firmly planted on the universal heartbeat with loose, catchy yarns... (including one on) Christmas in jail ''.
In 2008 John Butler selected the song as his favourite Australian song of the last 20 years:
I just reacquainted myself with the lyrics online and I have to say it brought tears to my eyes again. What a wordsmith! This song is the perfect example of what we as artists try to do -- to explain and convey the very emotion and feeling of a situation and setting in just a few words. It is an art and there is something divine about the process, and Paul has that gift. This song is steeped in modern Australian culture. How is it that I feel like I know Dan, Rita, Frank, Dolly and the kids? I can smell the roast and see the cars parked in the front yard. The stubby holders, piles of wrapping paper, the heat rippling up from the road and the camaraderie in the busy kitchen. I 've been at that Christmas... or have I? Either way, after hearing, feeling, experiencing that song, I have now.
On 29 September 2012 Kelly performed "How to Make Gravy '' and "Leaps and Bounds '' at the 2012 AFL Grand Final although most of the performance was not broadcast on Seven Network 's pre-game segment. Nui Te Koha of Sunday Herald Sun declared "Kelly, an integral part of Melbourne folklore and its music scene, and a noted footy tragic, deserved his place on the Grand Final stage -- which has been long overdue... broadcaster Seven 's refusal to show Kelly 's performance, except the last verse of ' Leaps and Bounds ', was no laughing matter ''.
All tracks written by Paul Kelly.
Paul Kelly Band members
Recording details
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on which hand is a wedding ring worn | Ring finger - wikipedia
The ring finger is the finger on which it is the custom in a particular culture for a wedding ring to be placed during a wedding ceremony and on which the wedding ring is subsequently worn to indicate the status of the wearer as a married person. It is commonly the finger between the middle finger and the little finger, and is so named because in some cultures it is the finger on which one usually wears a wedding ring after marriage. In some cultures the wedding ring is worn on the ring finger of the left hand, while in others it is on the right hand. Traditionally, a wedding ring was worn by the bride / wife on the ring finger, but in recent times more men also wear a wedding ring on the ring finger. It is also the custom in some cultures not to wear a ring on the ring finger unless one is married, though an engagement ring is usually also worn on the ring finger.
The origin of the selection of the third finger as the ring finger is not definitively known. According to László A. Magyar, the names of the ring finger in many languages reflect an ancient belief that it is a magical finger. It is named after magic or rings, or called nameless (for example, in Chinese: 无名指, unnamed finger). In Sanskrit and other languages like Finnish or Russian, the ring finger is called respectively - "Anamika '', "Nimetön '' and "Безымянный '' ("nameless ''). In Arabic and Hebrew, the ring finger is called respectively - bansur (meaning "victory '') - and kmitsa (meaning "taking a handful '').
In anatomy, the ring finger is called digitus medicinalis, the fourth finger, digitus annularis, digitus quartus, or digitus IV. It may also be referred to as the third finger, excluding the thumb. In Latin, the word anulus means "ring '', digitus means "finger '', and quartus means "fourth ''.
Before medical science discovered how the circulatory system functioned, people believed that a vein ran directly from the third finger on the left hand to the heart. Because of the hand -- heart connection, they chose the descriptive name vena amoris, Latin for the vein of love, for this particular vein.
Based upon this name, their contemporaries, purported experts in the field of matrimonial etiquette, wrote that it would only be fitting that the wedding ring be worn on this finger. By wearing the ring on the third finger of the left hand, a married couple symbolically declares their eternal love for each other.
In Western cultures, a wedding ring is traditionally worn on the ring finger. This developed from the Roman "anulus pronubis '' when a man would give a ring to the woman at their betrothal ceremony. Blessing the wedding ring and putting it on the bride 's finger dates from the 11th century. In medieval Europe, during the Christian wedding ceremony the ring was placed in sequence on the thumb, index, middle, and ring fingers of the left hand. The ring was then left on the ring finger. In a few European countries, the ring is worn on the left hand prior to marriage, then transferred to the right during the ceremony. For example, a Greek Orthodox bride wears the ring on the left hand prior to the ceremony, then moves it to the right hand after the wedding. In England, the 1549 Prayer Book declared "the ring shall be placed on the left hand ''. By the 17th and 18th centuries the ring could be found on any finger after the ceremony -- even on the thumb.
The wedding ring is generally worn on the ring finger of the left hand in the former British Empire, certain parts of Western Europe, certain parts of Catholic Central and Eastern Europe (and some not so), and Mexico. These include: Australia, Botswana, Canada, Egypt, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, the UK, and the US; France, Italy, Portugal, Sweden, and Finland; Czech Republic, Slovakia, Switzerland, Romania, Croatia, and Slovenia.
The wedding ring is worn on the ring finger of the right hand in some Orthodox and a small number of Catholic European countries, some Protestant Western European, as well as some Central and South American Catholic countries. In Eastern Europe, these include: Bulgaria, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia, and Serbia. In Central or Western Europe, these include: Austria, Denmark, Greece, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Netherlands (if not Catholic), Norway, and (Catholic) Spain. In Central or South America, these include: Colombia, Cuba, Peru, Venezuela.
The ring is worn on the right hand until the actual wedding day, when it is moved to the left hand in Turkey, Lebanon, and Syria as well as in Brazil.
In a traditional Jewish wedding ceremony, the wedding ring is placed on the bride 's left hand index finger, but other traditions place it on the middle finger or the thumb, most commonly in recent times. Today, the ring usually is moved to the left hand ring finger after the ceremony. Some Jewish grooms have adopted wearing a wedding ring.
In Sinhala and Tamil culture, the groom wears the wedding ring on his right hand and bride wears it on her left hand ring finger. This can be seen in countries like Sri Lanka where there is a rich Sinhala and Tamil cultural influence in the society.
A wedding ring is not a traditional part of the religious Muslim wedding and wedding rings are not included in most Islamic countries, However, if a wedding ring is worn in an Islamic country, it may be worn on either the left (such is the custom in Iran) or the right ring finger (as in Jordan). As opposed to the wedding ring, use of a ring to denote betrothal or engagement is quite prevalent in Muslim countries, especially those in West and South Asia. Muslim engagement rings are typically worn on the right finger by men, and the left finger by women.
Rings are not traditional in an Indian wedding. However, in modern society it is becoming a practice to wear rings for engagements and not for actual marriage. Though the left hand is considered inauspicious for religious activities, a ring (not to be called wedding ring) is still worn on the left hand. Men generally wear the rings on the right hand and the women on the left hands. If a wedding ring is worn, the ring is worn on the left ring finger mostly for men.
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who played professor dumbledore in harry potter movies | Albus Dumbledore - wikipedia
Professor Albus Percival Wulfric Brian Dumbledore is a fictional character in J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series. For most of the series, he is the headmaster of the wizarding school Hogwarts. As part of his backstory, it is revealed that he is the founder and leader of the Order of the Phoenix, an organisation dedicated to fighting Lord Voldemort.
Dumbledore is portrayed by Richard Harris in the film adaptations of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. After Harris ' death, Michael Gambon portrayed Dumbledore for all of the remaining Harry Potter films. Jude Law will portray Dumbledore in Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald.
Rowling stated she chose the name Dumbledore, which is a dialectal word for "bumblebee '', because of Dumbledore 's love of music: she imagined him walking around "humming to himself a lot ''.
The author has stated that she enjoys writing Dumbledore because he "is the epitome of goodness. '' Rowling said that Dumbledore speaks for her, as he "knows pretty much everything '' about the Harry Potter universe. Rowling mentioned that Dumbledore regrets "that he has always had to be the one who knew, and who had the burden of knowing. And he would rather not know. '' As a mentor to the central character Harry Potter, "Dumbledore is a very wise man who knows that Harry is going to have to learn a few hard lessons to prepare him for what may be coming in his life. He allows Harry to get into what he would n't allow another pupil to do, and he also unwillingly permits Harry to confront things he 'd rather protect him from. '' In a 1999 interview, Rowling stated that she imagined Dumbledore "more as a John Gielgud type, you know, quite elderly and -- and quite stately. '' During his time as a student, Dumbledore was in Gryffindor House. Rowling said in an interview that Dumbledore was about 150 years old. However, on her website, she states that Dumbledore was born in 1881, making him either 115 or 116 when he died.
On 19 October 2007, Rowling was asked by a young fan whether Dumbledore finds "true love. '' Rowling said that she always thought of Dumbledore as being homosexual and that he had fallen in love with Gellert Grindelwald, which was Dumbledore 's "great tragedy ''; Rowling did not explicitly state whether Grindelwald returned his affections. Rowling explains this further by elaborating on the motivations behind Dumbledore 's flirtation with the idea of wizard domination of Muggles: "He lost his moral compass completely when he fell in love and I think subsequently became very mistrustful of his own judgement in those matters so became quite asexual. He led a celibate and a bookish life. ''
In the opening chapter of the first novel of the series, Dumbledore arrives at number four, Privet Drive in Little Whinging, Surrey. When the evil wizard Lord Voldemort kills Harry 's parents before being reduced to a lesser form, Dumbledore decides to place the now - orphaned Harry in the home of Vernon and Petunia Dursley. He knows that Harry will be protected by the special magic caused by his mother 's sacrifice, after he evokes the magic of the bond of blood and Harry 's aunt, his mother 's sister - Petunia Evans Dursley, sealed it by accepting her nephew into her home. This old magic of binding love renders Voldemort incapable of touching Harry. Dumbledore leaves Harry upon the doorstep of the Dursley home with a letter explaining the situation. He departs with the final phrase, "Good luck, Harry. ''
When Harry arrives at Hogwarts, Dumbledore tells him about the secrets of the Mirror of Erised, claiming that when he looks into it, he sees himself "holding a pair of thick, woollen socks. '' Harry later recalls in the final book that this was probably the only dishonest answer Dumbledore ever gave him. He is also responsible for somehow enchanting the Mirror so that it hides the Philosopher 's Stone and only someone who looked into the Mirror and whose desire was "to find the Stone... but not use it '' would receive it, as anybody else would only see themselves using the Stone due to the Mirror 's special magic. He is called out to the Ministry of Magic by a false message on the night when Professor Quirinus Quirrell, Harry Potter, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger enter the dungeons to retrieve the Stone, but realises during the trip that he is needed at Hogwarts and returns in time to rescue Harry from Quirrell and Voldemort. He also has a final conversation with Harry after the events down in the dungeons and tells him that he is too young to comprehend the information about why Voldemort attempts to kill him.
In the second novel, Dumbledore suspects that Tom Riddle is somehow involved in the attacks on the muggle born students, as he says, when asked who is the culprit, "not who, but how? '' A younger Dumbledore appears in Riddle 's diary, when Harry sees his memory, and asks Riddle if he knows anything about the attacks on the students. During the last half of the novel, Lucius Malfoy forces the school 's other eleven governors to suspend Dumbledore as Headmaster in the wake of attacks by a basilisk in the school when the Chamber of Secrets is opened. Dumbledore is reinstated when the governors discover that Ginny Weasley was taken into the Chamber of Secrets and Lucius is found to have coerced the other governors into suspending him.
At the beginning of the third novel, Dumbledore is forced to accept Dementors onto his school 's grounds for the protection of his students from Sirius Black, the supposed murderer and accessory to murder, who had escaped from Azkaban. After Black 's breach into Hogwarts, Dumbledore issues orders to close every entrance to the school and grounds. After Harry falls off his broomstick during a Quidditch match because of the Dementors, Dumbledore becomes uncharacteristically angry with them and uses his wand to cause Harry to levitate safely to the ground. Later in that book, Dumbledore suggests Hermione Granger use her Ministry - approved Time - Turner to go back three hours to save Buckbeak the hippogriff and Sirius from their unjust executions.
In the fourth novel, Dumbledore introduces the Triwizard Tournament. He also serves as a judge during the entire event. When Harry 's name comes out of the Goblet of Fire, Dumbledore is not enraged, but remains calm; simply asking Harry whether he had himself, or had asked an older student to submit his name (although in the film version he does get angry to the point of manhandling Harry). When Harry answers no, he believes him. By the end of the book, Dumbledore 's fears are realised when Harry returns from his encounter with Voldemort clutching the dead body of Cedric Diggory and when Mad - Eye Moody (being impersonated by Barty Crouch Jr, through Polyjuice Potion) takes Harry away from Dumbledore and to his office inside the castle. Dumbledore immediately becomes suspicious and heads straight towards Moody 's office with Minerva McGonagall and Severus Snape to save Harry and to interrogate Crouch. Afterwards, Dumbledore listens to Harry 's eyewitness account about Voldemort 's return. Harry though, only wakes up later to find Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge in the hospital wing arguing with McGonagall and Dumbledore. In the end, Fudge and Dumbledore "part ways '' after an argument about the situation of Voldemort 's return and the consequences that would follow should Fudge remain in denial of this fact.
In the fifth book, Dumbledore is demoted from Chief Warlock of the Wizengamot, voted out of the Chairmanship of the International Confederation of Wizards, and is almost stripped of his Order of Merlin First Class due to his speeches regarding the return of Voldemort, although it is reported that he is unconcerned as long as he is not taken off the Chocolate Frog cards. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Magic does everything they can to discredit him and Harry -- mainly through the Daily Prophet. At the beginning of the book, Dumbledore enrages Fudge when he stops by at Harry 's hearing with a witness (Arabella Figg) to ensure that he is not expelled. While Harry feels better when Dumbledore assists him, he becomes annoyed to the point of being angry that the headmaster refuses to speak to or even look at him.
During the following year at Hogwarts, the Ministry passes Educational Decree Twenty - two, allowing Fudge to place Dolores Umbridge to the post of Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher (after Dumbledore failed to find a suitable candidate). Through her, Fudge gradually gains power over Hogwarts and Dumbledore, who he fears is building an under - age wizard army to overthrow the Ministry. Umbridge forbids practical defence practice in her classes, forcing Harry, Ron, and Hermione to form Dumbledore 's Army (a defence group led by Harry) with fellow friends. It is when the Ministry discovers the D.A. that Dumbledore, choosing to accept the responsibility, falsely claims that the organisation was his own subversive creation, and allows himself to be removed as headmaster (for the second time) rather than allow Harry to be expelled.
Dumbledore is not heard of again in the book until he arrives in the Department of Mysteries to aid the Order in the battle against the Death Eaters. He subdues all the Death Eaters, except for Bellatrix Lestrange, and binds them with an Anti-Disapparition Jinx to prevent them from magically escaping. He then saves Harry from the Avada Kedavra curse conjured by Voldemort and engages in a ferocious duel with the Dark Lord. This culminates in Voldemort 's attempting to possess Harry in an attempt to make Dumbledore kill the boy. Voldemort is forced to leave Harry 's body and flee with Bellatrix after this ruse fails. Many ministry officials having witnessed the end of the battle, Dumbledore is reinstated as headmaster and retrieves all his distinctions. Towards the end of the book, Dumbledore explains to Harry that Voldemort chose him as his equal and that one must kill the other in the end, and confesses that his great affection for Harry has clouded his judgement.
In the sixth book, Dumbledore fetches Harry from Privet Drive and takes him to persuade Horace Slughorn to rejoin the Hogwarts staff. Harry notices that Dumbledore 's right hand is shrivelled and black. During the school year, Dumbledore teaches Harry of events in Voldemort 's past that he feels are of immense importance. Using the Pensieve, they visit the memories of others, which contain important information about Voldemort 's life and his genocidal rise to power. While using the pensieve, Harry sees a vision of Dumbledore 's first encounter with Voldemort, then a disturbed young orphan named Tom Riddle; Dumbledore had known from the beginning that the boy was dangerous, but believed that Hogwarts would change him.
It is learned that Voldemort created six Horcruxes to gain immortality and that they must all be destroyed before Harry goes after the final piece of Voldemort 's soul in the Dark Lord 's body. Harry also repeatedly warns Dumbledore in most of their lessons that Draco Malfoy is working for Voldemort. Dumbledore refuses to take any action against Draco, and instead tells Harry that he already knows more about what is happening than Harry does.
By the end of the book, Dumbledore and Harry set out to the cave where Dumbledore believes a Horcrux resides. In the cave, Dumbledore drinks a potion inside the Horcrux 's container; while drinking it, he begins to scream, seemingly enduring mental torture and being weakened. Dumbledore begins to call out for water after he finishes the potion, and Harry, realising he has no other choice, dips the goblet into the lake to give him a drink. When he does this though, all the Inferi that reside in the lake grab at Harry and attempt to drag him down and drown him in the lake. Dumbledore suddenly recovers, thanks to the water, and conjures a fire lasso around them. Dumbledore takes the horcrux (a locket) and both make their way back out of the cave and back to Hogsmeade. When they return, Madam Rosmerta informs them that the Dark Mark was conjured over the Astronomy Tower. In the tower, Dumbledore enjoins Harry not to interfere in the events that are about to take place there, and places him in a body - binding curse under his invisibility cloak. Hidden, Harry is unable to intervene as Dumbledore (now extremely weak) is disarmed by Draco. Dumbledore is conversing with Draco about the plot to kill him, when several other Death Eaters enter the tower and try to persuade Draco to kill Dumbledore. When Draco hesitates, Snape appears and performs the Killing Curse on Dumbledore, only after Dumbledore pleads with Snape saying, "Severus, please... ''. To what Dumbledore was referring is not revealed until the seventh book. Dumbledore dies in Hogwarts ' grounds.
Shortly after his death, Dumbledore 's portrait magically appears in the Headmaster 's office. His funeral is attended by students, Hogwarts staff, members of the Ministry of Magic, ghosts, centaurs, merpeople and others who wish to pay their respects. Shrouded in purple velvet, he is entombed in a white marble sarcophagus beside the lake at Hogwarts, and it is said that he is the only headmaster to be buried on the school grounds.
Rowling used several chapters in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows to reveal two main matters concerning Dumbledore: his early life and his death. The book introduces his parents, Percival and Kendra Dumbledore, as well as his little sister, Ariana; his brother, Aberforth Dumbledore, was mentioned in previous books. At six years old, Ariana was attacked by three Muggle boys who had witnessed her doing magic. Because of this attack, Ariana was seriously traumatised and never able to control her magic again, having recurring outbursts of magic. Enraged, Percival mercilessly attacked the Muggle boys (killing them in the film version), and was sentenced to life in Azkaban. After this, Kendra moved her family to the village of Godric 's Hollow. In one of her outbursts, Ariana accidentally kills Kendra around the time Albus has completed his education. Albus becomes the head of the family and is forced to remain in his house with his sister Ariana while Aberforth completes his education.
Soon afterward, a young Gellert Grindelwald arrived in Godric 's Hollow to live with his great - aunt, Bathilda Bagshot, author of A History of Magic. The two young men took to each other immediately, and together they dreamed of a world ruled by wizards over Muggles by uniting the legendary Deathly Hallows. They believed that if they were forced to destroy a few along the way, it would still be "for the greater good '', and the sufferings and losses would be rewarded a hundredfold in the end. This scenario would never happen, though. A discussion between Albus, Aberforth, and Grindelwald led to a duel that resulted in Ariana 's death. For the rest of his life, Albus felt guilty, never certain whether it was his own curse or another 's that had killed his sister. Grindelwald stormed back to Bagshot 's home and departed to begin his own rule, leaving the country hours later. As a result of his mistakes, Albus felt that he was not to be trusted with power and, because of this, never took the position of Minister for Magic, despite being offered it several times. Dumbledore returned to Hogwarts as professor of Transfiguration, and he served in recruiting students for the school.
Decades later, in 1945, Dumbledore finally defeated the now - Dark wizard Grindelwald, who had come to possess the Elder Wand. Grindelwald 's defeat made Dumbledore the master of the Elder Wand, which remained his until just before his death, when Draco used the Disarming Charm on him.
Dumbledore had another Hallow in his keeping since the death of James Potter: the Invisibility Cloak, which he had borrowed to examine. When James died, Dumbledore kept the cloak and decided to pass it on to Harry, James 's son.
The truth about Dumbledore 's death is revealed through Snape 's last memories in the Pensieve. Harry learns that Dumbledore made a terrible error by placing a cursed ring on his right hand, sometime between the fifth and sixth book, forgetting the curses that must be on the ring. The ring held the Resurrection Stone, which Dumbledore hoped to use to allow him to apologise to his sister and parents. Dumbledore called Snape to help him; however, when Snape arrived and assessed the curse, all he could do was contain it. Snape told Dumbledore that he had little more than a year to live. After hearing this news, Dumbledore revealed to Snape that he knew about Voldemort 's plan to have Draco kill him. He asked Snape to use the Killing Curse on him when the time came because he did not want Draco to have to kill him, saying that the boy 's soul was still intact; Draco 's soul would have been damaged in killing Dumbledore out of malice, whereas Snape was fully aware that he would be merely sparing Dumbledore pain and humiliation. He also intended for Snape to be the one to kill him and for the Elder Wand to be buried with him, in order to prevent the wand from being passed on again.
Dumbledore 's spirit appears to Harry towards the end of the book in a limbo - like King 's Cross, after Harry is struck with the Killing Curse which was conjured by Voldemort. During the last book, Harry finds out that he must die because he is a Horcrux. When Voldemort conjures the Killing Curse, Harry does not fight back, which stops him from dying. When they meet again, the boy comforts Dumbledore as he confesses all of his many regrets. Dumbledore then informs Harry of the choice he still has: of moving on to the next life or returning to his body to face Voldemort one last time. After returning from the mystical King 's Cross and defeating Voldemort for good, Harry has a short conversation with Dumbledore 's portrait in the Headmaster 's office about the fate of each of the three Deathly Hallows. He keeps the Cloak, leaves the Stone in the Forbidden Forest where he dropped it, and returns the Elder Wand to Dumbledore 's tomb (from which Voldemort had stolen it). In the epilogue, it is revealed that Harry names his second son Albus Severus Potter after Dumbledore and Snape.
In the film adaptations of Philosopher 's Stone (2001) and Chamber of Secrets (2002), Dumbledore was played by Richard Harris, who was expected to play the character throughout the series. Harris mentioned that he was originally not going to take the role, since he knew his own health was in decline. He accepted because his then - 11 - year - old granddaughter threatened never to speak to him again if he did not take it. Harris was determined to portray Dumbledore again in Prisoner of Azkaban (2004), despite having been diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma, and asked David Heyman not to recast the role. However, his death on 25 October 2002 necessitated recasting.
Ian McKellen was offered the role, but he turned it down, having played the similar character Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, as well as feeling it would have been inappropriate to take Harris 's role, as Harris had called McKellen a "dreadful '' actor. Harris 's family had expressed an interest in seeing Peter O'Toole being chosen as his replacement.
Michael Gambon was cast as Harris 's replacement four months after Harris 's death. Gambon was not concerned about bettering Harris, and he portrayed the character in his own way, putting on a slight Irish accent for the role, as well as completing his scenes in three weeks. Gambon reprised his role in all the remaining films.
Toby Regbo was chosen to portray Dumbledore in his youth in Deathly Hallows Part 1 and Part 2, for flashbacks scenes which provide essential information on the character 's backstory.
Jude Law will be playing the role of a younger Dumbledore in the second prequel film, Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald.
Albus Dumbledore was tall and thin, with silver hair and beard (auburn in his youth) so long that they could be tucked into his belt. He had a very long and crooked nose that looked as if it had been broken at least twice. (It is speculated that his brother 's punch during their sister 's funeral may have played a role in shaping his nose.) He was also said to have had long and skillful fingers. His eyes were described to be a brilliant, soul - piercing shade of blue, and usually twinkled with kindness and mischief.
Dumbledore wore half - moon spectacles and a colourful array of robes, ranging from purple to bright orange. He once claimed to have a scar above his left knee in the precise shape of a map of the London Underground, but whether or not he actually does is unknown. His demeanour is often -- if not always -- serene and ethereal, and he usually spoke in a calm, pleasant voice even when Harry thought that he was actually furious.
During the last year of his life, Dumbledore 's right hand was scarred when he donned Marvolo Gaunt 's Ring, which was cursed. Had Snape not intervened with a counter-curse, Dumbledore would have died much more quickly. Regardless, the curse left his hand blackened and dead - looking, and no amount of healing could repair the appearance. According to Snape, the curse would eventually spread itself from the contained hand, and Dumbledore was doomed to die in no more than one year 's time. Whether this means the blackening dead - look appearance would spread throughout the entire body is unknown.
Considered the most powerful wizard in the world, Dumbledore is benevolent and wise, a good wizard in the style of Merlin. He almost constantly gives off an aura of serenity and composure, rarely displaying intense emotions of anger or fear. Yet despite his benign nature, it is said that Dumbledore was the only wizard Lord Voldemort ever truly feared. Dumbledore is very eccentric and even slightly effeminate; he is very fond of knitting patterns and frequently wears flamboyant clothing (at one point, he is seen wearing a flowered bonnet). He is also known for his odd displays of whimsicality; he often uses humour to make people feel comfortable in his presence. As a supremely talented wizard, Dumbledore displays numerous examples of extraordinary powers. His abilities as a wizard are combined with a kind of cunning and subtlety of mind that allowed him to comprehend human nature and turn the better aspects of humanity (trust, love, and friendship) to Voldemort 's disadvantage in particular.
More than anything else, Dumbledore has a deep capacity for love, frequently reminding Harry that love was the greatest magic of all. Dumbledore believes in the good in everyone and insists on giving second chances. The greatest example of this is Dumbledore 's relationship with Snape, in whom Dumbledore is willing to place a considerable amount of faith because he showed remorse. Dumbledore is highly perceptive and emotionally intelligent; his knowledge of a person 's true personality goes beyond simply being a good judge of character. This is never more apparent than in his complex insights into Voldemort 's psyche, which he pieces together with Harry to deduce where Voldemort 's horcruxes are hidden.
However, in spite of Dumbledore 's many extraordinary qualities, he was no saint. According to Rowling, "Although Dumbledore seems to be so benign for six books, he 's quite a Machiavellian figure, really. He 's been pulling a lot of strings. '' In a 2005 interview, Rowling commented: "Immense brainpower does not protect you from emotional mistakes, and I think Dumbledore really exemplifies that. '' Dumbledore 's greatest personality flaw, which he explained to Harry, was his desire for power. He eventually found that those best suited for power are those who do not seek it. When he and Grindelwald met each other, they made plans to enslave Muggles and re-establish wizards as the natural rulers of the world. However, Dumbledore was disillusioned of this fantasy after his sister Ariana was killed during a duel between himself, his brother Aberforth, and Grindelwald.
Dumbledore was haunted by his sad family history. In particular, he was riddled with guilt over the circumstances surrounding the death of his sister. He felt enormous remorse for his selfishness and was tortured for the rest of his life by the possibility that he might have been the one who cast the spell that killed his sister. When he looked into the Mirror of Erised, he saw himself redeemed in the eyes of his brother and his entire family alive and together.
Since a young age, Dumbledore has always shown great magical abilities. During his education at Hogwarts, Dumbledore was known as the most brilliant student to have ever stepped into the school, winning "every prize of note that the school offered '', and in his N.E.W.T.s, "... did things with a wand (the examiner had) never seen before ''. Rowling has said that Dumbledore is primarily self - taught, although he "had access to superb teachers at Hogwarts, '' and, as far as his education is concerned, "Dumbledore 's family would be a profitable line of inquiry. '' While he is not vain, Dumbledore also exhibits no false modesty, readily acknowledging that he is unusually intelligent and an exceptionally powerful wizard. He admits a number of times to Harry in their occasional meetings in Half - Blood Prince that he makes mistakes, and since he is smarter than most men, his mistakes "tend to be correspondingly huger. ''
Dumbledore is an expert at nonverbal spells and is famous as an alchemist who has worked with Nicolas Flamel, the only known maker of the Philosopher 's Stone, and is credited with discovering the twelve uses of dragon 's blood. His Patronus takes the form of a phoenix, a recurring symbol in the books.
His knowledge of the most powerful kind of magic, love, is extensive. He taught Harry about its very essence, and the innate power of his ability to love his parents, which eventually helped Harry realise his destiny to kill Lord Voldemort.
He is known to be able to conjure Gubraithian fire (magical everlasting fire). He has claimed to be able to become invisible without using an invisibility cloak, which is a powerful Disillusionment Charm. Dumbledore is also skilled in Occlumency and Legilimency. Dumbledore is an expert at Transfiguration too, having taught the subject before becoming headmaster. He frequently creates complex objects like sofa chairs out of thin air (or from less comfortable chairs). Dumbledore is also proficient at Charms and Potions; according to the obituary written by Elphias Doge, his papers were published in journals such as Achievements in Charming and The Practical Potioneer. Dumbledore is famous for defeating Grindelwald, who is second on a list of Most Dangerous Dark Wizards of All Time only to Voldemort himself, in a "spectacular duel of legend '', succeeding in doing so despite the fact that Grindelwald possessed the Elder Wand, which supposedly guarantees invincibility in duels due to its power. His skill at duelling is further shown when he calmly engages Voldemort in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, overpowering him and eventually forcing him to possess Harry to be spared from total defeat. (It is known in retrospect that Dumbledore possessed the Elder Wand when duelling Voldemort, having taken it from Grindelwald.) Unlike most wizards who make a distinct popping sound when they apparate, Dumbledore notably is able to apparate silently; the only other wizard shown to possess this skill is Voldemort. Dumbledore is known to be able to understand Mermish and Gobbledegook (Goblin language) and Parseltongue.
Dumbledore 's office houses "a number of curious (...) instruments. '' Among them is a Pensieve, a stone receptacle used to store and review memories, which witches and wizards are able to extract from their heads as a type of fluid. Harry first discovers this device in Goblet of Fire, and it is frequently used for flashback scenes throughout the remainder of the series. In the first chapter of Philosopher 's Stone, Dumbledore is seen using the Deluminator, a device for removing and later returning light, and for use as a homing device. It is confirmed in Deathly Hallows when the object is inherited by Ron that the Deluminator is of Dumbledore 's own design. Dumbledore is the possessor and master of the Elder Wand, an extremely powerful object known also as the "Wand of Destiny '' or the "Deathstick '', and one of the Deathly Hallows. Unlike many of the wand 's previous owners, Dumbledore keeps its identity a closely guarded secret. He also has a pet phoenix named Fawkes. It is revealed in Philosopher 's Stone by Mr. Ollivander that Harry 's wand carries a phoenix feather as its magical core and that particular phoenix only gave one other feather, the one in Voldemort 's wand that gave Harry his scar. It is later revealed in Goblet of Fire that Fawkes was the phoenix whose feathers provide the magical core in Harry 's and Voldemort 's wands.
Through various interviews and discussions about the character, Rowling has established that Albus Dumbledore was born in July or August 1881 to Percival and Kendra Dumbledore. The character had previously referenced his brother Aberforth, and in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, it is revealed that Albus is three years older than Aberforth. The same book established their sister Ariana who, at six years old, suffered a vicious attack by three male Muggle youths who had witnessed her doing magic. Frightened, they first tried to get her to repeat what they had seen, and upon her failure to recreate it due to her young age, they tried to stop her from being "different ''. It is not explicitly stated in the novel what form this attack took, but Percival was sentenced to life in Azkaban for tracking down and hexing the boys who seriously traumatised his daughter. The severe trauma of the attack left Ariana unable to function socially or to properly perform magic again. To prevent her being institutionalised in St. Mungo 's Hospital, or hurting someone accidentally with her uncontrolled magic, Kendra moved the family to Godric 's Hollow, and her illness was concealed. Neighbours assumed that Ariana was a non-magical squib.
When Dumbledore and his friend Elphias left Hogwarts, they planned to take their "then - traditional '' tour of the world. On the eve of their trip, the eighteen - year - old Dumbledore suffered the death of his mother Kendra, who was accidentally killed by Ariana during one of her uncontrolled outbursts of magic. Because Dumbledore 's parents were absent (his father in Azkaban and his mother dead), Albus became the head of the family and it became his duty to put food on the table, as they were not left with much gold. He was forced to remain in his house with his sister Ariana while Aberforth completed his education. Aberforth knew of his brother 's resentment and offered to care for Ariana himself, saying that she preferred him, but Albus refused by stating that it was his duty as eldest to care for the family.
When Grindelwald arrived at Godric 's Hollow, he immediately became friends with Dumbledore and together dreamed of a new world order in which wizards ruled over Muggles "for the greater good ''. Dumbledore and Grindelwald suggested that they had to move to carry on their plans, but Aberforth refused because Ariana 's state did not allow her to be moved. The discussion between Albus, Aberforth and Grindelwald turned into a duel that resulted in Ariana 's accidental death. According to the author, as a result of this incident, Albus 's boggart became Ariana 's corpse. In Philosopher 's Stone, he mentions to Harry that the deepest desire of his heart, revealed by the Mirror of Erised, is to have a pair of woollen socks. In the seventh novel, Harry realises that he and Dumbledore see the same thing in the Mirror: their reunited families.
The character of Albus Dumbledore has been compared to other archetypal "wise old man '' characters. Dumbledore acts much like Merlin from The Sword in the Stone, in the manner of an "absent - minded professor ''; both Merlin and Dumbledore educate a story 's main character in a castle. As writer Evelyn Perry notes, "Dumbledore resembles Merlin both personally and physically; he is an avid lover of books and wisdom who wears flowing robes and a long, white beard. '' Dumbledore has also been compared with Gandalf from Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings. Dave Kopel draws comparisons between Rowling 's writing and John Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress and states that, among the Christian symbols that Rowling has used in her books, Dumbledore acts like "the bearded God the Father '' figure in which Harry puts his faith to be saved from Voldemort and his servants. IGN also listed Dumbledore as their fifth favourite Harry Potter character, saying that "(f) or a character that was introduced into popular culture a mere twelve years ago, it speaks volumes that Professor Dumbledore has already taken his place among the great mentor figures in literature and film ''. IGN 's Joe Utichi called Dumbledore his third favourite Harry Potter character, calling the revelation that he was n't so "infallible '' one of the most heartbreaking themes of the final book. Actor Michael Gambon received some criticism for his louder, more aggressive, portrayal of the character, who is depicted as exhibiting a more subdued, unflappable calm in the books. This has been attributed to Gambon 's policy of not reading the source material from which his films are adapted.
As a main character of the series, major facts relating to Dumbledore have generated a vast number of essays and discussions. The death of Dumbledore at the end of Half - Blood Prince was discussed by fans and critics alike. A website named DumbledoreIsNotDead.com sought to understand the events of the sixth book in a different way and provided arguments to claim that the character did not really die. However, Rowling confirmed on 2 August 2006 that Dumbledore was, in fact, dead, humorously apologising to the website as she did so. Along with DumbledoreIsNotDead.com, a collection of essays, Who Killed Albus Dumbledore?: What Really Happened in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince? Six Expert Harry Potter Detectives Examine the Evidence, was published by Zossima Press in November 2006. In NextMovie. com 's Harry Potter Mega Poll, Dumbledore 's death was voted as the most unforgettable moment in the whole series.
In the Chamber of Secrets DVD interview, screenwriter Steve Kloves stated that he considers Dumbledore a fascinating character because of the wisdom he provides, but he feels that "Dumbledore bears such a tremendous dark burden, and he knows secrets and I think in many ways he bears the weight of the future of the wizard world '' and the "only way that he can keep that at bay, the darkness, is to be whimsical and humorous ''.
Rowling 's statement that Dumbledore was gay caused a great debate among critics. Melissa Anelli, webmaster of the fan site The Leaky Cauldron, told The Associated Press, "J.K. Rowling calling any Harry Potter character gay would make wonderful strides in tolerance toward homosexuality... By dubbing someone so respected, so talented and so kind, as someone who just happens to be also homosexual, she 's reinforcing the idea that a person 's gayness is not something of which they should be ashamed. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Mark Harris said "her choice to make a beloved professor - mentor gay in a world where gay teachers are still routinely slandered as malign influences was, I am certain, no accident. '' The stars and director of the Harry Potter films were supportive of Rowling 's revelation as well.
Some critics discussed the implications of this statement. New York Times columnist Edward Rothstein said that "Ms. Rowling may think of Dumbledore as gay ''; however, "there is no reason why anyone else should ''. The East Tennessee State University 's student newspaper accused Rowling of lying, saying her answer was a publicity stunt. Michelle Smith quoted the Death of the Author principle, stating that Rowling 's subsequent commentary is irrelevant to the understanding of the books.
Dumbledore 's sexuality was also condemned by several right - wing Christian groups, such as Mission America and the Christian Coalition of America.
Slate quotes an attendee of the book talk who said, "It was clear that JKR did n't plan to out Dumbledore. She just cares about being true to her readers. '' Mike Thomas of the Orlando Sentinel said that upon reflection, Dumbledore was gay from the beginning, and that this neatly explains the behaviour of his character and his relationship with Grindelwald. Thomas notes the skill Rowling displays in writing a gay character without having to put a gay label on him.
Gay rights campaigner Peter Tatchell stated that "It 's good that children 's literature includes the reality of gay people, since we exist in every society. But I am disappointed that she did not make Dumbledore 's sexuality explicit in the Harry Potter book. Making it obvious would have sent a much more powerful message of understanding and acceptance. '' A spokesperson for Stonewall praised Rowling, saying "It 's great that JK has said this. It shows that there 's no limit to what gay and lesbian people can do, even being a wizard headmaster. ''
Regarding Dumbledore 's sexuality in the Fantastic Beasts series, Rowling said in 2016 that, "As far as his sexuality is concerned, watch the space. ''
Dumbledore has been parodied in several sketches and animated series:
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who are we voting for in the midterm elections | United States midterm election - wikipedia
Midterm elections in the United States are the general elections held in November every four years, near the midpoint of a president 's four - year term of office. The next midterm election is due in 2018. Federal offices that are up for election during the midterms are members of the United States Congress, including all 435 seats in the United States House of Representatives, and the full terms for 33 or 34 of the 100 seats in the United States Senate.
In addition, 34 of the 50 U.S. states elect their governors to four - year terms during midterm elections, while Vermont and New Hampshire elect governors to two - year terms in both midterm and presidential elections. Thus, 36 governors are elected during midterm elections. Many states also elect officers to their state legislatures in midterm years. There are also elections held at the municipal level. On the ballot are many mayors, other local public offices, and a wide variety of citizen initiatives.
Special elections are often held in conjunction with regular elections, so additional Senators, governors and other local officials may be elected to partial terms.
Midterm elections usually generate lower voter turnout than presidential elections. While the latter have had turnouts of about 50 -- 60 % over the past 60 years, only about 40 percent of those eligible to vote actually go to the polls in midterm elections. Midterm elections usually see the president 's party lose seats in Congress, and also frequently see the president 's intraparty opponents gain power.
Midterm elections are sometimes regarded as a referendum on the sitting president 's and / or incumbent party 's performance. The party of the incumbent president tends to lose ground during midterm elections: over the past 21 midterm elections, the President 's party has lost an average 30 seats in the House, and an average 4 seats in the Senate; moreover, in only two of those has the President 's party gained seats in both houses.
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who is the father of dee baby sunny | Deandra Reynolds - wikipedia
Deandra "Sweet Dee '' Reynolds is a fictional character on the FX television series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, She was played by Jordan Reid in the unaired pilot episode, and portrayed by Kaitlin Olson for the actual series. Dee was the only major character in the show to be conceived without an actor in mind. Although she was originally written to be a female voice of reason, Dee 's character quickly became an equal participant in The Gang 's illicit and morally questionable activities once Olson was cast.
Dee is Dennis Reynolds ' twin sister and is the main bartender at their bar, Paddy 's Pub. Dee was unpopular in high school due to her severe scoliosis, for which she wore a corrective back brace that earned her the nickname "The Aluminum Monster ''. Additionally, she is often ridiculed for her resemblance to a bird by the rest of The Gang, especially Dennis and Mac. She identifies herself as a liberal, and claims to be compassionate and smart; in reality, however, she is selfish, greedy, and prejudiced, which is ultimately a satirical comment on those who claim to hold these beliefs but ultimately are still driven by selfish and prejudiced undertones. Dee battles The Gang 's view that "females are inferior '' and feels that she must prove that she 's as capable as her male friends. In "The Gang Gets Invincible '', Dee poses as male alter ego "Cole '' to try out for the Philadelphia Eagles with Mac and Dennis; she does a superb job and impresses the Eagles coaches until she stuns everyone by revealing she 's a woman right before her punting tryout, after which she kicks the ball and severely injures her foot. Her father Frank is the only one who considers Dee a true member of The Gang. Whenever there is a decision or a vote among members of The Gang, the three other guys habitually exclude her.
Though Dee was originally intended to be a sensible and compassionate counterpoint to the other characters, she has shown herself to be just as morally bankrupt as the rest of the gang. She consistently uses others for her own ends, including: feigning affection for Matthew "Rickety Cricket '' Mara for financial gain only to reject him when he leaves the priesthood for her; blackmailing the Waitress to come out with her for drinks despite the fact the woman is a recovering alcoholic; and pushing a reluctant young girl into performing with her in a beauty pageant.
Dee is usually ignored or ridiculed whenever she presents an idea to The Gang; however, if someone repeats her exact suggestion, it is immediately accepted. In her will, Dee 's mother tells her that she has been a disappointment and a mistake. consequently, she has considerable animosity towards her mother, and many of her actions are designed to "shove it in her face ''.
In the season 2 episode "Dennis and Dee Go on Welfare '', she and Dennis temporarily develop an addiction to crack cocaine, which is brought up a few times in later episodes.
A recurring joke on the show is Dee having her car destroyed or stolen. In season 4, Mac and Charlie steal and crash her blue Dodge Neon to fake their deaths in the episode "Mac and Charlie Die ''. In season 5, her next car, a red Ford Aspire, is stolen the same day she bought it by a hitchhiker the gang picked up on their way to the Grand Canyon in "The Gang Hits The Road ''. After Dee becomes his mistress in the season 6 episode, "Dennis Gets Divorced '', Bill Ponderosa gives her a brand new black BMW 3 Series. Soon afterward, however, another of Bill 's mistresses arrives to reclaim the car as Bill had originally given it to her. In the season 8 episode, "The Maureen Ponderosa Wedding Massacre '', Charlie and Mac steal Dee 's purple Chrysler PT Cruiser and crash it into a pole, totaling it, claiming "zombies must have stolen (it). '' However, the same PT Cruiser shows up again in the next episode, "Charlie and Dee Find Love, '' with Charlie complaining, "I cant believe you just bought another ridiculous ugly car '' just before another car crashes into it.
After flunking out of the University of Pennsylvania, where she had intended to major in psychology, Dee decided to become an actress. However, she has put little effort into realizing her ambition and has never had any significant acting work; as a result, The Gang frequently says that she has no talent for anything.
Dee 's aspirations to be an actress inspire her to create several characters, all of which are based on ethnic stereotypes. Many of these are seen in the episode "America 's Next Top Paddy 's Billboard Model Contest '', in which she attempts to be discovered by talent agencies by posting videos of her acting on YouTube. However, her presence in the videos is overshadowed by Charlie 's performances as Green Man. Although Dee shows no on - camera stage fright, she consistently faces severe glossophobia when performing in front of an audience. When she performs a stand - up comedy routine at a local comedy club, she repeatedly gags and dry - heaves on stage due to her anxiety.
Since high school and through the entire series, Dee has had a long list of failed relationships and one - night stands that includes: a high - school boy who uses her for alcohol and to make his girlfriend jealous; a thief who robs the bar; a middle - aged toothless Korean busboy; a sweet, but simple - minded Iraq War veteran named Ben, who ultimately finds her to be "a mean person ''; Lil Kev, a rapper who The Gang originally thought was mentally retarded, only to find out he was n't; and Bill Ponderosa, a man whom she had a crush on back in high school only to find out he was an overweight loser and married. Like the other members of The Gang, Dee drinks heavily, often hoping to calm herself when meeting an attractive man. Relative to the rest of The Gang, Dee seems to drink more and be drunk more often. She harbors a phobia of the elderly. Despite her many insecurities, Dee is aggressively outspoken and is prone to violence when angered. At one point, she assaults a bum she finds masturbating in the alley behind Paddy 's. Charlie and Dee accidentally use steroids in "Hundred Dollar Baby '', which greatly increases their anger. In "The Gang Solves the North Korea Situation '', she is, along with Frank and Mac, on an American Idol - like panel where she portrays a drunken spoof of Paula Abdul, slurring her words and judging hopefuls in a talent contest. She drinks heavily from a cup full of "Rum and Coke '' and uses the event as an excuse to criticize and demean the contestants.
In one of the show 's most well - known story arcs, Dee gets pregnant, but does not reveal the identity of the father. The father is eventually revealed to be a transgender woman named Carmen who once dated Mac. Dee carries Carmen 's child as a surrogate, having been impregnated through Carmen 's sperm and an egg from a donor. She gives birth to a boy in the episode "Dee Gives Birth ''. The episode was dedicated to Axel Lee McElhenney (Kaitlin Olson 's and Rob McElhenney 's real - life son).
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how many letters are in the hawaii alphabet | Hawaiian alphabet - wikipedia
The Hawaiian alphabet (in Hawaiian: ka pīʻāpā Hawaiʻi) is an alphabet used to write Hawaiian. It was adapted from the English alphabet in the early 19th century by American missionaries to print a bible in the Hawaiian language.
In 1778, British explorer James Cook made the first reported Europe voyage to Hawai ʻi. In his report, he wrote the name of the islands as "Owhyhee '' or "Owhyee ''. In 1822, a writing system based on one similar to the new New Zealand Grammar was developed and printed by American Protestant missionary Elisha Loomis. The original alphabet included five vowels and twelve consonants:
and seven diphthongs:
In addition, the letters F, G, S, Y, and Z were used to spell foreign words.
In 1826, the developers voted to eliminate some of the letters which represented functionally redundant interchangeable letters, enabling the Hawaiian alphabet to approach the ideal state of one - symbol - one - sound, and thereby optimizing the ease with which people could teach and learn the reading and writing of Hawaiian.
Due to words with different meanings being spelled alike, use of the glottal stop became necessary. As early as 1823, the missionaries made limited use of the apostrophe to represent the glottal stop, but they did not make it a letter of the alphabet. In publishing the Hawaiian Bible, they used the ʻokina to distinguish ko ʻu (' my ') from kou (' your '). It was not until 1864 that the ʻokina became a recognized letter of the Hawaiian alphabet.
As early as 1821, one of the missionaries, Hiram Bingham, was using macrons in making handwritten transcriptions of Hawaiian vowels. The macron, or kahakō, was used to differentiate between short and long vowels.
The current official Hawaiian alphabet consists of thirteen letters: five vowels (Aa, Ee, Ii, Oo, Uu) and eight consonants (Hh, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Pp, Ww, ʻokina). Alphabetic order differs from the normal Latin order in that the vowels come first, then the consonants. The five vowels with macrons -- Āā, Ēē, Īī, Ōō, Ūū -- are not treated as separate letters, but are alphabetized immediately after unaccented vowels. The ʻokina is ignored for purposes of alphabetization.
The letter names were invented for Hawaiian specifically, since they do not follow traditional European letter names in most cases. The names of M, N, P, and possibly L were most likely derived from Greek, and that for W from the deleted letter V.
with lower offglide
Kaona = hidden meaning
similar to ew in few
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select the writer(s) of greek comedy | Ancient Greek Comedy - wikipedia
Ancient Greek comedy was one of the final three principal dramatic forms in the theatre of classical Greece (the others being tragedy and the satyr play). Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods: Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, and New Comedy. Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays of Aristophanes, while Middle Comedy is largely lost, i.e. preserved only in relatively short fragments by authors such as Athenaeus of Naucratis. New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of Menander.
The philosopher Aristotle wrote in his Poetics (c. 335 BC) that comedy is a representation of laughable people and involves some kind of blunder or ugliness which does not cause pain or disaster. C.A. Trypanis wrote that comedy is the last of the great species of poetry Greece gave to the world.
The Alexandrine grammarians, and most likely Aristophanes of Byzantium in particular, seem to have been the first to divide Greek comedy into what became the canonical three periods: Old Comedy (ἀρχαία archaia), Middle Comedy (μέση mese) and New Comedy (νέα nea). These divisions appear to be largely arbitrary, and ancient comedy almost certainly developed constantly over the years.
The most important Old Comic dramatist is Aristophanes. Born in 446 B.C., his works, with their pungent political satire and abundance of sexual and scatological innuendo, effectively define the genre today. Aristophanes lampooned the most important personalities and institutions of his day, as can be seen, for example, in his buffoonish portrayal of Socrates in The Clouds, and in his racy anti-war farce Lysistrata. He was one of a large number of comic poets working in Athens in the late 5th century, his most important contemporary rivals being Hermippus and Eupolis.
The Old Comedy subsequently influenced later European writers such as Rabelais, Cervantes, Swift, and Voltaire. In particular, they copied the technique of disguising a political attack as buffoonery.
The line between Old and Middle Comedy is not clearly marked chronologically, Aristophanes and others of the latest writers of the Old Comedy being sometimes regarded as the earliest Middle Comic poets. For ancient scholars, the term may have meant little more than "later than Aristophanes and his contemporaries, but earlier than Menander ''. Middle Comedy is generally seen as differing from Old Comedy in three essential particulars: the role of the chorus was diminished to the point where it had no influence on the plot; public characters were not impersonated or personified onstage; and the objects of ridicule were general rather than personal, literary rather than political. For at least a time, mythological burlesque was popular among the Middle Comic poets. Stock characters of all sorts also emerge: courtesans, parasites, revellers, philosophers, boastful soldiers, and especially the conceited cook with his parade of culinary science.
Because no complete Middle Comic plays have been preserved, it is impossible to offer any real assessment of their literary value or "genius ''. But many Middle Comic plays appear to have been revived in Sicily and Magna Graecia in this period, suggesting that they had considerable widespread literary and social influence.
New Comedy followed the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and lasted throughout the reign of the Macedonian rulers, ending about 260 BC. It is comparable to situation comedy and comedy of manners. The three best - known playwrights belonging to this genre are Menander, Philemon and Diphilus.
The playwrights of the New Comedy genre built on the legacy from their predecessors, but adapted it to the portrayal of everyday life, rather than of public affairs. The satirical and farcical element which featured so strongly in Aristophanes ' comedies was increasingly abandoned, the de-emphasis of the grotesque - whether in the form of choruses, humour or spectacle - opening the way for greater representation of daily life and the foibles of recognisable character types.
Apart from Diphilus, the New Comedians preferred the everyday world to mythological themes, coincidences to miracles or metamorphoses; and they peopled this world with a whole series of semi-realistic, if somewhat stereotypical figures, who would become the stock characters of Western comedy: braggarts, the permissive father figure and the stern father (senex iratus), young lovers, parasites, kind - hearted prostitutes, and cunning servants. Their largely gentle comedy of manners drew on a vast array of dramatic devices, characters and situations their predecessors had developed: prologues to shape the audience 's understanding of events, messengers ' speeches to announce offstage action, descriptions of feasts, the complications of love, sudden recognitions, ex machina endings were all established techniques which playwrights exploited and evoked. The new comedy depicted Athenian society and the social morality of the period, presenting it in attractive colors but making no attempt to criticize or improve it.
In his own time, Philemon was perhaps the most successful among the New Comedy, regularly beating the younger figure of Menander in contests; but the latter would be the most highly esteemed by subsequent generations. Menander 's comedies not only provided their audience with a brief respite from reality, but also gave audiences an accurate, if not greatly detailed, picture of life, leading an ancient critic to ask if life influenced Menander in the writing of his plays or if the case was vice versa. Unlike earlier predecessors, Menander 's comedies tended to centre on the fears and foibles of the ordinary man, his personal relationships, family life and social mishaps rather than politics and public life. His plays were also much less satirical than preceding comedies, being marked by a gentle, urbane tone, a taste for good temper and good manners (if not necessarily for good morals).
The human dimension of his characters was one of the strengths of Menander 's plays, and perhaps his greatest legacy, through his use of these fairly stereotype characters to comment on human life and depict human folly and absurdity compassionately, with wit and subtlety. An example of the moral reformations he offered (not always convincingly) is Cnemon from Menander 's play Dyskolos, whose objections to life suddenly fade after he was rescued from a well. The fact that this character was not necessarily closed to reason makes him a character whom people can relate to.
Philemon 's comedies tended to be smarter, and broader in tone, than Menander 's; while Diphilus used mythology as well as everyday life in his works. Both had their comedies survive only in fragments, but both also had their plays translated and adapted by Plautus. Examples are Plautus ' Asinaria and Rudens. Based on the translation and adaptation of Diphilus ' comedies by Plautus, one can conclude that he was skilled in the construction of his plots.
Substantial fragments of New Comedy have survived, but no complete plays. The most substantially preserved text is the Dyskolos ("Difficult Man, Grouch '') by Menander, discovered on a papyrus, and first published in 1958. The Cairo Codex (found in 1907) also preserves long sections of plays including Epitrepontes ("Men at Arbitration ''), Samia ("The Girl from Samos ''), and Perikeiromene ("The Girl who had her Hair Shorn ''). Much of the rest of our knowledge of New Comedy is derived from the Latin adaptations by Plautus and Terence.
Some dramatists overlap into more than one period.
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when did the battle of little bighorn occur | Battle of the Little Bighorn - wikipedia
Up to 160 wounded
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass and also commonly referred to as Custer 's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which resulted in the defeat of US forces, was the most significant action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It took place on June 25 -- 26, 1876, along the Little Bighorn River in the Crow Indian Reservation in southeastern Montana Territory.
The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, who were led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, and had been inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake). The US 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer, suffered a major defeat. Five of the 7th Cavalry 's 12 companies were annihilated and Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew and a brother - in - law. The total US casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded (six died later from their wounds), including four Crow Indian scouts and two Pawnee Indian scouts.
Public response to the Great Sioux War varied in the immediate aftermath of the battle. Custer 's widow soon worked to burnish her husband 's memory, and during the following decades Custer and his troops came to be considered iconic, even heroic, figures in American history, a status that lasted into the 1960s. The battle, and Custer 's actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians.
In 1805 fur trader Francois Antoine Larocque reported joining a Crow camp in the Yellowstone area. On the way he noted that the Crow hunted buffalo on the "Small Horn River ''. The US built Fort Raymond in 1807 for trade with the Crow. It was located near the confluence of the Yellowstone and the Bighorn, about 40 miles north of the future battlefield. The area is first noted in the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
In the latter half of the 19th century tensions increased between the Native inhabitants of the Great Plains of the US and encroaching settlers. This resulted in a series of conflicts known as the Sioux Wars, which took place from 1854 - 90. While some of the indigenous people eventually agreed to relocate to ever - shrinking reservations, a number of them resisted, at times fiercely.
On May 7, 1868, the valley of the Little Bighorn became a tract in the eastern part of the new Crow Indian Reservation in the center of the old Crow country. The battlefield is known as "Greasy Grass '' to the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and most other Plains Indians; however, in contemporary accounts by participants, it was referred to as the "Valley of Chieftains ''.
Among the Plains Tribes, the long - standing ceremonial tradition known as the Sun Dance was the most important religious event of the year. It is a time for prayer and personal sacrifice on behalf of the community, as well as making personal vows. Towards the end of spring in 1876, the Lakota and the Cheyenne held a Sun Dance that was also attended by a number of "Agency Indians '' who had slipped away from their reservations. During a Sun Dance around June 5, 1876, on Rosebud Creek in Montana, Sitting Bull, the spiritual leader of the Hunkpapa Lakota, reportedly had a vision of "soldiers falling into his camp like grasshoppers from the sky. '' At the same time US military officials were conducting a summer campaign to force the Lakota and the Cheyenne back to their reservations, using infantry and cavalry in a so - called "three - pronged approach ''.
Col. John Gibbon 's column of six companies (A, B, E, H, I, and K) of the 7th Infantry and four companies (F, G, H, and L) of the 2nd Cavalry marched east from Fort Ellis in western Montana on March 30 to patrol the Yellowstone River. Brig. Gen. George Crook 's column of ten companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L, and M) of the 3rd Cavalry, five companies (A, B, D, E, and I) of the 2nd Cavalry, two companies (D and F) of the 4th Infantry, and three companies (C, G, and H) of the 9th Infantry moved north from Fort Fetterman in the Wyoming Territory on May 29, marching toward the Powder River area. Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry 's column, including twelve companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, and M) of the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer 's immediate command, Companies C and G of the 17th U.S. Infantry, and the Gatling gun detachment of the 20th Infantry departed westward from Fort Abraham Lincoln in the Dakota Territory on May 17. They were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a large contingent of pack mules that reinforced Custer. Companies C, D, and I of the 6th U.S. Infantry moved along the Yellowstone River from Fort Buford on the Missouri River to set up a supply depot and joined Terry on May 29 at the mouth of the Powder River. They were later joined there by the steamboat Far West, which was loaded with 200 tons of supplies from Fort Lincoln.
The 7th Cavalry had been created just after the American Civil War. Many men were veterans of the war, including most of the leading officers. A significant portion of the regiment had previously served 4 - 1 / 2 years at Fort Riley, Kansas, during which time it fought one major engagement and numerous skirmishes, experiencing casualties of 36 killed and 27 wounded. Six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 in cholera epidemics. In November 1868, while stationed in Kansas, the 7th Cavalry under Custer had successfully routed Black Kettle 's Southern Cheyenne camp on the Washita River in the Battle of Washita River, an attack which was at the time labeled a "massacre of innocent Indians '' by the Indian Bureau.
By the time of the Little Bighorn, half of the 7th Cavalry 's companies had just returned from 18 months of constabulary duty in the Deep South, having been recalled to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reassemble the regiment for the campaign. About 20 % of the troopers had been enlisted in the prior seven months (139 of an enlisted roll of 718), were only marginally trained and had no combat or frontier experience. A sizable number of these recruits were immigrants from Ireland, England and Germany, just as many of the veteran troopers had been before their enlistments. Archaeological evidence suggests that many of these troopers were malnourished and in poor physical condition, despite being the best - equipped and supplied regiment in the Army.
Of the 45 officers and 718 troopers then assigned to the 7th Cavalry (including a second lieutenant detached from the 20th Infantry and serving in Company L), 14 officers (including the regimental commander, Col. Samuel D. Sturgis) and 152 troopers did not accompany the 7th during the campaign. The ratio of troops detached for other duty (approximately 22 %) was not unusual for an expedition of this size, and part of the officer shortage was chronic, due to the Army 's rigid seniority system: three of the regiment 's 12 captains were permanently detached, and two had never served a day with the 7th since their appointment in July 1866. Three second lieutenant vacancies (in E, H, and L Companies) were also unfilled.
The Army 's coordination and planning began to go awry on June 17, 1876, when Crook 's column retreated after the Battle of the Rosebud, just 30 miles to the southeast of the eventual Little Bighorn battlefield. Surprised and according to some accounts astonished by the unusually large numbers of Native Americans, Crook held the field at the end of the battle but felt compelled by his losses to pull back, regroup, and wait for reinforcements. Unaware of Crook 's battle, Gibbon and Terry proceeded, joining forces in early June near the mouth of Rosebud Creek. They reviewed Terry 's plan calling for Custer 's regiment to proceed south along the Rosebud while Terry and Gibbon 's united forces would move in a westerly direction toward the Bighorn and Little Bighorn rivers. As this was the likely location of native encampments, all army elements had been instructed to converge there around June 26 or 27 in an attempt to engulf the Native Americans. On June 22, Terry ordered the 7th Cavalry, composed of 31 officers and 566 enlisted men under Custer, to begin a reconnaissance in force and pursuit along the Rosebud, with the prerogative to "depart '' from orders if Custer saw "sufficient reason ''. Custer had been offered the use of Gatling guns but declined, believing they would slow his command.
While the Terry -- Gibbon column was marching toward the mouth of the Little Bighorn, on the evening of June 24, Custer 's Indian scouts arrived at an overlook known as the Crow 's Nest, 14 miles (23 km) east of the Little Bighorn River. At sunrise on June 25, Custer 's scouts reported they could see a massive pony herd and signs of the Native American village roughly 15 miles (24 km) in the distance. After a night 's march, the tired officer who was sent with the scouts could see neither, and when Custer joined them, he was also unable to make the sighting. Custer 's scouts also spotted the regimental cooking fires that could be seen from 10 miles (16 km) away, disclosing the regiment 's position.
Custer contemplated a surprise attack against the encampment the following morning of June 26, but he then received a report informing him several hostiles had discovered the trail left by his troops. Assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. On the morning of June 25, Custer divided his 12 companies into three battalions in anticipation of the forthcoming engagement. Three companies were placed under the command of Major Marcus Reno (A, G, and M) and three were placed under the command of Captain Frederick Benteen (H, D, and K). Five companies (C, E, F, I, and L) remained under Custer 's immediate command. The 12th, Company B under Captain Thomas McDougall, had been assigned to escort the slower pack train carrying provisions and additional ammunition.
Unknown to Custer, the group of Native Americans seen on his trail was actually leaving the encampment and did not alert the rest of the village. Custer 's scouts warned him about the size of the village, with Mitch Bouyer reportedly saying, "General, I have been with these Indians for 30 years, and this is the largest village I have ever heard of. '' Custer 's overriding concern was that the Native American group would break up and scatter. The command began its approach to the village at noon and prepared to attack in full daylight.
As the Army moved into the field on its expedition, it was operating with incorrect assumptions as to the number of Indians it would encounter. These assumptions were based on inaccurate information provided by the Indian Agents that no more than 800 hostiles were in the area. The Indian Agents based this estimate on the number of Lakota that Sitting Bull and other leaders had reportedly led off the reservation in protest of U.S. government policies. It was in fact a correct estimate until several weeks before the battle, when the "reservation Indians '' joined Sitting Bull 's ranks for the summer buffalo hunt. The agents did not take into account the many thousands of these "reservation Indians '' who had unofficially left the reservation to join their "uncooperative non-reservation cousins led by Sitting Bull ''. Thus, Custer unknowingly faced thousands of Indians, including the 800 non-reservation "hostiles ''. All Army plans were based on the incorrect numbers. Although Custer was severely criticized after the battle for not having accepted reinforcements and for dividing his forces, it must be understood that he had accepted the same official government estimates of hostiles in the area which Terry and Gibbon had also accepted. Historian James Donovan states that when Custer asked interpreter Fred Gerard for his opinion on the size of the opposition, he estimated the force at between 1,500 to 2,500 warriors.
Additionally, Custer was more concerned with preventing the escape of the Lakota and Cheyenne than with fighting them. From his own observation, as reported by his bugler John Martin (Martini), Custer assumed the warriors had been sleeping in on the morning of the battle, to which virtually every native account attested later, giving Custer a false estimate of what he was up against. When he and his scouts first looked down on the village from the Crow 's Nest across the Little Bighorn River, they could only see the herd of ponies. Looking from a hill 2.5 miles (4.0 km) away after parting with Reno 's command, Custer could observe only women preparing for the day, and young boys taking thousands of horses out to graze south of the village. Custer 's Crow scouts told him it was the largest native village they had ever seen. When the scouts began changing back into their native dress right before the battle, Custer released them from his command. While the village was enormous in size, Custer thought there were far fewer warriors to defend the village. He assumed most of the warriors were still asleep in their tipis.
Finally, Custer may have assumed that in the event of his encountering Native Americans, his subordinate Benteen with the pack train would quickly come to his aid. Rifle volleys were a standard way of telling supporting units to come to another unit 's aid. In a subsequent official 1879 Army investigation requested by Major Reno, the Reno Board of Inquiry (RCOI), Benteen and Reno 's men testified that they heard distinct rifle volleys as late as 4: 30 pm during the battle.
Custer had initially wanted to take a day and scout the village before attacking; however, when men went back after supplies dropped by the pack train, they discovered they were being back - trailed by Indians. Reports from his scouts also revealed fresh pony tracks from ridges overlooking his formation. It became apparent that the warriors in the village were either aware of or would soon be aware of his approach. Fearing that the village would break up into small bands that he would have to chase, Custer began to prepare for an immediate attack.
Custer 's field strategy was designed to engage noncombatants at the encampments on the Little Bighorn so as to capture women, children, and the elderly or disabled to serve as hostages to convince the warriors to surrender and comply with federal orders to relocate. Custer 's battalions were poised to "ride into the camp and secure noncombatant hostages '' and "forc (e) the warriors to surrender ''. Author Evan S. Connell observed that if Custer could occupy the village before widespread resistance developed, the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors "would be obliged to surrender, because if they started to fight, they would be shooting their own families. ''
In Custer 's book My Life on the Plains, published just two years before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, he asserted:
Indians contemplating a battle, either offensive or defensive, are always anxious to have their women and children removed from all danger... For this reason I decided to locate our (military) camp as close as convenient to (Chief Black Kettle 's Cheyenne) village, knowing that the close proximity of their women and children, and their necessary exposure in case of conflict, would operate as a powerful argument in favor of peace, when the question of peace or war came to be discussed.
On Custer 's decision to advance up the bluffs and descend on the village from the east, Lt. Edward Godfrey of Company K surmised:
(Custer) expected to find the squaws and children fleeing to the bluffs on the north, for in no other way do I account for his wide detour. He must have counted upon Reno 's success, and fully expected the "scatteration '' of the non-combatants with the pony herds. The probable attack upon the families and capture of the herds were in that event counted upon to strike consternation in the hearts of the warriors, and were elements for success upon which General Custer fully counted.
The Sioux and Cheyenne fighters were acutely aware of the danger posed by the military engagement of noncombatants and that "even a semblance of an attack on the women and children '' would draw the warriors back to the village, according to historian John S. Gray. Such was their concern that a "feint '' by Capt. Yates ' E and F Companies at the mouth of Medicine Tail Coulee (Minneconjou Ford) caused hundreds of warriors to disengage from the Reno valley fight and return to deal with the threat to the village.
Some authors and historians, based on archaeological evidence and reviews of native testimony, speculate that Custer attempted to cross the river at a point they refer to as Ford D. According to Richard A. Fox, James Donovan, and others, Custer proceeded with a wing of his battalion (Yates ' Troops E and F) north and opposite the Cheyenne circle at that crossing, which provided "access to the (women and children) fugitives. '' Yates 's force "posed an immediate threat to fugitive Indian families... '' gathering at the north end of the huge encampment; he then persisted in his efforts to "seize women and children '' even as hundreds of warriors were massing around Keogh 's wing on the bluffs. Yates ' wing, descending to the Little Bighorn River at Ford D, encountered "light resistance '', undetected by the Indian forces ascending the bluffs east of the village. Custer was almost within "striking distance of the refugees '' before being repulsed by Indian defenders and forced back to Custer Ridge.
The Lone Teepee (or Tipi) was a landmark along the 7th Cavalry 's march. It was where the Indian encampment had been a week earlier, during the Battle of the Rosebud on June 17. The Indians had left a single teepee standing (some reports mention a second that had been partially dismantled), and in it was the body of a Sans Arc warrior, Old She - Bear, who had been wounded in the battle. He had died a couple of days after the Rosebud battle, and it was the custom of the Indians to move camp when a warrior died and leave the body with its possessions. The Lone Teepee was an important location during the Battle of the Little Bighorn for several reasons, including:
The first group to attack was Major Reno 's second detachment (Companies A, G and M) after receiving orders from Custer written out by Lt. William W. Cooke, as Custer 's Crow scouts reported Sioux tribe members were alerting the village. Ordered to charge, Reno began that phase of the battle. The orders, made without accurate knowledge of the village 's size, location, or the warriors ' propensity to stand and fight, had been to pursue the Native Americans and "bring them to battle. '' Reno 's force crossed the Little Bighorn at the mouth of what is today Reno Creek around 3: 00 pm on June 25. They immediately realized that the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne were present "in force and not running away. ''
Reno advanced rapidly across the open field towards the northwest, his movements masked by the thick bramble of trees that ran along the southern banks of the Little Bighorn River. The same trees on his front right shielded his movements across the wide field over which his men rapidly rode, first with two approximately forty - man companies abreast and eventually with all three charging abreast. The trees also obscured Reno 's view of the Native American village until his force had passed that bend on his right front and was suddenly within arrow - shot of the village. The tepees in that area were occupied by the Hunkpapa Sioux. Neither Custer nor Reno had much idea of the length, depth and size of the encampment they were attacking, as the village was hidden by the trees. When Reno came into the open in front of the south end of the village, he sent his Arikara / Ree and Crow Indian scouts forward on his exposed left flank. Realizing the full extent of the village 's width, Reno quickly suspected what he would later call "a trap '' and stopped a few hundred yards short of the encampment.
He ordered his troopers to dismount and deploy in a skirmish line, according to standard army doctrine. In this formation, every fourth trooper held the horses for the troopers in firing position, with five to ten yards separating each trooper, officers to their rear and troopers with horses behind the officers. This formation reduced Reno 's firepower by 25 percent. As Reno 's men fired into the village and killed, by some accounts, several wives and children of the Sioux leader, Chief Gall (in Lakota, Phizí), mounted warriors began streaming out to meet the attack. With Reno 's men anchored on their right by the impassable tree line and bend in the river, the Indians rode hard against the exposed left end of Reno 's line. After about 20 minutes of long - distance firing, Reno had taken only one casualty, but the odds against him had risen (Reno estimated five to one) and Custer had not reinforced him. Trooper Billy Jackson reported that by then, the Indians had begun massing in the open area shielded by a small hill to the left of Reno 's line and to the right of the Indian village. From this position the Indians mounted an attack of more than 500 warriors against the left and rear of Reno 's line, turning Reno 's exposed left flank. They forced a hasty withdrawal into the timber along the bend in the river. Here the Indians pinned Reno and his men down and set fire to the brush to try to drive the soldiers out of their position.
After giving orders to mount, dismount and mount again, Reno told his men, "All those who wish to make their escape follow me, '' and led a disorderly rout across the river toward the bluffs on the other side. The retreat was immediately disrupted by Cheyenne attacks at close quarters. Later, Reno reported that three officers and 29 troopers had been killed during the retreat and subsequent fording of the river. Another officer and 13 -- 18 men were missing. Most of these missing men were left behind in the timber, although many eventually rejoined the detachment. Reno 's hasty retreat may have been precipitated by the death of Reno 's Arikara scout Bloody Knife, who had been shot in the head as he sat on his horse next to Reno, his blood and brains splattering the side of Reno 's face.
Atop the bluffs, known today as Reno Hill, Reno 's shaken troops were joined by Captain Benteen 's column (Companies D, H and K), arriving from the south. This force had been on a lateral scouting mission when it had been summoned by Custer 's messenger, Italian bugler John Martin (Giovanni Martini) with the handwritten message "Benteen. Come on, Big Village, Be quick, Bring packs. P.S. Bring Packs. ''. Benteen 's coincidental arrival on the bluffs was just in time to save Reno 's men from possible annihilation. Their detachments were reinforced by McDougall 's Company B and the pack train. The 14 officers and 340 troopers on the bluffs organized an all - around defense and dug rifle pits using whatever implements they had among them, including knives. This practice had become standard during the last year of the American Civil War, with both Union and Confederate troops utilizing knives, eating utensils, mess plates and pans to dig effective battlefield fortifications.
Despite hearing heavy gunfire from the north, including distinct volleys at 4: 20 pm, Benteen concentrated on reinforcing Reno 's badly wounded and hard - pressed detachment rather than continuing on toward Custer 's position. Benteen 's apparent reluctance to reach Custer prompted later criticism that he had failed to follow orders. Around 5: 00 pm, Capt. Thomas Weir and Company D moved out to make contact with Custer. They advanced a mile, to what is today Weir Ridge or Weir Point, and could see in the distance native warriors on horseback shooting at objects on the ground. By this time, roughly 5: 25 pm, Custer 's battle may have concluded. The conventional historical understanding is that what Weir witnessed was most likely warriors killing the wounded soldiers and shooting at dead bodies on the "Last Stand Hill '' at the northern end of the Custer battlefield. Some contemporary historians have suggested that what Weir witnessed was a fight on what is now called Calhoun Hill. The destruction of Keogh 's battalion may have begun with the collapse of L, I and C Company (half of it) following the combined assaults led by Crazy Horse, White Bull, Hump, Chief Gall and others. Other native accounts contradict this understanding, however, and the time element remains a subject of debate. The other entrenched companies eventually followed Weir by assigned battalions, first Benteen, then Reno, and finally the pack train. Growing native attacks around Weir Ridge forced all seven companies to return to the bluff before the pack train, with the ammunition, had moved even a quarter mile. The companies remained pinned down on the bluff for another day, but the natives were unable to breach the tightly held position.
Benteen displayed calmness and courage by exposing himself to Indian fire and was hit in the heel of his boot by an Indian bullet. At one point, he personally led a counterattack to push back Indians who had continued to crawl through the grass closer to the soldier 's positions.
The precise details of Custer 's fight are largely conjectural since none of his men (the five companies under his immediate command) survived the battle. Later accounts from surviving Indians are conflicting and unclear.
While the gunfire heard on the bluffs by Reno and Benteen 's men was probably from Custer 's fight, the soldiers on Reno Hill were unaware of what had happened to Custer until General Terry 's arrival on June 27. They were reportedly stunned by the news. When the army examined the Custer battle site, soldiers could not determine fully what had transpired. Custer 's force of roughly 210 men had been engaged by the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the north of Reno and Benteen 's defensive position. Evidence of organized resistance included apparent breastworks made of dead horses on Custer Hill. By the time troops came to recover the bodies, the Lakota and Cheyenne had already removed most of their dead from the field. The troops found most of Custer 's dead stripped of their clothing, ritually mutilated, and in an advanced state of decomposition, making identification of many impossible. The soldiers identified the 7th Cavalry 's dead as best as possible and hastily buried them where they fell.
Custer was found with shots to the left chest and left temple. Either wound would have been fatal, though he appeared to have bled from only the chest wound, meaning his head wound may have been delivered postmortem. He also suffered a wound to the arm. Some Lakota oral histories assert that Custer committed suicide to avoid capture and subsequent torture, though this is usually discounted since the wounds were inconsistent with his known right - handedness. (Other native accounts note several soldiers committing suicide near the end of the battle.) Custer 's body was found near the top of Custer Hill, which also came to be known as "Last Stand Hill ''. There the United States erected a tall memorial obelisk inscribed with the names of the 7th Cavalry 's casualties.
Several days after the battle, Curley, Custer 's Crow scout who had left Custer near Medicine Tail Coulee (a drainage which led to the river), recounted the battle, reporting that Custer had attacked the village after attempting to cross the river. He was driven back, retreating toward the hill where his body was found. As the scenario seemed compatible with Custer 's aggressive style of warfare and with evidence found on the ground, it became the basis of many popular accounts of the battle.
According to Pretty Shield, the wife of Goes - Ahead (another Crow scout for the 7th Cavalry), Custer was killed while crossing the river: "... and he died there, died in the water of the Little Bighorn, with Two - bodies, and the blue soldier carrying his flag ''. In this account, Custer was allegedly killed by a Lakota called Big - nose. However, in Chief Gall 's version of events, as recounted to Lt. Edward Settle Godfrey, Custer did not attempt to ford the river and the nearest that he came to the river or village was his final position on the ridge. Chief Gall 's statements were corroborated by other Indians, notably the wife of Spotted Horn Bull. Given that no bodies of men or horses were found anywhere near the ford, Godfrey himself concluded "that Custer did not go to the ford with any body of men ''.
Cheyenne oral tradition credits Buffalo Calf Road Woman with striking the blow that knocked Custer off his horse before he died.
- Reported words of Lieutenant Colonel Custer at the battle 's outset.
Having isolated Reno 's force and driven them away from the encampment, the bulk of the native warriors were free to pursue Custer. The route taken by Custer to his "Last Stand '' remains a subject of debate. One possibility is that after ordering Reno to charge, Custer continued down Reno Creek to within about a half mile (800 m) of the Little Bighorn, but then turned north and climbed up the bluffs, reaching the same spot to which Reno would soon retreat. From this point on the other side of the river, he could see Reno charging the village. Riding north along the bluffs, Custer could have descended into Medicine Tail Coulee. Some historians believe that part of Custer 's force descended the coulee, going west to the river and attempting unsuccessfully to cross into the village. According to some accounts, a small contingent of Indian sharpshooters opposed this crossing.
White Cow Bull claimed to have shot a leader wearing a buckskin jacket off his horse in the river. While no other Indian account supports this claim, if White Bull did shoot a buckskin - clad leader off his horse, some historians have argued that Custer may have been seriously wounded by him. Some Indian accounts claim that besides wounding one of the leaders of this advance, a soldier carrying a company guidon was also hit. Troopers had to dismount to help the wounded men back onto their horses. The fact that either of the non-mutilation wounds to Custer 's body (a bullet wound below the heart and a shot to the left temple) would have been instantly fatal casts doubt on his being wounded and remounted.
Reports of an attempted fording of the river at Medicine Tail Coulee might explain Custer 's purpose for Reno 's attack, that is, a coordinated "hammer - and - anvil '' maneuver, with Reno 's holding the Indians at bay at the southern end of the camp, while Custer drove them against Reno 's line from the north. Other historians have noted that if Custer did attempt to cross the river near Medicine Tail Coulee, he may have believed it was the north end of the Indian camp, although it was only the middle. Some Indian accounts, however, place the Northern Cheyenne encampment and the north end of the overall village to the left (and south) of the opposite side of the crossing. The precise location of the north end of the village remains in dispute, however.
Edward Curtis, the famed ethnologist and photographer of the Native American Indians, made a detailed personal study of the battle, interviewing many of those who had fought or taken part in it. First he went over the ground covered by the troops with the three Crow scouts White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, and Hairy Moccasin, and then again with Two Moons and a party of Cheyenne warriors. He also visited the Lakota country and interviewed Red Hawk, "whose recollection of the fight seemed to be particularly clear ''. Then, he went over the battlefield once more with the three Crow scouts, but also accompanied by General Charles Woodruff "as I particularly desired that the testimony of these men might be considered by an experienced army officer ''. Finally, Curtis visited the country of the Arikara and interviewed the scouts of that tribe who had been with Custer 's command. Based on all the information he gathered, Curtis concluded that Custer had indeed ridden down the Medicine Tail Coulee and then towards the river where he probably planned to ford it. However, "the Indians had now discovered him and were gathered closely on the opposite side ''. They were soon joined by a large force of Sioux who (no longer engaging Reno) rushed down the valley. This was the beginning of their attack on Custer who was forced to turn and head for the hill where he would make his famous "last stand ''. Thus, wrote Curtis, "Custer made no attack, the whole movement being a retreat ''.
Other historians claim that Custer never approached the river, but rather continued north across the coulee and up the other side, where he gradually came under attack. According to this theory, by the time Custer realized he was badly outnumbered, it was too late to break back to the south where Reno and Benteen could have provided assistance. Two men from the 7th Cavalry, the young Crow scout Ashishishe (known in English as Curley) and the trooper Peter Thompson, claimed to have seen Custer engage the Indians. The accuracy of their recollections remains controversial; accounts by battle participants and assessments by historians almost universally discredit Thompson 's claim.
Archaeological evidence and reassessment of Indian testimony has led to a new interpretation of the battle. In the 1920s, battlefield investigators discovered hundreds of. 45 -- 55 shell cases along the ridge line known today as Nye - Cartwright Ridge, between South Medicine Tail Coulee and the next drainage at North Medicine Tail (also known as Deep Coulee). Some historians believe Custer divided his detachment into two (and possibly three) battalions, retaining personal command of one while presumably delegating Captain George W. Yates to command the second.
Evidence from the 1920s supports the theory that at least one of the companies made a feint attack southeast from Nye - Cartwright Ridge straight down the center of the "V '' formed by the intersection at the crossing of Medicine Tail Coulee on the right and Calhoun Coulee on the left. The intent may have been to relieve pressure on Reno 's detachment (according to the Crow scout Curley, possibly viewed by both Mitch Bouyer and Custer) by withdrawing the skirmish line into the timber on the edge of the Little Bighorn River. Had the U.S. troops come straight down Medicine Tail Coulee, their approach to the Minneconjou Crossing and the northern area of the village would have been masked by the high ridges running on the northwest side of the Little Bighorn River.
That they might have come southeast, from the center of Nye - Cartwright Ridge, seems to be supported by Northern Cheyenne accounts of seeing the approach of the distinctly white - colored horses of Company E, known as the Grey Horse Company. Its approach was seen by Indians at that end of the village. Behind them, a second company, further up on the heights, would have provided long - range cover fire. Warriors could have been drawn to the feint attack, forcing the battalion back towards the heights, up the north fork drainage, away from the troops providing cover fire above. The covering company would have moved towards a reunion, delivering heavy volley fire and leaving the trail of expended cartridges discovered 50 years later.
In the end, the hilltop to which Custer had moved was probably too small to accommodate all of the survivors and wounded. Fire from the southeast made it impossible for Custer 's men to secure a defensive position all around Last Stand Hill where the soldiers put up their most dogged defense. According to Lakota accounts, far more of their casualties occurred in the attack on Last Stand Hill than anywhere else. The extent of the soldiers ' resistance indicated they had few doubts about their prospects for survival. According to Cheyenne and Sioux testimony, the command structure rapidly broke down, although smaller "last stands '' were apparently made by several groups. Custer 's remaining companies (E, F, and half of C) were soon killed.
By almost all accounts, the Lakota annihilated Custer 's force within an hour of engagement. David Humphreys Miller, who between 1935 and 1955 interviewed the last Lakota survivors of the battle, wrote that the Custer fight lasted less than one - half hour. Other native accounts said the fighting lasted only "as long as it takes a hungry man to eat a meal. '' The Lakota asserted that Crazy Horse personally led one of the large groups of warriors who overwhelmed the cavalrymen in a surprise charge from the northeast, causing a breakdown in the command structure and panic among the troops. Many of these men threw down their weapons while Cheyenne and Sioux warriors rode them down, "counting coup '' with lances, coup sticks, and quirts. Some Native accounts recalled this segment of the fight as a "buffalo run. ''
Captain Frederick Benteen, battalion leader of Companies D, H and K, recalled his observations on the Custer battlefield on June 27, 1876
I went over the battlefield carefully with a view to determine how the battle was fought. I arrived at the conclusion I (hold) now -- that it was a rout, a panic, until the last man was killed...
There was no line formed on the battlefield. You can take a handful of corn and scatter (the kernels) over the floor, and make just such lines. There were none... The only approach to a line was where 5 or 6 (dead) horses found at equal distances, like skirmishers (part of Lt. Calhoun 's Company L). That was the only approach to a line on the field. There were more than 20 (troopers) killed (in one group); there were (more often) four or five at one place, all within a space of 20 to 30 yards (of each other)... I counted 70 dead (cavalry) horses and 2 Indian ponies.
I think, in all probability, that the men turned their horses loose without any orders to do so. Many orders might have been given, but few obeyed. I think that they were panic stricken; it was a rout, as I said before.
A Brulé Sioux warrior stated: "In fact, Hollow Horn Bear believed that the troops were in good order at the start of the fight, and kept their organization even while moving from point to point. '' Red Horse, an Oglala Sioux warrior, commented: "Here (Last Stand Hill) the soldiers made a desperate fight. '' One Hunkpapa Sioux warrior, Moving Robe, noted that "It was a hotly contested battle '', while another, Iron Hawk, stated: "The Indians pressed and crowded right in around Custer Hill. But the soldiers were n't ready to die. We stood there a long time. '' In a letter from February 21, 1910, Private William Taylor, Company M, 7th Cavalry, wrote: "Reno proved incompetent and Benteen showed his indifference -- I will not use the uglier words that have often been in my mind. Both failed Custer and he had to fight it out alone. ''
Recent archaeological work at the battlefield indicates that officers on Custer Hill restored some tactical control. E Company rushed off Custer Hill toward the Little Bighorn River but failed to reach it, which resulted in the total destruction of that company. This left about 50 - 60 men, mostly from F Company and the staff, on Last Stand Hill. The remainder of the battle took on the nature of a running fight. Modern archaeology and historical Indian accounts indicate that Custer 's force may have been divided into three groups, with the Indians ' attempting to prevent them from effectively reuniting. Indian accounts describe warriors (including women) running up from the village to wave blankets in order to scare off the soldiers ' horses. One 7th Cavalry trooper claimed finding a number of stone mallets consisting of a round cobble weighing 8 -- 10 pounds (about 4 kg) with a rawhide handle, which he believed had been used by the Indian women to finish off the wounded. Fighting dismounted, the soldiers ' skirmish lines were overwhelmed. Army doctrine would have called for one man in four to be a horseholder behind the skirmish lines and, in extreme cases, one man in eight. Later, the troops would have bunched together in defensive positions and are alleged to have shot their remaining horses as cover. As individual troopers were wounded or killed, initial defensive positions would have been abandoned as untenable.
Under threat of attack, the first U.S. soldiers on the battlefield three days later hurriedly buried the troopers in shallow graves, more or less where they had fallen. A couple of years after the battle, markers were placed where men were believed to have fallen, so the placement of troops has been roughly construed. The troops evidently died in several groups, including on Custer Hill, around Captain Myles Keogh, and strung out towards the Little Bighorn River.
Modern documentaries suggest that there may not have been a "Last Stand '' as traditionally portrayed in popular culture. Instead, archaeologists suggest that, in the end, Custer 's troops were not surrounded but rather overwhelmed by a single charge. This scenario corresponds to several Indian accounts stating Crazy Horse 's charge swarmed the resistance, with the surviving soldiers fleeing in panic. Many of these troopers may have ended up in a deep ravine 300 -- 400 yards away from what is known today as Custer Hill. At least 28 bodies (the most common number associated with burial witness testimony), including that of scout Mitch Bouyer, were discovered in or near that gulch, their deaths possibly the battle 's final actions. Although the marker for Mitch Bouyer has been accounted for as being accurate through archaeological and forensic testing, it is some 65 yards away from Deep Ravine. Other archaeological explorations done in Deep Ravine have found no human remains associated with the battle. According to Indian accounts, about 40 men made a desperate stand around Custer on Custer Hill, delivering volley fire. The great majority of the Indian casualties were probably suffered during this closing segment of the battle, as the soldiers and Indians on Calhoun Ridge were more widely separated and traded fire at greater distances for most of their portion of the battle than did the soldiers and Indians on Custer Hill.
After the Custer force was soundly defeated, the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne regrouped to attack Reno and Benteen. The fight continued until dark (approximately 9: 00 pm) and for much of the next day, with the outcome in doubt. Reno credited Benteen 's luck with repulsing a severe attack on the portion of the perimeter held by Companies H and M. On June 27, the column under General Terry approached from the north, and the Natives drew off in the opposite direction. The Crow scout White Man Runs Him was the first to tell General Terry 's officers that Custer 's force had "been wiped out. '' Reno and Benteen 's wounded troops were given what treatment was available at that time; five later died of their wounds. One of the regiment 's three surgeons had been with Custer 's column, while another, Dr. DeWolf, had been killed during Reno 's retreat. The only remaining doctor was Assistant Surgeon Henry R. Porter.
News of the defeat arrived in the East as the U.S. was observing its centennial. The Army began to investigate, although its effectiveness was hampered by a concern for survivors, and the reputation of the officers. Custer 's wife, Elisabeth Bacon Custer, in particular, guarded and promoted the ideal of him as the gallant hero, attacking any who cast an ill light on his reputation.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn had far - reaching consequences for the Natives. It was the beginning of the end of the ' Indian ' Wars and has even been referred to as "the Indians '' last stand '' in the area. Within 48 hours of the battle, the large encampment on the Little Bighorn broke up into smaller groups because there was not enough game and grass to sustain a large congregation of people and horses.
Oglala Sioux Black Elk recounted the exodus this way: "We fled all night, following the Greasy Grass. My two younger brothers and I rode in a pony - drag, and my mother put some young pups in with us. They were always trying to crawl out and I was always putting them back in, so I did n't sleep much. ''
The scattered Sioux and Cheyenne feasted and celebrated during July with no threat from soldiers. After their celebrations, many of the Natives returned to the reservation. Soon the number of warriors amounted to only about 600. Both Crook and Terry remained immobile for seven weeks after the battle, awaiting reinforcements and unwilling to venture out against the Sioux and Cheyenne until they had at least 2,000 men. Crook and Terry finally took the field against the Natives forces in August. General Nelson A. Miles took command of the effort in October 1876. In May 1877, Sitting Bull escaped to Canada. Within days, Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. The Great Sioux War ended on May 7 with Miles ' defeat of a remaining band of Miniconjou Sioux.
Ownership of the Black Hills, which had been a focal point of the 1876 conflict, was determined by an ultimatum issued by the Manypenny Commission, according to which the Sioux were required to cede the land to the United States if they wanted the government to continue supplying rations to the reservations. Threatened with forced starvation, the Natives ceded Paha Sapa to the United States, but the Sioux never accepted the legitimacy of the transaction. They lobbied Congress to create a forum to decide their claim and subsequently litigated for 40 years; the United States Supreme Court in the 1980 decision United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians acknowledged that the United States had taken the Black Hills without just compensation. The Sioux refused the money subsequently offered and continue to insist on their right to occupy the land.
Modern - day accounts include Arapaho warriors in the battle, but the five Arapaho men who were at the encampments were there only by accident. While on a hunting trip they came close to the village by the river and were captured and almost killed by the Lakota who believed the hunters were scouts for the U.S. Army. Two Moon, a Northern Cheyenne leader, interceded to save their lives.
The 7th Cavalry was accompanied by a number of scouts and interpreters:
Native Americans
Native Americans
United States Army, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, 7th United States Cavalry Regiment, Commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †, commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †
Major Marcus Reno
Captain Frederick Benteen
First Lieutenant Edward Gustave Mathey
Second Lieutenant Charles Varnum (wounded), Chief of Scouts
Estimates of Native American casualties have differed widely, from as few as 36 dead (from Native American listings of the dead by name) to as many as 300. Lakota chief Red Horse told Col. W.H. Wood in 1877 that the Native Americans suffered 136 dead and 160 wounded during the battle. In 1881, Red Horse told Dr. C.E. McChesney the same numbers but in a series of drawings done by Red Horse to illustrate the battle, he drew only sixty figures representing Lakota and Cheyenne casualties. Of those sixty figures only thirty some are portrayed with a conventional Plains Indian method of indicating death. In the last 140 years, historians have been able to identify multiple Indian names pertaining to the same individual, which has greatly reduced previously inflated numbers. Today a list of positively known casualties exists that lists 99 names, attributed and consolidated to 31 identified warriors.
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties at Battle of Little Bighorn (Plate XLV)
Six unnamed Native American women and four unnamed children are known to have been killed at the beginning of the battle during Reno 's charge. Among them were two wives and three children of the Hunkpapa Leader Pizi (Gall).
The 7th Cavalry suffered 52 percent casualties: 16 officers and 242 troopers killed or died of wounds, 1 officer and 51 troopers wounded. Every soldier of the five companies with Custer was killed (except for some Crow scouts and several troopers that had left that column before the battle or as the battle was starting). Among the dead were Custer 's brothers Boston and Thomas, his brother - in - law James Calhoun, and his nephew Henry Reed.
In 1878, the army awarded 24 Medals of Honor to participants in the fight on the bluffs for bravery, most for risking their lives to carry water from the river up the hill to the wounded. Few on the non-Indian side questioned the conduct of the enlisted men, but many questioned the tactics, strategy and conduct of the officers. Indian accounts spoke of soldiers ' panic - driven flight and suicide by those unwilling to fall captive to the Indians. While such stories were gathered by Thomas Bailey Marquis in a book in the 1930s, it was not published until 1976 because of the unpopularity of such assertions. Although soldiers may have believed captives would be tortured, Indians usually killed men outright and took as captive for adoption only young women and children. Indian accounts also noted the bravery of soldiers who fought to the death.
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen+ 2 Indian Government scouts (?)
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen & dead cavalry horses
Beginning in July, the 7th Cavalry was assigned new officers and recruiting efforts began to fill the depleted ranks. The regiment, reorganized into eight companies, remained in the field as part of the Terry Expedition, now based on the Yellowstone River at the mouth of the Bighorn and reinforced by Gibbon 's column. On August 8, 1876, after Terry was further reinforced with the 5th Infantry, the expedition moved up Rosebud Creek in pursuit of the Lakota. It met with Crook 's command, similarly reinforced, and the combined force, almost 4,000 strong, followed the Lakota trail northeast toward the Little Missouri River. Persistent rain and lack of supplies forced the column to dissolve and return to its varying starting points. The 7th Cavalry returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reconstitute.
The U.S. Congress authorized appropriations to expand the Army by 2,500 men to meet the emergency after the defeat of the 7th Cavalry. For a session, the Democratic Party - controlled House of Representatives abandoned its campaign to reduce the size of the Army. Word of Custer 's fate reached the 44th United States Congress as a conference committee was attempting to reconcile opposing appropriations bills approved by the House and the Republican Senate. They approved a measure to increase the size of cavalry companies to 100 enlisted men on July 24. The committee temporarily lifted the ceiling on the size of the Army by 2,500 on August 15.
As a result of the defeat in June 1876, Congress responded by attaching what the Sioux call the "sell or starve '' rider (19 Stat. 192) to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1876 (enacted August 15, 1876), which cut off all rations for the Sioux until they terminated hostilities and ceded the Black Hills to the United States. The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254, enacted February 28, 1877) officially took away Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn was the subject of an 1879 U.S. Army Court of Inquiry in Chicago, held at Reno 's request, during which his conduct was scrutinized. Some testimony by non-Army officers suggested that he was drunk and a coward. The court found Reno 's conduct to be without fault. After the battle, Thomas Rosser, James O'Kelly, and others continued to question the conduct of Reno due to his hastily ordered retreat. Defenders of Reno at the trial noted that, while the retreat was disorganized, Reno did not withdraw from his position until it became apparent that he was outnumbered and outflanked by the Indians. Contemporary accounts also point to the fact that Reno 's scout, Bloody Knife, was shot in the head, spraying him with blood, possibly increasing his own panic and distress.
General Terry and others claimed that Custer made strategic errors from the start of the campaign. For instance, he refused to use a battery of Gatling guns, and turned down General Terry 's offer of an additional battalion of the 2nd Cavalry. Custer believed that the Gatling guns would impede his march up the Rosebud and hamper his mobility. His rapid march en route to the Little Bighorn averaged nearly 30 miles (48 km) a day, so his assessment appears to have been accurate. Custer planned "to live and travel like Indians; in this manner the command will be able to go wherever the Indians can '', he wrote in his Herald dispatch.
By contrast, each Gatling gun had to be hauled by four horses, and soldiers often had to drag the heavy guns by hand over obstacles. Each of the heavy, hand - cranked weapons could fire up to 350 rounds a minute, an impressive rate, but they were known to jam frequently. During the Black Hills Expedition two years earlier, a Gatling gun had turned over, rolled down a mountain, and shattered to pieces. Lieutenant William Low, commander of the artillery detachment, was said to have almost wept when he learned he had been excluded from the strike force.
Custer believed that the 7th Cavalry could handle any Indian force and that the addition of the four companies of the 2nd would not alter the outcome. When offered the 2nd Cavalry, he reportedly replied that the 7th "could handle anything. '' There is evidence that Custer suspected that he would be outnumbered by the Indians, although he did not know by how much. By dividing his forces, Custer could have caused the defeat of the entire column, had it not been for Benteen 's and Reno 's linking up to make a desperate yet successful stand on the bluff above the southern end of the camp.
The historian James Donovan believed that Custer 's dividing his force into four smaller detachments (including the pack train) can be attributed to his inadequate reconnaissance; he also ignored the warnings of his Crow scouts and Charley Reynolds. By the time the battle began, Custer had already divided his forces into three battalions of differing sizes, of which he kept the largest. His men were widely scattered and unable to support each other. Wanting to prevent any escape by the combined tribes to the south, where they could disperse into different groups, Custer believed that an immediate attack on the south end of the camp was the best course of action.
Criticism of Custer was not universal. While investigating the battlefield, Lieutenant General Nelson A. Miles wrote in 1877, "The more I study the moves here (on the Little Big Horn), the more I have admiration for Custer. '' Facing major budget cutbacks, the U.S. Army wanted to avoid bad press and found ways to exculpate Custer. They blamed the defeat on the Indians ' alleged possession of numerous repeating rifles and the overwhelming numerical superiority of the warriors.
The widowed Elizabeth Bacon Custer, who never remarried, wrote three popular books in which she fiercely protected her husband 's reputation. She lived until 1933, thus preventing much serious research until most of the evidence was long gone. In addition, Captain Frederick Whittaker 's 1876 book idealizing Custer was hugely successful. Custer as a heroic officer fighting valiantly against savage forces was an image popularized in Wild West extravaganzas hosted by showman "Buffalo Bill '' Cody, Pawnee Bill, and others. It was not until over half a century later that historians took another look at the battle and Custer 's decisions that led to his death and loss of half his command and found much to criticize.
General Alfred Terry 's Dakota column included a single battery of artillery, comprising two Rodman guns (3 - inch Ordnance rifle) and two Gatling guns. (According to historian Evan S. Connell, the precise number of Gatlings has not been established, ranging from two to three.)
Custer 's decision to reject Terry 's offer of the rapid - fire Gatlings has raised questions among historians as to why he refused them and what advantage their availability might have conferred on his forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
One factor concerned Major Marcus Reno 's recent 8 - day reconnaissance - in - force of the Powder - Tongue - Rosebud Rivers, June 10 to 18. This deployment had demonstrated that artillery pieces mounted on gun carriages and hauled by horses no longer fit for cavalry mounts (so - called condemned horses) were cumbersome over mixed terrain and vulnerable to breakdowns. Custer, valuing the mobility of the 7th Cavalry and recognizing Terry 's acknowledgement of the regiment as "the primary strike force '' preferred to remain unencumbered by the Gatling guns. Custer insisted that the artillery was superfluous to his success, in that the 7th Cavalry alone was sufficient to cope with any force they should encounter, informing Terry: "The 7th can handle anything it meets ''. In addition to these practical concerns, a strained relationship with Major James Brisbin induced Custer 's polite refusal to integrate Brisbin 's Second Cavalry unit -- and the Gatling guns -- into his strike force, as it would disrupt any hierarchical arrangements that Custer presided over.
Historians have acknowledged the firepower inherent in the Gatling gun: they were capable of firing 350. 45 - 70 caliber rounds per minute. Jamming caused by black powder residue could lower that rate, raising questions as to their reliability under combat conditions. Researchers have further questioned the effectiveness of the guns under the tactics that Custer was likely to face with the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The Gatlings, mounted high on carriages, required the battery crew to stand upright during its operation, making them easy targets for Lakota and Cheyenne sharpshooters.
Historian Robert M. Utley, in a section entitled "Would Gatling Guns Have Saved Custer? '' presents two judgments from Custer 's contemporaries: General Henry J. Hunt, expert in the tactical use of artillery in Civil War, stated that Gatlings "would probably have saved the command '', whereas General Nelson A. Miles, participant in the Great Sioux War declared "(Gatlings) were useless for Indian fighting. ''
The Lakota and Cheyenne warriors that opposed Custer 's forces possessed a wide array of weaponry, from Stone Age war clubs and lances to the most advanced firearms of the day. The typical firearms carried by the Lakota and Cheyenne combatants were muzzleloaders, more often a cap - lock smoothbore, the so - called Indian trade musket or Leman guns distributed to Indians by the US government at treaty conventions. Less common were surplus. 58 caliber rifled muskets of American Civil War vintage such as the Enfield and Springfield. Metal cartridge weapons were prized by native combatants, such as the Henry and the Spencer lever - action rifles, as well as Sharps breechloaders. Bows and arrows were utilized by younger braves in lieu of the more potent firearms; effective up to 30 yards (27 meters), the arrows could readily maim or disable an opponent.
Sitting Bull 's forces had no assured means to supply themselves with firearms and ammunition. Nonetheless, they could usually procure these through post-traders, licensed or unlicensed, and from gunrunners who operated in the Dakota Territory: "... a horse or a mule for a repeater... buffalo hides for ammunition. '' Custer 's highly regarded guide, "Lonesome '' Charley Reynolds, informed his superior in early 1876 that Sitting Bull 's forces were amassing weapons, including numerous Winchester repeating rifles and abundant ammunition.
Of the guns owned by Lakota and Cheyenne fighters at the Little Bighorn, approximately 200 were repeating rifles corresponding to about 1 of 10 of the encampment 's two thousand able - bodied fighters who participated in the battle
The troops under Custer 's command carried two regulation firearms authorized and issued by the U.S. Army in early 1876: the breech - loading, single - shot Springfield Model 1873 carbine, and the 1873 Colt single - action revolver. The regulation M1860 saber or "long knives '' were not carried by troopers upon Custer 's order.
With the exception of a number of officers and scouts who opted for personally owned and more expensive rifles and handguns, the 7th Cavalry was uniformly armed.
Ammunition allotments provided 100 carbine rounds per trooper, carried on a cartridge belt and in saddlebags on their mounts. An additional 50 carbine rounds per man were reserved on the pack train that accompanied the regiment to the battlefield. Each trooper had 24 rounds for his Colt handgun. The opposing forces, though not equally matched in the number and type of arms, were comparably outfitted, and neither side held a overwhelming advantage in weaponry.
Two hundred or more Lakota and Cheyenne combatants are known to have been armed with Henry, Winchester, or similar lever - action repeating rifles at the battle. Virtually every trooper in the 7th Cavalry fought with the single - shot, breech - loading Springfield carbine and the Colt revolver.
Historians have asked whether the repeating rifles conferred a distinct advantage on Sitting Bull 's villagers that contributed to their victory over Custer 's carbine - armed soldiers.
Historian Michael L. Lawson offers a scenario based on archaeological collections at the "Henryville '' site, which yielded plentiful Henry rifle cartridge casings from approximately 20 individual guns. Lawson speculates that, though less powerful than the Springfield carbines, the Henry repeaters provided a barrage of fire at a critical point, driving Lieutenant James Calhoun 's L Company from Calhoun Hill and Finley Ridge, forcing them to flee in disarray back to Captain Myles Keogh 's I Company, and leading to the disintegration of that wing of Custer 's Battalion.
After exhaustive testing -- including comparisons to domestic and foreign single - shot and repeating rifles -- the Army Ordnance Board (whose members included officers Marcus Reno and Alfred Terry) authorized the Springfield as the official firearm for the United States Army.
The Springfield, manufactured in a. 45 - 70 long rifle version for the infantry and a. 45 - 55 light carbine version for the cavalry, was judged a solid firearm that met the long - term and geostrategic requirements of the United States fighting forces.
British historian Mark Gallear maintains that US government experts rejected the lever - action repeater designs, deeming them ineffective in the event of a clash with fully equipped European armies, or in case of an outbreak of another American civil conflict. Gallear 's analysis minimizes the allegation that rapid depletion of ammunition in lever - action models influenced the decision in favor of the single - shot Springfield. The Indian War, in this context, appears as a minor theatre of conflict, whose contingencies were unlikely to govern the selection of standard weaponry for an emerging industrialized nation.
The Springfield carbine is praised for its "superior range and stopping power '' by historian James Donovan, and author Charles M. Robinson reports that the rifle could be "loaded and fired much more rapidly than its muzzle loading predecessors, and had twice the range of repeating rifles such as the Winchester, Henry and Spencer. ''
Gallear points out that lever - action rifles, after a burst of rapid discharge, still required a reloading interlude that lowered their overall rate of fire; Springfield breechloaders "in the long run, had a higher rate of fire, which was sustainable throughout a battle. ''
The breechloader design patent for the Springfield 's Erskine S. Allin trapdoor system was owned by the US government and the firearm could be easily adapted for production with existing machinery at the Springfield Armory in Massachusetts. At time when funding for the post-war Army had been slashed, the prospect for economical production influenced the Ordnance Board member selection of the Springfield option.
The question as to whether the reported malfunction of the Model 1873 Springfield carbine issued to the 7th Cavalry contributed to their defeat has been debated for years.
That the weapon experienced jamming of the extractor is not contested, but its contribution to Custer 's defeat is considered negligible. This conclusion is supported by evidence from archaeological studies performed at the battlefield, where the recovery of Springfield cartridge casing, bearing tell - tale scratch marks indicating manual extraction, were rare. The flaw in the ejector mechanism was known to the Army Ordnance Board at the time of the selection of the Model 1873 rifle and carbine, and was not considered a significant shortcoming in the overall worthiness of the shoulder arm. With the ejector failure in US Army tests as low as 1: 300, the Springfield carbine was vastly more reliable than the muzzle - loading Springfields used in the Civil War.
Gallear addresses the post-battle testimony concerning the copper. 45 - 55 cartridges supplied to the troops in which an officer is said to have cleared the chambers of spent cartridges for a number of Springfield carbines. This testimony of widespread fusing of the casings offered to the Chief of Ordnance at the Reno Court of Inquiry in 1879 conflicts with the archaeological evidence collected at the battlefield. Field data showed that possible extractor failures occurred at a rate of approximately 1: 30 firings at the Custer Battlefield and at a rate of 1: 37 at the Reno - Benteen Battlefield.
Historian Thom Hatch observes that the Model 1873 Springfield, despite the known ejector flaw, remained the standard issue shoulder arm for US troops until the early 1890s. when the copper - cased, inside - primed cartridges were replaced with brass.
Soldiers under Custer 's direct command were annihilated on the first day of the battle (except for three Crow scouts and several troopers (including John Martin (Giovanni Martino)) that had left that column before the battle; one Crow scout, Curly, was the only survivor to leave after the battle had begun), although for years rumors persisted of other survivors.
Over 120 men and women would come forward over the course of the next 70 years claiming they were "the lone survivor '' of Custer 's Last Stand. The phenomenon became so widespread that one historian remarked, "Had Custer had all of those who claimed to be ' the lone survivor ' of his two battalions he would have had at least a brigade behind him when he crossed the Wolf Mountains and rode to the attack. ''
The historian Earl Alonzo Brininstool suggested he had collected at least 70 "lone survivor '' stories. Michael Nunnally, an amateur Custer historian, wrote a booklet describing 30 such accounts. W.A. Graham claimed that even Libby Custer received dozens of letters from men, in shocking detail, about their sole survivor experience. At least 125 alleged "single survivor '' tales have been confirmed in the historical record as of July 2012.
Frank Finkel, from Dayton, Washington, had such a convincing story that historian Charles Kuhlman believed the alleged survivor, going so far as to write a lengthy defense of Finkel 's participation in the battle. Douglas Ellison -- mayor of Medora, North Dakota, and an amateur historian -- also wrote a book in support of the veracity of Finkel 's claim, but most scholars reject it.
Some of these survivors held a form of celebrity status in the United States, among them Raymond Hatfield "Arizona Bill '' Gardner and Frank Tarbeaux. A few even published their own autobiographies, including their deeds at the Little Bighorn.
Almost as soon as men came forward implying or directly pronouncing their unique role in the battle, there were others who were equally opposed to any such claims. Theodore Goldin, a battle participant who later became a controversial historian on the event, wrote (in regards to Charles Hayward 's claim to have been with Custer and taken prisoner):
The Indians always insisted that they took no prisoners. If they did -- a thing I firmly believe -- they were tortured and killed the night of the 25th. As an evidence of this I recall the three charred and burned heads we picked up in the village near the scene of the big war dance, when we visited the village with Capt. Benteen and Lieut. Wallace on the morning of the 27th... I 'm sorely afraid, Tony, that we will have to class Hayward 's story, like that of so many others, as pure, unadulterated B.S. As a clerk at headquarters I had occasion to look over the morning reports of at least the six troops at Lincoln almost daily, and never saw his name there, or among the list of scouts employed from time to time... I am hoping that some day all of these damned fakirs will die and it will be safe for actual participants in the battle to admit and insist that they were there, without being branded and looked upon as a lot of damned liars. Actually, there have been times when I have been tempted to deny that I ever heard of the 7th Cavalry, much less participated with it in that engagement... My Medal of Honor and its inscription have served me as proof positive that I was at least in the vicinity at the time in question, otherwise I should be tempted to deny all knowledge of the event.
The only documented and verified survivor of Custer 's command (having been actually involved in Custer 's part of the battle) was Captain Keogh 's horse, Comanche. The wounded horse was discovered on the battlefield by General Terry 's troops, and although other cavalry mounts survived they had been taken by the Indians. Comanche eventually was returned to the fort and became the regimental mascot. Several other badly wounded horses were found and destroyed at the scene. Writer Evan S. Connell noted in Son of the Morning Star:
Comanche was reputed to be the only survivor of the Little Bighorn, but quite a few Seventh Cavalry mounts survived, probably more than one hundred, and there was even a yellow bulldog. Comanche lived on another fifteen years, and when he died, he was stuffed and to this day remains in a glass case at the University of Kansas. So, protected from moths and souvenir hunters by his humidity - controlled glass case, Comanche stands patiently, enduring generation after generation of undergraduate jokes. The other horses are gone, and the mysterious yellow bulldog is gone, which means that in a sense the legend is true. Comanche alone survived.
For more on survivor claims, see Custer Survivors in Little Bighorn Folklore.
The site of the battle was first preserved as a United States national cemetery in 1879 to protect the graves of the 7th Cavalry troopers. In 1946, it was re-designated as the Custer Battlefield National Monument, reflecting its association with Custer. In 1967, Major Marcus Reno was re-interred in the cemetery with honors, including an eleven - gun salute. Beginning in the early 1970s, there was concern within the National Park Service over the name Custer Battlefield National Monument failing to adequately reflect the larger history of the battle between two cultures. Hearings on the name change were held in Billings on June 10, 1991, and during the following months Congress renamed the site the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.
United States memorialization of the battlefield began in 1879 with a temporary monument to the U.S. dead. In 1881, the current marble obelisk was erected in their honor. In 1890, marble blocks were added to mark the places where the U.S. cavalry soldiers fell.
Nearly 100 years later, ideas about the meaning of the battle have become more inclusive. The United States government acknowledged that Native American sacrifices also deserved recognition at the site. The 1991 bill changing the name of the national monument also authorized an Indian Memorial to be built near Last Stand Hill in honor of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The commissioned work by native artist Colleen Cutschall is shown in the photograph at right. On Memorial Day 1999, in consultation with tribal representatives, the U.S. added two red granite markers to the battlefield to note where Native American warriors fell. As of December 2006, a total of ten warrior markers have been added (three at the Reno -- Benteen Defense Site and seven on the Little Bighorn Battlefield).
The Indian Memorial, themed "Peace Through Unity '' l is an open circular structure that stands 75 yards (69 metres) from the 7th Cavalry obelisk. Its walls have some of the names of Indians who died at the site, as well as native accounts of the battle. The open circle of the structure is symbolic, as for many tribes, the circle is sacred. The "spirit gate '' window facing the Cavalry monument is symbolic as well, welcoming the dead cavalrymen into the memorial.
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when was the last time the olympics was held in the usa | List of Olympic Games host cities - wikipedia
This is a list of host cities of the Olympic Games, both summer and winter, since the modern Olympics began in 1896. Since then, summer games have usually -- but not always -- celebrated a four - year period known as an Olympiad. There have been 28 Summer Olympic Games held in 24 cities, and 23 Winter Olympic Games held in 20 cities. In addition, three summer and two winter editions of the Games were scheduled to take place but later cancelled due to war: Berlin (summer) in 1916; Tokyo / Helsinki (summer) and Sapporo / Garmisch - Partenkirchen (winter) in 1940; and London (summer) and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy (winter) in 1944. The 1906 Summer Olympics were officially sanctioned and held in Athens. However, in 1949, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games. Four cities have been chosen by the IOC to host upcoming Olympic Games: Tokyo for the 2020 Summer Olympics, Beijing for the 2022 Winter Olympics, Paris for the 2024 Summer Olympics, and Los Angeles for the 2028 Summer Olympics.
In 2022, Beijing will become the only city that has held both the summer and the winter Olympic Games. Nine cities will have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens (1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics), Paris (1900, 1924 and 2024 Summer Olympics), London (1908, 1948 and 2012 Summer Olympics), St. Moritz (1928 and 1948 Winter Olympics), Lake Placid (1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics), Los Angeles (1932, 1984 and 2028 Summer Olympics), Innsbruck (1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics), Tokyo (1964 and 2020 Summer Olympics) and Beijing (2008 Summer Olympics and 2022 Winter Olympics). In addition, Stockholm hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics. London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics. Paris will become the second city to do this with the 2024 Summer Olympics, followed by Los Angeles as the third in 2028. The United States has hosted a total of eight Olympic Games, more than any other country, followed by France with five editions. Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom have each hosted three Games.
The Games have primarily been hosted in the continents of Europe (36 editions) and North America (12 editions); eight Games have been hosted in Asia and two have been hosted in Oceania. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro became South America 's first Olympic host city, while the African continent has yet to hold the Games. Other major geographic regions which have never hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia.
Host cities are selected by the IOC membership, usually seven years in advance. The selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may submit an application to become a host city. After 10 months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant city will become official candidates as based on the recommendation of a working group that reviews the applications. In a second stage, the candidate cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission, which then submits a final short list of cities to be considered for selection. The host city is then chosen by vote of the IOC session, a general meeting of IOC members.
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who is the credit for starting the olympic games in india | India at the Olympics - wikipedia
India first participated at the Olympic Games in 1900, with a lone athlete (Norman Pritchard) winning two medals - both silver - in athletics. The nation first sent a team to the Summer Olympic Games in 1920, and has participated in every Summer Games since then. India has also competed at several Winter Olympic Games beginning in 1964. Indian athletes have won a total of 28 medals so far, all at the Summer Games. For a period of time, India national field hockey team was dominant in Olympic competition, winning eleven medals in twelve Olympics between 1920 and 1980. The run included 8 gold medals total and six successive gold medals from 1928 -- 1956
India sent its first athlete to the Olympics for the 1900 games, but an Indian national team did not compete at the Olympics until 1920. Ahead of the 1920 Olympics, Sir Dorab Tata and Governor of Bombay George Lloyd helped India secure representation at the International Olympic Council, enabling it to participate in the Olympic Games (see India at the 1920 Olympic Games). India then sent a team to the 1920 Olympics, comprising four athletes, two wrestlers, and managers Sohrab Bhoot and AHA Fyzee. The Indian Olympic movement was then established during the 1920s: some founders of this movement were Dorab Tata, A.G. Noehren (Madras College of Physical Education), H.C. Buck (Madras College of Physical Education), Moinul Haq (Bihar sports associations), S. Bhoot (Bombay Olympic Association), A.S. Bhagwat (Deccan Gymkhana), and G.D. Sondhi (Punjab Olympic Association); Lt. Col H.L.O. Garrett (from the Government College Lahore and Punjab Olympic Association) and Sagnik Poddar (of St. Stephen 's School) helped organise some early national games; and prominent patrons included Maharajas and royal princes Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, Ranji of Nawanagar, the Maharaja of Kapurthala, and the Maharaja of Burdwan.
In 1923, a provisional All India Olympic Committee was formed, and in Feb 1924 the All India Olympic Games (that later became the National Games of India) were held to select a team for the Paris Olympics. The Indian delegation at the Paris Olympics comprised seven athletes, seven tennis players and team manager Harry Buck.
In 1927, the provisional Indian Olympic Committee formally became the Indian Olympic Association (IOA) - its main tasks were to promote the development of sports in India, choose host cities for the national games, and send teams - selected from the national games - to the Olympics. Thus, at the 1928 national games, it selected seven athletes to represent India at the next Olympics, with G.D. Sondhi as manager for the Olympic team. By this time, the Indian Hockey Federation (IHF) had also been established and it sent a hockey team to the Olympics. The national hockey team and additional sportspersons were similarly sent to the Olympic Games in 1932 (four athletes and one swimmer) and 1936 (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight - lifter), along with three officials headed by team manager Sondhi.
From 1948 onward, because of the Indian Olympic Association 's wider outreach, India began sending delegations of over 50 sportspersons representing several sports -- each selected by its sports federation -- to the Olympics. The delegation was headed by a chef - de-mission.
Thus, India 's Olympic delegation in the early Olympic Games was as follows:
At the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Abhinav Bindra won gold in the Men 's 10 metre air rifle event becoming the first Indian to win an individual gold medal at the Olympic Games. Vijender Singh got the country 's first medal in boxing with his bronze medal in Middleweight category.
The 2012 Summer Olympics saw an 83 - member Indian contingent participating in the games and setting a new best for the country with a total of six medals. Wrestler Sushil Kumar became the first Indian with multiple individual Olympic medals (bronze at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and silver at the 2012 Summer Olympics) since Norman Pritchard in 1900. Saina Nehwal won bronze medal in badminton in Women 's singles getting the country 's first Olympic medal in badminton. Pugilist Mary Kom became the first Indian woman to win a medal in boxing with her bronze medal finish in Women 's flyweight category.
At the 2016 Summer Olympics, a record number of 118 athletes competed. Sakshi Malik became the first Indian woman wrestler to win an Olympic medal with her bronze medal finish in Women 's freestyle 58 kg category. Shuttler P.V. Sindhu became the first Indian woman to win a silver medal in Olympics and also the youngest Indian Olympic medallist.
This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants / competitors of India in the summer Olympic games.
This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants / competitors of India in the winter Olympic games.
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how many episodes are in this season of grey's anatomy | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season will consist of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
The fourteenth season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season marks the last appearance of Martin Henderson, Jason George, Jessica Capshaw, and Sarah Drew as series regulars, as well as the first appearance of Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andy Herrera, the lead character of Grey 's Anatomy 's second spin - off series, Station 19.
On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record - setting fifteenth season.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
After the explosion at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Chief Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) finds it the perfect time to give the place a much needed upgrade in look and functionality. During the construction, Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) struggles with the shocking reunion with his sister, Megan (Abigail Spencer), who was recently found in a hostage camp overseas. The discovery also welcomes back Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), the former chief cardiothoracic surgery and Owen 's best friend, which leads to awkward moments with Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone). Of course, Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), who was once in love with Megan, is torn between his love for her and his most recent interest in Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) learns what "ghosting '' is after Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) vanishes without a trace, but she quickly finds company in an Italian girl she met at the bar, Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), sister to Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) struggles to patch her relationship with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), but when her attempts fail, she finds herself sleeping with one of the new interns.
When Carina finds that Amelia has a brain tumor, she brings her former mentor / professor Dr Tom Koracek (Greg Germann) to create a treatment plan. But when he points out how the tumor has affected her judgment, she fears that it might have ruined her patient 's lives or put them in more danger -- specifically Dr Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who despite saving her life, left her blind. After the tumor is removed, Amelia and Owen reflect on their marriage and decide that everything up to that point has been misguided; the tumor made Amelia someone she was not, and they ultimately decide to get a divorce. With all the changes happening at Grey Sloan, Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) shows up to discuss everything with Bailey and then ends up firing her. Shortly after, he immediately dies from cardiac arrest. Before they have to find another chief, Catherine (Debbie Allen) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) reinstate Bailey to her position. At a family dinner hosted by Catherine and Richard Weber (James Pickens Jr.), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) and Jackson learn that he 'll be receiving his grandfather 's inheritance, a quarter billion dollars, which he 'll eventually use to fund a medical research contest.
Now that Megan is healthy again, Meredith and Nathan work together to bring her son over to the United States. Upon arrival, Nathan, Megan, and Farouk all move to California to start a life together, which officially ends Nathan 's relationship with Meredith. Despite the breakup, Meredith has more exciting news on the horizon when she learns at the intern mixer that a ground breaking surgery has earned her a nomination for the highly - esteemed Harper Avery Foundation Award, which she goes on to win. While the joyous news spreads around the hospital, Bailey learns that Ben Warren (Jason George) wants to leave surgery to join the Seattle Fire Department. With Jo and Alex now living together again, she realizes how much control her estranged husband, Dr Paul Stadler (Matthew Morrison), has over her. Now in the running for chief resident, Jo decides to file for divorce. With her mind on her secret relationship with Paul, she 's surprised to find him in the hospital. Jo attempts to steer clear of him, but at the same time also believes she has a duty to inform Paul 's fiancé of what type of man he really is. As Paul keeps trying to find Jo, Meredith pretends to call security to have him removed, but he leaves before they can get there. However, he winds up back in the ER as a victim of a hit and run accident. With everyone running around the ER, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) sees a familiar face in Matthew (Justin Bruening), the paramedic she left at the altar for Jackson. He 's there with his wife who is now pregnant. After Jo talks to Jenny (Bethany Joy Lenz), Paul 's fiancé, they venture to Paul 's room to tell him they 're taking him to court. Upon receiving the news, he tries to attack them in a bout of rage; however, he falls out of bed and hits his head knocking him unconscious, rendering him brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to have them remove all life - sustaining support. April struggles with the idea that the man she left to pursue her own happiness is now married and expecting a child, while she 's alone and a single mother. As she begins to question her faith, she acts out and sleeps with an intern.
With all the stress and work that comes with being Chief of Surgery, Bailey begins to show signs of a heart attack. She winds up at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital, where the doctors take her concerns less than seriously. They see in her chart a history of OCD and believe that is the underlying issue, since the tests they are running are coming back negative. Bailey calls on Maggie to save her, and after she does, Bailey decides to support Ben 's decision to become a firefighter, as she realizes life is too short to do anything than what makes you happy.
With the medical research contest, funded by Jackson 's money, getting underway, the doctors begin to team up and brainstorm ideas that will help them win the top prize of a grant that will fund their research even further. Meredith learns that for her project, she 'll need to acquire a patent that is owned by Marie Cerone... a former friend of her mother 's. When Marie denies access to the patent, Meredith is forced to investigate further into the reason why. According to Richard, there was a falling out of some sort, but he never knew what happened between the two women. At a dinner party hosted by Amelia, Maggie brings her new boyfriend around to meet her friends. However, it 's soon revealed that her boyfriend is a married man. Quick to call it off, Jackson sees his opportunity to invest in his love interest with Maggie. In Meredith 's search for answers, she learns that Ellis Grey left Marie 's name off the surgical method they created together. If she is to acquire the patent, she must publicly announce a change the method 's name to the Grey - Cerone Method. Meredith denies the ultimatum. While Maggie and Jackson try to get past the quirks of their relationship and the fact that their step - siblings, Jo shockingly asks Alex to marry him. He quickly accepts.
With the research projects humming along, Owen and Amelia continue to take advantage of their "friends with benefits '' relationship, that is until Amelia learns how close Owen is with Teddy. She advises him to go after her if she 's the love of his life. The advice sends him to Germany where he surprises Teddy. The two talk all night and make plans to stay together, but when she learns that Amelia had just told him the night before to pursue her, she refuses to be his backup plan and kicks him out.
Bailey is surprised to learn that one of her interns, Sam Bello (Jeanine Mason), is a "Dreamer '' protected by (DACA). Meredith designs a plan to keep from being deported. Despite pleas from Andrew (Sam 's boyfriend), Meredith sends to work under Dr Cristina Yang in Switzerland. While the research contest reaches the next milestone, presentation day, Catherine confronts Jackson about a major secret concerning his grandfather. The man had 13 cases of sexual harassment filed against him, and she herself paid the women major settlements to keep it all covered up. Meredith learns of this truth and also that Marie Cerone was one of the 13. Disgusted with the whole situation, Meredith decides to return her and her mother 's Harper Avery awards and Bailey shuts down the research contest. In the meantime, Catherine tries with all her might to save the face of the foundation since the news has spread. While in surgery, Jackson and Meredith come up with their own plan, which is to rename the foundation in honor of Catherine (née Fox) to the Catherine Fox Foundation.
When Alex learns that his mom has n't been cashing the checks he 's been sending, he and Jo take off to Iowa to check on her. He surprisingly finds that she is doing well and even works her old job at the library. The two extend an invitation to the wedding, but she declines stating it would be too much for her. While Owen and Amelia struggle with adjusting to being foster parents -- Owen to a baby and Amelia to the baby 's teenaged mother on drugs, Arizona continues to battle with Sofia who wants to move back to New York to be with her other mom, Callie. After calling Callie to tell her they 're moving to the east coast to be closer to her, Arizona announced her impeding departure to Bailey. However, an unexpected visit from Nicole Herman changes those plans just slightly. Nicole has been following Arizona 's work and she would like to partner with her in creating the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health. Knowing that she 's headed to New York, Arizona asks that it be there, and Nicole obliges.
Matthew winds up in the ER again, but this time for himself, after he rolled his car. Trying to get information from him about what happened, he mentions April 's name, which sends the doctors into a frenzy trying to make sure she 's safe. Owen finds her unconscious at the site of the accident, down in a ravine nearby. After he rushes her back to the hospital, the team rallies to save her, and after extreme measures have been taken to bring her back to life, she wakes up, fully functional. Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived, and though most details have come together, April (who has been planning the wedding) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex, Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride 's mother, Teddy reveals she 's pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice '' as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
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who created the borders for the countries in africa | Africa - wikipedia
Africa is the world 's second largest and second most - populous continent (the first being Asia in both categories). At about 30.3 million km (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6 % of Earth 's total surface area and 20 % of its total land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16 % of the world 's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. It contains 54 fully recognised sovereign states (countries), nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. The majority of the continent and its countries are in the Northern Hemisphere, with a substantial portion and number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere.
Africa 's average population is the youngest amongst all the continents; the median age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4. Algeria is Africa 's largest country by area, and Nigeria is its largest by population. Africa, particularly central Eastern Africa, is widely accepted as the place of origin of humans and the Hominidae clade (great apes), as evidenced by the discovery of the earliest hominids and their ancestors, as well as later ones that have been dated to around seven million years ago, including Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster -- with the earliest Homo sapiens (modern human) found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas; it is the only continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones.
Africa hosts a large diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonised almost all of Africa; most present states in Africa originated from a process of decolonisation in the 20th century. African nations cooperate through the establishment of the African Union, which is headquartered in Addis Ababa.
Afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean (Ancient Libya). This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe; see Terence for discussion. The name is usually connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar ' dust ', but a 1981 hypothesis has asserted that it stems from the Berber ifri (plural ifran) "cave '', in reference to cave dwellers. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, a Berber tribe originally from Yafran (also known as Ifrane) in northwestern Libya.
Under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix - ica can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in Celtica from Celtae, as used by Julius Caesar). The later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, located in modern - day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name.
According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while "Asia '' was used to refer to Anatolia and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer Ptolemy (85 -- 165 AD), indicating Alexandria along the Prime Meridian and making the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of "Africa '' expanded with their knowledge.
Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa '':
Africa is considered by most paleoanthropologists to be the oldest inhabited territory on Earth, with the human species originating from the continent. During the mid-20th century, anthropologists discovered many fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago (BP = before present). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have evolved into modern man, such as Australopithecus afarensis (radiometrically dated to approximately 3.9 -- 3.0 million years BP, Paranthropus boisei (c. 2.3 -- 1.4 million years BP) and Homo ergaster (c. 1.9 million -- 600,000 years BP) have been discovered.
After the evolution of Homo sapiens sapiens approximately 150,000 to 100,000 years BP in Africa, the continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter - gatherers. These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of the globe during the Out of Africa II migration dated to approximately 50,000 years BP, exiting the continent either across Bab - el - Mandeb over the Red Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar in Morocco, or the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt.
Other migrations of modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa, Southeast Africa, North Africa, and the Sahara.
The size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable, with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climatic conditions. At the end of the Ice ages, estimated to have been around 10,500 BC, the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands in Sub-Saharan Africa, with rock art paintings depicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered in Tassili n'Ajjer dating back perhaps 10 millennia. However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. Around 3500 BC, due to a tilt in the earth 's orbit, the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification. The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below the Second Cataract where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and Eastern Africa. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, in Ethiopia.
The domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter - gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6000 BC, cattle were domesticated in North Africa. In the Sahara - Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the donkey and a small screw - horned goat which was common from Algeria to Nubia.
Around 4000 BC, the Saharan climate started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace. This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing desertification. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and helped to cause migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa.
By the first millennium BC, ironworking had been introduced in Northern Africa and quickly spread across the Sahara into the northern parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and by 500 BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa. Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions did n't begin ironworking until the early centuries AD. Copper objects from Egypt, North Africa, Nubia, and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting that Trans - Saharan trade networks had been established by this date.
At about 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Northern Africa with the rise of literacy in the Pharaonic civilization of Ancient Egypt. One of the world 's earliest and longest - lasting civilizations, the Egyptian state continued, with varying levels of influence over other areas, until 343 BC. Egyptian influence reached deep into modern - day Libya and Nubia, and, according to Martin Bernal, as far north as Crete.
An independent centre of civilization with trading links to Phoenicia was established by Phoenicians from Tyre on the north - west African coast at Carthage.
European exploration of Africa began with Ancient Greeks and Romans. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great was welcomed as a liberator in Persian - occupied Egypt. He founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death.
Following the conquest of North Africa 's Mediterranean coastline by the Roman Empire, the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. Roman settlement occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast. The first Roman emperor native to North Africa was Septimius Severus, born in Leptis Magna in present - day Libya -- his mother was Italian Roman and his father was Punic.
Christianity spread across these areas at an early date, from Judaea via Egypt and beyond the borders of the Roman world into Nubia; by AD 340 at the latest, it had become the state religion of the Aksumite Empire. Syro - Greek missionaries, who arrived by way of the Red Sea, were responsible for this theological development.
In the early 7th century, the newly formed Arabian Islamic Caliphate expanded into Egypt, and then into North Africa. In a short while, the local Berber elite had been integrated into Muslim Arab tribes. When the Umayyad capital Damascus fell in the 8th century, the Islamic centre of the Mediterranean shifted from Syria to Qayrawan in North Africa. Islamic North Africa had become diverse, and a hub for mystics, scholars, jurists, and philosophers. During the above - mentioned period, Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa, mainly through trade routes and migration.
Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter - gatherers such as the San people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the Bantu - speaking peoples of central, southern, and eastern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in the Horn of Africa; the large Sahelian kingdoms; and autonomous city - states and kingdoms such as those of the Akan; Edo, Yoruba, and Igbo people in West Africa; and the Swahili coastal trading towns of Southeast Africa.
By the ninth century AD, a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched across the sub-Saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and the Kanem - Bornu Empire. Ghana declined in the eleventh century, but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the thirteenth century. Kanem accepted Islam in the eleventh century.
In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew with little influence from the Muslim north. The Kingdom of Nri was established around the ninth century and was one of the first. It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in present - day Nigeria and was ruled by the Eze Nri. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaborate bronzes, found at the town of Igbo - Ukwu. The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the ninth century.
The Kingdom of Ife, historically the first of these Yoruba city - states or kingdoms, established government under a priestly oba (' king ' or ' ruler ' in the Yoruba language), called the Ooni of Ife. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural centre in West Africa, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at the Oyo Empire, where its obas or kings, called the Alaafins of Oyo, once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city - states and kingdoms; the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey was one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control.
The Almoravids were a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Their migration resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals were Arabized, and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam.
Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464 -- 1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans - Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor Askia Mohammad I (1493 -- 1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al - Maghili (d. 1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship. By the eleventh century, some Hausa states -- such as Kano, jigawa, Katsina, and Gobir -- had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the fifteenth century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem - Borno to the east.
Mansa Musa ruled the Mali Empire in the 14th century.
Slavery had long been practiced in Africa. Between the 7th and 20th centuries, Arab slave trade (also known as slavery in the East) took 18 million slaves from Africa via trans - Saharan and Indian Ocean routes. Between the 15th and the 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7 -- 12 million slaves to the New World. More than 1 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.
In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave - trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World, increasing anti-slavery legislation in Europe and America, and the British Royal Navy 's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.
Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos '', deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers. The largest powers of West Africa (the Asante Confederacy, the Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Oyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce '' in the form of palm oil, cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa 's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars.
In the late 19th century, the European imperial powers engaged in a major territorial scramble and occupied most of the continent, creating many colonial territories, and leaving only two fully independent states: Ethiopia (known to Europeans as "Abyssinia ''), and Liberia. Egypt and Sudan were never formally incorporated into any European colonial empire; however, after the British occupation of 1882, Egypt was effectively under British administration until 1922.
The Berlin Conference held in 1884 -- 85 was an important event in the political future of African ethnic groups. It was convened by King Leopold II of Belgium, and attended by the European powers that laid claim to African territories. The Berlin Conference sought to end the European powers ' Scramble for Africa, by agreeing on political division and spheres of influence. They set up the political divisions of the continent, by spheres of interest, that exist in Africa today.
Imperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France. Ghana followed suit the next year (March 1957), becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence. Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade.
Portugal 's overseas presence in Sub-Saharan Africa (most notably in Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea - Bissau and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in a military coup in Lisbon. Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, under the white minority government of Ian Smith, but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (as Zimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a bitter guerrilla war. Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country 's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as apartheid until 1994.
Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, most of which have borders that were drawn during the era of European colonialism. Since colonialism, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis, and many have instead cycled through a series of coups, producing military dictatorships.
Great instability was mainly the result of marginalization of ethnic groups, and graft under these leaders. For political gain, many leaders fanned ethnic conflicts, some of which had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule. In many countries, the military was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order, and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential assassinations. Border and territorial disputes were also common, with the European - imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts.
Cold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union, as well as the policies of the International Monetary Fund, also played a role in instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two superpowers. Many countries in Northern Africa received Soviet military aid, while others in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the United States, France or both. The 1970s saw an escalation of Cold War intrigues, as newly independent Angola and Mozambique aligned themselves with the Soviet Union, and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by supporting friendly regimes or insurgency movements. In Rhodesia, Soviet and Chinese - backed leftist guerrillas of the Zimbabwe Patriotic Front waged a brutal guerrilla war against the country 's white government. There was a major famine in Ethiopia, when hundreds of thousands of people starved. Some claimed that Marxist economic policies made the situation worse. The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been the Second Congo War; this conflict and its aftermath has killed an estimated 5.5 million people. Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur which has become a humanitarian disaster. Another notable tragic event is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which an estimated 800,000 people were murdered. AIDS in post-colonial Africa has also been a prevalent issue.
In the 21st century, however, the number of armed conflicts in Africa has steadily declined. For instance, the civil war in Angola came to an end in 2002 after nearly 30 years. This has coincided with many countries abandoning communist - style command economies and opening up for market reforms. The improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China, which has spurred quick economic growth in many countries, seemingly ending decades of stagnation and decline. Several African economies are among the world 's fastest growing as of 2016. A significant part of this growth, which is sometimes referred to as Africa Rising, can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone.
Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (transected by the Suez Canal), 163 km (101 mi) wide. (Geopolitically, Egypt 's Sinai Peninsula east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.)
From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia (37 ° 21 ' N), to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa (34 ° 51'15 '' S), is a distance of approximately 8,000 km (5,000 mi); from Cape Verde, 17 ° 33'22 '' W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in Somalia, 51 ° 27'52 '' E, the most easterly projection, is a distance of approximately 7,400 km (4,600 mi). The coastline is 26,000 km (16,000 mi) long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only 10,400,000 km (4,000,000 sq mi) -- about a third of the surface of Africa -- has a coastline of 32,000 km (20,000 mi).
Africa 's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country is Seychelles, an archipelago off the east coast. The smallest nation on the continental mainland is The Gambia.
Geologically, Africa includes the Arabian Peninsula; the Zagros Mountains of Iran and the Anatolian Plateau of Turkey mark where the African Plate collided with Eurasia. The Afrotropic ecozone and the Saharo - Arabian desert to its north unite the region biogeographically, and the Afro - Asiatic language family unites the north linguistically.
The climate of Africa ranges from tropical to subarctic on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarily desert, or arid, while its central and southern areas contain both savanna plains and dense jungle (rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such as sahel and steppe dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on earth and 60 % of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts. The record for the highest - ever recorded temperature, in Libya in 1922 (58 ° C (136 ° F)), was discredited in 2013.
Africa boasts perhaps the world 's largest combination of density and "range of freedom '' of wild animal populations and diversity, with wild populations of large carnivores (such as lions, hyenas, and cheetahs) and herbivores (such as buffalo, elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of "jungle '' animals including snakes and primates and aquatic life such as crocodiles and amphibians. In addition, Africa has the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna.
Africa has over 3,000 protected areas, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves, and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa 's biological diversity and arable land. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.
Deforestation is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31 % of Africa 's pasture lands and 19 % of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year, which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world. Some sources claim that approximately 90 % of the original, virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed. Over 90 % of Madagascar 's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago. About 65 % of Africa 's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation.
There are clear signs of increased networking among African organizations and states. For example, in the civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (former Zaire), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, neighbouring African countries became involved (see also Second Congo War). Since the conflict began in 1998, the estimated death toll has reached 5 million.
The African Union (AU) is a 55 - member federation consisting of all of Africa 's states. The union was formed, with Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). In July 2004, the African Union 's Pan-African Parliament (PAP) was relocated to Midrand, in South Africa, but the African Commission on Human and Peoples ' Rights remained in Addis Ababa. There is a policy in effect to decentralize the African Federation 's institutions so that they are shared by all the states.
The African Union, not to be confused with the AU Commission, is formed by the Constitutive Act of the African Union, which aims to transform the African Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the Pan-African Parliament. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and the Protocol of the Pan-African Parliament, as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of the OAU Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all - union (federal), regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day - to - day affairs of the institution.
Political associations such as the African Union offer hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent 's many countries. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Côte d'Ivoire.
Although it has abundant natural resources, Africa remains the world 's poorest and most underdeveloped continent, the result of a variety of causes that may include corrupt governments that have often committed serious human rights violations, failed central planning, high levels of illiteracy, lack of access to foreign capital, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from guerrilla warfare to genocide). According to the United Nations ' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 24 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African.
Poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. In August 2008, the World Bank announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). 80.5 % of the Sub-Saharan Africa population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) per day in 2005, compared with 85.7 % for India.
Sub-Saharan Africa is the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50 % of the population living in poverty in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58 % in 1996 before dropping to 50 % in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than in 1973, indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programmes spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors.
From 1995 to 2005, Africa 's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5 % in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notably Angola, Sudan and Equatorial Guinea, all of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded their oil extraction capacity. The continent is believed to hold 90 % of the world 's cobalt, 90 % of its platinum, 50 % of its gold, 98 % of its chromium, 70 % of its tantalite, 64 % of its manganese and one - third of its uranium. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has 70 % of the world 's coltan, a mineral used in the production of tantalum capacitors for electronic devices such as cell phones. The DRC also has more than 30 % of the world 's diamond reserves. Guinea is the world 's largest exporter of bauxite. As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, the food security crisis of 2008 which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis pushed 100 million people into food insecurity.
In recent years, the People 's Republic of China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations and is Africa 's largest trading partner. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US $1 billion in Africa.
A Harvard University study led by professor Calestous Juma showed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self - sufficiency. "African agriculture is at the crossroads; we have come to the end of a century of policies that favoured Africa 's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity. ''
During US President Barack Obama 's visit to Africa in July 2013, he announced a US $ 7 billion plan to further develop infrastructure and work more intensively with African heads of state. He also announced a new programme named Trade Africa, designed to boost trade within the continent as well as between Africa and the US.
Africa 's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and consequently, it is relatively young. In some African states, more than half the population is under 25 years of age. The total number of people in Africa increased from 229 million in 1950 to 630 million in 1990. As of 2016, the population of Africa is estimated at 1.2 billion. Africa 's total population surpassing other continents is fairly recent; African population surpassed Europe in the 1990s, while the Americas was overtaken sometime around the year 2000; Africa 's rapid population growth is expected to overtake the only two nations currently larger than its population, at roughly the same time -- India and China 's 1.4 billion people each will swap ranking around the year 2022.
Speakers of Bantu languages (part of the Niger -- Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu - speaking peoples from The Sahel progressively expanded over most of Sub-Saharan Africa. But there are also several Nilotic groups in South Sudan and East Africa, the mixed Swahili people on the Swahili Coast, and a few remaining indigenous Khoisan ("San '' or "Bushmen '') and Pygmy peoples in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu - speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San '', closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots '') have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.
The peoples of West Africa primarily speak Niger -- Congo languages, belonging mostly to its non-Bantu branches, though some Nilo - Saharan and Afro - Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger -- Congo - speaking Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Akan and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara, Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant. Chadic - speaking groups, including the Hausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo - Saharan communities, such as the Songhai, Kanuri and Zarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa.
The peoples of North Africa consist of three main indigenous groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians in the northeast, and Nilo - Saharan - speaking peoples in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century AD introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The Semitic Phoenicians (who founded Carthage) and Hyksos, the Indo - Iranian Alans, the Indo - European Greeks, Romans, and Vandals settled in North Africa as well. Significant Berber communities remain within Morocco and Algeria in the 21st century, while, to a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya. The Berber - speaking Tuareg and other often - nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near - extinct Berber community in the north and Niger -- Congo - speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominate, it is mostly inhabited by groups that originally spoke Nilo - Saharan, such as the Nubians, Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa, who, over the centuries, have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro - Asiatic - speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.
In the Horn of Africa, some Ethiopian and Eritrean groups (like the Amhara and Tigrayans, collectively known as Habesha) speak languages from the Semitic branch of the Afro - Asiatic language family, while the Oromo and Somali speak languages from the Cushitic branch of Afro - Asiatic.
Prior to the decolonization movements of the post-World War II era, Europeans were represented in every part of Africa. Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of white settlers -- especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 million pieds - noirs in North Africa), Kenya, Congo, Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola. Between 1975 and 1977, over a million colonials returned to Portugal alone. Nevertheless, white Africans remain an important minority in many African states, particularly Zimbabwe, Namibia, Réunion, and the Republic of South Africa. The country with the largest white African population is South Africa. Dutch and British diasporas represent the largest communities of European ancestry on the continent today.
European colonization also brought sizable groups of Asians, particularly from the Indian subcontinent, to British colonies. Large Indian communities are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The large Indian community in Uganda was expelled by the dictator Idi Amin in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The Malagasy people of Madagascar are an Austronesian people, but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as Cape Coloureds (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities of Lebanese and Chinese have also developed in the larger coastal cities of West and East Africa, respectively.
By most estimates, well over a thousand languages (UNESCO has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa. Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the most multilingual continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well. There are four major language families indigenous to Africa:
Following the end of colonialism, nearly all African countries adopted official languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). In numerous countries, English and French (see African French) are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic, Portuguese, Afrikaans and Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa. German is spoken in Namibia, as it was a former German protectorate.
Some aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practised in recent years as a result of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. For example, African customs were discouraged, and African languages were prohibited in mission schools. Leopold II of Belgium attempted to "civilize '' Africans by discouraging polygamy and witchcraft.
Obidoh Freeborn posits that colonialism is one element that has created the character of modern African art. According to authors Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole, "The precipitous alterations in the power structure wrought by colonialism were quickly followed by drastic iconographic changes in the art. '' Fraser and Cole assert that, in Igboland, some art objects "lack the vigor and careful craftsmanship of the earlier art objects that served traditional functions. Author Chika Okeke - Agulu states that "the racist infrastructure of British imperial enterprise forced upon the political and cultural guardians of empire a denial and suppression of an emergent sovereign Africa and modernist art. '' In Soweto, the West Rand Administrative Board established a Cultural Section to collect, read, and review scripts before performances could occur. Editors F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi comment that the current identity of African literature had its genesis in the "traumatic encounter between Africa and Europe. '' On the other hand, Mhoze Chikowero believes that Africans deployed music, dance, spirituality, and other performative cultures to (re) asset themselves as active agents and indigenous intellectuals, to unmake their colonial marginalization and reshape their own destinies. ''
There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as the African Renaissance, led by Thabo Mbeki, Afrocentrism, led by a group of scholars, including Molefi Asante, as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization of Vodou and other forms of spirituality.
African art and architecture reflect the diversity of African cultures. The region 's oldest known beads were made from Nassarius shells and worn as personal ornaments 72,000 years ago. The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt was the world 's tallest structure for 4,000 years, until the completion of Lincoln Cathedral around the year 1300. The stone ruins of Great Zimbabwe are also noteworthy for their architecture, as are the monolithic churches at Lalibela, Ethiopia, such as the Church of Saint George.
Egypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular West Africa, was transmitted through the Atlantic slave trade to modern samba, blues, jazz, reggae, hip hop, and rock. The 1950s through the 1970s saw a conglomeration of these various styles with the popularization of Afrobeat and Highlife music. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of the musical genre of soukous, dominated by the music of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Indigenous musical and dance traditions of Africa are maintained by oral traditions, and they are distinct from the music and dance styles of North Africa and Southern Africa. Arab influences are visible in North African music and dance and, in Southern Africa, Western influences are apparent due to colonization.
Fifty - four African countries have football (soccer) teams in the Confederation of African Football. Egypt has won the African Cup seven times, and a record - making three times in a row. Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal, Ghana, and Algeria have advanced to the knockout stage of recent FIFA World Cups. South Africa hosted the 2010 World Cup tournament, becoming the first African country to do so.
Cricket is popular in some African nations. South Africa and Zimbabwe have Test status, while Kenya is the leading non-test team and previously had One - Day International cricket (ODI) status (from 10 October 1997, until 30 January 2014). The three countries jointly hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Namibia is the other African country to have played in a World Cup. Morocco in northern Africa has also hosted the 2002 Morocco Cup, but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament. Rugby is a popular sport in South Africa, Namibia, and Zimbabwe.
Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are often a sensitive a topic for governments with mixed religious populations. According to the World Book Encyclopedia, Islam is the largest religion in Africa, followed by Christianity. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, 45 % of the population are Christians, 40 % are Muslims, and 10 % follow traditional religions. A small number of Africans are Hindu, Buddhist, Confucianist, Baha'i, or Jewish. There is also a minority of people in Africa who are irreligious.
The countries in this table are categorized according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America
Afro - Eurasia
America
Eurasia
Oceania
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what is the name of the zebra in my little pony | List of My Little pony: Friendship is Magic characters - Wikipedia
My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic is an animated television series based on the My Little Pony toyline, created by American toy and game manufacturer Hasbro. It features characters and settings developed by Lauren Faust, who sought to create more in - depth characters than the stereotypical "girly '' icons used in previous iterations of the franchise. The series began airing on October 10, 2010 in the United States on the Hub Network cable channel, which was re-branded as Discovery Family in October 2014.
The show follows a studious unicorn named Twilight Sparkle as her mentor Princess Celestia guides her to learn about friendship in the town of Ponyville. Twilight becomes best friends with five other ponies: earth ponies Applejack and Pinkie Pie, pegasi Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy, and unicorn Rarity. Each represents a different facet of friendship, and Twilight discovers herself to be a key part of the magical artifacts known as the Elements of Harmony. The six ponies -- collectively known as the "Mane Six '' -- share adventures and help out other residents of Ponyville, while working out the troublesome moments in their own friendships. This eventually leads to Twilight ascending and becoming a winged unicorn known as an alicorn.
Several episodes focus on the exploits of Spike, Twilight 's baby dragon assistant, and a younger trio of pony characters (Apple Bloom, Scootaloo, and Sweetie Belle) who call themselves the "Cutie Mark Crusaders '' and share adventures trying to discover their talents in life and receive their "cutie marks '' until the season five episode "Crusaders of the Lost Mark '', where they receive their cutie marks. Beginning in season six, the reformed villain Starlight Glimmer also becomes a focus character.
The characters have been well received by critics, and are cited as one of the reasons the series ' older fans, called "bronies '', became attracted to the show. Fans have made several background characters popular, and these characters are often incorporated into jokes within the show. The series later spawned numerous spin - off media, including a comic book series, a children 's book series, and a spin - off film series titled My Little Pony: Equestria Girls, where several of the television series ' characters are re-envisioned as humanoids in a high school setting.
Hasbro initially hired Faust to create a pitch bible for the show, allowing her to get additional help with conceptualization. Faust said she was "extremely skeptical '' about taking the job at first because she had always found shows based on girls ' toys to be boring and unrelatable. She was disappointed that what she thought of the toys at the time was nothing like the animated shows, in which the characters, according to her, had "endless tea parties, giggled over nothing and defeated villains by either sharing with them or crying. '' With the chance to work on My Little Pony, one of her favorite childhood toys, she hoped to prove that "cartoons for girls do n't have to be a puddle of smooshy, cutesy - wootsy, goody - two - shoeness. '' To do this, she incorporated many elements into the show that subverted stereotypes of girls, such as diverse personalities, the message that friends can be different and can get into arguments but still be friends, and the idea that girls should not be limited by what others say they can or can not do. Elements of the characters ' personalities and the show 's settings were based on her own childhood imagination of the ponies ' adventures, in part inspired by the animated shows that her brothers would watch while growing up, such as Transformers and G.I. Joe. Faust still aimed for the characters to be "relatable '' characters, using stereotypical "icons of girliness '' (such as the waif or the bookworm), as to broaden the appeal of the characters for the young female audience.
My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic focuses on six core characters, also identified as the "Mane Six '', a group of friends who are brought together by the "Elements of Harmony '', a set of six mystical jewels and an "unstoppable force of good '' that are used to defend Equestria against powerful threats. Each character was designed to represent a different element and positive aspect of friendship -- honesty (Applejack), kindness (Fluttershy), laughter (Pinkie Pie), generosity (Rarity), and loyalty (Rainbow Dash) -- which come together to form the sixth element of "magic '' (Twilight Sparkle).
Twilight Sparkle is the central character of the series, based on the first generation or "G1 '' unicorn toy Twilight. She is depicted in the show 's first three seasons as a purple unicorn with a pink - streaked indigo mane, and as a winged unicorn called an "alicorn '' after the season three finale "Magical Mystery Cure ''. She leads the Mane Six during their adventures and helps resolve her friends ' differences. She is an intelligent and dutiful scholar with an avid love of learning and skill in unicorn magic such as levitation, teleportation, and the creation of force fields. Director Jayson Thiessen describes her as "kind of a neurotic perfectionist '' who has "a touch OCD '', prone to suffering from nervous breakdowns when confronted with a problem that goes against her understanding.
Twilight begins the story as the protégée of Princess Celestia, who tasks her with studying the magical properties of friendship in Ponyville and reporting her findings. Twilight resents her assignment in the two - parter series premier, owing her reclusiveness to her obsession with books, but comes to form strong friendships with the rest of the Mane Six, which she realizes is key to harnessing the Elements of Harmony. She resides with her assistant Spike and pet owl named Owlowiscious (pronounced "Aloysius '') in Ponyville 's Golden Oak Library, where she also serves as town librarian. Her apprenticeship to Celestia ends in the season three finale "Magical Mystery Cure '' when she reverses an ancient spell by creating new magic based on her studies of friendship, transforms into an alicorn, and is crowned a princess. Assuming the title of "Princess of Friendship '', Twilight becomes responsible for spreading friendship across Equestria from the Castle of Friendship, a mystical castle that replaces the library after its destruction in the season four finale "Twilight 's Kingdom ''. After the season eight premiere "School Daze '', Twilight runs the School of Friendship to teach other creatures the benefits of friendship and appoints her friends as teachers.
Rainbow Dash is a blue pegasus with a rainbow - colored mane and tail who is based on the "G1 '' Firefly toy and shares her name with the "G3 '' earth pony. She is obsessed with speed and adventure. Her goal at the beginning of the series is to join her heroes, the elite Wonderbolts aerobatic team. This is accomplished in the season six episode "Newbie Dash '' after she impresses them with the multiple heroic feats she performs in the first five seasons. She helps other pegasi manage the weather around Ponyville and spends her time practicing flight maneuvers such as the "Sonic Rainboom '', a rainbow - hued sonic boom; it is shown in the episode "The Cutie Mark Chronicles '' that Rainbow Dash 's first Sonic Rainboom as a filly caused an chain of events that produced the Mane Six 's cutie marks. She lives with a propeller - fitted pet tortoise named Tank in a floating condominium of clouds called the Cloudominium, which is sparingly seen in the show because she "does n't sit still for very long '', according to director Jim Miller. Faust struggled to find a suitable aspect for Rainbow Dash 's Element of Harmony, seeing the character as "self - absorbed and rather irresponsible. '' She eventually settled on "loyalty '' because it "brought out (Rainbow Dash 's) positive traits. ''
Pinkie Pie (fully named Pinkamena Diane Pie) is a pink earth pony based on the "G3 '' toy of the same name. Her character, which Thiessen summarized as "a frenetic sugar rush '', was inspired by the "G1 '' pegasus toy Surprise. She is a party planner at Sugarcube Corner, a bakery and confectionery store in Ponyville that resembles a gingerbread house, where she also keeps a toothless baby alligator named Gummy. A comedic character who was raised on a "dreary rock farm '', Pinkie is cheerful, energetic, and talkative. She is defined by her desire to entertain her friends by randomly throwing parties and acting as outlandish as possible; but has a lack of confidence and a fear of being rejected by others. Pinkie is a source of much of the series ' humor, and several of the show 's "wacky gags '' are kept exclusive to her. Her running gags include breaking the fourth wall and "appearing suddenly in unexpected places '', as well as an ability to predict future events through various body reactions, which she calls the "Pinkie Sense ''. In early episodes, Faust worked to depict Pinkie as a "free spirit '' to address concerns of the character being seen as too "hyper '' and "ditzy ''. As the creative team grew more comfortable with Pinkie 's character and humor, she became "really over-the - top strange and bordering on crazy, with a wacky cartoonish magic all her own. ''
Rarity is a white unicorn with a curled violet mane who was based on the "G1 '' ponies Glory and Sparkler and named after the "G3 '' pony Rarity. She is a ladylike fashionista who speaks with a Mid-Atlantic accent and runs a haute couture salon in Ponyville called Carousel Boutique. Despite her vain and melodramatic tendencies, she has a generous spirit and strives to create dresses that capture their wearers ' inner beauty. She owns a pet Persian cat named Opalescence who is commonly nicknamed Opal. Faust 's original idea for Rarity 's Element of Harmony was "inspiration '', but it was changed to "generosity '' after the production team deemed the former "too much of a thinker, especially for kids. '' Faust was pleased with the change, saying it "really helped pull (Rarity) away from the stereotypical, unlikable debutante. '' She cites Audrey Hepburn as her biggest influence for Rarity, and also says that Tabitha St. Germain 's performance "added a humor to Rarity that was unexpected and wonderful. ''
Applejack is an orange, blonde - haired earth pony based on the "G1 '' character of the same name. She is characterized as a "farm gal '' who sports a cowboy hat and lasso, and speaks with a Southern accent. She works as an apple farmer at the Sweet Apple Acres orchard in Ponyville, using her strength to "buck '' apples out of trees. She lives with her grandmother Granny Smith, older brother Big McIntosh, younger sister Apple Bloom, and pet collie Winona. According to Faust, Applejack 's parents -- Bright Mac (voiced by Bill Newton) and Pear Butter (voiced by Felicia Day), first seen in the season seven episode "The Perfect Pear '' -- are deceased. Applejack is honest, reliable, and the most "down - to - earth '' of the Mane Six. She also has a stubborn streak, with several episodes focusing on her taking up some sort of "herculean task ''. Author Begin says that her apple - themed cutie mark "not only represents her name, but also is a symbol of the down - home simplicity found in a classic and common fruit. ''
Fluttershy is a yellow pink - maned pegasus based on the "G1 '' earth pony Posey. True to her name, she is "defined by her shy sweetness; soft, whispery voice; and tender, nurturing nature '', as described by author Begin. She possesses a unique affinity for animals that allows her to communicate with them. She lives in a secluded meadow cottage in Ponyville where she cares for multiple forest creatures such as her "conniving and willful '' pet rabbit Angel Bunny. In many episodes, Fluttershy exhibits an authoritative personality that emerges whenever a friend or animal is harmed, in contrast to her normally fearful and submissive self. Her most prominent ability, "the Stare '', causes any creature that meets her gaze to become "powerless and moved to meekness '' while it is in effect. Faust enjoyed writing for Fluttershy the most out of the show 's characters due to her "relatable '' struggles with fear, which Faust says brings potential "not just for great storytelling but (also for) great filmmaking ''.
Spike the Dragon is a purple baby dragon with green spines based on the "G1 '' and "G3 '' character of the same name. Hatched from an egg by a young Twilight Sparkle as part of her entrance exam for Celestia 's academy, he fulfills the role of Twilight 's "number one assistant '', named so for his loyalty and skill at helping Twilight solve problems and learn lessons. He is also described as having an incurable crush on Rarity, an insatiable appetite for sparkly gems, and the ability to send letters via his fiery dragon breath. '' He gained wings in the season eight episode "Molt Down ''. Author Begin calls Spike a foil to the Mane Six in terms of personality, size, and shape, which "provides plenty of opportunity for exploring this difference in story lines. '' He adopts a newborn phoenix named Peewee as a pet in the second - season episode "Dragon Quest '' and returned Peewee to his family in the season three episode "Just for Sidekicks ''. Faust envisioned the character as "the sensitive little boy who has a lot of sisters and just seems to get along better with girls. '' On Spike 's role as a dragon outsider living among ponies, Meghan McCarthy says, "He 's trying to figure out who he is. What beyond being Twilight 's assistant is his role in this world? I think he really reflects how everybody feels at some point in their life. ''
Princess Celestia, based on the "G1 '' unicorn Majesty, is a white alicorn and Equestria 's benevolent ruler. She has a flowing, multicolored mane and tail. As detailed in The Journal of the Two Sisters, Celestia has ruled Equestria for over one thousand years due to the slowed aging of alicorns. Her status as an alicorn is seen as a symbol of harmony between unicorns, pegasi and earth ponies. She is responsible for magically raising the sun each day from her castle in Canterlot and lowering it to make way for the night She also acts as a mentor and, as described by Faust, "a bit of a surrogate parent '' to Twilight Sparkle, guiding her throughout the series ' first three seasons to her eventual destiny as a princess of Equestria. She owns a mischievous pet phoenix named Philomena, who appears to be a "squaking old bird '' before bursting into flames and renewing herself. Faust 's original concept for Celestia was a queen rather than a princess, reflecting her status as the "highest authority '' in the series ' setting. The change was made at Hasbro 's statement that "girls assume that Queens are evil (...) and Princesses are good, '' and that "the perceived youth of a Princess is preferable to consumers. ''
Princess Luna, also named "Selena '' in earlier drafts, is a dark blue alicorn and Princess Celestia 's younger sister, designed and developed by Lynne Naylor. She serves as co-ruler of Equestria alongside Celestia, using her magic to maintain the moon and safeguard her subjects ' dreams during nighttime. Luna is introduced in the two opening episodes as Nightmare Moon, a malevolent black mare who was transformed by bitterness and jealousy towards her more beloved sister; as expounded in the comic series, her alter ego is a creation of the Nightmare Forces, a dark lunar miasma that preys on Luna 's insecurities to convince her to become their host. Banished to the moon by the reluctant Celestia in the series ' past, Nightmare Moon returns from a thousand - year exile to create eternal night. The Mane Six use the Elements of Harmony to purify and reform Luna, who reconciles with her sister and resumes her royal duties. She sports a different design in later episodes with a darker coloration and starry mane. Several episodes depict Luna 's "difficulty living in her older sister 's shadow '', such as adapting to modern Equestrian customs and repairing her public image. Outside the television series, Luna owns a pet opossum named Tiberius that appears in several comics and chapter books.
The Cutie Mark Crusaders are a trio of fillies bonded by their desire to earn their "cutie marks '', symbols that appear on a pony 's flank once they discover their special talents in life. They are each depicted as younger sibling figures to the main cast except Scootaloo. Several episodes of the series focus on the Crusaders ' misadventures in trying to earn their marks in "the most unorthodox and sometimes less - than - productive ways. '' This goal is achieved in the season five episode "Crusaders of the Lost Mark '', where the members gain similarly - themed cutie marks when they recognize their true purpose in life is helping other ponies discover or interpret their own cutie marks.
In addition to the main trio, there are others who are accepted into the Cutie Mark Crusaders across the series:
Discord is a spirit of chaos who first appeared in "The Return of Harmony ''. Primarily characterized as a nonsensical trickster, he is a Greek mythology - inspired creature called a "draconequus '' (/ drəˈkɒnɛkwʌs /, from the Latin words meaning "dragon horse ''), a serpentine being with a pony 's head and numerous different animal parts. Celestia and Luna opposed him in the past for tormenting ponies with his reality - bending powers, and he similarly faces the Mane Six during the premiere; both times, the ponies use the Elements of Harmony to turn him into stone. In the season three episode "Keep Calm and Flutter On '', Discord is released under Celestia 's decree to reform himself, which he does after Fluttershy treats him like a friend. He appears in later episodes as a reluctant ally of the Mane Six, occasionally causing mischief while struggling to become a better friend to them.
Faust based Discord 's character on Q, an omnipotent trickster played by John de Lancie on the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation. The production team considered casting a soundalike of de Lancie to voice the character, and were surprised to learn that de Lancie himself was available. The creative team developed Discord as "the one character who could break all of the rules of the show '' by including more modern or contemporary references than usual in the series ' "fantasy storybook '' setting. He was not intended to have a recurring role; according to McCarthy, "' reforming ' him allows us to tell new stories with his character. He gets to be the not - always - reliable ally instead of the known enemy. '' Author Begin commented on the "chaotic '' settings that accompany the character, such as his home dimension called Chaosville, likening them to "dream - inspired Salvador Dalí paintings. ''
Princess Cadance and Prince Shining Armor are Twilight Sparkle 's older sister - in - law and brother, respectively, who debuted in the season two finale "A Canterlot Wedding ''. Cadance, a kind alicorn whose full name is Princess Mi Amore Cadenza, is Princess Celestia 's adopted niece and Twilight 's childhood "foal - sitter '' (babysitter); according to the chapter book Twilight Sparkle and the Crystal Heart Spell, Cadance was a pegasus who became an alicorn after reversing an evil sorceress 's love - stealing spell. She married the unicorn Shining Armor, the captain of Canterlot 's royal guard who has a close relationship with his sister and is nicknamed her "Big Brother Best Friend Forever '' (B.B.B.F.F.). In the third - season premiere, Celestia appoints Shining Armor and Cadance to rule the Crystal Empire, an "ancient city '' that Cadance protects using the power of love so the shimmering crystal ponies may project hope and love across Equestria. In the season six premiere "The Crystalling '', Cadance gives birth to an alicorn filly named Flurry Heart (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain).
Starlight Glimmer is a unicorn who debuted in the season five premiere "The Cutie Map ''. Initially appearing as a "perfectly pleasant - looking unicorn '', Starlight is a sinister figure who wishes to build a "perfectly equal society '' by magically removing other ponies ' cutie marks because she believed that differing degrees of ability cause disharmony between friends. This stemmed from her anger at her childhood friend Sunburst (voiced by Ian Hanlin) after he earned his cutie mark before her. She later appears in the season five finale "The Cutie Re-Mark '' to take revenge against the Mane Six by traveling to the past and preventing their friendship before it starts by stopping Rainbow Dash from performing the Sonic Rainboom. After realizing the catastrophic changes this causes in the present, Starlight is convinced to change her ways and make new friends. She appears in season six as Twilight 's pupil, a role she graduates from in the season seven episode "Celestial Advice ''. In season eight, she is made a guidance counselor for the School of Friendship. According to Miller, Starlight 's design was chosen to parallel her role as a "proto - Twilight character ''. Her original name during production was "Aurora Glimmer '', which was changed due to the Walt Disney Company 's trademark of the character name "Aurora ''.
Ponyville is the primary setting of the television series and home of the show 's main characters. The town 's unique locales were designed to reflect their characters, while the overall style of the town was largely influenced by Pennsylvania Dutch design, steampunk artwork, and European and Bavarian folklore. The town also incorporates pony design elements such as horseshoes, hay bales, and troughs.
Canterlot is the mountainside capital of Equestria, named after the castle Camelot of Arthurian legend. The city is home to the country 's upper - class elite, including Princess Celestia and Princess Luna, who reside in the local castle. Canterlot was designed to give the sense of its residents ' royalty and nobility.
Cloudsdale is the home and birthplace of several pegasus characters such as Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy. It is depicted as a floating city of clouds where pegasi produce Equestria 's clouds, weather and rainbows inside a specialized "weather factory ''. The city 's design was influenced by Greek and Roman architecture, which author Begin states "harks back to the original Olympic Games, (...) a fitting reference for Rainbow Dash. ''
The show features an extensive cast of over 200 minor characters, also designated as "background ponies '', that are used to fill out crowd scenes and serve as visual gags in episodes. Several background ponies have been well received by the show 's brony fanbase, who have assigned names and more detailed personalities to them. As a response to fan interest, the series ' creative team have given these characters expanded roles in later episodes and media, such as the show 's one - hundredth episode "Slice of Life '', which presents the characters ' daily lives as the episode 's central focus.
The characters of My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic have received praise, and are cited as one of the reasons the series ' older fans, called "bronies '', became attracted to the show. In his review of the show, Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club complimented the characters ' stylized appearance and defined personalities, while favorably noting that "the show uses them well to come up with fun stories and bounce solid jokes off of each other. '' Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media, an organization focusing on the parenting aspect of children 's media, felt the characters posed a positive influence on children with themes tolerance and respect for one another, and that they "do n't let their diverse personalities keep them from forging relationships. '' However, she advised parents to be wary of the "influence the characters might have on their kids ' desires, since it 's rooted in a well - known product line of books, toys, and just about everything in between. '' Los Angeles Times critic Robert Lloyd praised the show 's diverse female characterization, but noted the smaller male cast by comparison, calling them "largely beside the point ''.
Kathleen Richter of Ms. was dismissive of the characters in her critique of the show in comparison to other girls ' shows, which she considered "so sexist and racist and heteronormative ''. For example, she suggested that the character of Rainbow Dash was used to promote the stereotype that "all feminists are angry, tomboyish lesbians. '' She also considered that the only darker - colored ponies shown at the time were in positions of servitude towards the "white pony overlord ''. Lauren Faust responded to these claims by stating that while Rainbow Dash was a tomboy, "nowhere in the show is her sexual orientation ever referenced '' and "assuming (tomboys) are lesbians is extremely unfair to both straight and lesbian tomboys '', and further stating that "Color has never, ever been depicted as a race indicator for the ponies. '' The portrayal of the character Derpy in the second season episode "The Last Roundup '' received a negative response from some viewers, who felt her crossed eyes and klutzy mannerisms were insulting to mentally handicapped persons; Hasbro 's subsequent modifications to the scene to reduce such character traits were also received poorly.
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who is in charge of marine protected areas | Marine protected area - wikipedia
Marine protected areas (MPA) are protected areas of seas, oceans, estuaries or large lakes. These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities. MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources. Such marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life. In some situations (such as with the Phoenix Islands Protected Area), MPAs also provide revenue for countries, potentially equal to the income that they would have if they were to grant companies permissions to fish.
On 28 October 2016 in Hobart, Australia, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources agreed to establish the first Antarctic and largest marine protected area in the world encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in the Ross Sea. Other large MPAs are in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans in certain exclusive economic zones of Australia and overseas territories of France, the United Kingdom and the United States, with major (990,000 square kilometres (380,000 sq mi) or larger) new or expanded MPAs by these nations since 2012 -- such as Natural Park of the Coral Sea, Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area. When counted with MPAs of all sizes from many other countries, as of August 2016 there are more than 13,650 MPAs, encompassing 2.07 % of the world 's oceans, with half of that area -- encompassing 1.03 % of the world 's oceans -- receiving complete "no - take '' designation.
"MPA '' is an umbrella term for protected areas that includes some area of marine landscape and / or biodiversity. The IUCN defines a marine protected area as:
"Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment. ''
An alternative is "a clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated, and managed through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values ''. United States Executive Order 13158 in May 2000 established MPAs, defining them as;
"Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein. ''
The Convention on Biological Diversity defined the broader term of marine and coastal protected area (MCPA);
"Any defined area within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine and / or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings. ''
Several types of compliant MPA can be distinguished:
IUCN offered seven categories of protected area, based on management objectives and four broad governance types.
Related protected area categories include the following;
While "area '' refers to a single contiguous location, terms such as "network '', "system '', and "region '' that group MPAs are not always consistently employed. "System '' is more often used to refer to an individual MPA, whereas "region '' is defined by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre as:
"A collection of individual MPAs operating cooperatively, at various spatial scales and with a range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve can not achieve. ''
At the 2004 Convention on Biological Diversity, the agency agreed to use "network '' on a global level, while adopting system for national and regional levels. The network is a mechanism to establish regional and local systems, but carries no authority or mandate, leaving all activity within the "system ''.
No take zones (NTZs), are areas designated in a number of the world 's MPAs, where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities. These no take zones can cover an entire MPA, or specific portions. For example, the 1,150,000 square kilometres (440,000 sq mi) Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, the world 's largest MPA (and largest protected area of any type, land or sea), is a 100 % no take zone.
Related terms include; specially protected area (SPA), Special Area of Conservation (SAC), the United Kingdom 's marine conservation zones (MCZs), or area of special conservation (ASC) etc. which each provide specific restrictions.
Stressors that affect oceans include "the impact of extractive industries, localised pollution, and changes to its chemistry (ocean acidification) resulting from elevated carbon dioxide levels, due to our emissions ''. MPAs have been cited as the ocean 's single greatest hope for increasing the resilience of the marine environment to such stressors. Well - designed and managed MPAs developed with input and support from interested stakeholders can conserve biodiversity and protect and restore fisheries.
MPAs can help sustain local economies by supporting fisheries and tourism. For example, Apo Island in the Philippines made protected one quarter of their reef, allowing fish to recover, jumpstarting their economy. This was shown in the film, Resources at Risk: Philippine Coral Reef. A 2016 report by the Center for Development and Strategy found that programs like the United States National Marine Sanctuary system can develop considerable economic benefits for communities through Public -- private partnerships.
Typical MPAs restrict fishing, oil and gas mining and / or tourism. Other restrictions may limit the use of ultrasonic devices like sonar (which may confuse the guidance system of cetaceans), development, construction and the like. Some fishing restrictions include "no - take '' zones, which means that no fishing is allowed. Less than 1 % of US MPAs are no - take.
Ship transit can also be restricted or banned, either as a preventive measure or to avoid direct disturbance to individual species. The degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether MPAs are located in territorial waters, exclusive economic zones, or the high seas. The law of the sea regulates these limits.
Most MPAs have been located in territorial waters, where the appropriate government can enforce them. However, MPAs have been established in exclusive economic zones and in international waters. For example, Italy, France and Monaco in 1999 jointly established a cetacean sanctuary in the Ligurian Sea named the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals. This sanctuary includes both national and international waters. Both the CBD and IUCN recommended a variety of management systems for use in a protected area system. They advocated that MPAs be seen as one of many "nodes '' in a network of protected areas. The following are the most common management systems:
Seasonal and temporary management -- Activities, most critically fishing, are restricted seasonally or temporarily, e.g., to protect spawning / nursing grounds or to let a rapidly reducing species recover.
Multiple - use MPAs -- These are the most common and arguably the most effective. These areas employ two or more protections. The most important sections get the highest protection, such as a no take zone and are surrounded with areas of lesser protections.
Community involvement and related approaches -- Community - managed MPAs empower local communities to operate partially or completely independent of the governmental jurisdictions they occupy. Empowering communities to manage resources can lower conflict levels and enlist the support of diverse groups that rely on the resource such as subsistence and commercial fishers, scientists, recreation, tourism businesses, youths and others.
Marine Protected Area Networks or MPA networks have been defined as "A group of MPAs that interact with one another ecologically and / or socially form a network ''.
These networks are intended to connect individuals and MPAs and promote education and cooperation among various administrations and user groups. "MPA networks are, from the perspective of resource users, intended to address both environmental and socio - economic needs, complementary ecological and social goals and designs need greater research and policy support ''.
Filipino communities connect with one another to share information about MPAs, creating a larger network through the social communities ' support. Emerging or established MPA networks can be found in Australia, Belize, the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Mexico.
The 17th International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) General Assembly in San Jose, California, the 19th IUCN assembly and the fourth World Parks Congress all proposed to centralise the establishment of protected areas. The World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 called for
the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012.
The Evian agreement, signed by G8 Nations in 2003, agreed to these terms. The Durban Action Plan, developed in 2003, called for regional action and targets to establish a network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional environmental protocols.It recommended establishing protected areas for 20 to 30 % of the world 's oceans by the goal date of 2012. The Convention on Biological Diversity considered these recommendations and recommended requiring countries to set up marine parks controlled by a central organization before merging them. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change agreed to the terms laid out by the convention, and in 2004, its member nations committed to the following targets;
"The establishment by 2010 of terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through a global network, contribute to achieving the three objectives of the Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current late of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, national, and sub-national levels and contribute to poverty reduction and the pursuit of sustainable development. ''
The UN later endorsed another decision, Decision VII / 15, in 2006:
Effective conservation of 10 % of each of the world 's ecological regions by 2010. -- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Decision VII / 15
On 7 April 1982, the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR Convention) came into force after discussions began in 1975 between parties of the then - current Antarctic Treaty to limit large - scale exploitation of krill by commercial fisheries. The Convention bound contracting nations to abide by previously agreed upon Antarctic territorial claims and peaceful use of the region while protecting ecosystem integrity south of the Antarctic Convergence and 60 S latitude. In so doing, it also established a commission of the original signatories and acceding parties called the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to advance these aims through protection, scientific study, and rational use, such as harvesting, of those marine resources. Though separate, the Antarctic Treaty and CCAMLR, make up part the broader system of international agreements called the Antarctic Treaty System. Since 1982, the CCAMLR meets annually to implement binding conservations measures like the creation of ' protected areas ' at the suggestion of the convention 's scientific committee.
In 2009, the CCAMLR created the first ' high - seas ' MPA entirely within international waters over the southern shelf of the South Orkney Islands. This area encompasses 94,000 square kilometres (36,000 sq mi) and all fishing activity including transhipment, and dumping or discharge of waste is prohibited with the exception of scientific research endeavors. On 28 October 2016, the CCAMLR, composed of 24 member countries and the European Union at the time, agreed to establish the world 's largest marine park encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in the Ross Sea after several years of failed negotiations. Establishment of the Ross Sea MPA required unanimity of the commission members and enforcement will begin in December 2017. However, due to a sunset provision inserted into the proposal, the new marine park will only be in force for 35 years.
Many countries have established national targets, accompanied by action plans and implementations. The UN Council identified the need for countries to collaborate with each other to establish effective regional conservation plans. Some national targets are listed in the table below
30 % of Coral reefs.
60 % of turtle nesting sites.
30 % of Manatee distribution.
60 % of American crocodile nesting.
80 % of breeding areas.
30 % of water managed by marine protected areas by 2020.
200,000 km by 2020.
The marine protected area network is still in its infancy. As of October 2010, approximately 6,800 MPAs had been established, covering 1.17 % of global ocean area. Protected areas covered 2.86 % of exclusive economic zones (EEZs). MPAs covered 6.3 % of territorial seas. Many prohibit the use of harmful fishing techniques yet only 0.01 % of the ocean 's area is designated as a "no take zone ''. This coverage is far below the projected goal of 20 % - 30 % Those targets have been questioned mainly due to the cost of managing protected areas and the conflict that protections have generated with human demand for marine goods and services.
The Greater Caribbean subdivision encompasses an area of about 5,700,000 square kilometres (2,200,000 sq mi) of ocean and 38 nations. The area includes island countries like the Bahamas and Cuba, and the majority of Central America. The Convention for Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (better known as the Cartagena Convention) was established in 1983. Protocols involving protected areas were ratified in 1990. As of 2008, the region hosted about 500 MPAs. Coral reefs are the best represented.
Two networks are under development, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (a long barrier reef that borders the coast of much of Central America), and the "Islands in the Stream '' program (covering the Gulf of Mexico).
Southeast Asia is a global epicenter for marine diversity. 12 % of its coral reefs are in MPAs. The Philippines have some the world 's best coral reefs and protect them to attract international tourism. Most of the Philippines ' MPAs are established to secure protection for its coral reef and sea grass habitats. Indonesia has MPAs designed for tourism and relies on tourism as a main source of income.
The Philippines host one of the most highly biodiverse regions, with 464 reef - building coral species. Due to overfishing, destructive fishing techniques, and rapid coastal development, these are in rapid decline. The country has established some 600 MPAs. However, the majority are poorly enforced and are highly ineffective. However, some have positively impacted reef health, increased fish biomass, decreased coral bleaching and increased yields in adjacent fisheries. One notable example is the MPA surrounding Apo Island.
Latin America has designated one large MPA system. As of 2008, 0.5 % of its marine environment was protected, mostly through the use of small, multiple - use MPAs.
The South Pacific network ranges from Belize to Chile. Governments in the region adopted the Lima convention and action plan in 1981. An MPA - specific protocol was ratified in 1989. The permanent commission on the exploitation and conservation on the marine resources of the South Pacific promotes the exchange of studies and information among participants.
The region is currently running one comprehensive cross-national program, the Tropical Eastern Pacific Marine Corridor Network, signed in April 2004. The network covers about 211,000,000 square kilometres (81,000,000 sq mi).
One alternative to imposing MPAs on an indigenous population is through the use of Indigenous Protected Areas, such as those in Australia.
The North Pacific network covers the western coasts of Mexico, Canada, and the U.S. The "Antigua Convention '' and an action plan for the north Pacific region were adapted in 2002. Participant nations manage their own national systems. In 2010 - 2011, the State of California completed hearings and actions via the state Department of Fish and Game to establish new MPAs.
President Barack Obama signed a proclamation on September 25, 2014, designating the world 's largest marine reserve. The proclamation expanded the existing Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, one of the world 's most pristine tropical marine environments, to six times its current size, encompassing 490,000 square miles (1,300,000 km) of protected area around these islands. Expanding the Monument protected the area 's unique deep coral reefs and seamounts.
In April 2009, the US established a United States National System of Marine Protected Areas, which strengthens the protection of US ocean, coastal and Great Lakes resources. These large - scale MPAs should balance "the interests of conservationists, fishers, and the public. '' As of 2009, 225 MPAs participated in the national system. Sites work together toward common national and regional conservation goals and priorities. NOAA 's national marine protected areas center maintains a comprehensive inventory of all 1,600 + MPAs within the US exclusive economic zone. Most US MPAs. allow some type of extractive use. Fewer than 1 % of U.S. waters prohibit all extractive activities.
In 1981 Olympic National Park became a marine protected area. The total protected site area is 3,697 square kilometres (1,427 sq mi). 173.2 km of the area was an MPA. The national system is a mechanism to foster MPA collaboration. Sites that meet pertinent criteria are eligible to join the national system. Four entry criteria govern admission:
In 1999, California adopted the Marine Life Protection Act, establishing the first state law requiring a comprehensive, science - based MPA network. The state created the Marine Life Protection Act Initiative. The MLPA Blue Ribbon Task Force and stakeholder and scientific advisory groups ensure that the process uses the science and public participation.
The MLPA Initiative established a plan to create California 's statewide MPA network by 2011 in several steps. The Central Coast step was successfully completed in September, 2007. The North Central Coast step was completed in 2010. The South Coast and North Coast steps were expected to go into effect in 2012.
In exchange for some of its national debt being written off, the Seychelles designates two new marine protected areas in the Indian Ocean, covering about 210,000 square kilometres (81,000 sq mi). It is the result of a financial deal, brokered in 2016 by The Nature Conservancy.
There are a number of marine protected areas around the coastline of the United Kingdom, known as Marine Conservation Zones in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, Marine Protection Areas in Scotland. They are to be found in inshore and offshore waters.
The United Kingdom is also creating marine protected reserves around several British Overseas Territories. The UK is responsible for 6.8 million square kilometres of ocean around the world, larger than all but four other countries.
The Chagos Marine Protected Area in the Indian Ocean was established in 2010 as a "no - take - zone ''. With a total surface area of 640,000 square kilometres (250,000 sq mi), it was the world 's largest contiguous marine reserve. In March 2015, the UK announced the creation of a marine reserve around the Pitcairn Islands in the Southern Pacific Ocean to protect its special biodiversity. The area of 830,000 square kilometres (320,000 sq mi) surpassed the Chagos Marine Protected Area as the world 's largest contiguous marine reserve, until the August 2016 expansion of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the United States to 1,510,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi).
In January 2016, the UK government announced the intention to create a marine protected area around Ascension Island. The protected area will be 234,291 square kilometres (90,460 sq mi), half of which will be closed to fishing.
The Natura 2000 ecological MPA network in the European Union included MPAs in the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea and the Baltic Sea. The member states had to define NATURA 2000 areas at sea in their Exclusive Economic Zone.
Two assessments, conducted thirty years apart, of three Mediterranean MPAs, demonstrate that proper protection allows commercially valuable and slow - growing red coral (Corallium rubrum) to produce large colonies in shallow water of less than 50 metres (160 ft). Shallow - water colonies outside these decades - old MPAs are typically very small. The MPAs are Banyuls, Carry - le - Rouet and Scandola, off the island of Corsica.
Managers and scientists use geographic information systems and remote sensing to map and analyze MPAs. NOAA Coastal Services Center compiled an "Inventory of GIS - Based Decision - Support Tools for MPAs. '' The report focuses on GIS tools with the highest utility for MPA processes. Remote sensing uses advances in aerial photography image capture, pop - up archival satellite tags, satellite imagery, acoustic data, and radar imagery. Mathematical models that seek to reflect the complexity of the natural setting may assist in planning harvesting strategies and sustaining fishing grounds.
Coral reef systems have been in decline worldwide. Causes include overfishing, pollution and ocean acidification. As of 2013 30 % of the world 's reefs were severely damaged. Approximately 60 % will be lost by 2030 without enhanced protection. Marine reserves with "no take zones '' are the most effective form of protection. Only about 0.01 % of the world 's coral reefs are inside effective MPAs.
MPAs can be an effective tool to maintain fish populations; see refuge (ecology). The general concept is to create overpopulation within the MPA. The fish expand into the surrounding areas to reduce crowding, increasing the population of unprotected areas. This helps support local fisheries in the surrounding area, while maintaining a healthy population within the MPA. Such MPAs are most commonly used for coral reef ecosystems.
One example is at Goat Island Bay in New Zealand, established in 1977. Research gathered at Goat Bay documented the spillover effect. "Spillover and larval export -- the drifting of millions of eggs and larvae beyond the reserve -- have become central concepts of marine conservation ''. This positively impacted commercial fishermen in surrounding areas.
Another unexpected result of MPAs is their impact on predatory marine species, which in some conditions can increase in population. When this occurs, prey populations decrease. One study showed that in 21 out of 39 cases, "trophic cascades, '' caused a decrease in herbivores, which led to an increase in the quantity of plant life. (This occurred in the Malindi Kisite and Watamu Marian National Parks in Kenya; the Leigh Marine Reserve in New Zealand; and Brackett 's Landing Conservation Area in the US.
Both CBD and IUCN have criteria for setting up and maintaining MPA networks, which emphasize 4 factors:
Misconceptions about MPAs include the belief that all MPAs are no - take or no - fishing areas. However, less than 1 percent of US waters are no - take areas. MPA activities can include consumption fishing, diving and other activities.
Another misconception is that most MPAs are federally managed. Instead, MPAs are managed under hundreds of laws and jurisdictions. They can be exist in state, commonwealth, territory and tribal waters.
Another misconception is that a federal mandate dedicates a set percentage of ocean to MPAs. Instead the mandate requires an evaluation of current MPAs and creates a public resource on current MPAs.
Some existing and proposed MPAs have been criticized by indigenous populations and their supporters, as impinging on land usage rights. For example, the proposed Chagos Protected Area in the Chagos Islands is contested by Chagossians deported from their homeland in 1965 by the British as part of the creation of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). According to Wikileaks CableGate documents, the UK proposed that the BIOT become a "marine reserve '' with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to their lands and to protect the joint UK / US military base on Diego Garcia Island.
Other critiques include: their cost (higher than that of passive management), conflicts with human development goals, inadequate scope to address factors such as climate change and invasive species.
In 2010, one study found that fish larvae can drift on ocean currents and reseed fish stocks at a distant location. This finding demonstrated that fish populations can be connected to distant locations through the process of larval drift.
They investigated the yellow tang, because larva of this species stay in the general area of the reef in which they first settle. The tropical yellow tang is heavily fished by the aquarium trade. By the late 1990s, their stocks were collapsing. Nine MPAs were established off the coast of Hawaii to protect them. Larval drift has helped them establish themselves in different locations, and the fishery is recovering. "We 've clearly shown that fish larvae that were spawned inside marine reserves can drift with currents and replenish fished areas long distances away, '' said coauthor Mark Hixon.
"A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated, and managed, through legal or effective means, to achieve the long - term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem service and cultural value. ''
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anatomical features of the coxal (hip) bone | Hip bone - wikipedia
The hip bone (os coxa, innominate bone, pelvic bone or coxal bone) is a large flat bone, constricted in the center and expanded above and below. In some vertebrates (including humans before puberty) it is composed of three parts: the ilium, ischium, and the pubis.
The two hip bones join at the pubic symphysis and together with the sacrum and coccyx (the pelvic part of the spine) comprise the skeletal component of the pelvis -- the pelvic girdle which surrounds the pelvic cavity. They are connected to the sacrum, which is part of the axial skeleton, at the sacroiliac joint. Each hip bone is connected to the corresponding femur (thigh bone) (forming the primary connection between the bones of the lower limb and the axial skeleton) through the large ball and socket joint of the hip.
The hip bone is formed by three parts: ilium, ischium, and pubis. At birth, these three components are separated by hyaline cartilage. They join each other in a Y - shaped portion of cartilage in the acetabulum. By the end of puberty the three regions will have fused together, and by the age of 25 they will have ossified. The two hip bones join each other at the pubic symphysis. Together with the sacrum and coccyx, the hip bones form the pelvis.
Ilium (plural ilia) is the uppermost and largest region. It makes up two fifths of the acetabulum. It is divisible into two parts: the body and the ala or wing of ilium; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the acetabulum. The body of ilium forms the sacroiliac joint with the sacrum. The edge of the wing of ilium forms the S - shaped iliac crest which is easily located through the skin. The iliac crest shows clear marks of the attachment of the three abdominal wall muscles.
The ischium forms the lower and back part of the hip bone and is located below the ilium and behind the pubis. The ischium is the strongest of the three regions that form the hip bone. It is divisible into three portions: the body, the superior ramus, and the inferior ramus. The body forms approximately one - third of the acetabulum.
The ischium forms a large swelling, the tuberosity of the ischium, also referred to colloquially as the "sit bone ''. When sitting, the weight is frequently placed upon the ischial tuberosity. The gluteus maximus covers it in the upright posture, but leaves it free in the seated position.
The pubic region or pubis is the ventral and anterior of the three parts forming the hip bone. It is divisible into a body, a superior ramus, and an inferior ramus. The body forms one - fifth of the acetabulum. The body forms the wide, strong, medial and flat portion of the pubic bone which unites with the other pubic bone in the pubic symphysis. The fibrocartilaginous pad which lies between the symphysial surfaces of the coxal bones, that secures the pubic symphysis, is called the interpubic disc.
The superior pubic ramus is a part of the pubic bone which forms a portion of the obturator foramen. It extends from the body to the median plane where it articulates with its fellow of the opposite side. It is conveniently described in two portions: a medial flattened part and a narrow lateral prismoid portion.
The inferior pubic ramus is thin and flat. It passes laterally and downward from the medial end of the superior ramus. It becomes narrower as it descends and joins with the inferior ramus of the ischium below the obturator foramen.
The hip bone is ossified from eight centers: three primary, one each for the ilium, ischium, and pubis, and five secondary, one each for the iliac crest, the anterior inferior spine (said to occur more frequently in the male than in the female), the tuberosity of the ischium, the pubic symphysis (more frequent in the female than in the male), and one or more for the Y - shaped piece at the bottom of the acetabulum. The centers appear in the following order: in the lower part of the ilium, immediately above the greater sciatic notch, about the eighth or ninth week of fetal life; in the superior ramus of the ischium, about the third month; in the superior ramus of the pubis, between the fourth and fifth months. At birth, the three primary centers are quite separate, the crest, the bottom of the acetabulum, the ischial tuberosity, and the inferior rami of the ischium and pubis being still cartilaginous. By the seventh or eighth year, the inferior rami of the pubis and ischium are almost completely united by bone. About the thirteenth or fourteenth year, the three primary centers have extended their growth into the bottom of the acetabulum, and are there separated from each other by a Y - shaped portion of cartilage, which now presents traces of ossification, often by two or more centers. One of these, the os acetabuli, appears about the age of twelve, between the ilium and pubis, and fuses with them about the age of eighteen; it forms the pubic part of the acetabulum. The ilium and ischium then become joined, and lastly the pubis and ischium, through the intervention of this Y - shaped portion. At about the age of puberty, ossification takes place in each of the remaining portions, and they join with the rest of the bone between the twentieth and twenty - fifth years. Separate centers are frequently found for the pubic tubercle and the ischial spine, and for the crest and angle of the pubis.
Several muscles attach to the hip bone including the internal muscles of the pelvic, abdominal muscles, back muscles, all the gluteal muscles, muscles of the lateral rotator group, hamstring muscles, two muscles from the anterior compartment of the thigh and even a single shoulder muscle.
Abdominal muscles
Back muscles
Gluteal muscles
Lateral rotator group
Hamstrings
Anterior compartment of thigh
Shoulder muscles
The proportions of the female hip bone may affect the ease of passage of the baby during childbirth. Pelvimetry is the assessment of the female pelvis in relation to the birth of a baby in order to detect an increased risk for obstructed labor.
Fractures of the hip bone are termed pelvic fractures, and should not be confused with hip fractures, which are actually femoral fractures that occur in the proximal end of the femur.
The hip bone first appears in fishes, where it consists of a simple, usually triangular bone, to which the pelvic fin articulates. The hip bones on each side usually connect with each other at the forward end, and are even solidly fused in lungfishes and sharks, but they never attach to the vertebral column.
In the early tetrapods, this early hip bone evolved to become the ischium and pubis, while the ilium formed as a new structure, initially somewhat rod - like in form, but soon adding a larger bony blade. The acetabulum is already present at the point where the three bones meet. In these early forms, the connection with the vertebral column is not complete, with a small pair of ribs connecting the two structures; nonetheless the pelvis already forms the complete ring found in most subsequent forms.
In practice, modern amphibians and reptiles have substantially modified this ancestral structure, based on their varied forms and lifestyles. The obturator foramen is generally very small in such animals, although most reptiles do possess a large gap between the pubis and ischium, referred to as the thyroid fenestra, which presents a similar appearance to the obturator foramen in mammals. In birds, the pubic symphysis is present only in the ostrich, and the two hip bones are usually widely separated, making it easier to lay large eggs.
In therapsids, the hip bone came to rotate counter-clockwise, relatives to its position in reptiles, so that the ilium moved forward, and the pubis and ischium moved to the rear. The same pattern is seen in all modern mammals, and the thyroid fenestra and obturator foramen have merged to form a single space. The ilium is typically narrow and triangular in mammals, but is much larger in ungulates and humans, in which it anchors powerful gluteal muscles. Monotremes and marsupials also possess a fourth pair of bones, the prepubes or "marsupial bones '', which extend forward from the pubes, and help to support the abdominal muscles and, in marsupials, the pouch. In placental mammals, the pelvis as a whole is generally wider in females than in males, to allow for the birth of the young.
The pelvic bones of cetaceans were formerly considered to be vestigial, but they are now known to play a role in sexual selection.
Female pelvis.
Position of the hip bones (shown in red). Animation.
Right hip bone. Animation.
Right hip bone. External surface.
Right hip bone. Internal surface.
Left hip - joint, opened by removing the floor of the acetabulum from within the pelvis.
Hip bone. Medial view.
Hip bone. Lateral view.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 231 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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who owns the versace mansion in miami florida | Casa Casuarina - Wikipedia
The Villa, Casa Casuarina, (also known as Versace Mansion) is a property previously owned by Italian fashion impresario Gianni Versace at Ocean Drive in the Miami Beach Architectural District, Florida. Now it operates as a boutique hotel known as The Villa, Casa Casuarina.
The Villa Casa Casuarina was built in 1930 in Mediterranean Revival style, commissioned by architect Alden Freeman. There is a rumor that during construction a time capsule was hidden in one of the walls.
Freeman said the structure was modeled on the Alcázar de Colón with its Coralline rock blocks. One of the blocks from the Alcazar structure sits on the right side of the main entrance. Addison Mizner designed the interior including the use of key lime coral flooring.
The name translates to "house of the Australian pine '' and speculation about its origin centers on a W. Somerset Maugham novel, "Under the Casuarina Tree '' or maybe a reference to a tree on the lot that survived the 1926 Miami hurricane.
Major architecture features included an observatory and a small replica of the Homage Tower from the Fortaleza Ozama in the Dominican Republic. About 100 medallions of famous people including Lenin, Mussolini and Julius Caesar are on the walls.
Freeman was the son of Joel Freeman who was treasurer of the Standard Oil Company. He lived in the house with his adopted son Charles Boulton and Boulton 's family. He died at the house on December 29, 1937.
Jacques Amsterdam acquired the house for $100,000 and converted it to a 24 unit apartment building naming it The Amsterdam Palace It would change hands several times and be renamed the Christopher Columbus Apartments in commemoration of its Columbus connected architecture features.
In 1992 Versace bought the house for $2.95 million and renamed it back to its original name. He converted the building from 24 apartments to 8 bedrooms, 2 kitchens, 3 sitting rooms, 10 bathrooms, a bar, a library, 4 living rooms and central air conditioning. In 1993 Versace bought the adjoining Revere Hotel (built in 1950) to the south for $3.7 million and tore it down to make a pool and garden area. The English art historian and landscape gardener Roy Strong worked on the grounds of the villa for Versace. Strong had also created gardens at Versace 's Villa Fontanelle on Lake Como.
On July 15, 1997 Versace was shot dead in front of this house by Andrew Cunanan.
The mansion was purchased by Peter Loftin for $19 million in 2000; he renovated the property to be used as a boutique hotel, restaurant and luxury event space. The restaurant was Il Sole at The Villa Casa Casuarina. The mansion was bought by VM South Beach, LLC for $41.5 million in 2013. Since 2015, the Villa Casa Casuarina has been a luxury hotel with 10 unique suites and the renowned gourmet restaurant Gianni 's.
Entrance steps where Gianni Versace was shot by Andrew Cunanan
Casa Casuarina - View of balcony
Orange and gold planters outside Versace Mansion
Perimeter street metal railing
Wall fruit bowl detail
Another wall fruit bowl
Wall pine cone detail
Wall wrought iron round medallion
Head of Medusa and pine cones
Round tower and iron fence
South east corner
Perimeter wall details - south side
Alleyway handicap entrance for Versace Mansion
Small window in alleyway
Large window in alleyway
Perimeter wall masonry pine cone
Alleyway looking north
Alleyway behind building looking south
Rear of mansion - alleyway view north
Rear of mansion - alleyway view south
Coordinates: 25 ° 46 ′ 55.20 '' N 80 ° 7 ′ 50.20 '' W / 25.7820000 ° N 80.1306111 ° W / 25.7820000; - 80.1306111
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who did the us buy the oregon territory from | Oregon territory - wikipedia
Seal of the Oregon Territory
The Territory of Oregon was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from August 14, 1848, until February 14, 1859, when the southwestern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Oregon. Originally claimed by several countries (see Oregon Country), the region was divided between the UK and US in 1846. When established, the territory encompassed an area that included the current states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, as well as parts of Wyoming and Montana. The capital of the territory was first Oregon City, then Salem, followed briefly by Corvallis, then back to Salem, which became the state capital upon Oregon 's admission to the Union.
Originally inhabited by Native Americans, the region that became the Oregon Territory was explored by Europeans first by sea. The first documented voyage of exploration was made in 1777 by the Spanish, and both British and American vessels visited the region not long thereafter. Subsequent land - based exploration by Alexander Mackenzie and the Lewis and Clark Expedition and development of the fur trade in the region strengthened the competing claims of Great Britain and the United States.
The competing interests of the two foremost claimants were addressed in the Treaty of 1818, which sanctioned a "joint occupation '', by British and Americans, of a vast "Oregon Country '' (as the American side called it) that comprehended the present - day U.S. states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, parts of Montana and Wyoming, and the portion of what is now the Canadian province of British Columbia south of the parallel 54 ° 40 ′ north.
During the period of joint occupation, most activity in the region outside of the activities of the indigenous people came from the fur trade, which was dominated by the British Hudson 's Bay Company. Over time, some trappers began to settle down in the area and began farming, and missionaries started to arrive in the 1830s. Some settlers also began arriving in the late 1830s, and covered wagons crossed the Oregon Trail beginning in 1841. At that time, no government existed in the Oregon Country, as no one nation held dominion over the territory.
A group of settlers in the Willamette Valley began meeting in 1841 to discuss organizing a government for the area. These earliest documented discussions, mostly concerning forming a government, were held in an early pioneer and Native American encampment and later town known as Champoeg, Oregon. These first Champoeg Meetings eventually led to further discussions, and in 1843 the creation of the Provisional Government of Oregon. In 1846, the Oregon boundary dispute between the U.S. and Britain was settled with the signing of the Oregon Treaty. The British gained sole possession of the land north of the 49th parallel and all of Vancouver Island, with the United States receiving the territory south of that line.
The United States federal government left their part of the region unorganized for two years until news of the Whitman massacre reached the United States Congress and helped to facilitate the organization of the region into a U.S. territory. On August 14, 1848, Congress passed the Act to Establish the Territorial Government of Oregon, which created what was officially the Territory of Oregon. The Territory of Oregon originally encompassed all of the present - day states of Idaho, Oregon and Washington, as well as those parts of present - day Montana and Wyoming west of the Continental Divide. Its southern border was the 42nd parallel north (the boundary of the Adams - Onis Treaty of 1819), and it extended north to the 49th parallel. Oregon City, Oregon, was designated as the first capital.
The territorial government consisted of a governor, a marshal, a secretary, an attorney, and a three - judge supreme court. Judges on the court also sat as trial level judges as they rode circuit across the territory. All of these offices were filled by appointment by the President of the United States. The two - chamber Oregon Territorial Legislature was responsible for passing laws, with seats in both the upper - chamber council and lower - chamber house of representatives filled by local elections held each year.
Taxation took the form of an annual property tax of 0.25 % for territorial purposes with an additional county tax not to exceed this amount. This tax was to be paid on all town lots and improvements, mills, carriages, clocks and watches, and livestock; farmland and farm products were not taxed. In addition, a poll tax of 50 cents for every qualified voter under age 60 was assessed and a graduated schedule of merchants ' licenses established, ranging from the peddlar 's rate of $10 per year to a $60 annual fee on firms with more than $20,000 of capital.
Oregon City served as the seat of government from 1848 to 1851, followed by Salem from 1851 to 1855. Corvallis served briefly as the capital in 1855, followed by a permanent return to Salem later that year. In 1853, the portion of the territory north of the lower Columbia River and north of the 46th parallel east of the river was organized into the Washington Territory. The Oregon Constitutional Convention was held in 1857 to draft a constitution in preparation for becoming a state, with the convention delegates approving the document in September, and then general populace approving the document in November.
On February 14, 1859, the territory entered the Union as the U.S. state of Oregon within its current boundaries. The remaining eastern portion of the territory (the portions in present - day southern Idaho and western Wyoming) was added to the Washington Territory.
Coordinates: 45 ° 30 ′ N 117 ° 00 ′ W / 45.5 ° N 117 ° W / 45.5; - 117
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why did the united kingdom receive so much aid from 1941 to 1944 | Lend - Lease - wikipedia
The lend - lease policy, formally titled "An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States '', (Pub. L. 77 -- 11, H.R. 1776, 55 Stat. 31, enacted March 11, 1941) was a program by which the United States supplied Free France, the United Kingdom, the Republic of China, and later the Soviet Union and other Allied nations with food, oil, and materiel between 1941 and August 1945. This included warships and warplanes, along with other weaponry. The policy was signed into law on March 11, 1941 and ended overnight without prior warning when the war against Japan ended. The aid was free for all countries, although goods in transit when the program ended were charged for. Some transport ships were returned to the US after the war, but practically all the items sent out were used up or worthless in peacetime. In return for the aid, the U.S. was given leases on army and naval bases in Allied territory during the war.
The program was under the direct control of the White House, with Roosevelt paying close attention, assisted by Harry Hopkins, W. Averell Harriman, Edward Stettinius Jr... Roosevelt often sent them on special missions to London and Moscow, where their control over Lend Lease gave them importance. The budget was hidden away in the overall military budget, and details were not released until after the war.
A total of $ 50.1 billion (equivalent to $681 billion presently) was involved, or 11 % of the total war expenditures of the U.S. In all, $31.4 billion (equivalent to $427 billion today) went to Britain and its Empire, $11.3 billion (equivalent to $154 billion today) to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion (equivalent to $43.5 billion today) to France, $1.6 billion (equivalent to $21.7 billion today) to China, and the remaining $2.6 billion to the other Allies. Reverse lend - lease policies comprised services such as rent on bases used by the U.S., and totaled $7.8 billion; of this, $6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth, mostly Australia and India. The terms of the agreement provided that the materiel was to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice very little equipment was in usable shape for peacetime uses. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to Britain at a large discount for £ 1.075 billion, using long - term loans from the United States. Canada was not part of Lend Lease. However it operated a similar program called Mutual Aid that sent a loan of $1 billion and $3.4 billion in supplies and services to Britain and other Allies.
This program effectively ended the United States ' pretense of neutrality and was a decisive change from non-interventionist policy, which had dominated United States foreign relations since 1931. (See Neutrality Acts of 1930s.)
After the defeat of France during June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the only forces engaged in war against Germany and Italy, until the Italian invasion of Greece. Britain had been paying for its material with gold as part of the "cash and carry '' program, as required by the US Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, but by 1941 it had liquidated so many assets that its cash was becoming depleted.
During this same period, the U.S. government began to mobilize for total war, instituting the first - ever peacetime draft and a fivefold increase in the defense budget (from $2 billion to $10 billion). In the meantime, as the British began becoming short of money, arms, and other supplies, Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed President Franklin D. Roosevelt for American help. Sympathetic to the British plight but hampered by public opinion and the Neutrality Acts, which forbade arms sales on credit or the loaning of money to belligerent nations, Roosevelt eventually came up with the idea of "lend -- lease ''. As one Roosevelt biographer has characterized it: "If there was no practical alternative, there was certainly no moral one either. Britain and the Commonwealth were carrying the battle for all civilization, and the overwhelming majority of Americans, led in the late election by their president, wished to help them. '' As the President himself put it, "There can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs. ''
In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain the British government sent the Tizard Mission to the United States. The aim of the British Technical and Scientific Mission was to obtain the industrial resources to exploit the military potential of the research and development work completed by the UK up to the beginning of World War II, but that Britain itself could not exploit due to the immediate requirements of war - related production. The shared technology included the cavity magnetron (key technology at the time for highly effective radar; the American historian James Phinney Baxter III later called "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores ''), the design for the VT fuze, details of Frank Whittle 's jet engine and the Frisch -- Peierls memorandum describing the feasibility of an atomic bomb. Though these may be considered the most significant, many other items were also transported, including designs for rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection devices, self - sealing fuel tanks and plastic explosives.
During December 1940, President Roosevelt proclaimed the U.S.A. would be the "Arsenal of Democracy '' and proposed selling munitions to Britain and Canada. Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning it would result in American involvement with what was considered by most Americans as an essentially European conflict. In time, opinion shifted as increasing numbers of Americans began to consider the advantage of funding the British war against Germany, while staying free of the hostilities themselves. Propaganda showing the devastation of British cities during The Blitz, as well as popular depictions of Germans as savage also rallied public opinion to the Allies, especially after the defeat of France.
After a decade of neutrality, Roosevelt knew that the change to Allied support must be gradual, especially since German Americans were the largest ethnicity in America at the time. Originally, the American policy was to help the British but not join the war. During early February 1941, a Gallup poll revealed that 54 percent of Americans were in favor of giving aid to the British without qualifications of lend - Lease. A further 15 percent were in favor with qualifications such as: "If it does n't get us into war, '' or "If the British can give us some security for what we give them. '' Only 22 percent were unequivocally against the President 's proposal. When poll participants were asked their party affiliation, the poll revealed a political divide: 69 percent of Democrats were unequivocally in favor of Lend - Lease, whereas only 38 percent of Republicans favored the bill without qualification. At least one poll spokesperson also noted that, "approximately twice as many Republicans '' gave "qualified answers as... Democrats. ''
Opposition to the lend - lease bill was strongest among isolationist Republicans in Congress, who feared the measure would be "the longest single step this nation has yet taken toward direct involvement in the war abroad ''. When the House of Representatives finally took a roll call vote on February 9, 1941, the 260 to 165 vote was largely along party lines. Democrats voted 238 to 25 in favor and Republicans 24 in favor and 135 against.
The vote in the Senate, which occurred a month later, revealed a similar partisan difference. 49 Democrats (79 percent) voted "aye '' with only 13 Democrats (21 percent) voting "nay. '' In contrast, 17 Republicans (63 percent) voted "nay '' while 10 Senate Republicans (37 percent) sided with the Democrats to pass the bill.
President Roosevelt signed the lend - lease bill into law on 11 March 1941. It permitted him to "sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government (whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States) any defense article. '' In April, this policy was extended to China, and in October to the Soviet Union. Roosevelt approved US $1 billion in Lend - Lease aid to Britain at the end of October 1941.
This followed the 1940 Destroyers for Bases Agreement, whereby 50 US Navy destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy in exchange for basing rights in the Caribbean. Churchill also granted the US base rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland for free, allowing British military assets to be redeployed.
After the United States entered the war in December 1941, foreign - policy was rarely discussed by Congress, and there was very little demand to cut Lend Lease spending. In spring 1944, the House passed a bill to renew the Lend Lease program by a vote of 334 to 21. The Senate passed it by a vote of 63 to 1.
President Roosevelt established the Office of Lend - Lease Administration during 1941, appointing steel executive Edward R. Stettinius as head. During September 1943, he was promoted to Undersecretary of State, and Leo Crowley became director of the Foreign Economic Administration which was given responsibility for Lend - Lease.
Lend - lease aid to the USSR was nominally managed by Stettinius. Roosevelt 's Soviet Protocol Committee was dominated by Harry Hopkins and General John York, who were totally sympathetic to the provision of "unconditional aid ''. Few Americans objected to Soviet aid until 1943.
The program began to be ended after VE Day. During April 1945, Congress voted that it should not be used for post-conflict purposes, and during August 1945, after Japanese surrender, the program was ended. Prior to his death during April of that year, Roosevelt had announced his intention to end the program from September 1945.
Value of materials supplied by the USA to other allied nations
Lend - Lease would help the British and Allied forces win the battles of the late war; the help it gave in the battles of 1941 was trivial. In 1943 -- 1944, about a quarter of all British munitions came through Lend - Lease. Aircraft (in particular transport aircraft) comprised about a quarter of the shipments to Britain, followed by food, land vehicles and ships.
Even after the United States forces in Europe and the Pacific began to attain full strength during 1943 -- 1944, Lend - Lease continued. Most remaining allies were largely self - sufficient in front line equipment (such as tanks and fighter aircraft) by this time, but Lend - Lease provided a useful supplement in this category even so, and Lend - Lease logistical supplies (including motor vehicles and railroad equipment) were of enormous assistance.
Much of the aid can be better understood when considering the economic distortions caused by the war. Most belligerent powers decreased severely production of non-essentials, concentrating on producing weapons. This inevitably produced shortages of related products needed by the military or as part of the military - industrial complex. For example, the USSR was very dependent on rail transportation, but the war practically ended rail equipment production. Just 446 locomotives were produced during the war, with only 92 of those being built between 1942 and 1945. In total, 92.7 % of the wartime production of railroad equipment by the USSR was supplied by Lend - Lease, including 1,911 locomotives and 11,225 railcars which augmented the existing prewar stocks of at least 20,000 locomotives and half a million railcars.
Furthermore, much of the logistical assistance of the Soviet military was provided by hundreds of thousands of U.S. - made trucks. Indeed, by 1945, nearly a third of the truck strength of the Red Army was U.S. - built. Trucks such as the Dodge 3⁄4 ton and Studebaker 21⁄2 ton were easily the best trucks available in their class on either side on the Eastern Front. American shipments of telephone cable, aluminum, canned rations, and clothing were also critical.
Lend - Lease also supplied significant amounts of weapons and ammunition. The Soviet air force received 18,200 aircraft, which amounted to about 13 % of Soviet wartime aircraft production. And while most tank units were Soviet - built models, some 7,000 Lend - Lease tanks were deployed by the Red Army, or 8 % of war - time production.
According to the Russian historian Boris Vadimovich Sokolov, Lend - Lease had a crucial role in winning the war:
On the whole the following conclusion can be drawn: that without these Western shipments under Lend - Lease the Soviet Union not only would not have been able to win the Great Patriotic War, it would not have been able even to oppose the German invaders, since it could not itself produce sufficient quantities of arms and military equipment or adequate supplies of fuel and ammunition. The Soviet authorities were well aware of this dependency on Lend - Lease. Thus, Stalin told Harry Hopkins (FDR 's emissary to Moscow in July 1941) that the U.S.S.R. could not match Germany 's might as an occupier of Europe and its resources.
Nikita Khrushchev, having served as a military commissar and intermediary between Stalin and his generals during the war, addressed directly the significance of Lend - lease aid in his memoirs:
I would like to express my candid opinion about Stalin 's views on whether the Red Army and the Soviet Union could have coped with Nazi Germany and survived the war without aid from the United States and Britain. First, I would like to tell about some remarks Stalin made and repeated several times when we were "discussing freely '' among ourselves. He stated bluntly that if the United States had not helped us, we would not have won the war. If we had had to fight Nazi Germany one on one, we could not have stood up against Germany 's pressure, and we would have lost the war. No one ever discussed this subject officially, and I do n't think Stalin left any written evidence of his opinion, but I will state here that several times in conversations with me he noted that these were the actual circumstances. He never made a special point of holding a conversation on the subject, but when we were engaged in some kind of relaxed conversation, going over international questions of the past and present, and when we would return to the subject of the path we had traveled during the war, that is what he said. When I listened to his remarks, I was fully in agreement with him, and today I am even more so.
Joseph Stalin, during the Tehran Conference during 1943, acknowledged publicly the importance of American efforts during a dinner at the conference: "Without American production the United Nations (the Allies) could never have won the war. ''
In a confidential interview with the wartime correspondent Konstantin Simonov, the Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov is quoted as saying:
Today (1963) some say the Allies did n't really help us... But listen, one can not deny that the Americans shipped over to us material without which we could not have equipped our armies held in reserve or been able to continue the war.
Roosevelt, eager to ensure public consent for this controversial plan, explained to the public and the press that his plan was comparable to one neighbor 's lending another a garden hose to put out a fire in his home. "What do I do in such a crisis? '' the president asked at a press conference. "I do n't say... ' Neighbor, my garden hose cost me $15; you have to pay me $15 for it '... I do n't want $15 -- I want my garden hose back after the fire is over. '' To which Senator Robert Taft (R - Ohio), responded: "Lending war equipment is a good deal like lending chewing gum -- you certainly do n't want the same gum back. ''
In practice, very little was returned except for a few unarmed transport ships. Surplus military equipment was of no value in peacetime. The Lend - Lease agreements with 30 countries provided for repayment not in terms of money or returned goods, but in "joint action directed towards the creation of a liberalized international economic order in the postwar world. '' That is the U.S, would be "repaid '' when the recipient fought the common enemy and joined the world trade and diplomatic agencies, such as the United Nations.
American deliveries to the Soviet Union can be divided into the following phases:
Delivery was via the Arctic Convoys, the Persian Corridor, and the Pacific Route.
The Arctic route was the shortest and most direct route for lend - lease aid to the USSR, though it was also the most dangerous as it involved sailing past German - occupied Norway. Some 3,964,000 tons of goods were shipped by the Arctic route; 7 % was lost, while 93 % arrived safely. This constituted some 23 % of the total aid to the USSR during the war.
The Persian Corridor was the longest route, and was not fully operational until mid-1942. Thereafter it saw the passage of 4,160,000 tons of goods, 27 % of the total.
The Pacific Route opened in August 1941, but was affected by the start of hostilities between Japan and the US; after December 1941, only Soviet ships could be used, and, as Japan and the USSR observed a strict neutrality towards each other, only non-military goods could be transported. Nevertheless, some 8,244,000 tons of goods went by this route, 50 % of the total.
In total, the U.S. deliveries through Lend - Lease amounted to $11 billion in materials: over 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386 of which were M3 Lees and 4,102 M4 Shermans); 11,400 aircraft (4,719 of which were Bell P - 39 Airacobras) and 1.75 million tons of food.
Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94 % coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.
The United States delivered to the Soviet Union from October 1, 1941 to May 31, 1945 the following: 427,284 trucks, 13,303 combat vehicles, 35,170 motorcycles, 2,328 ordnance service vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of petroleum products (gasoline and oil) or 57.8 percent of the High - octane aviation fuel, 4,478,116 tons of foodstuffs (canned meats, sugar, flour, salt, etc.), 1,911 steam locomotives, 66 Diesel locomotives, 9,920 flat cars, 1,000 dump cars, 120 tank cars, and 35 heavy machinery cars. Provided ordnance goods (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) amounted to 53 percent of total domestic production. One item typical of many was a tire plant that was lifted bodily from the Ford Company 's River Rouge Plant and transferred to the USSR. The 1947 money value of the supplies and services amounted to about eleven billion dollars.
In June 1941, within weeks of the German invasion of the USSR, the first British aid convoy set off along the dangerous Arctic sea route to Murmansk, arriving in September. It carried 40 Hawker Hurricanes along with 550 mechanics and pilots of No. 151 Wing to provide immediate air defence of the port and to train Soviet pilots. The convoy was the first of many convoys to Murmansk and Archangelsk in what became known as the Arctic convoys, the returning ships carried the gold that the USSR was using to pay the US.
By the end of 1941, early shipments of Matilda, Valentine and Tetrarch tanks represented only 6.5 % of total Soviet tank production but over 25 % of medium and heavy tanks produced for the Red Army. The British tanks first saw action with the 138 Independent Tank Battalion in the Volga Reservoir on 20 November 1941. Lend - Lease tanks constituted 30 to 40 percent of heavy and medium tank strength before Moscow at the beginning of December 1941.
Significant numbers of British Churchill, Matilda and Valentine tanks were shipped to the USSR.
Between June 1941 and May 1945, Britain delivered to the USSR:
In total 4 million tonnes of war material including food and medical supplies were delivered. The munitions totaled £ 308m (not including naval munitions supplied), the food and raw materials totaled £ 120m in 1946 index. In accordance with the Anglo - Soviet Military Supplies Agreement of 27 June 1942, military aid sent from Britain to the Soviet Union during the war was entirely free of charge.
Reverse Lend - lease was the supply of equipment and services to the United States. Nearly $8 billion (equivalent to $124 billion today) worth of war material was provided to U.S. forces by her allies, 90 % of this sum coming from the British Empire. Reciprocal contributions included the Austin K2 / Y military ambulance, British aviation spark plugs used in B - 17 Flying Fortresses, Canadian - made Fairmile launches used in anti-submarine warfare, Mosquito photo - reconnaissance aircraft, and Indian petroleum products. Australia and New Zealand supplied the bulk of foodstuffs to United States forces in the South Pacific. Though diminutive in comparison, Soviet - supplied reverse lend - lease included 300,000 metric tons of chromium and 32,000 metric tons of manganese ore, as well as wood, gold and platinum.
In a November 1943 report to Congress, President Roosevelt said of Allied participation in reverse Lend - lease:
... the expenditures made by the British Commonwealth of Nations for reverse lend - lease aid furnished to the United States, and of the expansion of this program so as to include exports of materials and foodstuffs for the account of United States agencies from the United Kingdom and the British colonies, emphasizes the contribution which the British Commonwealth has made to the defense of the United States while taking its place on the battle fronts. It is an indication of the extent to which the British have been able to pool their resources with ours so that the needed weapon may be in the hands of that soldier -- whatever may be his nationality - who can at the proper moment use it most effectively to defeat our common enemies.
In 1945 -- 46, the value of Reciprocal Aid from New Zealand exceeded that of Lend - Lease, though in 1942 -- 43, the value of Lend - Lease to New Zealand was much more than that of Reciprocal Aid. Britain also supplied extensive material assistance to American forces stationed in Europe, for example the USAAF was supplied with hundreds of Spitfire Mk V and Mk VIII fighter aircraft.
The cooperation that was built up with Canada during the war was an amalgam compounded of diverse elements of which the air and land routes to Alaska, the Canol project, and the CRYSTAL and CRIMSON activities were the most costly in point of effort and funds expended.
... The total of defense materials and services that Canada received through lend - lease channels amounted in value to approximately $419,500,000.
... Some idea of the scope of economic collaboration can be had from the fact that from the beginning of 1942 through 1945 Canada, on her part, furnished the United States with $1,000,000,000 to $1,250,000,000 in defense materials and services.
... Although most of the actual construction of joint defense facilities, except the Alaska Highway and the Canol project, had been carried out by Canada, most of the original cost was borne by the United States. The agreement was that all temporary construction for the use of American forces and all permanent construction required by the United States forces beyond Canadian requirements would be paid for by the United States, and that the cost of all other construction of permanent value would be met by Canada. Although it was not entirely reasonable that Canada should pay for any construction that the Canadian Government considered unnecessary or that did not conform to Canadian requirements, nevertheless considerations of self - respect and national sovereignty led the Canadian Government to suggest a new financial agreement.
... The total amount that Canada agreed to pay under the new arrangement came to about $76,800,000, which was some $13,870,000 less than the United States had spent on the facilities.
Canada had its own version of lend - lease for Britain. Canada gave Britain gifts totaling $3.5 billion during the war, plus a zero - interest loan of $1 billion; Britain used the money to buy Canadian food and war supplies. Canada also loaned $1.2 billion on a long - term basis to Britain immediately after the war; these loans were fully repaid in late 2006.
The Gander Air Base (RCAF Station Gander) located at Gander International Airport built in 1936 in Newfoundland was leased by Britain to Canada for 99 years because of its urgent need for the movement of fighter and bomber aircraft to Britain. The lease became redundant when Newfoundland became Canada 's tenth province in 1949.
Most American Lend - Lease aid comprised supplies purchased in the U.S., but Roosevelt allowed Lend - Lease to purchase supplies from Canada, for shipment to Britain, China and Soviet Union.
Congress had not authorized the gift of supplies delivered after the cutoff date, so the U.S. charged for them, usually at a 90 % discount. Large quantities of undelivered goods were in Britain or in transit when Lend - Lease terminated on 2 September 1945. Britain wished to retain some of this equipment in the immediate post war period. In 1946, the post-war Anglo - American loan further indebted Britain to the U.S. Lend - Lease items retained were sold to Britain at 10 % of nominal value, giving an initial loan value of £ 1.075 billion for the Lend - Lease portion of the post-war loans. Payment was to be stretched out over 50 annual payments, starting in 1951 and with five years of deferred payments, at 2 % interest. The final payment of $83.3 million (£ 42.5 million), due on 31 December 2006 (repayment having been deferred in the allowed five years and during a sixth year not allowed), was made on 29 December 2006 (the last working day of the year). After this final payment Britain 's Economic Secretary to the Treasury formally thanked the U.S. for its wartime support.
Tacit repayment of Lend - Lease by the British was made in the form of several valuable technologies, including those related to radar, sonar, jet engines, antitank weaponry, rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection, self - sealing fuel tanks, and plastic explosives as well as the British contribution to the Manhattan Project. Many of these were transferred by the Tizard Mission. The official historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, James Phinney Baxter III, wrote: "When the members of the Tizard Mission brought the cavity magnetron to America in 1940, they carried the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores. ''
While repayment of the interest - free loans was required after the end of the war under the act, in practice the U.S. did not expect to be repaid by the USSR after the war. The U.S. received $2 M in reverse Lend - Lease from the USSR. This was mostly in the form of landing, servicing, and refueling of transport aircraft; some industrial machinery and rare minerals were sent to the U.S. The U.S. asked for $1.3 B at the cessation of hostilities to settle the debt, but was only offered $170 M by the USSR. The dispute remained unresolved until 1972, when the U.S. accepted an offer from the USSR to repay $722 M linked to grain shipments from the U.S., with the remainder being written off. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless repayment of Lend - Lease. This was agreed upon before the signing of the first protocol on 1 October 1941 and extension of credit. Some of these shipments were intercepted by the Germans. In May 1942, the HMS Edinburgh was sunk while carrying 4.5 tonnes of Soviet gold intended for the U.S. Treasury. This gold was salvaged in 1981 and 1986. In June 1942, the SS Port Nicholson was sunk en route from Halifax, Canada to New York, allegedly with Soviet platinum, gold, and industrial diamonds aboard; the wreck was discovered in 2008. However, none of this cargo has been salvaged, and no documentation of its treasures has been produced.
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diabetes insipidus is cased by dysfunction in the posterior pituitary | Growth hormone deficiency - wikipedia
Growth hormone deficiency (GHD) is a medical condition due to not enough growth hormone (GH). Generally the most noticeable symptom is a short height. In newborns there may be low blood sugar or a small penis. In adults there may be decreased muscle mass, high cholesterol levels, or poor bone density.
GHD can be present at birth or develop later in life. Causes may include genetics, trauma, infections, tumors, or radiation therapy. Genes that may be involved include GH1, GHRHR, or BTK. In a third of cases no cause is apparent. The underlying mechanism generally involves problems with the pituitary gland. Some cases are associated with a lack of other pituitary hormones, in which case it is known as combined pituitary hormone deficiency. Diagnosis involves blood tests to measure growth hormone levels.
Treatment is by growth hormone replacement. The frequency of the condition is unclear. Most cases are initially noticed in children. The genetic forms are estimates to affect about 1 in 7,000 people. Most types occur equally in males and females though males are more often diagnosed.
Severe prenatal deficiency of GH, as occurs in congenital hypopituitarism, has little effect on fetal growth. However, prenatal and congenital deficiency can reduce the size of a male 's penis, especially when gonadotropins are also deficient. Besides micropenis in males, additional consequences of severe deficiency in the first days of life can include hypoglycemia and exaggerated jaundice (both direct and indirect hyperbilirubinemia).
Even congenital GH deficiency does not usually impair length growth until after the first few months of life. From late in the first year until mid teens, poor growth and / or shortness is the hallmark of childhood GH deficiency. Growth is not as severely affected in GH deficiency as in untreated hypothyroidism, but growth at about half the usual velocity for age is typical. It tends to be accompanied by delayed physical maturation so that bone maturation and puberty may be several years delayed. When severe GH deficiency is present from birth and never treated, adult heights can be as short as 48 - 65 inches (122 -- 165 cm).
Severe GH deficiency in early childhood also results in slower muscular development, so that gross motor milestones such as standing, walking, and jumping may be delayed. Body composition (i.e., the relative amounts of bone, muscle, and fat) is affected in many children with severe deficiency, so that mild to moderate chubbiness is common (though GH deficiency alone rarely causes severe obesity). Some severely GH - deficient children have recognizable, cherubic facial features characterized by maxillary hypoplasia and forehead prominence (said to resemble a kewpie doll).
Other side effects in children include sparse hair growth and frontal recession, and pili torti and trichorrhexis nodosa are also sometimes present.
Recognised effects include:
Growth hormone deficiency in childhood commonly has no identifiable cause (idiopathic), and adult - onset GHD is commonly due to pituitary tumours and their treatment or to cranial irradiation. A more complete list of causes includes:
There are a variety of rare diseases which resemble GH deficiency, including the childhood growth failure, facial appearance, delayed bone age, and low IGF levels. However, GH testing elicits normal or high levels of GH in the blood, demonstrating that the problem is not due to a deficiency of GH but rather to a reduced sensitivity to its action. Insensitivity to GH is traditionally termed Laron dwarfism, but over the last 15 years many different types of GH resistance have been identified, primarily involving mutations of the GH binding protein or receptors.
As an adult ages, it is normal for the pituitary to produce diminishing amounts of GH and many other hormones, particularly the sex steroids. Physicians therefore distinguish between the natural reduction in GH levels which comes with age, and the much lower levels of "true '' deficiency. Such deficiency almost always has an identifiable cause, with adult - onset GHD without a definable cause ("idiopathic GH deficiency '') extremely rare. GH does function in adulthood to maintain muscle and bone mass and strength, and has poorly understood effects on cognition and mood.
Although GH can be readily measured in a blood sample, testing for GH deficiency is constrained by the fact that levels are nearly undetectable for most of the day. This makes simple measurement of GH in a single blood sample useless for detecting deficiency. Physicians therefore use a combination of indirect and direct criteria in assessing GHD, including:
"Provocative tests '' involve giving a dose of an agent that will normally provoke a pituitary to release a burst of growth hormone. An intravenous line is established, the agent is given, and small amounts of blood are drawn at 15 minute intervals over the next hour to determine if a rise of GH was provoked. Agents which have been used clinically to stimulate and assess GH secretion are arginine, levodopa, clonidine, epinephrine and propranolol, glucagon and insulin. An insulin tolerance test has been shown to be reproducible, age - independent, and able to distinguish between GHD and normal adults, and so is the test of choice.
Severe GH deficiency in childhood additionally has the following measurable characteristics:
In childhood and adulthood, the diagnosing doctor will look for these features accompanied by corroboratory evidence of hypopituitarism such as deficiency of other pituitary hormones, a structurally abnormal pituitary, or a history of damage to the pituitary. This would confirm the diagnosis; in the absence of pituitary pathology, further testing would be required.
Growth hormone deficiency can be congenital or acquired in childhood or adult life. It can be partial or complete. It is usually permanent, but sometimes transient. It may be an isolated deficiency or occur in association with deficiencies of other pituitary hormones.
The term hypopituitarism is often used interchangeably with GH deficiency but more often denotes GH deficiency plus deficiency of at least one other anterior pituitary hormone. When GH deficiency (usually with other anterior pituitary deficiencies) is associated with posterior pituitary hormone deficiency (usually diabetes insipidus), the condition is termed panhypopituitarism.
GH deficiency is treated by replacing GH with daily injections under the skin or into muscle. Until 1985, growth hormone for treatment was obtained by extraction from human pituitary glands collected at autopsy. Since 1985, recombinant human growth hormone (rHGH) is a recombinant form of human GH produced by genetically engineered bacteria, manufactured by recombinant DNA technology. In both children and adults, costs of treatment in terms of money, effort, and the impact on day - to - day life, are substantial.
GH treatment is not recommended for children who are not growing despite having normal levels of growth hormone, and in the UK it is not licensed for this use. Children requiring treatment usually receive daily injections of growth hormone. Most pediatric endocrinologists monitor growth and adjust dose every 3 -- 6 months and many of these visits involve blood tests and x-rays. Treatment is usually extended as long as the child is growing, and lifelong continuation may be recommended for those most severely deficient. Nearly painless insulin syringes, pen injectors, or a needle - free delivery system reduce the discomfort. Injection sites include the biceps, thigh, buttocks, and stomach. Injection sites should be rotated daily to avoid lipoatrophy. Treatment is expensive, costing as much as US $10,000 to $40,000 a year in the USA.
GH supplementation is not recommended medically for the physiologic age - related decline in GH / IGF secretion. It may be appropriate in diagnosed adult - onset deficiency, where a weekly dose approximately 25 % of that given to children is given. Lower doses again are called for in the elderly to reduce the incidence of side effects and maintain age - dependent normal levels of IGF - 1.
In many countries, including the UK, the majority view among endocrinologists is that the failure of treatment to provide any demonstrable, measurable benefits in terms of outcomes means treatment is not recommended for all adults with severe GHD, and national guidelines in the UK as set out by NICE suggest three criteria which all need to be met for treatment to be indicated:
Where treatment is indicated, duration is dependent upon indication.
Cost of adult treatment in the UK is 3000 - 4000 GBP annually.
When treated with GH, a severely deficient child will begin to grow faster within months. In the first year of treatment, the rate of growth may increase from half as fast as other children are growing to twice as fast (e.g., from 1 inch a year to 4 inches, or 2.5 cm to 10). Growth typically slows in subsequent years, but usually remains above normal so that over several years a child who had fallen far behind in his height may grow into the normal height range. Excess adipose tissue may be reduced.
GH treatment can confer a number of measurable benefits to severely GH - deficient adults, such as enhanced energy and strength, and improved bone density. Muscle mass may increase at the expense of adipose tissue. Although adults with hypopituitarism have been shown to have a reduced life expectancy, and a cardiovascular mortality rate more than double controls, treatment has not been shown to improve mortality, although blood lipid levels do improve. Similarly, although measurements of bone density improve with treatment, rates of fractures have not been shown to improve.
Effects on quality of life are unproven, with a number of studies finding that adults with GHD had near - normal indicators of QoL at baseline (giving little scope for improvement), and many using outdated dosing strategies. However, it may be that those adults with poor QoL at the start of treatment do benefit.
The incidence of idiopathic GHD in infants is about 1 in every 3800 live births, and rates in older children are rising as more children survive childhood cancers which are treated with radiotherapy, although exact rates are hard to obtain.
The incidence of genuine adult - onset GHD, normally due to pituitary tumours, is estimated at 10 per million.
Like many other 19th century medical terms which lost precise meaning as they gained wider currency, "midget '' as a term for someone with severe proportional shortness acquired pejorative connotations and is no longer used in a medical context.
Notable modern pop cultural figures with growth hormone deficiency include actor and comedian Andy Milonakis, who has the appearance and voice of an adolescent boy despite being in his early 40s.
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what dreams may come how does annie kill herself | What Dreams May Come (film) - wikipedia
What Dreams May Come is a 1998 American fantasy drama film, starring Robin Williams and Cuba Gooding Jr. The film is based on the 1978 novel of the same name by Richard Matheson, and was directed by Vincent Ward. It won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and the Art Directors Guild Award for Excellence in Production Design. It was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Art Direction. The title is from a line in Hamlet 's "To be, or not to be '' soliloquy.
While vacationing in Switzerland, pediatrician Chris Nielsen (Robin Williams) meets artist Annie Collins (Annabella Sciorra). They are attracted to each other, and bond as if they had known each other for a long time. They marry and have two children, Ian (Josh Paddock) and Marie (Jessica Brooks Grant). Their idyllic life ends when the children die in a car crash. Life becomes difficult: Annie suffers a mental breakdown, and the couple contemplates divorce, but they manage through their losses.
On the anniversary of the day they decided not to divorce, Chris is also killed in a car crash. Unaware that he is dead, and confused that no one will interact with him, Chris lingers on Earth. He sees Annie 's attempts to cope with his loss and attempts to communicate with her, despite advice from a presence that this will only cause her more pain. When his attempts cause more sorrow, he decides to move on.
Chris awakens in Heaven, and learns that his immediate surroundings can be controlled by his imagination. He meets a man (Cuba Gooding Jr.) he recognizes as Albert Lewis, his friend and mentor from his medical residency, and the presence from his time as a "ghost '' on Earth. Albert will guide and help in this new afterlife. Albert teaches Chris about his existence in Heaven, and how to shape his little corner, and to travel to others ' "dreams. '' They are surprised when a Blue Jacaranda tree appears unbidden in Chris ' surroundings, matching a tree in a new painting by Annie, inspired by Annie 's belief that she can communicate with Chris in the afterlife. Albert explains that this is a sign that the couple are truly soul mates. Annie decides that Chris can not "see '' the painting, however, and destroys it. At the same time, Chris sees his version of the tree disintegrate before his eyes.
Chris laments that he can no longer see his wife and soon encounters a woman who he comes to recognize as his daughter Marie, living in an area resembling a diorama that she loved in her lifetime. The two share a tearful reunion.
Meanwhile, Annie is racked with guilt for the deaths of Chris and their children, believing that she was responsible for the chains of events which led to both car crashes (in reality, both were sheer bad luck), and decides to commit suicide. Chris, who is initially relieved that her suffering is done, grows angry when he learns that those who commit suicide go to Hell; this is not the result of a judgment made against them, but rather their own tendency to create "nightmare '' afterlife worlds based on their pain. Chris is adamant that he will rescue Annie from Hell, despite Albert 's insistence that no one has ever succeeded in doing so with a suicide. Albert agrees to find Chris a "tracker '' to help search for Annie 's soul.
On the journey to Hell, Chris recalls his son, Ian. Remembering how he 'd called him the one man he 'd want at his side to brave Hell, Chris realizes that Albert is truly Ian. Ian explains that he chose Albert 's appearance because he knew that Chris would listen to Albert without reservation. Before they part, Ian begs Chris to remember how he saved his marriage following Ian and Marie 's deaths. Chris then journeys onward with the tracker.
Chris must walk across the field of Faces of the Damned, stepping on their faces as he navigates across it. The damned can be heard talking, including a businesswoman who says she never over-billed her clients. Chris and the tracker arrive at a dark and twisted version of Chris and Annie 's house. The tracker then reveals himself as the real Albert and warns Chris that if he stays with Annie for more than a few minutes he may be permanently trapped in Hell, advising that all Chris can reasonably expect is an opportunity for a final farewell to Annie.
Chris enters their now - horrific looking home to find Annie suffering from amnesia, unable to remember her suicide, and visibly tortured by her decrepit surroundings. Unable to stir her memories, the tracker sees Chris give up his quest to save Annie from Hell. But instead of returning to Heaven, Chris chooses to join Annie forever in Hell. As he declares to Annie his intent to stay, his words parallel something he 'd said to her as he left her in an institution following the children 's deaths, and she regains her memories while Chris is making her nightmare his. Annie, wanting nothing more than to save Chris, ascends to Heaven, taking Chris with her.
Chris and Annie are reunited with their children in Heaven, and all appearances are restored. Chris proposes reincarnation, so he and Annie can experience life together again. The film ends with Chris and Annie meeting again as young children in a situation that parallels their first meeting.
Additionally, director Werner Herzog has a cameo as one of the Faces of the Damned.
What Dreams May Come begin filming in late June 1997. It was shot largely on Fuji Velvia film and is one of few films to have been filmed in this manner. The Fuji Velvia film is known among landscape photographers for its vivid color reproduction. Filming locations include places in Marin County, Alameda County, Glacier National Park and Angel Falls. Part of the "Hell '' sequence was filmed on the decrepit hull of the Essex class aircraft carrier USS Oriskany (CV - 34) while berthed at Mare Island in Vallejo, California. The ship was later sunk to make an artificial reef on May 17, 2006.
The original prints of the film were lost in a fire at Universal Studios ' backlot on June 1, 2008. A worldwide search was launched for a copy, which was found in Europe.
The special edition DVD and the 2011 Blu - ray show an alternate ending -- the ending from the novel -- in which reincarnation is not a choice, but part of the natural order. Chris and Annie will meet again in their new lives, but Annie must atone for killing herself -- her new incarnation will die young, and Chris will spend the remainder of this life as a widower before the two are again reunited in Heaven. The film then goes to Sri Lanka where a woman is giving birth to a girl, presumed to be Annie. In Philadelphia, a boy is born, presumably Chris.
The novel has significant differences from the film, in its plot and its vision of the afterlife.
In the novel, there are far more references to Theosophical, New Age and paranormal beliefs. The author Richard Matheson claims in an introductory note that only the characters are fictional, and that most everything else is based on research (the book includes an extensive bibliography). Story elements that do not show up in the film include astral projection, telepathy, a séance, and the term "Summerland '' (a name for a simplified Heaven in Theosophy, and for Heaven in general in religions such as Wicca).
The details of Chris 's life on Earth differ strongly in the novel. Only Chris and his wife (called Ann) die. Their children, who are grownups rather than youngsters, remain alive, as minor characters. Albert and Leona are the people they appear to be, and the character played by Max Von Sydow does not appear in the book. Albert is Chris 's cousin rather than simply a friend. Chris and Ann are rural types rather than the urbanites portrayed in the film, and he is not a pediatrician, nor is she a painter. He is a Hollywood screenwriter, and she has a variety of jobs.
In the book the afterlife imagery is based on natural scenery rather than paintings. The novel 's depiction of Hell is considerably more violent than in the film. Chris finds it difficult to move, breathe, or see, and he suffers physical torture at the hands of some inhabitants. He does not encounter ships, thunderstorms, fire, or the sea of human faces that his film counterpart walks upon. Instead, he and Albert climb craggy cliffs and encounter such sights as a swarm of insects that attack people.
Ann is consigned to Hell for just 24 years, not eternity. At the end, which resembles an alternate version of the film but not the standard version, she escapes from Hell by being reincarnated, because she is not ready for Heaven.
The soundtrack for What Dreams May Come was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen and produced by James Seymour Brett. Ennio Morricone had completed and recorded a full score for the film, but after editorial changes were made, his score was rejected, and Kamen was hired for the film score.
The film was number 2 in the US in its opening week and went on to gross $55 million in the US theatrical box office. It grossed a further $16 million worldwide. The film won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 71st Academy Awards in 1999, awarded to Nicholas Brooks, Joel Hynek, Kevin Mack, and Stuart Robertson. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Art Direction. It won the Art Directors Guild Award for Excellence in Production Design.
Critical reception is mixed. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 54 % rating with critics.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars out of four, remarking:
James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave What Dreams May Come three stars out of four, saying:
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the movie a C+, writing, "There 's a central contradiction in a fairy tale like this one: the film may preach to the audience about matters of the spirit, but its bejeweled special - effects vision of the afterlife ca n't help but come off as aggressively literal - minded. ''
Leonard Maltin, in his annual publication TV Movies, gave the film a "BOMB '' rating, describing it as being "off - putting gobbledygook. ''
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when was the first english factory set up | East India company - wikipedia
The East India Company (EIC), also known as the Honourable East India Company (HEIC) or the British East India Company and informally as John Company, was an English and later British joint - stock company, which was formed to pursue trade with the "East Indies '' (or Maritime Southeast Asia in present - day terms) but ended up trading mainly with Qing China and seizing control of the Indian subcontinent.
Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies '', the company rose to account for half of the world 's trade, particularly in basic commodities including cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, saltpetre, tea and opium. The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India.
The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, making it the oldest among several similarly formed European East India Companies. Wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the company 's shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control.
During its first century of operation, the focus of the company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. Company interests turned from trade to territory during the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined in power and the East India Company struggled with its French counterpart, the French East India Company (Compagnie française des Indes orientales) during the Carnatic Wars of the 1740s and 1750s. The Battle of Plassey and Battle of Buxar, in which the British, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Indian powers, left the company in control of Bengal and a major military and political power in India. In the following decades it gradually increased the extent of the territories under its control, ruling the whole Indian subcontinent either directly or indirectly via local puppet rulers under the threat of force by its Presidency armies, much of which were composed of native Indian sepoys.
By 1803, at the height of its rule in India, the British East India company had a private army of about 260,000 -- twice the size of the British Army. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its private armies, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. Company rule in India effectively began in 1757 and lasted until 1858, when, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown 's assuming direct control of the Indian subcontinent in the form of the new British Raj.
Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances. It was dissolved in 1874 as a result of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act passed one year earlier, as the Government of India Act had by then rendered it vestigial, powerless, and obsolete. The official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies.
Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean. Permission was granted, and on 10 April 1591 three ships sailed from Torbay around the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea on one of the earliest English overseas Indian expeditions. One of them, Edward Bonaventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594.
In 1596, three more ships sailed east but were all lost at sea. Three years later, on 22 September 1599, another group of merchants met and stated their intention "to venture in the pretended voyage to the East Indies (the which it may please the Lord to prosper), and the sums that they will adventure '', committing £ 30,133. Two days later, on 24 September, "the Adventurers '' reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project. Although their first attempt had not been completely successful, they nonetheless sought the Queen 's unofficial approval to continue, bought ships for their venture and increased their capital to £ 68,373.
The Adventurers convened again a year later. This time they succeeded, and on 31 December 1600, the Queen granted a Royal Charter to "George, Earl of Cumberland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses '' under the name, Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Any traders in breach of the charter without a licence from the company were liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo (half of which went to the Crown and the other half to the company), as well as imprisonment at the "royal pleasure ''.
The governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or "committees '', who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, which appointed them. Ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was initially transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolph 's church in Bishopsgate, before moving to India House in Leadenhall Street.
Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601 and returned in 1603. In March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. General William Keeling, a captain during the second voyage, led the third voyage aboard the Red Dragon from 1607 to 1610 along with the Hector under Captain William Hawkins and the Consent under Captain David Middleton.
Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the company 's Ascension, and general or commander of the fourth voyage. Thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union (captained by Richard Rowles) sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607 -- 08.
Initially, the company struggled in the spice trade because of the competition from the already well - established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, and imports of pepper from Java were an important part of the company 's trade for twenty years. The factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time ships belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat, which was established as a trade transit point in 1608.
In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. The high profits reported by the company after landing in India initially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licences to other trading companies in England. But in 1609 he renewed the charter given to the company for an indefinite period, including a clause that specified that the charter would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years.
English traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean. The company achieved a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally in 1612, at Suvali in Surat. The company decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial foothold in mainland India, with official sanction from both Britain and the Mughal Empire, and requested that the Crown launch a diplomatic mission.
In 1612, James I instructed Sir Thomas Roe to visit the Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (r. 1605 -- 1627) to arrange for a commercial treaty that would give the company exclusive rights to reside and establish factories in Surat and other areas. In return, the company offered to provide the Emperor with goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful, and Jahangir sent a letter to James through Sir Thomas Roe:
Upon which assurance of your royal love I have given my general command to all the kingdoms and ports of my dominions to receive all the merchants of the English nation as the subjects of my friend; that in what place soever they choose to live, they may have free liberty without any restraint; and at what port soever they shall arrive, that neither Portugal nor any other shall dare to molest their quiet; and in what city soever they shall have residence, I have commanded all my governors and captains to give them freedom answerable to their own desires; to sell, buy, and to transport into their country at their pleasure. For confirmation of our love and friendship, I desire your Majesty to command your merchants to bring in their ships of all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace; and that you be pleased to send me your royal letters by every opportunity, that I may rejoice in your health and prosperous affairs; that our friendship may be interchanged and eternal.
Eventually, the East India Company seized control of Bengal and slowly the whole Indian subcontinent with its private armies, composed primarily of Indian sepoys.
It was not the British government that seized India at the end of the 18th century, but a dangerously unregulated private company headquartered in one small office, five windows wide, in London, and managed in India by an unstable sociopath -- Clive
according to the historian William Dalrymple.
The company, which benefited from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations. It eclipsed the Portuguese Estado da Índia, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong, and Bombay, which Portugal later ceded to England as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza. The East India Company also launched a joint attack with the Dutch United East India Company (VOC) on Portuguese and Spanish ships off the coast of China, which helped secure EIC ports in China. The company established trading posts in Surat (1619), Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690). By 1647, the company had 23 factories, each under the command of a factor or master merchant and governor, and 90 employees in India. The major factories became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and Bombay Castle.
In 1634, the Mughal emperor extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of Bengal, and in 1717 completely waived customs duties for their trade. The company 's mainstay businesses were by then cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpetre, and tea. The Dutch were aggressive competitors and had meanwhile expanded their monopoly of the spice trade in the Straits of Malacca by ousting the Portuguese in 1640 -- 41. With reduced Portuguese and Spanish influence in the region, the EIC and VOC entered a period of intense competition, resulting in the Anglo - Dutch Wars of the 17th and 18th centuries.
In 1657, Oliver Cromwell renewed the charter of 1609, and brought about minor changes in the holding of the company. The restoration of monarchy in England further enhanced the EIC 's status.
In an act aimed at strengthening the power of the EIC, King Charles II granted the EIC (in a series of five acts around 1670) the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas.
William Hedges was sent in 1682 to Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor of Bengal, to obtain a firman, an imperial directive that would grant England regular trading privileges throughout the Mughal Empire. However, the company 's governor in London, Sir Josiah Child, interfered with Hedges 's mission, causing Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb to break off the negotiations.
In 1689 a Mughal fleet commanded by Sidi Yaqub attacked Bombay. After a year of resistance the EIC surrendered in 1690, and the company sent envoys to Aurangzeb 's camp to plead for a pardon. The company 's envoys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay a large indemnity, and promise better behaviour in the future. The emperor withdrew his troops and the company subsequently re-established itself in Bombay and set up a new base in Calcutta.
The company eventually came to rule large areas of the Indian subcontinent with its private armies, primarily composed of Indian sepoys, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions.
In 1613, during the rule of Tokugawa Hidetada of the Tokugawa shogunate, the British ship Clove, under the command of Captain John Saris, was the first British ship to call on Japan. Saris was the chief factor of the EIC 's trading post in Java, and with the assistance of William Adams, a British sailor who had arrived in Japan in 1600, was able to gain permission from the ruler to establish a commercial house in Hirado on the Japanese island of Kyushu:
We give free license to the subjects of the King of Great Britaine, Sir Thomas Smythe, Governor and Company of the East Indian Merchants and Adventurers forever safely come into any of our ports of our Empire of Japan with their shippes and merchandise, without any hindrance to them or their goods, and to abide, buy, sell and barter according to their own manner with all nations, to tarry here as long as they think good, and to depart at their pleasure.
However, unable to obtain Japanese raw silk for import to China and with their trading area reduced to Hirado and Nagasaki from 1616 onwards, in 1623 the company closed their factory.
In September 1695, Captain Henry Every, an English pirate on board the Fancy, reached the Straits of Bab - el - Mandeb, where he teamed up with five other pirate captains to make an attack on the Indian fleet making the annual voyage to Mocha. The Mughal convoy included the treasure - laden Ganj - i - Sawai, reported to be the greatest in the Mughal fleet and the largest ship operational in the Indian Ocean, and its escort, the Fateh Muhammed. They were spotted passing the straits en route to Surat. The pirates gave chase and caught up with Fateh Muhammed some days later, and meeting little resistance, took some £ 50,000 to £ 60,000 worth of treasure.
Every continued in pursuit and managed to overhaul Ganj - i - Sawai, which resisted strongly before eventually striking. Ganj - i - Sawai carried enormous wealth and, according to contemporary East India Company sources, was carrying a relative of the Grand Mughal, though there is no evidence to suggest that it was his daughter and her retinue. The loot from the Ganj - i - Sawai had a total value between £ 325,000 and £ 600,000, including 500,000 gold and silver pieces, and has become known as the richest ship ever taken by pirates.
In a letter sent to the Privy Council by Sir John Gayer, then governor of Bombay and head of the East India Company, Gayer claims that "it is certain the Pirates... did do very barbarously by the People of the Ganj - i - Sawai and Abdul Ghaffar 's ship, to make them confess where their money was. '' The pirates set free the survivors who were left aboard their emptied ships, to continue their voyage back to India.
When the news arrived in England it caused an outcry. In response, a combined bounty of £ 1,000 was offered for Every 's capture by the Privy Council and East India Company, leading to the first worldwide manhunt in recorded history. The plunder of Aurangzeb 's treasure ship had serious consequences for the English East India Company. The furious Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ordered Sidi Yaqub and Nawab Daud Khan to attack and close four of the company 's factories in India and imprison their officers, who were almost lynched by a mob of angry Mughals, blaming them for their countryman 's depredations, and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India. To appease Emperor Aurangzeb and particularly his Grand Vizier Asad Khan, Parliament exempted Every from all of the Acts of Grace (pardons) and amnesties it would subsequently issue to other pirates.
An 18th - century depiction of Henry Every, with the Fancy shown engaging its prey in the background
British pirates that fought during the Child 's War engaging the Ganj - i - Sawai
Depiction of Captain Every 's encounter with the Mughal Emperor 's granddaughter after his September 1695 capture of the Mughal trader Ganj - i - Sawai
The prosperity that the officers of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to Britain and establish sprawling estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The company developed a lobby in the English parliament. Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the company (pejoratively termed Interlopers by the company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694.
This allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby annulling the charter that had been in force for almost 100 years. By an act that was passed in 1698, a new "parallel '' East India Company (officially titled the English Company Trading to the East Indies) was floated under a state - backed indemnity of £ 2 million. The powerful stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £ 315,000 in the new concern, and dominated the new body. The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant share of the trade.
It quickly became evident that, in practice, the original company faced scarcely any measurable competition. The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state. Under this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £ 3,200,000, in return for exclusive privileges for the next three years, after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated company became the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
In the following decades there was a constant battle between the company lobby and the Parliament. The company sought a permanent establishment, while the Parliament would not willingly allow it greater autonomy and so relinquish the opportunity to exploit the company 's profits. In 1712, another act renewed the status of the company, though the debts were repaid. By 1720, 15 % of British imports were from India, almost all passing through the company, which reasserted the influence of the company lobby. The licence was prolonged until 1766 by yet another act in 1730.
At this time, Britain and France became bitter rivals. Frequent skirmishes between them took place for control of colonial possessions. In 1742, fearing the monetary consequences of a war, the British government agreed to extend the deadline for the licensed exclusive trade by the company in India until 1783, in return for a further loan of £ 1 million. Between 1756 and 1763, the Seven Years ' War diverted the state 's attention towards consolidation and defence of its territorial possessions in Europe and its colonies in North America.
The war took place on Indian soil, between the company troops and the French forces. In 1757, the Law Officers of the Crown delivered the Pratt - Yorke opinion distinguishing overseas territories acquired by right of conquest from those acquired by private treaty. The opinion asserted that, while the Crown of Great Britain enjoyed sovereignty over both, only the property of the former was vested in the Crown.
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Britain surged ahead of its European rivals. Demand for Indian commodities was boosted by the need to sustain the troops and the economy during the war, and by the increased availability of raw materials and efficient methods of production. As home to the revolution, Britain experienced higher standards of living. Its spiralling cycle of prosperity, demand and production had a profound influence on overseas trade. The company became the single largest player in the British global market. William Henry Pyne notes in his book The Microcosm of London (1808) that:
On the 1 March 1801, the debts of the East India Company to £ 5,393,989 their effects to £ 15,404,736 and their sales increased since February 1793, from £ 4,988,300 to £ 7,602,041.
Sir John Banks, a businessman from Kent who negotiated an agreement between the king and the company, began his career in a syndicate arranging contracts for victualling the navy, an interest he kept up for most of his life. He knew that Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn had amassed a substantial fortune from the Levant and Indian trades.
He became a Director and later, as Governor of the East India Company in 1672, he arranged a contract which included a loan of £ 20,000 and £ 30,000 worth of saltpetre -- also known as potassium nitrate, a primary ingredient in gunpowder -- for the King "at the price it shall sell by the candle '' -- that is by auction -- where bidding could continue as long as an inch - long candle remained alight.
Outstanding debts were also agreed and the company permitted to export 250 tons of saltpetre. Again in 1673, Banks successfully negotiated another contract for 700 tons of saltpetre at £ 37,000 between the king and the company. So urgent was the need to supply the armed forces in the United Kingdom, America and elsewhere that the authorities sometimes turned a blind eye on the untaxed sales. One governor of the company was even reported as saying in 1864 that he would rather have the saltpetre made than the tax on salt.
The Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 63) resulted in the defeat of the French forces, limited French imperial ambitions, and stunted the influence of the Industrial Revolution in French territories. Robert Clive, the Governor General, led the company to a victory against Joseph François Dupleix, the commander of the French forces in India, and recaptured Fort St George from the French. The company took this respite to seize Manila in 1762.
By the Treaty of Paris, France regained the five establishments captured by the British during the war (Pondichéry, Mahe, Karikal, Yanam and Chandernagar) but was prevented from erecting fortifications and keeping troops in Bengal (art. XI). Elsewhere in India, the French were to remain a military threat, particularly during the War of American Independence, and up to the capture of Pondichéry in 1793 at the outset of the French Revolutionary Wars without any military presence. Although these small outposts remained French possessions for the next two hundred years, French ambitions on Indian territories were effectively laid to rest, thus eliminating a major source of economic competition for the company.
In its first century and half, the EIC used a few hundred soldiers as guards. The great expansion came after 1750, when it had 3000 regular troops. By 1763, it had 26,000; by 1778, it had 67,000. It recruited largely Indian troops, and trained them along European lines. The military arm of the East India Company quickly developed to become a private corporate armed force, and was used as an instrument of geo - political power and expansion, rather than its original purpose as a guard force, and became the most powerful military force in the Indian sub-continent. As it increased in size the army was broken into the Presidency Armies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay each recruiting their own integral infantry, cavalry, artillery and horse artillery units. The navy also grew significantly, vastly expanding its fleet and although made up predominantly of heavily armed merchant vessels, called East Indiamen, it also included warships.
The company, fresh from a colossal victory, and with the backing of its own private well - disciplined and experienced army, was able to assert its interests in the Carnatic region from its base at Madras and in Bengal from Calcutta, without facing any further obstacles from other colonial powers.
It continued to experience resistance from local rulers during its expansion. Robert Clive led company forces against Siraj Ud Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, Bihar, and Midnapore district in Odisha to victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, resulting in the conquest of Bengal. This victory estranged the British and the Mughals, since Siraj Ud Daulah was a Mughal feudatory ally.
With the gradual weakening of the Marathas in the aftermath of the three Anglo - Maratha wars, the British also secured the Ganges - Jumna Doab, the Delhi - Agra region, parts of Bundelkhand, Broach, some districts of Gujarat, the fort of Ahmmadnagar, province of Cuttack (which included Mughalbandi / the coastal part of Odisha, Garjat / the princely states of Odisha, Balasore Port, parts of Midnapore district of West Bengal), Bombay (Mumbai) and the surrounding areas, leading to a formal end of the Maratha empire and firm establishment of the British East India Company in India.
Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the rulers of the Kingdom of Mysore, offered much resistance to the British forces. Having sided with the French during the Revolutionary War, the rulers of Mysore continued their struggle against the company with the four Anglo - Mysore Wars. Mysore finally fell to the company forces in 1799, in the fourth Anglo - Mysore war during which Tipu Sultan was killed.
The last vestiges of local administration were restricted to the northern regions of Delhi, Oudh, Rajputana, and Punjab, where the company 's presence was ever increasing amidst infighting and offers of protection among the remaining princes. The hundred years from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 were a period of consolidation for the company, during which it seized control of the entire Indian subcontinent and functioned more as an administrator and less as a trading concern.
A cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. 10,000 British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic. Between 1760 and 1834 only some 10 % of the East India Company 's officers survived to take the final voyage home.
In the early 19th century the Indian question of geopolitical dominance and empire holding remained with the East India Company. The three independent armies of the company 's Presidencies, with some locally raised irregular forces, expanded to a total of 280,000 men by 1857. First recruited from mercenaries and low - caste volunteers, the Bengal Army especially eventually became composed largely of high - caste Hindus and landowning Muslims.
Within the Army, British officers who initially trained at the company 's own academy at the Addiscombe Military Seminary, always outranked Indians, no matter how long their service. The highest rank to which an Indian soldier could aspire was Subadar - Major (or Rissaldar - Major in cavalry units), effectively a senior subaltern equivalent. Promotion for both British and Indian soldiers was strictly by seniority, so Indian soldiers rarely reached the commissioned ranks of Jamadar or Subadar before they were middle aged at best. They received no training in administration or leadership to make them independent of their British officers.
During the wars against the French and their allies in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the East India Company 's armies were used to seize the colonial possessions of other European nations, including the islands of Réunion and Mauritius.
There was a systemic disrespect in the company for the spreading of Protestantism although it fostered respect for Hindu and Muslim, castes and ethnic groups. The growth of tensions between the EIC and the local religious and cultural groups grew in the 19th century as the Protestant revival grew in Great Britain. These tensions erupted at the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the company ceased to exist when the company dissolved through the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873.
In the 18th century, Britain had a huge trade deficit with Qing dynasty China and so, in 1773, the company created a British monopoly on opium buying in Bengal, India by prohibiting the licensing of opium farmers and private cultivation. The monopoly system established in 1799 continued with minimal changes until 1947. As the opium trade was illegal in China, Company ships could not carry opium to China. So the opium produced in Bengal was sold in Calcutta on condition that it be sent to China.
Despite the Chinese ban on opium imports, reaffirmed in 1799 by the Jiaqing Emperor, the drug was smuggled into China from Bengal by traffickers and agency houses such as Jardine, Matheson & Co and Dent & Co. in amounts averaging 900 tons a year. The proceeds of the drug - smugglers landing their cargoes at Lintin Island were paid into the company 's factory at Canton and by 1825, most of the money needed to buy tea in China was raised by the illegal opium trade.
The company established a group of trading settlements centred on the Straits of Malacca called the Straits Settlements in 1826 to protect its trade route to China and to combat local piracy. The settlements were also used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners.
In 1838 with the amount of smuggled opium entering China approaching 1,400 tons a year, the Chinese imposed a death penalty for opium smuggling and sent a Special Imperial Commissioner, Lin Zexu, to curb smuggling. This resulted in the First Opium War (1839 -- 42). After the war Hong Kong island was ceded to Britain under the Treaty of Nanking and the Chinese market opened to the opium traders of Britain and other nations. The Jardines and Apcar and Company dominated the trade, although P&O also tried to take a share. A Second Opium War fought by Britain and France against China lasted from 1856 until 1860 and led to the Treaty of Tientsin, which legalised the importation of opium. Legalisation stimulated domestic Chinese opium production and increased the importation of opium from Turkey and Persia. This increased competition for the Chinese market led to India 's reducing its opium output and diversifying its exports.
The company employed many junior clerks, known as "writers '', to record the details of accounting, managerial decisions, and activities related to the company, such as minutes of meetings, copies of Company orders and contracts, and filings of reports and copies of ship 's logs. Several well - known British scholars and literary men had Company writerships, such as Henry Thomas Colebrooke in India and Charles Lamb in England.
Though the company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was becoming clearer that the company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. The Bengal famine of 1770, in which one - third of the local population died, caused distress in Britain. Military and administrative costs mounted beyond control in British - administered regions in Bengal because of the ensuing drop in labour productivity.
At the same time, there was commercial stagnation and trade depression throughout Europe. The directors of the company attempted to avert bankruptcy by appealing to Parliament for financial help. This led to the passing of the Tea Act in 1773, which gave the company greater autonomy in running its trade in the American colonies, and allowed it an exemption from tea import duties which its colonial competitors were required to pay.
When the American colonists and tea merchants were told of this Act, they boycotted the company tea. Although the price of tea had dropped because of the Act, it also validated the Townshend Acts, setting the precedent for the king to impose additional taxes in the future. The arrival of tax - exempt Company tea, undercutting the local merchants, triggered the Boston Tea Party in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, one of the major events leading up to the American Revolution.
By the Regulating Act of 1773 (later known as the East India Company Act 1773), the Parliament of Great Britain imposed a series of administrative and economic reforms; this clearly established Parliament 's sovereignty and ultimate control over the company. The Act recognised the company 's political functions and clearly established that the "acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right ''.
Despite stiff resistance from the East India lobby in parliament and from the company 's shareholders, the Act passed. It introduced substantial governmental control and allowed British India to be formally under the control of the Crown, but leased back to the company at £ 40,000 for two years. Under the Act 's most important provision, a governing Council composed of five members was created in Calcutta. The three members nominated by Parliament and representing the Government 's interest could, and invariably would, outvote the two Company members. The Council was headed by Warren Hastings, the incumbent Governor, who became the first Governor - General of Bengal, with an ill - defined authority over the Bombay and Madras Presidencies. His nomination, made by the Court of Directors, would in future be subject to the approval of a Council of Four appointed by the Crown. Initially, the Council consisted of Lt. General Sir John Clavering, The Honourable Sir George Monson, Sir Richard Barwell, and Sir Philip Francis.
Hastings was entrusted with the power of peace and war. British judges and magistrates would also be sent to India to administer the legal system. The Governor General and the council would have complete legislative powers. The company was allowed to maintain its virtual monopoly over trade in exchange for the biennial sum and was obligated to export a minimum quantity of goods yearly to Britain. The costs of administration were to be met by the company. The company initially welcomed these provisions, but the annual burden of the payment contributed to the steady decline of its finances.
The East India Company Act 1784 (Pitt 's India Act) had two key aspects:
Pitt 's Act was deemed a failure because it quickly became apparent that the boundaries between government control and the company 's powers were nebulous and highly subjective. The government felt obliged to respond to humanitarian calls for better treatment of local peoples in British - occupied territories. Edmund Burke, a former East India Company shareholder and diplomat, was moved to address the situation and introduced a new Regulating Bill in 1783. The bill was defeated amid lobbying by company loyalists and accusations of nepotism in the bill 's recommendations for the appointment of councillors.
The Act of 1786 (26 Geo. 3 c. 16) enacted the demand of Earl Cornwallis that the powers of the Governor - General be enlarged to empower him, in special cases, to override the majority of his Council and act on his own special responsibility. The Act enabled the offices of the Governor - General and the Commander - in - Chief to be jointly held by the same official.
This Act clearly demarcated borders between the Crown and the company. After this point, the company functioned as a regularised subsidiary of the Crown, with greater accountability for its actions and reached a stable stage of expansion and consolidation. Having temporarily achieved a state of truce with the Crown, the company continued to expand its influence to nearby territories through threats and coercive actions. By the middle of the 19th century, the company 's rule extended across most of India, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, and British Hong Kong, and a fifth of the world 's population was under its trading influence. In addition, Penang, one of the states in Malaya, became the fourth most important settlement, a presidency, of the company 's Indian territories.
The company 's charter was renewed for a further 20 years by the Charter Act of 1793. In contrast with the legislative proposals of the previous two decades, the 1793 Act was not a particularly controversial measure, and made only minimal changes to the system of government in India and to British oversight of the company 's activities.
The aggressive policies of Lord Wellesley and the Marquis of Hastings led to the company 's gaining control of all India (except for the Punjab and Sindh), and some part of the then kingdom of Nepal under the Sugauli Treaty. The Indian Princes had become vassals of the company. But the expense of wars leading to the total control of India strained the company 's finances. The company was forced to petition Parliament for assistance. This was the background to the Charter Act of 1813 which, among other things:
The Industrial Revolution in Britain, the consequent search for markets, and the rise of laissez - faire economic ideology form the background to the Government of India Act 1833 (3 & 4 Will. 4 c. 85). The Act:
British influence continued to expand; in 1845, Great Britain purchased the Danish colony of Tranquebar. The company had at various stages extended its influence to China, the Philippines, and Java. It had solved its critical lack of cash needed to buy tea by exporting Indian - grown opium to China. China 's efforts to end the trade led to the First Opium War (1839 -- 1842).
The English Education Act by the Council of India in 1835 reallocated funds from the East India Company to spend on education and literature in India.
This Act (16 & 17 Vict. c. 95) provided that British India would remain under the administration of the company in trust for the Crown until Parliament should decide otherwise. It also introduced a system of open competition as the basis of recruitment for civil servants of the company and thus deprived the Directors of their patronage system.
Under the act, for the first time the legislative and executive powers of the governor general 's council were separated. It also added six additional members to the governor general 's executive committee.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 (also known as the Indian Mutiny) resulted in widespread devastation in India: many condemned the East India Company for permitting the events to occur. In the aftermath of the Rebellion, under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1858, the British Government nationalised the company. The Crown took over its Indian possessions, its administrative powers and machinery, and its armed forces.
The company remained in existence in vestigial form, continuing to manage the tea trade on behalf of the British Government (and the supply of Saint Helena) until the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 came into effect, on 1 January 1874. This Act provided for the formal dissolution of the company on 1 June 1874, after a final dividend payment and the commutation or redemption of its stock. The Times commented on 8 April 1873:
It accomplished a work such as in the whole history of the human race no other trading Company ever attempted, and such as none, surely, is likely to attempt in the years to come.
The company 's headquarters in London, from which much of India was governed, was East India House in Leadenhall Street. After occupying premises in Philpot Lane from 1600 to 1621; in Crosby House, Bishopsgate, from 1621 to 1638; and in Leadenhall Street from 1638 to 1648, the company moved into Craven House, an Elizabethan mansion in Leadenhall Street. The building had become known as East India House by 1661. It was completely rebuilt and enlarged in 1726 -- 9; and further significantly remodelled and expanded in 1796 -- 1800. It was finally vacated in 1860 and demolished in 1861 -- 62. The site is now occupied by the Lloyd 's building.
In 1607, the company decided to build its own ships and leased a yard on the River Thames at Deptford. By 1614, the yard having become too small, an alternative site was acquired at Blackwall: the new yard was fully operational by 1617. It was sold in 1656, although for some years East India Company ships continued to be built and repaired there under the new owners.
In 1803, an Act of Parliament, promoted by the East India Company, established the East India Dock Company, with the aim of establishing a new set of docks (the East India Docks) primarily for the use of ships trading with India. The existing Brunswick Dock, part of the Blackwall Yard site, became the Export Dock; while a new Import Dock was built to the north. In 1838 the East India Dock Company merged with the West India Dock Company. The docks were taken over by the Port of London Authority in 1909, and closed in 1967.
The East India College was founded in 1806 as a training establishment for "writers '' (i.e. clerks) in the company 's service. It was initially located in Hertford Castle, but moved in 1809 to purpose - built premises at Hertford Heath, Hertfordshire. In 1858 the college closed; but in 1862 the buildings reopened as a public school, now Haileybury and Imperial Service College.
The East India Company Military Seminary was founded in 1809 at Addiscombe, near Croydon, Surrey, to train young officers for service in the company 's armies in India. It was based in Addiscombe Place, an early 18th - century mansion. The government took it over in 1858, and renamed it the Royal Indian Military College. In 1861 it was closed, and the site was subsequently redeveloped.
In 1818, the company entered into an agreement by which those of its servants who were certified insane in India might be cared for at Pembroke House, Hackney, London, a private lunatic asylum run by Dr George Rees until 1838, and thereafter by Dr William Williams. The arrangement outlasted the company itself, continuing until 1870, when the India Office opened its own asylum, the Royal India Asylum, at Hanwell, Middlesex.
The East India Club in London was formed in 1849 for officers of the company. The Club still exists today as a private gentlemen 's club with its club house situated at 16 St. James 's Square, London.
The East India Company had a long lasting impact on the Indian Subcontinent, with both positive and harmful effects. Although dissolved following the rebellion of 1857, it stimulated the growth of the British Empire. Its armies were to become the armies of British India after 1857, and it played a key role in introducing English as an official language in India.
The East India Company was the first company to record the Chinese usage of orange - flavoured tea, which led to the development of Earl Grey tea.
The East India Company introduced a system of merit - based appointments that provided a model for the British and Indian civil service.
Widespread corruption and looting of Bengal resources and treasures during its rule resulted in poverty. Famines, such as the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and subsequent famines during the 18th and 19th centuries, became more widespread, chiefly because of exploitative agriculture promulgated by the policies of the East India company and the forced cultivation of opium in place of grain.
Macaulayism and the British education system have been blamed for producing a generation of Indians not proud of their distinct heritage.
Downman (1685)
Lens (1700)
National Geographic (1917)
Rees (1820)
Laurie (1842)
1600 -- 1707
1707 -- 1801
1801 -- 1874
The English East India Company flag changed with history, with a canton based on the current flag of the Kingdom, and a field of 9 to 13 alternating red and white stripes.
From the period of 1600, the canton consisted of a St George 's Cross representing the Kingdom of England. With the Acts of Union 1707, the canton was updated to be the new Union Flag -- consisting of an English St George 's Cross combined with a Scottish St Andrew 's cross -- representing the Kingdom of Great Britain. After the Acts of Union 1800 that joined Ireland with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom, the canton of the East India Company flag was altered accordingly to include a Saint Patrick 's Saltire replicating the updated Union Flag representing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
Regarding the field of the flag, there has been much debate and discussion regarding the number and order of the stripes. Historical documents and paintings show many variations from 9 to 13 stripes, with some images showing the top stripe 's being red and others showing the top stripe being white.
At the time of the American Revolution the East India Company flag was nearly identical to the Grand Union Flag. Historian Charles Fawcett argued that the East India Company Flag inspired the Stars and Stripes.
The East India Company 's original coat of arms was granted in 1600. The arms was as follows:
"Azure, three ships with three masts, rigged and under full sail, the sails, pennants and ensigns Argent, each charged with a cross Gules; on a chief of the second a pale quarterly Azure and Gules, on the 1st and 4th a fleur - de-lis or, on the 2nd and 3rd a leopard or, between two roses Gules seeded Or barbed Vert. '' The shield had as a crest: "A sphere without a frame, bounded with the Zodiac in bend Or, between two pennants flottant Argent, each charged with a cross Gules, over the sphere the words DEUS INDICAT '' (Latin: God Indicates). The supporters were two sea lions (lions with fishes ' tails) and the motto was DEO DUCENTE NIL NOCET (Latin: Where God Leads, Nothing Harms).
The East India Company 's arms, granted in 1698, were: "Argent a cross Gules; in the dexter chief quarter an escutcheon of the arms of France and England quarterly, the shield ornamentally and regally crowned Or. '' The crest was: "A lion rampant guardant Or holding between the forepaws a regal crown proper. '' The supporters were: "Two lions rampant guardant Or, each supporting a banner erect Argent, charged with a cross Gules. '' The motto was AUSPICIO REGIS ET SENATUS ANGLIÆ (Latin: Under the auspices of the King and the Senate of England).
HEIC Merchant 's mark on East India Company Coin: 1791 Half Pice
HEIC Merchant 's mark on a Blue Scinde Dawk postage stamp (1852)
When the East India Company was chartered in 1600, it was still customary for individual merchants or members of Companies such as the Company of Merchant Adventurers to have a distinguishing merchant 's mark which often included the mystical "Sign of Four '' and served as a trademark. The East India Company 's merchant mark consisted of a "Sign of Four '' atop a heart within which was a saltire between the lower arms of which were the initials "EIC ''. This mark was a central motif of the East India Company 's coinage and forms the central emblem displayed on the Scinde Dawk postage stamps.
Ships of the East India Company were called East Indiamen or simply "Indiamen ''.
During the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the East India Company arranged for letters of marque for its vessels such as the Lord Nelson. This was not so that they could carry cannon to fend off warships, privateers and pirates on their voyages to India and China (that they could do without permission) but so that, should they have the opportunity to take a prize, they could do so without being guilty of piracy. Similarly, the Earl of Mornington, an East India Company packet ship of only six guns, also sailed under a letter of marque.
In addition, the company had its own navy, the Bombay Marine, equipped with warships such as Grappler. These vessels often accompanied vessels of the Royal Navy on expeditions, such as the Invasion of Java.
At the Battle of Pulo Aura, which was probably the company 's most notable naval victory, Nathaniel Dance, Commodore of a convoy of Indiamen and sailing aboard the Warley, led several Indiamen in a skirmish with a French squadron, driving them off. Some six years earlier, on 28 January 1797, five Indiamen, the Woodford, under Captain Charles Lennox, the Taunton - Castle, Captain Edward Studd, Canton, Captain Abel Vyvyan, Boddam, Captain George Palmer, and ((ship Ocean 1788 EIC ship 2)), Captain John Christian Lochner, had encountered Admiral de Sercey and his squadron of frigates. On this occasion the Indiamen also succeeded in bluffing their way to safety, and without any shots even being fired. Lastly, on 15 June 1795, the General Goddard played a large role in the capture of seven Dutch East Indiamen off St Helena.
East India Company (EIC) 's ships were well built, with the result that the Royal Navy bought several Company ships to convert to warships and transports. The Earl of Mornington became HMS Drake. Other examples include:
Unlike all other British Government records, the records from the East India Company (and its successor the India Office) are not in The National Archives at Kew, London, but are held by the British Library in London as part of the Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections. The catalogue is searchable online in the Access to Archives catalogues. Many of the East India Company records are freely available online under an agreement that the Families in British India Society has with the British Library. Published catalogues exist of East India Company ships ' journals and logs, 1600 -- 1834; and of some of the company 's daughter institutions, including the East India Company College, Haileybury, and Addiscombe Military Seminary.
East India Company:
General:
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who sings the song it's just an illusion | Just An Illusion - Wikipedia
"Just an Illusion '' is a song by the British trio Imagination. Co-written by Steve Jolley, Tony Swain, Ashley Ingram and Leee John, the song was a major European hit, peaking at number 2 in the group 's native UK. In the United States, "Just an Illusion '' went to number 27 on the Black chart. The song also peaked at number 15 on the dance charts.
7 '' Single
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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when does episode 10 of prison break come out | Prison Break (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of Prison Break (also known as Prison Break: Resurrection) is a limited event television series and the continuation of the original series created by Paul Scheuring that aired on Fox from 2005 to 2009. The season is produced by 20th Century Fox Television in association with Adelstein / Parouse Productions and Original Film. Paul Scheuring serves as showrunner, with himself, Marty Adelstein, Neal H. Moritz and Dawn Olmstead, Vaun Wilmott, Michael Horowitz and Nelson McCormick serving as executive producers. McCormick also serves as director. The season premiered on April 4, 2017, and concluded on May 30, 2017, consisting of 9 episodes.
Wentworth Miller and Dominic Purcell reprise their respective roles as Michael Scofield and Lincoln Burrows, while Sarah Wayne Callies, Amaury Nolasco, Paul Adelstein, Robert Knepper and Rockmond Dunbar also return from the original series. New cast additions include Mark Feuerstein, Inbar Lavi, Augustus Prew, Marina Benedict, Rick Yune and Steve Mouzakis. A pilot was ordered in August 2015 and the series was greenlit in January 2016. Production on the series began in April 2016 and filming took place in Vancouver and the Moroccan cities of Rabat, Casablanca, and Ouarzazate.
Seven years after his apparent death, Michael Scofield resurfaces in the notorious Ogygia Prison in Sana'a, Yemen, under the name Kaniel Outis. As the country is engulfed by war, two of Michael 's old friends, his brother Lincoln Burrows and fellow Fox River escapee Benjamin "C - Note '' Franklin, risk their lives by traveling to Yemen to bring Michael home. Back in the United States, Michael 's wife Sara, now remarried, is hunted by agents of an operative known as Poseidon, the one responsible for Michael 's disappearance.
On January 12, 2015, at the 2015 Winter TCA Press Tour, Wentworth Miller and Dominic Purcell revealed the possibility that Fox was interested in bringing back Prison Break, with Miller stating: "We actually floated the idea to Fox very casually and they seemed very not casual about this interest. They seemed to think there was something there. '' Purcell concluded by adding, "It 's something that Fox is, as Wentworth said, potentially excited about. ''
On January 17, 2015, Fox Television Group chairman and CEO Gary Newman made it clear that they would love to bring Prison Break back for another run, although Fox had nothing to report. Newman himself stated, "There 's some speculation in the press at Prison Break and we 've made it clear at the studio that we 'd bring Prison Break back at the studio (...) It 's the perfect event series. But at the moment, we have nothing else to report. ''
On June 2, 2015, it was reported that a limited series revival of Paul Scheuring 's Prison Break was in development at Fox.
On August 6, 2015, Fox confirmed a 10 - episode order for the revival. The limited series is a sequel to the original series, taking place several years later, and features Miller and Purcell reprising their roles as well as the return of other original characters. Fox Television Group chairman and CEO Dana Walden herself stated that Prison Break has performed particularly well internationally and on SVOD platforms such as Netflix. Walden added that: "a logical and believable explanation to why the characters are alive and still moving around the world (...) '' Walden said. "The brothers and some of the iconic characters will be back, and it will address some questions that were set up at the end of the series for a new audience. ''
On January 15, 2016, Fox officially ordered the revival to series, with the episode order revised to nine episodes, though Fox declined to announce how many episodes the series will run. The original producing team of creator Paul Scheuring, Neal Moritz, Marty Adelstein and Dawn Olmstead were all confirmed as to return for the event series as executive producers, with Scheuring writing and serving as showrunner.
On August 7, 2015, it was announced that creator and executive producer Paul Scheuring would be writing the first episode as well as a style / tone bible for other writers to follow.
On January 15, 2016, stars Wentworth Miller and Dominic Purcell were confirmed to be reprising their roles as brothers Michael Scofield and Lincoln Burrows.
On February 22, 2016, it was reported that Mark Feuerstein would play Scott Ness (later changed to Jacob Ness), the husband of Dr. Sara Tancredi, a Professor of Economics (game theory) at Cornell who has been described as, "dubious of the government but still has a bit of fight in him when it comes to taking them on. '' Additionally, on February 22, 2016, it was confirmed that Sarah Wayne Callies was in talks to reprise her role in the follow - up along with Robert Knepper, Rockmond Dunbar and Amaury Nolasco, although there were no deals in place with any of them at that time.
On March 9, 2016, Augustus Prew, Rick Yune and Steve Mouzakis were cast for "heavily recurring roles ''. Prew plays "funny, crazy and pretty damn sharp '' Whip; Yune plays Ja, who is described as a "Korean identity thief, who disheveled appearance belies his genius ''; and Mouzakis plays Van Gogh, "a bad - ass nut - job ''. On March 9, 2016, Sarah Wayne Callies was confirmed to be returning as Sara Tancredi. On March 16, 2016, Amin El Gamal was cast in a recurring role, playing Cyclops.
On March 17, 2016, it was announced that original stars Robert Knepper, Amaury Nolasco and Rockmond Dunbar would be reprising their respective roles as T - Bag, Sucre and C - Note, respectively. On March 21, 2016, Paul Adelstein was confirmed to be reprising his role as Paul Kellerman. On March 21, 2016, Inbar Lavi, Marina Benedict and Kunal Sharma were cast in major recurring roles. Lavi plays Sheba, an operator / fixer / activist who becomes involved with Burrows. Benedict is A&W, "a crazed and fearless villainess who is unconcerned about her physical well - being but ruthless and efficient in completing her deadly goals '', and Sharma plays Sid, a man in prison. On April 22, 2016, it was announced that Faran Tahir would play Jamil, whom Tahir describes as "a man who has an inner conflict which again is something I love experimenting with. ''
In July 2016, it was revealed that William Fichtner would not be reprising his role as Alexander Mahone. Robert Knepper told Digital Spy that "(writer) Paul Scheuring loves Bill Fichtner and I love Bill Fichtner. He 's a brilliant actor -- but Paul honestly said to me, ' I do n't know what to do with that character '. He did n't want to just bring everybody back, so that the audience go, ' Oh, look, it 's Bill Fichtner again! ' -- he honestly thought, ' I 'm not sure where to do that in the plot. ' So if someday there 's another chapter of this, maybe then Bill will be back. But I think the characters that are there, each of our moments that we have, are key to the storytelling, which is how it should be. ''
Production on the season began in April 7, 2016, in Vancouver, once Miller and Purcell completed filming for Legends of Tomorrow. Filming concluded in Vancouver on July 11, 2016. On June 1, 2016, Dominic Purcell was almost killed on set in Morocco, after an iron bar used as a set piece had fallen onto his head, which caused a broken nose and a head injury. Purcell was immediately airlifted from Marrakesh to Casablanca for treatment where he recovered. Filming of the series was not substantially disrupted due to the accident.
Composer Ramin Djawadi stated that he would definitely like to return and work on the new season of Prison Break, after learning of the news of the possible revival, to which further stated, "I literally just heard it, so it 's news for me. It 's very exciting because the show was such a good show but nobody has contacted me at this point. '' Djawadi later added, "Most likely, if my schedule allows - that show was very close to me. I loved all the people involved. I thought it was an incredible show. Absolutely. '' In June 2016, it was confirmed that Djawadi would return as composer for season five.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 55 % based on 29 reviews, with an average score of 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Prison Break recaptures some of its old urgency in its return, but familiar faces and frenetic action are n't enough to make up for a plot that manages to bore while beggaring belief. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 48 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
The event series was released on Blu - ray and DVD on June 27, 2017. Special features include a behind - the - scenes featurette, "A Return Home: The Making of Prison Break Event Series ''.
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what direction does the sun rise in vancouver | Vancouver - Wikipedia
Vancouver (/ vænˈkuːvər / (listen), locally usually (væŋ -)) is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, up from 603,502 in 2011. The Greater Vancouver area had a population of 2,463,431 in 2016, making it the third - largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre, which makes it the fourth-most densely populated city with over 250,000 residents in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. Vancouver is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada according to that census; 52 % of its residents have a first language other than English. Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city.
Vancouver is consistently named as one of the top five worldwide cities for livability and quality of life, and the Economist Intelligence Unit acknowledged it as the first city ranked among the top - ten of the world 's most well - living cities for five consecutive years. Vancouver has hosted many international conferences and events, including the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, UN Habitat I, Expo 86, the World Police and Fire Games in 1989 and 2009; and the 2010 Winter Olympics and Paralympics which were held in Vancouver and Whistler, a resort community 125 km (78 mi) north of the city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home. Several matches of the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place.
The original settlement, named Gastown, grew up on clearcuts on the west edge of the Hastings Mill logging sawmill 's property, where a makeshift tavern had been set up on a plank between two stumps and the proprietor, Gassy Jack, persuaded the curious millworkers to build him a tavern, on 1 July 1867. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west. Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B.I. ("B.I '' standing for "Burrard Inlet ''). As part of the land and political deal whereby the area of the townsite was made the railhead of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), it was renamed "Vancouver '' and incorporated shortly thereafter as a city, in 1886. By 1887, the Canadian Pacific transcontinental railway was extended westward to the city to take advantage of its large natural seaport to the Pacific Ocean, which soon became a vital link in a trade route between the Orient / East Asia, Eastern Canada, and Europe. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third - largest port by tonnage in the Americas (recently displacing New York City), 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, making tourism its second - largest industry. Major film production studios in Vancouver and nearby Burnaby have turned Greater Vancouver and nearby areas into one of the largest film production centres in North America, earning it the nickname, "Hollywood North ''.
The city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The family name Vancouver itself originates from the Dutch "Van Coevorden '', denoting somebody from the city of Coevorden, Netherlands. The explorer 's ancestors came to England "from Coevorden '', which is the origin of the name that eventually became "Vancouver ''.
Archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the traditional and presently unceded territories of the Squamish, Musqueam, and Tseil - Waututh (Burrard) peoples of the Coast Salish group. They had villages in various parts of present - day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey and near the mouth of the Fraser River.
Europeans became acquainted with the area of the future Vancouver when José María Narváez of Spain explored the coast of present - day Point Grey and parts of Burrard Inlet in 1791 -- although one author contends that Francis Drake may have visited the area in 1579.
The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his crew became the first - known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present - day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey.
The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster (founded 14 February 1859) on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, bypassing what would become Vancouver. Vancouver is among British Columbia 's youngest cities; the first European settlement in what is now Vancouver was not until 1862 at McCleery 's Farm on the Fraser River, just east of the ancient village of Musqueam in what is now Marpole. A sawmill established at Moodyville (now the City of North Vancouver) in 1863, began the city 's long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the south shore of the inlet. Stamp, who had begun logging in the Port Alberni area, first attempted to run a mill at Brockton Point, but difficult currents and reefs forced the relocation of the operation in 1867 to a point near the foot of Dunlevy Street. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed. The mill 's central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the local economy until it closed in the 1920s.
The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by "Gassy '' Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property. In 1870, the colonial government surveyed the settlement and laid out a townsite, renamed "Granville '' in honour of the then - British Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Granville. This site, with its natural harbour, was selected in 1884 as the terminus for the Canadian Pacific Railway, to the disappointment of Port Moody, New Westminster and Victoria, all of which had vied to be the railhead. A railway was among the inducements for British Columbia to join the Confederation in 1871, but the Pacific Scandal and arguments over the use of Chinese labour delayed construction until the 1880s.
The City of Vancouver was incorporated on 6 April 1886, the same year that the first transcontinental train arrived. CPR president William Van Horne arrived in Port Moody to establish the CPR terminus recommended by Henry John Cambie, and gave the city its name in honour of George Vancouver. The Great Vancouver Fire on 13 June 1886, razed the entire city. The Vancouver Fire Department was established that year and the city quickly rebuilt. Vancouver 's population grew from a settlement of 1,000 people in 1881 to over 20,000 by the turn of the century and 100,000 by 1911.
Vancouver merchants outfitted prospectors bound for the Klondike Gold Rush in 1898. One of those merchants, Charles Woodward, had opened the first Woodward 's store at Abbott and Cordova Streets in 1892 and, along with Spencer 's and the Hudson 's Bay department stores, formed the core of the city 's retail sector for decades.
The economy of early Vancouver was dominated by large companies such as the CPR, which fuelled economic activity and led to the rapid development of the new city; in fact, the CPR was the main real estate owner and housing developer in the city. While some manufacturing did develop, including the establishment of the British Columbia Sugar Refinery by Benjamin Tingley Rogers in 1890, natural resources became the basis for Vancouver 's economy. The resource sector was initially based on logging and later on exports moving through the seaport, where commercial traffic constituted the largest economic sector in Vancouver by the 1930s.
The dominance of the economy by big business was accompanied by an often militant labour movement. The first major sympathy strike was in 1903 when railway employees struck against the CPR for union recognition. Labour leader Frank Rogers was killed by CPR police while picketing at the docks, becoming the movement 's first martyr in British Columbia. The rise of industrial tensions throughout the province led to Canada 's first general strike in 1918, at the Cumberland coal mines on Vancouver Island. Following a lull in the 1920s, the strike wave peaked in 1935 when unemployed men flooded the city to protest conditions in the relief camps run by the military in remote areas throughout the province. After two tense months of daily and disruptive protesting, the relief camp strikers decided to take their grievances to the federal government and embarked on the On - to - Ottawa Trek, but their protest was put down by force. The workers were arrested near Mission and interned in work camps for the duration of the Depression.
Other social movements, such as the first - wave feminist, moral reform, and temperance movements were also instrumental in Vancouver 's development. Mary Ellen Smith, a Vancouver suffragist and prohibitionist, became the first woman elected to a provincial legislature in Canada in 1918. Alcohol prohibition began in the First World War and lasted until 1921, when the provincial government established control over alcohol sales, a practice still in place today. Canada 's first drug law came about following an inquiry conducted by the federal Minister of Labour and future Prime Minister, William Lyon Mackenzie King. King was sent to investigate damages claims resulting from a riot when the Asiatic Exclusion League led a rampage through Chinatown and Japantown. Two of the claimants were opium manufacturers, and after further investigation, King found that white women were reportedly frequenting opium dens as well as Chinese men. A federal law banning the manufacture, sale, and importation of opium for non-medicinal purposes was soon passed based on these revelations. These riots, and the formation of the Asiatic Exclusion League, also act as signs of a growing fear and mistrust towards the Japanese living in Vancouver and throughout B.C. These fears were exacerbated by the attack on Pearl Harbor leading to the eventual internment or deportation of all Japanese - Canadians living in the city and the province. After the war, these Japanese - Canadian men and women were not allowed to return to cities like Vancouver causing areas, like the aforementioned Japantown, to cease to be ethnically Japanese areas as the communities never revived.
Amalgamation with Point Grey and South Vancouver gave the city its final boundaries not long before it became the third - largest metropolis in the country. As of 1 January 1929, the population of the enlarged Vancouver was 228,193.
Located on the Burrard Peninsula, Vancouver lies between Burrard Inlet to the north and the Fraser River to the south. The Strait of Georgia, to the west, is shielded from the Pacific Ocean by Vancouver Island. The city has an area of 114 km (44 sq mi), including both flat and hilly ground, and is in the Pacific Time Zone (UTC − 8) and the Pacific Maritime Ecozone. Until the city 's naming in 1885, "Vancouver '' referred to Vancouver Island, and it remains a common misconception that the city is located on the island. The island and the city are both named after Royal Navy Captain George Vancouver (as is the city of Vancouver, Washington in the United States).
Vancouver has one of the largest urban parks in North America, Stanley Park, which covers 404.9 hectares (1,001 acres). The North Shore Mountains dominate the cityscape, and on a clear day, scenic vistas include the snow - capped volcano Mount Baker in the state of Washington to the southeast, Vancouver Island across the Strait of Georgia to the west and southwest, and Bowen Island to the northwest.
The vegetation in the Vancouver area was originally temperate rain forest, consisting of conifers with scattered pockets of maple and alder, and large areas of swampland (even in upland areas, due to poor drainage). The conifers were a typical coastal British Columbia mix of Douglas fir, Western red cedar, and Western Hemlock. The area is thought to have had the largest trees of these species on the British Columbia Coast. Only in Elliott Bay, Seattle did the size of trees rival those of Burrard Inlet and English Bay. The largest trees in Vancouver 's old - growth forest were in the Gastown area, where the first logging occurred, and on the southern slopes of False Creek and English Bay, especially around Jericho Beach. The forest in Stanley Park was logged between the 1860s and 1880s, and evidence of old - fashioned logging techniques such as springboard notches can still be seen there.
Many plants and trees growing throughout Vancouver and the Lower Mainland were imported from other parts of the continent and from points across the Pacific. Examples include the monkey puzzle tree, the Japanese Maple, and various flowering exotics, such as magnolias, azaleas, and rhododendrons. Some species imported from harsher climates in Eastern Canada or Europe have grown to immense sizes. The native Douglas Maple can also attain a tremendous size. Many of the city 's streets are lined with flowering varieties of Japanese cherry trees donated from the 1930s onward by the government of Japan. These flower for several weeks in early spring each year, an occasion celebrated by the Vancouver Cherry Blossom Festival. Other streets are lined with flowering chestnut, horse chestnut, and other decorative shade trees.
Vancouver is one of Canada 's warmest cities in the winter. Vancouver 's climate is temperate by Canadian standards and is classified as oceanic or marine west coast, which under the Köppen climate classification system is classified as Cfb that borders on a warm summer Mediterranean Climate Csb. While during summer months the inland temperatures are significantly higher, Vancouver has the coolest summer average high of all major Canadian metropolitan areas. The summer months are typically dry, with an average of only one in five days during July and August receiving precipitation. In contrast, there is some precipitation during nearly half the days from November through March.
Vancouver is also one of the wettest Canadian cities. However, precipitation varies throughout the metropolitan area. Annual precipitation as measured at Vancouver International Airport in Richmond averages 1,189 mm (46.8 in), compared with 1,588 mm (62.5 in) in the downtown area and 2,044 mm (80.5 in) in North Vancouver. The daily maximum averages 22 ° C (72 ° F) in July and August, with highs rarely reaching 30 ° C (86 ° F).
The highest temperature ever recorded at the airport was 34.4 ° C (93.9 ° F) set on 30 July 2009, and the highest temperature ever recorded within the city of Vancouver was 35.0 ° C (95.0 ° F) occurring first on 31 July 1965, again on 8 August 1981, and finally on 29 May 1983. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the city was − 17.8 ° C (0 ° F) on 14 January 1950 and again on 29 December 1968.
On average, snow falls on nine days per year, with three days receiving 5 cm (2.0 in) or more. Average yearly snowfall is 38.1 cm (15.0 in) but typically does not remain on the ground for long.
Winters in Greater Vancouver are the fourth mildest of Canadian cities after nearby Victoria, Nanaimo and Duncan, all on Vancouver Island. Vancouver 's growing season averages 237 days, from 18 March until 10 November. Vancouver 's 1981 -- 2010 USDA Plant Hardiness Zone ranges from 8A to 9A depending on elevation and proximity to water.
As of 2011, Vancouver is the most densely populated city in Canada. Urban planning in Vancouver is characterized by high - rise residential and mixed - use development in urban centres, as an alternative to sprawl. As part of the larger Metro Vancouver region, it is influenced by the policy direction of livability as illustrated in Metro Vancouver 's Regional Growth Strategy.
Vancouver has been ranked one of the most livable cities in the world for more than a decade. As of 2010, Vancouver has been ranked as having the fourth - highest quality of living of any city on Earth. In contrast, according to Forbes, Vancouver had the sixth-most overpriced real estate market in the world and was second - highest in North America after Los Angeles in 2007. Vancouver has also been ranked among Canada 's most expensive cities in which to live. Sales in February 2016 were 56.3 % higher than the 10 - year average for the month. Forbes has also ranked Vancouver as the tenth - cleanest city in the world.
Vancouver 's characteristic approach to urban planning originated in the late 1950s, when city planners began to encourage the building of high - rise residential towers in Vancouver 's West End, subject to strict requirements for setbacks and open space to protect sight lines and preserve green space. The success of these dense but liveable neighbourhoods led to the redevelopment of urban industrial sites, such as North False Creek and Coal Harbour, beginning in the mid-1980s. The result is a compact urban core that has gained international recognition for its "high amenity and ' livable ' development ''. More recently, the city has been debating "EcoDensity '' -- ways in which "density, design, and land use can contribute to environmental sustainability, affordability, and livability ''.
Vancouver is also considered to have the worst traffic in Canada due to a wide variety of issues such as old small bridges and a lack of highways within the city limits.
The Vancouver Art Gallery is housed downtown in the neoclassical former courthouse built in 1906. The courthouse building was designed by Francis Rattenbury, who also designed the British Columbia Parliament Buildings and the Empress Hotel in Victoria, and the lavishly decorated second Hotel Vancouver. The 556 - room Hotel Vancouver, opened in 1939 and the third by that name, is across the street with its copper roof. The Gothic - style Christ Church Cathedral, across from the hotel, opened in 1894 and was declared a heritage building in 1976.
There are several modern buildings in the downtown area, including the Harbour Centre, the Vancouver Law Courts and surrounding plaza known as Robson Square (designed by Arthur Erickson) and the Vancouver Library Square (designed by Moshe Safdie and DA Architects), reminiscent of the Colosseum in Rome, and the recently completed Woodward 's building Redevelopment (designed by Henriquez Partners Architects).
The original BC Hydro headquarters building (designed by Ron Thom and Ned Pratt) at Nelson and Burrard Streets is a modernist high - rise, now converted into the Electra condominia. Also notable is the "concrete waffle '' of the MacMillan Bloedel building on the north - east corner of the Georgia and Thurlow intersection.
A prominent addition to the city 's landscape is the giant tent - frame Canada Place (designed by Zeidler Roberts Partnership Partnership, MCMP & DA Architects), the former Canada Pavilion from the 1986 World Exposition, which includes part of the Convention Centre, the Pan-Pacific Hotel, and a cruise ship terminal. Two modern buildings that define the southern skyline away from the downtown area are City Hall and the Centennial Pavilion of Vancouver General Hospital, both designed by Townley and Matheson in 1936 and 1958, respectively.
A collection of Edwardian buildings in the city 's old downtown core were, in their day, the tallest commercial buildings in the British Empire. These were, in succession, the Carter - Cotton Building (former home of The Vancouver Province newspaper), the Dominion Building (1907) and the Sun Tower (1911), the former two at Cambie and Hastings Streets and the latter at Beatty and Pender Streets. The Sun Tower 's cupola was finally exceeded as the Empire 's tallest commercial building by the elaborate Art Deco Marine Building in the 1920s. The Marine Building is known for its elaborate ceramic tile facings and brass - gilt doors and elevators, which make it a favourite location for movie shoots. Topping the list of tallest buildings in Vancouver is Living Shangri - La at 201 metres (659 feet) and 62 storeys. The second - tallest building in Vancouver is the Trump International Hotel and Tower at 188 metres (617 feet), followed by the Private Residences at Hotel Georgia, at 156 metres (512 feet). The fourth - tallest is One Wall Centre at 150 metres (490 feet) and 48 storeys, followed closely by the Shaw Tower at 149 metres (489 feet).
Religion in Metro Vancouver (2011)
The 2011 census recorded more than 603,000 people in the city, making it the eighth - largest among Canadian cities. More specifically, Vancouver is the fourth - largest in Western Canada after Calgary, Edmonton and Winnipeg. The metropolitan area referred to as Greater Vancouver, with more than 2.4 million residents, is the third most populous metropolitan area in the country and the most populous in Western Canada. The larger Lower Mainland - Southwest economic region (which includes also the Squamish - Lillooet, Fraser Valley, and Sunshine Coast Regional District) has a population of over 2.93 million. With 5,249 people per square km (13,590 per sq mi), the City of Vancouver is the most densely populated of Canadian municipalities having more than 5,000 residents. Approximately 74 percent of the people living in Metro Vancouver live outside the city.
Vancouver has been called a "city of neighbourhoods ''. Each neighbourhood in Vancouver has a distinct character and ethnic mix. People of English, Scottish, and Irish origins were historically the largest ethnic groups in the city, and elements of British society and culture are still visible in some areas, particularly South Granville and Kerrisdale. Germans are the next - largest European ethnic group in Vancouver and were a leading force in the city 's society and economy until the rise of anti-German sentiment with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Today the Chinese are the largest visible ethnic group in the city, with a diverse Chinese - speaking community, and several dialects, including Cantonese and Mandarin. Neighbourhoods with distinct ethnic commercial areas include the Chinatown, Punjabi Market, Little Italy, Greektown, and (formerly) Japantown.
Since the 1980s, immigration has drastically increased, making the city more ethnically and linguistically diverse; 52 % do not speak English as their first language. Almost 30 % of the city 's inhabitants are of Chinese heritage. In the 1980s, an influx of immigrants from Hong Kong in anticipation of the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China, combined with an increase in immigrants from mainland China and previous immigrants from Taiwan, established in Vancouver one of the highest concentrations of ethnic Chinese residents in North America. This arrival of Asian immigrants continued a tradition of immigration from around the world that had established Vancouver as the second-most popular destination for immigrants in Canada after Toronto. Other significant Asian ethnic groups in Vancouver are South Asian (mostly Punjabi) usually referred to as Indo - Canadian (5.7 %), Filipino (5.0 %), Japanese (1.7 %), Korean (1.5 %), as well as sizeable communities of Vietnamese, Indonesians, and Cambodians. Despite increases in Latin American immigration to Vancouver in the 1980s and ' 90s, recent immigration has been comparatively low, and African immigration has been similarly stagnant (3.6 % and 3.3 % of total immigrant population, respectively). The black population of Vancouver is rather scant in comparison to other Canadian major cities, making up 0.9 % of the city. The neighbourhood of Strathcona was the core of the city 's Jewish community. Hogan 's Alley, a small area adjacent to Chinatown, just off Main Street at Prior, was once home to a significant black community. In 1981, less than 7 % of the population belonged to a visible minority group. By 2008, this proportion had grown to 51 %.
Prior to the Hong Kong diaspora of the 1990s, the largest non-British ethnic groups in the city were Irish and German, followed by Scandinavian, Italian, Ukrainian and Chinese. From the mid-1950s until the 1980s, many Portuguese immigrants came to Vancouver and the city had the third - largest Portuguese population in Canada in 2001. Eastern Europeans, including Russians, Czechs, Poles, Romanians and Hungarians began immigrating after the Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe after World War II. Greek immigration increased in the late 1960s and early ' 70s, with most settling in the Kitsilano area. Vancouver also has a significant aboriginal community of about 11,000 people.
Vancouver has a large LGBT community focused on the West End neighbourhood lining a certain stretch of Davie Street, recently officially designated as Davie Village, though the gay community is omnipresent throughout West End and Yaletown areas. Vancouver is host to one of the country 's largest annual LGBT pride parades.
With its location on the Pacific Rim and at the western terminus of Canada 's transcontinental highway and rail routes, Vancouver is one of the nation 's largest industrial centres. Port Metro Vancouver, Canada 's largest and most diversified port, does more than C $ 172 billion in trade with over 160 different trading economies annually. Port activities generate $9.7 billion in gross domestic product and $20.3 billion in economic output. Vancouver is also the headquarters of forest product and mining companies. In recent years, Vancouver has become a centre for software development, biotechnology, aerospace, video game development, animation studios and television production and film industry. Vancouver hosts approximately 65 movies and 55 TV series annually and is the 3rd largest film & TV production centre in North America, supporting 20,000 jobs. The city 's strong focus on lifestyle and health culture also makes it a hub for many lifestyle - brands with Lululemon, Arc'teryx, Kit and Ace, Mountain Equipment Co-op, Herschel Supply Co., Aritzia, Reigning Champ, and Nature 's Path Foods all founded and headquartered in Vancouver.
Vancouver 's scenic location makes it a major tourist destination. Over 10.3 million people visited Vancouver in 2017. Annually, tourism contributes approximately $4.8 billion to the Metro Vancouver economy and supports over 70,000 jobs. Many visit to see the city 's gardens, Stanley Park, Queen Elizabeth Park, VanDusen Botanical Garden and the mountains, ocean, forest and parklands which surround the city. Each year over a million people pass through Vancouver on cruise ship vacations, often bound for Alaska.
Vancouver is the most stressed city in the spectrum of affordability of housing in Canada. In 2012, Vancouver was ranked by Demographia as the second-most unaffordable city in the world, rated as even more severely unaffordable in 2012 than in 2011. The city has adopted various strategies to reduce housing costs, including cooperative housing, legalized secondary suites, increased density and smart growth. As of April 2010, the average two - level home in Vancouver sold for a record high of $987,500, compared with the Canadian average of $365,141. A factor explaining the high property prices may be policies by the Canadian government which permit snow washing, which allows foreigners to buy property in Canada while shielding their identities from tax authorities, making real estate transactions an effective way to conduct money laundering.
Since the 1990s, development of high - rise condominia in the downtown peninsula has been financed, in part, by an inflow of capital from Hong Kong immigrants due to the former colony 's 1997 handover to China. Such development has clustered in the Yaletown and Coal Harbour districts and around many of the SkyTrain stations to the east of the downtown. The city 's selection to co-host the 2010 Winter Olympics was also a major influence on economic development. Concern was expressed that Vancouver 's increasing homelessness problem would be exacerbated by the Olympics because owners of single room occupancy hotels, which house many of the city 's lowest income residents, converted their properties to attract higher income residents and tourists. Another significant international event held in Vancouver, the 1986 World Exposition, received over 20 million visitors and added $3.7 billion to the Canadian economy. Some still - standing Vancouver landmarks, including the SkyTrain public transit system and Canada Place, were built as part of the exposition.
Vancouver, unlike other British Columbia municipalities, is incorporated under the Vancouver Charter. The legislation, passed in 1953, supersedes the Vancouver Incorporation Act, 1921 and grants the city more and different powers than other communities possess under BC 's Municipalities Act.
The civic government was dominated by the centre - right Non-Partisan Association (NPA) since World War II, albeit with some significant centre - left interludes until 2008. The NPA fractured over the issue of drug policy in 2002, facilitating a landslide victory for the Coalition of Progressive Electors (COPE) on a harm reduction platform. Subsequently, North America 's only legal safe injection site was opened for the significant number of intravenous heroin users in the city.
Vancouver is governed by the eleven - member Vancouver City Council, a nine - member School Board, and a seven - member Park Board, all of whom serve three - year terms. Unusually for a city of Vancouver 's size, all municipal elections are on an at - large basis. Historically, in all levels of government, the more affluent west side of Vancouver has voted along conservative or liberal lines while the eastern side of the city has voted along left - wing lines. This was reaffirmed with the results of the 2005 provincial election and the 2006 federal election.
Though polarized, a political consensus has emerged in Vancouver around a number of issues. Protection of urban parks, a focus on the development of rapid transit as opposed to a freeway system, a harm - reduction approach to illegal drug use, and a general concern about community - based development are examples of policies that have come to have broad support across the political spectrum in Vancouver.
In the 2008 Municipal Election campaign, NPA incumbent mayor Sam Sullivan was ousted as mayoral candidate by the party in a close vote, which instated Peter Ladner as the new mayoral candidate for the NPA. Gregor Robertson, a former MLA for Vancouver - Fairview and head of Happy Planet, was the mayoral candidate for Vision Vancouver, the other main contender. Vision Vancouver candidate Gregor Robertson defeated Ladner by a considerable margin, nearing 20,000 votes. The balance of power was significantly shifted to Vision Vancouver, which held seven of the 10 spots for councillor. Of the remaining three, COPE received two and the NPA one. For park commissioner, four spots went to Vision Vancouver, one to the Green Party, one to COPE, and one to NPA. For school trustee, there were four Vision Vancouver seats, three COPE seats, and two NPA seats.
Vancouver 's budget consists of a capital and an operating component. The 2017 operating budget was $1.323 billion, while the 2018 operating budget is $1.407 billion (a year over year increase of 6.4 %). The capital budget for 2018 is unchanged from 2017 and stands at $426.4 million. Budget increases are largely funded through increases in property taxes and community amenity contributions imposed in exchange for increases in allowable density as part of the construction permitting process. Utility fees and other user fees have also been increased, but represent a comparatively small portion of Vancouver 's overall budget.
Vancouver is a member municipality of Metro Vancouver, a regional government. In total there are 22 municipalities, one electoral area and one treaty First Nation comprising Metro Vancouver, the regional government whose seat is in Burnaby. While each member of Metro Vancouver has its own separate local governing body, Metro Vancouver oversees common services and planning functions within the area such as providing drinking water; operating sewage and solid waste handling; maintaining regional parks; overseeing air quality, greenhouse gases and ecological health; and providing a strategy for regional growth and land use.
In the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, Vancouver is represented by 11 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs). As of July 2017, there are three seats held by the BC Liberal Party and eight by the BC New Democratic Party.
In the House of Commons of Canada, Vancouver is represented by six Members of Parliament. In the most recent 2015 federal election, the Liberals retained two (Vancouver Quadra and Vancouver Centre) seats and gained another two, while the NDP held on to the two seats (Vancouver East and Vancouver Kingsway), they held at dissolution while the Conservatives were shut out of the city. Currently, two Cabinet Minister hail from the city. Jody Wilson - Raybould is the Attorney General of Canada, while Harjit Sajjan is the Minister of National Defence.
Vancouver operates the Vancouver Police Department, with a strength of 1,327 sworn members and an operating budget of $257.6 million in 2015. Over 16 % of the city 's budget was spent on police protection in 2005.
The Vancouver Police Department 's operational divisions include a bicycle squad, a marine squad, and a dog squad. It also has a mounted squad, used primarily to patrol Stanley Park and occasionally the Downtown Eastside and West End, as well as for crowd control. The police work in conjunction with civilian and volunteer run Community Police Centres. In 2006, the police department established its own Counter Terrorism Unit. In 2005, a new transit police force, the Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority Police Service (now South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority Police Service), was established with full police powers.
Although it is illegal, Vancouver police generally do not arrest people for possessing small amounts of marijuana. In 2000 the Vancouver Police Department established a specialized drug squad, "Growbusters '', to carry out an aggressive campaign against the city 's estimated 4,000 hydroponic marijuana growing operations (or grow - ops) in residential areas. As with other law enforcement campaigns targeting marijuana this initiative has been sharply criticized.
As of 2008, Vancouver had the seventh - highest crime rate, dropping 3 spots since 2005, among Canada 's 27 census metropolitan areas. However, as with other Canadian cities, the overall crime rate has been falling "dramatically ''. Vancouver 's property crime rate is particularly high, ranking among the highest for major North American cities. But even property crime dropped 10.5 % between 2004 and 2005. For 2006, Metro Vancouver had the highest rate of gun - related violent crime of any major metropolitan region in Canada, with 45.3 violent offences involving guns for every 100,000 people in Metro Vancouver, above the national average of 27.5. A series of gang - related incidents in early 2009 escalated into what police have dubbed a gang war. Vancouver plays host to special events such as the Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation conference, the Clinton - Yeltsin Summit, or the Symphony of Fire fireworks show that require significant policing. The 1994 Stanley Cup riot overwhelmed police and injured as many as 200 people. A second riot took place following the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals.
Jericho Beach in Vancouver is the location of the headquarters of 39 Canadian Brigade Group of the Canadian Army. Local primary reserve units include The Seaforth Highlanders of Canada and The British Columbia Regiment (Duke of Connaught 's Own), based at the Seaforth Armoury and the Beatty Street Drill Hall, respectively, and the 15th Field Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery. The Naval Reserve Unit HMCS Discovery is based on Deadman 's Island in Stanley Park. RCAF Station Jericho Beach, the first air base in Western Canada, was taken over by the Canadian Army in 1947 when sea planes were replaced by long - range aircraft. Most of the base facilities were transferred to the City of Vancouver in 1969 and the area renamed "Jericho Park ''.
The Vancouver School Board enrolls more than 110,000 students in its elementary, secondary, and post-secondary institutions, making it the second - largest school district in the province. The district administers about 76 elementary schools, 17 elementary annexes, 18 secondary schools, 7 adult education centres, 2 Vancouver Learning Network schools, which include 18 French immersion, a Mandarin bilingual, a fine arts, gifted, and Montessori schools. The Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie - Britannique operates three Francophone schools in that city: the primary schools école Rose - des - vents and école Anne - Hébert as well as the école secondaire Jules - Verne. More than 46 independent schools of a wide variety are also eligible for partial provincial funding and educate approximately 10 % of pupils in the city.
There are five public universities in the Greater Vancouver area, the largest being the University of British Columbia (UBC) and Simon Fraser University (SFU), with a combined enrolment of more than 90,000 undergraduates, graduates, and professional students in 2008. UBC consistently ranks among the 40 best universities in the world, and is among the 20 best public universities. SFU consistently ranks as the top comprehensive university in Canada and is among the 200 best universities in the world. UBC 's main campus is located on the University Endowment Lands on Point Grey, the tip of Burrard Peninsula, with the city - proper adjacent to the east. SFU 's main campus is in Burnaby. Both also maintain campuses in Downtown Vancouver and Surrey. The other public universities in the metropolitan area around Vancouver are Capilano University in North Vancouver, Emily Carr University of Art and Design, and Kwantlen Polytechnic University whose four campuses are all outside the city proper. Six private institutions also operate in the region: Trinity Western University in Langley, and University Canada West, NYIT Canada, Fairleigh Dickinson University, Columbia College, and Sprott Shaw College, all in Vancouver.
Vancouver Community College and Langara College are publicly funded college - level institutions in Vancouver, as is Douglas College with three campuses outside the city. The British Columbia Institute of Technology in Burnaby provides polytechnic education. These are augmented by private institutions and other colleges in the surrounding areas of Metro Vancouver that provide career, trade, and university - transfer programs, while the Vancouver Film School provides one - year programs in film production and video game design.
International students and English as a Second Language (ESL) students have been significant in the enrolment of these public and private institutions. For the 2008 -- 2009 school year, 53 % of Vancouver School Board 's students spoke a language other than English at home.
Prominent theatre companies in Vancouver include the Arts Club Theatre Company on Granville Island, and Bard on the Beach. Smaller companies include Touchstone Theatre, and Studio 58. The Cultch, The Firehall Arts Centre, United Players, Pacific and Metro Theatres, all run continuous theatre seasons. Theatre Under the Stars produces shows in the summer at Malkin Bowl in Stanley Park. Annual festivals that are held in Vancouver include the PuSh International Performing Arts Festival in January and the Vancouver Fringe Festival in September.
The Vancouver Playhouse Theatre Company operated for fifty years, ending in March 2012.
The Scotiabank Dance Centre, a converted bank building on the corner of Davie and Granville, functions as a gathering place and performance venue for Vancouver - based dancers and choreographers. Dances for a Small Stage is a semi-annual dance festival.
The Vancouver International Film Festival, which runs for two weeks each September, shows over 350 films and is one of the larger film festivals in North America. The Vancouver International Film Centre venue, the Vancity Theatre, runs independent non-commercial films throughout the rest of the year, as do the Pacific Cinémathèque, and the Rio theatres.
Vancouver has become a major film location, known as Hollywood North, as it has stood in for several U.S. cities. However, it has started to appear as itself in several feature films. Among films set in the city and its surroundings are the 1989 U.S. romantic comedy - drama Cousins, starring Ted Danson and Isabella Rossellini; the 1994 US thriller Intersection, starring Richard Gere and Sharon Stone; the 2007 Canadian ghost thriller They Wait, starring Terry Chen and Jaime King; and the acclaimed Canadian ' mockumentary ' Hard Core Logo, and was named the second - best Canadian film of the last 15 years, in a 2001 poll of 200 industry voters, performed by Playback.
Many past and current TV shows have been filmed and set in Vancouver. The first Canadian prime time national series to be produced out of Vancouver was Cold Squad. Other series set in or around the city include Continuum, Da Vinci 's Inquest, Danger Bay, Edgemont, Godiva 's, Motive, Northwood, The Romeo Section, and The Good Doctor.
Television shows produced (but not set) in Vancouver include 21 Jump Street, The 100, The 4400, Airwolf, Almost Human, Arrow, Backstrom, Caprica, Cedar Cove, Chesapeake Shores, The Commish, Dark Angel, Dirk Gently 's Holistic Detective Agency, The Flash, The Good Doctor, Haters Back Off, Hellcats, Intelligence, iZombie, The Killing, The L Word, Life Unexpected, The Man in the High Castle, Once Upon a Time, Psych, Reaper, Riverdale, Rogue, Smallville, Stargate SG - 1, Supergirl, Supernatural, The Tomorrow People, The Magicians, Tru Calling, Van Helsing, Witches of East End, and The X-Files.
Libraries in Vancouver include the Vancouver Public Library with its main branch at Library Square, designed by Moshe Safdie. The central branch contains 1.5 million volumes. Altogether there are twenty - two branches containing 2.25 million volumes. The Vancouver Tool Library is Canada 's original tool lending library.
The Vancouver Art Gallery has a permanent collection of nearly 10,000 items and is the home of a significant number of works by Emily Carr. However, little or none of the permanent collection is ever on view. Downtown is also home to the Contemporary Art Gallery (Vancouver), which showcases temporary exhibitions by up - and - coming Vancouver artists. The Morris and Helen Belkin Art Gallery with a small collection of contemporary works is part of the University of British Columbia.
In the Kitsilano district are the Vancouver Maritime Museum, the H.R. MacMillan Space Centre, and the Vancouver Museum, the largest civic museum in Canada. The Museum of Anthropology at UBC is a leading museum of Pacific Northwest Coast First Nations culture. A more interactive museum is Science World at the head of False Creek. The city also features a diverse collection of Public Art.
The Vancouver School of conceptual photography (often referred to as photoconceptualism) is a term applied to a grouping of artists from Vancouver who achieved international recognition starting in the 1980s. No formal "school '' exists and the grouping remains both informal and often controversial even among the artists themselves, who often resist the term. Artists associated with the term include Jeff Wall, Ian Wallace, Ken Lum, Roy Arden, Stan Douglas and Rodney Graham.
Musical contributions from Vancouver include performers of classical, folk and popular music. The Vancouver Symphony Orchestra is the professional orchestra based in the city. The Vancouver Opera is a major opera company in the city, and City Opera of Vancouver is the city 's professional chamber opera company. The city is home to a number of Canadian composers including Rodney Sharman, Jeffrey Ryan, and Jocelyn Morlock.
The city produced a number of notable punk rock bands, including D.O.A. Other early Vancouver punk bands included the Subhumans, the Young Canadians, the Pointed Sticks, and UJ3RK5. When alternative rock became popular in the 1990s, several Vancouver groups rose to prominence, including 54 - 40, Odds, Moist, the Matthew Good Band, Sons of Freedom and Econoline Crush. Recent successful Vancouver bands include Gob, Marianas Trench, Theory of a Deadman and Stabilo. Today, Vancouver is home to a number of popular independent bands such as The New Pornographers, Japandroids, Destroyer, In Medias Res, Tegan and Sara, and independent labels including Nettwerk and Mint. Vancouver also produced influential metal band Strapping Young Lad and pioneering electro - industrial bands Skinny Puppy, Numb and Front Line Assembly; the latter 's Bill Leeb is better known for founding ambient pop super-group Delerium. Other popular musical artists who made their mark from Vancouver include Carly Rae Jepsen, Bryan Adams, Sarah McLachlan, Heart, Prism, Trooper, Chilliwack, Payolas, Moev, Images in Vogue, Michael Bublé, Stef Lang and Spirit of the West.
Larger musical performances are usually held at venues such as Rogers Arena, Queen Elizabeth Theatre, BC Place Stadium or the Pacific Coliseum, while smaller acts are held at places such as the Commodore Ballroom, the Orpheum Theatre and the Vogue Theatre. The Vancouver Folk Music Festival and the Vancouver International Jazz Festival showcase music in their respective genres from around the world. Vancouver 's Hong Kong Chinese population has produced several Cantopop stars across the Hong Kong entertainment industry. Similarly, various Indo - Canadian artists and actors have a profile in Bollywood or other aspects of India 's entertainment industry.
Vancouver has a vibrant nightlife scene, whether it be food and dining, or bars and nightclubs. The Granville Entertainment District has the city 's highest concentration of bars and nightclubs with closing times of 3 am, in addition to various after - hours clubs open until late morning on weekends. The street can attract large crowds on weekends and is closed to traffic on such nights. Gastown is also a popular area for nightlife with many upscale restaurants and nightclubs, as well as the Davie Village which is centre to the city 's LGBT community.
Vancouver is a film and television production centre. Nicknamed Hollywood North, a distinction it shares with Toronto, the city has been used as a film making location for nearly a century, beginning with the Edison Manufacturing Company. In 2008 more than 260 productions were filmed in Vancouver. In 2011 Vancouver slipped to fourth place overall at 1.19 billion, although the region still leads Canada in foreign production.
A wide mix of local, national, and international newspapers are distributed in the city. The two major English - language daily newspapers are The Vancouver Sun and The Province. Also, there are two national newspapers distributed in the city, including The Globe and Mail, which began publication of a "national edition '' in B.C. in 1983 and recently expanded to include a three - page B.C. news section, and the National Post which centres on national news. Other local newspapers include 24H (a local free daily), the Vancouver franchise of the national free daily Metro, the twice - a-week Vancouver Courier, and the independent newspaper The Georgia Straight. Three Chinese - language daily newspapers, Ming Pao, Sing Tao and World Journal cater to the city 's large Cantonese - and Mandarin - speaking population. A number of other local and international papers serve other multicultural groups in the Lower Mainland.
Some of the local television stations include CBC, Citytv, CTV and Global BC. OMNI British Columbia produces daily newscasts in Cantonese, Mandarin, Punjabi and Korean, and weekly newscasts in Tagalog, as well as programs aimed at other cultural groups. Fairchild Group also has two television stations: Fairchild TV and Talentvision, serving Cantonese - and Mandarin - speaking audiences, respectively.
Radio stations with news departments include CBC Radio One, CKNW and News 1130. The Franco - Columbian community is served by Radio - Canada outlets CBUFT channel 26 (Télévision de Radio - Canada), CBUF - FM 97.7 (Première Chaîne) and CBUX - FM 90.9 (Espace musique). The multilingual South Asian community is served by Spice Radio on 1200 AM established in 2014.
Media dominance is a frequently discussed issue in Vancouver as newspapers The Vancouver Sun, The Province, the Vancouver Courier and other local newspapers such as the Surrey Now, the Burnaby Now and the Richmond News, are all owned by Postmedia Network. The concentration of media ownership has spurred alternatives, making Vancouver a centre for independent online media including The Tyee, the Vancouver Observer, and NowPublic, as well as hyperlocal online media, like Vancouver Is Awesome, which provide coverage of community events and local arts and culture.
Vancouver 's streetcar system began on 28 June 1890, and ran from the (first) Granville Street Bridge to Westminster Avenue (now Main Street and Kingsway). Less than a year later, the Westminster and Vancouver Tramway Company began operating Canada 's first interurban line between the two cities (extended to Chilliwack in 1910). Another line (1902), the Vancouver and Lulu Island Railway, was leased by the Canadian Pacific Railway to the British Columbia Electric Railway in 1905 and ran from the Granville Street Bridge to Steveston via Kerrisdale, which encouraged residential neighbourhoods outside the central core to develop. From 1897 the British Columbia Electric Railway (BCER) became the company that operated the urban and interurban rail system, until 1958, when its last vestiges were dismantled in favour of "trackless '' trolley and gasoline / diesel buses; in that same year the BCER became the core of the newly created, publicly owned BC Hydro. Vancouver currently has the second - largest trolleybus fleet in North America, after San Francisco.
Successive city councils in the 1970s and 1980s prohibited the construction of freeways as part of a long - term plan. As a result, the only major freeway within city limits is Highway 1, which passes through the north - eastern corner of the city. While the number of cars in Vancouver proper has been steadily rising with population growth, the rate of car ownership and the average distance driven by daily commuters have fallen since the early 1990s. Vancouver is the only major Canadian city with these trends. Despite the fact that the journey time per vehicle has increased by one - third and growing traffic mass, there are 7 % fewer cars making trips into the downtown core. In 2012, Vancouver had the worst traffic congestion in Canada and the second - highest in North America, behind Los Angeles. As of 2013, Vancouver now has the worst traffic congestion in North America. Residents have been more inclined to live in areas closer to their interests, or use more energy - efficient means of travel, such as mass transit and cycling. This is, in part, the result of a push by city planners for a solution to traffic problems and pro-environment campaigns. Transportation demand management policies have imposed restrictions on drivers making it more difficult and expensive to commute while introducing more benefits for non-drivers.
TransLink is responsible for roads and public transportation within Metro Vancouver (in succession to B.C. Transit, which had taken over the transit functions of B.C. Hydro). It provides bus service, including the B - Line rapid bus service, a foot passenger and bicycle ferry service (known as SeaBus), an automated rapid transit service called SkyTrain, and West Coast Express commuter rail. Vancouver 's SkyTrain system is currently running on three lines, the Millennium Line, the Expo Line and the Canada Line with a total of 53 stations as of 2017. Only 20 of these stations are within the City of Vancouver borders, with the remainders in the adjacent suburbs. A number of city 's biggest tourist attractions, such as English Bay / Stanley Park, the Vancouver Aquarium, University of British Columbia with the Museum of Anthropology, and Kitsilano are not connected by this rapid transit system.
Changes are being made to the regional transportation network as part of Translink 's 10 - Year Transportation Plan. The Canada Line, opened on 17 August 2009, connects Vancouver International Airport and the neighbouring city of Richmond with the existing SkyTrain system. The Evergreen Extension which opened on 2 December 2016 links the cities of Coquitlam and Port Moody with the SkyTrain system. There are also plans to extend the SkyTrain Millennium Line west to UBC as a subway under Broadway and capacity upgrades and an extension to the Expo Line. Several road projects will be completed within the next few years, as part of the Provincial Government 's Gateway Program.
Other modes of transport add to the diversity of options available in Vancouver. Inter-city passenger rail service is operated from Pacific Central Station by Via Rail to points east, Amtrak Cascades to Seattle and Portland, and Rocky Mountaineer rail tour routes. Small passenger ferries operating in False Creek provide commuter service to Granville Island, Downtown Vancouver and Kitsilano. Vancouver has a citywide network of bicycle lanes and routes, which supports an active population of cyclists year - round. Cycling has become Vancouver 's fastest - growing mode of transportation. The bicycle - sharing system Mobi was introduced to the city in June 2016.
Vancouver is served by Vancouver International Airport (YVR), located on Sea Island in the city of Richmond, immediately south of Vancouver. Vancouver 's airport is Canada 's second - busiest airport, and the second - largest gateway on the west coast of North America for international passengers. HeliJet and float plane companies operate scheduled air service from Vancouver harbour and YVR south terminal. The city is also served by two BC Ferry terminals. One is to the northwest at Horseshoe Bay (in West Vancouver), and the other is to the south, at Tsawwassen (in Delta).
The mild climate of the city and proximity to ocean, mountains, rivers and lakes make the area a popular destination for outdoor recreation. Vancouver has over 1,298 hectares (3,210 acres) of parks, of which, Stanley Park, at 404 hectares (1,000 acres), is the largest. The city has several large beaches, many adjacent to one another, extending from the shoreline of Stanley Park around False Creek to the south side of English Bay, from Kitsilano to the University Endowment Lands, (which also has beaches that are not part of the city proper). The 18 kilometres (11 mi) of beaches include Second and Third Beaches in Stanley Park, English Bay (First Beach), Sunset, Kitsilano Beach, Jericho, Locarno, Spanish Banks, Spanish Banks Extension, Spanish Banks West, and Wreck Beach. There is also a freshwater beach at Trout Lake in John Hendry Park. The coastline provides for many types of water sport, and the city is a popular destination for boating enthusiasts.
Within a 20 - to 30 - minute drive from downtown Vancouver are the North Shore Mountains, with three ski areas: Cypress Mountain, Grouse Mountain, and Mount Seymour. Mountain bikers have created world - renowned trails across the North Shore. The Capilano River, Lynn Creek and Seymour River, also on the North Shore, provide opportunities to whitewater enthusiasts during periods of rain and spring melt, though the canyons of those rivers are more utilized for hiking and swimming than whitewater.
Running races include the Vancouver Sun Run (a 10 - kilometre (6.2 mi) race) every April; the Vancouver Marathon, held every May; and the Scotiabank Vancouver Half - Marathon held every June. The Grouse Grind is a 2.9 - kilometre (1.8 mi) climb up Grouse Mountain open throughout the summer and fall months, including the annual Grouse Grind Mountain Run. Hiking trails include the Baden - Powell Trail, an arduous 42 - kilometre - long (26 mi) hike from West Vancouver 's Horseshoe Bay to Deep Cove in the District of North Vancouver.
Vancouver is also home to notable cycling races. Most summers since 1973, the Global Relay Gastown Grand Prix has been held on the cobblestone streets of Gastown. This race and the UBC Grand Prix are part of BC Superweek, an annual series of professional cycling races in Metro Vancouver.
In 2009, Metro Vancouver hosted the World Police and Fire Games. Swangard Stadium, in the neighbouring city of Burnaby, hosted games for the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup.
Vancouver, along with Whistler and Richmond, was the host city for the 2010 Winter Olympics and the 2010 Winter Paralympics. On 12 June 2010, it played host to Ultimate Fighting Championship 115 (UFC 115) which was the fourth UFC event to be held in Canada (and the first outside Montreal).
In 2011, Vancouver hosted the Grey Cup, the Canadian Football League (CFL) championship game which is awarded every year to a different city which has a CFL team. The BC Titans of the International Basketball League played their inaugural season in 2009, with home games at the Langley Event Centre. Vancouver is a centre for the fast - growing sport of ultimate. During the summer of 2008 Vancouver hosted the World Ultimate Championships.
The National Basketball Association (NBA) came to town in the form of the Vancouver Grizzlies in 1995. They played their games at Rogers Arena. After 6 years in Vancouver, the team relocated to Memphis, Tennessee in 2001.
In 2015, Vancouver was one of six venues for the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup and hosted the Final game between the United States and Japan.
Vancouver has an adult obesity rate of 12 % compared to the Canadian average of 23 %. 51.8 % of Vancouverites are overweight, making it the fourth - thinnest city in Canada after Toronto, Montreal, and Halifax.
The City of Vancouver was one of the first cities in Canada to enter into an international sister cities arrangement. Special arrangements for cultural, social and economic benefits have been created with these sister cities.
The City of Vancouver has taken a number of steps to become a sustainable city. Ninety - three percent of the electricity used in Vancouver is generated using sustainable resources such as hydroelectric power. The city is also actively working towards becoming a greener city. The City of Vancouver has crafted an action plan of goals it has set to meet by 2020, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions, encouraging the growth of green jobs and businesses, requiring green construction, and reducing waste.
The Greenest City action plan, otherwise known as GCAP, is a City of Vancouver urban sustainability initiative. Its primary mission is to ensure that Vancouver becomes the greenest city in the world by the year 2020. The GCAP originated based on the 2009 work of the Greenest City Action Team, a committee co-chaired by Vancouver mayor Gregor Robertson. The GCAP was approved by Vancouver city council in July 2011.
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instruments in the dance of the sugar plum fairy | Celesta - wikipedia
The celesta / sɪˈlɛstə / or celeste / sɪˈlɛst / is a struck idiophone operated by a keyboard. It looks similar to an upright piano (four - or five - octave), albeit with smaller keys and a much smaller sized cabinet, or a large wooden music box (three - octave). The keys connect to hammers that strike a graduated set of metal (usually steel) plates or bars suspended over wooden resonators. Four - or five - octave models usually have a damper pedal that sustains or damps the sound. The three - octave instruments do not have a pedal because of their small "table - top '' design. One of the best - known works that uses the celesta is Tchaikovsky 's "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy '' from The Nutcracker.
The sound of the celesta is similar to that of the glockenspiel, but with a much softer and more subtle timbre. This quality gave the instrument its name, celeste, meaning "heavenly '' in French. The celesta is often used to enhance a melody line played by another instrument or section. The delicate, bell - like sound is not loud enough to be used in full ensemble sections; as well, the celesta is rarely given standalone solos.
The celesta is a transposing instrument; it sounds one octave higher than the written pitch. Its (four - octave) sounding range is generally considered to be C to C. The original French instrument had a five - octave range, but because the lowest octave was considered somewhat unsatisfactory, it was omitted from later models. The standard French four - octave instrument is now gradually being replaced in symphony orchestras by a larger, five - octave German model. Although it is a member of the percussion family, in orchestral terms it is more properly considered a member of the keyboard section and usually played by a keyboardist. The celesta part is normally written on two braced staves, called a grand staff.
The celesta was invented in 1886 by Parisian harmonium builder Auguste Mustel. His father, Victor Mustel, had developed the forerunner of the celesta, the typophone, in 1860. This instrument produced sound by striking tuning forks instead of the metal plates that would be used in the celesta. The dulcitone functioned identically to the typophone and was developed concurrently in Scotland; it is unclear whether their creators were aware of one another 's instrument. The typophone / dulcitone 's uses were limited by its low volume, too quiet to be heard in a full orchestra.
Pyotr Tchaikovsky is usually cited as the first major composer to use this instrument in a work for full symphony orchestra. He first used it in his symphonic poem The Voyevoda, Op. posth. 78, premiered in November 1891. The following year, he used the celesta in passages in his ballet The Nutcracker (Op. 71, 1892), most notably in the Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy, which also appears in the derived Nutcracker Suite, Op. 71a. However, Ernest Chausson preceded Tchaikovsky by employing the celesta in December 1888 in his incidental music, written for a small orchestra, for La tempête (a French translation by Maurice Bouchor of Shakespeare 's The Tempest).
The celesta is also notably used in Gustav Mahler 's Symphony No. 6, particularly in the 1st, 2nd and 4th movements, in his Symphony No. 8 and Das Lied von der Erde. Karol Szymanowski featured it in his Symphony No. 3. Gustav Holst employed the instrument in his 1918 orchestral work The Planets, particularly in the final movement, Neptune, the Mystic. It also features prominently in Béla Bartók 's 1936 Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta. George Gershwin included a celesta solo in the score to An American in Paris. Ferde Grofe also wrote an extended cadenza for the instrument in the third movement of his Grand Canyon Suite. Dmitri Shostakovich included parts for celesta in seven out of his fifteen symphonies, with a notable use in the fourth symphony 's coda.
Twentieth - century American composer Morton Feldman used the celesta in many of his large - scale chamber pieces such as Crippled Symmetry and For Philip Guston, and it figured in much of his orchestral music and other pieces. In some works, such as "Five Pianos '' one of the players doubles on celesta.
The celesta is used in many 20th - century opera scores, including Puccini 's Tosca (1900), Ravel 's L'heure espagnole (1911) and L'enfant et les sortileges (1925), Strauss 's Ariadne auf Naxos (1912), and Die Frau ohne Schatten (1918), while "an excellent example of its beauty when well employed '', is the Silver Rose scene in his Der Rosenkavalier (1911), Busoni 's Arlecchino (1917) and Doktor Faust (1925),, Orff 's Carmina Burana (1936) and Der Mond (1939), Menotti 's Amelia Goes to the Ball (1937), Britten 's The Turn of the Screw (1954) and A Midsummer Night 's Dream (1960), Susa 's Transformations (1973), and Philip Glass ' Akhnaten (1984).
The keyboard glockenspiel part in Mozart 's The Magic Flute is nowadays often played by a celesta.
Since Earl Hines took it up in 1928, other jazz pianists have occasionally used the celesta as an alternative instrument. In the 1930s, Fats Waller sometimes played celesta with his right hand and piano simultaneously with his left hand. Other notable jazz pianists who occasionally played the celesta include Memphis Slim, Meade "Lux '' Lewis, Willie "The Lion '' Smith, Art Tatum, Duke Ellington, Thelonious Monk, Buddy Greco, Oscar Peterson, McCoy Tyner, Sun Ra, Keith Jarrett, and Herbie Hancock. A celesta provides the introduction to Someday You 'll Be Sorry, a song Louis Armstrong recorded for RCA, and is featured prominently throughout the piece. A number of recordings Frank Sinatra made for Columbia in the 1940s feature the instrument (for instance I 'll Never Smile Again), as do many of his albums recorded for Capitol in the 1950s (In the Wee Small Hours, Close to You and Songs for Swingin ' Lovers). The instrument is used prominently in the introduction to the 1928 recording by Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five of "Basin Street Blues ''.
Notable pop and rock songs recorded with the celesta include:
Icelandic singer Björk commissioned an instrument, dubbed the gameleste, combining the properties of a celesta and a gamelan metallophone, for her 2011 album Biophilia. Before the instrument was converted, Icelandic band Sigur Rós borrowed it for their album Takk. The lead singer Jonsi used a celesta in Go Quiet, the acoustic version of his solo album Go. Steven Wilson uses the celesta on various tracks in his solo works.
The Italian 1970s progressive rock band Celeste was named after the instrument.
Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band used a celesta heavily in their early days, with Danny Federici often playing a Jenco Celestette in the band 's live performances throughout the 1970s and 80s.
Sheryl Crow plays celesta on her 2017 album, Be Myself.
The celesta has been common in cinema for decades. In addition to supplementing numerous soundtrack orchestrations for films of the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, the celesta has occasionally been spotlighted to invoke a whimsical air. For example, in Pinocchio (1940), a small motif on the celesta is used whenever the Blue Fairy appears out of thin air or performs magic. Celesta also provides the signature opening of Pure Imagination, a song (sung by Gene Wilder) from the 1971 film Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. Composer John Williams 's scores for the first three Harry Potter films feature the instrument, particularly in the first two films ' frequent statements of "Hedwig 's Theme ''.
Another notable use of the celesta was in the music on children 's television series Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood. It was most famously heard in the intro to the theme song of the program, "Wo n't You Be My Neighbor '', which began with a dreamy sequence on the instrument. The song was sung by Fred Rogers and played by Johnny Costa. It was also used from time to time in other music sequences throughout the program, such as the one heard as the Neighborhood Trolley moved in and out of the Neighborhood of Make Believe.
The original version of the familiar Think! theme from the popular game show Jeopardy! has a celesta lead in the first verse. It was composed by Merv Griffin, and it was used during the Art Fleming era and the first thirteen seasons of the current Alex Trebek syndicated version.
A celesta is used in the full orchestral version of the theme song from the TV series The West Wing, composed by W.G. Snuffy Walden.
Schiedmayer and Yamaha are the only companies currently making celestas. Other known manufacturers that made celestas in the past include:
If an ensemble or orchestra lacks a celesta, a piano, synthesizer, or sampler and electronic keyboards are often used as a substitute.
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when does basketball wives la season 6 come on | Basketball Wives LA season 6 - wikipedia
The sixth season of "Basketball Wives LA '' was confirmed by VH1 with a premiere date of April 17, 2017. Filming started in October 2016 and Evelyn Lozada a former cast member of Basketball Wives has confirmed her return on social media and via The Real where she severed as a guest host for a week. Jennifer Williams also a former cast member of Basketball Wives has been spotted filming with cast member Tami Roman. Also this season four newbies Aja Metoyer, Keonna Green, Bonnie - Jill Laflil, and Evelyn Lozada taking on the main cast replacing departing cast members Angel Brinks, LaTosha Duffey, Angel Love.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Basketball Wives Season 6 was revealed with Shaunie O'Neil, Tami Roman, Evelyn Lozada, Malaysia Pargo, Jackie Christie and many friends as the cast. Filming began in December of 2016 and ended in June of 2017. Many of the "friends '' that were added to the show (Aj Metoyer, Keona Green) were fired and then were replaced by Brandi Maxiell (who was fired mid filming) and then was replaced by Basketball Wives Miami star Jennifer Williams. It was already revealed that Jackie Christie has been fired from the series due to her anger and causing harm and discomfort to most of the cast. "Friend '' of the show Saniyah Roman was also fired as no one felt she brought substance to the show except Jackie. "Friends '' to the show: Bonnie - Jill Lafiyett, Cristen Metoyer, Hazel, and Jennifer Williams were added to the cast as permanent members.
Friends:
Keisha Cole
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where was the shire filmed in new zealand | Hobbiton movie set - wikipedia
The Hobbiton Movie Set was a significant location used for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and The Hobbit film series. It is situated on a family run farm about 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) west of Hinuera and 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) southwest of Matamata, in Waikato, New Zealand, and is now a Tolkien tourism destination, offering guided tours of the set.
The underlying geology of the area is that of the Hinuera Formation, a group of alluvial silts, sands and gravels laid down in the last glacial period. Originally largely marshland, it was transformed in the 19th century by a large - scale drainage scheme and is now fertile agricultural land that is also a major racehorse breeding area.
The Alexander family moved to the 500 - hectare (1,200 - acre) property of rolling grassland where the set is located in 1978. Since then it has been a livestock ranch with 13,000 sheep and 300 Angus beef cattle. The main sources of income from farming are mutton, wool and beef.
When Peter Jackson began to look for suitable locations for The Lord of the Rings film series he first saw the Alexander Farm during an aerial search in 1998 and concluded that the area was "like a slice of ancient England ''. Set Decorator Alan Lee commented that the location 's hills "looked as though Hobbits had already begun excavations ''. Part of the site has a lake with a long arm that could double as a river.
After suitable negotiations with the owners, work commenced in transforming part of the farm into sets for Hobbiton and other parts of J.R.R. Tolkien 's Shire in March 1999. The New Zealand Army brought in heavy equipment to make 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) of road into the site from the nearest highway and initial ground works. Further work included building the facades for 37 hobbit holes and associated gardens and hedges, a mill and double arch bridge, and erecting a 26 - tonne (29 - ton) oak above Bag End that had been growing near Matamata and which was cut down and recreated on site complete with artificial leaves. Thatch on the pub and mill roofs was made from rushes growing on the farm. Generators were installed and water and sewerage also had to be considered. Catering was made available for up to 400 cast, crew and visitors per day.
Jackson wrote: "I knew Hobbiton needed to be warm, comfortable and feel lived in. By letting the weeds grow through the cracks and establishing hedges and little gardens a year before filming, we ended up with an incredibly real place, not just a film set ''. Lee commented that "it was satisfying to see that it had taken on something of the look of the Devonshire countryside I 'd lived in for the past twenty - five years ''.
Although the set was not built to last, the hobbit hole facades having been constructed from untreated timber, ply and polystyrene, it was evident that the location was of interest to tourists. Guided tours of the 5.5 hectares (14 acres) movie set site commenced in 2002 and continue to be provided daily. The two - hour excursion should be booked in advance.
Highlights of the tour include Bagshot Row, the Party Tree, and Bilbo 's Bag End home. There are now 44 hobbit holes on view although it is only possible to enter a few of them, all of which have small, unfinished, earth - walled interiors. (The interior of Bag End was shot in a studio in Wellington).
Refreshments are available at "The Shires Rest Cafe '' prior to or after tours. Breakfast and indeed "Second Breakfast '' is served. In 2012 the "Green Dragon '' inn (a replica of the Green Dragon that featured in the LOTR and Hobbit trilogies) was opened on the set. There is now also a store selling merchandise and souvenirs adjacent to the cafe and evening events commenced in 2014. The tours have generally received good reviews (although not all are complimentary) and in 2013 the set welcomed its 500,000 th guest. Expansion is ongoing in 2017. The kitchen that serves the Green Dragon is being moved and enlarged and the visitor 's centre will also be moved across the road from the current parking lot to ease the receiving of visitors arriving by coach.
In 2010, the set was rebuilt in a more permanent fashion for The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, filming for which began in 2011. Ian McKellen reprised his role as Gandalf the Grey and was joined on the Hobbiton location by Martin Freeman, who remarked that the site "just looked like a place where people lived and where people worked ''.
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where have all the folk and ballad singers gone | Where Have All the Flowers Gone? - Wikipedia
"Where Have All the Flowers Gone? '' is a modern folk - style song. The melody and the first three verses were written by Pete Seeger in 1955 and published in Sing Out! magazine. Additional verses were added in May 1960 by Joe Hickerson, who turned it into a circular song. Its rhetorical "where? '' and meditation on death place the song in the ubi sunt tradition. In 2010, the New Statesman listed it as one of the "Top 20 Political Songs ''.
The 1964 release of the song as a Columbia Records 45 single, 13 - 33088, by Pete Seeger was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2002 in the Folk category.
Seeger found inspiration for the song in October 1955 while he was on a plane bound for a concert at Oberlin College, one of the few venues which would hire him during the McCarthy era. Leafing through his notebook he saw the passage, "Where are the flowers, the girls have plucked them. Where are the girls, they 've all taken husbands. Where are the men, they 're all in the army. '' These lines were taken from the traditional Cossack folk song "Koloda - Duda '', referenced in the Mikhail Sholokhov novel And Quiet Flows the Don (1934), which Seeger had read "at least a year or two before ''.
Seeger created a song which was subsequently published in Sing Out in 1962. He recorded a version with three verses on The Rainbow Quest album (Folkways LP FA 2454) released in July 1960. Later, Joe Hickerson added two more verses with a recapitulation of the first in May 1960 in Bloomington, Indiana.
In 2010, the New Statesman listed it as one of the "Top 20 Political Songs ''.
The song appeared on the compilation album Pete Seeger 's Greatest Hits (1967) released by Columbia Records as CS 9416.
Pete Seeger 's recording from the Columbia album The Bitter and the Sweet (November 1962), CL 1916, produced by John H. Hammond was also released as a Columbia Hall of Fame 45 single as 13 - 33088 backed by "Little Boxes '' in August, 1965.
Pete Seeger 's recording of his composition was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance. ''
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who's running for governor in the state of minnesota | Minnesota gubernatorial election, 2018 - wikipedia
Mark Dayton DFL
The 2018 Minnesota gubernatorial election will take place on November 6, to elect the next Governor of Minnesota.
Incumbent governor Mark Dayton (DFL) is not running for re-election.
Tim Walz defeated Erin Murphy and Lori Swanson in the Democratic primary on August 14, as Jeff Johnson won the Republican primary over former governor Tim Pawlenty.
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On February 6, 2018 the DFL conducted a statewide straw poll among registered Democrats in Minnesota. Caucus - goers were scheduled to elect delegates to their party 's Senate district and county conventions, which in turn will elect state convention delegates who will endorse candidates for governor, two U.S. Senate seats, attorney general, state auditor and secretary of state. Congressional district delegates will endorse U.S. House candidates. Since the straw poll the three lowest performing candidates withdrew from the race (Paul Thissen, Chris Coleman, and Tina Liebling).
The debate season began only three days after the primaries with Johnson and Walz participating in two debates on Friday, August 17. A third debate was held Friday, August 31.
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where did mad dog 20/20 get its name | Mogen David - wikipedia
Mogen David is a company based in Westfield, New York that makes wines, including the fortified wine MD 20 / 20. Mogen David Wine Co. is a trademark held by their parent company The Wine Group in Livermore, California.
Mogen David is the Yiddish pronunciation of the Hebrew Magen David, which literally means "shield of David '', but is used metaphorically to refer to the six - pointed Star of David.
Mogen David wine is sold in 750mL, 1.5 L, and 3L bottles. It is also Kosher for passover.
Mogen David Concord Red wine is made from must of no less than 51 % Concord grapes, an American grape variety, which is typically used for grape juices, jellies, and preserves, but also used for Kosher wines. This makes the wine less expensive, averaging $5 per bottle. In addition to Concord red, Mogen David also markets Blackberry and Pomegranate wines.
Founded months before the Repeal of Prohibition by Max Cohen and Henry Markus in Chicago, the California Wine Company bottled medicinal and sacramental wines, changing its name to Wine Corporation of America in 1941 when it began making wine from Concord grape juice (or concentrate) shipped from growers in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and later Michigan.
Following World War II the company purchased a 50,000 square foot (4,600 m) building at 3737 South Sacramento Ave in Chicago 's Brighton Park neighborhood which was converted into one of the largest wineries in the Midwestern United States. The entire winery was allocated to a single product, Mogen David, a kosher wine originally marketed for the Passover Seder that turned out to be popular year - round with the general public. Annual production of Mogen David was 75,000 US gallons (280,000 l; 62,000 imp gal) in 1946. Wine Corporation of America began advertising Mogen David nationally in 1947; by the early 1950 's the advertising budget for Mogen David was the fourth or fifth largest for wines. Max Cohen, company President and founder, noted that 98 percent of Mogen David 's customers were not Jewish.
Annual production of Mogen David increased to more than 3,000,000 US gallons (11,000,000 l; 2,500,000 imp gal) of wine in 1949 and to nearly 5,000,000 US gallons (19,000,000 l; 4,200,000 imp gal) for 1953, and in that year Wine Corporation of America took the name of its most important product, becoming the Mogen David Wine Corporation.
In 1955 Mogen David announced the purchase of new plant facilities at 3700 South Kedzie Ave, about 2,000 feet (610 m) from the main plant on Sacramento Ave, designed to triple its capacity and enable production of two additional wines. The company launched a new line of wines under a different brand name, Key, in 1957. This marketing campaign was unsuccessful and line was dropped after three years.
In the early 1960s, concord wine was still the biggest seller in the Mogen David line, along with a rosé, a blackberry wine, a cherry wine and a dry red wine.
Company founder and chairman Max Cohen announced his resignation on 8 January 1962, citing friction with his brother - in - law, Henry A. Markus who was president of the company. Cohen sold all of his stock to Markus, saying that "I am no longer connected with the firm and I have no interest in it. ''
The sale of a controlling interest in Mogen David to Richard T. Schofield of Westfield, New York was announced on 9 May 1963, with Schofield taking over as president of the company and Markus appointed chairman. Some operations were moved to Westfield New York in 1967; Mogen David 's Westfield winery was closer to the vineyards in the Northeast that grow Concord grapes for its wines, the Chicago plants remained open.
By 1968, Mogen David was producing a dozen different wines and two kinds of champagne. The company broke away from its conventional Mogen David line with the introduction of the MD 20 / 20 brand of flavored fortified wines that were well received by younger consumers, especially college students. The MD 20 / 20 line included unusual flavors such as pink grapefruit, wild berry, and Hawaiian blue.
In 1970 the Coca - Cola Bottling Company of New York was the largest soft drink bottler in the world, having merged with the Coca - Cola Bottling Company of New Haven (acquired in 1969) but its growth prospects were limited by the franchise boundaries. When Coke - New York was approached by an investment banking firm to let them know that Mogen David was for sale, they saw an opportunity to become a major competitor in a new industry (Mogen David was the sixth largest winery and the largest Concord grape wine producer in the country) and to pick up a national sales and distribution network. Coke - New York acquired Mogen David on 1 November 1970 by paying $16,750,000 in cash. J. Myron "Mike '' Bay was an officer in both companies: President of Mogen David as well as a VP of Coke - New York.
By 1972 Mogen David was producing 27,000 US gallons (100,000 l; 22,000 imp gal) a day in Westfield, NY and 80,000 US gallons (300,000 l; 67,000 imp gal) a day from the two plants in Chicago, for an estimated annual output of 13,000,000 US gallons (49,000,000 l; 11,000,000 imp gal). Mogen David company introduced a "pop wine '' product line, Cold Bear (Concord) and Black Bear (blackberry), leading to overall growth in sales of 32 percent for 1972. Mogen David had a staff of over 45 salesmen. Mogen David wines and Tribuno vermouths were marketed nationally through over 300 independent distributors in 1972, in order to strengthen their market position, New York Coca - Cola began consolidating Tribuno and Mogen David distribution networks.
The Jug line of strawberry and apple pop wines, packaged in country - style brown and white jugs, was introduced in 1973. Mogen David had the fourth largest winery and the third largest advertising budget in the wine industry in 1973
With its 1973 acquisitions of Tribuno Wines (previously Vermouth Industries of America) and later the well established California winery Franzia, Coke - New York was, in all, the third largest US wine producer. Franzia also shipped wine, grape concentrates and brandy in bulk to the Mogen David winery in Westfield, New York, for use in Mogen David products.
Jerome W. "Jerry '' Alder joined Mogen David as President and COO in September 1976; former President Mike Bay moved into the new position of Chairman, and continued as Mogen David 's CEO. In 1977, the company 's administrative and marketing offices moved from the original winery at 3737 South Sacramento Ave, and into space in a new building at 444 Michigan Ave in downtown Chicago.
A study of wine marketing in 1980 found that Mogen David consumers apparently had the strongest brand loyalty in the varietal table wine category.
Discussions between The Coca - Cola Company and The Coca - Cola Bottling Company of New York about a possible acquisition of the latter began in 1974, to little effect.
When merger discussions resumed in 1980, The Coca - Cola Company had already entered the alcoholic beverage market; their Wine Spectrum subsidiary consisting of wineries in California and New York. As part of the proposed merger, The Coca - Cola Company agreed to sell the wine business of Coke - New York to a partnership formed by First Boston and top - level managers of the New York bottler 's wine business. Coke - New York divested itself of its three wineries, which were bought in 1981 by The Wine Group, a limited partnership headed by Arthur A. Ciocca, to avoid a buyout involving a third party. The Wine Group was the fifth largest wine producer nationally (just behind Coca - Cola'a Wine Spectrum) for 1981 with sales of nine million cases, the same as the year before.
In 1998, 1.5 million adults were drinking Mogen David, putting it just ahead of its chief competitor Manischewitz. By 2005, Manischewitz was again dominant with more than half of kosher wine sales, Mogen David was second with 33 percent of the market.
In Lightnin ' Hopkins ' song "Black Cat Blues '' he mentions Mogen Davis Wine several times. The song appears in a blues compilation titled "Lightnin ' Hopkins - Texas Blues '' released in 1995 but the actual song was probably recorded sometime in the 1960 's.
Tom Waits ' song "Medley: Jack & Neal / California, Here I Come '' refers to drinking "MD 20 / 20 ''. Midnight Choir (Mogen David) was in the Larry Gatlin & the Gatlin Brothers 1979 album Straight Ahead and was released as a single in the same year, the chorus of the song begins "Will they have Mogen David in Heaven? '' Brenda Lee released The Cowgirl and the Dandy in 1980, and that song has the refrain "I was Mogen David wine, he was Chablis ' 59. ''
In the 1971 movie A New Leaf, Henrietta (Elaine May) asks Henry (Walter Matthau) "Have you ever tasted Mogen - David extra-heavy malaga wine with soda water and lime juice? '' In A Serious Man the protagonist, played by Michael Stuhlbarg, is asked by his rival Sy Ableman (Fred Melamed) "Do you drink wine? Because this is an incredible bottle. This is not Mogen David. This is a - heh heh - a wine, Larry. A Bordeaux. ''
The 1980 Ray Stevens song "Shriner 's Convention '' mentions Mogen David Wine being served at the Shriner 's convention banquet.
The final track on Elliott Smith 's 1994 album, Roman Candle, is an instrumental outro titled "Kiwi Maddog 20 / 20. ''
The episode, "The Barracuda '' from the TV series Sanford and Son, Fred gives Lamont a bottle of Mogen David during supper.
Official website
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who was the last person to be canonized a saint | List of saints canonized by Pope Francis - wikipedia
This article contains a list of the 850 saints canonized by Pope Francis (2013 --) during his pontificate.
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who plays the voice of tiana in princess and the frog | The Princess and the Frog - wikipedia
The Princess and the Frog is a 2009 American animated musical film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 49th Disney animated feature film, the film is loosely based on the novel The Frog Princess by E.D. Baker, which is in turn based on the Brothers Grimm fairy tale "The Frog Prince ''. Written and directed by Ron Clements and John Musker, the film features an ensemble voice cast that stars Anika Noni Rose, Bruno Campos, Keith David, Michael - Leon Wooley, Jennifer Cody, and Jim Cummings, with Peter Bartlett, Jenifer Lewis, Oprah Winfrey, Terrence Howard, and John Goodman. Set in 1920s New Orleans, the film tells the story of a hardworking waitress named Tiana who dreams of owning her own restaurant. After kissing a prince who has been turned into a frog by an evil voodoo sorcerer, Tiana becomes a frog herself and must find a way to turn back into a human before it is too late.
The Princess and the Frog began production under the working title The Frog Princess. It marked Disney 's return to traditional animation, as it was the studio 's first traditionally animated film since Home on the Range (2004). Co-directors Ron Clements and John Musker, directors of Disney 's highly successful films The Little Mermaid (1989) and Aladdin (1992), returned to Disney to direct The Princess and the Frog. The studio returned to a Broadway musical - style format frequently used during the Disney Renaissance, and features music written by composer Randy Newman, well known for his musical involvement in Pixar films such as A Bug 's Life (1998), Monsters, Inc. (2001), Cars (2006), and the Toy Story trilogy (1995, 1999, and 2010). The film also marked the return of Disney animated musical films based on well - known stories since the Disney Renaissance.
The Princess and the Frog opened in limited release in New York and Los Angeles on November 25, 2009, and in wide release on December 11, 2009. The film was successful at the box office, ranking first place on its opening weekend in North America, and grossing $267 million worldwide. It received three Academy Award nominations at the 82nd Academy Awards: one for Best Animated Feature and two for its achievement in music (Original Song). It lost to Up and Crazy Heart, respectively.
In 1912 New Orleans a seamstress, Eudora, is reading the story of The Frog Prince to her daughter, Tiana, and her friend, Charlotte La Bouff. Charlotte finds the story to be romantic, while Tiana proclaims she will never kiss a frog. Fourteen years later, Tiana has grown into an aspiring young chef who works as a waitress for two local diners, so she can save enough money to start her own restaurant, a dream she shared with her deceased father, James.
Prince Naveen of Maldonia arrives in New Orleans to better his financial situation. After being cut off by his parents, Naveen intends to marry a rich southern belle, and Charlotte is the perfect candidate. Eli "Big Daddy '' La Bouff, a rich sugar baron and Charlotte 's father, is hosting a masquerade ball in Naveen 's honor. Charlotte hires Tiana to make beignets for the ball, giving her enough money to buy an old sugar mill to convert into her restaurant.
Meanwhile, Naveen and his valet, Lawrence, meet Dr. Facilier, a voodoo witch doctor who plans to rule the city of New Orleans. Inviting them into his emporium, Facilier convinces them that he can make their dreams come true, but neither man gets what they are expecting; Naveen is transformed into a frog, while Lawrence is given a voodoo charm that makes him resemble Naveen. Facilier intends for Lawrence to marry Charlotte, after which he will kill Big Daddy and claim his fortune.
At the ball, Tiana discovers she may lose the mill to a higher bidder. Tiana then meets Naveen, who, believing her to be a princess because of her costume, asks her to kiss him and break Facilier 's spell. In exchange for the money needed, Tiana accepts, but when she kisses Naveen, she is turned into a frog herself. A chase ensues, and Tiana and Naveen escape to a bayou.
At the bayou, Tiana and Naveen meet Louis, a trumpet - playing alligator who longs to be human, and Ray, a Cajun firefly who is in love with the morning star, whom he calls Evangeline. Louis and Ray offer to lead Tiana and Naveen to the hoodoo priestess Mama Odie, whom they believe can undo the curse. During this time, Tiana and Naveen develop feelings for each other. Meanwhile, Facilier makes a deal with the voodoo spirits, offering them the souls of the people of New Orleans; in exchange, the spirits grant Facilier the services of a host of shadow demons, whom he orders to find and capture Naveen.
When the four find Mama Odie, she tells them that Naveen must kiss a true princess in order to break the spell. They return to New Orleans to find Charlotte, who is the princess of the Mardi Gras Parade, but only until midnight. Naveen tells Ray he loves Tiana and is willing to give up his dreams for her, but before he can tell her, he is captured by the demons and brought to Facilier.
After Ray tells Tiana that Naveen loves her, Tiana goes to the Mardi Gras parade to find a human "Naveen '' marrying Charlotte; but Ray rescues the real Naveen and steals the charm that disguises Lawrence. Ray finds Tiana, gives her the charm and attempts to hold off the demons so she can escape, but Facilier stomps on him. Facilier then offers Tiana to make her restaurant dream come true in exchange for the charm. Realizing she would rather be with Naveen, and realizing Facilier 's true intentions, Tiana destroys the charm. The angered voodoo spirits claim Facilier himself as payment for his debts to them and drag him into the spirit world.
Tiana and Naveen then reveal their love to each other and explain the situation to Charlotte, who agrees to kiss Naveen, as Lawrence is taken away by the police. However, the clock strikes midnight before she can kiss him, but the two decide they are content to live together as frogs. Then they bid farewell to Ray, along with Louie, later to find out Ray finally joined Evangeline. Tiana and Naveen are wed by Mama Odie; and because of Tiana 's new status as princess, they are restored to human form after their kiss. Later, the couple returns to New Orleans to legally get married and celebrate, and together the two open their new restaurant, with Louis performing with a band in it. The movie ends with Tiana and Naveen dancing as the two stars, Ray and Evangeline, twinkle in the sky.
Disney had once announced that 2004 's Home on the Range would be their last traditionally animated film. After the company 's acquisition of Pixar in early 2006, Ed Catmull and John Lasseter, the new president and chief creative officer of Disney Animation Studios, reversed this decision and reinstated hand - drawn animation at the studio. Many animators who had either been laid off or had left the studio when the traditional animation units were dissolved in 2003 were located and re-hired for the project. Lasseter also brought back directors Ron Clements and John Musker, whose earlier works include The Great Mouse Detective (1986), The Little Mermaid (1989), Aladdin (1992), Hercules (1997), and Treasure Planet (2002). The duo had left the company in 2005, but Lasseter requested their return to Disney to direct and write the film and had let them choose the style of animation (traditional or CGI) they wanted to use.
The story for the film began development by merging two projects in development at Disney and Pixar at the time, both based around the "Frog Prince '' fairy tale. One of the projects was based on E.D. Baker 's The Frog Princess, in which the story 's heroine (Princess Emma) kisses a prince turned frog (Prince Eadric), only to become a frog herself. The Princess and the Frog returns to the musical film format used in many of the previously successful Disney animated films, with a style Musker and Clements declared, like with Aladdin and The Little Mermaid, had inspiration from Golden Age Disney features such as Cinderella.
Musker and Clements thought that given all fairy tales were set in Europe, they could do an American fairy tale. They stated that they chose New Orleans as a tribute to the history of the city, for its "magical '' qualities, and because it was Lasseter 's favorite city. The directors spent ten days in Louisiana before starting to write the film.
The Princess and the Frog was originally announced as The Frog Princess in July 2006, and early concepts and songs were presented to the public at the Walt Disney Company 's annual shareholders ' meeting in March 2007. These announcements drew criticism from African - American media outlets, due to elements of the Frog Princess story, characters, and settings considered distasteful. African - American critics disapproved of the original name for the heroine, "Maddy '', due to its similarity to the derogatory term "mammy ''. Also protested were Maddy 's original career as a chambermaid, the choice to have the black heroine 's love interest be a non-black prince, which upset opponents of on - screen interracial romance, and the use of a black male voodoo witchdoctor as the film 's villain. The Frog Princess title was also thought by critics to be a slur on French people. Also questioned was the film 's setting of New Orleans, which had been heavily damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, resulting in the expulsion of a large number of mostly black residents. Critics claimed the choice of New Orleans as the setting for a Disney film with a black heroine was an affront to the Katrina victims ' plight.
In response to these early criticisms, the film 's title was changed in May 2007 from The Frog Princess to The Princess and the Frog. The name "Maddy '' was changed to "Tiana '', and the character 's occupation was altered from chambermaid to waitress. Talk - show host Oprah Winfrey was hired as a technical consultant for the film, leading to her taking a voice - acting role in the film as Tiana 's mother, Eudora.
The head of story, Don Hall, described the plot as a fairy tale "twisted enough that it seems new and fresh '', with a kingdom that is a modern city, a handsome prince that is a "knuckleheaded playboy '' and a variation on the fairy godmother with Mama Odie. Co-writer Rob Edwards also said The Princess and the Frog was "a princess movie for people who do n't like princess movies ''. As the writers thought Tiana 's character motivation of simply dreaming of having her own restaurant was not appealing enough, they expanded so it was her father 's as well, with the extra philosophy of "food bringing people together from all walks of life ''. Musker and Clements stated that while Tiana already starts as a sympathetic character, the events of the plot make her "understand things in a deeper level '' and change people around her. Both protagonists would learn from each other -- Naveen to take responsibilities, Tiana to enjoy life -- as well as figuring from Ray 's passion for Evangeline that the perfect balance is brought by having someone you love to share the experience. Tiana became the first African - American Disney Princess.
On December 1, 2006, a detailed casting call was announced for the film at the Manhattan Theatre Source forum. The casting call states the film as being an American fairy tale musical set in New Orleans during the 1920s Jazz Age and provides a detailed list of the film 's major characters.
In February 2007, it was reported that Dreamgirls actresses Jennifer Hudson and Anika Noni Rose were top contenders for the voice of Tiana, and that Alicia Keys directly contacted Walt Disney Studios chairman Dick Cook about voicing the role. It was later reported that Tyra Banks was considered for the role as well. By April 2007, it was confirmed that Rose would be voicing Tiana. Three months later, it was reported that Keith David would be doing the voice of Dr. Facilier, the villain of the film.
Clements and Musker had agreed early on that the style they were aiming for was primarily that of Lady and the Tramp (1955), a film which they and John Lasseter feel represents "the pinnacle of Disney 's style ''. "After that, everything started becoming more stylized, like Sleeping Beauty, 101 Dalmatians -- which are fantastic films as well, but there 's a particular style (to ' Lady and the Tramp ') that 's so classically Disney. '' Lady and the Tramp also heavily informed the style of the New Orleans scenes, while Disney 's Bambi (1942) served as the template for the bayou scenes. Bambi was described as a stylistic reference for the painted backgrounds, as according to art director Ian Gooding "Bambi painted what it feels like to be in the forest instead of the forest '' so The Princess and the Frog would in turn try capturing the essence of roaming through New Orleans.
The former trend in Disney 's hand - drawn features where the characters and cinematography were influenced by a CGI - look has been abandoned. Andreas Deja, a veteran Disney animator who supervised the character of Mama Odie, says "I always thought that maybe we should distinguish ourselves to go back to what 2D is good at, which is focusing on what the line can do rather than volume, which is a CG kind of thing. So we are doing less extravagant Treasure Planet kind of treatments. You have to create a world but (we 're doing it more simply). What we 're trying to do with Princess and the Frog is hook up with things that the old guys did earlier. It 's not going to be graphic... ''. Deja also mentions that Lasseter was aiming for the Disney sculptural and dimensional look of the 1950s: "All those things that were non-graphic, which means go easy on the straight lines and have one volume flow into the other -- an organic feel to the drawing. '' Lasseter also felt that traditional animation created more character believability. For example, with Louis the alligator, created by Eric Goldberg, Lasseter said: "It 's the believability of this large character being able to move around quite like that. '' Choreographer Betsy Baytos was brought by the directors to lead a team of eccentric dancers that gave reference to make each character a different style of movement. The character design tried to create beautiful drawings through subtle shapes, particularly for most characters being human. For the frog versions of Tiana and Naveen, while the animators started with realistic designs, they eventually went for cutesy characters "removing all that is unappealing in frogs '', similar to Pinocchio 's Jiminy Cricket.
Toon Boom Animation 's Toon Boom Harmony software was used as the main software package for the production of the film, as the Computer Animation Production System (CAPS) system that Disney developed with Pixar in the 1980s for use on their previous traditionally animated films had become outdated. The Harmony software was augmented with a number of plug - ins to provide CAPS - like effects such as shading on cheeks and smoke effects. The reinstated traditional unit 's first production, a 2007 Goofy cartoon short entitled How to Hook Up Your Home Theater, was partly animated without paper by using Harmony and Wacom Cintiq pressure - sensitive tablets. The character animators found some difficulty with this approach, and decided to use traditional paper and pencil drawings, which were then scanned into the computer systems, for The Princess and the Frog.
The one exception to the new Toon Boom Harmony pipeline was the "Almost There '' dream sequence, which utilized an Art Deco graphic style based on the art of Harlem Renaissance painter Aaron Douglas. Supervised by Eric Goldberg and designed by Sue Nichols, the "Almost There '' sequence 's character animation was done on paper without going through the clean - up animation department, and scanned directly into Photoshop. The artwork was then enhanced to affect the appearance of painted strokes and fills, and combined with backgrounds, using Adobe After Effects.
The visual effects and backgrounds for the film were created digitally using Cintiq tablet displays. Marlon West, one of Disney 's veteran animation visual effects supervisors, says about the production; "Those guys had this bright idea to bring back hand - drawn animation, but everything had to be started again from the ground up. One of the first things we did was focus on producing shorts, to help us re-introduce the 2D pipeline. I worked as vfx supervisor on the Goofy short, How to Hook Up Your Home Theater. It was a real plus for the effects department, so we went paperless for The Princess and the Frog. '' The backgrounds were painted digitally using Adobe Photoshop, and many of the architectural elements were based upon 3D models built in Autodesk Maya. Much of the clean - up animation, digital ink - and - paint, and compositing were outsourced to third - party companies in Orlando, Florida (Premise Entertainment), Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Yowza Digital Animation), and Brooklin, São Paulo, Brazil (HGN Produções).
During Disney 's 2007 shareholder meeting, Randy Newman and the Dirty Dozen Brass Band performed the film 's opening number, "Down in New Orleans '', with famous New Orleans singer Dr. John singing, while slides of pre-production art from the film played on a screen. Other songs in the film include "Almost There '' (a solo for Tiana), "Dig a Little Deeper '' (a song for Mama Odie), "When We 're Human '' (a song for Louis, Tiana and Naveen (as frogs)), "Friends on the Other Side '' (a solo for Doctor Facilier), and "Gonna Take You There '' and "Ma Belle Evangeline '' (two solos for Ray). Newman composed, arranged, and conducted the music for the film, a mixture of jazz, zydeco, blues, and gospel styles performed by the voice cast members for the respective characters while R&B singer - songwriter Ne - Yo wrote and performed the end title song "Never Knew I Needed '', an R&B love song referring to the romance between the film 's two main characters, Tiana and Naveen. Supported by a music video by Melina, "Never Knew I Needed '' was issued to radio outlets as a commercial single from the Princess and the Frog soundtrack.
The film 's soundtrack album, The Princess and the Frog: Original Songs and Score, contains the ten original songs from the film and seven instrumental pieces. The soundtrack was released on November 23, 2009, the day before the limited release of the film in New York and Los Angeles.
The film premiered in theaters with a limited run in New York and Los Angeles beginning on November 25, 2009, followed by wide release on December 11, 2009. The film was originally set for release on Christmas Day 2009, but its release date was changed due to a competing family film, Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel, scheduled for release the same day. The Princess and the Frog enjoyed a limited re-release in AMC Theatres, lasting from October 6 -- 12, 2017 as part of the Dream Big, Princess campaign.
The Princess and the Frog was supported by a wide array of merchandise leading up to and following the film 's release. Although Disney 's main marketing push was not set to begin until November 2009, positive word - of - mouth promotion created demand for merchandise well in advance of the film. Princess Tiana costumes were selling out prior to Halloween 2009, and a gift set of Tiana - themed hair - care products from Carol 's Daughter sold out in seven hours on the company 's website. Other planned merchandise includes a cookbook for children and even a wedding gown. Princess Tiana was also featured a few months before the release in the Disney on Ice: Let 's Celebrate! show. The film itself was promoted through advertisements, including one from GEICO where Naveen, as a frog, converses with the company 's gecko mascot.
A live parade and show called Tiana 's Showboat Jubilee! premiered on October 26, 2009, at the Magic Kingdom theme park at Walt Disney World Resort in Florida, and on November 5 at Disneyland in California. In Disneyland, actors in New Orleans Square paraded to the Rivers of America and boarded the park 's steamboat. From there, the cast, starring Princess Tiana, Prince Naveen, Louis the alligator, and Doctor Facilier, would sing songs from the movie, following a short storyline taking place after the events of the film. The Disneyland version 's actors actually partook in singing, while the Walt Disney World rendition incorporated lip - syncing.
Tiana 's Showboat Jubilee! ran at both parks until January 3, 2010. At Disneyland Park, the show was replaced by a land - based event called Princess Tiana 's Mardi Gras Celebration, which features Princess Tiana along with five of the original presentation 's "Mardi Gras dancers '' and the park 's "Jambalaya Jazz Band '' as they perform songs from the movie. "Tiana 's Mardi Gras Celebration '' officially ended on October 3, 2010. However, it returned to Disneyland from 2011 - 2013 as part of the "Limited Time Magic '' family - fun weekends.
Tiana also appears in Disneyland Paris ' New Generation Festival. Some of the characters appear frequently during World of Color, the nightly fountain and projection show presented at Disney California Adventure. Disney announced on June 4, 2009, that they would release a video game inspired by the film and it was released on November 2009 exclusively for Wii and Nintendo DS platforms. It has been officially described an "adventure through the exciting world of New Orleans in a family - oriented video game '', featuring events from the film and challenges for Princess Tiana.
The Princess and the Frog was released in North America on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on March 16, 2010.
The film is available on DVD, Blu - ray Disc, and Blu - ray Disc combo pack editions; the combo pack includes DVD and digital copies of the film, along with the Blu - ray Disc version. The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc in Australia on June 2, 2010, and on June 21, 2010, in the United Kingdom. As of December 2010 the DVD has sold 4,475,227 copies and has made $71.3 million in DVD sales, making it the ninth - best - selling DVD of 2010.
The financial and critical success of The Princess and the Frog persuaded Disney to green - light at least one new hand - drawn animated film to be released every two years. However, the blog / Film noted in July 2014 with the release of hand - drawn concept art for the 2013 computer animated film Frozen, that any future hand - drawn animated films have been "killed '' for the time being due to The Princess and the Frog failing "to ignite the box office ''. Two months later, however, many Disney artists announced they were working on a new independent hand drawn animated film, Hullabaloo as part of an attempt to bring back hand - drawn animation. Despite such speculation, Walt Disney Animation Studios has continued to use both hand - drawn animation and computer animation in subsequent films.
On its limited day release, the film grossed $263,890 at two theaters and grossed $786,190 its opening weekend. On its opening day in wide release, the film grossed $7 million at 3,434 theaters. It went on to gross $24.2 million over the opening weekend averaging $7,050 per theater, ranking at # 1 for the weekend, and making it the highest - grossing start to date for an animated movie in December, a record previously held by Beavis and Butt - Head Do America. The film went on to gross $104.4 million (in the United States and Canada) and $267 million (worldwide), making it a box office success, and became the fifth - highest - grossing animated film of 2009. While the film did out - gross Disney 's more recent hand - drawn films such as The Emperor 's New Groove, Atlantis: The Lost Empire, Treasure Planet, Brother Bear, and Home on the Range, it was less auspicious than the animated films from Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 1990s heyday. Disney animator Tom Sito compared the film 's box office performance to that of The Great Mouse Detective (1986), which was a step up from the theatrical run of the 1985 box office bomb The Black Cauldron.
Looking back on the experience four years later, Catmull acknowledged that Disney had made a "serious mistake '' in the process of marketing and releasing the film. The Walt Disney Studios ' marketing department had warned Disney Animation that the word "princess '' in the title "would lead moviegoers to think that the film was for girls only, '' but the animation studio 's management insisted on keeping the "princess '' title because they truly believed that the film 's excellent quality and beautiful hand - drawn animation would bring in all quadrants anyway. In Catmull 's words, this belief "was our own version of a stupid pill. '' The marketing department turned out to be correct in their prediction that many moviegoers would and did avoid the film because they thought it was "for little girls only. '' This error was further compounded by the fact that the film opened five days before Avatar.
Looking back seven years later, Lasseter told Variety: "I was determined to bring back (hand - drawn animation) because I felt it was such a heritage of the Disney studio, and I love the art form... I was stunned that Princess did n't do better. We dug into it and did a lot of research and focus groups. It was viewed as old - fashioned by the audience. ''
The film received largely positive reviews from critics, praising the animation, characters, music and themes. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 85 % of 185 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.4 out of 10. The site 's general consensus is that "The warmth of traditional Disney animation makes this occasionally lightweight fairy - tale update a lively and captivating confection for the holidays. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 0 -- 100 from film critics, has a rating score of 73 based on 29 reviews.
Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an "A '' grade and applauded the film 's creative team for "uphold (ing) the great tradition of classic Disney animation ''. Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised Walt Disney Animation for "rediscovering its traditional hand - drawn animation '' and for "a thing called story ''. David Germain of the Associated Press wrote that "The Princess and the Frog is not the second coming of Beauty and the Beast or The Lion King. It 's just plain pleasant, an old - fashioned little charmer that 's not straining to be the next glib animated compendium of pop - culture flotsam. '' Justin Chang of Variety was less receptive, stating "this long - anticipated throwback to a venerable house style never comes within kissing distance of the studio 's former glory ''. Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film 3 / 5 stars while saying "The Princess and the Frog breaks the color barrier for Disney princesses, but is a throwback to traditional animation and her story is a retread ''. Village Voice 's Scott Foundas found that "the movie as a whole never approache (d) the wit, cleverness, and storytelling brio of the studio 's early - 1990s animation renaissance (Beauty and the Beast, The Lion King) or pretty much anything by Pixar ''. Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review claiming that "the dialogue is fresh - prince clever, the themes are ageless, the rhythms are riotous and the return to a primal animation style is beautifully executed. '' Chicago Sun - Times film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and admired Disney 's step back to traditional animation, writing, "No 3 - D! No glasses! No extra ticket charge! No frantic frenzies of meaningless action! And... good gravy! A story! Characters! A plot! This is what classic animation once was like! '', but stated that the film "inspires memories of Disney 's Golden Age it does n't quite live up to, as I 've said, but it 's spritely and high - spirited, and will allow kids to enjoy it without visually assaulting them. ''
S. Jhoanna Robledo of Common Sense Media gave the film three out of five stars, writing, "First African - American Disney princess is a good role model ''. Saint Bryan of the NBC - TV Seattle praised the film and called it "The Best Disney Movie Since The Lion King ''.
Upon its release, the film created controversy among some Christians over its use of Louisiana Voodoo as a plot device. Christianity Today 's review of the film cited its sexual undertones and use of voodoo, arguing that the scenes with Dr. Facilier and his "friends on the other side '' contain many horror elements and that young children might be frightened by the film. The film 's treatment of Louisiana voodoo as a type of magic instead of a religion also drew criticism from non-Christian factions.
The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and twice for the Academy Award for Best Original Song, but lost to Up and Crazy Heart, respectively. It was also nominated for eight Annie Awards and, at the 37th Annie Awards Ceremony on February 6, 2010, won three.
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what happens if you do the salt and ice challenge | Salt and ice challenge - Wikipedia
The salt and ice challenge is an Internet phenomenon wherein participants pour salt on their bodies, usually on the arm, and ice is then placed on the salt. This causes a "burning '' sensation, and participants vie to withstand the pain for the longest time. The challenge can be recorded and posted on YouTube or other forms of social media.
The mixture of ice and salt creates a eutectic frigorific mixture which can get as cold as − 18 ° C (0 ° F), much colder than ice alone. This repeatable cooling reaction was used to calibrate the Fahrenheit temperature scale.
The salt and ice challenge can quickly cause second - and third - degree injuries similar to frostbite or burning yourself with the metal end of a lighter, as well as causing painful open sores to form on the skin. Due to the numbing sensation of the cold and possible nerve damage during the stunt, participants are often unaware of the extent of any injuries sustained during the challenge. Skin discoloration from the challenge may remain after the challenge has been attempted.
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who is the head of bombay stock exchange | Bombay Stock exchange - Wikipedia
The Bombay Stock Exchange (Marathi: मुंबई रोखे बाजार, Hindi: बंबई स्टॉक एक्सचेंज) (BSE) is an Indian stock exchange located at Dalal Street, Mumbai.
Established in 1875, the BSE (formerly known as Bombay Stock Exchange Ltd.) is Asia 's first stock exchange. It claims to be the world 's fastest stock exchange, with a median trade speed of 6 microseconds. The BSE is the world 's 10th largest stock exchange with an overall market capitalization of more than $2.3 trillion on as of April 2018.
Bombay Exchange was founded by Premchand Roychand. He was one of the most influential businessmen in 19th - century Bombay. A man who made a fortune in the stockbroking business and came to be known as the Cotton King, the Bullion King or just the Big Bull. He was also the founder of the Native Share and Stock Brokers Association, an institution that is now known as the BSE.
While BSE Ltd is now synonymous with Dalal Street, it was not always so. The first venue of the earliest stock broker meetings in the 1850s was in rather natural environs - under banyan trees - in front of the Town Hall, where Horniman Circle is now situated. A decade later, the brokers moved their venue to another set of foliage, this time under banyan trees at the junction of Meadows Street and what is now called Mahatma Gandhi Road. As the number of brokers increased, they had to shift from place to place, but they always overflowed to the streets. At last, in 1874, the brokers found a permanent place, and one that they could, quite literally, call their own. The new place was, aptly, called Dalal Street (Brokers ' Street).
The Bombay Stock Exchange is the oldest stock exchange in Asia. Its history dates back to 1855, when 22 stockbrokers would gather under banyan trees in front of Mumbai 's Town Hall. The location of these meetings changed many times to accommodate an increasing number of brokers. The group eventually moved to Dalal Street in 1874 and became an official organization known as "The Native Share & Stock Brokers Association '' in 1875.
On August 31, 1957, the BSE became the first stock exchange to be recognized by the Indian Government under the Securities Contracts Regulation Act. In 1980, the exchange moved to the Phiroze Jeejeebhoy Towers at Dalal Street, Fort area. In 1986, it developed the S&P BSE SENSEX index, giving the BSE a means to measure the overall performance of the exchange. In 2000, the BSE used this index to open its derivatives market, trading S&P BSE SENSEX futures contracts. The development of S&P BSE SENSEX options along with equity derivatives followed in 2001 and 2002, expanding the BSE 's trading platform.
Historically an open outcry floor trading exchange, the Bombay Stock Exchange switched to an electronic trading system developed by CMC Ltd. in 1995. It took the exchange only 50 days to make this transition. This automated, screen - based trading platform called BSE On - Line Trading (BOLT) had a capacity of 8 million orders per day. The BSE has also introduced a centralized exchange - based internet trading system, BSEWEBx.co.in to enable investors anywhere in the world to trade on the BSE platform. Now BSE has raised capital by issuing shares and as on 3rd May 2017 the BSE share which is traded in NSE only closed with Rs. 999.
The BSE is also a Partner Exchange of the United Nations Sustainable Stock Exchange initiative, joining in September 2012.
BSE established India INX on 30 December 2016. India INX is the first international exchange of India..
BSE launches commodity derivatives contract in gold, silver.
SECURITY ANALYSIS AND PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT "M. RANGABATHAN, R. MADHUMATI ''
Coordinates: 18 ° 55 ′ 47 '' N 72 ° 50 ′ 01 '' E / 18.929681 ° N 72.833589 ° E / 18.929681; 72.833589 (Bombay Stock Exchange)
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when does episode 2 of tokyo ghoul re come out | List of Tokyo ghoul episodes - wikipedia
Tokyo Ghoul is an anime television series by Studio Pierrot aired on Tokyo MX between July and September 2014 with a second season titled Tokyo Ghoul √ A that aired January 8, 2015, to March 26, 2015, and a third season titled Tokyo Ghoul: re, a split cour, who 's first part aired from April 3, 2018, to June 12, 2018. Studio Pierrot also produced an OVA for Tokyo Ghoul: JACK along with a portion of the light novel Tokyo Ghoul: Hibi titled Tokyo Ghoul: PINTO.
Kanae von Rosewald brings Shu Tsukiyama the underwear that Chie Hori had collected from Haise Sasaki, but the latter falls into despair after realizing that he could n't recognize the scent as Kaneki 's. Later, the Quinx Squad continue their investigation of Nutcracker and cross-dress to disguise themselves at a nightclub where she had been sighted. At the nightclub, two members of the Clowns recognize Sasaki as Kaneki and note that "for Kaneki to come out, Sasaki will have to ' die. ' '' The squad, alongside Juzo Suzuya, then follow up on a lead that takes them to the auction where the Nutcracker had been selling her victims to the gourmets.
The series was released to DVD and Blu - Ray format in four volumes.
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who made advances to our understanding of the conscious and unconscious mind | Unconscious mind - wikipedia
The unconscious mind (or the unconscious) consists of the processes in the mind which occur automatically and are not available to introspection, and include thought processes, memories, interests, and motivations.
Even though these processes exist well under the surface of conscious awareness they are theorized to exert an impact on behavior. The term was coined by the 18th - century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Empirical evidence suggests that unconscious phenomena include repressed feelings, automatic skills, subliminal perceptions, thoughts, habits, and automatic reactions, and possibly also complexes, hidden phobias and desires.
The concept was popularized by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. In psychoanalytic theory, unconscious processes are understood to be directly represented in dreams, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes.
Thus the unconscious mind can be seen as the source of dreams and automatic thoughts (those that appear without any apparent cause), the repository of forgotten memories (that may still be accessible to consciousness at some later time), and the locus of implicit knowledge (the things that we have learned so well that we do them without thinking).
It has been argued that consciousness is influenced by other parts of the mind. These include unconsciousness as a personal habit, being unaware, and intuition. Phenomena related to semi-consciousness include awakening, implicit memory, subliminal messages, trances, hypnagogia, and hypnosis. While sleep, sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium, and comas may signal the presence of unconscious processes, these processes are seen as symptoms rather than the unconscious mind itself.
Some critics have doubted the existence of the unconscious.
The term "unconscious '' (German: Unbewusste) was coined by the 18th - century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling (in his System of Transcendental Idealism, ch. 6, § 3) and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge (in his Biographia Literaria). Some rare earlier instances of the term "unconsciousness '' (Unbewußtseyn) can be found in the work of the 18th - century German physician and philosopher Ernst Platner.
Influences on thinking that originate from outside of an individual 's consciousness were reflected in the ancient ideas of temptation, divine inspiration, and the predominant role of the gods in affecting motives and actions. The idea of internalised unconscious processes in the mind was also instigated in antiquity and has been explored across a wide variety of cultures. Unconscious aspects of mentality were referred to between 2500 and 600 BC in the Hindu texts known as the Vedas, found today in Ayurvedic medicine.
Paracelsus is credited as the first to make mention of an unconscious aspect of cognition in his work Von den Krankheiten (translates as "About illnesses '', 1567), and his clinical methodology created a cogent system that is regarded by some as the beginning of modern scientific psychology. William Shakespeare explored the role of the unconscious in many of his plays, without naming it as such. In addition, Western philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Eduard von Hartmann, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche used the word unconscious.
In 1880, Edmond Colsenet supports at the Sorbonne, a philosophy thesis on the unconscious. Elie Rabier and Alfred Fouillee perform syntheses of the unconscious "at a time when Freud was not interested in the concept ''.
Psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer points out that, "the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. In 1890, when psychoanalysis was still unheard of, William James, in his monumental treatise on psychology (The Principles of Psychology), examined the way Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet and others had used the term ' unconscious ' and ' subconscious ' ''. Historian of psychology Mark Altschule observes that, "It is difficult -- or perhaps impossible -- to find a nineteenth - century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance. ''
Van Rilliaer could have also mentioned that Eduard von Hartmann published a book dedicated to this topic, Philosophy of the Unconscious, in 1869 -- long before anybody else.
Furthermore, 19th century German psychologists, Gustav Fechner and Wilhelm Wundt, had begun to use the term in their experimental psychology, in the context of manifold, jumbled sense data that the mind organizes at an unconscious level before revealing it as a cogent totality in conscious form. ''
Sigmund Freud and his followers developed an account of the unconscious mind. It plays an important role in psychoanalysis.
Freud divided the mind into the conscious mind (or the ego) and the unconscious mind. The latter was then further divided into the id (or instincts and drive) and the superego (or conscience). In this theory, the unconscious refers to the mental processes of which individuals make themselves unaware. Freud proposed a vertical and hierarchical architecture of human consciousness: the conscious mind, the preconscious, and the unconscious mind -- each lying beneath the other. He believed that significant psychic events take place "below the surface '' in the unconscious mind, like hidden messages from the unconscious. He interpreted such events as having both symbolic and actual significance.
In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, but rather what is actively repressed from conscious thought or what a person is averse to knowing consciously. Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression. However, the contents did not necessarily have to be solely negative. In the psychoanalytic view, the unconscious is a force that can only be recognized by its effects -- it expresses itself in the symptom. In a sense, this view places the conscious self as an adversary to its unconscious, warring to keep the unconscious hidden. Unconscious thoughts are not directly accessible to ordinary introspection, but are supposed to be capable of being "tapped '' and "interpreted '' by special methods and techniques such as meditation, free association (a method largely introduced by Freud), dream analysis, and verbal slips (commonly known as a Freudian slip), examined and conducted during psychoanalysis. Seeing as these unconscious thoughts are normally cryptic, psychoanalysts are considered experts in interpreting their messages.
Freud based his concept of the unconscious on a variety of observations. For example, he considered "slips of the tongue '' to be related to the unconscious in that they often appeared to show a person 's true feelings on a subject. For example, "I decided to take a summer curse ''. This example shows a slip of the word "course '' where the speaker accidentally used the word curse which would show that they have negative feelings about having to do this. Freud noticed that also his patient 's dreams expressed important feelings they were unaware of. After these observations, he came to the conclusion that psychological disturbances are largely caused by personal conflicts existing at the unconscious level. His psychoanalytic theory acts to explain personality, motivation and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior.
Freud later used his notion of the unconscious in order to explain certain kinds of neurotic behavior. The theory of the unconscious was substantially transformed by later psychiatrists, among them Carl Jung and Jacques Lacan.
In his 1932 / 1933 conferences, Freud "proposes to abandon the notion of the unconscious that ambiguous judge ''.
Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, developed the concept further. He agreed with Freud that the unconscious is a determinant of personality, but he proposed that the unconscious be divided into two layers: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. The personal unconscious is a reservoir of material that was once conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed, much like Freud 's notion. The collective unconscious, however, is the deepest level of the psyche, containing the accumulation of inherited psychic structures and archetypal experiences. Archetypes are not memories but images with universal meanings that are apparent in the culture 's use of symbols. The collective unconscious is therefore said to be inherited and contain material of an entire species rather than of an individual. Every person shares the collective unconscious with the entire human species, as Jung puts it: (the) "whole spiritual heritage of mankind 's evolution, born anew in the brain structure of every individual ''.
In addition to the structure of the unconscious, Jung differed from Freud in that he did not believe that sexuality was at the base of all unconscious thoughts.
The notion that the unconscious mind exists at all has been disputed.
Franz Brentano rejected the concept of the unconscious in his 1874 book Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint, although his rejection followed largely from his definitions of consciousness and unconsciousness.
Jean - Paul Sartre offers a critique of Freud 's theory of the unconscious in Being and Nothingness, based on the claim that consciousness is essentially self - conscious. Sartre also argues that Freud 's theory of repression is internally flawed. Philosopher Thomas Baldwin argues that Sartre 's argument is based on a misunderstanding of Freud.
Erich Fromm contends that, "The term ' the unconscious ' is actually a mystification (even though one might use it for reasons of convenience, as I am guilty of doing in these pages). There is no such thing as the unconscious; there are only experiences of which we are aware, and others of which we are not aware, that is, of which we are unconscious. If I hate a man because I am afraid of him, and if I am aware of my hate but not of my fear, we may say that my hate is conscious and that my fear is unconscious; still my fear does not lie in that mysterious place: ' the ' unconscious. ''
John Searle has offered a critique of the Freudian unconscious. He argues that the Freudian cases of shallow, consciously held mental states would be best characterized as ' repressed consciousness, ' while the idea of more deeply unconscious mental states is more problematic. He contends that the very notion of a collection of "thoughts '' that exist in a privileged region of the mind such that they are in principle never accessible to conscious awareness, is incoherent. This is not to imply that there are not "nonconscious '' processes that form the basis of much of conscious life. Rather, Searle simply claims that to posit the existence of something that is like a "thought '' in every way except for the fact that no one can ever be aware of it (can never, indeed, "think '' it) is an incoherent concept. To speak of "something '' as a "thought '' either implies that it is being thought by a thinker or that it could be thought by a thinker. Processes that are not causally related to the phenomenon called thinking are more appropriately called the nonconscious processes of the brain.
Other critics of the Freudian unconscious include David Stannard, Richard Webster, Ethan Watters, Richard Ofshe, and Eric Thomas Weber.
David Holmes examined sixty years of research about the Freudian concept of "repression '', and concluded that there is no positive evidence for this concept. Given the lack of evidence for many Freudian hypotheses, some scientific researchers proposed the existence of unconscious mechanisms that are very different from the Freudian ones. They speak of a "cognitive unconscious '' (John Kihlstrom), an "adaptive unconscious '' (Timothy Wilson), or a "dumb unconscious '' (Loftus & Klinger), which executes automatic processes but lacks the complex mechanisms of repression and symbolic return of the repressed.
In modern cognitive psychology, many researchers have sought to strip the notion of the unconscious from its Freudian heritage, and alternative terms such as "implicit '' or "automatic '' have come into currency. These traditions emphasize the degree to which cognitive processing happens outside the scope of cognitive awareness, and show that things we are unaware of can nonetheless influence other cognitive processes as well as behavior. Active research traditions related to the unconscious include implicit memory (see priming, implicit attitudes), and nonconscious acquisition of knowledge (see Lewicki, see also the section on cognitive perspective, below).
In terms of the unconscious, the purpose of dreams, as stated by Freud, is to fulfill repressed wishes through the process of dreaming, since they can not be fulfilled in real life. For example, if someone was to rob a store and feel guilty about it, they might dream about a scenario in which their actions were justified and renders them blameless. Freud asserted that the wish - fulfilling aspect of the dream may be disguised due to the difficulty in distinguishing between manifest content and latent content. The manifest content consists of the plot of a dream at the surface level. The latent content refers to the hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot. The latent content of the dream is what supports the idea of wish fulfillment. It represents the intimate information in the dreamer 's current issues and childhood conflict.
In response to Freud 's theory on dreams, other psychologists have come up with theories to counter his argument. Theorist Rosalind Cartwright proposed that dreams provide people with the opportunity to act out and work through everyday problems and emotional issues in a non-real setting with no consequences. According to her cognitive problem solving view, a large amount of continuity exists between our waking thought and the thoughts that exist in dreams. Proponents of this view believe that dreams allow participation in creative thinking and alternate ways to handle situations when dealing with personal issues because dreams are not restrained by logic or realism.
In addition to this, Allan Hobson and colleagues came up with the activation - synthesis hypothesis which proposes that dreams are simply the side effects of the neural activity in the brain that produces beta brain waves during REM sleep that are associated with wakefulness. According to this hypothesis, neurons fire periodically during sleep in the lower brain levels and thus send random signals to the cortex. The cortex then synthesizes a dream in reaction to these signals in order to try to make sense of why the brain is sending them. However, the hypothesis does not state that dreams are meaningless, it just downplays the role that emotional factors play in determining dreams.
While, historically, the psychoanalytic research tradition was the first to focus on the phenomenon of unconscious mental activity, there is an extensive body of conclusive research and knowledge in contemporary cognitive psychology devoted to the mental activity that is not mediated by conscious awareness.
Most of that (cognitive) research on unconscious processes has been done in the mainstream, academic tradition of the information processing paradigm. As opposed to the psychoanalytic tradition, driven by the relatively speculative (in the sense of being hard to empirically verify) theoretical concepts such as the Oedipus complex or Electra complex, the cognitive tradition of research on unconscious processes is based on relatively few theoretical assumptions and is very empirically oriented (i.e., it is mostly data driven). Cognitive research has revealed that automatically, and clearly outside of conscious awareness, individuals register and acquire more information than what they can experience through their conscious thoughts. (See Augusto, 2010, for a recent comprehensive survey.)
For example, an extensive line of research conducted by Hasher and Zacks has demonstrated that individuals register information about the frequency of events automatically (i.e., outside of conscious awareness and without engaging conscious information processing resources). Moreover, perceivers do this unintentionally, truly "automatically, '' regardless of the instructions they receive, and regardless of the information processing goals they have. Interestingly, the ability to unconsciously and relatively accurately tally the frequency of events appears to have little or no relation to the individual 's age, education, intelligence, or personality, thus it may represent one of the fundamental building blocks of human orientation in the environment and possibly the acquisition of procedural knowledge and experience, in general.
Ellenberger, in his classic 1970 history of dynamic psychology. He remarks on Schopenhauer 's psychological doctrines several times, crediting him for example with recognizing parapraxes, and urges that Schopenhauer "was definitely among the ancestors of modern dynamic psychiatry. '' (1970, p. 205). He also cites with approval Foerster 's interesting claim that "no one should deal with psychoanalysis before having thoroughly studied Schopenhauer. '' (1970, p. 542). In general, he views Schopenhauer as the first and most important of the many nineteenth - century philosophers of the unconscious, and concludes that "there can not be the slightest doubt that Freud 's thought echoes theirs. '' (1970, p. 542).
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explain different layer in the osi reference model | OSI model - wikipedia
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven layers.
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error - free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.
The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO / IEC 7498 - 1.
In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique). These two international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.
In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU - T) as standard X. 200.
OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven - layer model, and a set of specific protocols.
The concept of a seven - layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6. 1. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N) - layer by an (N - 1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.
The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU - T as the X. 200 - series of recommendations. Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU - T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO / IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.
The recommendation X. 200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.
At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with protocol - related headers or footers.
Data processing by two communicating OSI - compatible devices is done as such:
Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU - T X. 800 Recommendation). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.
The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (for example, an electrical cable, an optical fiber cable, or a radio frequency link). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and similar characteristics for connected devices and frequency (5 GHz or 2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices. It is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw data in a physical medium. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer. It may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. It defines the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of the most common.
The physical layer is the layer of low - level networking equipment, such as some hubs, cabling, and repeaters. The physical layer is never concerned with protocols or other such higher - layer items. Examples of hardware in this layer are network adapters, repeaters, network hubs, modems, and fiber media converters.
The data link layer provides node - to - node data transfer -- a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi - Fi, and 802.15. 4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.
The Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
The ITU - T G.hn standard, which provides high - speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective - repeat sliding - window protocol.
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected in "different networks ''. A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.
Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.
A number of layer - management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO 7498 / 4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network - layer information and error, and network - layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable - length data sequences from a source to a destination host, while maintaining the quality of service functions.
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation / desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state - and connection - oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail delivery. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates packets out of the message received from the application layer. Packetizing is the process of dividing a long message into smaller messages.
OSI defines five classes of connection - mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error - free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection - mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0 - 4 classes are shown in the following table:
An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM 's SNA or Novell 's IPX over an IP network, or end - to - end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network - layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer - 4 protocols within OSI.
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full - duplex, half - duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
The presentation layer establishes context between application - layer entities, in which the application - layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down the protocol stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer. The presentation layer can include compression functions. The Presentation Layer negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN. 1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC - coded text file to an ASCII - coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML. ASN. 1 effectively makes an application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application - layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application - entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application - entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer per se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.
Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Examples include the following:
Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers, known as network sockets are implementation - specific.
For example, Microsoft Windows ' Winsock, and Unix 's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).
Interface standards, except for the physical layer to media, are approximate implementations of OSI service specifications.
The design of protocols in the TCP / IP model of the Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering. RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful ''. TCP / IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end - to - end transport connection; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.
Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:
These comparisons are based on the original seven - layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the network layer document.
The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP / IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (for example OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol might well be a transport or even an application - layer protocol in its own right.
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what is the other name of red cross | Red Cross (disambiguation) - wikipedia
The name Red Cross generally refers to the humanitarian movement, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, which is composed of:
The name may also refer to:
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when was the national minimum wage last raised | Minimum wage in the United States - Wikipedia
The minimum wage in the United States is set by US labor law and a network of state, and local laws. Employers generally must pay workers the highest minimum wage prescribed by federal, state, and local law. As of July 2016, the federal government mandates a nationwide minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. As of October 2016, there are 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. In real terms, the federal minimum wage peaked near $10.00 per hour in 1968, using 2014 inflation - adjusted dollars.
Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington will have the highest state minimum wages. There is a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage with most black and Hispanic individuals supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it. In 2015, about 3 percent of White, Asian, and Hispanic or Latino workers earned the federal minimum wage or less. Among Black workers, the percentage was about 4 percent.
In 1912, Massachusetts organized a commission to recommend non-compulsory minimum wages for women and children. Within eight years, at least thirteen U.S. states and the District of Columbia would pass minimum wage laws, with pressure being placed on state legislatures by the National Consumers League in a coalition with other women 's voluntary associations and organized labor. The United States Supreme Court of the Lochner era consistently invalidated compulsory minimum wage laws. Advocates for these minimum wage laws hoped that they would be upheld under the precedent of Muller v. Oregon, which had upheld maximum working hours laws for women on the grounds that women required special protection which men did not. However, the Court did not extend this principle to minimum wage laws, considering the latter as interfering with the ability of employers to freely negotiate wage contracts with employees.
In 1933, the Roosevelt administration made the first attempt at establishing a national minimum wage, when a $0.25 per hour standard was set as part of the National Industrial Recovery Act. However, in the 1935 court case Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (295 U.S. 495), the US Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional, and the minimum wage was abolished. In 1938, the minimum wage was re-established pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act, once again at $0.25 per hour ($4.23 in 2015 dollars). In 1941, the Supreme Court upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act in United States v. Darby Lumber Co., holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions.
The 1938 minimum wage law only applied to "employees engaged in interstate commerce or in the production of goods for interstate commerce, '' but in amendments in 1961 and 1966, the federal minimum wage was extended (with slightly different rates) to employees in large retail and service enterprises, local transportation and construction, state and local government employees, as well as other smaller expansions; a grandfather clause in 1990 drew most employees into the purview of federal minimum wage policy, which now set the wage at $3.80.
In 2006, voters in six states (Arizona, Colorado, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, and Ohio) approved statewide increases in the state minimum wage. The amounts of these increases ranged from $1 to $1.70 per hour and all increases were designed to annually index to inflation. Some politicians in the United States have advocated linking the minimum wage to the Consumer Price Index, thereby increasing the wage automatically each year based on increases to the Consumer Price Index. So far, Ohio, Oregon, Missouri, Vermont and Washington have linked their minimum wages to the consumer price index. Minimum wage indexing also takes place each year in Florida, San Francisco, California, and Santa Fe, New Mexico.
The federal minimum wage in the United States was reset to its current rate of $7.25 per hour in July 2009. Some U.S. territories (such as American Samoa) are exempt. Some types of labor are also exempt: employers may pay tipped labor a minimum of $2.13 per hour, as long as the hour wage plus tip income equals at least the minimum wage. Persons under the age of 20 may be paid $4.25 an hour for the first 90 calendar days of employment (sometimes known as a youth, teen, or training wage) unless a higher state minimum exists. The 2009 increase was the last of three steps of the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, which was signed into law as a rider to the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans ' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007, a bill that also contained almost $5 billion in tax cuts for small businesses.
In April 2014, the U.S. Senate debated the Minimum Wage Fairness Act (S. 1737; 113th Congress). The bill would have amended the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two - year period. The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic Senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House. Later in 2014, voters in the Republican - controlled states of Alaska, Arkansas, Nebraska and South Dakota considered ballot initiatives to raise the minimum wage above the national rate of $7.25 per hour, which were successful in all 4 states. The results provided evidence that raising minimum wage has support across party lines.
Since 2012, a growing protest and advocacy movement called "Fight for $15 '', initially growing out of fast food worker strikes, has advocated for an increase in the minimum wage. On March 27, 2014, Connecticut passed legislation to raise the minimum wage from $8.70 to $10.10 by 2017, making it one of about six states to aim at or above $10.00 per hour. In 2014 and 2015, several cities, including San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, and Washington passed ordinances that gradually increase the minimum wage to $15.00. In 2016, New York and California passed legislation that would gradually raise the minimum wage to $15 in each state.
As of 2017, recent legislation was passed in multiple states to raise the minimum wage a certain amount in a certain amount of time. California is set to raise their minimum wage to $15.00 / hour by January 1, 2023. Colorado is set to raise their minimum wage from $9.30 / hour to $12 / hour by January 1, 2020, raising $0.90 per year. Seattle passed legislation in 2015 for a raise in minimum wage; for employers of 500 or more employees without heath benefits, the minimum wage will be raised to $15.00 / hour by 2017, for employees with heath benefits, the minimum wage will raise to $15.00 / hour by 2018, for smaller employees the $15.00 / hour wage will be reached at different times. Seattle is one of the first cities to put in place a plan that after $15.00 / hour wage is reached, they will continue to increase minimum wage by a certain percentage every year based on inflation changes. New York has also recently passed legislation to increase their minimum wage to $15.00 / hour over time, certain counties and larger companies are set on faster plans than others. As there have only been a few places mentioned, cities and states across the United States are putting in place certain legislation to increase the minimum wage for minimum wage workers to a livable wage. Time will only tell the effects on the economy and number of jobs in those cities and states.
On June 2, 2014, the City Council of Seattle, Washington was the first city to pass a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage of the city to $15.00 per hour, which will be phased in over seven years, to be fully implemented by 2021. Numerous cities have followed Seattle 's example since. San Francisco is expected to become the first U.S. city to reach a minimum wage of $15.00 per hour on July 1, 2018. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018. The minimum wage in Los Angeles and Washington, D.C., will be $15.00 per hour in 2020. A growing number of California cities have enacted local minimum wage ordinances, including Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, Emeryville, Mountain View, Richmond, and San Jose.
In September 2014, the Los Angeles City Council approved a minimum salary for hotel workers of $15.37 per hour. In April 2016, The Los Angeles Times reported that there is an exemption for unionised workers, and interviewed longtime workers at unionised Sheraton Universal who make $10.00 per hour, whereas non-union employees at a non-union Hilton a few feet away make at least the $15.37 mandated by law for non-unionised employees. Similar exemptions have been adopted in San Francisco, San Jose, Oakland, and Santa Monica.
On August 18, 2015, the El Cerrito City Council directed city staff to draft a local minimum wage ordinance based on a template provided by a coalition for a county - wide minimum wage effort. The details are not final, but the Council discussed an initial increase of roughly 28 -- 36 % ($11.52 -- $12.25 or more) by January 1, 2016, with annual increases that will result in a $15.00 hourly wage rate by 2018 -- 2020. The Council did not direct staff to create small business exemptions (or any other exemptions), but a slower phase - in rate may be considered for employees of small businesses. The city will have outreach for residents and business owners to discuss the details of the proposed ordinance. Staff hopes to present a draft for The Council 's approval as early as October or November 2015.
As of December 2014, unions were exempt from recent minimum wage increases in Chicago, Illinois, SeaTac, Washington, and Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, as well as the California cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, San Jose, Richmond, and Oakland. In 2016, the Washington, D.C. Council passed a minimum wage ordinance that included a union waiver, but Mayor Vincent Gray vetoed it. Later that year, the council approved an increase without the union waiver.
Since its inception the purchasing power of the minimum wage has fluctuated. The minimum wage had its highest purchasing power in 1968, when it was $1.60 per hour ($11.49 in 2017 dollars). From January 1981 to April 1990, the minimum wage was frozen at $3.35 per hour, then a record - setting minimum wage freeze. From September 1, 1997 through July 23, 2007, the federal minimum wage remained constant at $5.15 per hour, breaking the old record. From the United States Department of Labor. Employment Standards Administration. Wage and Hour Division, the source page has a clickable US map with current and projected state - by - state minimum wage rates for each state. Some government entities, such as counties and cities, observe minimum wages that are higher than the state as a whole. One notable example of this is Santa Fe, New Mexico, whose $9.50 per hour minimum wage was the highest in the nation, until San Francisco increased its minimum wage to $9.79 in 2009. Another device to increase wages, living wage ordinances, generally apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself.
Since 1984, the purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has decreased. Measured in real terms (adjusted for inflation) using 1984 dollars, the real minimum wage was $3.35 in 1984, $2.33 in 1994, $1.84 in 2004, and $1.46 in 2014. If the minimum wage had been raised to $10.10 in 2014, that would have equated to $4.40 in 1984 dollars. This would have been equal to a 31 % increase in purchasing power, despite the nominal value of the minimum wage increasing by 216 % in the same time period.
The economic effects of raising the minimum wage are controversial. Adjusting the minimum wage may affect current and future levels of employment, prices of goods and services, economic growth, income inequality and poverty. The interconnection of price levels, central bank policy, wage agreements, and total aggregate demand creates a situation in which the conclusions drawn from macroeconomic analysis are highly influenced by the underlying assumptions of the interpreter.
The law of demand states that -- all else being equal -- raising the price of any particular good or service will reduce the quantity demanded. Thus, neoclassical economics argues that -- all else being equal -- raising in the minimum wage will have adverse affects on employment.
Conceptually, if an employer does not believe a worker generates value equal to or in excess of the minimum wage, that worker will not be hired or retained.
Empirical work on fast food workers in the 1990s challenged the neoclassical model. In 1994, economists David Card and Alan Krueger studied employment trends among 410 restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania following New Jersey 's minimum wage hike (from $4.25 to $5.05) in April 1992. They found "no indication that the rise in the minimum wage reduced employment. '' However, a 1995 re-analysis of the evidence by David Neumark found that the increase in New Jersey 's minimum wage actually resulted in a 4.6 % decrease in employment. Neumark 's study relied on payroll records from a sample of large fast - food restaurant chains, whereas the Card - Krueger study relied on business surveys.
Additional research conducted by David Neumark and William Wascher (which surveyed over 100 studies related to the employment effects of minimum wages) found that the majority of peer - reviewed economic research (about two - thirds) showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment -- especially for young and unskilled workers. Neumark 's analysis further found that, when looking at only the most credible research, 85 % of studies showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment.
In February 2014, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported the theoretical effects of a federal minimum wage increase under two scenarios: an increase to $9.00 and an increase to $10.10. According to the report, approximately 100,000 jobs would be lost under the $9.00 option, whereas 500,000 jobs would be lost under the $10.10 option (with a wide range of possible outcomes).
A 2013 Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) review of multiple studies since 2000 indicated that there was "little or no employment response to modest increases in the minimum wage. '' Another CEPR study in 2014 found that job creation within the United States is faster within states that raised their minimum wage. In 2014, the state with the highest minimum wage in the nation, Washington, exceeded the national average for job growth in the United States.
A 2012 study led by Joseph Sabia, professor of economics at the University of New Hampshire, estimated that the 2004 - 6 New York State minimum wage increase (from $5.15 to $6.75) resulted in a 20.2 % to 21.8 % reduction in employment for less - skilled, less - educated workers. Another study conducted by Joseph Sabia, then an assistant professor at American University, found that minimum wages were ineffective at alleviating poverty for single mothers. The study further concluded that a 10 % increase in the minimum wage was associated with an 8.8 % reduction in employment and an 11.8 % reduction in hours for uneducated single mothers.
Research conducted by Richard Burkhauser, professor emeritus of Policy Analysis at Cornell University, concluded that minimum wage increases "significantly reduce the employment of the most vulnerable groups in the working - age population -- young adults without a high school degree (aged 20 - 24), young black adults and teenagers (aged 16 - 24), and teenagers (aged 16 - 19). ''
A 2007 study by Daniel Aaronson and Eric French concluded that a 10 % increase in the minimum wage decreased low - skill employment by 2 - 4 % and total restaurant employment by 1 - 3 %.
The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs... Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage... High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment. France has the rich world 's highest wage floor, at more than 60 % of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young. This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26 % for 15 - to 24 - year - olds. ''
Conceptually -- all else being equal -- raising the minimum wage will increase the cost of labor. Thus, employers may accept lower profits, raise their prices, or both. If prices increase, consumers may demand a lesser quantity of the product, substitute other products, or switch to imported products. Marginal producers (those who are barely profitable enough to survive) may be forced out of business if they can not raise their prices sufficiently to offset the higher cost of labor. Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago research from 2007 has shown that restaurant prices rise in response to minimum wage increases.
A 2016 White House report based on "back of envelope calculations and literature review '' argued that higher hourly wages led to less crime.
A report by the Council of Economic Advisers claimed that "raising the minimum wage reduces crime by 3 to 5 percent. '' To get those numbers, the study determined that "such a minimum wage increase would have no employment impacts, with an employment elasticity of 0.1 the benefits would be somewhat lower. ''
However, In a 1987 journal article based on actual study data, Masanori Hashimoto noted that minimum wage hikes lead to increased levels of property crime in areas affected by the minimum wage after its increase. According to the article, by decreasing employment in poor communities, total legal trade and production are curtailed. The report also claimed that in order to compensate for the decrease in legal avenues for production and consumption, poor communities increasingly turn to illegal trade and activity.
Whether growth (GDP, a measure of both income and production) increases or decreases depends significantly on whether the income shifted from owners to workers results in an overall higher level of spending. The tendency of a consumer to spend their next dollar is referred to as the marginal propensity to consume or MPC. The transfer of income from higher income owners (who tend to save more, meaning a lower MPC) to lower income workers (who tend to save less, with a higher MPC) can actually lead to an increase in total consumption and higher demand for goods, leading to increased employment. Recent research has shown that higher wages lead to greater productivity.
The CBO reported in February 2014 that income (GDP) overall would be marginally higher after raising the minimum wage, indicating a small net positive increase in growth. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 and indexing it to inflation would result in a net $2 billion increase in income during the second half of 2016, while raising it to $9.00 and not indexing it would result in a net $1 billion increase in income.
An increase in the minimum wage is a form of redistribution from higher - income persons (business owners or "capital '') to lower income persons (workers or "labor '') and therefore should reduce income inequality. The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage under either scenario described above would improve income inequality. Families with income more than 6 times the poverty threshold would see their incomes fall (due in part to their business profits declining with higher employee costs), while families with incomes below that threshold would rise.
Among hourly - paid workers In 2016, 701,000 earned the federal minimum wage and about 1.5 million earned wages below the minimum. Together, these 2.2 million workers represented 2.7 % of all hourly - paid workers.
CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage would reduce the number of persons below the poverty income threshold by 900,000 under the $10.10 option versus 300,000 under the $9.00 option.
Research conducted by David Neumark and colleagues found that minimum wages are associated with reductions in the hours and employment of low - wage workers. A separate study by the same researchers found that minimum wages tend to increase the proportion of families with incomes below or near the poverty line. Similarly, a 2002 study led by Richard Vedder, professor of economics at Ohio University, concluded that "The empirical evidence is strong that minimum wages have had little or no effect on poverty in the U.S. Indeed, the evidence is stronger that minimum wages occasionally increase poverty... ''
The CBO reported in February 2014 that "(T) he net effect on the federal budget of raising the minimum wage would probably be a small decrease in budget deficits for several years but a small increase in budget deficits thereafter. It is unclear whether the effect for the coming decade as a whole would be a small increase or a small decrease in budget deficits. '' On the cost side, the report cited higher wages paid by the government to some of its employees along with higher costs for certain procured goods and services. This might be offset by fewer government benefits paid, as some workers with higher incomes would receive fewer government transfer payments. On the revenue side, some would pay higher taxes and others less.
According to a survey conducted by economist Greg Mankiw, 79 % of economists agreed that "a minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers. ''
A 2015 survey conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that a majority of economists believed raising the minimum wage to $15 per hour would have negative effects on youth employment levels (83 %), adult employment levels (52 %), and the number of jobs available (76 %). Additionally, 67 % of economists surveyed believed that a $15 minimum wage would make it harder for small businesses with less than 50 employees to stay in business.
A 2006 survey conducted by Robert Whaples, professor of economics at Wake Forest University, found that, among the economists surveyed, opinions about the minimum wage were as follows:
In 2014, over 600 economists signed a letter in support of increasing the minimum wage to $10.10 with research suggesting that a minimum wage increase could have a small stimulative effect on the economy as low - wage workers spend their additional earnings, raising demand and job growth. Also, seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences were among 75 economists endorsing an increase in the minimum wage for U.S. workers and said "the weight '' of economic research shows higher pay does n't lead to fewer jobs.
According to a February 2013 survey of the University of Chicago IGM Forum, which includes approximately 40 economists:
According to a fall 2000 survey conducted by Fuller and Geide - Stevenson, 73.5 % (27.9 % of which agreed with provisos) of American economists surveyed agreed that minimum wage laws increase unemployment among unskilled and young workers, while 26.5 % disagreed with the statement.
Economist Paul Krugman advocated raising the minimum wage moderately in 2013, citing several reasons, including:
Former President Bill Clinton advocated raising the minimum wage in 2014: "I think we ought to raise the minimum wage because it does n't just raise wages for the three or four million people who are directly affected by it, it bumps the wage structure everywhere... The estimates are that 35 million Americans would get a pay raise if the federal minimum wage was raised... If you (raise the minimum wage) in a phased way, it always creates jobs. Why? Because people who make the minimum wage or near it are struggling to get by, they spend every penny they make, they turn it over in the economy, they create jobs, they create opportunity, and they take better care of their children. It 's just the right thing to do, but it 's also very good economics. ''
The # RaiseTheWage movement is an activist movement that takes place on Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, and other social media platforms. The aim of this movement is to set the federal minimum wage to $15.00. While there is not definitive beginning to the movement, former president Barack Obama has been attributed with popularizing it in media with this comment -- "of course, nothing helps families make ends meet like higher wages.... And to everyone in this Congress who still refuses to raise the minimum wage, I say this: If you truly believe you could work full - time and support a family on less than $15,000 a year, go try it. If not, vote to give millions of the hardest - working people in America a raise. '' While the vast majority of # RaiseTheWage 's influence is on social media there are a number of affiliated groups, and movements who have taken the movement to the streets -- mainly through nonviolent protests.
The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73 % of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10. By party, 53 % of Republicans and 90 % of Democrats favored this action. Pew found a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage in 2017 with most blacks and Hispanics supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it.
A Lake Research Partners poll in February 2012 found the following:
This is a list of the minimum wages (per hour) in each state and territory of the United States, for jobs covered by federal minimum wage laws. If the job is not subject to the federal Fair Labor Standards Act, then state, city, or other local laws may determine the minimum wage. A common exemption to the federal minimum wage is a company having revenue of less than $500,000 per year while not engaging in any interstate commerce.
Under the federal law, workers who receive a portion of their salary from tips, such as waitstaff, are required only to have their total compensation, including tips, meet the minimum wage. Therefore, often, their hourly wage, before tips, is less than the minimum wage. Seven states, and Guam, do not allow for a tip credit. Additional exemptions to the minimum wage include many seasonal employees, student employees, and certain disabled employees as specified by the FLSA.
In addition, some counties and cities within states may observe a higher minimum wage than the rest of the state in which they are located; sometimes this higher wage will apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself, while in other cases the higher minimum will be enforced across the board.
The average US minimum wage per capita (2017) is $8.49 based on the population size of each state and generally represents the average minimum wage experienced by a person working in one of the fifty US states. Cities, counties, districts, and territories are not included in the calculation. As of October 2016, there have been 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington state have the highest minimum wages in the country, at $11.00 per hour. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018. -
For employees working in Prince George 's County, the minimum wage is $10.75 per hour, effective October 1, 2016, and increases to $11.50 on October 1, 2017.
For employees working in Montgomery County, the minimum wage is $11.50 per hour starting July 1, 2017. County Council bill 12 - 16 was enacted on January 17, 2017 to adjust the minimum wage to $15 and base future adjustments on the Consumer Price Index, but was later vetoed by the County Executive.
A 2016 law changed the minimum wage over the following six years. "Large '' employers have 11 or more employees, and "small '' have between 1 and 10. "Downstate '' includes Nassau, Suffolk, and Westchester Counties. NYC large employers: $11.00, NYC small employers: $10.50, Downstate employers: $10.00, Upstate employers: $9.70. As of December 31, 2017: NYC large employers: $13.00; NYC small employers: $12.00; Downstate employers: $11.00; Upstate employers: $10.40. As of December 31, 2018: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $13.50; Downstate employers: $12.00; Upstate employers: $11.10. As of December 31, 2019: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $13.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2020: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $14.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2021: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $15.00; Upstate employers: Set by Commissioner of Labor based on economic conditions, up to $15.00.
Tipped food service workers will be paid $7.50 per hour, or two - thirds of the applicable minimum wage rate rounded to the nearest $0.05, whichever is higher.
Puerto Rico also has minimum wage rates that vary according to the industry. These rates range from a minimum of $5.08 to $7.25 per hour.
In accordance with a law signed on June 27, 2016, the minimum wage will be $12.50 per hour as of July 1, 2017; $13.25 per hour as of July 1, 2018; 14.00 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $15.00 per hour as of July 1, 2020. As of each successive July 1, the minimum wage will increase by the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers in the Washington Metropolitan Statistical Area for the preceding twelve months.
The minimum wage for tipped - employees will increase to $4.17 per hour as of July 1, 2018; $4.87 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $5.55 per hour as of July 1, 2020.
The minimum wage established by the federal government may be paid to newly hired individuals during their first 90 calendar days of employment, students employed by colleges and universities, and individuals under 18 years of age.
The jobs that are most likely to be directly affected by the minimum wage are those which pay a wage close to the minimum.
According to the May 2006 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the four lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2006 (when the federal minimum wage was $5.15 per hour) were the following:
Two years later, in May 2008, when the federal minimum wage was $5.85 per hour and was about to increase to $6.55 per hour in July 2008, these same sectors were still the lowest - paying, but their situation (according to Bureau of Labor Statistics data) was:
In 2006, workers in the following 13 individual occupations received, on average, a median hourly wage of less than $8.00 per hour:
In 2008, only two occupations paid a median wage less than $8.00 per hour:
According to the May 2009 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2009 (when the federal minimum wage was $7.25 per hour) were the following:
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how old to go to gun range in illinois | Shooting ranges in the United States - Wikipedia
There are shooting ranges in the United States open to the public, both indoor and outdoor. Both privately owned firearms or those rented from the shooting range may be used, depending on the range rules set by the owner. Ranges rent their own handguns and provide instruction in use of rental guns at shooting ranges by a range master or similar individual to help one to easily learn use of any rental firearm in just a few minutes. Major tourist destinations in gun - friendly U.S. States have such "rental ranges '' to cater to the domestic and international tourists that want to try their hand at the shooting sports. Each shooting range facility in the United States is typically overseen by one or more range masters to ensure gun safety rules are always stringently followed.
Typically, no license or advanced training beyond just firearm familiarization (for rentals) and range rules familiarization is usually required for using a shooting range in the United States; the only common requirement is that the shooter must be at least 18 or 21 years old (or have a legal guardian present), and must sign a waiver prior to shooting.
Self - defense classes may be available for a fee at shooting ranges, covering firearm use in much more detail.
Some ranges offer a class for concealed carry licenses, which are available in almost every state. Some states issue the license only after a short course, and in some courses are optional.
In most states in the United States, there are numerous public - access shooting ranges, ranging for example from 144 in Florida with a population in excess of 18.2 million to 9 in Hawaii with a population of 1.3 million (numbers taken as of October 2008). Exceptions include cities in the states of Hawaii, California, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Illinois, and Washington, DC, all known for gun control policies in general, where the numbers of ranges may be only one for every few hundred thousand people, or none at all, such as in the Washington, DC case.
Throughout much of the rest of the United States, though, especially in areas where the dominant side of the gun politics debate leans towards gun rights, and where no license is usually required to own a handgun or rifle or shotgun, the typical number of ranges often surpasses one for every 100,000 residents.
Of particular interest to international tourists interested in public access shooting ranges in the United States while on vacation, especially gun - friendly states include Kentucky, Tennessee, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, New Hampshire, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, and Utah, among others. All of these states have publicly accessible shooting ranges with rental guns available at a modest fee. Ammunition costs for rental guns varies, of course, but 9 × 19mm Luger (usually the cheapest service caliber round) is often available for around $15 per 50 at sporting goods stores or slightly higher ($18 -- 25) at most public access shooting ranges.
Private or restricted - access shooting ranges are owned and used by police departments, private companies, private membership shooting clubs, and the military for qualification and / or continued firearms practice and training. These private ranges have more - specialized features not seen in public ranges, e.g., large caliber rifle and automatic weapons ranges.
There are several types of shooting ranges, each catering to different classes of firearms, and meeting different needs. Some are inside buildings; others are outdoors and cover many acres.
Most outdoor ranges have established strictly - followed procedures for ensuring that a range is either active ("hot '') or inactive ("cold ''). When everyone on the firing line agrees for the line to go hot, actions may be closed, magazines may be loaded, rounds may be chambered and firearms may be fired. When everyone on the firing line agrees for the line to go cold, magazines must be removed, firearms must be unloaded, actions opened, and all the firearms must be placed on tables. Only upon confirmation does the line actually go cold. Firearms may not be loaded or even touched when the line is cold.
Outdoor shooting ranges are usually backed by a sandbagged barrier or specially - designed funnel - shaped traps to prevent bullets from ricocheting back at the shooters. Many older outdoor ranges only use an earthen berm, which is often composed of sand, and called the impact berm. Most outdoor ranges restrict the maximum caliber size, or have separate ranges devoted to use with rifles firing heavy caliber cartridges. Many outdoor ranges do permit the use of automatic weapons on specially adapted Class III weapons ranges.
The largest problem currently with outdoor ranges is the lack of sufficient area behind and beside the impact berms. This area, usually called the Surface Danger Zone (SDZ), is a fan - shaped area that extends lengthwise to the ultimate ballistic distance of the round fired. Outdoor ranges often use baffles to contain fired rounds within the range, and, with proper design can reduce the surface danger zone area. Guidelines for surface danger zones vary widely. The National Rifle Association maintains guidelines for range design, but often the U.S. military range design guidelines are more prescriptive, specific and easier to use.
Targets using Tannerite are sometimes used for indicating long - range markmanship accuracy at high power rifle and full - auto outdoor ranges. Tannerite is a binary explosive that is not exploded unless hit with high - velocity rounds. Most pistol rounds will not set it off.
An estimated 16,000 to 18,000 indoor firing ranges are in operation in the United States. Indoor ranges differ in construction, depending on the type of weapons to be fired:
Fees for using indoor public shooting ranges vary widely with local costs, but a typical rate starts at $10 per hour of use, with targets available at a modest charge. Additional fees usually will pertain to damaging target hangers, lights or baffles, up to damaging motors, which may cost as much as $200, per incident. Unlike for outdoor ranges, or for indoor rifle ranges, indoor public handgun shooting ranges are usually run continuously "hot ''. The only exception is if a target falls from a holder and needs to be retrieved. In this rather rare scenario, some ranges will go "cold '', after all firearms are placed on the firing line table with their actions open. Other ranges have a policy that no shooters may go forward of the firing line at any time, so the dropped target is considered lost and must be replaced.
Indoor ranges usually have a projectile trap consisting of curved or angled steel plates, shredded rubber, or specially packed and groomed sand, with reinforced baffles attached to the ceiling and walls. The most modern ranges additionally include anechoic chamber technology (foam wedges), or place other sound absorbing materials on walls, floors and ceilings for additional noise reduction. Such ranges also usually have an air - locked corridor for soundproofing, with doors at opposite ends of the corridor. Noise from the range is effectively contained as long as only one door is opened at a time; it is considered a breach of etiquette to open both doors simultaneously. Ventilation is designed to be sufficient in quantity and directional control to reduce concentrations of lead in the air to safe levels in the shooting area. A small group of high volume indoor ranges are now using lead - free and frangible ammunition to create a safer and healthier shooting experience for consumers.
The maximum caliber size is sometimes posted on the door of the airlock on each particular range, or in the lobby or ready area if the facility only contains one range. Most indoor ranges restrict the use of certain magnum calibers, or the use of automatic weapons, primarily to prevent damage to the facilities. Other ranges do not have a caliber restriction, but instead limit projectiles to a certain muzzle velocity, often 2000 feet per second, or bullet construction.
Nearly all public ranges require that all firearms be unloaded prior to entering, or leaving, the range facility, irrespective of whether one holds a concealed carry license. The same is true for rental firearms leaving or returning to the rental counter, going to and from the shooting range.
Whether indoors or outdoors, all shooters are required to wear safety glasses or goggles, although some ranges will allow impact - resistant corrective glasses as the only eye protection. Ear protection is mandatory either ear muffs or ear plugs, as long as one is within the defined boundaries of the range and the range is hot. For indoor ranges, these must be donned before going through the air lock door, and kept on as long as individuals are within the high noise area. Indoor ranges can introduce the risk of lead poisoning if they are not ventilated or cleaned properly. Lead dust in these facilities can be inhaled or can contaminate skin and clothing.
The instructions of the appointed range master are to be followed at all times.
Holster drawing, cowboy action shooting and combat - style shooting are not generally allowed, except on specially designated action shooting ranges, which often have additional safety requirements and equipment. Regular public ranges that do allow such shooting usually restrict the practice to designated persons, such as Law Enforcement, professional shooters, or others designated by range personnel.
If one brings one 's own firearms, ear and eye protection, it is often possible to buy a 50 - round box of 9 mm ammunition and target, rent an indoor lane for an hour, and enjoy shooting for under $50 in the United States. Fees for outdoor ranges are often even less, often running $6.50 for 3 hours of range time. Along with a 500 - round brick of. 22 LR ammunition that often costs less than $60.00, it is possible on an outdoor range to enjoy an afternoon of shooting for under $70. Firearm rental fees vary, depending on the model and caliber, but for a typical, non-exotic handgun, costs are only modestly higher. Hearing and eye protection rental fees are modest, often available for under $3 each.
Shooting ranges that cater to foreign tourists interested in shooting handguns may have special package deals for under $20 for instruction, assistance, and shooting. Larger caliber firearms and automatic weapons are available for tourists at some ranges as well. Fees for renting larger caliber firearms are only modestly more, but rental fees for automatic weapons can rise quickly, to hundreds of dollars, depending on the number of rounds fired.
For those interested in more heavy use of the local shooting range, annual memberships are available at many indoor U.S. shooting ranges. Both individual and family memberships are often available. Typical costs vary but annual membership is usually available for around $200 per person, or slightly more for an entire family. Such plans typically have unlimited usage of the range, unlike the typical 1 / 2 hour or 1 -, 2 -, or 3 - hour rental time slots when renting a shooting lane as an occasional shooter. For anyone shooting more than 8 - 10 times a year, annual membership is often cheaper than paying an hourly rate. For the more exotic outdoor sporting club private ranges, annual membership in the NRA is usually mandatory.
It is worth noting that there are many unsupervised outdoor ranges on public land in the U.S. where shooting is free and unfettered.
"The United States Department of Game and Fish; also located on Wikipedia; provides sighting in ranges for firearms in all 50 states depending on the type of weapon and season of hunting. Firearms are weapons and not to be confused with anything but a tool; regardless of politics; governed by federal regulations under both the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms as well as Game and Fish Departments '' This posting is of original nature; supporting the previous posting, however for further reference regarding this disputed issue, a citizen should reference the appropriate legal authority.
www.atf.gov "United States Department of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms '' www.yourstate.gov "ENTER YOUR STATE '' for appropriate local regulations and range and availability nationwide. www.doi.gov "United States Department of Interior '' for additional National references and guides when traveling.
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which nfl quarterback was drafted by the montreal expos in the 1995 major league draft | 1995 major League Baseball Draft - wikipedia
The following are the first round picks in the 1995 Major League Baseball draft.
* Did not sign
Outfielder Darin Erstad of the University of Nebraska was the first pick in the 1995 Rule 4 Draft. Erstad compiled a career. 356 average in three seasons with the Cornhuskers, including 41 runs and 182 RBI in 176 games. He was the first Big Eight player to be selected as the number one pick in a Major League Baseball Rule 4 Draft.
Among the first round selections was Kerry Wood, fourth overall by the Cubs. Wood made it to the majors in 1998 and won Rookie of the Year honors later that season. In just his fifth major league start, he tied the major league record of 20 strikeouts in a single game.
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who plays clint eastwood's daughter in trouble with the curve | Trouble with the Curve - wikipedia
Trouble with the Curve is a 2012 sports - drama film directed by Robert Lorenz, and starring Clint Eastwood, Amy Adams, Justin Timberlake, Matthew Lillard and John Goodman. The film revolves around an aging baseball scout whose daughter joins him on a scouting trip. Filming began in March 2012, and the film was released on September 21, 2012.
This was Eastwood 's first acting project since 2008 's Gran Torino and his first acting role in a film he did not direct since his cameo in 1995 's Casper. A year after its release the film became the subject of a plagiarism lawsuit by a producer alleging that his former partner had taken an unfinished script after a dispute and conspired with his agent and Warner Brothers to present it as the work of a relative unknown.
An aging Atlanta Braves baseball scout, Gus Lobel (Eastwood), is given one last assignment to prove his value to the organization, who views him as unable to adapt to changes within the game. His boss and friend Pete (Goodman) does not want to see him let go, but he must contend with an ambitious junior executive, Philip (Lillard), who is trying to get a promotion to the team 's general manager post and wants Gus fired as an obstacle to his own baseball philosophy and methods.
Pete suspects Gus is hiding problems with his health, so against Gus 's wishes, Pete contacts Gus 's daughter Mickey (Adams), a workaholic lawyer pursuing a partnership at her firm, to join her father on a scouting trip to North Carolina. Gus is to review a top prospect named Bo Gentry, a brash amateur whose statistics make him a likely top draft pick.
Mickey realizes that Gus 's vision is failing and starts to take an active role in his work to make up for his shortcoming. Along the way, Gus reconnects with a former player he once scouted, Johnny "The Flame '' Flanagan (Timberlake), who is now a scout for the Boston Red Sox, and who takes an interest in Mickey. When Mickey questions Gus about his leaving her with an uncle she barely knew as a child, after her mother 's passing, the conversation takes a sour turn, and Mickey storms off, leaving Gus frustrated.
As Gus, Mickey and a group of other scouts watch Bo play, Gus and Mickey realize he ca n't hit a curveball. Gus advises Johnny to pass on Bo in the draft, and Johnny takes his advice. However, when Gus calls Pete and the Braves ' management with the same advice, Philip disagrees based on statistical analysis and stakes his career on his opinion, leading Braves general manager Vince (Patrick) to draft Bo against Gus 's advice. When Johnny learns of the move, he believes that Gus and Mickey double - crossed him to allow the Braves to draft Bo instead and angrily leaves.
Gus abandons Mickey at the hotel. She hears a pitcher throwing outside her room, and realizes he is talented just from the sound. She approaches the young man, Rigoberto, and volunteers to catch for him. After seeing him throw a few curveballs, she calls Pete, who reluctantly agrees to have him tryout in Atlanta.
Gus returns to the Braves ' office where Vince and Philip criticize him for his evaluation of Bo. Pete interrupts to let them know that Mickey has brought Rigo to the field. As Bo practices batting, Philip mocks Gus and Mickey for bringing in Rigo, an unknown. Mickey insists, however, and Pete allows Rigo to pitch. Rigo throws several fastballs, which Bo repeatedly misses. Mickey calls for Rigo to throw a curve and again Bo can not connect with the ball, and the staff realize they were wrong about both Bo and Gus.
The management resume their meeting, intent on signing Rigo. Gus suggests Mickey could be Rigo 's sports agent, due to her legal background and knowledge of the game. When Philip makes another snide remark towards Gus, Vince fires him and offers Gus a contract extension. Mickey then gets a partnership offer from her firm. Outside the stadium, Mickey and Gus find Johnny waiting. Mickey approaches him and they kiss while Gus lights a cigar and walks away.
Filming began in Georgia in March 2012.
Locations included:
On review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 51 % based on 196 reviews, with a rating average of 5.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Though predictable and somewhat dramatically underwhelming, Trouble with the Curve benefits from Clint Eastwood 's grizzled charisma and his easy chemistry with a charming Amy Adams. '' At Metacritic, which assigns a rating to reviews, the film has a score of 58 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
In its opening weekend, Trouble with the Curve ranked third in the box office, grossing $12.2 million. In its first week in theaters, it ranked second with $16,195,962. It remained in the top ten over the next two weeks with $31,218,109. However, the results at the box office were subsequently low. In twelve weeks, Trouble with the Curve grossed $35,763,137 in the United States, where it was distributed to 3,212 theaters. At the worldwide box office, the film grossed $48,963,137 which is the second lowest take for a film featuring Clint Eastwood as an actor, just ahead of Blood Work ($31,794,718 in worldwide box office).
A year after the film 's release, another producer, Ryan Brooks, filed a lawsuit in federal district court against Warner, the producers, two talent agencies, screenwriter Brown and Don Handfield, an actor and former partner of Brooks. He alleged copyright infringement and conspiracy, claiming the produced screenplay of the film bore striking similarities to Omaha, an unproduced screenplay he had commissioned from Handfield that had as its main character an older college baseball coach working through a difficult relationship with his grown daughter, as well as other plot elements.
Brooks, a former minor league baseball player himself, claimed that Handfield took the unfinished Omaha script with him after the two had a falling out over a rewrite. Handfield then, Brooks claims, conspired with Charles Ferraro, his agent at United Talent, to present it -- with minor alterations such as changing the setting from college baseball to the major leagues -- as the work of Brown, a fellow client of Ferraro with only two minor credits to his name who had primarily worked as a musician. Brooks ' suit claimed that Brown 's interviews to promote the film seemed rehearsed and frustrating to interviewers trying to understand how he created the film, and questioned how an unknown writer in his fifties managed to land the well - connected Ferraro as an agent.
All the named defendants who spoke to the media about the claims, including Brown, denied and derided them. Warner responded with a letter to Brooks ' lawyer threatening serious legal actions in response if he did not withdraw the "reckless and false '' complaint within a week. Attached to it was a draft of the Trouble with the Curve script, credited to Brown, that had purportedly been optioned by another production company in 1998. Brooks ' lawyer questioned its authenticity to The New York Times suggesting that it bore signs of fabrication, such as the anachronistic use of wireless laptops, and that there was no record of it having been registered with the Writers ' Guild of America, a common practice for screenwriters establishing authorship of their work before getting a production company interested.
Lawyers for the studio responded with a motion for summary judgement in their favor and presented evidence that they claimed proved Brown had written the first drafts of the script as early as 1996, including an affidavit from a computer forensics expert authenticating the timestamps on a floppy disk containing those early drafts. Brooks ' lawyers called all of the evidence of earlier creation forged or tampered with, in addition to calling attention to anachronistic passages in those purported earlier drafts. In February 2014 Dale S. Fischer, the judge hearing the case, granted the motion, saying that Brooks had overstated the similarities between the two scripts and that, even if he had n't, "the idea of a father - daughter baseball story is not protectable as a matter of copyright law. ''
Two months later Fischer dismissed the remaining claims under federal law, but said claims under state law could still be filed in state court. Brooks appealed her decision to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, and in October refiled the case in Los Angeles County Superior Court. This time he alleged only breach of contract and did not name either Warner or Eastwood as defendants, as he had in the original claim. He demanded $5 million in damages.
Trouble with the Curve was released on DVD and Blu - ray on December 18, 2012.
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who won the last national championship in college football | Clemson Tigers Football - wikipedia
The Clemson Tigers, known traditionally as the "Clemson University Tigers '', represent Clemson University in the sport of American football. The Tigers compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Atlantic Division of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC).
Formed in 1896, the program has over 700 wins and has achieved two consensus Division I Football National Championships in the modern era and were College Football Playoff National Championship Finalists in 2015 and 2016, winning the championship game over the Alabama Crimson Tide for the 2016 season. Clemson has had 6 undefeated seasons including 3 perfect seasons, 23 conference championships, 6 divisional titles since 2005, and has produced over 100 All - Americans, 17 Academic All - Americans, and over 200 NFL players. Clemson has had seven members inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, including former players Banks McFadden, Terry Kinard, Jeff Davis, and former coaches John Heisman, Jess Neely, Frank Howard, and Danny Ford.
With 23 total conference titles, Clemson is one of the founding members of the ACC, and holds 17 ACC titles, the most of any member, and holds the most combined conference football titles of any Atlantic Coast Conference school. The Tigers ' most recent ACC championships came back - to - back - to back in 2015, 2016, and 2017 the latter with a 12 -- 1 regular season and a 38 - 3 win over the # 7 Miami Hurricanes.
Among its six undefeated regular seasons, Clemson was crowned poll - era National Champions and finished with its third perfect season with a win over Nebraska in the 48th Orange Bowl, and was the National Championship Finalist Runner - up with a 14 -- 1 record in 2015. The next year Clemson won the National Title over # 1 Alabama in college football 's first National Championship rematch in 2016. The Tigers have 41 bowl appearances, 18 of which are among the New Year 's Six Bowls, including 2 during the BCS "big four '' era. Clemson has finished in the Final Top 25 rankings 31 times in the modern era, and finished in either the AP or Coaches Polls a combined 53 times since 1939.
The Tigers play their home games in Memorial Stadium on the university 's Clemson, South Carolina campus. The stadium is also known as "Death Valley '' after a Presbyterian College head coach gave it the moniker in 1948 due to the many defeats his teams suffered there. Currently, it is the 16th largest stadium in college football.
Clemson 's streak of seven consecutive 10 win seasons ranks 2nd in active streaks behind the Alabama Crimson Tide. The Tigers have had 14 total seasons with 10 wins or more, seven of them with 11 to 12 wins or more by the end of the post season.
Walter Merritt Riggs can be characterized as the "Father of Clemson Football '', as he brought the game with him from Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama (now Auburn University). The fact that Auburn and Clemson share the same mascot is no accident. Riggs allowed his players to pick the team mascot and, although he may have influenced their decision, the players chose Tigers because Princeton University had just won the national championship. Riggs helped organize and coach the infant Tiger team in 1896. With little money to spend on uniforms, Riggs brought some of Auburn 's old practice uniforms with him, which happened to have orange and navy jerseys. Because the jerseys had gone through a few washboard scrubbings, they were quite faded, the navy worse than the orange. So Riggs made the school 's predominant color orange and the faded condition of the navy became the purplish color, officially known today as Regalia. The team played as a member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA), the first southern athletics conference.
When the Tigers traveled to Greenville on Halloween to play Furman in their very first match, only Coach Riggs and backfield player Frank Thompkins had ever seen a football game played. Today in Clemson, the soccer field is named Historic Riggs field after Walter Riggs. Riggs took the team to a 2 -- 1 record in the inaugural year. He then stepped aside at the urging of the military cadets / students, who felt that he should concentrate on his scholastic duties rather than coach the team for free.
William M. Williams coached the Tigers in 1897, guiding them to a 2 -- 2 record. The team beat South Carolina for the first time and was state champion. In 1898, John Penton led the Tigers to a 3 -- 1 record.
In 1899, when the Clemson Athletic Association could not afford a coaching salary, Riggs again took over the reins, one of only two Clemson football coaches to return to the position after stepping down. The 1899 squad went 4 -- 2. Riggs ' overall record of 6 -- 3 gives him a. 667 winning percentage.
After decade as a Mechanical Engineering professor, he was named acting president of Clemson Agricultural College in 1910, being confirmed by the Board of Trustees as permanent president on March 7, 1911. He served until his untimely death on January 22, 1924 while on a trip to Washington, D.C. to meet with officials of other land grant institutions.
Riggs hired John Heisman to coach Clemson. Heisman stayed only four years at Clemson, where he compiled a record of 19 -- 3 -- 2, an. 833 percentage, the best in Clemson football history. In four seasons, he had three SIAA titles.
In his first season of 1900, he coached the Tigers to their first undefeated season (6 -- 0), and first conference championship, outscoring their opponents 222 -- 10 -- the 64 -- 0 win over Davidson on opening day was then the largest score ever made in the South. The season had various other "firsts '', including the school 's first defeat of the Georgia Bulldogs and the Alabama Crimson Tide. The only close game was with the South Atlantic school VPI.
The 1902 team again won the SIAA. This was the first season with both Hope Sadler and Carl Sitton at ends. One writer recalls, "Sitton and Hope Sadler were the finest ends that Clemson ever had perhaps. ''
The only loss on the year was the first to rival South Carolina since 1896. "The Carolina fans that week were carrying around a poster with the image of a tiger with a gamecock standing on top of it, holding the tiger 's tail as if he was steering the tiger by the tail, '' Jay McCormick said. "Naturally, the Clemson guys did n't take too kindly to that, and on Wednesday and again on Thursday, there were sporadic fistfights involving brass knuckles and other objects and so forth, some of which resulted, according to the newspapers, in blood being spilled and persons having to seek medical assistance. After the game on Thursday, the Clemson guys frankly told the Carolina students that if you bring this poster, which is insulting to us, to the big parade on Friday, you 're going to be in trouble. And naturally, of course, the Carolina students brought the poster to the parade. If you give someone an ultimatum and they 're your rival, they 're going to do exactly what you told them not to do. ''
As expected, another brawl broke out before both sides agreed to mutually burn the poster in an effort to defuse tensions. The immediate aftermath resulted in the stoppage of the rivalry until 1909.
The 1903 team may have been Heisman 's best at Clemson. Following a 73 -- 0 defeat of Georgia Tech in 1903, the Yellow Jackets hired Heisman as their first full - time football coach. Fullback Jock Hanvey rushed for 104 yards in the first half. The account in the Atlanta Constitution read "Hanvey, the Clemson full back, outclassed them all. Time and time again he was sent through the line for gains of 10, 15 and 20 yards, and his tackles were spectacular. ''
After the 1903 season, Clemson tied 11 -- 11 in a game billed as the "SIAA Championship Game. '' Cumberland rushed out to an early 11 to 0 lead, but Clemson came back to tie. On the second half kickoff, Clemson quarterback John Maxwell raced 100 yards for a touchdown. Clemson missed the try. Later, Cumberland fumbled a punt and Clemson recovered. Cumberland expected a trick play when Fritz Furtick simply ran up the middle and scored.
After Heisman left Clemson to become the head coach at Georgia Tech, Shack Shealy, an end for the Tigers in the 1890s, coached the 1904 team to a 3 -- 3 -- 1 record -- the only Clemson graduate ever to serve as head coach of his alma mater
Eddie Cochems, a future innovator of the former pass, had just lost out to Phil King for the Wisconsin job, when he accepted to coach Clemson 's 1905 team, which lost to Vanderbilt and Georgia Tech, but shut out Georgia, Alabama, and Auburn, featured stars left over from Heisman like Furtick and Puss Derrick.
Bob Williams, who beat Heisman in 1902, came to Clemson in 1906, and also coached the 1909 and 1913 -- 1915 teams. The Tigers went undefeated with a 4 -- 0 -- 3 record in 1906, with wins over Georgia, Auburn, Tennessee, and the John Heisman - coached Georgia Tech team. Clemson 's first forward pass took place on during the game with Tech in Atlanta. Left End Powell Lykes, dropped back to kick, but lobbed a 30 - yard pass to George Warren instead. Clemson won, 10 -- 0. The 1909 USC - Clemson was the first game broadcast in the state, by the United Wireless Telegraph Company. William Schilletter starred in 1913 and 1914, and was the son of Augustus "Shorty '' Schilletter, a German immigrant in charge of the Clemson College dining hall.
Frank Shaughnessy led the 1907 team to a. 4 -- 4 record. Captain Mac McLaurin and R.T. Gaston starred at either tackle position. Vanderbilt legend Stein Stone posted just a 1 -- 6 record in 1908. Captain Sticker Coles was All - Southern. Frank Dobson posted 11 -- 12 -- 1 overall record from 1910 -- 1912. Wayne Hart had a 3 -- 6 record in 1916.
Washington & Lee 's Edward Donahue coached the Tigers to 21 -- 12 -- 3 record over three seasons, from 1917 -- 1920. Stumpy Banks scored five touchdowns against Furman in 1917 for a school record. Yen Lightsey starred in 1919 and 1920. Doc Stewart coached the Tigers through the transition from the SIAA to the Southern Conference, with a 6 -- 10 -- 2 record from 1921 -- 1922. Bud Saunders led the Tigers to a 10 -- 22 -- 1 record from 1923 -- 1926.
Josh Cody coached the Tigers from 1927 to 1930, posting a 29 -- 11 -- 1 record. The Tigers were undefeated at home (13 -- 0 -- 1) and against South Carolina (3 -- 0) during Cody 's tenure. In 1927 Cody gave Red Sanders his first coaching job as backfield coach. O.K. Pressley made third - team All - American in 1928. "A better center than Captain O.K. Pressley of Clemson is hard to find, '' remarked former South Carolina head coach Billy Laval.
In May 1929, when rumors were swirling that he might leave to coach a bigger - name program, the students, faculty, and staff took up a collection to buy him a brand new black Buick automobile. Raymond Johnson wrote upon Cody 's death: "Josh Cody wanted to be Vanderbilt 's coach so bad that he gave up the head man 's job at Clemson College after four successful seasons. ''
In 1931, Jess Neely (another McGugin product, and a former head coach at Rhodes and assistant at Alabama) became Clemson 's head football coach. During his tenure, Neely led the Tigers to a 43 -- 35 -- 7 record. His final season at Clemson was the turning point in the Tigers ' program. His team went 9 -- 1 during that season, finishing second to Duke in the Southern Conference. The Tigers also received their first bowl invitation and bowl victory that year, defeating nationally ranked Boston College 6 -- 3 in the 1940 Cotton Bowl Classic. The 1939 Tigers finished with a # 12 ranking in the final AP poll. Clemson also had their first Associated Press All - American that year in Banks McFadden. Jess Neely, along with then athletic director Rupert Fike, founded the IPTAY Scholarship Fund, which supports the Clemson Athletic Department.
After Jess Neely left to become the head coach at Rice, Frank Howard (an assistant coach under Neely) was named head coach. Known for his colorful persona, and penchant for imaginative language with both probable, and improbable stories, in his 30 years at Clemson, Howard compiled a 165 -- 118 -- 12 record, a 3 -- 3 bowl record, won two Southern Conference championships, and six ACC championships. Seven of Howard 's teams finished the year ranked in at least one final poll. During his stay at Clemson, Howard also oversaw the athletic department, ticket sales, and was an assistant coach for the baseball team. He also incorporated the Single Wing, T - formation, and I - formation offenses at different points during his coaching career at Clemson. Clemson had two undefeated season under Howard, one in 1948 (11 -- 0), and one in 1950 (9 -- 0 -- 1).
As a line tutor and coach, Howard was part of Clemson 's successful 1939 season under Neely, achieving an 8 -- 1 record and a bid to the 1940 Cotton Bowl in Dallas to play undefeated Boston College. When Neely left Clemson in 1940, the Clemson Athletic Council met to name a successor and council member Prof. Sam Rhodes suggested Howard 's name. Howard, standing in the back of the room, said "I second the nomination. '' He got the job, becoming Clemson 's seventeenth head football coach and never left. He signed a one - year contract that he promptly lost, and he never had another in thirty years.
Although Clemson was still a small military college until 1957, under Frank Howard 's command, the Tigers remained nationally recognized contenders throughout the 1950s. In the sterling 1948 season, the team won a Southern Conference championship (Howard 's first of eight). The Tiger 's also won their second bowl game, a 1948 Gator Bowl win over Missouri, and finished eleventh in the national rankings. For the rest of his life, Howard credited the 1948 team with saving his job.
Howard nearly repeated the 1948 success in 1950 when the Tigers were ranked tenth by the Associated Press with a 9 -- 0 -- 1 season and a 15 -- 14 win over Miami (Florida) in Clemson 's first Orange Bowl win. Under Howard 's guidance, the Tigers were thus, champions on their first three bowl ventures.
In January 1952, after a 7 -- 2 regular season campaign, the Tiger 's were invited back to the Gator Bowl, and by being conference champions once again in 1956, Clemson played in the 1957 Orange Bowl. In their second Gator Bowl trip, Miami downed Clemson 14 -- 0; Colorado led Clemson 20 -- 0, then trailed 21 -- 20, in a comeback game, before finally defeating the Tigers 27 -- 21 in Clemson 's second Orange Bowl appearance. Two season 's later, after an 8 -- 3 season, the Tigers played in the 1959 Sugar Bowl and with their tough defense, held the # 1 - ranked LSU Tigers to a standstill before losing 7 -- 0, leading to an LSU National Championship.
The invitation to play in the first Bluebonnet Bowl in Houston in December 1959 was the eighth bowl that Howard had been a part of either as a player, assistant coach or head coach. It was the seventh bowl trip for a Clemson team and the sixth in 12 years. Howard said that Clemson 's 23 -- 7 triumph over seventh ranked Texas Christian in the Bluebonnet Bowl was the best performance he had ever witnessed by a Clemson team. Clemson was the first school to play in two bowls in the same calendar year.
A Single Wing expert for 22 seasons (including nine as a line coach), Howard changed to the T - formation and its many variations in 1953. Still another major change in the offense was installed in 1965 with the "I '' and pro-type set. In his 13 seasons as head coach using the single wing, Clemson won 69, lost 47 and tied 7. In 12 years of "T '' teams, the Tigers won 71, lost 47 and tied 4. While using the "I '' in his last five years of coaching, Clemson recorded a 25 -- 24 -- 1 record.
Howard was named Southern Conference Coach - of - the - Year in 1948. In 1959 he was named Atlantic Coast Conference Coach - of - the - Year and was accorded the honor again in 1966. As the style of football evolved in the 1960s, Howard 's ground game became outdated, and Clemson 's gridiron fortunes declined. The Tigers last winning season under Howard came in 1967. On December 10, 1969, he stepped down as the fifth winningest coach in the nation, with 165 victories, 96 of them in the Atlantic Coast Conference. Howard also managed the athletic department during his tenure, and continued on as athletic director until February 4, 1971, when he was named assistant to the vice president of the university. On June 30, 1974, he retired from the university payroll, but continued to come into his office daily until failing health slowed him down, serving as Clemson 's ambassador until his death in 1996.
The tradition of rubbing "Howard 's Rock '' prior to running down the hill before home games began during Coach Howard 's tenure. The playing field at Memorial Stadium was named "Frank Howard Field '' in 1974 following his retirement to honor his many years of service for the university. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, the South Carolina Sports Hall of Fame, the Clemson Hall of Fame, the Clemson Ring of Honor, the Helms Athletic Hall of Fame, the State of Alabama Hall of Fame, National Football Foundation Hall of Fame, the Orange Bowl Hall of Honor, and the Gator Bowl Hall of Fame.
Clemson struggled during the years following Frank Howard 's retirement. His successor, Hootie Ingram, only compiled a 12 -- 21 record. During his tenure, the tradition of running down the hill was stopped from 1970 to the end of the 1972 season, when the team decided it wanted to come down the hill for the final home game against South Carolina. The traditional "tiger paw '' logo, which was designed by John Antonio of Henderson Advertising, was introduced in 1970 by Ingram and Clemson President R.C. Edwards.
After a successful run as head coach of The Citadel from 1966 to 1972, Jimmy "Red '' Parker coached the Tigers from 1973 to 1976, compiling a 17 -- 25 -- 2 record. Clemson had a 7 -- 4 season under Parker in 1974, with Parker being named ACC Coach of the Year. The Tigers went 2 -- 9 in 1975, and 3 -- 6 -- 2 in 1976. Red Parker was cut loose by the Board of Trustees at the end of the Bicentennial season. Athletic Director Bill McClellan got the task of informing Parker he was gone when Parker refused to fire his assistants. Though Parker is largely credited with building and recruiting a foundation that would ultimately set the stage for much of Clemson 's success in the following seasons.
Utilizing some of the talent enrolled during the Parker seasons, Charlie Pell coached the Tigers for two seasons, winning the ACC Coach of the Year award twice and leading the Tigers to the 1978 ACC Championship en route to an 18 -- 4 -- 1 record.
Dual - threat quarterback Steve Fuller and the running back tandem of Lester Brown and Marvin Sims spearheaded a dynamic rushing attack that helped the Tigers win the ACC. The only loss came in Week 2 against SEC power Georgia, and, after a Gator Bowl win over No. 20 Ohio State, Clemson posted its second - best final AP poll finish in school history with a No. 6 ranking.
In both seasons, Clemson earned berths to the Gator Bowl, although Pell left before the latter game. Pell became involved in NCAA rules and recruiting violations that came to light under the tenure of his successor, Danny Ford. Charlie Pell would leave after 1978 to become head coach at Florida, where his coaching career would end in 1984 following more NCAA rules violations.
Danny Ford was promoted from offensive line coach to head coach in 1978, after Charlie Pell left for the University of Florida. He won his first game, the 1978 Gator Bowl, with a 17 -- 15 victory over Ohio State and legendary coach Woody Hayes, who punched LB Charlie Bauman in the throat after making the game - clinching interception. In his third season, Ford guided Clemson to the summit of college football by winning the National Championship, and recording the program 's fifth undefeated season. The Tigers, who were unranked in the preseason, downed three top - 10 teams (Georgia, North Carolina and Nebraska) during the course of the 12 -- 0 season that concluded with a 22 -- 15 victory over Nebraska in the 1982 Orange Bowl. Ford, named National Coach - of - the - Year in 1981, holds the record as the youngest coach (33 years old) to win a national championship on the gridiron.
The 1981 college football season was one of the craziest and most unpredictable in the history of the sport. It seemed nobody wanted to win the national championship. At several points in the season, six different teams were ranked # 1 by the Associated Press. Most of them were beaten just as quickly as they earned the top spot. The Tigers slow rise to # 1 quickly gained momentum with an early season 13 -- 3 upset victory over defending national champion Georgia. The Clemson defense contained Georgia 's great tailback Herschel Walker and kept him out of the end zone. Week after week, Clemson was getting better. Offensively the team was led by junior quarterback Homer Jordan, who was a dual threat as a runner and passer. It was a run - oriented offense featuring a fine tandem of tailbacks in Cliff Austin and Chuck McSwain. When they needed a big play, Jordan often threw deep to receiver Perry Tuttle, who later became a first round draft choice of the Buffalo Bills. But the true strength of the Clemson team was its defense. The Tigers had three All Americans including safety Terry Kinard, linebacker Jeff Davis and defensive end Jeff Bryant. All three went on to solid pro careers. But the most famous member of the Clemson defense was a large freshman defensive tackle named William Perry. Perry would later gain fame for his nickname "The Refrigerator '' and became a football folk hero with the Chicago Bears as a lovable overweight defensive lineman who sometimes scored touchdowns while lining up at fullback.
After finishing the regular season with a perfect 11 -- 0 record, Clemson was invited to the Orange Bowl to play Big 8 champion Nebraska. To mark its first trip to the Orange Bowl in over 30 years, Clemson wore all orange uniforms for the second time. The Tigers took a quick 3 -- 0 lead in the first quarter behind a Donald Igwebuike 41 - yard field goal. But Nebraska came back with some trickery when I - back Mike Rozier threw a 25 - yard option pass to Anthony Steels for a touchdown to take the lead 7 -- 3. Leading 13 -- 7 in the third quarter, Clemson took control for good when Homer Jordan threw a 13 - yard touchdown pass to Perry Tuttle, giving the Tigers a commanding 19 -- 7 lead. Clemson held on to win 22 -- 15 bringing home a consensus national championship. At 34 - years - old, Danny Ford became the youngest coach to lead his team to a national title.
Ranked # 10 before the 1982 season began, with six players entering the NFL Draft, including First Round picks DE Jeff Bryant and WR Perry Tuttle, along with Hollis Hall, Center Tony Berryhill, Brian Clark, and linebacker and former team captain Jeff Davis, there were obvious questions as to how well the team would perform in 1982 in the aftermath of a championship season. The Tigers opened the season on the road playing border rival and SEC champion Georgia, losing this time in another close game by 6 points in front of a crowd of over 82,000. The following weekend, Clemson hosted Boston College, in another fourth quarter game that resulted in a 17 -- 17 tie. Like the previous season, the Tigers gradually improved as the season progressed. In November, Clemson 's defense was resilient enough to hold of # 18 Maryland and # 18 North Carolina. Clemson went on to run the table the rest of the season with nine straight wins, and finish with the regular season with a record of 9 -- 1 -- 1. After the # 8 Tigers received a bid to the Cotton Bowl with only one loss on the season, the senior class voted to decline the invitation.
On November 22, 1982, the football program at Clemson was placed on probation for a 2 - year period to include the 1983 and 1984 seasons. This sanction was enforced on the program by the NCAA Committee on Infractions due to a lengthy history of recruiting violations to gain an athletic advantage that had taken place from 1977 through the Tigers ' 1981 National Championship season and into 1982, under the administration of two head coaches, Charlie Pell and Danny Ford. More than 150 documented violations and 69 charges were cited under NCAA bylaws in the categories of improper recruiting inducements, extra benefits to student - athletes, ethical conduct, improper financial aid, improper campus visits, improper transportation and entertainment, improper use of funds, improper employment, and improper recruiting contact.
As a result of these violations, Clemson was publicly reprimanded and censured by the NCAA. The football team was barred from participating in bowl games following the 1982 and 1983 seasons, and barred from appearing on live television in the 1983 and 1984 seasons. Also, the number of scholarships that the university could allocate to football players was restricted to 20 (from the normal limit of 30) for the 1983 -- 84 and 1984 -- 85 academic years. Charles Alan Wright, chairman of the NCAA Committee on Infractions said at the time, "Due to the large number and serious nature of the violations in this case, the committee believed that institutional sanctions related to appearances on television and in postseason football bowl games were appropriate. In addition, because the violations indicated a pattern of improper recruiting activities, the committee determined that a two - year limitation on financial aid to new recruits should be imposed to offset any recruiting advantage that was gained improperly by the university. ''
The 1983 team, like the previous season, had a loss and a tie early in the season, this time with a 16 -- 16 tie with rival # 11 Georgia and a loss at Boston College. The team finished the rest of the season without a loss and going unbeaten in conference play, while finishing with another 9 -- 1 -- 1 season and # 10, and # 11 rankings. The reduction of scholarships could be felt, in the next two seasons as Clemson still remained motivated, posting a winning 7 -- 4 season in 1984, and an even 6 -- 6 campaign in 1985.
From 1987 to 1990, Clemson posted four consecutive 10 win seasons and won three straight ACC titles, including a 35 -- 10 victory over Penn State and a 13 -- 6 defeat of the Oklahoma Sooners in the Florida Citrus Bowl. At that time, no team in Clemson history started higher in the AP poll than the 1988 team beginning the year as the No. 4 - ranked team in the nation and a preseason favorite to win the national title. After an early upset by # 10 FSU, the Tigers finished with a # 9 final ranking following their bowl win over Oklahoma. The 1988 team played one of the school 's toughest schedules, beating three ranked opponents and losing to two others. Rodney Williams paced the passing attack while Terry Allen rushed for 1,192 yards and 10 touchdowns for the ACC champions. In an age of offense, the ' 88 team was fourth in the nation in scoring defense. In 1989, Clemson registered a 10 -- 2 season and top - 12 national ranking for the fourth straight season, and ended his career at Clemson with a 27 -- 7 win over West Virginia (and All - America quarterback Major Harris) in the 1989 Gator Bowl.
Just five years after their first probation under Ford ended, Clemson once again found their football program accused of multiple recruiting violations in January 1990. The NCAA accused Clemson coaches of committing 14 rules violations, which ranged from giving cash in amounts of $50 to $150 to players to having illegal contact with recruits over a period from 1984 to 1988. Although later cleared by the NCAA of direct involvement, this chain of events led directly to the forced resignation of Clemson 's popular head coach.
While at Clemson, Ford also coached wins over a number of coaches later inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, including Joe Paterno, Tom Osborne, Barry Switzer, Bobby Bowden, Vince Dooley, and Woody Hayes. Coach Ford compiled a 96 -- 29 -- 4 (. 760) record at Clemson, 5 ACC Championships, and a 6 -- 2 bowl record. He is tied for second on the school 's wins list with Dabo Swinney and behind only Frank Howard. Ford was the third winningest coach in the country on a percentage basis after the 1989 season. Ford also coached 21 All - Americans and 41 players who went on to play in the NFL, during his 11 seasons at Clemson. After a few years away from coaching, Ford was hired by Arkansas in 1992, where he would spend five seasons guiding the Razorbacks.
In 2017, Ford was named to the College Football Hall of Fame.
Ken Hatfield, former coach at Air Force and Arkansas, took over as head coach at Clemson in late 1989. He had a 32 -- 13 -- 1 record with the Tigers and led them to three bowl games.
Hatfield worked to clean up the program 's image in the wake of the Ford - era sanctions. However, in the wake of Ford 's success, Hatfield and many in the Clemson fanbase did not see eye - to - eye. A common saying among Tiger fans during this time was "Howard built it. Ford filled it. Hatfield killed it. '' This sentiment followed Clemson 's first losing season (1992) since 1976.
Largely due to this discontent, school officials refused to grant him a one - year extension on his contract after the 1993 season, even though the Tigers had rebounded from 5 -- 6 in 1992 to an 8 -- 3 record that year and were invited to the Peach Bowl. Expressing "much disappointment '' in what he saw as a lack of support by Clemson fans and several university officials, Hatfield resigned at the end of the regular season. He was later hired at Rice.
The purple home jerseys used by Clemson in special games made their debut during the 1991 ACC championship season, with the Tigers wearing them in the regular season against NC State and in the Citrus Bowl vs. California.
Tommy West replaced Ken Hatfield at the end of the 1993 season, coaching the Tigers to a 14 -- 13 victory in the 1993 Peach Bowl against Kentucky. West had a 31 -- 28 record during his five seasons at Clemson and led the Tigers to three bowl games but no ACC championships. West was fired after a dismal 1998 campaign which saw Clemson go 3 -- 8 and finish last in the ACC. West went on to be the head coach at Memphis.
After Tommy West 's dismissal following the 1998 season, Clemson hired Tommy Bowden, son of Bobby Bowden and coach at Tulane. Bowden led the Tigers to a 6 -- 6 record and a Peach Bowl bid in 1999, with the team that navigated its way through a schedule that included MAC champions and undefeated Marshall, Big East champion and BCS runner - up Virginia Tech (who went undefeated during the regular season), and eventual National Champion Florida State (who finished the year undefeated). The 1999 meeting between the Tigers and Seminoles was dubbed the "Bowden Bowl '' and was the first time that a father and son coached against each other in Division I football. FSU won the game 17 -- 14 in front of the largest crowd in the history of Death Valley.
During Bowden 's tenure, the Tigers were bowl eligible every season but did n't win any ACC championships (the 2004 team turned down a bowl invitation as punishment for a massive brawl during a game against the University of South Carolina). Bowden has been criticized for his teams underachieving. The 2000 Tigers started 8 -- 0 and rose as high as # 5 in the polls before losing three of their last four. The same thing happened during the 2006 season following a 7 -- 1 start and with the team on the verge of winning the ACC Atlantic Division. The Tigers have also shown great resolve at points during Bowden 's tenure. The 2003 team won four games at the end of the season to finish 9 -- 4, which included victories over # 3 Florida State and # 7 Tennessee in the Chick - Fil - A Peach Bowl. The 2004 season saw the Tigers start 1 -- 4 only to win five of their last six games (which included an overtime upset of # 10 Miami), while the 2005 team overcame a 2 -- 3 start to finish the season 9 -- 4.
Tommy Bowden agreed to resign for $3.5 million on October 13, 2008, after leading the team to a disappointing 3 -- 3 record (1 -- 2 ACC) at the midpoint of a season in which the Tigers were an almost unanimous preseason pick to win their first ACC title under Bowden and were ranked # 9 in the preseason polls. Assistant coach Dabo Swinney was named interim head coach.
Following the departure of Tommy Bowden, wide receivers coach Dabo Swinney was dubbed interim head coach and led the Tigers to a 4 -- 2 record, finishing the 2008 regular season at 7 -- 6. On December 1, 2008, Swinney signed a five - year contract as Clemson 's permanent head coach.
On November 21, 2009, Swinney and the Tigers qualified for their first ACC title game berth, only to lose to the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets 39 -- 34. They were awarded a trip to the 2009 Music City Bowl, and defeated the Kentucky Wildcats 21 -- 13, avenging their upset loss in the 2006 Music City Bowl.
During the 2010 season, after a close 24 -- 27 overtime loss to national champion Auburn on the road, Clemson was later defeated in the Meineke Car Care Bowl in Charlotte, North Carolina. In January 2011, Swinney hired new offensive coordinator Chad Morris. Morris became tied with Gus Malzahn as the highest paid assistant in college football after Clemson gave Morris a six - year contract worth $1.3 million annually. Dabo also added on running backs coach Tony Elliott, and defensive line coach Marion Hobby.
On September 17, 2011, Clemson beat the defending national champions, the # 21 - ranked Auburn Tigers, and ended Auburn 's 17 - game winning streak, the longest winning streak in the nation. On October 1, 2011, Clemson became the first ACC team to beat three nationally ranked opponents in a row: # 21 - ranked Auburn, # 11 - ranked Florida State, and # 11 - ranked Virginia Tech. On November 12, 2011, Clemson defeated Wake Forest, winning the ACC Atlantic Division title. On November 26, 2011, Clemson lost to South Carolina for the third straight year, the first time Clemson had lost three straight to its instate rival since the seasons from 1968 to 1970. On December 3, the Tigers won their first ACC Championship since 1991, defeating Virginia Tech 38 -- 10 in the Championship Game. # 15 Clemson would go on to lose to the # 23 West Virginia Mountaineers in the 2012 Orange Bowl 70 -- 33, giving up an all - time record number of points scored in a quarter (35), half (49) and game (70) in the 109 - year history of bowl games.
On December 31, 2012, Clemson achieved its first 11 - win season since the national championship year with a last - second upset win over the # 8 LSU Tigers in the Chick - fil - A Bowl. Clemson trailed 24 -- 13 in the fourth quarter, but rallied back with a game - winning drive that saw a 4th and 16 conversion deep in their own territory that would lead to Chandler Catanzaro 's 37 - yard field goal as time expired to give Clemson a 25 -- 24 win.
The 2013 season was historic for the Clemson football program. The Tigers began the season with a 38 -- 35 home victory over rival and fifth - ranked Georgia and ended the regular season with a record fifth - straight loss to arch - rival South Carolina, 31 -- 17, in the first Top 10 meeting of the two schools (Clemson # 4, Carolina # 9). The Tigers finished 11 -- 2 in 2013 and secured the school 's first ever BCS bowl win with a 40 -- 35 victory over # 7 Ohio State in the Orange Bowl. Quarterback Tajh Boyd and wide receiver Sammy Watkins set Orange Bowl yardage records. Boyd compiled 505 total yards and threw five touchdowns. It was the Tigers fourth win over a top 10 opponent under Swinney.
Clemson finished 10 -- 3 in 2014, highlighted by a 35 -- 17 win over arch - rival South Carolina and a 40 -- 6 win over Oklahoma in the Russell Athletic Bowl. The Tigers took on ACC rival Florida State in week 3 of their season only to suffer a heartbreaking loss in overtime as # 22 Clemson lost to # 1 Florida State 17 -- 23. The Tigers then claimed a six - game winning streak in the middle of their season but lost to Georgia Tech as star freshman quarterback Deshaun Watson went out with a knee injury early in the 1st quarter. The Tigers claimed the nation 's number 1 - ranked defense under defensive coordinator Brent Venables in 2014, and the emergence of freshman quarterback Deshaun Watson propelled the Tigers to another 10 - win season for the 4th time in Dabo Swinney 's six years as head coach.
The 2015 season is regarded by sports writers as one of the most successful seasons in Clemson history. The Tigers possessed the nation 's number 1 ranking throughout the second half of the regular season and ended with 14 -- 1 overall record. Behind the leadership of Heisman Trophy finalist Deshaun Watson, the Tigers won the 2015 ACC Championship against number 10 North Carolina by a score of 45 -- 37. The Tigers were selected to participate in the 2016 College Football Playoff as the top - seeded team in the tournament. Clemson defeated the # 4 ranked Oklahoma Sooners in the 2015 Orange Bowl by a score of 37 -- 17 to advance to the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship game against the number 2 - ranked Alabama Crimson Tide on January 11, 2016. Clemson lost the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship Game to Alabama, 45 -- 40 ending the school 's 17 - game winning streak. Heisman finalist quarterback Deshaun Watson had a historic performance setting the record for most total yards in national championship game history, with 478 yards (405 passing; 73 rushing) against the nation 's best defense, and becoming the first player in history to amass over 4000 yards passing and 1,000 yards rushing in a single season.
In August 2016, ESPN.com reported that the 2016 -- 2017 preseason Coaches Top 25 poll ranked Clemson Tigers football as the # 2 team in the nation. With a loaded offense and plenty of young talent waiting to emerge on defense, Clemson entered 2016 as one of the frontrunners to contend for the national championship. However, the odds of another trip to the CFB Playoff were working against the Tigers. Only one team, Alabama, went back - to - back as national champions and Florida State was expected to emerge once again as a title contender from the ACC. However, Clemson once again set the standard for the rest of the conference and finished the regular season at 12 -- 1. Clemson finished the season with wins at Auburn, Georgia Tech, and # 12 Florida State on the road and defeated # 3 Louisville in Memorial Stadium. The Tigers suffered a controversial 43 -- 42 home loss to Pitt in November, due partially to questionable officiating but also to three interceptions thrown by Deshaun Watson and a failure to convert a 4th - and - 1 late in the fourth quarter, but benefited from losses by a couple of other playoff contenders on that Saturday and finished the season with three straight victories to rank No. 2 in the final CFP rankings. As expected from last season 's returning starters, quarterback Deshaun Watson anchored an explosive offense that averaged 503 yards per game. The defense reloaded behind a standout defensive line and limited opponents to just 18.4 points a game. Clemson finished with a regular season record of 12 -- 1, which culminated with a 56 -- 7 win at home over arch - rival South Carolina, Swinney 's largest margin of victory over the Gamecocks during his career. Clemson won the ACC championship and secured its second trip to the CFP National Championship with a 31 -- 0 shutout of semi-finalist # 3 Ohio State in the 2016 Fiesta Bowl. The Tigers competed in the College Football Playoff National Championship game in Tampa, Florida on January 9, 2017, beating the previously undefeated Alabama Crimson Tide 35 -- 31 on a game - winning touchdown with one second remaining, and winning the 2016 National Championship.
The Clemson - South Carolina rivalry is the largest annual sporting event in terms of ticket sales in the state of South Carolina. Clemson holds a 69 -- 42 -- 4 lead in the series which dates back to 1896. From 1896 to 1959, the Clemson - South Carolina game was played, on the fairgrounds, in Columbia, South Carolina and was referred to as "Big Thursday. '' In 1960 an alternating - site format was implemented utilizing both teams ' home stadiums. The annual game has since been designated "The Palmetto Bowl. '' The last eight contests between the programs have been nationally televised (4 on ESPN, 4 on ESPN2).
Clemson 's rivalry with Georgia Tech dates to 1898 with the first game being played in Atlanta. The game was played in Atlanta for 44 of the first 47 match - ups, until Georgia Tech joined the ACC. When Georgia Tech joined the ACC in 1978, the series went to a more traditional home - and - home setup beginning with the 1983 game. When the ACC expanded to 12 teams and split into two divisions in 2005, Clemson and Georgia Tech were placed in opposite divisions but were designated permanent cross-divisional rivals so that the series may continue uninterrupted. The two schools are 127 miles apart and connected to each other by Interstate 85. This distance is slightly closer than that between Clemson and traditional rival South Carolina (137 miles). Georgia Tech leads the series 50 -- 30 -- 2. However, Clemson leads the series 19 -- 17 since Georgia Tech joined the ACC in 1983.
The yearly conference and divisional match - up with NC State is known as the Textile Bowl for the schools ' similar missions in research and development for the textile industry in the Carolinas. The first meeting of the two schools occurred in 1899, and Clemson currently holds a 57 -- 28 -- 1 series advantage, including having won 12 of the last 13 games played. The series has been played annually since 1971.
The O'Rourke -- McFadden Trophy was created in 2008 by the Boston College Gridiron Club in order to honor the tradition at both schools and to honor the legacy of Charlie O'Rourke and Banks McFadden, who played during the leather helmet era. The club plans to make this an annual presentation. Clemson first met Boston College on the football field in the 1940 Cotton Bowl Classic, the first ever bowl game for the Tigers and Eagles. Over the next 43 years, the teams met a total of 13 times. In 2005, Boston College joined the ACC and the Atlantic Division. Since then, the game has been played on an annual basis with Clemson winning in 7 of the last 8 meetings. As of 2017 the Tigers lead the series 16 -- 9 -- 2.
Between 1999 and 2007 the ACC Atlantic Division matchup between Clemson and Florida State was referred to as the "Bowden Bowl '' to reflect the father - son head coach matchup between Bobby Bowden (Father, FSU) and Tommy Bowden (Son, Clemson). Their first meeting, in 1999, was the first time in Division I-A history that a father and a son met as opposing head coaches in a football game. Bobby Bowden won the first four matchups extending FSU 's winning streak over Clemson to 11 dating back to 1992. Since 2003, Clemson is 7 -- 6, including a 26 -- 10 win in Clemson over then - # 3 FSU. Also during this time the Tigers recorded a 27 -- 20 win in Tallahassee in 2006 which broke a 17 - year losing streak in Doak Campbell Stadium. 2007 was the last Bowden Bowl game as Tommy resigned as head coach in October 2008. # 3 Clemson pulled off a thriller in Tallahassee in 2016, 37 -- 34, over the # 12 - ranked Seminoles. As of 2017, Florida State leads the overall series 20 -- 11.
The Bulldogs and the Tigers have played each other 64 times beginning in 1897, with the 64th meeting played in 2014. Clemson 's only regular - season losses of the 1978, 1982, and 1991 campaigns all came at the hands of Georgia "between the hedges '', whereas Georgia 's only regular - season setback during the three years of the Herschel Walker era came in Death Valley during Danny Ford 's 1981 national championship run.
During the two programs ' simultaneous glory days of the early 1980s, no rivalry in all of college football was more important at the national level. The Bulldogs and Tigers played each other every season from 1973 to 1987, with Scott Woerner 's dramatic returns in 1980 and the nine turnovers forced by the Tigers in 1981 effectively settling the eventual national champion. No rivalry of that period was more competitive, as evidenced by the critical eleventh - hour field goals kicked by Kevin Butler in 1984 and by David Treadwell more than once later in the decade. Despite blowouts in 1990 by the Tigers and in 1994 and 2003 by the Bulldogs, the series typically has remained very competitive with evenly matched games.
Georgia currently maintains a 41 -- 18 -- 4 lead in the series, with 34 games having been played at Georgia, 21 games having been played at Clemson, and 8 games having been played at a neutral site (either Augusta, Georgia or Anderson, South Carolina). Georgia had won 5 games in a row, dating back to 1991, until Clemson won a top - 10 match - up to open the 2013 season in Death Valley. On August 31, 2013, No. 8 Clemson hosted No. 5 Georgia as the season opener for both teams featuring senior starting quarterbacks, star - studded offenses and questions to be answered on both teams ' defenses. This top - 10 match - up was chosen as the ESPN game of the week, and Clemson hosted ESPN 's College Gameday for just the second time. Clemson won the game by the score of 38 to 35.
Their last match - up was in 2014 in Athens where the Bulldogs defeated Clemson, 45 -- 21.
These old rivals first played in 1899, but until 2010, had not faced each other in the regular season since 1971. Auburn leads the overall series 34 -- 15 -- 2 and had won 14 games in a row, dating back to 1952, before Clemson snapped the streak in 2011, by beating # 22 ranked Auburn 38 -- 24 in Death Valley, in front of a crowd of exactly 82,000. Along with snapping one streak, Clemson also snapped Auburn 's seventeen - game winning streak coming off of the 2009 -- 2011 seasons. The Georgia Dome hosted the Auburn - Clemson rivalry in the 2012 Chick - fil - A Kickoff Game. Clemson defeated Auburn 26 -- 19 riding on a 231 - yard performance by Andre Ellington. This game was notable due to Sammy Watkins ' absence, having been suspended the first two games due to a drug - related arrest in May 2012. # 3 Clemson again defeated # 13 Auburn in 2017 14 - 6 in Clemson.
Clemson finished their undefeated 1981 season with a 22 -- 15 victory over the # 4 Nebraska Cornhuskers in the 1982 Orange Bowl, and were named the national champions by all major selectors.
† Other consensus selectors included Berryman, Billingsley, DeVold, FACT, FB News, Football Research, FW, Helms, Litkenhous, Matthews, National Championship Foundation, NFF, New York Times, Poling, Sagarin, and Sporting News
Clemson was selected as the one seed in the second College Football Playoff and defeated the fourth seed Oklahoma on December 31, 2015 in the 2015 Orange Bowl. They lost to the Alabama Crimson Tide in the championship game on January 11, 2016.
Clemson was selected to the third College Football Playoff as the second seed and defeated the third seed Ohio State on December 31, 2016 in the 2016 PlayStation Fiesta Bowl. The Tigers defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide in the national championship game on January 9, 2017.
Since its beginnings in 1896, Clemson has completed six undefeated seasons. This includes three perfect seasons in which the Tigers were undefeated and untied.
† The 2015 Clemson Tigers football team went undefeated in the regular season (12 -- 0), and additionally won the ACC Championship Game and were Orange Bowl Champions, before qualifying for a supplementary game due to the new CFP format.
Clemson won the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association in 1900 and 1902 (tied 1903 and 1906) along with the Southern Conference title in 1940 and 1948. Their 16 ACC titles (15 outright, 1 tied) is the most ACC football championships.
In 1965, South Carolina violated participation rules relating to two ineligibile players and was required to forfeit wins against North Carolina State and Clemson. North Carolina State and Clemson were then declared co-champions.
Conference affiliations
In 2005, the Atlantic Coast Conference divided into two divisions of six teams each and began holding an ACC Championship Game at the conclusion of the regular football season to determine the ACC Football Champions. Clemson won its first outright ACC Atlantic Division championship in 2009 and again in 2011. In 2012, Clemson tied for a share of the Atlantic Division Championship and was named co-champion of the division.
† On 7 / 18 / 2011, Georgia Tech was required to vacate their victory due to NCAA violations and the game is considered by the NCAA and ACC to have no winner.
‡ Clemson finished 7 -- 1 in the ACC and was named co-champion of the Atlantic Division per ACC rules. Florida State played in the ACC Championship by owning the tie - breaker advantage.
‡ Clemson finished 7 -- 1 in the ACC and was named co-champion of the Atlantic Division per ACC rules. Clemson played in the ACC Championship by owning the tie - breaker advantage.
Clemson has ended their football season ranked 31 times in either the AP or Coaches Poll. Clemson currently has six consecutive 10 win seasons. It is the 2nd longest active streak behind Alabama with 7.
† AP Poll began selecting the nation 's Top 20 teams in 1936. Only the Top 10 teams were recognized from 1962 to 1967. The AP Poll expanded back to the Top 20 teams in 1968. In 1989, it began recognizing the Top 25 teams.
‡ UPI / Coaches Poll began selecting its Top 20 teams on a weekly basis in 1950 before expanding to the nations 's Top 25 teams in 1990.
This is a partial list of the ten most recent bowl games Clemson competed in. For the full Clemson bowl game history, see List of Clemson Tigers bowl games.
In 1951, the College Football Hall of Fame opened in South Bend, Indiana. Clemson has had 3 players and 4 former coaches inducted into the Hall of Fame.
+ Steve Fuller 's number 4 was retired in 1979. However, it was brought out of retirement in 2014 to be worn by Clemson 's 5 star quarterback recruit, Deshaun Watson.
+ C.J. Spiller ' s number 28 was retired in 2010. However, it was brought out of retirement in 2016 to be worn by Clemson 's 5 star running back recruit Tavien Feaster
Clemson players have been honored 25 times as consensus All - Americans.
On July 23, 2002 in celebration of the Atlantic Coast Conference 's 50th Anniversary, a 120 - member blue ribbon committee selected the Top 50 football players in ACC history. Clemson led all conference schools with the most players selected to the Golden Anniversary team. Each of Clemson 's honorees are All - Americans and former NFL players. The nine selectees from Clemson are:
* Practice Squad Only
Announced schedules as of August 23, 2017
Clemson Tigers Football from Rivals.com team recruitment rankings:
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what was the impact of the battle of appomattox | Battle of Appomattox Court House - wikipedia
Decisive Union victory:
The Battle of Appomattox Court House (Virginia, U.S.), fought on the morning of April 9, 1865, was one of the last battles of the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865). It was the final engagement of Confederate States Army General - in - Chief, Robert E. Lee, and his Army of Northern Virginia before it surrendered to the Union Army of the Potomac under the Commanding General of the United States, Ulysses S. Grant. Lee, having abandoned the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, after the nine and one - half month Siege of Petersburg and Richmond, retreated west, hoping to join his army with the remaining Confederate forces in North Carolina, the Army of Tennessee under Gen. Joseph E. Johnston. Union infantry and cavalry forces under Gen. Philip Sheridan pursued and cut off the Confederates ' retreat at the central Virginia village of Appomattox Court House. Lee launched a last - ditch attack to break through the Union forces to his front, assuming the Union force consisted entirely of lightly armed cavalry. When he realized that the cavalry was now backed up by two corps of Federal infantry, he had no choice but to surrender with his further avenue of retreat and escape now cut off.
The signing of the surrender documents occurred in the parlor of the house owned by Wilmer McLean on the afternoon of April 9. On April 12, a formal ceremony of parade and the stacking of arms led by Southern Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon to Federal Brig. Gen. Joshua Chamberlain of Maine marked the disbandment of the Army of Northern Virginia with the parole of its nearly 28,000 remaining officers and men, free to return home without their major weapons but enabling men to take their horses and officers to retain their sidearms (swords and pistols), and effectively ending the war in Virginia. This event triggered a series of subsequent surrenders across the South, in North Carolina, Alabama and finally Shreveport, Louisiana, for the Trans - Mississippi Theater in the West by June, signaling the end of the four - year - long war.
The final campaign for Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederate States, began when the Union / Federal / Northern Army of the Potomac crossed the James River in June 1864. The armies under the command of Lieutenant General and General - in - Chief Ulysses S. Grant (1822 -- 1885) laid siege to Petersburg, south of Richmond, intending to cut the two cities ' supply lines and force the Confederates to evacuate. In the spring of 1865, Confederate States Army Gen. Robert E. Lee (1807 -- 1870), waited for an opportunity to leave the Petersburg lines, aware that the position was untenable, but Union troops made the first move. On April 1, 1865, Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan 's cavalry turned Lee 's flank at the Battle of Five Forks. The next day Grant 's army achieved a decisive breakthrough, effectively ending the Petersburg siege. With supply railroad lines cut, Lee 's men abandoned the trenches they had held for ten months and evacuated on the night of April 2 -- 3.
Lee 's first objective was to reassemble and supply his men at Amelia Courthouse. His plan was to link up with Gen. Joseph E. Johnston 's Army of Tennessee in North Carolina and go on the offensive after establishing defenses on the Roanoke River in southwest Virginia. When the troops arrived at Amelia on April 4, however, they found no provisions. Lee sent wagons out to the surrounding country to forage, but as a result lost a day 's worth of marching time. The army then headed west to Appomattox Station, where another supply train awaited him. Lee 's army was now composed of the cavalry corps and two small infantry corps.
En route to the station, on April 6 at Sailor 's Creek, nearly one fourth of the retreating Confederate army was cut off by Sheridan 's cavalry and elements of the II and VI Corps. Two Confederate divisions fought the VI Corps along the creek. The Confederates attacked but were driven back, and soon after the Union cavalry cut through the right of the Confederate lines. Most of the 7,700 Confederates were captured or surrendered, including Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell and eight other general officers. The delay prevented Lee from reaching the Appomattox station until late afternoon on April 8, allowing Sheridan to reach the station ahead of the Southerners that evening, where he captured Lee 's supplies and obstructed his path.
Following the minor battles of Cumberland Church and High Bridge, on April 7, General Grant sent a note to Lee suggesting that it was time to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia. In a return note, Lee refused the request, but asked Grant what terms he had in mind. On April 8, Union cavalry under Brig. Gen. and Brevet Maj. Gen. George Armstrong Custer captured and burned three supply trains waiting for Lee 's army at the Appomattox Station. Now both of the Federal forces, the Army of the Potomac and the Army of the James, were converging on Appomattox.
With his supplies at Appomattox destroyed, Lee now looked west, to the railway at Lynchburg, where more supplies awaited him. However, on the morning of April 8 a battalion of the 15th Pennsylvania Cavalry was detached from Stoneman 's Raid into North Carolina and southwestern Virginia and had made a demonstration to within three miles of Lynchburg, giving the appearance of being the vanguard of a much larger force. Despite this new threat, Lee apparently decided to try for Lynchburg anyway.
While the Union Army was closing in on Lee, all that lay between Lee and Lynchburg was Union cavalry. Lee hoped to break through the cavalry before infantry arrived. He sent a note to Grant saying that he did not wish to surrender his army just yet but was willing to discuss how Grant 's terms would affect the Confederacy. Grant, suffering from a throbbing headache, stated that "It looks as if Lee still means to fight. '' The Union infantry was close, but the only unit near enough to support Sheridan 's cavalry was Maj. Gen. John Gibbon 's XXIV Corps of the Army of the James. This corps traveled 30 miles (48 km) in 21 hours to reach the cavalry. Maj. Gen. Edward O.C. Ord, commander of the Army of the James, arrived with the XXIV Corps around 4: 00 a.m. while the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac was close behind. Sheridan deployed his three divisions of cavalry along a low ridge to the southwest of Appomattox Court House.
At dawn on April 9, 1865, the Confederate Second Corps under Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon attacked Sheridan 's cavalry and quickly forced back the first line under Brevet Brig. Gen. Charles H. Smith. The next line, held by Brig. Gens. Ranald S. Mackenzie and George Crook, slowed the Confederate advance. Gordon 's troops charged through the Union lines and took the ridge, but as they reached the crest they saw the entire Union XXIV Corps in line of battle with the Union V Corps to their right. Lee 's cavalry saw these Union forces and immediately withdrew and rode off towards Lynchburg. Ord 's troops began advancing against Gordon 's corps while the Union II Corps began moving against Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps to the northeast. Colonel Charles Venable of Lee 's staff rode in at this time and asked for an assessment, and Gordon gave him a reply he knew Lee did not want to hear: "Tell General Lee I have fought my corps to a frazzle, and I fear I can do nothing unless I am heavily supported by Longstreet 's corps. '' Upon hearing it Lee finally stated the inevitable: "Then there is nothing left for me to do but to go and see General Grant, and I would rather die a thousand deaths. ''
Many of Lee 's officers, including Longstreet, agreed that surrendering the army was the only option left. The only notable officer opposed to surrender was Longstreet 's chief of artillery, Brig. Gen. Edward Porter Alexander, who predicted that if Lee surrendered then "every other (Confederate) army will follow suit ''.
At 8: 00 a.m., Lee rode out to meet Grant, accompanied by three of his aides. Grant received Lee 's first letter on the morning of April 9 as he was traveling to meet Sheridan. Grant recalled his migraine seemed to disappear when he read Lee 's letter, and he handed it to his assistant Rawlins to read aloud before composing his reply:
General, Your note of this date is but this moment, 11: 50 A.M. rec 'd., in consequence of my having passed from the Richmond and Lynchburg road. I am at this writing about four miles West of Walker 's Church and will push forward to the front for the purpose of meeting you. Notice sent to me on this road where you wish the interview to take place.
Grant 's response was remarkable in that it let the defeated Lee choose the place of his surrender. Lee received the reply within an hour and dispatched an aide, Charles Marshall, to find a suitable location for the occasion. Marshall scrutinized Appomattox Court House, a small village of roughly twenty buildings that served as a waystation for travelers on the Richmond - Lynchburg Stage Road. Marshall rejected the first house he saw as too dilapidated, instead settling on the 1848 brick home of Wilmer McLean. McLean had lived near Manassas Junction during the First Battle of Bull Run, and had retired to Appomattox to escape the war.
With gunshots still being heard on Gordon 's front and Union skirmishers still advancing on Longstreet 's front, Lee received a message from Grant. After several hours of correspondence between Grant and Lee, a cease - fire was enacted and Grant received Lee 's request to discuss surrender terms.
Well - dressed in his customary uniform, Lee waited for Grant to arrive. Grant, whose headache had ended when he received Lee 's note, arrived at the courthouse in a mud - spattered uniform -- a government - issue sack coat with trousers tucked into muddy boots, no sidearms, and with only his tarnished shoulder straps showing his rank. It was the first time the two men had seen each other face - to - face in almost two decades. Suddenly overcome with sadness, Grant found it hard to get to the point of the meeting and instead the two generals briefly discussed their only previous encounter, during the Mexican -- American War. Lee brought the attention back to the issue at hand, and Grant offered the same terms he had before:
In accordance with the substance of my letter to you of the 8th inst., I propose to receive the surrender of the Army of N. Va. on the following terms, to wit: Rolls of all the officers and men to be made in duplicate. One copy to be given to an officer designated by me, the other to be retained by such officer or officers as you may designate. The officers to give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the Government of the United States until properly exchanged, and each company or regimental commander sign a like parole for the men of their commands. The arms, artillery and public property to be parked and stacked, and turned over to the officer appointed by me to receive them. This will not embrace the side - arms of the officers, nor their private horses or baggage. This done, each officer and man will be allowed to return to their homes, not to be disturbed by United States authority so long as they observe their paroles and the laws in force where they may reside.
The terms were as generous as Lee could hope for; his men would not be imprisoned or prosecuted for treason. Officers were allowed to keep their sidearms, horses, and personal baggage. In addition to his terms, Grant also allowed the defeated men to take home their horses and mules to carry out the spring planting and provided Lee with a supply of food rations for his starving army; Lee said it would have a very happy effect among the men and do much toward reconciling the country. The terms of the surrender were recorded in a document hand - written by Grant 's adjutant Ely S. Parker, a Native American of the Seneca tribe, and completed around 4 p.m., April 9. Lee, upon discovering Parker to be a Seneca remarked "It is good to have one real American here. '' Parker replied, "Sir, we are all Americans. '' As Lee left the house and rode away, Grant 's men began cheering in celebration, but Grant ordered an immediate stop. "I at once sent word, however, to have it stopped, '' he said. "The Confederates were now our countrymen, and we did not want to exult over their downfall, '' he said. Custer and other Union officers purchased from McLean the furnishings of the room Lee and Grant met in as souvenirs, emptying it of furniture. Grant soon visited the Confederate army, and then he and Lee sat on the McLean home 's porch and met with visitors such as Longstreet and George Pickett before the two men left for their capitals.
On April 10, Lee gave his farewell address to his army. The same day a six - man commission gathered to discuss a formal ceremony of surrender, even though no Confederate officer wished to go through with such an event. Brigadier General (brevet Major General) Joshua L. Chamberlain was the Union officer selected to lead the ceremony. In his memoirs entitled The Passing of the Armies, Chamberlain reflected on what he witnessed on April 12, 1865, as the Army of Northern Virginia marched in to surrender their arms and their colors:
The momentous meaning of this occasion impressed me deeply. I resolved to mark it by some token of recognition, which could be no other than a salute of arms. Well aware of the responsibility assumed, and of the criticisms that would follow, as the sequel proved, nothing of that kind could move me in the least. The act could be defended, if needful, by the suggestion that such a salute was not to the cause for which the flag of the Confederacy stood, but to its going down before the flag of the Union. My main reason, however, was one for which I sought no authority nor asked forgiveness. Before us in proud humiliation stood the embodiment of manhood: men whom neither toils and sufferings, nor the fact of death, nor disaster, nor hopelessness could bend from their resolve; standing before us now, thin, worn, and famished, but erect, and with eyes looking level into ours, waking memories that bound us together as no other bond; -- was not such manhood to be welcomed back into a Union so tested and assured? Instructions had been given; and when the head of each division column comes opposite our group, our bugle sounds the signal and instantly our whole line from right to left, regiment by regiment in succession, gives the soldier 's salutation, from the "order arms '' to the old "carry '' -- the marching salute. Gordon at the head of the column, riding with heavy spirit and downcast face, catches the sound of shifting arms, looks up, and, taking the meaning, wheels superbly, making with himself and his horse one uplifted figure, with profound salutation as he drops the point of his sword to the boot toe; then facing to his own command, gives word for his successive brigades to pass us with the same position of the manual, -- honor answering honor. On our part not a sound of trumpet more, nor roll of drum; not a cheer, nor word nor whisper of vain - glorying, nor motion of man standing again at the order, but an awed stillness rather, and breath - holding, as if it were the passing of the dead!
Chamberlain 's account has been questioned by historian William Marvel, who claims that "few promoted their own legends more actively and successfully than he did ''. Marvel points out that Chamberlain in fact did not command the federal surrender detail (but only one of the brigades in General Joseph J. Bartlett 's division) and that he did not mention any "salute '' in his contemporary letters, but only in his memoirs written many decades later when most other eyewitnesses had already died.
At the surrender ceremonies, about 28,000 Confederate soldiers passed by and stacked their arms. The Appomattox Roster lists approximately 26,300 men who surrendered. This reference does not include the 7,700 who were captured at Sailor 's Creek three days earlier, who were treated as prisoners of war.
While General George Meade (who was n't present at the meeting) reportedly shouted that "it 's all over '' upon hearing the surrender was signed, roughly 175,000 Confederates remained in the field, but were mostly starving and disillusioned. Many of these were scattered throughout the South in garrisons or guerilla bands while the rest were concentrated in three major Confederate commands. Just as Porter Alexander had predicted, as news spread of Lee 's surrender other Confederate commanders realized that the strength of the Confederacy was gone, and decided to lay down their own arms.
Gen. Joseph E. Johnston 's army in North Carolina, the most threatening of the remaining Confederate armies, surrendered to Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman at Bennett Place in Durham, North Carolina on April 26, 1865. The 98,270 Confederate troops that laid down their weapons (the largest surrender of the war) marked the virtual end of the conflict.
General Taylor surrendered his army at Citronelle, Alabama in early May, followed by General Edmund Kirby Smith surrendering the Confederate Trans - Mississippi Department on May 26, 1865 near New Orleans, Louisiana. Upon hearing about General Lee 's surrender, Nathan Bedford Forrest, "The Wizard of the Saddle '', also surrendered, reading his farewell address on May 9, 1865 at Gainesville, Alabama. General Stand Watie surrendered the last sizeable organized Confederate force on June 23, 1865 in Choctaw County, Oklahoma.
There were several more small battles after Lee 's surrender. The Battle of Palmito Ranch on May 12 -- 13, 1865, is commonly regarded as the final land battle of the war. Commander James Iredell Waddell surrendered CSS Shenandoah on November 6, 1865, at Liverpool, Great Britain.
Lee never forgot Grant 's magnanimity during the surrender, and for the rest of his life would not tolerate an unkind word about Grant in his presence. Likewise, General Gordon cherished Chamberlain 's simple act of saluting his surrendered army, calling Chamberlain "one of the knightliest soldiers of the Federal army. '' This statement by Gordon tends to contradict historian William Marvel 's perception of the event.
During the Civil War Centennial, the United States Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles, as they occurred over a four - year period, beginning with the Battle of Fort Sumter Centennial issue of 1961. The Battle of Shiloh commemorative stamp was issued in 1962, the Battle of Gettysburg in 1963, the Battle of the Wilderness in 1964, and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965.
The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 512 acres (2.07 km) of the battlefield.
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this is me by keala settle & the greatest showman ensemble | This Is Me (Keala Settle song) - wikipedia
"This Is Me '' is a song performed by Keala Settle for the film The Greatest Showman. It was released on October 26, 2017, by Atlantic Records as a promotional single from The Greatest Showman: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. It won the 2017 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 90th Academy Awards. A second version, performed by American singer Kesha, was released on December 22, 2017.
Following the film 's global release, the song charted within the top five in the United Kingdom, the top ten in Australia, Malaysia, and South Korea and the top twenty in Ireland, Belgium (Flanders) and New Zealand.
Settle performed the song live on The Graham Norton Show on February 9, 2018. Later she performed on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on February 21, 2018. She also performed the song at the 90th Academy Awards ceremony on March 4, 2018.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Kesha 's version of the song was released on December 22, 2017. It has charted in Australia at number 71.
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what was the name of the first thanksgiving turkey | Thanksgiving dinner - wikipedia
The centerpiece of contemporary Thanksgiving in the United States and Canada is a large meal, generally with a large roasted turkey. It is served with a variety of side dishes such as mashed potatoes, stuffing and cranberry sauce. The majority of the dishes in the traditional American version of Thanksgiving dinner are made from foods native to the New World. According to tradition, the Pilgrims learned how to grow these foods from the Native Americans. The Pilgrims were incredibly grateful for these new foods, which is where we get the name Thanksgiving. Today, Thanksgiving dinner is often a time where people reflect on all the things in their lives that they are thankful for. Thanksgiving dinner is the largest eating event in the United States; most people eat more on Thanksgiving than on any other day of the year.
Traditionally known as "The First Thanksgiving, '' the 1621 feast between the Pilgrims and the Wampanoag at Plymouth Colony contained waterfowl, venison, ham, lobster, clams, berries, fruit, pumpkin and squash. William Bradford noted that, "besides waterfowl, there was great store of wild turkeys, of which they took many. '' Many of the foods that were included in the first feast have since gone on to become staples of the modern Thanksgiving dinner. Early feasts of the Order of Good Cheer, a French Canadian predecessor to the modern Thanksgiving, featured a potluck dinner with freshly hunted fowl, game and fish hunted and shared by both French Canadians and local natives.
The use of the turkey in the US for Thanksgiving precedes Lincoln 's nationalization of the holiday in 1863. Alexander Hamilton proclaimed that "No citizen of the United States should refrain from turkey on Thanksgiving Day. '' Benjamin Franklin was said to have high regard for the wild turkey as an American icon, but turkey was actually uncommon at Thanksgiving until the 1800s. By 1857, turkey had become part of the traditional dinner in New England.
A Thanksgiving Day dinner served to the Civilian Conservation Corps in 1935 included: pickles, green olives, celery, roast turkey, oyster stew, cranberry sauce, giblet gravy, dressing, creamed asparagus tips, snowflake potatoes, baked carrots, hot rolls, fruit salad, mince meat pie, fruit cake, candies, grapes, apples, clams, fish and many other food harvests.
The White House Cook Book, 1887, by Mrs. F.L. Gillette, et al., had the following menu: oysters on half shell, cream of chicken soup, fried smelts, sauce tartare, roast turkey, cranberry sauce, mashed potatoes, baked squash, boiled onions, parsnip fritters, olives, chicken salad, venison pastry, pumpkin pie, mince pie, Charlotte russe, almond ice cream, lemon jelly, hickory nut cake, cheese, fruits and coffee.
In 1947, as part of a voluntary rationing campaign, the Harry Truman Administration attempted to promote "Poultryless Thursdays, '' discouraging Americans from eating poultry or egg products on Thursdays. Because Thanksgiving is always on a Thursday, this meant that turkey and pumpkin pie, two Thanksgiving staples, were forbidden. This was also the case for Christmas and New Year 's Day since those holidays landed on Thursday in 1947. The National Poultry and Egg Board furiously lobbied the President to cease promoting the plan; it culminated in a truce at the National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation shortly before Thanksgiving. Turkey was no longer forbidden, but Eggless Thursdays remained for the rest of the year, meaning no pumpkin pie was served at the White House dinner that year.
Turkey is the most common main dish of a Thanksgiving dinner. Oftentimes Thanksgiving is referred to as "Turkey Day. '' In 2006, American turkey growers were expected to raise 270 million turkeys, to be processed into five billion pounds of turkey meat valued at almost $8 billion, with one third of all turkey consumption occurring in the Thanksgiving - Christmas season and a per capita consumption of almost 18 pounds (8.2 kg). The Broad Breasted White turkey is particularly bred for Thanksgiving dinner and similar large feasts; its large size (specimens can grow to over 40 pounds) and meat content make it ideal for such situations, although the breed must be artificially bred and suffers from health problems due to its size.
Most Thanksgiving turkeys are stuffed with a bread - based mixture and roasted. Sage is the traditional herb added to the stuffing, along with chopped celery, carrots, and onions. Other ingredients, such as chopped chestnuts or other tree nuts, crumbled sausage or bacon, cranberries, raisins, or apples may be added to stuffing. If this mixture is prepared outside the bird, it may be known as dressing. Deep - fried turkey is rising in popularity due to its shorter preparation time, but comes with safety risks.
The consumption of turkey on Thanksgiving is so ingrained in American culture that each year since 1947, the National Turkey Federation presents a live turkey to the President of the United States prior to each Thanksgiving. These turkeys were initially slaughtered and eaten for the President 's Thanksgiving dinner; since 1989, the presented turkeys have typically been given a mock pardon to great fanfare and sent to a park to live out the rest of their usually short natural lives.
Non-traditional foods other than turkey are sometimes served as the main dish for a Thanksgiving dinner. Ham is often served alongside turkey in many non-traditional households. Goose and duck, foods which were traditional European centerpieces of Christmas dinners before being displaced, are now sometimes served in place of the Thanksgiving turkey. Sometimes, fowl native to the region where the meal is taking place is used; for example, an article in Texas Monthly magazine suggested quail as the main dish for a Texan Thanksgiving feast. John Madden, who appeared on television for the NFL Thanksgiving Day game from 1981 to 2001, frequently advocated his fondness for the turducken, deboned turkey, duck and chicken nested inside each other then cooked. In a few areas of the West Coast of the United States, Dungeness crab is common as an alternate main dish, as crab season starts in early November. Similarly, Thanksgiving falls within deer hunting season in the Northeastern United States, which encourages the use of venison as a centerpiece. Vegetarians or vegans may have a tofu, wheat gluten or lentil - based substitute; or stuffed squash. In Alaskan villages, whale meat is sometimes eaten. (1) Irish immigrants have been known to have prime rib of beef as their centerpiece since beef in Ireland was once a rarity; families would save up money for this dish to signify newfound prosperity and hope.
In the United States, a globalist approach to Thanksgiving has become common with the impact of immigration. Basic "Thanksgiving '' ingredients, or the intent of the holiday, can be transformed to a variety of dishes by using flavors, techniques, and traditions from their own cuisines. Others celebrate the holiday with a variety of dishes particularly when there is a crowd to be fed, guest 's tastes vary and considering the financial means available.
Many offerings are typically served alongside the main dish -- so many that, because of the amount of food, the Thanksgiving meal is sometimes served midday or early afternoon to make time for all the eating, and preparation may begin at dawn or on days prior. Copious leftovers are also common following the meal properly.
Traditional Thanksgiving foods are sometimes specific to the day of riced potatoes, and although some of the foods might be seen at any semi-formal meal in the United States, the meal often has something of a ritual or traditional quality. Many Americans would say it is "incomplete '' without cranberry sauce, stuffing or dressing, mashed potatoes and gravy, and brussels sprouts. Other commonly served dishes include winter squash and sweet potatoes, the latter often prepared with sweeteners such as brown sugar, molasses, or marshmallows. Fresh, canned, or frozen corn is popular and green beans are frequently served; in particular, green bean casserole, a product invented in 1955 by the Campbell Soup Company to promote use of its cream of mushroom soup, has become a Thanksgiving standard. A fresh salad may be included, especially on the West Coast. Bread rolls or biscuits and cornbread, especially in the South and parts of New England, are served. For dessert, various pies are usually served, particularly pumpkin pie, though apple pie, mincemeat pie, sweet potato pie, and pecan pie are often served as well.
There are also regional differences as to the stuffing or dressing traditionally served with the turkey. The traditional version has bread cubes, sage, onion and celery. Southerners generally make their dressing from cornbread, while those in other parts of the country make stuffing from white, wheat or rye bread as the base. One or several of the following may be added to the dressing / stuffing: oysters, apples, chestnuts, raisins, and sausages or the turkey 's giblets.
Other dishes reflect the region or cultural background of those who have come together for the meal. For example, Sauerkraut (among those in the Mid-Atlantic; especially Baltimore) is sometimes served. Many African Americans and Southerners serve baked macaroni and cheese and collard greens, along with chitterlings and sweet potato pie, while some Italian - Americans often have lasagne on the table and Ashkenazi Jews may serve noodle kugel, a sweet dessert pudding. Other Jewish families may consume foods commonly associated with Hanukkah, such as latkes or a sufganiyah; the two holidays are usually in close proximity and on extremely rare occasions overlap. It is not unheard of for Mexican Americans to serve their turkey with mole and roasted corn. In Puerto Rico, the Thanksgiving meal is completed with arroz con gandules (rice with pigeon peas) or arroz con maiz (rice with corn), pasteles (root tamales) stuffed with turkey, pumpkin - coconut crème caramel, corn bread with longaniza, potato salad, roasted white sweet potatoes and Spanish sparkling hard cider. Turkey in Puerto Rico is stuffed with mofongo. Cuban - Americans traditionally serve the turkey alongside a small roasted pork and include white rice and black beans or kidney beans. Vegetarians or vegans have been known to serve alternative entree centerpieces such as a large vegetable pie or a stuffed and baked pumpkin or tofu substitutes. Many Midwesterners (such as Minnesotans) of Norwegian or Scandinavian descent set the table with lefse.
The beverages at Thanksgiving can vary as much as the side dishes, often depending on who is present at the table and their tastes. Spirits or cocktails sometimes may be served before the main meal. On the dinner table, unfermented apple cider (still or sparkling) or wine are often served. Pitchers of sweet tea can often be found on Southern tables. Beaujolais nouveau is sometimes served, and the beverage has been marketed as a Thanksgiving drink since the producers of the wine (which is made available only for a short window each year) set the annual release date to be one week before Thanksgiving beginning in 1985.
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where did the san diego chargers play their home games | Los Angeles Chargers - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
Navy blue, powder blue, white, gold
League championships (1)
Conference championships (1)
Division championships (15)
The Los Angeles Chargers are a professional American football team based in the Greater Los Angeles Area. The Chargers compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team was founded on August 14, 1959, and began play on September 10, 1960, as a charter member of the American Football League (AFL), and spent its first season in Los Angeles, before moving to San Diego in 1961 to become the San Diego Chargers. The Chargers joined the NFL as result of the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970, and played their home games at SDCCU Stadium. The return of the Chargers to Los Angeles was announced for the 2017 season, just one year after the Rams had moved back to the city from St. Louis. The Chargers will play their home games at the StubHub Center until the opening in 2020 of the Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park, which they will share with the Rams.
The Chargers won one AFL title in 1963 and reached the AFL playoffs five times and the AFL Championship four times before joining the NFL (1970) as part of the AFL -- NFL merger. In the 43 years since then, the Chargers have made 13 trips to the playoffs and four appearances in the AFC Championship game. In 1994, the Chargers won their lone AFC championship and faced the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl XXIX, losing 49 -- 26. The Chargers have eight players and one coach enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio: wide receiver Lance Alworth (1962 -- 1970), defensive end Fred Dean (1975 -- 1981), quarterback Dan Fouts (1973 -- 1987), head coach -- general manager Sid Gillman (1960 -- 1969, 1971), wide receiver Charlie Joiner (1976 -- 1986), offensive lineman Ron Mix (1960 -- 1969), tight end Kellen Winslow (1979 -- 1987), linebacker Junior Seau (1990 -- 2002), and running back Ladanian Tomlinson (2001 -- 2009).
The Los Angeles Chargers were established with seven other American Football League teams in 1959. In 1960, the Chargers began AFL play in Los Angeles. The Chargers ' original owner was hotel heir Barron Hilton, son of Hilton Hotels founder Conrad Hilton.
According to the official website of the Pro Football Hall of Fame, Barron Hilton agreed after his general manager, Frank Leahy, picked the Chargers name when he purchased an AFL franchise for Los Angeles: "I liked it because they were yelling ' charge ' and sounding the bugle at Dodgers Stadium and at USC games. '' The Chargers initially considered playing at the Rose Bowl, but instead signed a lease to play at the Los Angeles Coliseum. There is also an alternative theory about a man named Gerald Courtney of Hollywood who won an all - expenses - paid trip to Mexico City and Acapulco for submitting "Chargers '' in a name - the - team contest. The Chargers only spent one season in Los Angeles before moving to San Diego in 1961. From 1961 to 1966 their home field was Balboa Stadium in Balboa Park. As of August 1967, they moved to the newly constructed SDCCU Stadium (then named San Diego Stadium), where they played their home games until 2016.
They played ten years in the AFL before the merging of the league into the older NFL. Their only coach for the ten - year life of the AFL was Sid Gillman, a Hall of Famer who was widely recognized as a great offensive innovator. The early AFL years of the San Diego Chargers were highlighted by the outstanding play of wide receiver Lance "Bambi '' Alworth with 543 receptions for 10,266 yards in his 11 - AFL / NFL - season career. In addition he set the pro football record of consecutive games with a reception (96) during his career. With players such as Alworth, Paul Lowe, Keith Lincoln and John Hadl, the high - scoring Chargers won divisional crowns five of the league 's first six seasons and the AFL title in 1963 with a 51 -- 10 victory over the Boston Patriots. They also played great defense, as indicated by their professional football record 49 pass interceptions in 1961, and featured AFL Rookie of the Year defensive end Earl Faison. The Chargers were the originators of the term "Fearsome Foursome '' to describe their all - star defensive line, anchored by Faison and Ernie Ladd (the latter also excelled in professional wrestling). The phrase was later appropriated by various NFL teams. Hilton sold the Chargers to a group headed by Eugene Klein and Sam Schulman in August 1966. The following year, the Chargers began "head to head '' competition with the older NFL with a preseason loss to the Detroit Lions. The Chargers defeated the defending Super Bowl III champion New York Jets 34 -- 27 before a record San Diego Stadium crowd of 54,042 on September 29, 1969. Alworth once again led the team in receptions with 64 and 1,003 yards with four touchdowns. The team also saw Gillman step down due to health and offensive backfield coach Charlie Waller promoted to head coach after the completion of the regular season. Gillman did remain with the club as the general manager.
In 1970, the Chargers were placed into the AFC West division after the NFL merger with the AFL. But by then, the Chargers fell on hard times; Gillman, who had returned as general manager, stepped down in 1971, and many of the Chargers players from the 1960s had already either retired or had been traded. The Chargers acquired veteran players like Deacon Jones and Johnny Unitas; however, it was at the later stages of their careers and the team struggled, placing third or fourth in the AFC West each year from 1970 to 1978. During the 1973 season, the Chargers were involved in the first major drug scandal in the NFL.
San Diego hired head coach Don Coryell in 1978, who would remain coaching the team until 1986. Coryell developed an offensive scheme and philosophy known as Air Coryell, also known as the "Coryell offense '' or the "vertical offense ''. With Dan Fouts as quarterback, the San Diego Chargers ' offense was among the greatest and most exciting passing offenses in National Football League history, setting league and individual offensive records. The Chargers led the league in passing yards an NFL record six consecutive years from 1978 to 1983 and again in 1985. They also led the league in total yards in offense 1978 -- 83 and 1985. Under the tutelage of Coryell, Dan Fouts, wide receiver Charlie Joiner, and tight end Kellen Winslow blossomed on the field and would all be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Chargers earned four consecutive playoff appearances (1979 -- 82) during the Air Coryell era, including three AFC West division championships (1979 -- 81).
1978 was marked by the "Holy Roller '' game, or as Chargers fans call it, the "Immaculate Deception ''. It was a game - winning play executed by the Oakland Raiders against the Chargers on September 10, 1978, in San Diego at Jack Murphy Stadium. With 10 seconds left in the game, the Raiders had possession of the ball at the Chargers ' 14 - yard line, down 20 -- 14. Raiders quarterback Ken Stabler took the snap and found himself about to be sacked by Chargers linebacker Woodrow Lowe on the 24 - yard line. Stabler fumbled the ball forward, and it rolled forward towards the San Diego goal line. Running back Pete Banaszak tried to recover the ball on the 12 - yard line, but could not keep his footing, and the ball was pushed even closer to the end zone. Raiders tight end Dave Casper was the next player to reach the ball but he also could not get a hand on it. He batted and kicked the ball into the end zone, where he fell on it for the game - tying touchdown as time ran out. With the ensuing extra point by kicker Errol Mann, the Raiders won 21 -- 20. What many Chargers fans believed should have been called an incomplete pass (and possibly intentional grounding) was seen as a fumble and the rest of the play involved batting of the ball forward towards the end zone where the Raiders ultimately recovered it for a touchdown. As a result of this play, NFL rules were changed so that, in the last two minutes of a half or game, or on fourth down at any time in the game, the only offensive player allowed to advance a fumble is the player who originally fumbled. If any other offensive player recovers the fumble and advances the ball, after the play the line of scrimmage is the spot of the original fumble.
1979 marked a turning point for the Chargers franchise as The Sporting News named team general manager John Sanders NFL Executive of the Year after balloting of other NFL executives. Fouts set an NFL record with his fourth consecutive 300 - yard passing game, in a game in which he threw for 303 yards against the Raiders. Coached by Don Coryell and featuring Fouts throwing to tight end Kellen Winslow and wide receivers John Jefferson and Charlie Joiner, they clinched their first playoff berth in 14 years with a 35 -- 0 victory against the New Orleans Saints. On December 17, the Chargers defeated the Denver Broncos 17 -- 7 for their first AFC West division title since the AFL -- NFL merger before a national Monday Night Football television audience and their home crowd. Their time in the playoffs was short as they would lose to the Houston Oilers 17 -- 14 in the divisional round. Ron Mix became the second AFL player and second Chargers player to be named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, during halftime of the AFC - NFC Pro Bowl.
In 1980 the team traded for running back Chuck Muncie, and Fouts set a club record with 444 yards passing in the Chargers ' 44 -- 7 victory over the New York Giants. Kellen Winslow caught 10 passes for 171 yards and Chargers clinched their second straight AFC West title by defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers 26 -- 17 and finished the regular season with an 11 -- 5 record. Jefferson (1,340), Winslow (1,290), and Joiner (1,132) became the first trio on the same team to have 1,000 yards receiving in a season. The Chargers ' defense led the NFL in sacks (60) spearheaded by the frontline of 1975 Chargers ' draftees Fred Dean, Gary "Big Hands '' Johnson and Louie Kelcher. The trio, along with Leroy Jones formed a defensive frontline that was locally nicknamed Bruise Brothers. In the playoffs, they won the divisional round 20 -- 14 over the Buffalo Bills. However, they fell one game shy of Super Bowl XV in a 34 -- 27 loss to the eventual champion Raiders.
In 1981, the Chargers won their third straight AFC West title with a 10 -- 6 season. After the division titles of the 1979 and 1980 seasons, contract disputes arose and owner Klein refused to renegotiate players ' contracts. They traded wide receiver John Jefferson to the Green Bay Packers after he held out for an increase in salary but replaced him with Wes Chandler. Defensive end Dean also became involved in a holdout and was traded to the 49ers. Dean contends he was making the same amount of money as his brother - in - law who was a truck driver. Dean won UPI NFC Defensive Player of the Year (while playing in only 11 games) that same year en route to a Super Bowl victory and helped the 49ers to another Super Bowl title two years later. Dean 's loss was particularly damaging to the Chargers ' Super Bowl chances as the defense weakened afterwards, surrendering the most passing yards in the NFL in both 1981 and 1982.
In the 1981 playoffs, the Chargers outlasted the Miami Dolphins in the divisional round, 41 -- 38, in a game that became known as The Epic in Miami. The game was voted as the best game in NFL history by a panel of ESPN journalists. The temperature was 85 ° F with high humidity (29.4 ° C) at the Miami Orange Bowl, but it did not stop either team 's offense. The Chargers were led by quarterback Dan Fouts who made the Pro Bowl for the third year in a row, setting an NFL single - season record at that time of 4,802 yards and 33 touchdowns. The Dolphins were led by head coach Don Shula and featured a defense that gave up the fifth - fewest points in the NFL in the regular season.
This game set playoff records for the most points scored in a playoff game (79), the most total yards by both teams (1,036), and most passing yards by both teams (809). Chargers placekicker Rolf Benirschke eventually kicked the winning 29 - yard field goal after 13: 52 of overtime to help San Diego beat Miami, 41 -- 38. The image of an exhausted tight end Kellen Winslow, who finished the game with 13 receptions for 166 yards and a touchdown and one blocked field goal, being helped off the field by two of his Chargers teammates has been replayed countless times. Winslow was voted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1995. The win sent the Chargers to their second straight AFC Championship game.
However, the eventual AFC Champion Cincinnati Bengals, playing in their first AFC Championship Game, defeated the Chargers 27 -- 7 in what became known as the Freezer Bowl. The temperature of − 9 ° with a wind - chill factor of − 59 ° made this the coldest weather conditions for a title game in the history of the NFL. Chargers ' owner Eugene Klein tried to get the NFL and Bengals to postpone the game but he was turned down.
During the strike - shortened 1982 season, Fouts averaged what was then a record of 320 yards passing per game. Highlights that season included back - to - back victories against the 1981 Super Bowl teams San Francisco (41 -- 37) and Cincinnati (50 -- 34) in which Fouts threw for over 400 yards in each game to lead the Chargers to shootout victories.
The Chargers made it back to the playoffs, but after beating the Steelers in the first round, they lost to the Dolphins 34 -- 13 in a rematch of their playoff game from the previous season. That loss began a slide for the Chargers, who from 1983 to 1991 failed to make the playoffs every season.
In 1984, Klein cut salary in preparation of selling the team, sending defensive linemen Johnson and Kelcher to San Francisco, where they would join Dean and offensive tackle Billy Shields for another 49ers championship in Super Bowl XIX. Alex Spanos purchased a majority interest in San Diego from Klein on August 1. Alex G. Spanos still owns 97 % of the team and until his death in 2016, George Pernicano owned the other 3 %. Benirschke was named "Miller Man of the Year '' and Joiner set an NFL record with his 650th pass reception in the fourth quarter of the game at Pittsburgh. In 1985 guard Ed White set an NFL record by playing in 241 NFL games, most all - time among offensive linemen. Lionel "Little Train '' James, a mere 5'6 '' and 171 pound running back, set NFL record of 2,535 all - purpose yards while also setting a record of 1,027 receiving yards by a running back. Al Saunders was named the seventh head coach in Chargers history in 1986 following the resignation of Coryell.
In 1987, Joiner retired from playing, and became the Chargers ' wide receivers coach. The Chargers finished with an 8 -- 7 record, their first winning record since 1982, despite winding up with six straight losses that cost them any chance at a playoff berth. In 1988, Fouts retired after a 15 - year career in which he set seven NFL records and 42 club records, and became the NFL 's second most prolific passer of all - time with 43,040 yards. Fouts ' jersey number (14) was retired at halftime of "Dan Fouts Day '' game in San Diego.
In 1989, Dan Henning, a former Chargers quarterback, Washington Redskins assistant, and Atlanta Falcons head coach, was named the eighth head coach in Chargers history. First - year running back Marion Butts set a club record with 39 carries and a team rookie record with 176 yards in Chargers ' 20 -- 13 win in Kansas City. After a three - year stint as Director of Football Operations, Steve Ortmayer was released after the season and replaced by Bobby Beathard.
Following Henning 's three - season stint with the Chargers, Bobby Ross was hired as the ninth head coach in 1992. Additionally, the Chargers acquired quarterback Stan Humphries in a trade with the Washington Redskins. The Chargers would lose their first four games of the season and come back to become the first 0 -- 4 team to make the playoffs as they won 11 of the last 12 games and clinched the AFC West title. Ross was named NFL Coach of the Year for the Chargers ' dramatic turnaround by Pro Football Weekly. In the first round of the playoffs, the Chargers shut out the Chiefs 17 -- 0, but the Dolphins shut out the Chargers in the divisional playoffs to eliminate the Chargers. In 1993, the Chargers finished 8 -- 8 (fourth in their division).
In the 1994 season, the Chargers made their first and, so far, only Super Bowl appearance, against the 49ers in Super Bowl XXIX. They got to the Super Bowl by winning their first six regular season games, the only NFL team to do so in 1994, and finished the season 11 -- 5. Quarterback Stan Humphries and wide receiver Tony Martin combined on a 99 - yard touchdown completion to tie an NFL record during a defeat of the Seattle Seahawks, 27 -- 10. They would become the 1994 AFC West Division champions behind a defense led by linebacker Junior Seau, defensive tackles Reuben Davis and Shawn Lee, defensive end Leslie O'Neal and an offense keyed by running back Natrone Means, Humphries and Martin. The Chargers had upset victories over the Dolphins and Steelers in the AFC playoffs. Despite those two close triumphs (22 -- 21 against the Dolphins in the Divisional Round, and 17 -- 13 against the Steelers in the AFC Championship Game), the Chargers lost Super Bowl XXIX to the San Francisco 49ers by a score of 49 -- 26, who were led by quarterback Steve Young (Super Bowl MVP) and wide receiver Jerry Rice.
Despite the lopsided loss in the Super Bowl, Beathard, who traded for or drafted the bulk of the Chargers roster, and who hired coach Ross, was named the NFL 's smartest man by Sports Illustrated, and became the only general manager to lead three different teams to the Super Bowl (Chargers, Dolphins, Redskins).
The Chargers ' follow - up year in 1995 did not bring the same success of the previous season, but the team still managed to get into the playoffs with a five - game winning streak to end the season at 9 -- 7. However, in the first round, the Chargers were eliminated by the Indianapolis Colts in a 35 -- 20 defeat.
In 1996, running back Rodney Culver and his wife, Karen, were killed in the crash of ValuJet Flight 592 in the Florida Everglades. Culver was the second player in team history to die while on the active roster after David Griggs was killed in a one - car accident in Davie, Florida, 11 months earlier. In 1997, Ross and Beathard were at odds with one another, resulting in Ross and his staff being released. The Chargers selected Kevin Gilbride to become their new head coach. Gilbride, whose coaching background with the Jacksonville Jaguars and Oilers featured a more open passing attack, would mark a major change in offensive style from the ball control ground game of Ross. Beathard drafted quarterback Ryan Leaf after the Indianapolis Colts selected Peyton Manning with the first pick in the 1998 NFL Draft. The Chargers traded several players and draft choices to the Arizona Cardinals in order to move up to the second pick and select Leaf. Leaf turned out to be arguably the biggest bust in NFL history. His poor play and attitude caused his departure after the 2000 season. In 1998, the Chargers went 5 -- 11. Said safety Rodney Harrison, "If I had to go through another year like that, I 'd probably quit playing. ''
The Chargers struggled in pass protection, resulting in Humphries suffering several concussions and his retirement from the game. Gilbride was replaced by interim head coach June Jones, who was on the Chargers ' staff before the hire. Jones left the team at the end of the season to coach at the University of Hawaii and the Chargers named former Oregon State University head coach Mike Riley as their new head coach. Leaf wound up having a disappointing career with the Chargers after a great deal of controversy with both Chargers management as well as the press and his teammates. His failure to be the player the team envisioned was seen as a black mark on the franchise and is generally considered one of the worst draft / trades in the history of pro football. Quarterback Jim Harbaugh, who was acquired in a trade with the Baltimore Ravens for a conditional draft choice in 2000, became the Chargers starting quarterback. Beathard retired in April 2000 and was replaced in January 2001 by John Butler, former general manager of the Bills. From 1996 to 2003, the Chargers had eight straight seasons where they were. 500 or worse.
In 2001, Norv Turner, the former head coach of the Redskins, was named offensive coordinator by Riley. Turner installed the offense that he coached with the Dallas Cowboys under Jimmy Johnson. Turner learned the offense from Ernie Zampese, former offensive coordinator during the Coryell era, while the two were on the Los Angeles Rams coaching staff. The Chargers signed Heisman Trophy winner free agent quarterback Doug Flutie, formerly with the Bills, and traded the team 's first overall selection in the 2001 NFL Draft to the Atlanta Falcons for their first - round selection (5th overall) and third - round selection in the same draft. In addition the Chargers obtained wide receiver - kick returner Tim Dwight and the Falcons ' second - round draft selection in the 2002 NFL Draft. The Chargers used that selection in the 2001 draft to select Texas Christian University running back LaDainian Tomlinson and their own first pick in the second round to select Purdue University quarterback Drew Brees.
Hired as a replacement to Riley, Marty Schottenheimer 's Chargers squad opened the 2002 season with four - straight victories, making him the only coach in team history to win his first four games. Butler would succumb to cancer after a nine - month struggle in April 2003. Replacing Butler was A.J. Smith, who was named Executive Vice President - General Manager, replacing his close friend. Smith and Butler had worked together with the Bills, playing key roles with Buffalo 's Super Bowl teams. In 2003, the Chargers traded Seau to the Dolphins for a draft pick in 2004 NFL Draft. Seau was selected to 2003 Pro Bowl, his 12th Pro Bowl selection of his career, and in his final season with the Chargers, he was chosen by teammates as the recipient of the Emil Karas Award as the team 's Most Inspirational Player. Also in 2003, Tomlinson accumulated 195 total yards from scrimmage in a late - season game against the Packers to raise his season total to 2,011 and became the first player in team history and the eighth player in NFL history to record consecutive 2,000 - yard seasons. Tomlinson also became the first player in NFL history to rush for 1,000 yards and catch 100 passes in the same season.
The Chargers coveted Eli Manning and wanted to select him with their first round pick, which was also the first overall pick of the draft. However, after Eli Manning indicated before the draft that he would not sign with the San Diego Chargers, they were forced to adjust their plans. Philip Rivers was their first alternative to Manning because the Chargers head coach at the time, Marty Schottenheimer, had coached Rivers at the Senior Bowl and he liked what he saw from Rivers. The Chargers agreed to a trade on draft day with the New York Giants. Manning was selected by the San Diego Chargers then later in the draft traded for Rivers, selected with the fourth pick by the Giants. The Chargers also received draft picks from the Giants that were used to select future Pro Bowlers Shawne Merriman and Nate Kaeding. Rivers was one of seventeen quarterbacks taken in the 2004 NFL Draft along with Ben Roethlisberger, Eli Manning, and Matt Schaub. Rivers, Roethlisberger, Schaub and Manning have been voted to the Pro Bowl since becoming starters, none had produced a season with a losing record until Schaub in 2010, but Roethlisberger and Manning both have won two Super Bowls. They have been compared favorably to the Quarterback class of 1983, which included Hall of Fame quarterbacks John Elway (1st pick), Jim Kelly (14th), and Dan Marino (27th).
In August 2004, Rivers signed a six - year, $40.5 million contract that included $14.5 million in signing bonuses. However, due to a protracted contract negotiation, Rivers only reported to the team during the last week of training camp, and incumbent Drew Brees retained his starting job. After the starting quarterback switch, it was almost certain Brees ' days as the Chargers ' starting QB were over. However, Rivers held out nearly all of training camp, and Brees remained the starter throughout the 2004 season, where he started 15 games and led the team to a 12 - 4 regular season record. Brees posted spectacular numbers, completing 65.5 % of his passes for 3,159 yards, with 27 touchdowns to only 7 interceptions, giving him a 104.8 passer rating. The Chargers won the AFC West and Brees was selected to the 2004 Pro Bowl. He was named 2004 NFL Comeback Player of the Year.
Marty Schottenheimer was named NFL Coach of the Year for the 2004 NFL season. He led the team to a playoff appearance, his 12th as a head coach. However, it resulted in a disappointing loss to the underdog New York Jets in overtime in 2005.
During the 2005 NFL Draft, the Chargers tried to get some key rookies that would help carry the momentum from their mostly successful 2004 -- 05 run. They used their first pick on LB Shawne "Lights Out '' Merriman from the University of Maryland. Then, they used their next pick on DT Luis Castillo from Northwestern University. Their other choices were WR Vincent Jackson from Northern Colorado, RB Darren Sproles from Kansas State, OT Wesley Britt from University of Alabama, OT Wes Sims from Oklahoma University, and Center Scott Mruczkowski from Bowling Green State.
The Chargers got off to a rough start in their 2005 campaign, losing a close one to the Dallas Cowboys in their Week 1 home - opener (28 -- 24) and then they lost on the road to their AFC West rival, the Denver Broncos (20 -- 17). It was n't until a Week 3 home game on Sunday night that they got their first win of the season, when Eli Manning and the New York Giants got "shocked to the system '' as LaDainian Tomlinson had one of the greatest games of his career. He got 220 total yards, had 3 rushing touchdowns, and threw for a touchdown as he helped the Chargers win 45 -- 23.
A week later, they were able to build off their win by not only beating the two - time defending champion New England Patriots 41 -- 17, but also ending the Pats ' 21 - game winning streak at home. In their Week 5 Monday Night home game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Chargers wore their throw - back uniforms during this season (they had also worn them during the 1994 season). The Steelers held on to win with a 40 - yard field goal by Jeff Reed (24 -- 22). The Chargers rebounded on the road against their division rival Oakland Raiders (27 -- 14). In their Week 7 road trip to Philadelphia, they hoped to build off their win against the Eagles. Late in the game, with the Chargers leading 17 -- 13, the Chargers tried to go for a field goal to put their lead well out of reach, but it got blocked and Eagles DB Matt Ware returned it 65 yards for the game - winning touchdown and the Chargers fourth loss of the season.
After going 3 -- 4, the Chargers turned things around as they began a five - game winning streak. They won at home against division - rival Kansas City Chiefs (28 -- 20) and on the road against the New York Jets (31 -- 26). Coming off their Week 10 bye, they went home and wore their throw - back uniforms again. This time, it was a dominating performance as the Chargers man - handled the Buffalo Bills, 48 -- 10. Then, they went on the road and won a close match against the Washington Redskins (23 -- 17 in OT) and then they swept the Oakland Raiders at home by a score of 34 -- 10.
The Chargers were 8 -- 5, coming off a 23 -- 21 loss to the Miami Dolphins. On December 18, the Chargers beat the undefeated Indianapolis Colts 26 -- 17, snapping a 13 -- 0 winning streak. However, despite a record of 9 -- 6, they were officially eliminated from AFC playoff contention in 2005 after a 20 -- 7 loss to the Kansas City Chiefs the following Saturday. The Chargers lost their final game of the season by a score of 23 -- 7 to the AFC West champion Denver Broncos to finish with a record of 9 -- 7.
The Chargers delivered an impressive performance in 2006, losing only to the Ravens and Chiefs; they finished 14 -- 2 which secured them the # 1 AFC seed in the playoffs. However, they lost 24 - 21 to the New England Patriots in the divisional round. Following the 2006 season, they replaced Schottenheimer with new head coach Norv Turner. In 2007, they went 11 - 5, beating the Tennessee Titans and the defending champion Indianapolis Colts to reach the AFC title game. However, they fell to the Patriots for the second year in a row. In 2008, the Chargers dropped to 8 -- 8, but as the AFC West was unusually weak that year, they still managed to win the division title. Defeating the Colts in the wild card round, they lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the divisional round.
San Diego began the 2009 season 2 -- 3. After losing to the Broncos on Monday night, they began an unbroken winning streak for the rest of the season, which included defeating the entire NFC East. In Week 11, they avenged their earlier loss against the Broncos by inflicting a 32 -- 3 rout on them. The next game saw them beat a 1 -- 11 Cleveland Browns squad 30 - 23, in which LaDainian Tomlinson broke Hall of Famer Jim Brown 's rushing record and was congratulated by him afterwards. The Chargers secured another division title, the # 2 AFC seed, and looked to be a near shoo - in for the Super Bowl. However, the team 's postseason futility continued. Hosting the New York Jets on January 17, 2010, they endured an upset defeat, where, despite an early lead, were unable to overcome the strong Jets ' defense. Kicker Nate Kaeding also missed three field goal and PAT attempts, which resulted in the Chargers losing 17 -- 14.
The 2010 season was the 1st season without LaDainian Tomlinson since 2000 (Tomlinson was let go by management due to an oversized contract relative to production and other issues; he went on to lead the Jets in rushing with 914 yards & tied for 3rd in receptions with 52). The 2010 campaign started off slowly again, this time 2 -- 5 (including losses to some of the worst teams in football at the time -- the Kansas City Chiefs, the Oakland Raiders, the Seattle Seahawks and the St. Louis Rams). The losses were due to turnovers & mental mistakes by young players on special teams allowing blocked punts & kick / punt return touchdowns. The loss to Oakland ended their 13 - game winning streak against the Raiders since their last loss on September 28, 2003. The Chargers then went on another second half run with four straight wins but this time instead of keeping the streak going the entire second half they had a big let down losing at home to the Raiders again, this time 28 -- 13 (ending their shared NFL record, with the Dolphins, of 18 straight wins in December). Despite the loss, they still had a chance to win their 5th straight AFC West title, tying the Raiders, but they had another bad loss at the Bengals 34 -- 20 ending their chances. The Chargers beat Denver to end the season with a 9 -- 7 record & out of the playoffs for the first time since 2005. They finished the season as the 8th team in NFL history to rank # 1 in overall offense (395.6 yards / game), and overall defense (271.6 yards / game), and became only the 2nd of those teams to not make the playoffs (1953 Eagles 7 -- 4 -- 1). They were second to the Colts in passing yards per game (282.4), second to the Patriots in points scored per game (27.6), 1st in passing yards allowed per game (177.8), 4th in rushing yards allowed per game (93.8), and tied for 2nd in sacks (47). On the negative stat sheet, they gave up the most punt return yards per game (18.9) & had 29 turnovers. Philip Rivers had another great season with a career - high 4,710 yards (# 1 in the NFL), 294 yards passing per game (tied for 1st with Manning), 66 % completion pct. (third to Brees & Manning), 30 TD 's, only 13 INT 's & a 101.8 passer rating (second to Brady). Mike Tolbert 11 rushing TD 's & Antonio Gates 10 receiving TD 's were among the league leaders in TD 's scored. On defense, Shaun Phillips ' 11 sacks were in the top 10.
With the special teams failure of the 2010 season campaign, the Chargers hoped to rebound with a strong performance to start the season, and a way to overcome slow starts.
The Chargers started off the 2011 season with a 4 -- 1 campaign, with their only loss to the New England Patriots. From that point on, however, the Chargers began a six - game skid with losses to the Jets, Chiefs, Packers, Raiders, Bears, and Broncos, with the first four by only a score and against Denver in overtime. Injuries to both the offensive and the defensive line hit the Chargers hard. But finally on December 5, 2011, the Chargers got their first win in over a month against the Jacksonville Jaguars, beating the also - struggling team. The Chargers then began a three - game winning streak most notably beating the Ravens by more than any team has beat them that season. However, the Chargers were beaten, 38 -- 10, by the Detroit Lions to drop their record to 7 -- 8 and eliminate the possibility of being in the playoffs. After a 38 -- 26 victory over the Raiders in week 17, the Chargers finished at 8 -- 8 and in a numerical tie for first place in the AFC West along with Oakland and Denver. However, the Chargers were beaten out by Denver for the Division Title via tie - breaker. After missing the playoffs for the third straight season in 2012, the Chargers fired general manager Smith and head coach Turner.
The Chargers made offseason changes including a new General Manager, Tom Telesco, and head coach, Mike McCoy, the former offensive coordinator for the Denver Broncos. On January 9, 2013, the Chargers announced that Tom Telesco, former Vice President of Football Operations with the Indianapolis Colts, would take over as General Manager following the firing of A.J. Smith. On January 15, 2013, Broncos offensive coordinator, Mike McCoy, was hired as the new head coach and Ken Whisenhunt as offensive coordinator.
The Chargers finished the 2013 season 9 - 7 and made the playoffs for the first time since 2009. They entered the playoffs as the sixth seed. On January 5, 2014, the Chargers defeated the Cincinnati Bengals at Paul Brown Stadium (27 - 10) to advance to the AFC Divisional Playoff Round. The Chargers then lost to the Denver Broncos at Sports Authority Field at Mile High the following Sunday, January 12, 2014 (24 - 17).
After starting the season strongly, including a five - win run in September and October, the Chargers were beset by a string of injuries to key players, and eventually finished the season at 9 - 7. In contrast to 2013, the record was not enough to make the playoffs. The Chargers began the season 5 -- 1, winning five straight after losing their season opener. It was followed by a three - game losing streak, and they finished 4 -- 4 in the second half. They won just two of their final five games, coming back from double - digit fourth quarter deficits twice to remain in playoff contention. They lost the final game of the season when a win would have secured a playoff berth. In three of their last four games, and five of their last eight, the Chargers did not score more than one touchdown. Compared to 2013, the offense dropped in points (from 12th in the league to 17th), yards (5th to 18th), first downs (3rd to 15th), net yards per pass (2nd to 8th), rushing yards (13th to 30) and yards per rush (21st to 31st). It was the second time in three years the team finished second - to - last in yards per carry. San Diego was just 2 -- 4 against teams in their division in the AFC West, and were swept by both the Denver Broncos and the Kansas City Chiefs. It was their worst intradivision record since they were 1 -- 5 in 2003. The Chargers were only 3 -- 6 against teams with winning records. They matched their 9 -- 7 record from 2013, but missed the playoffs for the fourth time in five seasons.
During the season, the Chargers, the St. Louis Rams, and the Oakland Raiders all intimated they might apply for relocation to Los Angeles at the end of the season. The Chargers announced in December 2014 that they would not be seeking to relocate for the 2015 season, followed by an announcement from the NFL that no team would relocate to L.A. until the 2016 season at the earliest.
Controversy filled the 2015 offseason, as attorney and team spokesperson Mark Fabiani continually bashed the local San Diego city government 's efforts to negotiate a replacement for Qualcomm Stadium. When then - St. Louis Rams owner Stan Kroenke announced in January 2015 his intention to build a new stadium in Inglewood, California, the Chargers felt pressured to announce their own Los Angeles plan to preserve what they claimed was "25 percent of their fan base '' in the affluent Los Angeles and Orange County areas. In February 2015, the team announced a stadium proposal in Carson, California, in partnership with the Oakland Raiders, their AFC West divisional rivals.
The 2015 season started off with a win against the Detroit Lions at home. The Chargers lost to the Cincinnati Bengals and Minnesota Vikings on the road before defeating the Cleveland Browns on a last second field goal. Following their 2 -- 2 start, the Chargers lost their next six games, dropping to 2 -- 8. In their six straight losses, they lost heartbreakers to the Pittsburgh Steelers, Green Bay Packers, Baltimore Ravens and the Chicago Bears, as well as sound defeats by both, division rivals, the Oakland Raiders and the Kansas City Chiefs. They finally broke their losing streak by defeating the Jacksonville Jaguars on the road, bringing their record to 3 -- 8, in last place in the AFC West and 3rd worst in the American Football Conference (one game ahead of both the Browns and the Tennessee Titans). They are also tied for the third worst record in the National Football League. They then proceeded to beat the Miami Dolphins in Week 14 winning 30 -- 14. They finished the season 4 -- 12.
The day following the conclusion of the 2015 regular season, the Chargers, Rams, and Raiders all filed to relocate to Los Angeles. On January 12, 2016, the NFL owners voted 30 -- 2 to allow the Rams to return to Los Angeles and approved the Inglewood stadium project over the Carson project. The Chargers were given a one - year approval to relocate, conditioned on negotiating a lease agreement with the Rams or an agreement to partner with the Rams on the new stadium construction.
On January 14, 2016, the team filed paperwork for official trademark protection of the term "Los Angeles Chargers '' for the purposes of running and marketing a professional football franchise. After two weeks of negotiation, the Chargers and Rams on January 29, 2016 reached an agreement in principle on sharing the planned Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park. The Chargers would contribute a $200 million stadium loan from the NFL and personal seat license fees to the construction costs and would pay $1 per year in rent to the Rams. The Chargers had continued preliminary work on a ballot initiative for public approval on a new facility. On November 8, 2016, Measure C was voted down (57 % opposed over 43 % in support). On December 14, 2016, at an owners ' meeting, the terms of the Chargers and Rams lease agreement, as well as the team 's debt ceiling were approved thus taking the first steps for a possible relocation to Los Angeles in 2017.
Spanos announced the relocation in a controversial letter to San Diego Chargers fans posted to the team 's official site on January 12, 2017. The team announced it would play as the Los Angeles Chargers starting in the 2017 season at StubHub Center in Carson, California, although the stadium seats well below the 50,000 the minimum that the NFL set even for temporary homes following the 1970 merger. The current seating for their temporary home stands at seating for 30,000 fans and is shared by the MLS soccer team, LA Galaxy. This will serve as the Chargers ' temporary home field until they join the Rams in Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park in Inglewood starting in the 2020 NFL season.
Reaction to the relocation itself has not been without controversy. Los Angeles Times columnist Bill Plaschke welcomed the team to town by writing "We. Do n't. Want. You. '' At a game at the Staples Center between the Los Angeles Clippers and Lakers, the Chargers ' logo was shown on a scoreboard and was "booed heartily ''. Chargers tight end Jeff Cumberland was also "jeered '' by the crowd when featured on the big screen.
One week after the move from San Diego to Los Angeles was announced, ESPN 's Adam Schefter reported that the other NFL owners were "angered '' by the decision, and that "the NFL wants the Chargers to move back, though nobody believes that possibility is realistic. ''
On January 13, the Chargers fired defensive coordinator John Pagano. It took the team only one week to find a replacement for John Pagano, as they hired Gus Bradley on January 20. Gus Bradley was formerly the head coach for the Jacksonville Jaguars, and before landing that head coaching job was the defensive coordinator for the Seattle Seahawks. The Chargers also announced they had hired Anthony Lynn to be their next head coach.
In their first game back in Los Angeles, the Chargers failed to sell out the StubHub Center. The announced attendance was just over 25,000, divided "around 50 / 50 '' between fans of the Chargers and the visiting Miami Dolphins. After the poor response, the NFL was reportedly considering ways to move the Chargers back to San Diego, although that possibility is considered unlikely. The league officially denied that such discussions were happening, as San Diego was stated not to have a usable stadium and that the Spanos family refuses to consider going back to the city; the league did acknowledge that a vote of the owners could change the situation.
The Chargers ' attendance problems continued into their second season. There were so many fans of the visiting Kansas City Chiefs at the Chargers ' 2018 home opener that USA Today remarked it "was essentially a Chiefs home game ''.
The team 's struggles to draw fans have reportedly led them to lower their initial revenue goal when they move into the new stadium from $400 million to $150 million, and are causing some owners to doubt the Chargers ' viability in Los Angeles.
Except for color changes, the Chargers have basically used the logo of an arc - shaped lightning bolt since the team debuted in 1960. During its period in the AFL, the club also used a shield logo that featured a horsehead, a lightning bolt, and the word "Chargers ''.
From 1960 to 1973, the colors consisted of various shades of Electric blue ("powder '' blue, but technically called Collegiate blue) or white jerseys, both with gold lightning bolts on the shoulders. The helmets were white and had both the arc - shaped lightning bolt logo, in gold or navy depending on the year, and the player 's number. At first, the team wore white pants before switching to gold in 1966. In 1973, the numerals on the blue jerseys changed from white to gold.
In 1974, the sky blue was changed to dark royal blue. The helmet was also changed to dark blue and the players ' numbers were removed. Additionally, the face masks became yellow, thus making them one of the first teams in the NFL (with the Kansas City Chiefs) to use a facemask color other than the then - predominant grey. From 1978 through 1983, the Chargers wore their white jerseys at home, coinciding with the hiring of coach Don Coryell -- when Joe Gibbs, a Coryell assistant in 1979 -- 80, became head coach of the Washington Redskins in 1981, he did the same, and white at home became a Redskins staple through 2007 -- but Coryell switched the Chargers to their blue jerseys at home starting in 1984. With the exception of the 1991 season and other sporadic home games since, San Diego wears its blue jerseys at home.
In 1985, the Chargers started using navy blue jerseys and returned to wearing white pants. The team 's uniform design was next revamped in 1988. It featured an even darker shade of navy blue. The lightning bolts on the jerseys and helmets were white, with navy interior trim and gold outlining. In 1990, the team started to wear navy pants with their white jerseys. From 1988 to 1991, the team displayed stripes down the pants rather than lightning bolts. The Chargers went with all - white combinations in 1997 and 2001, only to have the blue pants make a comeback. On October 27, 2003, the Chargers wore their navy pants with their navy jersey for a Monday Night Football game versus the Miami Dolphins that was played at Sun Devil Stadium, then the home of the Arizona Cardinals, due to wildfires in southern California. This remains the only game in which the Chargers have worn the all - dark combination.
From the late 1980s to 2000, the Chargers wore white at home during some preseason games and dark for regular season games. In 2001, the Chargers started wearing their dark uniforms for preseason games and white uniforms in September home games due to the heat before switching back to dark in October.
In March 2007, the Chargers unveiled their first uniform redesign since 1988, on the team 's official website. The team formally unveiled this new uniform set, which mixes old and new styles, in a private team - only event. Navy blue remains the primary color on the home jersey, but the familiar lightning bolt was reverted to gold, and now has navy outlining and powder blue interior trim. The latter color is a nod to the 1960s uniforms. The redesigned lightning bolt was moved to the sides of the shoulders from the top, and includes a new numbering font and word mark in white, with gold outlining and powder blue interior trim. The pants also have a redesigned lightning bolt in gold, with powder blue trim on a navy stripe. Additionally, the team pays tribute to other uniform features from their history by wearing a metallic white helmet, with a navy face mask, the newly revamped bolt in gold with navy and powder blue trim, and white pants. The road white jerseys with navy pants, as well as the alternate powder blue jerseys with white pants, were also redesigned with the new scheme.
From 2002 to 2006, the Chargers used the early - 1960s powder blue uniforms as alternate jerseys, which many football fans (both of the Chargers and of other teams) clamored for the team to bring back full - time.
Since 2007, the Chargers have worn the alternate powder blue jerseys twice per season. The alternate powder blue jerseys have also been worn in a playoff game against the Indianapolis Colts (2008 playoffs).
In 2009, in honor of their 50th anniversary as one of the eight original AFL teams, the Chargers wore their 1963 throwback uniforms for three games.
For the 2013 season, the Chargers made minor tweaks to their current uniforms. These include a two - tone nameplate (gold with powder blue trim on home jersey, navy with gold trim on away jersey, and white with navy trim on alternate jersey), collars matching the color of the jersey, and the addition of a gold stripe on the socks.
On January 12, 2017, with the announcement that the Chargers were moving to Los Angeles, the team unveiled a new alternate logo incorporating the letters "LA '' with a lightning bolt. The logo was immediately and widely ridiculed by fans, the media, and even other professional sports franchises, in part for its resemblance to the Los Angeles Dodgers logo. The team tried to diffuse the controversy by changing the color scheme of the new logo before scrapping it altogether after two days.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated October 21, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 9 Inactive, 9 Practice squad
The Chargers currently have four retired numbers: # 14 (Dan Fouts), # 19 (Lance Alworth), # 21 (LaDainian Tomlinson) and # 55 (Junior Seau). As of 2010, the Chargers ' policy was to have the Chargers Hall of Fame committee evaluate candidates for a player 's number to retire after the player has retired from the league after five years, Seau was the only exception to this policy. The committee consists of Chargers Executive Vice President Alex Spanos, Chargers public relations director Bill Johnston, San Diego Hall of Champions founder Bob Breitbard, and the presidents of the San Diego Sports Commission and the Chargers Backers Fan Club. There are few recognized guidelines in sports regarding retiring numbers, and the NFL has no specific league policy. "You have to have enough numbers for players to wear '', said NFL spokesman Greg Aiello. The Chargers have rarely retired numbers. The San Diego Union - Tribune wrote, "The (Chargers) tend to honor their heritage haphazardly. ''
The Chargers created their Hall of Fame in 1976. The members of the Hall of Fame are honored at the Chargers Ring of Honor, founded in 2000 and viewable above the visiting team 's sideline of Qualcomm Stadium on the press level. Eligible candidates must have been retired for at least four seasons. Selections are made by a five - member committee chaired by Dean Spanos, Chargers vice-chairman. As of 1992, other committee members included Bob Breitbard, founder of the San Diego Hall of Champions; Ron Fowler, president of the Greater San Diego Sports Association; Jane Rappoport, president of the Charger Backers; and Bill Johnston, the team 's director of public relations. The Chargers in 2012 allowed fans to vote for the newest member.
The Chargers announced their 50th Anniversary Team in 2009 to honor the top players and coaches in the team 's history. The Chargers were founded in 1959. The team included 53 players and coaches selected from 103 nominees. The Chargers originally stated that only 50 members would be selected. Online voting by fans accounted for 50 % of the voting results; votes from Chargers Hall of Famers and five members of the local media made up for the other 50 %. Over 400,000 votes were cast online. Dan Fouts and LaDainian Tomlinson received the first and second most votes, respectively. The team features 7 Pro Football Hall of Fame members and 11 players that were active on the 2009 Chargers team.
Alworth, Mix, Hadl, Joiner, Coryell, Gillman, Garrison, Fouts, White, Winslow, Faison, Benirschke, Lincoln, Washington, Humphries, Ladd and Wilkerson are also members of the San Diego Hall of Champions, which is open to athletes from the San Diego area as well as those who played for San Diego - based professional and collegiate teams.
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The Chargers ' flagship station is KFI 640AM in Los Angeles, commonly known as "KFI AM 640 '' with daily coverage and special programming on KLAC / 570. Play - by - play man Matt "Money '' Smith and former Chargers former offensive lineman Nick Hardwick comprise the broadcast team, with KLSD afternoon co-host Mike Costa serving as sideline reporter. Past Chargers radio broadcasters have included Josh Lewin, Ralph Lawler, Stu Nahan, Tom Kelly, Lee "Hacksaw '' Hamilton, Dan Rowe, Ted Leitner, and Hank Bauer. Bauer served seventeen seasons (1998 -- 2014) as the radio color analyst; however, the Chargers and then flagship KIOZ decided not to renew his contract, and was replaced by Conway starting with the 2015 season. As of 2014, the Chargers also stream their radio broadcasts on their official mobile application (through iOS and Android devices) as well as on their website.
Most preseason games are televised on KABC - TV and KAZA - TV in Los Angeles and KFMB - TV in San Diego. KCBS - TV, besides KFMB, carries the majority of the team 's regular season games; in 2015, Spero Dedes and Dan Fouts called the team 's preseason telecasts. Games in which the Chargers host an NFC team on Sunday afternoons are aired over KTTV in Los Angeles and KSWB in San Diego (along with Thursday Night Football games under Fox 's and NFL Network 's packages); if a Sunday night game is televised, KNBC in Los Angeles and KNSD in San Diego will air the games, through parent network NBC 's Sunday Night Football coverage. KABC, KCBS and KFMB are also the designated local simulcasters of the Chargers ' appearances on either ESPN 's Monday Night Football.
Dennis Packer, the public address announcer of all USC football games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, serves as the public address announcer of all Chargers home games at StubHub Center. Packer replaced legendary P.A. announcer Bruce Binkowski, who went on to become the executive director of the Holiday and Poinsettia Bowl games, which are played at their former home, SDCCU Stadium.
With the Chargers ' move to Los Angeles in 2017, the team became a beneficiary of league scheduling policies. Both the Chargers and the Los Angeles Rams share the Los Angeles market, which is on the West Coast of the United States. This means that the Chargers can not play home games, road division games against the Denver Broncos or Oakland Raiders, or interconference road games against the NFC West (in seasons that the AFC West and NFC West meet in interconference play) in the early 10: 00 a.m. Pacific time slot. In addition, they can not play interconference home games at the same time or network as the Rams. As a result, both teams generally will have more limited scheduling options, and will also benefit by receiving more prime - time games than usual (click here for further information). Thus, regardless of the previous season 's record, the Chargers will receive a disproportionate number of Sunday Night, Monday Night and / or Thursday Night games, compared to the rest of the league. Additionally, if the Chargers and Rams are both playing at the same time on Sunday afternoons on a certain network (for instance, a Rams road game against an AFC opponent at the same time as a Charger home game with an NFC opponent with both on Fox, or the reverse where the Rams are on the road against an AFC opponent and the Chargers are at home against an AFC opponent on CBS), in the Los Angeles market, Fox and CBS have authorization to carry the additional game on their secondary sister stations; Fox games air on KCOP - TV, while CBS games are aired on KCAL - TV.
Chargers Radio Network Chargers Finalize 2017 Broadcast Team and Station Affiliates
The Chargers ' fight song, "San Diego Super Chargers '', was recorded in 1979 at the height of the team 's success with Air Coryell, and has a distinctly disco sound. The team under then - new owner Alex Spanos replaced the song in 1989 with a non-disco cover version, but the original version was revived in 2002. The team played this song at home games after Chargers scores and victories until it departed San Diego. From time to time during highlights of NFL PrimeTime, ESPN 's Chris Berman and Tom Jackson would briefly sing the first line of the song 's chorus.
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who wrote good love is on the way | John Mayer Trio - wikipedia
The John Mayer Trio is an American blues rock band that formed in 2005. Comprising singer - songwriter and guitarist John Mayer, bassist Pino Palladino and drummer Steve Jordan, the band has released one live album, Try! in 2005. Three of the songs on the album were co-written by Jordan, Mayer, and Palladino, and the album was co-produced by Mayer and Jordan.
In 2005, Mayer and Jordan had committed to a telethon on NBC, with bassist Willie Weeks entitled Tsunami Aid: A Concert of Hope to raise funds and public awareness benefiting victims in the aftermath of the tsunami that struck southeast Asia. However, as the date arrived, Weeks was unable to make the gig, and Jordan suggested high - profile bassist Pino Palladino instead. When the three joined to play, they noted a chemistry between them, and formed the Trio to play what Mayer called, "power - rockin ', electric - guitar, in - your - face blues. '' In October 2005 the band toured as the opening act for The Rolling Stones on some A Bigger Bang Tour dates. As feedback from the tour began pouring in, the reviews were a polarizing mix; commenting on the Trio 's October 6, 2005 show, Alan Light, with Rolling Stone, said, "Make no mistake: One - time Berklee College of Music student Mayer is a badass guitar player. Backed by studio aces Steve Jordan on drums and Pino Palladino on bass... his blues playing was consistently impressive. '' "But '', he added, "he 's a bit too eager to impress. ''
In February 2005, the trio played Mayer 's single "Daughters '' at the 47th Grammy Awards, for which Mayer went on to win the award for Best Male Vocal Performance later that night (though the Trio performed, the act was announced only as "John Mayer ''). The Trio released "Come When I Call '' exclusively to iTunes. While Rolling Stone said the for - download - only single "screams vanity project '', they conceded that "Mayer is a surprisingly convincing mini Stevie Ray Vaughan '' and gave the song three out of four stars. Another reviewer noted that "mixed in with the Stevie Ray Vaughan and Eric Clapton-esque music, there are a few mellow numbers '', notably from Mayer 's Heavier Things.
On April 1, 2006, Mayer announced that the trio had played their final performance for that tour at a concert at the Tempe Music Festival in Tempe, Arizona. The three musicians had agreed to release a record, but when the time came to produce it, they came up "about three songs short '', Jordan remembers. They went to work to write songs together, and from their collaborations, Mayer, Palladino, and Jordan wrote three songs on the album: "Good Love Is On The Way '', "Vultures '' and "Try ''.
Mayer 's experience with the Trio influenced his production style on Continuum, and he and Jordan produced the album. He remarked "The artist gets almost trained to believe it takes 60 people and 12 months to make a record. It takes four people. You get it on tape, you listen back and ask, ' Does it make you feel something, yes or no? ' When you got it, you move on. '' On September 12, 2006, the day of Mayer 's solo release Continuum (which contains songs from the Trio album Try!), he announced on his blog that the group would reunite and produce a studio album.
The Trio teamed up for another performance on December 8, 2007, where Mayer performed an acoustic set, a set with the Trio and then a set with his band. The performance is featured on Mayer 's live DVD Where the Light Is, released on July 1, 2008.
The Trio reunited on June 4, 2009 to play the song "California Dreamin ' '' on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien. They reunited twice more in 2009, on December 29 at Copley Symphony Hall in San Diego for Mayer 's third annual Charity Revue, and on December 31 for a special black - tie New Year 's Eve performance at The Joint at the Hard Rock Hotel in Las Vegas. Also the Trio were brought together for an impromptu reunion during Eric Clapton 's Crossroads Guitar Festival, Chicago, Ill., (June) 2010.
During the years since Try! was released, Palladino has been busy with session work, and his membership as the touring bassist for The Who, with Jordan also contributing his talent in recording sessions, and in his role as a record producer.
In an interview on January 23, 2014, Mayer announced that the trio is "coming back. '' On February 27, 2014, the trio reunited in a Late Night with Seth Meyers episode to play JJ Cale 's "After Midnight ''.
On January 10, 2016, John Mayer posted a photo on his Instagram feed with a caption reading "In the studio, day one. '' The photo features the three members of the Trio together, almost two years removed from their last public performance.
The trio formed the core of the studio band that recorded The Search for Everything, Mayer 's seventh studio album. Prior to being released as an album, eight of the tracks were released on two EPs: The Search for Everything: Wave One and The Search for Everything: Wave Two.
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who was the longest serving president in nigeria | List of heads of state of Nigeria - wikipedia
This is a list of the heads of state of Nigeria, from independence in 1960 to the present day.
From 1960 to 1963 the head of state under the Nigeria Independence Act 1960 was the Queen of Nigeria, Elizabeth II, who was also monarch of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen was represented in Nigeria by a Governor - General. Nigeria became a federal republic under the Constitution of 1963 and the monarch and Governor - General were replaced by a ceremonial President. In 1979, under the 1979 Constitution, the President gained executive powers, becoming head of both state and government. Since 1994, under the 1993 Constitution and the current 1999 Constitution, the head of state and government has been called the President..
The succession to the throne was the same as the succession to the British throne.
The Governor - General was the representative of the monarch in Nigeria and exercised most of the powers of the monarch. The Governor - General was appointed for an indefinite term, serving at the pleasure of the monarch. Since Nigeria was granted independence by the Nigeria Independence Act 1960, rather than being first established as a semi-autonomous Dominion and later promoted to independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Governor - General was appointed solely on the advice of the Nigerian cabinet without the involvement of the British government, with the sole of exception of James Robertson, the former colonial governor, who served as Governor - General temporarily until he was replaced by Nnamdi Azikiwe. In the event of a vacancy the Chief Justice would have served as Officer Administering the Government.
Under the 1963 Constitution, the first constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President replaced the monarch as ceremonial head of state. The President was elected by Parliament for a five - year term. In the event of a vacancy the President of the Senate would have served as Acting President.
Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu led a coup d'état in 1966 which overthrew President Azikiwe and his government.
Under the 1979 Constitution, the second constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President was head of both state and government. The President was elected by for a four - year term. In the event of a vacancy the Vice President would have served as Acting President.
Major - General Muhammadu Buhari led a coup d'état which overthrew President Shagari and his government.
The Third Republic was the planned republican government of Nigeria in 1993 which was to be governed by the Third Republican constitution.
The constitution of the Third Republic was drafted in 1989, when General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (IBB), the military Head of State, promised to terminate military rule by 1990 -- a date which was subsequently pushed back to 1993. IBB lifted the ban on political activity in the spring of 1989, and his government established two political parties: the center - right National Republican Convention (NRC) and the center - left Social Democratic Party (SDP). Gubernatorial and state legislative elections were conducted in December 1991, while the presidential election was postponed till 12 June 1993 -- due to political unrest. M.K.O. Abiola, a wealthy Yoruba businessman, won a decisive victory in the presidential elections on the SDP platm.
General Sani Abacha led a coup d'état which overthrew President Shonekan and his government.
Under the fourth Constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President is head of both state and government. The President is elected by for a four - year term. In the event of a vacancy the Vice President serves as Acting President.
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who sings but i still haven't found what i'm looking for | I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For - wikipedia
"I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' is a song by Irish rock band U2. It is the second track from their 1987 album The Joshua Tree and was released as the album 's second single in May 1987. The song was a hit, becoming the band 's second consecutive number - one single on the US Billboard Hot 100 while peaking at number six on the UK Singles Chart.
The song originated from a demo the band recorded on which drummer Larry Mullen Jr. played a unique rhythm pattern. Like much of The Joshua Tree, the song was inspired by the group 's interest in American music. "I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' exhibits influences from gospel music and its lyrics describe spiritual yearning. Lead singer Bono 's vocals are in high register and lead guitarist the Edge plays a chiming arpeggio. Adding to the gospel qualities of the song are choir - like backing vocals provided by the Edge and producers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois.
"I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' was critically acclaimed and received two nominations at the 30th Annual Grammy Awards in 1988, for Record of the Year and Song of the Year. It has subsequently become one of the group 's most well - known songs and has been performed on many of their concert tours. The track has appeared on several of their compilations and concert films. Many critics and publications have ranked "I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' among the greatest tracks in music history including Rolling Stone which ranked the song at # 93 of its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''.
"I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' originated from a demo variously titled "The Weather Girls '' and "Under the Weather '' that the band recorded during a jam session. Bassist Adam Clayton called the demo 's melody "a bit of a one - note groove '', while an unconvinced The Edge, the band 's guitarist, compared it to "' Eye of the Tiger ' played by a reggae band ''. However, the band liked the drum part played by drummer Larry Mullen Jr. Co-producer Daniel Lanois said, "It was a very original beat from Larry. We always look for those beats that would qualify as a signature for the song. And that certainly was one of those. It had this tom - tom thing that he does and nobody ever understands. And we just did n't want to let go of that beat, it was so unique. '' Lanois encouraged Mullen to continue developing the weird drum pattern beyond the demo. Mullen said the beat became even more unusual, and although Lanois eventually mixed most of the pattern out to just keep the basics, the rhythm became the root of "I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For ''.
-- Daniel Lanois
The group worked on the track at the studio they had set up at Danesmoate House in Dublin. Lanois compared the creation of the song to constructing a building, first laying down the drums as the foundation, then adding additional layers piece by piece, before finally "putting in furniture ''. Lead singer Bono was interested in the theme of spiritual doubt, which was fostered by Eno 's love for gospel music, and by Bono 's listening to songs by The Swan Silvertones, The Staple Singers, and Blind Willie Johnson. After the Edge wrote a chord sequence and played it on acoustic guitar "with a lot of power in the strumming '', the group attempted to compose a suitable vocal melody, trying out a variety of ideas. During a jam session, Bono began singing a "classic soul '' melody, and it was this addition that made the Edge hear the song 's potential. At that point, he remembered a phrase he had written in a notebook that morning as a possible song title, "I still have n't found what I 'm looking for ''. He suggests it was influenced by a line from the Bob Dylan song "Idiot Wind '': "You 'll find out when you reach the top you 're on the bottom ''. He wrote the phrase on a piece of paper and handed it to Bono while he was singing. The Edge called the phrase 's fit with the song "like hand in glove ''. From that point on, the song was the first piece played to visitors during the recording sessions.
As recording continued, a number of guitar overdubs were added, including an auto - pan effect and a chiming arpeggio to modernise the old - style "gospel song ''. While the Edge was improvising guitar parts one day, Bono heard a "chrome bells '' guitar hook that he liked. It was added as a counter-melody to the song 's "muddy shoes '' guitar part, and it is this hook that the Edge plays during live performances of the song. Bono sang in the upper register of his range to add to the feeling of spiritual yearning; in the verses he hits a B - flat note, and an A-flat in the chorus. Background vocals were provided by the Edge, Lanois, and co-producer Brian Eno, their voices being multi-tracked. Lanois suggests that his and Eno 's involvement in the track 's creation helped their vocals. He stated, "You 're not going to get that sound of, ' Oh they brought in some soul singers ' if you know what I mean. Our hearts and souls are already there. If we sing it 'll sound more real. '' Lanois also played a percussive guitar part, which is heard in the introduction. The song 's writing was completed relatively early during the band 's time at Danesmoate House. The mix took longer to complete, though, with most of the production team contributing. The final mix was completed by Lanois and the Edge in a home studio set up at Melbeach, a house purchased by the Edge. They mixed it on top of a previous Steve Lillywhite mix, which gave the song a phasing sound.
Lanois says he is very attached to "I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' and has, on occasion, joined U2 on stage to perform it. The original "Weather Girls '' demo, re-titled "Desert of Our Love '', was included with the 2007 remastered version of The Joshua Tree on a bonus disc of outtakes and B - sides.
Initially, "Red Hill Mining Town '' was planned for release as the second single. However, Bono was unable to sing the song during pre-tour rehearsals and the band were reportedly unhappy with the video shot by Neil Jordan, so "I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' became a late choice for the second single. The single was released in May 1987. On the US Billboard Hot 100, the song debuted at number 51 on 13 June 1987. After nearly 2 months on the chart, the song reached number one on 8 August 1987, becoming the band 's second consecutive number - one hit in the United States. The song spent two weeks in the top spot, and remained on the chart for 17 weeks. On other Billboard charts, the song peaked at number 16 on the Adult Contemporary chart, and number two on the Album Rock Tracks chart. The song also topped the Irish Singles Chart, while peaking at number six on the Canadian RPM Top 100 and the UK Singles Chart. In New Zealand, the song peaked at number two on the RIANZ Top 40 Singles Chart, while reaching number six on the Dutch Top 40 and number 11 on the Swedish Singles Chart.
The music video for the song was filmed on Fremont Street in Las Vegas on 12 April 1987 following their Joshua Tree Tour concert in that city. It features the band members wandering around while the Edge plays an acoustic guitar. The music video was later re-released on The U218 Videos compilation DVD. Pat Christenson, president of Las Vegas 's official event organization, credits the group 's video with improving the city 's image among musicians. "The whole perception of Vegas changed with that video, '' Christenson said, adding, "Now all the big names come here, some of them five, six times a year. ''
"Spanish Eyes '' was created early during The Joshua Tree sessions. It began as a recording made in Adam Clayton 's house of Clayton, the Edge, and Larry Mullen Jr. playing around with several different elements. The piece evolved substantially over the course of an afternoon, but the cassette and its recording was subsequently lost and forgotten. The Edge found the cassette towards the end of the album sessions and played it to the rest of the group. The band realised that it was a good track, but did not have enough time to complete it prior to The Joshua Tree 's release.
"Deep in the Heart '' stemmed from a three - chord piano piece Bono composed on the piano about the last time he had been in the family home on Cedarwood Road in Dublin, which his father had just sold. The memories of his time living there gave rise to many of the lyrical ideas on the song. The Edge and Adam Clayton reworked the piece extensively, with Bono later describing the finished result as "an almost jazz - like improvisation on three chords '', also noting that "the rhythm section turned it into a very special piece of music. '' The song was recorded in a similar manner to the song "4th of July '' from U2 's 1984 album, The Unforgettable Fire; the Edge and Clayton were playing together in a room and unaware that they were being recorded on a 4 - track cassette machine by the band 's assistant, Marc Coleman.
The song is U2 's 9th most played live song, and has been played on every tour. It was played at every date of The Joshua Tree and Lovetown Tours, typically early in the main set. It was played at most of the 1992 legs of the Zoo TV Tour, typically rounding out the main set or being played acoustically on the B - Stage mid set. For most of the 1993 Zooropa shows however, the song was dropped. It returned to be played at each of the PopMart Tour 's 93 shows, usually being played midway through the set. On the Elevation Tour it initially was very rare, only appearing once over the first and second legs. However, it became a regular again on the 3rd leg, being played late in the main set replacing the song "Mysterious Ways '', which was used in that spot on the previous two legs. It was played at the majority of both the Vertigo and U2 360 ° Tours, typically early - to - mid main set. It was used as the closing song at just under half of the shows on the Innocence + Experience Tour, rotating with "One '' and "40 ''.
Island Records commissioned New York choir director, Dennis Bell, to record a gospel version of the song, and Island intended to release it after U2 's single. However, Island boss Chris Blackwell vetoed the plan. Bell subsequently formed his own label and Rohit Jagessar picked it up for distribution in US. While in Glasgow in late July 1987 during the Joshua Tree Tour, Rob Partridge of Island Records played the demo that Bell and his choir, the New Voices of Freedom, had made. In late September, U2 rehearsed with Bell 's choir in Greater Calvary Baptist Church in Harlem for a performance together in a few days at U2 's Madison Square Garden concert. The Edge 's guitar was the only instrument that U2 brought to the church although Mullen borrowed a conga drum. The rehearsal was done with the church 's audio system and footage was used in the Rattle and Hum motion picture. Several performances were made with a piano player; however, the version used in the film includes only Bono, the Edge, Mullen, and the choir. Audio from the Madison Square Garden performance appears on the accompanying album.
A live performance of the song appears in the concert films PopMart: Live from Mexico City, Vertigo 05: Live from Milan, Live from Paris and the most recent U2 360 ° at the Rose Bowl. The versions on the Mexico City and Milan concert films consist of just Bono 's voice and the Edge 's guitar until after the first chorus where the drum and bass parts kick in. Digital live versions were released through iTunes on the Love: Live from the Point Depot and U2. COMmunication albums.
"I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' received widespread critical acclaim. Hot Press journalist Bill Graham described the song as on the one - hand as a "smart job of pop handwork, pretty standard American radio rock - ballad fare '' but that "the band 's rhythms are far more supple and cultivated than your average bouffant HM band of that period ''. The Sunday Independent suggested that the song was proof the band could be commercially accessible without resorting to rock clichés. NME remarked that the song showed that the band cared about something, which made them "special ''. The Rocket noted that Bono 's lyrics about needing personal spirituality resulted in a "unique marriage of American gospel and Gaelic soul '' and that the "human perspective he brings to this sentiment rings far truer than the rantings of, say, the born - again Bob Dylan ''. Several publications, including The Bergen Record and The Boston Globe, called the track "hypnotic '' and interpreted it as depicting the band on a spiritual quest. The song finished in 18th place on the "Best Singles '' list from The Village Voice 's 1987 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll.
"I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' has been acclaimed by many critics and publications as one of the greatest songs of all time. In 2001, the song was ranked at number 120 on the RIAA 's list of 365 "Songs of the Century '' -- a project intended to "promote a better understanding of America 's musical and cultural heritage '' -- despite the group 's Irish origins. In 2003, a special edition issue of Q, titled "1001 Best Songs Ever '', placed "I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' at number 148 on its list of the greatest songs. In 2005, Blender ranked the song at number 443 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born ''. In 2010, Rolling Stone placed the song at number 93 of its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. Los Angeles Times critic Robert Hilburn called it U2 's "Let It Be '', in reference to the Beatles song. The staff of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame selected "I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' as one of 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
The song was covered by Scottish band the Chimes in 1990 and was featured on their self - titled debut album. The rendition peaked at number six in both the United Kingdom and New Zealand charts. It also peaked into number twelve in the Netherlands chart. Singer Cher used to open her shows with a cover of the song during her late 1990s and 2000s concerts.
All tracks written by U2.
U2
Additional performers
"I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' by Scottish band The Chimes is a 1990 dance remake of U2 's "I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For, '' which became a UK Top Ten hit.
The song was very successful in Europe, reaching No. 2 in Norway, No. 6 in the UK, Ireland and New Zealand.
Bono from U2 commented that the Chimes ' cover of their hit "I Still Have n't Found What I 'm Looking For '' was the "only cover version he had heard that he enjoyed and did the original justice '', adding "at last someone 's come along to sing it properly ''.
Billboard wrote about the song: "The perfect cover version. A tasteful, contemporary R&B treatment of a pop favorite may be this U.K. threesome 's key to a stateside breakthrough. Multiformat exposure is well - deserved. ''
Footnotes
Bibliography
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mongolia is the only country in east asia | East Asia - wikipedia
East Asia is the eastern subregion of Asia, which can be defined in either geographical or ethno - cultural terms. Culturally, China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam are commonly seen as being encompassed by cultural East Asia (East Asian cultural sphere). Geographically and geopolitically, the region constitutes China, Hong Kong, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan.
The region was the cradle of various ancient civilizations such as ancient China, ancient Japan, ancient Korea, and the Mongol Empire. East Asia was one of the cradles of world civilization, with China, an ancient East Asian civilization being one of the earliest cradles of civilization in human history. For thousands of years, China largely influenced East Asia as it was principally the leading civilization in the region exerting its enormous prestige and influence on its neighbors. Historically, societies in East Asia have been part of the Chinese cultural sphere, and East Asian vocabulary and scripts are often derived from Classical Chinese and Chinese script. The Chinese calendar preserves traditional East Asian culture and serves as the root to which many other East Asian calendars are derived from. Major religions in East Asia include Buddhism (mostly Mahayana), Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, Ancestral worship, and Chinese folk religion in Greater China, Buddhism and Shintoism in Japan, and Christianity, Buddhism and Sindoism in Korea. Shamanism is also prevalent among Mongols and other indigenous populations of northern East Asia such as the Manchus.
East Asians comprise around 1.6 billion people, making up about 38 % of the population in Continental Asia and 22 % of the global population. The region is home to major world metropolises such as Beijing, Hong Kong, Seoul, Shanghai, Taipei, and Tokyo. Although the coastal and riparian areas of the region form one of the world 's most populated places, the population in Mongolia and Western China, both landlocked areas, is very sparsely distributed, with Mongolia having the lowest population density of a sovereign state. The overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre (340 / sq mi), about three times the world average of 45 / km (120 / sq mi).
In comparison with the profound influence of the Ancient Greeks and Romans on Europe and the Western World, China would already possess an advanced civilization nearly half a millennia before Japan and Korea. As Chinese civilization existed for about 1500 years before other East Asian civilizations emerged into history, Imperial China would exert much of its cultural, economic, technological, and political muscle onto its neighbors. Succeeding Chinese dynasties exerted enormous influence across East Asia culturally, economically, politically and militarily for over two millennia. Imperial China 's cultural preeminence not only led the country to become East Asia 's first literate nation in the entire region, it also supplied Japan, Vietnam and Korea with Chinese loanwords and linguistic influences rooted in their writing systems. In addition, the Chinese Han dynasty hosted the largest unified population in East Asia, the most literate and urbanized as well as being the most technologically and culturally advanced civilization in the region. Cultural and religious interaction between the Chinese and other regional East Asian dynasties and kingdoms occurred. China 's impact and influence on Korea began with the Han dynasty 's northeastern expansion in 108 BC when the Han Chinese conquered the northern part of the Korean peninsula and established a province called Lelang. Chinese influence would soon take root in Korea through the inclusion of the Chinese writing system, monetary system, rice culture, and Confucian political institutions. Jōmon society in ancient Japan incorporated wet - rice cultivation and metallurgy through its contact with Korea. Vietnamese society was greatly impacted by Chinese influence, the northern part of Vietnam was occupied by Chinese empires and states for almost all of the period from 111 BC to 938 AD. In addition to administration, and making Chinese the language of administration, the long period of Chinese domination introduced Chinese techniques of dike construction, rice cultivation, and animal husbandry. Chinese culture, having been established among the elite mandarin class, remained the dominant current among that elite for most of the next 1,000 years (939 - 1870s) until the loss of independence under French Indochina. This cultural affiliation to China remained true even when militarily defending Vietnam against attempted invasion, such as against the Mongol Kublai Khan. The only significant exceptions to this were the 7 years of the strongly anti-Chinese Hồ dynasty which banned the use of Chinese (among other actions triggering the fourth Chinese invasion), but then after the expulsion of the Ming the rise in vernacular chữ nôm literature. Although 1,000 years of Chinese rule left many traces, the collective memory of the period reinforced Vietnam 's cultural and later political independence. As full - fledged medieval East Asian states were established, Korea by the fourth century AD and Japan by the seventh century AD, Korea, Japan and Vietnam actively began to incorporate Chinese influences such as Confucianism, the use of written Han characters, Chinese style architecture, state institutions, political philosophies, religion, urban planning, and various scientific and technological methods into their culture and society through direct contacts with succeeding Chinese dynasties. For many centuries, most notably from the 7th to the 14th centuries, China stood as East Asia 's most advanced civilization, commanding influence across the region up until the early modern period. The Imperial Chinese tributary system shaped much of East Asia 's history for over two millennia due to Imperial China 's economic and cultural influence over the region, and thus played a huge role in the history of East Asia in particular. The transmission of advanced Chinese cultural practices and ways of thinking greatly shaped the region up until the 19th century.
As East Asia 's connections with Europe and the Western world strengthened during the late 19th century, China 's power began to decline. U.S. Commodore Matthew C. Perry would open Japan to Western ways, and the country would expand in earnest after the 1860s. Around the same time, Japan with its rush to modernity transformed itself from an isolated feudal samurai state into East Asia 's first industrialized nation. The modern and powerful Japan would galvanize its position in the Orient as East Asia 's greatest power with a global mission poised to advance to lead the entire world. By the early 1900s, the Japanese empire succeeded in asserting itself as East Asia 's first modern power. With its newly found international status, Japan would begin to inextricably take a more active position in East Asia and leading role in world affairs at large. Flexing its nascent political and military might, Japan soundly defeated the stagnant Qing dynasty during the First Sino - Japanese War as well as vanquishing imperial rival Russia in 1905; the first major military victory in the modern era of an East Asian power over a European one. Its hegemony was the heart of an empire that would include Taiwan and Korea. During World War II, Japanese expansionism with its imperialist aspirations through the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere would incorporate Korea, Taiwan, much of eastern China and Manchuria, Hong Kong, Vietnam and Southeast Asia under its control establishing itself as a maritime colonial power in East Asia. After a century of exploitation by the European and Japanese colonialists, post-colonial East Asia saw the defeat and occupation of Japan by the victorious Allies as well as the division of China and Korea during the Cold War. The Korean peninsula became independent but then it was divided into two rival states, while Taiwan became the main territory of de facto state Republic of China after the latter lost Mainland China to the People 's Republic of China in the Chinese Civil War. During the latter half of the twentieth century, the region would see the post war economic miracle of Japan, the economic rise of South Korea and Taiwan, and the integration of Mainland China into the global economy through its entry in the World Trade Organization while enhancing its emerging international status as a potential world power.
Culturally, China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam are commonly seen as being encompassed by cultural East Asia (East Asian cultural sphere).
In common usage, the term East Asia typically refers to a region including Greater China, Japan, Korea and Mongolia.
China, Japan, and Korea represent the three core countries and civilizations of traditional East Asia - as they once shared a common written language, culture, as well as sharing Confucian philosophical tenets and the Confucian societal value system once instituted by Imperial China. Other usages define China, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, South Korea, North Korea and Taiwan as countries that constitute East Asia based on their geographic proximity as well as historical and modern cultural and economic ties, particularly with Japan and Korea having strong cultural influences that originated from China. Some scholars include Vietnam as part of East Asia as it has been considered part of the greater sphere of Chinese influence. Though Confucianism continues to play an important role in Vietnamese culture, Chinese characters are no longer used in its written language and many scholarly organizations classify Vietnam as a Southeast Asian country. Mongolia is geographically north of China yet Confucianism and the Chinese writing system and culture had no impact in Mongolian society. Thus, Mongolia is sometimes grouped with Central Asian countries such as Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan.
Broader and looser definitions by international organizations such as the World Bank refer to the "three major Northeast Asian economies, i.e. China, Japan, and South Korea '', as well as Mongolia, North Korea, the Russian Far East and Siberia. The Council on Foreign Relations includes the Russia Far East, Mongolia, and Nepal. The World Bank also acknowledges the roles of sub-national or de facto states, such as Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. The Economic Research Institute for Northeast Asia defines the region as "China, Japan, the Koreas, Nepal, Mongolia, and eastern regions of the Russian Federation ''.
The UNSD definition of East Asia is based on statistical convenience, but also other common definitions of East Asia contain Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Taiwan and Japan.
Culturally, China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam are commonly seen as being encompassed by cultural East Asia (East Asian cultural sphere).
There are mixed debates around the world whether these countries or regions should be considered in East Asia or not.
In business and economics, "East Asia '' is sometimes used to refer to a wide geographical area covering ten Southeast Asian countries in ASEAN, Greater China, Japan and Korea. However, in this context, the term "Far East '' is used by the Europeans to cover ASEAN countries and the countries in East Asia. However, being a Eurocentric term, Far East describes the region 's geographical position in relation to Europe rather than its location within Asia. Alternatively, the term "Asia Pacific Region '' is often used in describing East Asia, Southeast Asia as well as Oceania.
Observers preferring a broader definition of "East Asia '' often use the term Northeast Asia to refer to the greater China area, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan, with Southeast Asia covering the ten ASEAN countries. This usage, which is seen in economic and diplomatic discussions, is at odds with the historical meanings of both "East Asia '' and "Northeast Asia ''. The Council on Foreign Relations defines Northeast Asia as Japan and Korea.
* Note: The order of states / territories follows the population ranking of each ethnicity, within East Asia only.
The culture of East Asia has largely been influenced by China, as it was the civilization that had the most dominant influence in the region throughout the ages that ultimately laid the foundation for East Asian civilization. The vast knowledge and ingenuity of Chinese civilization and the classics of Chinese literature and culture were seen as the foundations for a civilized life in East Asia. Imperial China served as a vehicle through which the adoption of Confucian ethical philosophy, Chinese calendar system, political and legal systems, architectural style, diet, terminology, institutions, religious beliefs, imperial examinations that emphasized a knowledge of Chinese classics, political philosophy and cultural value systems, as well as historically sharing a common writing system reflected in the histories of Japan and Korea. The Imperial Chinese tributary system was the bedrock of network of trade and foreign relations between China and its East Asian tributaries, which helped to shape much of East Asian affairs during the ancient and medieval eras. Through the tributary system, the various dynasties of Imperial China facilitated frequent economic and cultural exchange that influenced the cultures of Japan and Korea and drew them into a Chinese international order. The Imperial Chinese tributary system shaped much of East Asia 's foreign policy and trade for over two millennia due to Imperial China 's economic and cultural dominance over the region, and thus played a huge role in the history of East Asia in particular. The relationship between China and its cultural influence on East Asia has been compared to the historical influence of Greco - Roman civilization on Europe and the Western World.
* Japan switched the date to the Gregorian calendar after the Meiji Restoration.
* Not always on that Gregorian date, sometimes April 4.
Formerly the East Asian Games is a multi-sport event organised by the East Asian Games Association (EAGA) and held every four years since 2019 among athletes from East Asian countries and territories of the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), as well as the Pacific island of Guam, which is a member of the Oceania National Olympic Committees.
The East Asian Games is 1 of 5 Regional Games of the OCA. The others are the East Asian Games, the Central Asian Games, the South Asian Games, the Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games), and the West Asian Games.
Beijing is the capital of the People 's Republic of China and the largest metropolis in northern China.
Shanghai is the largest city in China and one of the largest in the world, and is a global financial centre and transport hub with the world 's busiest container port.
Guangzhou is one of the most important cities in southern China. It has a history of over 2,200 years and was a major terminus of the maritime Silk Road and continues to serve as a major port and transportation hub today.
Xi'an or Chang'an is the oldest of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, having held the position under several of the most important dynasties. It has a significant cultural influence in East Asia.
Hong Kong is one of the world 's leading global financial centres and is known as a cosmopolitan metropolis.
Taipei is the capital of the Republic of China and anchors a major high - tech industrial area in Taiwan.
Tokyo is the capital of Japan and one of the largest cities in the world, both in metropolitan population and economy.
Osaka is the second largest metropolitan area in Japan
Kyoto was the Imperial capital of Japan for more than one thousand years.
Seoul is the capital of South Korea, one of the largest cities in the world and a leading global technology hub.
Pyongyang is the capital of North Korea, and is a significant metropolis on the Korean Peninsula.
Ulaanbaatar is the capital of Mongolia with a population of 1 million as of 2008.
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when does kc undercover season 3 episode 9 air | List of K.C. Undercover episodes - Wikipedia
K.C. Undercover is an American sitcom created by Corinne Marshall that premiered on Disney Channel on January 18, 2015. The series stars Zendaya, Veronica Dunne, Kamil McFadden, Trinitee Stokes, Tammy Townsend, and Kadeem Hardison.
Guest stars: Trevor Jackson as Lincoln, Tony Cavalero as Wally, Ashley Fink as Reena, Ashlee Fuss as Juli
K.C. tries to tell her parents that Ernie is ready to be a spy, even though he is clumsy. They then introduce them to Judy, who is a robot disguised to be a 10 year old, and tell Ernie that K.C and their parents are spies. K.C. takes Ernie on a mission and does not tell Craig or Kira to prove to them that Ernie is ready to be a spy. He crashes a van into the museum because he was parked in a loading zone and the police told him to move it, but he did not know how to drive. At the end, he becomes a spy after he reroutes the GPS of the person K.C. could not stop on the mission to their home.
Guest stars: Charlie Robinson as Pops, Roz Ryan as Grandma, Diane Delano as Honey, Tony Cavalero as Wally
On messing up a mission and getting her mom in almost close danger, Kacie loses her swag and is not her normal self. She was offended when a boy said she plays like a girl and decided she would teach him how to play. As an excellent basketball player, she defeated him and was delighted to find that she got her swag back.
Guest star: Shainu Bala as Mikal
Guest stars: Tom Williamson as Prince Promomomo, Erron Jay as Olu
Marisa turns in a paper report based on one of K.C. 's recent missions, not realizing that it could blow K.C. 's cover as a spy. K.C. and Marisa then try to get the paper back from her teacher, Mr. Forman. K.C., disguised as a substitute teacher, goes into the teacher lounge, but is unsuccessful in retrieving the paper. Agent Beverly keeps calling K.C. to ask for the report and later disables her spy equipment until K.C. gives her the report. Meanwhile, Judy 's robotic friend Trudy visits, but they get into a fight over who is a better robot.
Guest stars: Sherri Shepherd as Beverly, James DiGiacomo as Petey, David Shatraw as Mr. Forman, Madison Horcher as Trudy, Jaime Moyer as Mrs. Goldfeder
K.C. gets mad when her English teacher gives her a B and she thinks he is a undercover spy. It turns out that K.C. is just being paranoid. Meanwhile, Ernie finally has a girlfriend, whose name is Jolie, but when he brings her home, K.C. thinks she is an undercover spy as well. After attempting to prove it, and failing, K.C. eventually accidentally splashes some ketchup on Jolie 's shirt which causes her to lose concentration and speak Russian. Realizing she was right all along, K.C. tricks Jolie into following her to school by pretending she has hidden spy documents in her locker and is going to retrieve them. K.C. finally gets Jolie to admit she 's a Russian spy, there to obtain K.C. 's family weaknesses. After defeating her in a fight, K.C. gets Jolie to break up with Ernie. K.C also obtains a pair of earrings that are actually spy gadgets from Jolie.
Special guest star: Bella Thorne as Jolie
Guest star: Kurt Scholler as Mr. Enright
K.C. has to go on an undercover mission with the Junior Spy of the Year Brett Willis. They must pretend to be a couple, though K.C. initially dislikes him. K.C. becomes jealous when Brett begins dating Marisa, who is aware that he is a spy. Later, Marisa ends their relationship. K.C. and Brett develop feelings for each other after they go undercover for a dancing competition. Craig and Kira 's 20th anniversary is coming and Kira is upset that Craig does not want a big party to celebrate. Kira receives flowers from Zane, Craig 's ex-partner, who became a double agent prior to K.C. 's birth due to jealousy that Kira did not like him. Craig allowed Zane to escape in exchange for his life. In a note to Kira, Zane informs the Coopers that he is planning revenge against them. Later, Brett tells the family that Zane is imprisoned and that he had sent the flowers and note from a computer at the prison. Brett then calls his father, Zane, to inform him that the Coopers believed his false story regarding Zane 's imprisonment.
K.C. starts hanging out with Brett more often, but Kira is suspicious of him. Craig thinks she is being paranoid. Brett convinces K.C. to go with him to a Beyoncé concert out of state, but he tricks K.C. and actually takes her to Zane 's barn, where she is then tied up. Zane has created a look - alike K.C. through laser cosmetic surgery. He sends the look - alike to the Cooper household to pose as the real K.C. Meanwhile, Judy becomes obsessed with a character in Ernie 's video game.
K.C. is captured by Zane and nobody knows because he created a K.C. look - alike whose name is Bernice, but Marisa is starting to realize K.C. is not the real K.C when she agrees to go to a party with Marissa. Then the K.C. look - alike locks Marisa in the barn with K.C. after Marisa realizes that the K.C. look - alike does not know that Marisa knows that K.C is a spy. However, Marisa has K.C. 's lipstick and K.C. breaks their handcuffs. K.C. then goes to the Organization to stop the K.C. look - alike and Brett. After a fight with Brett, K.C knocks him out and tells him that shes ' breaking up with him. Meanwhile, Craig and Kira finally realize the K.C. look - alike is fake and go to the Organization, but have make a decision on who is the real K.C. when the K.C. look - alike arrives. Zane holds Ernie and Judy hostage at the Cooper house, but Craig defeats him while Kira distracts him.
When K.C. is planning to go to Miami with Marisa for a vacation, Craig tells K.C. she must go on a stakeout to catch a notorious robber. During a phone call, she learned her dad lied so she could stay and she was never assigned to the case. K.C ends up not talking to Craig. Meanwhile, Ernie is mad at his dad and K.C. because they both think he 's just a computer geek. He goes to El Froyo Loco and sees the notorious robber and calls K.C. for help, but K.C. wants him to take the robber out to give him a chance to "bake the biscuits '' and prove to his dad that he is more than just the computer guy. After the mission K.C. makes it to the beach. In a side story, Craig keeps getting mad at the takeout restaurant guy who tries to overcharge him for food he did n't want or order
Guest stars: Sherri Shepherd as Beverly, Paras Patel as Delivery Guy, Daniel David Stewart as Stanley
Mrs. Goldfeder 's house has been robbed, so K.C. volunteers her dad to be the neighborhood watchdogs leader. However, he does n't think it 's a good idea. K.C. then tries to sneak around and be the leader, but Craig finds out and yells at K.C. The burglar goes to Mrs. Goldfeder 's house and K.C. finds out it 's her dad. K.C. and Craig mistake a person who 's taking out the garbage for a burglar. Craig lets his teammate, Herb, use the bathroom in the Cooper house only to discover he 's the one who 's stealing everything. K.C. and Craig apologize to each other. Meanwhile, Judy is trying to get away from her friend at school who likes her and brings in her other friend Petey to pretend they 're dating, though Petey really thinks she likes him. Both of them go to El Froyo Loco and Pentatonix tries to help Judy tell Petey that she does n't like him by performing a rendition of Ariana Grande 's "Problem '' through the credits, but he still does n't believe her.
Guest stars: Pentatonix, James DiGiacomo as Petey, Jaime Moyer as Mrs. Goldfeder, Fred Stoller as Herb, Dat Pham as Slippy
K.C. gets a mission at the University of Maryland to go undercover as a college student and protect the daughter of the president of the United States. K.C. ends up befriending Eliza, the president 's daughter even though she ca n't. Marisa becomes jealous and ends up lying about her name when meeting Eliza. However, Eliza finds out who K.C is and refuses to speak to her. Marisa then uses her party - finding skills to find Eliza and tell K.C.K.C goes to the party and helps protect Eliza against kidnappers after she ditches her Secret Service men, repairing their relationship. Meanwhile, Ernie reveals that he is an adventure scout and Judy wants to join.
K.C. and Kira go undercover at a prison facility. K.C. 's disguise is a prisoner and Kira is a correctional officer. Their assignment is to find someone at the prison who is working undercover for a group of bad guys known as The Other Side. K.C. finds out it is Big Ange, a correctional officer, who offers K.C. an opportunity to join The Other Side. Kira tells K.C. that the Organization wants her to accept the offer and continue the undercover mission. K.C. continues her mission without Kira. Meanwhile, Petey keeps bothering Judy.
Guest stars: Cocoa Brown as Big Ange, Vivian Marie Lamolli as Scar, James DiGiacomo as Petey
K.C. enters the Other Side. She calls Craig and learns that her mission is to destroy a dangerous missile and recover a biological agent from the Other Side. When she has to take a hand - to - hand combat class it is revealed that Brett is her instructor. Brett helps her get to the missile and she deactivates the missile. However, the Other Side finds her and a fight ensues. When Victor, the leader of the Other Side, tries to destroy K.C., Brett comes in and saves her and helps her escape. Judy wants Craig to buy her a dog. Craig says no because he 's more of a cat person. They reach a compromise when Craig buys Judy a robot dog named Snuggles.
Guest stars: Ross Butler as Brett Willis, Lee Reherman as Victor
Guest stars: Jonathan Schmock as Lloyd, Natalija Nogulich as Mrs. Vandervoort, Erin Matthews as Mrs. Andrews, Noah Crawford as Gabriel
Guest stars: Telma Hopkins as Miss Holley, Reign Edwards as Kitten
Judy gets upset when she finds out she does not have a birthday. K.C. locates Judy 's creator, Simone, so they can meet each other. K.C. and Judy get into a huge argument. Judy runs away to live with her creator, but since Judy is understanding feelings she gets sad when nobody pays attention to her. Judy runs away again and gets tricked into working for The Other Side. She tries to run away from The Other Side. K.C. and Simone team up and work together to bring Judy home. Meanwhile, Ernie and Marisa find out that they were flirting with each other when they were playing a video game.
Special guest star: Raven - Symoné as Simone
Guest stars: Chris Ellis as Christos, James DiGiacomo as Petey, Mike Lane as Paul
Special guest stars: Peyton List as Emma, Skai Jackson as Zuri
Guest stars: Arden Myrin as Maggie, Patrick Cassidy as Chuck Maddox, Rick Hall as Agent Johnson, Michelle Noh as Real Maggie
K.C. invites Craig 's father, Earl, over for the holidays, but it is discovered that they have been feuding with each other for quite a while because Earl is disappointed in Craig for not going to medical school and continuously brings up how he quit and gave up on that dream. Marisa later stops by and gives the Cooper family a gingerbread house, saying that her family really loves them; however, Ernie finds a card and finds out the Marisa lied. Eventually, Craig has enough and kicks Earl out of the house, but Ernie hacks the airport 's computers so Earl can not leave, forcing him and Craig to attempt to make up. Meanwhile, Ernie and Kira go off on a mission, but Kira ends up being captured. After Ernie calls for help and K.C., Craig, and Earl arrive, Craig orders Earl to remain in the car, but he later gets out and discovers that the Cooper family are spies. Craig and Earl later make up, but that does n't last long after Kira sprays Earl with the memory spray.
K.C. survives the car incident and both K.C. and Brett think they are safe from Ursula for now but they soon find out that Ursula too survived the car accident. Because The Organization has made it clear that Brett can not come back, the Cooper family is under constant threat of the Organization finding out that they are hiding Brett. K.C. and Ernie both take Brett to a Marissa 's Cabin that borders Canada so that Brett will be safe but then Ursula finds them and attacks them. While Ernie and Marissa safely evacuate, K.C and Brett try to take down Ursula. They ride away on horses and Ursula finds them and shoots Brett. K.C. injures Ursula and she rides away saying that she 'll be back for her. When K.C. goes to Brett to see if he is dead, Brett reveals that he was wearing a laser proof t - shirt. To be safe, Brett must ride to Canada and risk never seeing K.C. again. In light of recent events, the Coopers are removed from the Organization and Judy is reassigned to another spy family.
Guest stars: Chris Tavarez as Darien, Kara Royster as Abby, Rick Hall as Agent Johnson
Special guest star: Jasmine Guy as Erica
Guest stars: Kara Royster as Abby, Rick Hall as Agent Johnson, Tyler Poelle as Agent Gibb
Special guest star: Jasmine Guy as Erica
Special guest star: Jasmine Guy as Erica
Guest stars: Rick Fox as Richard, Kara Royster as Abby, Rick Hall as Agent Johnson, Robert Gant as Jackson, Ethan Wacker as Collin
Guest stars: James DiGiacomo as Petey, Jaime Moyer as Mrs. Goldfeder, Mike McCafferty as Todd Clint
Guest stars: Kevin Csolak as Adam, Nikki Castillo as Akina
K.C. is undercover at a retirement home as a man. Her disguise name is Bernie. The target approaches the Senior Centre, speaking to his grandfather. K.C. then goes up to him and tries to hug him, using her own ways to manipulate him. K.C. then goes to meet this woman called Irma and they quickly become friends. They start to do these fun things together, including a coffee and a dance at the Olive Pit, reading magazines together, playing cards. Meanwhile, Judy tries to change Petey 's mind when he says machines are stupid. She does things such as electrocute the fridge when Petey touches it and water being sprayed at him. Petey is spooked when he sees the toaster rise and a machine chasing after him. At night, Judy comes into his bedroom with alarms and machines ringing and moving. Judy gets Petey to repeat machines are n't stupid over and over. He then admits that machines are n't stupid. Also, K.C. and Marisa get into an argument when K.C. ca n't go to the dance to support the Food Bank because she is hanging out with Irma. Eventually, K.C. turns up to the dance.
Guest stars: Florence Henderson as Irma, James DiGiacomo as Petey
When an agent from the Other Side is arrested, Craig and Kira discover that he is the man who married them which K.C. then points out that Craig and Kira were never legally married. K.C proceeds to attempt to make them a do - over weeding. Meanwhile, she gives advice to Marissa and Ernie which messes up both of their relationships. Craig and Kira get into an argument which ends with them making up and getting re-married
New canine spy Dexter, joins K.C. on her next mission as she tries to stop a ring of firework smugglers. When K.C. and Dexter take a disliking to each other, K.C. is taken off the mission with Ernie taking her spot. Ernie is kidnapped by the smugglers until K.C. and Dexter come to save the day. But when K.C. is fired with a shot, Dexter takes the shot. Dexter survives. Meanwhile, Marisa gives Judy some of her old dolls but is disappointed when Judy throws them in the trash. That causes Marisa and Judy to play with the dolls together.
Guest stars: Roz Ryan as Grandma Gayle, Tom Wilson as Agent Whitman
Kira is excited to be nominated for an Orgi Award -- given to spies by The Organization -- for the first time in her career. She is upset to learn that K.C. has also been nominated for the same award. K.C. becomes sick with food poisoning and must stay home while her family attends the awards ceremony. Tolentinó, the son of an imprisoned criminal who was captured by one of The Organization 's spies, takes over the ceremony with help from his henchmen. Tolentinó disables everyone 's electronic devices and intends to interrogate each spy until he locates the one who captured his father. Judy, who is still functional, sends a message to K.C. for help. K.C. recovers from her illness and has Marisa stay in an undercover van so she can guide her through the building using schematics. K.C. finds the ceremony room and rescues the audience. After Tolentinó is captured, the awards ceremony resumes, and Kira wins the nomination.
K.C. and Ernie are assigned to go undercover and join a suspicious group of environmental activists known as the Volunteens so they can learn more about them and their leader, a young woman named Keller. K.C. and Ernie 's cover is blown immediately as Keller knows they were sent to investigate her, which she allows them to do to prove that she has nothing to hide. Ernie becomes concerned that K.C. has been brainwashed into following the group 's beliefs, after she begins agreeing with Keller. Meanwhile, Craig is assigned to protect Rollin, the ambassador to Monrovia, who is also an old friend. Craig prepares several large food dishes for Rollin, but is disappointed to learn that he no longer consumes fattening meals. Rollin convinces Craig to join him at a gym, but after Craig begins using a stair climber, Kira and Judy inform him that the machine has been implanted with a bomb that will detonate if he slows down. Judy eventually disarms the bomb, which was meant for Rollin. When Ernie tells his family about his concern for K.C., Craig tries unsuccessfully to convince him that she is simply maintaining her cover as one of Keller 's followers.
Keller assigns K.C. to kidnap Monrovian ambassador Rollin. K.C., while wearing a mask, knocks her father unconscious and kidnaps Rollin. K.C. is surprised to learn that Rollin and Keller, after having a discussion, have decided to work together in a plot to become rich. K.C. reveals that she only kidnapped Rollin to maintain her cover as a new member of the Volunteens. When Ernie arrives, he accidentally foils K.C. 's attempt to stop Keller. K.C. and Ernie are tied up in a room with a smoke bomb while Rollin and Keller escape. Craig rescues K.C. and Ernie, and K.C. travels to an auction to stop Keller before she can bid on and obtain the Monrovian queen 's diamond ring.
Guest stars: Rick Hall as Agent Johnson, Alice Lee as Keller, Rafael Petardi as Rollin
Ernie is kidnapped while he is in a virtual reality program. His kidnappers, Damon and Darci, plan to trick Ernie 's virtual self into revealing a secret code that they need. K.C. enters the virtual world, despite the fact that she will experience virtual disorientation, in which the user is briefly unable to recall details about their real life. K.C. 's mission is to stop Ernie from revealing the code and to learn where his kidnappers have taken his physical body. In the virtual world, Ernie is popular at school while K.C. enjoys make - up and dislikes studying, unlike their real - life personalities. Damon and Darci have programmed a virtual version of Mrs. Goldfeder and Marisa to trick Ernie into revealing the code. K.C. eventually remembers her mission and real personality, and learns that Ernie was taken to a storage unit, which Damon and Darci are using as their headquarters. Ernie is rescued, and Damon and Darci are arrested. Afterward, K.C. uses the virtual reality machine to fantasize about herself spending time on a beach with Brett Willis.
Guest stars: Ross Butler as Brett Willis, Jaime Moyer as Mrs. Goldfeder, David Hull as Damon, Natalie Lander as Darci
Scholastic Accomplishments Quarterly chooses K.C. to be interviewed for their latest issue, as she is the smartest student at her school and in the Washington D.C. area. Ernie warns K.C. not to do the interview, as a precaution to protect her identity as a spy. K.C. disregards Ernie 's warning and meets with the magazine author, C.W. Barnes, who plans to follow her around for two days so he can write a detailed article about her life, making it a larger story than what she initially expected. C.W. also requests to meet her parents, who are out of town; K.C. tells him that her father is an astronaut who is currently in space, and that her mother has a fear of leaving their house. C.W. then visits the Cooper residence, where K.C. disguises herself as her mother, Kira. To help K.C., Marisa unexpectedly arrives at the house disguised as K.C. 's mother, unaware that K.C. is already portraying Kira. Marisa then claims to be K.C. 's other mother, before K.C. eventually zaps him unconscious with an electrical device. After Ernie and Marisa convince K.C. that she does not have to be the best at everything, she has C.W. write instead about Alexis, the second smartest student at her school.
Guest star: Noah Weisberg as C.W. Barnes
Because of the unexpected presence of enemies, K.C. is forced to abort a mission that only she and a few others knew about, which leads Agent Johnson to believe that there is a mole in The Organization who leaked out information about the mission. Johnson assigns K.C. to find the mole, and she decides to get advice from Zane to help her figure out who it could be. K.C. must memorize a code that allows her to access Zane 's secure cell at The Organization, as Johnson believes that it is too risky to write it down and leave a paper trail. Zane 's advice leads K.C. to suspect that either Marisa or one of her own family members may have leaked the information, but she eventually learns that she sleep - talks about her missions and that her room was bugged with a listening device. K.C. later discovers that Zane has escaped after someone overheard her mentioning the code in her sleep and used it to break him out. Meanwhile, Ernie donates some of Craig 's coats to a school charity sale, but later discovers that one of the coats was a $2 million spy jacket created by The Organization for missions. Ernie eventually tracks down the man who purchased the jacket and takes it from him while he is distracted listening to headphones.
Guest stars: Rick Hall as Agent Johnson, Francois Chau as Zane
Guest star: Joel Brooks as Dr. Levinstein
When K.C. believes that she spotted Abby while driving in traffic, her family thinks that she is delusional and feeling guilty about killing her. However, Abby and her mother Erica are still alive and are planning to kidnap David Simmons, who created the security systems for the U.S. Treasury. They intend to gain knowledge from Simmons on how to break through the systems so they can steal money from the Treasury. When The Organization learns about The Other Side 's plan to kidnap Simmons, the Coopers are sent on a mission to locate him and keep him safe. Simmons had retired to live a life of seclusion, but Ernie discovers that he owns a biker club in West Virginia. K.C. enters the club as a biker, while her family is undercover as lost tourists. While searching the club for Simmons, K.C. spots Abby, who is also looking for him. After a motorcycle chase, K.C. runs Abby off the road and apprehends her.
Special guest star: Jasmine Guy as Erica King
After Abby is captured by The Organization, Richard and Erica kidnap K.C. 's family. Agent Johnson declines K.C. 's request to release Abby in exchange for her family members, stating that The Organization does not negotiate with criminals. K.C. breaks Abby out of prison and brings her to Richard and Erica, who tie up K.C. along with the rest of her family. Marisa realizes that K.C. needs help and figures out the location of Richard and Erica 's hideout. When Marisa arrives, Craig and Kira are surprised to learn that she knows about their spy profession. Marisa unties the Coopers so they can fight Richard, Erica and Abby, who are then captured and brought to The Organization. Despite breaking Abby out of prison, Agent Johnson allows K.C. to avoid prison time because she brought them Richard, the leader of The Other Side. While camping in a forest, Zane receives a phone call informing him that The Other Side 's leader has been captured.
Special guest star: Jasmine Guy as Erica King
K.C., Marisa and the rest of the Coopers flee to a safe house in Rio de Janeiro after Zane and his men target them. After two weeks in the safe house -- a run - down apartment -- K.C., Ernie and Marisa go into the city to contact The Organization. While in the city, Ernie meets Zoe, a young woman from Kansas who likes him. However, K.C. is suspicious of Zoe and ends their conversation as the Coopers are not to speak to anyone because of the possibility that Zane could be tracking them. K.C. contacts The Organization and learns that Zane is unaware of their whereabouts. K.C. then signs up the family for a mission to capture Passaro Grande, a local smuggler of exotic birds. After capturing Grande, Craig, Kira and Judy take him to the local authorities while K.C., Ernie and Marisa return to the safe house. A strong enemy agent named Sheena, who frequently talks to herself, breaks into the safe house and reveals that she was sent by Zane to kill them. After fighting K.C. and Ernie, Zoe breaks in and knocks out Sheena. Zoe reveals that she is an agent for The Organization who was assigned to protect the family. The group gets into a vehicle to head to a safe location, but K.C. must take a detour through the jungle after learning that Sheena is following them. The next day, Sheena locates the group and incapacitates Ernie, Marisa and Zoe with a small device that electrocutes them. K.C. and Sheena prepare to battle.
Special guest star: China Anne McClain as Sheena
During battle, K.C. tosses a Brazilian jumping spider on Sheena to paralyze her. Ernie, Marisa and Zoe regain consciousness and discover that K.C. has also been paralyzed by the spider. They leave Sheena behind and carry K.C. through the jungle. Zoe eventually makes an antidote for K.C. out of jungle vegetation and snake saliva. Meanwhile, Marisa is upset that today is school picture day and she is not there to have her picture taken. Marisa wanted a yearbook picture to remember the fact that she became a high school senior despite her poor grades. After wandering through the jungle, Craig, Kira and Judy find Sheena, who claims to be Zoe. They then find K.C. and the others. K.C. and Zoe apprehend Sheena, and Marisa and the Coopers later board a helicopter. During the flight, Zane reveals himself to be the pilot. Zane destroys the helicopter controls and parachutes out while the helicopter spirals out of control toward the ocean.
Special guest star: China Anne McClain as Sheena
K.C. manages to land the helicopter safely in the ocean, and Marisa and the Coopers are rescued by a nearby military ship. The captain apprehends them after discovering that Judy is a robot, as he does not believe that the Coopers are spies and he has never heard of The Organization. Marisa and the Coopers escape from their cell after using Judy 's skeleton key. The Coopers return to Organization headquarters, where they discover a memorial service being held for them. The Coopers decide to keep their survival a secret to increase their chances of capturing Zane; they recruit Kira 's parents, Othello and Gayle, so they can work together. Disguising her voice as Brett, Judy arranges to meet Zane at a laser tag facility, where K.C. and her family ambush him. After battling with real laser guns, Zane is apprehended, and K.C. declares that they no longer have to worry about The Other Side, unaware that a new enemy organization known as The Alternate has been formed.
K.C. is upset to learn that she has received the same SAT score as Marisa: 1060. K.C. later learns that Beverly had Craig change her SAT result because she received a perfect score. Less than one percent of the population receives a perfect score; leaving the original score intact would draw unnecessary attention to K.C., putting her spy career at risk. K.C. disagrees with Beverly 's decision as it will prevent her from being accepted into certain colleges. Beverly tells K.C. that The Organization wants her to remain a spy rather than go to college. K.C. drives to New York to retake her SAT test, while Ernie and Zoe team up for a mission to stop smugglers who are working in a party supplies warehouse. After completing the mission, Ernie asks Zoe to be his girlfriend, but she tells him that she has been assigned to a four - year mission in Antarctica. Ernie agrees to wait for Zoe until she concludes her mission. Meanwhile, Marisa wants K.C. to talk to The Organization about letting her become a spy. Marisa is insulted when K.C. tells her that she is not intelligent enough to be a spy. K.C. later tells Marisa that it would be better if she attended college rather than become a spy. Marisa, who does not want to attend college, becomes further upset at K.C. and decides to temporarily end their friendship. Two months later, K.C. learns that she has received a perfect SAT score.
Marisa, who is still upset at K.C. for not allowing her to join The Organization, befriends a student named Brady, who says that he is part of The Organization. Brady tells Marisa that The Organization has been impressed with her for a while as she helped to capture the leader of The Other Side. Brady recruits Marisa as a spy for The Organization. Meanwhile, K.C. misses spending time with Marisa. Ernie invites his fellow Model UN member, Monique, to the Cooper house to spend time with her, but he becomes upset at K.C. for befriending Monique and disrupting his plan to be with her. K.C. realizes that spending time with Monique is not the same as being with Marisa. Brady assigns Marisa to befriend K.C., who he says could be providing intelligence to The Other Side. Marisa befriends K.C. again so she can learn whether she is working with The Other Side.
Guest stars: Connor Weil as Brady, Chandler Kinney as Monique
K.C. is assigned to go undercover as a construction worker at a tall unfinished building, allowing her to spy on a nearby tower where a group of renegade spies are believed to be meeting so they can discuss weapons. K.C. 's male co-workers at the construction site mock her for being a female. K.C. meets a female construction worker, Crystal, who tells K.C. that the men will eventually ignore her. K.C. later learns that the renegade spy group is working on sonic brain imploders, capable of melting people 's brains. When Brady has Marisa gain knowledge about K.C. 's current mission, he warns his group that K.C. is spying on them and that she must be killed. A man is sent to the construction site to plant a brain imploder device. After a fight, K.C. takes down the man, but he says he does not know how to diffuse the imploder. Crystal has K.C. put the imploder into cement mix, which prevents it from detonating. Meanwhile, Judy gets in trouble at school after using mature logic to question a student 's belief in the tooth fairy. Ernie is tasked with teaching Judy to behave like a normal child, to help maintain her cover as a spy robot.
Guest stars: Rick Hall as Agent Johnson, Connor Weil as Brady, Lex Medlin as Roy, Eris Baker as Diane, Tara Karsian as Crystal, Larry Poindexter as Foreman
Ernie and Marisa mock K.C., believing that she does not have a date for their final high school homecoming. On the night of the homecoming, K.C. goes on a mission to retrieve a weather - altering device known as the Storm Maker, which the remaining members of The Other Side plan to use to create man - made weather disasters. K.C. retrieves the device and hides it in her school locker, where she plans to keep it while she attends the homecoming. K.C. has Howard, a gadget inventor for The Organization, pose as her date at homecoming, telling him that it is actually practice so he can become a field agent. Marisa attends homecoming with Brady, while Ernie goes with Monique. Brady learns about the Storm Maker through Marisa after having her casually question K.C. about her latest mission. Brady, who is working for The Alternate, steals the device and places it in his locker, then deletes security footage of his theft before K.C. and Ernie can learn who took the device. Meanwhile, Craig and Judy attend a father - daughter dance at her school.
Guest stars: Rick Hall as Agent Johnson, Connor Weil as Brady, Matthew Gold as Howard, Chandler Kinney as Monique
K.C. and Craig discover that the Storm Maker device can not be powered without a rare chemical known as Dilithium. They go undercover as workers at a truck stop restaurant so they can obtain the Dilithium from a truck that is delivering it. Meanwhile, Ernie gives Judy an emotion upgrade to increase her mental sensitivity, to help her maintain her cover as a real child. At school, Ernie overhears Brady during a phone conversation and discovers that he is an enemy agent. Brady uses memory spray to erase Ernie 's recent memory. Marisa visits the house to ask Ernie questions regarding K.C. 's latest mission. Ernie then overhears Marisa talking to Brady on a cellular phone, and learns that she is a spy. Marisa erases his recent memories with memory spray. At the truck stop, the driver of the Dilithium truck walks inside for lunch, allowing K.C. to obtain the chemicals. Brady, wearing a ski mask, takes the Dilithium and hijacks the truck. K.C. attempts to take control of the truck, and scratches part of Brady 's face through the mask opening, before falling off the truck. Later, K.C. meets Marisa and Brady at a restaurant, and notices the scratch marks on his face. Although he says the marks came from a cat, K.C. realizes that Brady was the truck hijacker.
Guest stars: Rick Hall as Agent Johnson, James DiGiacomo as Petey, Connor Weil as Brady
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where did the term show me state come from | Missouri - wikipedia
Missouri is a state in the Midwestern United States. With over six million residents, it is the 18th-most populous state of the Union. The largest urban areas are Kansas City, St. Louis, Springfield, and Columbia; the capital is Jefferson City, located on the Missouri River. The state is the 21st-most extensive in area. In the South are the Ozarks, a forested highland, providing timber, minerals, and recreation. The Mississippi River forms the eastern border of the state.
Humans have inhabited the land now known as Missouri for at least 12,000 years. The Mississippian culture built cities and mounds, before declining in the 1300s. When European explorers arrived in the 1600s they encountered the Osage and Missouria nations. The French established Louisiana, a part of New France, and founded Ste. Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764. After a brief period of Spanish rule, the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Americans from the Upland South, including enslaved African Americans, rushed into the new Missouri Territory. Missouri was admitted as a slave state as part of the Missouri Compromise. Many from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee settled in the Boonslick area of Mid-Missouri. Soon after, heavy German immigration formed the Missouri Rhineland.
Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States, as memorialized by the Gateway Arch. The Pony Express, Oregon Trail, Santa Fe Trail, and California Trail all began in Missouri. As a border state, Missouri 's role in the American Civil War was complex and there were many conflicts within. After the war, both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became centers of industrialization and business. Today, the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis.
Missouri 's culture blends elements from the Midwestern and Southern United States. The musical styles of ragtime, Kansas City jazz, and St. Louis Blues developed in Missouri. The well - known Kansas City - style barbecue, and lesser - known St. Louis - style barbecue, can be found across the state and beyond. St. Louis is also a major center of beer brewing; Anheuser - Busch is the largest producer in the world. Missouri wine is produced in the nearby Missouri Rhineland and Ozarks. Missouri 's alcohol laws are among the most permissive in the United States. Outside of the large cities popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks and Branson.
Well - known Missourians include U.S. President Harry S. Truman, Mark Twain, Walt Disney, Chuck Berry and Nelly. Some of the largest companies based in the state include Cerner, Express Scripts, Monsanto, Emerson Electric, Edward Jones, H&R Block, Wells Fargo Advisors and O'Reilly Auto Parts. Missouri has been called the "Mother of the West '' and the "Cave State ''; however, Missouri 's most famous nickname is the "Show Me State '', as Missourians are known for being skeptical.
The state is named for the Missouri River, which was named after the indigenous Missouri Indians, a Siouan - language tribe. It is said that they were called the ouemessourita (wimihsoorita), meaning "those who have dugout canoes '', by the Miami - Illinois language speakers. This appears to be Folk Etymology. The Illinois spoke an Algonquian language and the closest approximation that can be made in that of their close neighbors, the Ojibwe, is "You Ought to Go Downriver & Visit Those People. '' This would be an odd occurrence, as the French who first explored & attempted to settle the Mississippi River usually got their translations during that time fairly accurate, often giving things French names that were exact translations of the native tongue (s).
Assuming Missouri were deriving from the Siouan language, it would translate as "It connects to the side of it, '' in reference to the river itself. This is n't entirely likely either, as this would be coming out as "Maya Sunni '' (Mah - yah soo - nee) Most likely, though, the name Missouri comes from Chiwere language, a fairly unique Siouan dialect spoken by people who resided in the modern day states of Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, Missouri & Nebraska.
The name "Missouri '' has several different pronunciations even among its present - day natives, the two most common being / mɪˈzɜːri / (listen) and / məˈzɜːrə / (listen). Further pronunciations also exist in Missouri or elsewhere in the United States, involving the realization of the first syllable as either / mə - / or / mɪ - /; the medial consonant as either / z / or / s /; the vowel in the second syllable as either / ɜːr / or / ʊər /; and the third syllable as (i) (listen), (ə) (listen), centralized (ɪ̈) (listen)), or nothing. Any combination of these phonetic realizations may be observed coming from speakers of American English.
The linguistic history was treated definitively by Donald M. Lance, who acknowledged that the question is sociologically complex, but that no pronunciation could be declared "correct '', nor could any be clearly defined as native or outsider, rural or urban, southern or northern, educated or otherwise. Politicians often employ multiple pronunciations, even during a single speech, to appeal to a greater number of listeners. Often, informal respellings of the state 's name, such as "Missour - ee '' or "Missour - uh '', are used informally to phonetically distinguish pronunciations.
There is no official state nickname. However, Missouri 's unofficial nickname is the "Show Me State '', which appears on its license plates. This phrase has several origins. One is popularly ascribed to a speech by Congressman Willard Vandiver in 1899, who declared that "I come from a state that raises corn and cotton, cockleburs and Democrats, and frothy eloquence neither convinces nor satisfies me. I 'm from Missouri, and you have got to show me. '' This is in keeping with the saying "I 'm from Missouri '' which means "I 'm skeptical of the matter and not easily convinced. '' However, according to researchers, the phrase "show me '' was already in use before the 1890s. Another one states that it is a reference to Missouri miners who were taken to Leadville, Colorado to replace striking workers. Since the new men were unfamiliar with the mining methods, they required frequent instruction.
Other nicknames for Missouri include "The Lead State '', "The Bullion State '', "The Ozark State '', "The Mother of the West '', "The Iron Mountain State '', and "Pennsylvania of the West ''. It is also known as the "Cave State '' because there are more than 6,000 recorded caves in the state (second to Tennessee). Perry County is the county with the largest number of caves and the single longest cave.
The official state motto is Latin: "Salus Populi Suprema Lex Esto '', which means "Let the welfare of the people be the supreme law. ''
Missouri is landlocked and borders eight different states as does its neighbor, Tennessee. No state in the U.S. touches more than eight. Missouri is bounded by Iowa on the north; by Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee across the Mississippi River on the east; on the south by Arkansas; and by Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska (the last across the Missouri River) on the west. Whereas the northern and southern boundaries are straight lines, the Missouri Bootheel protrudes southerly into Arkansas. The two largest rivers are the Mississippi (which defines the eastern boundary of the state) and the Missouri River (which flows from west to east through the state) essentially connecting the two largest metros of Kansas City and St. Louis.
Although today it is usually considered part of the Midwest, Missouri was historically seen by many as a border state, chiefly because of the settlement of migrants from the South and its status as a slave state before the Civil War, balanced by the influence of St. Louis. The counties that made up "Little Dixie '' were those along the Missouri River in the center of the state, settled by Southern migrants who held the greatest concentration of slaves.
In 2005, Missouri received 16,695,000 visitors to its national parks and other recreational areas totaling 101,000 acres (410 km), giving it $7.41 million in annual revenues, 26.6 % of its operating expenditures.
North of, and in some cases just south of, the Missouri River lie the Northern Plains that stretch into Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas. Here, rolling hills remain from the glaciation that once extended from the Canadian Shield to the Missouri River. Missouri has many large river bluffs along the Mississippi, Missouri, and Meramec Rivers. Southern Missouri rises to the Ozark Mountains, a dissected plateau surrounding the Precambrian igneous St. Francois Mountains. This region also hosts karst topography characterized by high limestone content with the formation of sinkholes and caves.
The southeastern part of the state is known as the Missouri Bootheel region, which is part of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain or Mississippi embayment. This region is the lowest, flattest, warmest, and wettest part of the state. It is also among the poorest, as the economy there is mostly agricultural. It is also the most fertile, with cotton and rice crops predominant. The Bootheel was the epicenter of the four New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811 and 1812.
Missouri generally has a humid continental climate with cold snowy winters and hot, humid, and wet summers. In the southern part of the state, particularly in the Bootheel, the climate becomes humid subtropical. Located in the interior United States, Missouri often experiences extreme temperatures. Without high mountains or oceans nearby to moderate temperature, its climate is alternately influenced by air from the cold Arctic and the hot and humid Gulf of Mexico. Missouri 's highest recorded temperature is 118 ° F (48 ° C) at Warsaw and Union on July 14, 1954, while the lowest recorded temperature is − 40 ° F (− 40 ° C) also at Warsaw on February 13, 1905.
Located in Tornado Alley, Missouri also receives extreme weather in the form of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes. The most recent tornado in the state to cause damage and casualties was the 2011 Joplin tornado, which destroyed roughly one - third of the city of Joplin. The tornado caused an estimated $1 -- 3 billion in damages, killed 159 (+ 1 non-tornadic), and injured over 1,000 people. It was the first EF5 to hit the state since 1957 and the deadliest in the U.S. since 1947, making it the seventh deadliest tornado in American history and 27th deadliest in the world. St. Louis and its suburbs also have a history of experiencing particularly severe tornadoes, the most recent memorable one being an EF4 tornado that damaged Lambert - St. Louis International Airport on April 22, 2011. One of the worst tornadoes in American history struck St. Louis on May 27, 1896, killing at least 255 and causing $10 mil. damage ($3.9 bil. damage in 2009) or $4.45 billion in today 's dollars.
Missouri is home to a diversity of both flora and fauna. There is a large amount of fresh water present due to the Mississippi River, Missouri River, and Lake of the Ozarks, with numerous smaller tributary rivers, streams, and lakes. North of the Missouri River, the state is primarily rolling hills of the Great Plains, whereas south of the Missouri River, the state is dominated by the Oak - Hickory Central U.S. hardwood forest.
Indigenous peoples inhabited Missouri for thousands of years before European exploration and settlement. Archaeological excavations along the rivers have shown continuous habitation for more than 7,000 years. Beginning before 1000 CE, there arose the complex Mississippian culture, whose people created regional political centers at present - day St. Louis and across the Mississippi River at Cahokia, near present - day Collinsville, Illinois. Their large cities included thousands of individual residences, but they are known for their surviving massive earthwork mounds, built for religious, political and social reasons, in platform, ridgetop and conical shapes. Cahokia was the center of a regional trading network that reached from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. The civilization declined by 1400 CE, and most descendants left the area long before the arrival of Europeans. St. Louis was at one time known as Mound City by the European Americans, because of the numerous surviving prehistoric mounds, since lost to urban development. The Mississippian culture left mounds throughout the middle Mississippi and Ohio river valleys, extending into the southeast as well as the upper river.
The first European settlers were mostly ethnic French Canadians, who created their first settlement in Missouri at present - day Ste. Genevieve, about an hour south of St. Louis. They had migrated about 1750 from the Illinois Country. They came from colonial villages on the east side of the Mississippi River, where soils were becoming exhausted and there was insufficient river bottom land for the growing population. Sainte - Geneviève became a thriving agricultural center, producing enough surplus wheat, corn and tobacco to ship tons of grain annually downriver to Lower Louisiana for trade. Grain production in the Illinois Country was critical to the survival of Lower Louisiana and especially the city of New Orleans.
St. Louis was founded soon after by French fur traders, Pierre Laclède and stepson Auguste Chouteau from New Orleans in 1764. From 1764 to 1803, European control of the area west of the Mississippi to the northernmost part of the Missouri River basin, called Louisiana, was assumed by the Spanish as part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, due to Treaty of Fontainebleau (in order to have Spain join with France in the war against England). The arrival of the Spanish in St. Louis was in September 1767.
St. Louis became the center of a regional fur trade with Native American tribes that extended up the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, which dominated the regional economy for decades. Trading partners of major firms shipped their furs from St. Louis by river down to New Orleans for export to Europe. They provided a variety of goods to traders, for sale and trade with their Native American clients. The fur trade and associated businesses made St. Louis an early financial center and provided the wealth for some to build fine houses and import luxury items. Its location near the confluence of the Illinois River meant it also handled produce from the agricultural areas. River traffic and trade along the Mississippi were integral to the state 's economy, and as the area 's first major city, St. Louis expanded greatly after the invention of the steamboat and the increased river trade.
Napoleon Bonaparte had gained Louisiana for French ownership from Spain in 1800 under the Treaty of San Ildefonso, after it had been a Spanish colony since 1762. But the treaty was kept secret. Louisiana remained nominally under Spanish control until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the cession to the United States.
Part of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase by the United States, Missouri earned the nickname Gateway to the West because it served as a major departure point for expeditions and settlers heading to the West during the 19th century. St. Charles, just west of St. Louis, was the starting point and the return destination of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, which ascended the Missouri River in 1804, in order to explore the western lands to the Pacific Ocean. St. Louis was a major supply point for decades, for parties of settlers heading west.
As many of the early settlers in western Missouri migrated from the Upper South, they brought enslaved African Americans as agricultural laborers, and they desired to continue their culture and the institution of slavery. They settled predominantly in 17 counties along the Missouri River, in an area of flatlands that enabled plantation agriculture and became known as "Little Dixie. '' In 1821 the former Missouri Territory was admitted as a slave state, in accordance with the Missouri Compromise, and with a temporary state capital in St. Charles. In 1826, the capital was shifted to its current, permanent location of Jefferson City, also on the Missouri River.
The state was rocked by the 1811 -- 12 New Madrid earthquakes. Casualties were few due to the sparse population.
Originally the state 's western border was a straight line, defined as the meridian passing through the Kawsmouth, the point where the Kansas River enters the Missouri River. The river has moved since this designation. This line is known as the Osage Boundary. In 1836 the Platte Purchase was added to the northwest corner of the state after purchase of the land from the native tribes, making the Missouri River the border north of the Kansas River. This addition increased the land area of what was already the largest state in the Union at the time (about 66,500 square miles (172,000 km) to Virginia 's 65,000 square miles, which then included West Virginia).
In the early 1830s, Mormon migrants from northern states and Canada began settling near Independence and areas just north of there. Conflicts over religion and slavery arose between the ' old settlers ' (mainly from the South) and the Mormons (mainly from the North). The Mormon War erupted in 1838. By 1839, with the help of an "Extermination Order '' by Governor Lilburn Boggs, the old settlers forcefully expelled the Mormons from Missouri and confiscated their lands.
Conflicts over slavery exacerbated border tensions among the states and territories. From 1838 to 1839, a border dispute with Iowa over the so - called Honey Lands resulted in both states ' calling - up of militias along the border.
With increasing migration, from the 1830s to the 1860s Missouri 's population almost doubled with every decade. Most of the newcomers were American - born, but many Irish and German immigrants arrived in the late 1840s and 1850s. As a majority were Catholic, they set up their own religious institutions in the state, which had been mostly Protestant. Having fled famine and oppression in Ireland, and revolutionary upheaval in Germany, the immigrants were not sympathetic to slavery. Many settled in cities, where they created a regional and then state network of Catholic churches and schools. Nineteenth - century German immigrants created the wine industry along the Missouri River and the beer industry in St. Louis.
Most Missouri farmers practiced subsistence farming before the American Civil War. The majority of those who held slaves had fewer than five each. Planters, defined by some historians as those holding twenty slaves or more, were concentrated in the counties known as "Little Dixie '', in the central part of the state along the Missouri River. The tensions over slavery chiefly had to do with the future of the state and nation. In 1860, enslaved African Americans made up less than 10 % of the state 's population of 1,182,012. In order to control the flooding of farmland and low - lying villages along the Mississippi, the state had completed construction of 140 miles (230 km) of levees along the river by 1860.
After the secession of Southern states began in 1861, the Missouri legislature called for the election of a special convention on secession. The convention voted decisively to remain within the Union. Pro-Southern Governor Claiborne F. Jackson ordered the mobilization of several hundred members of the state militia who had gathered in a camp in St. Louis for training. Alarmed at this action, Union General Nathaniel Lyon struck first, encircling the camp and forcing the state troops to surrender. Lyon directed his soldiers, largely non-English - speaking German immigrants, to march the prisoners through the streets, and they opened fire on the largely hostile crowds of civilians who gathered around them. Soldiers killed unarmed prisoners as well as men, women and children of St. Louis in the incident that became known as the "St. Louis Massacre ''.
These events heightened Confederate support within the state. Governor Jackson appointed Sterling Price, president of the convention on secession, as head of the new Missouri State Guard. In the face of Union General Lyon 's rapid advance through the state, Jackson and Price were forced to flee the capital of Jefferson City on June 14, 1861. In the town of Neosho, Missouri, Jackson called the state legislature into session. They enacted a secession ordinance. However, even under the Southern view of secession, only the state convention had the power to secede. Since the convention was dominated by unionists, and the state was more pro-Union than pro-Confederate in any event, the ordinance of secession adopted by the legislature is generally given little credence. The Confederacy nonetheless recognized it on October 30, 1861.
With the elected governor absent from the capital and the legislators largely dispersed, the state convention was reassembled with most of its members present, save 20 that fled south with Jackson 's forces. The convention declared all offices vacant, and installed Hamilton Gamble as the new governor of Missouri. President Lincoln 's administration immediately recognized Gamble 's government as the legal Missouri government. The federal government 's decision enabled raising pro-Union militia forces for service within the state as well as volunteer regiments for the Union Army.
Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price 's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from Arkansas and Texas under General Ben McCulloch. After winning victories at the battle of Wilson 's Creek and the siege of Lexington, Missouri and suffering losses elsewhere, the Confederate forces retreated to Arkansas and later Marshall, Texas, in the face of a largely reinforced Union Army.
Though regular Confederate troops staged some large - scale raids into Missouri, the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted chiefly of guerrilla warfare. "Citizen soldiers '' or insurgents such as Captain William Quantrill, Frank and Jesse James, the Younger brothers, and William T. Anderson made use of quick, small - unit tactics. Pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers, such insurgencies also arose in portions of the Confederacy occupied by the Union during the Civil War. Historians have portrayed stories of the James brothers ' outlaw years as an American "Robin Hood '' myth. The vigilante activities of the Bald Knobbers of the Ozarks in the 1880s were an unofficial continuation of insurgent mentality long after the official end of the war, and they are a favorite theme in Branson 's self - image.
The Progressive Era (1890s to 1920s) saw numerous prominent leaders from Missouri trying to end corruption and modernize politics, government and society. Joseph "Holy Joe '' Folk was a key leader who made a strong appeal to middle class and rural evangelical Protestants. Folk was elected governor as a progressive reformer and Democrat in the 1904 election. He promoted what he called "the Missouri Idea '', the concept of Missouri as a leader in public morality through popular control of law and strict enforcement. He successfully conducted antitrust prosecutions, ended free railroad passes for state officials, extended bribery statutes, improved election laws, required formal registration for lobbyists, made racetrack gambling illegal, and enforced the Sunday - closing law. He helped enact Progressive legislation, including an initiative and referendum provision, regulation of elections, education, employment and child labor, railroads, food, business, and public utilities. A number of efficiency - oriented examiner boards and commissions were established during Folk 's administration, including many agricultural boards and the Missouri library commission.
Between the Civil War and the end of World War II, Missouri transitioned from a rural economy to a hybrid industrial - service - agricultural economy as the Midwest rapidly industrialized. The expansion of railroads to the West transformed Kansas City into a major transportation hub within the nation. The growth of the Texas cattle industry along with this increased rail infrastructure and the invention of the refrigerated boxcar also made Kansas City a major meatpacking center, as large cattle drives from Texas brought herds of cattle to Dodge City and other Kansas towns. There, the cattle were loaded onto trains destined for Kansas City, where they were butchered and distributed to the eastern markets. The first half of the twentieth century was the height of Kansas City 's prominence and its downtown became a showcase for stylish Art Deco skyscrapers as construction boomed.
In 1930, there was a diphtheria epidemic in the area around Springfield, which killed approximately 100 people. Serum was rushed to the area, and medical personnel stopped the epidemic.
During the mid-1950s and 1960s, St. Louis and Kansas City suffered deindustrialization and loss of jobs in railroads and manufacturing, as did other Midwestern industrial cities. In 1956 St. Charles claims to be the site of the first interstate highway project. Such highway construction made it easy for middle - class residents to leave the city for newer housing developed in the suburbs, often former farmland where land was available at lower prices. These major cities have gone through decades of readjustment to develop different economies and adjust to demographic changes. Suburban areas have developed separate job markets, both in knowledge industries and services, such as major retail malls.
In 2014, Missouri received national attention for the protests and riots that followed the shooting of Michael Brown by a police officer of Ferguson, which led Governor Jay Nixon to call out the Missouri National Guard. A grand jury declined to indict the officer, and the U.S. Department of Justice concluded, after careful investigation, that the police officer legitimately feared for his safety. However, in a separate investigation, the Department of Justice also found that the Ferguson Police Department and the City of Ferguson relied on unconstitutional practices in order to balance the city 's budget through racially motivated excessive fines and punishments, that the Ferguson police "had used excessive and dangerous force and had disproportionately targeted blacks, '' and that the municipal court "emphasized revenue over public safety, leading to routine breaches of citizens ' constitutional guarantees of due process and equal protection under the law. ''
A series of student protests at the University of Missouri against what the protesters viewed as poor response by the administration to racist incidents on campus began in September 2015.
On June 7, 2017, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People issued a warning to prospective African - American travelers to Missouri. This is the first NAACP warning ever covering an entire state.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Missouri was 6,083,672 on July 1, 2015, a 1.58 % increase since the 2010 United States Census.
Missouri had a population of 5,988,927, according to the 2010 Census; an increase of 392,369 (7.0 percent) since the year 2000. From 2000 to 2007, this includes a natural increase of 137,564 people since the last census (480,763 births less 343,199 deaths), and an increase of 88,088 people due to net migration into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 50,450 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 37,638 people. Over half of Missourians (3,294,936 people, or 55.0 %) live within the state 's two largest metropolitan areas -- St. Louis and Kansas City. The state 's population density 86.9 in 2009, is also closer to the national average (86.8 in 2009) than any other state.
In 2011, the racial composition of the state was:
In 2011, 3.7 % of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino origin (they may be of any race).
The U.S. Census of 2010 found that the population center of the United States is in Texas County, while the 2000 Census found the mean population center to be in Phelps County. The center of population of Missouri is in Osage County, in the city of Westphalia.
In 2004, the population included 194,000 foreign - born (3.4 percent of the state population).
The five largest ancestry groups in Missouri are: German (27.4 percent), Irish (14.8 percent), English (10.2 percent), American (8.5 percent) and French (3.7 percent).
German Americans are an ancestry group present throughout Missouri. African Americans are a substantial part of the population in St. Louis (56.6 % of African Americans in the state lived in St. Louis or St. Louis County as of the 2010 census), Kansas City, Boone County and in the southeastern Bootheel and some parts of the Missouri River Valley, where plantation agriculture was once important. Missouri Creoles of French ancestry are concentrated in the Mississippi River Valley south of St. Louis (see Missouri French). Kansas City is home to large and growing immigrant communities from Latin America esp. Mexico and Colombia, Africa (i.e. Sudan, Somalia and Nigeria), and Southeast Asia including China and the Philippines; and Europe like the former Yugoslavia (see Bosnian American). A notable Cherokee Indian population exists in Missouri.
In 2004, 6.6 percent of the state 's population was reported as younger than 5 years old, 25.5 percent younger than 18, and 13.5 percent was 65 or older. Females were approximately 51.4 percent of the population. 81.3 percent of Missouri residents were high school graduates (more than the national average), and 21.6 percent had a bachelor 's degree or higher. 3.4 percent of Missourians were foreign - born, and 5.1 percent reported speaking a language other than English at home.
In 2010, there were 2,349,955 households in Missouri, with 2.45 people per household. The home ownership rate was 70.0 percent, and the median value of an owner - occupied housing unit was $137,700. The median household income for 2010 was $46,262, or $24,724 per capita. There were 14.0 percent (1,018,118) of Missourians living below the poverty line in 2010.
The mean commute time to work was 23.8 minutes.
In 2011, 28.1 % of Missouri 's population younger than age 1 were minorities.
Note: Births in table do n't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
The vast majority of people in Missouri speak English. Approximately 5.1 % of the population reported speaking a language other than English at home. The Spanish language is spoken in small Latino communities in the St. Louis and Kansas City Metro areas.
Missouri is home to an endangered dialect of the French language known as Missouri French. Speakers of the dialect, who call themselves Créoles, are descendants of the French pioneers who settled the area then known as the Illinois Country beginning in the late 17th century. It developed in isolation from French speakers in Canada and Louisiana, becoming quite distinct from the varieties of Canadian French and Louisiana Creole French. Once widely spoken throughout the area, Missouri French is now nearly extinct, with only a few elderly speakers able to use it.
According to a Pew Research study conducted in 2014, 80 % of Missourians identify with a religion. 77 % affiliate with Christianity and its various denominations, and the other 3 % are adherents of non-Christian religions. The remaining 20 % have no religion, with 2 % specifically identifying as atheists and 3 % identifying as agnostics (the other 15 % do not identify as "anything in particular '').
Broken down, the religious demographics of Missouri are as follows:
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Southern Baptist Convention with 749,685; the Roman Catholic Church with 724,315; and the United Methodist Church with 226,409.
Among the other denominations there are approximately 93,000 Mormons in 253 congregations, 25,000 Jewish adherents in 21 synagogues, 12,000 Muslims in 39 masjids, 7,000 Buddhists in 34 temples, 7,000 Hindus in 17 temples, 2,500 Unitarians in 9 congregations, 2,000 Baha'i in 17 temples, 5 Sikh temples, a Zoroastrian temple, a Jain temple and an uncounted number of neopagans.
Several religious organizations have headquarters in Missouri, including the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod, which has its headquarters in Kirkwood, as well as the United Pentecostal Church International in Hazelwood, both outside St. Louis.
Independence, near Kansas City, is the headquarters for the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) and the group Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. This area and other parts of Missouri are also of significant religious and historical importance to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church), which maintains several sites and visitors centers.
Springfield is the headquarters of the Assemblies of God USA and the Baptist Bible Fellowship International. The General Association of General Baptists has its headquarters in Poplar Bluff. The Unity Church is headquartered in Unity Village.
The U.S. Department of Commerce 's Bureau of Economic Analysis estimated Missouri 's 2016 gross state product at $299.1 billion, ranking 22nd among U.S. states. Per capita personal income in 2006 was $32,705, ranking 26th in the nation. Major industries include aerospace, transportation equipment, food processing, chemicals, printing / publishing, electrical equipment, light manufacturing, financial services and beer.
The agriculture products of the state are beef, soybeans, pork, dairy products, hay, corn, poultry, sorghum, cotton, rice, and eggs. Missouri is ranked 6th in the nation for the production of hogs and 7th for cattle. Missouri is ranked in the top five states in the nation for production of soy beans, and it is ranked fourth in the nation for the production of rice. In 2001, there were 108,000 farms, the second - largest number in any state after Texas. Missouri actively promotes its rapidly growing wine industry. According to the Missouri Partnership, Missouri 's agriculture industry contributes $33 billion in GDP to Missouri 's economy, and generates $88 billion in sales and more than 378,000 jobs.
Missouri has vast quantities of limestone. Other resources mined are lead, coal, and crushed stone. Missouri produces the most lead of all of the states. Most of the lead mines are in the central eastern portion of the state. Missouri also ranks first or near first in the production of lime, a key ingredient in Portland cement.
Missouri also has a growing science, agricultural technology and biotechnology field. Monsanto, one of the largest biotech companies in America, is based in St. Louis.
Tourism, services and wholesale / retail trade follow manufacturing in importance.
Missouri is the only state in the Union to have two Federal Reserve Banks: one in Kansas City (serving western Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Colorado, northern New Mexico, and Wyoming) and one in St. Louis (serving eastern Missouri, southern Illinois, southern Indiana, western Kentucky, western Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and all of Arkansas).
The state 's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate in April 2017 was 3.9 percent. And in 2017, Missouri became a right - to - work state.
Personal income is taxed in ten different earning brackets, ranging from 1.5 % to 6.0 %. Missouri 's sales tax rate for most items is 4.225 % with some additional local levies. More than 2,500 Missouri local governments rely on property taxes levied on real property (real estate) and personal property.
Most personal property is exempt, except for motorized vehicles. Exempt real estate includes property owned by governments and property used as nonprofit cemeteries, exclusively for religious worship, for schools and colleges and for purely charitable purposes. There is no inheritance tax and limited Missouri estate tax related to federal estate tax collection.
In 2017, the Tax Foundation rated Missouri as having the 5th - best corporate tax index, and the 15th - best overall tax climate. Missouri 's corporate income tax rate is 6.25 %; however, 50 % of federal income tax payments may be deducted before computing taxable income, leading to an effective rate of 5.2 %.
In 2012, Missouri had roughly 22,000 MW of installed electricity generation capacity. In 2011, 82 % of Missouri 's electricity was generated by coal. Ten percent was generated from the state 's only nuclear power plant, the Callaway Plant in Callaway County, northeast of Jefferson City. Five percent was generated by natural gas. One percent was generated by hydroelectric sources, such as the dams for Truman Lake and Lake of the Ozarks. Missouri has a small but growing amount of wind and solar power -- wind capacity increased from 309 MW in 2009 to 459 MW in 2011, while photovoltaics have increased from 0.2 MW to 1.3 MW over the same period. As of 2016, Missouri 's solar installations had reached 141 MW.
Oil wells in Missouri produced 120,000 barrels of crude oil in fiscal 2012. There are no oil refineries in Missouri.
Missouri has two major airport hubs: Lambert -- St. Louis International Airport and Kansas City International Airport. Southern Missouri has the Springfield -- Branson National Airport (SGF) with multiple non-stop destinations. Residents of Mid-Missouri use Columbia Regional Airport (COU) to fly to Chicago (ORD), Dallas (DFW) or Denver (DEN).
Two of the nation 's three busiest rail centers are in Missouri. Kansas City is a major railroad hub for BNSF Railway, Norfolk Southern Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, and Union Pacific Railroad, and every class 1 railroad serves Missouri. Kansas City is the second largest freight rail center in the US (but is first in the amount of tonnage handled). Like Kansas City, St. Louis is a major destination for train freight. Springfield remains an operational hub for BNSF Railway.
Amtrak passenger trains serve Kansas City, La Plata, Jefferson City, St. Louis, Lee 's Summit, Independence, Warrensburg, Hermann, Washington, Kirkwood, Sedalia, and Poplar Bluff. A proposed high - speed rail route in Missouri as part of the Chicago Hub Network has received $31 million in funding.
The only urban light rail / subway system operating in Missouri is MetroLink, which connects the city of St. Louis with suburbs in Illinois and St. Louis County. It is one of the largest systems (by track mileage) in the United States. The KC Streetcar in downtown Kansas City opened in May 2016.
The Gateway Multimodal Transportation Center in St. Louis is the largest active multi-use transportation center in the state. It is in downtown St. Louis, next to the historic Union Station complex. It serves as a hub center / station for MetroLink, the MetroBus regional bus system, Greyhound, Amtrak, and taxi services.
Many cities have regular fixed - route systems, and many rural counties have rural public transit services. Greyhound and Trailways provide inter-city bus service in Missouri. Megabus serves St. Louis, but discontinued service to Columbia and Kansas City in 2015.
The Mississippi River and Missouri River are commercially navigable over their entire lengths in Missouri. The Missouri was channelized through dredging and jettys and the Mississippi was given a series of locks and dams to avoid rocks and deepen the river. St. Louis is a major destination for barge traffic on the Mississippi.
Following the passage of Amendment 3 in late 2004, the Missouri Department of Transportation (MoDOT) began its Smoother, Safer, Sooner road - building program with a goal of bringing 2,200 miles (3,500 km) of highways up to good condition by December 2007. From 2006 to 2010 traffic deaths have decreased annually from 1,257 in 2005, to 1,096 in 2006, to 992 for 2007, to 960 for 2008, to 878 in 2009, to 821 in 2010.
The current Constitution of Missouri, the fourth constitution for the state, was adopted in 1945. It provides for three branches of government: the legislative, judicial, and executive branches. The legislative branch consists of two bodies: the House of Representatives and the Senate. These bodies comprise the Missouri General Assembly.
The House of Representatives has 163 members who are apportioned based on the last decennial census. The Senate consists of 34 members from districts of approximately equal populations. The judicial department comprises the Supreme Court of Missouri, which has seven judges, the Missouri Court of Appeals (an intermediate appellate court divided into three districts), sitting in Kansas City, St. Louis, and Springfield, and 45 Circuit Courts which function as local trial courts. The executive branch is headed by the Governor of Missouri and includes five other statewide elected offices. Following the death of Tom Schweich in 2015, only one of Missouri 's statewide elected offices are held by Democrats.
Harry S Truman (1884 -- 1972), the 33rd President of the United States (Democrat, 1945 -- 1953), was born in Lamar. He was a judge in Jackson County and then represented the state in the United States Senate for ten years, before being elected Vice-President in 1944. He lived in Independence after retiring.
Missouri is widely regarded as a bellwether in American politics, often making it a swing state. The state had a longer stretch of supporting the winning presidential candidate than any other state, having voted with the nation in every election from 1904 to 2004 with a single exception: 1956, when Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson of neighboring Illinois lost the election despite carrying Missouri. The state 's status as a bellwether has been questioned in recent years, as Missouri twice voted against Democrat Barack Obama, who nonetheless widely prevailed in the 2008 and 2012 elections. Missouri 's nearly 10 % margin in favor of the losing Mitt Romney in 2012 suggests the state is starting to trend more Republican in presidential contests.
On October 24, 2012, there were 4,190,936 registered voters. At the state level, both Democratic Senator Claire McCaskill and Democratic Governor Jay Nixon were re-elected. On November 8, 2016, there were 4,223,787 registered voters, with 2,811,549 voting (66.6 %).
Missouri has been known for its population 's generally "stalwart, conservative, noncredulous '' attitude toward regulatory regimes, which is one of the origins of the state 's unofficial nickname, the "Show - Me State ''. As a result, and combined with the fact that Missouri is one of America 's leading alcohol states, regulation of alcohol and tobacco in Missouri is among the most laissez - faire in America. For 2013, the annual "Freedom in the 50 States '' study prepared by the Mercatus Center at George Mason University ranked Missouri as # 3 in America for alcohol freedom and # 1 for tobacco freedom (# 7 for freedom overall). The study notes that Missouri 's "alcohol regime is one of the least restrictive in the United States, with no blue laws and taxes well below average '', and that "Missouri ranks best in the nation on tobacco freedom ''.
Missouri law makes it "an improper employment practice '' for an employer to refuse to hire, to fire, or otherwise to disadvantage any person because that person lawfully uses alcohol and / or tobacco products when he or she is not at work.
With a large German immigrant population and the development of a brewing industry, Missouri always has had among the most permissive alcohol laws in the United States. It never enacted statewide prohibition. Missouri voters rejected prohibition in three separate referenda in 1910, 1912, and 1918. Alcohol regulation did not begin in Missouri until 1934.
Today, alcohol laws are controlled by the state government, and local jurisdictions are prohibited from going beyond those state laws. Missouri has no statewide open container law or prohibition on drinking in public, no alcohol - related blue laws, no local option, no precise locations for selling liquor by the package (allowing even drug stores and gas stations to sell any kind of liquor), and no differentiation of laws based on alcohol percentage. State law protects persons from arrest or criminal penalty for public intoxication.
Missouri law expressly prohibits any jurisdiction from going dry. Missouri law also expressly allows parents and guardians to serve alcohol to their children. The Power & Light District in Kansas City is one of the few places in the United States where a state law explicitly allows persons over the age of 21 to possess and consume open containers of alcohol in the street (as long as the beverage is in a plastic cup).
As for tobacco (as of July 2016), Missouri has the lowest cigarette excise taxes in the United States, at 17 cents per pack, and the state electorate voted in 2002, 2006, 2012, and twice in 2016 to keep it that way. In 2007, Forbes named Missouri 's largest metropolitan area, St. Louis, America 's "best city for smokers ''.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, in 2008 Missouri had the fourth highest percentage of adult smokers among U.S states, at 24.5 %. Although Missouri 's minimum age for purchase and distribution of tobacco products is 18, tobacco products can be distributed to persons under 18 by family members on private property.
No statewide smoking ban ever has been seriously entertained before the Missouri General Assembly, and in October 2008, a statewide survey by the Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services found that only 27.5 % of Missourians support a statewide ban on smoking in all bars and restaurants. Missouri state law permits restaurants seating less than 50 people, bars, bowling alleys, and billiard parlors to decide their own smoking policies, without limitation.
Missouri has 114 counties and one independent city (St. Louis).
The largest county by size is Texas County (1,179 sq. miles) and Shannon County is second (1,004 sq. miles). Worth County is the smallest (266 sq. miles). The independent city of St. Louis has only 62 square miles (160 km) of area. St. Louis City is the most densely populated area (5,140.1 per sq. mi.) in Missouri.
The largest county by population (2012 estimate) is St. Louis County (1,000,438 residents), with Jackson County second (677,377 residents), St. Charles third (368,666), and St. Louis fourth (318,172). Worth County is the least populous with 2,171 (2010 census) residents.
Jefferson City is the capital of Missouri.
The five largest cities in Missouri are Kansas City, St. Louis, Springfield, Columbia, and Independence.
St. Louis is the principal city of the largest metropolitan area in Missouri, composed of 17 counties and the independent city of St. Louis; eight of those counties lie in Illinois. As of 2017 St. Louis was the 21st - largest metropolitan area in the nation with 2.81 million people. However, if ranked using Combined Statistical Area, it is 19th - largest with 2.91 million people in 2017. Some of the major cities making up the St. Louis Metro area in Missouri are O'Fallon, St. Charles, St. Peters, Florissant, Chesterfield, Wentzville, Wildwood, University City, and Ballwin.
Kansas City is Missouri 's largest city and the principal city of the fifteen - county Kansas City Metropolitan Statistical Area, including six counties in the state of Kansas. As of 2017, it was the 30th - largest metropolitan area in the nation, with 2.13 million people. In the Combined Statistical Area in 2017, it ranked 25th with 2.47 million. Some of the other major cities comprising the Kansas City metro area in Missouri include Independence, Lee 's Summit, Blue Springs, Liberty, Raytown, Gladstone, and Grandview.
Springfield is Missouri 's third - largest city and the principal city of the Springfield - Branson Metropolitan Area, which has a population of 549,423 and includes seven counties in southwestern Missouri. Branson is a major tourist attraction in the Ozarks of southwestern Missouri. Some of the other major cities comprising the Springfield - Branson metro area include Nixa, Ozark, and Republic.
The Missouri State Board of Education has general authority over all public education in the state of Missouri. It is made up of eight citizens appointed by the governor and confirmed by the Missouri Senate.
Education is compulsory from ages seven to seventeen, and it is required that any parent, guardian or other person with custody of a child between the ages of seven and seventeen the compulsory attendance age for the district, must ensure that the child is enrolled in and regularly attends public, private, parochial school, home school or a combination of schools for the full term of the school year. Compulsory attendance also ends when children complete sixteen credits in high school.
Children in Missouri between the ages of five and seven are not required to be enrolled in school. However, if they are enrolled in a public school their parent, guardian or custodian must ensure that they regularly attend.
Missouri schools are commonly but not exclusively divided into three tiers of primary and secondary education: elementary school, middle school or junior high school and high school. The public schools system includes kindergarten to 12th grade. District territories are often complex in structure. In some cases, elementary, middle and junior high schools of a single district feed into high schools in another district. High school athletics and competitions are governed by the Missouri State High School Activities Association (MSHSAA).
Homeschooling is legal in Missouri and is an option to meet the compulsory education requirement. It is neither monitored nor regulated by the state 's Department of Elementary and Secondary Education
Another gifted school is the Missouri Academy of Science, Mathematics and Computing, which is at the Northwest Missouri State University.
The University of Missouri System is Missouri 's statewide public university system. The flagship institution and largest university in the state is the University of Missouri in Columbia. The others in the system are University of Missouri -- Kansas City, University of Missouri -- St. Louis, and Missouri University of Science and Technology in Rolla.
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century the state established a series of normal schools in each region of the state, originally named after the geographic districts: Northeast Missouri State University (now Truman State University) (1867), Central Missouri State University (now the University of Central Missouri) (1871), Southeast Missouri State University (1873), Southwest Missouri State University (now Missouri State University) (1905), Northwest Missouri State University (1905), Missouri Western State University (1915), and Missouri Southern State University (1937). Lincoln University and Harris -- Stowe State University were established in the mid-nineteenth century and are historically black colleges and universities.
Among private institutions Washington University in St. Louis and Saint Louis University are two top ranked schools in the US. There are numerous junior colleges, trade schools, church universities and other private universities in the state. A.T. Still University was the first osteopathic medical school in the world. Hannibal -- LaGrange University in Hannibal, Missouri, was one of the first colleges west of the Mississippi (founded 1858 in LaGrange, Missouri, and moved to Hannibal in 1928).
The state funds a $2000, renewable merit - based scholarship, Bright Flight, given to the top three percent of Missouri high school graduates who attend a university in - state.
The 19th century border wars between Missouri and Kansas have continued as a sports rivalry between the University of Missouri and University of Kansas. The rivalry was chiefly expressed through football and basketball games between the two universities, but since Missouri left the Big 12 Conference in 2012, the teams no longer regularly play one another. It was the oldest college rivalry west of the Mississippi River and the second - oldest in the nation. Each year when the universities met to play, the game was coined the "Border War. '' An exchange occurred following the game where the winner took a historic Indian War Drum, which had been passed back and forth for decades. Though Missouri and Kansas no longer have an annual game after the University of Missouri moved to the Southeastern Conference, tension still exists between the two schools.
Many well - known musicians were born or have lived in Missouri. These include guitarist and rock pioneer Chuck Berry, singer and actress Josephine Baker, "Queen of Rock '' Tina Turner, pop singer - songwriter Sheryl Crow, Michael McDonald of the Doobie Brothers, and rappers Nelly, Chingy and Akon, all of whom are either current or former residents of St. Louis.
Country singers from Missouri include New Franklin native Sara Evans, Cantwell native Ferlin Husky, West Plains native Porter Wagoner, Tyler Farr of Garden City, and Mora native Leroy Van Dyke, along with bluegrass musician Rhonda Vincent, a native of Greentop. Rapper Eminem was born in St. Joseph and also lived in Savannah and Kansas City. Ragtime composer Scott Joplin lived in St. Louis and Sedalia. Jazz saxophonist Charlie Parker lived in Kansas City. Rock and Roll singer Steve Walsh of the group Kansas was born in St. Louis and grew up in St. Joseph.
The Kansas City Symphony and the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra are the state 's major orchestras. The latter is the nation 's second - oldest symphony orchestra and achieved prominence in recent years under conductor Leonard Slatkin. Branson is well known for its music theaters, most of which bear the name of a star performer or musical group.
Missouri is the native state of Mark Twain. His novels The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn are set in his boyhood hometown of Hannibal. Authors Kate Chopin, T.S. Eliot and Tennessee Williams were from St. Louis. Kansas City - born writer William Least Heat - Moon resides in Rocheport. He is best known for Blue Highways, a chronicle of his travels to small towns across America, which was on the New York Times Bestseller list for 42 weeks in 1982 -- 1983.
Filmmaker, animator, and businessman Walt Disney spent part of his childhood in the Linn County town of Marceline before settling in Kansas City. Disney began his artistic career in Kansas City, where he founded the Laugh - O - Gram Studio.
Several film versions of Mark Twain 's novels The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn have been made. Meet Me in St. Louis, a musical involving the 1904 St. Louis World 's Fair, starred Judy Garland. Part of the 1983 road movie National Lampoon 's Vacation was shot on location in Missouri, for the Griswold 's trip from Chicago to Los Angeles. The Thanksgiving holiday film Planes, Trains, and Automobiles was partially shot at Lambert -- St. Louis International Airport. White Palace was filmed in St. Louis. The award - winning 2010 film Winter 's Bone was shot in the Ozarks of Missouri. Up in the Air starring George Clooney was filmed in St. Louis. John Carpernter 's Escape from New York was filmed in Saint Louis in the early eighties, due to the high number of abandoned buildings in the city. Part of the 1973 movie, Paper Moon, which starred Ryan and Tatum O'Neal, was filmed in St. Joseph. Most of HBO 's film Truman was filmed in Kansas City, Independence, and the surrounding area. Gary Sinise won an Emmy for his portrayal of Harry Truman in the 1995 film. "Ride With the Devil '', starring Jewel and Tobey Maguire, was also filmed in the countryside of Jackson County (also where the historic events of the film took place). Gone Girl, a 2014 film starring Ben Affleck, Rosamund Pike, Neil Patrick Harris, and Tyler Perry, was filmed in Cape Girardeau.
Missouri hosted the 1904 Summer Olympics at St. Louis, the first time the games were hosted in the United States.
Professional major league teams
Former professional major league teams
Coordinates: 38 ° 30 ′ N 92 ° 30 ′ W / 38.5 ° N 92.5 ° W / 38.5; - 92.5
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xbox one controller what do the buttons do | Xbox One controller - wikipedia
Wireless, Micro USB
Xbox One Wireless Controller is the primary controller for the Microsoft Xbox One console. The controller maintains the overall layout found in the Xbox 360 controller, but with various tweaks to its design, such as a revised shape, redesigned analog sticks, shoulder buttons, and triggers, along with new rumble motors within the triggers to allow for directional haptic feedback.
It has had three revisions with several changes to the controller 's design and functionality. Microsoft also markets the Elite Wireless Controller, a premium version geared towards professional gamers, including interchangeable parts and programmability features. In turn, each of the aforementioned variations has been offered in various color schemes, some featuring special designs tying into specific games.
Per a partnership between Microsoft and Oculus VR, Xbox One controllers are bundled with the Oculus Rift virtual reality headset.
Microsoft invested over $100 million into refining the controller design for the Xbox One; internal designers had created prototypes with various tweaks and refinements to the design over the Xbox 360 controller, along with those including unorthodox features such as embedded screens and speakers (which were rejected due to their effects on battery life, and redundancy to the main display and sound system), and the ability to emit odors.
The Xbox One controller maintains the overall layout found in the Xbox 360 's design, but with enhancements such as redesigned grips, a smoother build, the removal of the protruding battery compartment, and "Menu '' and "View '' buttons replacing "Start '' and "Back ''. The controller also contains light emitters that allow it to be tracked and paired using Kinect sensor, and to detect when it is not being held to automatically enter a low - power state. The controller contains a micro USB port, enabling wired use of the controller with the console or on computers running Windows 7 or later with drivers, and firmware updates. For communication, the controller uses a new proprietary protocol with a larger amount of bandwidth than the wireless protocol used by the Xbox 360 controller, reducing wireless latency and allowing higher quality headset audio.
The analog sticks feature a new textured rim, while the D - pad was changed to use a more traditional 4 - way design rather than the circular 8 - way design of the 360. This change was made partially due to criticism by players of fighting games who, despite the use of "sweeps '' across the D - pad in these games as motivation, felt that the Xbox 360 's D - pad performed poorly in said fighting games. The updated 4 - way design is also better suited for use as individual keys in games that use them for item selection. The design of the face buttons was revised to improve their legibility, using a three - layer design consisting of a black background, colored letter, and a clear covering intended to make the letter appear to "hover '' inside it. The buttons themselves are also spaced slightly closer together.
The bumpers and trigger buttons were overhauled with a new curved shape to improve their ergonomics, as the user 's fingers now naturally lie at an angle upon them unlike the straighter design on Xbox 360 controllers. The bumpers were also made flush with the triggers. The triggers themselves now have a smoother feel, and were made more accurate. Each trigger features independent rumble motors called "Impulse Triggers '', which allows developers to program directional vibration. One trigger can be made to vibrate when firing a gun, or both can work together to create feedback that indicates the direction of an incoming hit.
A standard Xbox One controller features ten digital buttons, a syncing button, two analog triggers, two analog sticks and a digital D - pad. The right face of the controller features four digital actions buttons; a green "A '' button, red "B '' button, blue "X '' button, and yellow "Y '' button. The lower right houses the right analog stick, in lower left is a digital D - pad and on the left face is the left analog stick. Both analog sticks can also be "clicked in '' to activate a digital button beneath. In the center of the controller face are digital "View '', "Menu '' and "Guide '' buttons. The "Guide '' button is labelled with the Xbox logo, and is used to turn on the console / controller and to access the Dashboard. Unlike the Xbox 360 controller, the Xbox One controller features a white backlit Xbox logo on its guide button and does not feature the "ring of light '' that served as an indicator for the controller 's assigned number (1 to 4). The left and right "shoulders '' each feature a digital shoulder button, or "bumper '', and an analog trigger.
On June 9, 2015, Microsoft unveiled a revised version of the standard controller. Its shoulder buttons were redesigned for improved responsiveness, a 3.5 mm headphone jack was added near the controller 's expansion port, and support for wireless firmware updates was added.
A third revision of the controller was introduced alongside the Xbox One S, an updated model of the Xbox One console, unveiled in June 2016. It features textured grips, and additionally supports Bluetooth, which allows it to be used wirelessly on Bluetooth - enabled PCs without the need for the proprietary Wireless Adapter. Users can also custom - order this controller revision via the "Xbox Design Lab '' service, with their choice of colors, and an optional inscription of their Xbox Live screen name for an additional fee.
It has been made available in white, black, red, and blue colors, as well as other limited edition colors.
Besides standard colors, "special '' and "limited edition '' Xbox One controllers have also been sold by Microsoft with special color and design schemes, sometimes tying into specific games.
On June 15, 2015, during its E3 2015 press conference, Microsoft unveiled the Xbox One Elite Wireless Controller, a new controller which Xbox division head Phil Spencer described as being "an elite controller for the elite gamer ''. It features a steel construction with a soft - touch plastic exterior, along with interchangeable rear paddle buttons (with either short or long forms), analog stick tops (original Xbox one stick, a concaved version and a extended version for increased accuracy), and directional pad designs (either the traditional four - way design, or a concave disc - like design), and "hair trigger locks '' for the triggers that allow users to reduce the amount of distance they must be pressed to register a press. Through software, users can customise button and paddle mappings and adjust the sensitivity of the triggers and analog sticks. Two button profiles can be assigned to a switch on the controller for quick access. The Elite Controller was released on October 27, 2015.
A special Gears of War 4 - themed variant of the Elite controller was unveiled during Microsoft 's E3 2016 press conference. It features a rustic, dark red color scheme with a blood splatter effect and the series emblem on the rear of the controller, and a D - pad disc with weapon symbols corresponding to the in - game weapons bound to these controls.
Drivers were released in June 2014 to allow Xbox One controllers to be used over a USB connection on PCs running Windows 7 or later. The Xbox One Wireless Adapter for Windows is a USB dongle that allows up to eight controllers to be used at once wirelessly. Upon its release in October 2015, it was supported only by Windows 10. Drivers for Windows 7 and 8.1 were released in December 2015. The adapter was updated in August 2017 with a smaller form factor.
Windows 10 features include button remapping for the Elite Controller, audio through the controller, and firmware updates. On Windows 7 or 8.1, drivers are required, and the aforementioned features are not available.
Microsoft also supports Bluetooth - enabled Xbox One controllers on Android, specifically listing support for Minecraft: Gear VR Edition on certain Samsung Galaxy devices.
The Xbox One Stereo Headset Adapter allows the use of headsets with 3.5 millimeter headphone jacks with the original Xbox One controller, which does not include a 3.5 mm jack. An adapter for 2.5 millimeter headphone jacks (except for ones with a dongle - like adapter) is also included.
A keyboard chatpad attachment, similar to the Xbox 360 Messenger Kit, was unveiled at Gamescom on August 4, 2015.
Similarly to the Xbox 360 version, the Play & Charge kit is the official rechargable battery pack for Xbox One controllers.
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pokemon i choose you releasing date in india | Pokémon the Movie: I Choose You! - Wikipedia
Pokémon the Movie: I Choose You! is a 2017 Japanese animated adventure film directed by Kunihiko Yuyama, written by Shōji Yonemura, and produced by OLM. Released as the twentieth Pokémon movie, the first film in the Sun and Moon generation and the first reboot film in the anime film series. It sets up an alternate continuity to the main series and acts as a loose retelling of the original Kanto League saga of the series / show and the 1st Pokémon film, released to commemorate the anime 's twentieth anniversary. It premiered at Japan Expo in France on July 6, 2017 and was released in Japan on July 15, 2017. The Pokémon Company International and Fathom Events released the film on a limited theatrical run in the rest of the world on November 5, 2017, and this was followed by television airings on Disney XD in the United States on November 25, 2017, on CITV in the UK on December 8, 2017, 9Go! in Australia on December 10, 2017 and on Gulli in France on December 25, 2017.
Ash Ketchum wakes up late one morning after having broken his alarm clock in his sleep. He eventually makes it to Professor Oak 's lab, but is told that the three starter Pokémon (Bulbasaur, Squirtle and Charmander) have already been taken by Trainers who were on time. However, Oak reveals that he has one more Pokémon, an Electric - type named Pikachu. Despite its volatile and feisty personality, as well as its refusal to get inside a Poké Ball, Ash happily takes Pikachu for his journey.
Outside of Pallet Town, Ash encounters a Pidgey. When Pikachu refuses to fight it, Ash tosses a rock at it, but it hits a Spearow that mistakes Pikachu as the culprit. Soon, more Spearow show up forcing Ash and Pikachu to run. Injured and tired, Ash tells Pikachu to get inside its Ball, but it once again refuses. Instead, Pikachu defends Ash from the Spearow by summoning a large Thunderbolt that scares them away. As the storm ceases, a Ho - Oh flies above and drops a feather called a Rainbow Wing. Ash and Pikachu decide to go and find the Legendary Pokémon.
During their travels, Ash catches a Caterpie and the group eventually settle at a Pokémon Center. A Trainer bursts in claiming that they encountered an Entei, a Legendary Fire - type Pokémon, causing Ash, as well as several other Trainers, to rush into the woods to look for it. Ash finds the Entei, but ends up fighting over it with a Trainer with a Piplup named Verity. They are also joined by an aspiring young Pokémon Professor named Sorrel who uses a Lucario in battle. When Entei escapes, Ash and Verity get into an argument and Sorrel leaves, telling them that they need to find shelter soon. As Ash and Verity fight, they accidentally disturb an Onix that starts chasing them. They manage to get it to leave just as it begins to rain. As they look to find shelter, they find a Charmander that has been left out. They quickly learn that it belongs to a ruthless trainer named Cross who, along with his Midnight form Lycanroc, left it out in the rain. He carelessly refuses to take it back, calling it weak, and Ash and Verity are forced to find it shelter.
They come across a cave where Sorrel and Lucario happen to be and help Charmander back to health. Entei and several other Pokémon arrive to sleep for the night and Ash reveals the Rainbow Wing. Sorrel reveals that Ho - Oh only gives the Wing to the "rainbow hero '' who is destined to fight it, as a shadow Pokémon named Marshadow watches. The next morning, Ash convinces Charmander to join them. The group venture on with Caterpie evolving into a Metapod, and Charmander evolving into Charmeleon. Sorrel studies more about Ho - Oh and the Legendary Pokémon while Verity spots a Suicune. Eventually, while battling other Trainers in town, Cross returns and challenges Ash 's Charmeleon with his Incineroar. Charmeleon is savagely defeated, causing Ash much grief.
Upset over his loss, Ash openly admits that he could have won with Pikachu and later states that he wished he had gotten Bulbasaur or Squirtle. Alone in the woods, Marshadow puts Ash in a sleep - like state as the Rainbow Wing turns dark. Ash has a dream where no Pokémon exist and he attends regular school with Verity and Sorrel. Realizing something is missing, he remembers Pikachu and wakes up to his friends, and the Wing regains its color. After escaping some angry Primeape, Metapod evolves into Butterfree. They rescue a pink Butterfree from a Fearow and realize that Ash 's Butterfree needs to mate. Saddened but happy, Ash lets his Butterfree go. The group soon spot a Raikou and realize they are getting close when the Wing begins to glow in the direction of Mount Tensei.
The group make it there and meet Bonji, an old researcher who has been studying Ho - Oh. They make it to a crystal - like structure, but are interrupted by Cross who wants to fight Ho - Oh himself (he too saw Ho - oh, but it did not give him the Wing). Cross ' Incineroar fights Ash 's Charmeleon which quickly evolves into Charizard and defeats Incineroar. Cross, refusing to accept his loss, grabs the Wing and places it on the crystal, but it turns dark, causing Marshadow, as Ho - Oh 's agent, to turn the local Pokémon (including Cross 's midnight form Lycanroc) evil and attack Ash and his friends. The Trainers fight back, but are overwhelmed by the severity of the situation. Ash finally forces Pikachu to get in his Poké Ball as the Pokémon destroy Ash, turning him into pure energy as Marshadow notices the Wing has disintegrated.
Ash finds himself in a grey world, but is brought back, presumably through Ho - Oh 's power when Ash protected Pikachu. Ash takes the newly formed Rainbow Wing and places it on the crystal structure. Ho - Oh arrives and Ash challenges it with Pikachu to battle, but the outcome is never shown. The gang return to the Pokémon Center as Bonji states that Ho - Oh will find a new trainer to leave its Wing to. Cross leaves on good terms with the group and eventually Verity and Sorrel leave to achieve their own dreams. Ash and Pikachu decide to continue their journey in the world of Pokémon.
During the credits, Ash 's recurring friends from the main series (Brock, Misty, Tracey, May, Max, Dawn, Iris, Cilan, Clemont, Bonnie and Serena) are shown. Verity is seen returning home, presumably to amend her relationship with her mother, and Sorrel is seen traveling and spotting an Articuno that he wanted to study. Ash and Pikachu are seen traveling together while being tailed by Team Rocket who appeared throughout the film, unnoticed by the protagonists for comic relief.
The film was officially revealed during the December 15 broadcast of TV Tokyo 's Oha Suta program, revealing a teaser trailer and poster of the film. This early content revealed Ash and Pikachu alongside the Legendary Pokémon Ho - Oh, showing that the film would act as a retelling of the first season, exploring some of the important plot points of the series. Ho - Oh 's appearance in the film was also detailed to be important to the film 's storyline. A second trailer for the film was revealed at the March 1 broadcast of Oha Suta, revealing remade scenes from the first episode and its official English title. It was then posted on the official YouTube page the next day.
Later on, the film 's second official trailer, which also featured a new version of the original Japanese opening theme, "Mesaze Pokémon Master '', was previewed on April 7, 2017. The next day, the producers announced that the current last Pokémon in the Pokédex, Marshadow, would debut in the film alongside several other brand - new characters. As the film is not a direct remake, it diverts itself from the original season that it is based on, and features an original story. Two days before the film 's release, Yoshitoshi Shinomiya, who draw background art for Kara no Kyoukai: Mirai Fukuin and Fate / stay night: Unlimited Blade Works released a new poster for the film.
With the film confirmed to be initially released at the French Japan Expo 2017, Western fans requested for the film to be released in theaters in the United States. This was eventually confirmed to be released by Fathom Events as a limited release across November 4 and 5, 2017. In Australia, the film was also confirmed to be released by Event Cinemas across November 11 and 12, 2017. Some fans also requested that voice actress Veronica Taylor should reprise her role as the English voice of Ash Ketchum for the film, but it was later confirmed that the current set of voice actors would stay on. The title of the film is also a reference to the first episode of the anime, "Pokémon, I Choose You! ''.
Regular series composer Shinji Miyazaki wrote the film 's score for its original release. The film 's opening song is titled Aim to Be a Pokémon Master - 20th Anniversary - (めざせ ポケモン マスター - 20th Anniversary -, Mezase Pokemon Master - 20th Anniversary -) by Rica Matsumoto while the ending is titled Oración 's Theme ~ Let 's Walk Together ~ (オラシオン の テーマ ~ 共 とも に 歩 ある こう ~, Orashion no Tēma ~ Tomoni Arukou ~) by Asuca Hayashi.
Ed Goldfarb, the composer for the North American adaptations of the anime beginning with Pokémon: XY, along with frequent collaborators Akhil Gopal and Kc Daugirdas, composed a new background score for the film 's North American release.
The movie premiered at Japan Expo in France on July 6, 2017, and officially released in Japanese theaters on July 15, 2017. Advanced pre-orders the movie tickets across limited time periods (from September 19 to October 30, 2017) allowed moviegoers to receive a serial code to obtain one of the six special Pikachu in Pokémon Sun and Moon, each wearing one of Ash 's signature hats from each anime season. These Pikachu were holding an exclusive Pikashunium Z - Crystal. Also, both Marshadow and Ho - Oh were distributed during the film 's release in Japan.
Merchandise coinciding with the film was also released. Bandai will release official Poké Ball Breath Mint Cases in both regular and Premium - Bandai versions to coincide with the film 's release. The first set is released in August 2017, and the second is released in September 2017, with pre-orders starting on April 23, 2017. Bandai also released S.H. Figuarts figures of Ash and the Team Rocket trio on July 2017, while Good Smile Company also announced they will release a Nendoroid of Ash in December 2017. For the film 's worldwide release, The Pokémon Company announced special commemorative Pikachu Plush and Pokémon Trading Card Game Cards obtainable in US and Canadian Retail sites.
Some older fans of the anime expressed negative criticism over the film on social media due to the exclusion of Misty and Brock in favor of two new companions, with one saying "It 's almost like Brock and Misty never existed ''. Also, criticism was made at the point where Pikachu actually speaks the human language. As shown at the film 's first screening at the 2017 Japan Expo, most of the main characters from the first six series were relegated to cameos, which also caused some harsh criticism from older fans.
Despite this, reviews of the movie were mostly positive. Callum May of Anime News Network called the film a "Pokémon movie for classic Pokémon fans '' and "While it features new Pokémon from Sun and Moon like Lycanroc and Incineroar, many of the stories and references are from the series 20 years ago, repurposed into far more emotionally moving encounters ''. It was also praised for having a stronger narrative than the other movies in the franchise, but often criticized on Sorrel and Verity 's personalities, calling them "more like bystanders of someone else 's story, and the attempts at creating backstories for them are n't built up at all ''.
The film also topped Japanese box office records, earning first place and grossing more than 516 million yen (US $4.61 million) in the first two days, beating Gintama on its premiere. The movie earned ¥ 2.14 billion ($19.6 million) in its fourth week and remained at the sixth position. In its fifth week it grossed US $22 million and climbed up to the fourth position before being dethroned by Transformers: The Last Knight.
A second film in the alternate continuity, titled Pokémon the Movie: Everyone 's Story, will be animated by OLM and Wit Studio, and it will be released in theaters in Japan on July 13, 2018.
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what will happen if bhakra nangal dam breaks | Bhakra dam - Wikipedia
Bhakra Dam is a concrete gravity dam on the Sutlej River in Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh in northern India. The dam forms the Gobind Sagar reservoir.
The dam, located at a gorge near the (now submerged) upstream Bhakra village in Bilaspur district of Himachal Pradesh of height 226 m. The length of the dam (measured from the road above it) is 518.25 m and the width is 9.1 m. Its reservoir known as "Gobind Sagar '' stores up to 9.34 billion cubic metres of water. The 90 km long reservoir created by the Bhakra Dam is spread over an area of 168.35 km. In terms of quantity of water, it is the third largest reservoir in India, the first being in Madhya Pradesh with capacity of 12.22 billion cu m and second Nagarjunasagar Dam.
Described as "New Temple of Resurgent India '' by Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, the dam attracts tourists from all over India. Bhakra dam is 15 km from Nangal city and 20 km from Naina Devi town.
Nangal Dam is another dam downstream of Bhakra Dam. However, sometimes both the dams together are called Bhakra - Nangal Dam though they are two separate dams.
The Bhakra - Nangal multipurpose dams were among the earliest river valley development schemes undertaken by India after independence though the project had been conceived long before India became a free nation. The agreement for this project had been signed by the then Punjab Revenue Minister, Sir Chhotu Ram in November 1944 with Raja of Bilaspur and finalised the project plan on 8 January 1945. Preliminary works commenced in 1946. Construction of the dam started in 1948; Jawaharlal Nehru poured the first bucket of concrete into the dry riverbed of the Sutlej on 17 November 1955, as a symbolic initiation of the work. Addressing a gathering there, he said, "This is a gift to the people of India and to the future generations from the workers who built this dam '', calling for "rais (ing) a memorial '' at the dam "in honour '' of the workers. The dam was completed by the end of 1963. Successive stages were completed by the early 1970s.
Initially, the construction of the dam was started by Sir Louis Dane, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab. But the project got delayed and was restarted soon after independence under the chief architect Rai Bahadur Kunwar Sen Gupta. It was financed entirely by the union government. The Control Board for the project included representatives from union government, and of the governments of Punjab, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Bilaspur and Himachal Pradesh. The organisation evolved for the purpose of design and construction was divided into three parts. The Designs Directorate provided the designs and drawings. The Construction and Plant Design Directorate was to look after its execution and installing of the plant, while the Directorate of Inspection and Control ensured that the specifications are accorded to safety requirements were met.
In October 1963, at the ceremony to mark the dedication of the Bhakra -- Nangal project to the nation, Prime Minister Nehru said, "This dam has been built with the unrelenting toil of man for the benefit of mankind and therefore is worthy of worship. May you call it a Temple or a Gurdwara or a Mosque, it inspires our admiration and reverence ''. On 22 October 2013, the Government of India approved the release of a commemorative stamp to mark the 50th anniversary of the Bhakra Dam. As how successful India was at that time that it was the only dam in Asia which could produce 1500 MW power and now in China The Gorges Dam takes Control over all the dams and generate around 22,500 MW power i.e more than 15 nuclear power stations.
Also these are multipurpose projects.
The dam, at 741 ft (226 m), is one of the highest gravity dams in the world (compared to USA 's largest Oroville Dam at 770 ft). The 166 km2 Gobindsagar Reservoir, named after Guru Gobind Singh, is created by this dam which is the third largest reservoir in India the first being Indira Sagar Dam and second Nagarjunasagar Dam. The river Satluj used to flow through a narrow gorge between two hills, Naina Devi ki dhar and Ramgarh ki dhar, and the site was chosen to dam the river. The large map http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/india/nh-43-03.jpg shows the location of the original Bhakra village that was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam.
Bhakra dam was part of the larger multipurpose Bhakra Nangal Project whose aims were to prevent floods in the Sutluj - Beas river valley, to provide irrigation to adjoining states and also to provide hydro - electricity. It also became a tourist spot for the tourists during later years because of it huge size and uniqueness.
It also has four spillway gates that are only used when the reservoir exceeds the maximum allowed level.
Nangal dam is a barrage dam that is 10 km downstream of Bhakra dam
The dam holds excess waters during the monsoon and provides a regulated release during the year. It also prevents damage due to monsoon floods. The dam provides irrigation to 10 million acres (40,000 km2) of fields in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
Water flows from Bhakra Dam downstream Nangal dam where it is controlled and released into Nangal Hydel Channel that later becomes Bhakra Main Line after Ganguwal and Kotla power plants. The Bhakra main line is a canal that mostly supplies irrigation water to the state of Haryana.
Bhakra Dam has ten power generators with five on each side. Generators for the left power house were originally supplied by Hitachi, Japan and upgraded to the present capacity by Sumitomo, Hitachi and Adritz. Generators for the right side were originally supplied by Soviet Union and later upgraded to the present capacity by Russia. The two power houses have a total capacity of 1325 MW. The left power house contain 3 x 108 MW and 2 x 126 MW Francis turbines while the right has 5 x 157 MW.
The power generated at Bhakra Dam is distributed among partner states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh and Delhi.
Three additional power plants are on the two canals Nangal Hydel Channel and Anandpur Sahib Hydel Channel that originate from Nangal dam. Their generation capacities are: Ganguwal - 77.65 MW, Kotla - 77.65 MW and Anandpur - 134 MW.
The reservoir of the Dam, Gobind Sagar, homes fishes of different species including endangered Mahseer. Commercial fishing by Local fisherman is also common in Gobind Sagar.
Bhakra Management Board (BMB) was constituted in 1966 for the administration, maintenance and operation of Bhakra Nangal Project from 1 October 1967. It manages the operation of both the dams. Its members are appointed by the government of India and by the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Chandigarh. Bhakra Management Board was renamed Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) on 15 May 1976 to also manage dams on river Beas. Since then the Bhakra Beas Management Board is engaged in the regulation of the supply of water and power from Bhakra Nangal Project and Beas Projects to the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Chandigarh government.
The Bhakra Beas Management Board regulates, operates and manages Bhakra Dam, Dehar Hyroelectric Project, Pong dam, Ganguwal and Kotla power stations.
Being the fourth largest dam in India after Tehri Dam, it attracts a large number of tourists who visit its reservoir and attractive location. However, for security reasons, visitors to Bhakra - Nangal Dam has been banned since 2009. The distance between the Ganguwal and Bhakra Dam is about 30 -- 35 km.
The large reservoir created by the dam displaced a large population from the district of Bilaspur. About 371 villages were submerged. After 50 years of its completion, there is still a question of full resettlement of oustees.
Media related to Bhakra Dam at Wikimedia Commons
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where did american soldiers fight during most of ww1 | United States in World war I - wikipedia
The United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, during World War I. The U.S. was an independent power and did not officially join the Allies. It closely cooperated with the Allies militarily but acted alone in diplomacy. The U.S. made its major contributions in terms of supplies, raw material and money, starting in 1917. American soldiers under General John Pershing, Commander - in - Chief (C - in - C) of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), arrived in large numbers on the Western Front in the summer of 1918. Before entering the war, the U.S. had remained neutral, though it had been an important supplier to Great Britain and the other Allied powers. During the war, the U.S. mobilized over 4 million military personnel and suffered 110,000 deaths, including 43,000 due to the influenza pandemic. The war saw a dramatic expansion of the United States government in an effort to harness the war effort and a significant increase in the size of the U.S. Armed Forces. After a relatively slow start in mobilizing the economy and labor force, by spring 1918, the nation was poised to play a role in the conflict. Under the leadership of President Woodrow Wilson, the war represented the climax of the Progressive Era as it sought to bring reform and democracy to the world, although there was substantial public opposition to U.S. entry into the war.
The American entry into World War I came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans and Scandinavian Americans, as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in Europe. Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, the American people increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe.
As U.S. President, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a laissez - faire basis, with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France -- funds that were in large part used to buy munitions, raw materials and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did however expand the United States Navy.
In 1917, with Russia experiencing political upheaval following widespread disillusionment there over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe, while the Ottoman Empire clung to its possessions in the Middle East. In the same year, Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican -- American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then asked Congress for "a war to end all wars '' that would "make the world safe for democracy '', and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917. On December 7, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Austria - Hungary. U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918.
After the war began in 1914, the United States proclaimed a policy of neutrality despite president Woodrow Wilson 's antipathies against Germany. Early in the war, the United States started to favor the British and their allies. President Wilson aimed to broker a peace and sent his top aide, Colonel House, on repeated missions to the two sides, but each remained so confident of victory that they ignored peace proposals.
When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 US citizens aboard, Wilson said "America is too proud to fight '' and demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson repeatedly warned that the US would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare in violation of international law and of human rights. Wilson came under pressure from war hawks led by former president Theodore Roosevelt, who denounced German acts as "piracy '', and from British delegations under Cecil Spring Rice and Sir Edward Grey. Wilson realized he needed to enter the war in order to shape the peace; indeed in 1919 he was one of those who achieved the establishment of the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference. Wilson 's Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, whose pacifist goals Wilson ignored, resigned in frustration in June 1915. Public opinion reacted with outrage to suspected German sabotage of Black Tom in Jersey City, New Jersey on 30 July 1916, and to the Kingsland explosion on 11 January 1917 in present - day Lyndhurst, New Jersey.
American public opinion was divided, with most Americans until early 1917 largely of the opinion that the United States should stay out of the war. Opinion changed gradually, partly in response to German actions in Belgium and the Lusitania, partly as German Americans lost influence, and partly in response to Wilson 's position that America had to play a role to make the world safe for democracy.
In the general public, there was little if any support for entering the war on the side of Germany. The great majority of German Americans, as well as Scandinavian Americans, wanted the United States to remain neutral; however, at the outbreak of war, thousands of US citizens had tried to enlist in the German army. The Irish Catholic community, based in the large cities and often in control of the Democratic Party apparatus, was strongly hostile to helping Britain in any way, especially after the Easter uprising of 1916 in Ireland. Most of the Protestant church leaders in the United States, regardless of their theology, favoured pacifistic solutions whereby the United States would broker a peace. Most of the leaders of the women 's movement, typified by Jane Addams, likewise sought pacifistic solutions. The most prominent opponent of war was industrialist Henry Ford, who personally financed and led a peace ship to Europe to try to negotiate among the belligerents; no negotiations resulted.
Britain had significant support among intellectuals, Yankees, and families with close ties to Britain. The most prominent leader was Samuel Insull of Chicago, a leading industrialist who had emigrated from England. Insull funded many propaganda efforts, and financed young Americans who wished to fight by joining the Canadian military, Canada at that time being a Dominion of the British Empire.
By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania aroused furious denunciations of German brutality. By 1915, in Eastern cities a new "Preparedness '' movement emerged. It argued that the United States needed to build up immediately strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. The driving forces behind Preparedness were all Republicans, notably General Leonard Wood, ex-president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson; they enlisted many of the nation 's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist '' foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper - class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism.
The Preparedness movement had what political scientists call a "realism '' philosophy of world affairs -- they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self - determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defences, they showed that the United States ' 100,000 - man Army even augmented by the 112,000 - strong National Guard, was outnumbered 20 to one by the German army, similarly in 1915, the armed forces of Great Britain and the British empire, France, Russia, the Austro - Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military.
They called for UMT or "universal military service '' under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and then be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency. Public opinion, however, was not willing to go that far.
Both the regular army and the Preparedness leaders had a low opinion of the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, provincial, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of the US political economy. The Guard was one of the nation 's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted black men on an equal footing with white men.
The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation 's military was in excellent shape.
In reality, neither the US Army nor US Navy was in shape for war in terms of manpower, size, military hardware or experience. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet 's readiness had suffered. The crews of the Texas and the New York, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of trench warfare, poison gas or tanks, and was unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of Aerial warfare. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the "Lusitania '' in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long - term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s, although this would not come to pass until after World War II. "Realism '' was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none -- that is, equal to Great Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored.
Wilson 's decision touched off a firestorm. Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserves and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison 's proposals not only outraged the provincial politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement, that was, that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (such as J.P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (such as Bethlehem Steel, which made armour, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control. Antiwar critics blasted them. These selfish special interests were too powerful, especially, Senator La Follette noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament in the eyes of many.
Garrison 's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors.
Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford University redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the President because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste. '' Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warm - up for his reelection campaign that fall.
Wilson seemed to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness. The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserves, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. The United States would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides (Britain and Germany) treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly. ''. The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy '' plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. The battle of Jutland (May 31 / June 1, 1916) saw the main German High Seas Fleet engage in a monumental yet inconclusive clash with the far stronger Grand Fleet of the Royal Navy. Arguing this battle proved the validity of Mahanian doctrine, the navalists took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three - year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armour - plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the US Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, Germany thought, with Germany victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917.
In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. The German Foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann invited revolution - torn Mexico to join the war as Germany 's ally against the United States in the Zimmermann Telegram. In return, the Germans would send Mexico money and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona that Mexico lost during the Mexican -- American War 70 years earlier. British intelligence intercepted the telegram and passed the information on to Washington. Wilson released the Zimmerman note to the public and Americans saw it as a casus belli -- a cause for war.
At first, Wilson tried to maintain neutrality while fighting off the submarines by arming American merchant ships with guns powerful enough to sink German submarines on the surface (but useless when the U-boats were under water). After submarines sank seven US merchant ships, Wilson finally went to Congress calling for a declaration of war on Germany, which Congress voted on April 6, 1917.
As a result of the Russian February Revolution in 1917, the Tsar abdicated and was replaced by a Russian Provisional Government. This helped overcome Wilson 's reluctance to having the US fight alongside a country ruled by an absolutist monarch. Pleased by the Provisional Government 's pro-war stance, the US accorded the new government diplomatic recognition on March 9, 1917.
Although the United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, it did not initially declare war on the other Central Powers, a state of affairs that Woodrow Wilson described as an "embarrassing obstacle '' in his State of the Union speech. Congress declared war on the Austro - Hungarian Empire on December 7, 1917, but never made declarations of war against the other Central Powers, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire or the various co-belligerents allied with the Central Powers. Thus, the United States remained uninvolved in the military campaigns in central and eastern Europe, the Middle East, the Caucasus, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and the Pacific.
The home front saw a systematic mobilization of the entire population and the entire economy to produce the soldiers, food supplies, munitions, and money needed to win the war. Although the United States entered the war in 1917, there had been very little planning, or even recognition of the problems that the British and other Allies had to solve on their home fronts. As a result, the level of confusion was high in the first 12 months, then efficiency took control.
The war came in the midst of the Progressive Era, when efficiency and expertise were highly valued. Therefore, the federal government set up a multitude of temporary agencies with 500,000 to 1,000,000 new employees to bring together the expertise necessary to redirect the economy into the production of munitions and food necessary for the war, as well as for propaganda purposes.
The United States Food Administration under Herbert Hoover launched a massive campaign to teach Americans to economize on their food budgets and grow victory gardens in their backyards, where crops were grown for US soldiers. It managed the nation 's food distribution and prices.
Crucial to US participation was the sweeping domestic propaganda campaign executed by the Committee on Public Information, overseen by George Creel. The campaign consisted of tens of thousands of government - selected community leaders giving brief carefully scripted pro-war speeches at thousands of public gatherings. Along with other branches of government and private vigilante groups like the American Protective League, it also included the general repression and harassment of people either opposed to American entry into the war or of German heritage. Rumors about a German induced attempt to start uprising among Black Americans caused a wave of lynchings to occur in the Southern United States. Other forms of propaganda included newsreels, photos, large - print posters (designed by several well - known illustrators of the day, including Louis D. Fancher and Henry Reuterdahl), magazine and newspaper articles, and billboards.
The nation placed a great importance on the role of children, teaching them patriotism and national service and asking them to encourage war support and educate the public about the importance of the war. The Boy Scouts of America helped distribute war pamphlets, helped sell war bonds, and helped to drive nationalism and support for the war.
The United States as late as 1917 maintained only a small army, and smaller than thirteen of the nations and empires already active in the war. After the passage of the Selective Service Act in 1917, it drafted 4 million men into military service. By the summer of 1918, about 2 million US soldiers had arrived in France, about half of whom eventually saw front - line service; by the Armistice of November 11 approximately 10,000 fresh soldiers were arriving in France daily. In 1917, Congress gave US citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they were drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones Act. In the end, Germany miscalculated the United States ' influence on the outcome of the conflict, believing it would be many more months before US troops would arrive and overestimating the effectiveness of U-boats in slowing the American buildup.
The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted US units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not to waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. The US rejected the first proposition and accepted the second. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up US units to serve as mere reinforcements for British Empire and French units. As an exception, he did allow African - American combat regiments to fight in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, earning a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château - Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Séchault.
On the battlefields of France in spring 1918, the war - weary Allied armies enthusiastically welcomed the fresh American troops. They arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day, at a time when the Germans were unable to replace their losses. The Americans won a victory at Cantigny, then again in defensive stands at Chateau - Thierry and Belleau Wood. The Americans helped the British Empire, French and Portuguese forces defeat and turned back the powerful final German offensive (Spring Offensive of March to July, 1918), and most importantly, the Americans played a role in the Allied final offensive (Hundred Days Offensive of August to November). However, many American commanders used the same flawed tactics which the British, French, Germans and others had abandoned early in the war, and so many American offensives were not particularly effective. Pershing continued to commit troops to these full - frontal attacks, resulting in high casualties against experienced veteran German and Austrian - Hungarian units. Nevertheless, the infusion of new and fresh US troops greatly strengthened the Allies ' strategic position and boosted morale. The Allies achieved victory over Germany on November 11, 1918 after German morale had collapsed both at home and on the battlefield.
Britain, France, Italy and America imposed severe economic penalties on Germany in the Treaty of Versailles, and both the British and French empires annexed former German and Ottoman Empire colonies in Africa, the Middle East and the Pacific. Russia was not involved in this because of their withdrawal from the war soon after the Russian revolution in 1917. The United States swiftly pulled its troops out of Europe after Germany had surrendered. Two thirds of the American soldiers participating in the war had returned home already when the Treaty of Versailles was signed. Only a lone U.S. Army unit was left in the European soil at end of the decade. The United States Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles; instead, the United States signed separate peace treaties with Germany, Austria and Hungary in August 1921. The Senate also refused to enter the newly created League of Nations on Wilson 's terms, and Wilson rejected the Senate 's compromise proposal.
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who plays young snow in once upon a time | Bailee Madison - wikipedia
Bailee Madison (born October 15, 1999) is an American actress. In film, she played May Belle Aarons in Bridge to Terabithia (2007), Isabelle in Brothers (2009), Sally Hurst in Do n't Be Afraid of the Dark (2010), Maggie in Just Go with It (2011), Harper Simmons in Parental Guidance (2012), and Kinsey in The Strangers: Prey at Night (2018).
On television, she made guest appearances as Maxine Russo in Wizards of Waverly Place and young Snow White in Once Upon a Time. She also has a recurring role as Sophia Quinn in The Fosters. In 2015, she began starring as Grace Russell in the Hallmark Channel series Good Witch.
Madison was born in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, the youngest of seven children. She has four brothers and two sisters. Her older sister, Kaitlin Riley, is also an actress. Her mother is Patricia Riley. She began her career when she was two weeks old in an Office Depot commercial. Since then, she has appeared in several national commercials for major companies including Disney, SeaWorld, and Cadillac. She also serves as a national youth spokesperson for the childhood - cancer charity Alex 's Lemonade Stand Foundation.
She made her major motion picture debut in the movie Lonely Hearts, in which she plays Rainelle, a girl thrown into the midst of a world of crime. Madison also has a significant role in the Disney movie Bridge to Terabithia, based on the children 's book. She plays May Belle Aarons, the younger sister of the lead male character played by Josh Hutcherson. She also appears in the independent film Look as Megan, a girl who is being watched and followed by a kidnapper.
Madison had a small role in Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles during the season 1 finale "What He Beheld '' as a girl who becomes part of a short - lived hostage situation. In the DVD extras it is said that they thought about changing the role slightly because of its violent nature, but she insisted that they not. Madison appeared in Nickelodeon 's made - for - TV movie, The Last Day of Summer. She plays a girl who helps a friend during a difficult time. Another Nickelodeon production she had a role in was the television Christmas special Merry Christmas, Drake & Josh. She played a girl who lived with a foster family.
Madison is seen in a featured supporting role in the 2009 film Brothers as Isabelle Cahill, the older daughter of Captain Sam Cahill (Tobey Maguire) and Grace Cahill (Natalie Portman). For her portrayal in the movie, she was nominated for both a Saturn Award and a BFCA Critics ' Choice Award. In 2010, Madison was in the movie Letters to God, where she portrayed Samantha Perryfield, best friend of the lead character who is fighting cancer.
She is seen in Conviction playing the younger version of Hilary Swank 's character, Betty Anne Waters. She can be seen in the episode "Locum '' from Law & Order: Special Victims Unit as Mackenzie Burton, a girl who was adopted and feels like she is only filling the place of her parents ' older daughter who was abducted years ago. She appeared in three episodes of the children 's horror series, R.L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour.
In 2011, Madison had a recurring role in the Disney Channel Original Series Wizards of Waverly Place as Maxine, the girl form of Max Russo. She also appeared in Just Go with It, alongside Adam Sandler and Jennifer Aniston, as Maggie Murphy, a young girl who wants to become an actress. Madison can be seen in the drama film, An Invisible Sign as the younger version of Jessica Alba 's character Mona Gray. She starred in her first leading role in the horror film, Do n't Be Afraid of the Dark, alongside Katie Holmes and Guy Pearce where she portrayed Sally Hurst, a lonely withdrawn child who is sent to live with her father and his new girlfriend.
In 2012, Madison appeared in the Hallmark film A Taste of Romance alongside Teri Polo and James Patrick Stuart. She also had a guest role as the younger version of Ginnifer Goodwin 's character Snow White in the TV series Once Upon a Time. She also could be seen as the main character in the film Cowgirls n ' Angels where she played the feisty and rebellious Ida Clayton who has fantasies of finding her father, a rodeo rider. Madison appeared in another Hallmark film entitled Smart Cookie as Daisy, an eager girl hoping to prove herself as a Girl Scout. In December, she appeared in the family comedy film Parental Guidance, alongside Billy Crystal and Bette Midler.
In 2013, Madison began playing Hillary on the TV sitcom Trophy Wife, replacing Gianna LePera who played the character in the pilot. In 2014, she began playing the recurring role of Sophia Quinn in the ABC Family drama The Fosters. In 2015, she began playing Grace Russell, the daughter of Cassie Nightingale, in the Hallmark series Good Witch.
In 2017 it was announced that Madison would star in an adaptation of Rachel Bateman 's novel Someone Else 's Summer.
In 2018, she portrayed the role of Kinsey, a rebellious child in horror film The Strangers: Prey at Night. Christina Hendricks and Martin Henderson played her parents. The film received mixed response from critics.
Bailee Madison 's career also includes voice over work (or voice acting) with Breathe Bible.
Madison has served as the national youth spokesperson for Alex 's Lemonade Stand Foundation since 2010, an organization that encourages kids to fundraise and spread awareness of pediatric cancer by running their own lemonade stands.
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when did florida establish its public school system | Education in Florida - wikipedia
The Florida education system consists of public and private schools in Florida, including the State University System of Florida (SUSF), the Florida College System (FCS), the Independent Colleges and Universities of Florida (ICUF) and other private institutions, and also secondary and primary schools.
There are 12 public universities that comprise the State University System of Florida. In addition the Florida College System comprises 28 public community colleges and state colleges. In 2008 the State University System had 302,513 students. Florida also has private universities, some of which comprise the Independent Colleges and Universities of Florida. In 2010, nineteen of Florida 's 28 community colleges were offering four year degree programs.
The state 's public primary and secondary schools are administered by the Florida Department of Education (FLDOE). FLDOE also has authority over the Florida College System. The State University System is under the authority of the Florida Board of Governors.
As mandated by the Florida Constitution, Article IX, section 4, Florida has 67 school districts, one for each county. All are separate from municipal government. School districts tax property within their jurisdictions to support their budgets.
Florida has hundreds of private schools of all types. The FLDOE has no authority over private school operations. Private schools may or may not be accredited, and achievement tests are not required for private school graduating seniors. Many private schools obtain accreditation and perform achievement tests to show parents the school 's interest in educational performance.
In 2008, about 55,000 students were homeschooled. Neither FLDOE nor the local school district has authority to regulate home school activities. The government supports and assists homeschooling activities. There is no minimum number of days in a year, or hours in a day, that must be met, and achievement tests are not required for home school graduating seniors.
In the state of Florida, public primary and secondary schools are administered by the Florida Department of Education.
School districts are organized within county boundaries. Each school district has an elected Board of education which sets policy, budget, goals and approves expenditures. Management is the responsibility of a Superintendent of schools.
The Florida Constitution allows districts to either elect the superintendent in a popular election (the default provision) or choose (via popular election) to allow the school board to appoint the superintendent. As of 2010, school boards in 25 districts (Alachua, Brevard, Broward, Charlotte, Collier, Duval, Flagler, Hernando, Hillsborough, Indian River, Lake, Lee, Manatee, Miami - Dade, Okeechobee, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pinellas, Polk, Saint Johns, Saint Lucie, Sarasota, Seminole, and Volusia) appointed the superintendent; the remaining districts elect their superintendent.
In 2008, there were 619 secondary schools in the state.
Education Week evaluated Florida 's schools for 2010, fifth in the nation overall, with As for student testing, teacher accountability and progress on closing the achievement gap. It gave the state an F for per - pupil spending.
In 2011, the liberal Center for American Progress stated that for half the states it studied, it found no correlation between spending and achievement after allowing for cost of living, and students living in poverty. The Center commended Florida as one of two states that provides annual school - level productivity evaluations which report to the public how well school funds are being spent at the local level.
Florida 's public - school revenue per student and spending per $1000 of personal income usually rank in the bottom 25 percent of U.S. states. Average teacher salaries rank near the middle of U.S. states.
Florida public schools have consistently ranked in the bottom 25 percent of many national surveys and average test - score rankings before allowances for race are made. When allowance for race is considered, a 2007 US Government list of test scores shows Florida white fourth graders performed 13th in the nation for reading (232), 12th for math (250); while black fourth graders were 11th for math (225), 12th for reading (208). White eighth graders scored 30th for math (289) and 36th for reading (268). Neither score was considered statistically significant from average. Black eighth graders ranked 19th on math (259), 25th on reading (244).
In 2002, voters approved a constitutional amendment to limit class size in public schools starting in the 2010 - 11 school year from 18 in lower grades to 23 in high school. This was phased in by the legislature from 2003 to 2009, to promote compliance when the amendment took effect. As of March 2011, 28 school districts had failed to comply and owed fines, which were to be redistributed to districts that were in compliance.
Florida, like other states, appears to substantially undercount dropouts in reporting.
In 2007, the state 's school population grew by 477 students to 2,641,598, which was far below the projected 48,376 increase. School boards blamed rising insurance and property tax costs and the major 2004 and 2005 hurricane season, which have discouraged migration into Florida. Growth in counties such as Miami - Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, Hillsborough, Orange, Pinellas, and Duval counties was under state projections. Hillsborough County was the only one of these to have grown; growth in the county was projected to be 4,537, but the actual increase was only 536 students.
Some school districts had backed up the start of the academic year well into August in order to complete the semester and exams before the December holiday break. In 2006, the legislature required districts to start no earlier than two weeks before the end of August, but that was changed in 2015 to no earlier than August 10. The state requires that each school teach for 180 days. Private schools may be open for more than 170 days.
Florida does not handpick the best students to take the Advanced Placement exams.
In 2010, there were about 60,750 foreign - born children of illegal immigrants attending public schools. The cost per year averaged $9,035 annually. The total cost of educating these children is over $548 million.
Paddling students for discipline is legal in Florida.
Florida had a voucher system for low - income families from failing school districts from 1999 until 2006. In the final year, 750 students out of 190,000 eligible made this choice. The state paid an average of $4,000 per student as opposed to the $7,206 per student attending public schools.
The system was overturned by the Florida Supreme Court for violating separation of church and state, since some students used these for church schools.
Between 2000 and 2008, school enrollment increased 6 %, the number of teachers 20 %.
For 2012, StudentsFirst, a political lobbying organization, ranked Florida second among the fifty states, for policy related to education reform.
As in most areas, high schools compete in sports in two types of division. One, because of logistical and geographical constraints, is necessarily local. That is, large schools play small ones in the same area. A second division is based on school population and is statewide. Eventually, schools with the best records in this type of division will meet each other for seasonal playoffs to determine the state champion.
Competition is under the auspices of the Florida High School Athletic Association.
In the fiscal year 2007 - 2008, the Florida Educational Enhancement Trust Fund received $1.28 billion from the Florida Lottery, passing the billion - dollar mark for the 6th time in the lottery 's 20 - year history. As of 2009, the current lottery 's total contribution since start - up is more than $19 billion.
In 2010, the annual tuition. alone, at Florida 's 11 public universities was $4,886, third lowest in the country. The average cost total for books, tuition, fees, and living expenses, is $15,500 compared to $16,140 average for the country.
In an attempt to save money, entering students may take nationally standardized Advanced Placement exams. In 2010, 67, 741 Florida seniors took the exam. 33,712 scored 3 or more, sufficient for advanced placement. A total of 307,000 Florida students took AP exams in 2010. 64,000 scored a minimum of three or more; 43,000 scoring a four or higher.
The State University System of Florida manages and funds Florida 's eleven public universities and a public Liberal Arts college:
In 2009, the system employed 45,000 people statewide. The budget was $4.1 billion for community colleges and universities.
In 2000, the governor and the state legislature abolished the Florida Board of Regents, which long had governed the State University System of Florida, and created boards of trustees to govern each university. As is typical of executive - appointed government boards, the appointees so far have predominantly belonged to the governor 's party. This effect has not been without controversy. In 2002, former governor and then - U.S. Senator Bob Graham (Dem.) led a constitutional - amendment ballot referendum designed to restore the board - of - regents system. Voters approved. Therefore, the legislature created the Florida Board of Governors; however, each university still maintains a Board of Trustees which work under the Board of Governors. During Florida 's 2007 legislative session, Governor Charlie Crist signed into law SB - 1710, which allowed the Board of Governors to allow a tuition differential for the University of Florida, Florida State University, and the University of South Florida. This legislation ultimately created a tier system for higher education in Florida 's State University System.
The Florida College System manages and funds Florida 's 28 public community colleges and state colleges, with over 100 locations throughout the state of Florida.
Florida A&M University Tallahassee
Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton
Florida Gulf Coast University Fort Myers
Florida International University Miami
Florida Polytechnic University Lakeland
Florida State University Tallahassee
University of Central Florida Orlando
University of Florida Gainesville
University of North Florida Jacksonville
University of South Florida Tampa
The Independent Colleges and Universities of Florida is an association of around 30 private, educational institutions in the state of Florida. The association reported that their member institutions enrolled over 121,000 students in the fall of 2006.
Barry University Miami Shores
Flagler College Saint Augustine
Jacksonville University Jacksonville
University of Miami Coral Gables
Nova Southeastern University Fort Lauderdale
Stetson University DeLand
University of Tampa Tampa
Additionally, there are many colleges and universities that are not affiliated with the ICUF.
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who sang i knew you when you were lonely | I Knew You When (song) - Wikipedia
"I Knew You When '' is a song written and composed by Joe South. It became a popular hit in 1965 when recorded by American pop and country singer Billy Joe Royal. There have also been several other hit cover versions of this song, including Donny Osmond and Linda Ronstadt.
"I Knew You When '' was first recorded by Billy Joe Royal for his 1965 studio album, Down in the Boondocks. The song reached No. 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 the week of November 6, 1965. The song went to No. 1 on the Canadian music chart in November 1965.
Donny Osmond released a version in 1971 as the B - side of "Hey Girl '' that went to No. 9 on the Hot 100 as a double - sided hit.
Linda Ronstadt recorded a cover version for her Gold - plus 1982 album, Get Closer. Her single was produced by Peter Asher and released on Asylum Records. Aided by a popular music video, it reached # 30 on the Cash Box Top 100 chart and # 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 as the album 's second single.
Additionally, it reached No. 29 on the adult contemporary chart, No. 84 on the country chart, and No. 90 in the United Kingdom.
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what was the last hurricane to hit nc | List of North Carolina hurricanes - wikipedia
The list of North Carolina hurricanes includes 413 known tropical or subtropical cyclones that have affected the U.S. state of North Carolina. Due to its location, many hurricanes have hit the state directly, and numerous hurricanes have passed near or through North Carolina in its history; the state is ranked fourth, after Florida, Texas, and Louisiana, in the number of cyclones that produced hurricane - force winds in a U.S. state. Hurricanes in North Carolina history are responsible for over $11 billion in damage (2008 USD) and almost 1,000 total fatalities.
As to statistical hurricane research between 1883 and 1996 by the North Carolina State Climatology Office, a tropical cyclone makes landfall along the coastline about once every four years. An estimated 17.5 percent of all North Atlantic tropical cyclones have affected the state. Additionally, the remnants of a few Pacific tropical cyclones struck the state. Cape Hatteras is most affected by storms within the state, though Cape Lookout and Cape Fear are also regularly affected; the increased activity in three areas is because it protrudes from elsewhere along the Atlantic coastline. After Southern Florida, Cape Hatteras has the lowest return period, or the frequency at which a certain intensity or category of hurricane can be expected within 86 mi (139 km) of a given location, in the country. As the Outer Banks are a narrow strip of low - lying land, hurricanes occasionally leave portions of the land partially or fully submerged. Additionally, the remnants of inland tropical cyclones have produced flooding and landslides in the state 's western region.
Tropical cyclones have affected North Carolina in every month between May and December; about 35 percent of the storms struck the state in September, and 80 percent affected the state between August and October, which coincides with the peak of the hurricane season. The earliest storm to affect the state was Subtropical Storm Andrea on May 7, 2007, and the latest was a tropical storm that moved across the Outer Banks on December 2, 1925. The strongest storm to strike the state was Hurricane Hazel on October 15, 1954, which made landfall as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale.
The list of North Carolina hurricanes before 1900 encompasses 139 tropical cyclones that affected the U.S. state of North Carolina. Collectively, cyclones in North Carolina during the time period resulted in over 775 direct fatalities during the period. Seven cyclones affected the state in the 1893 season, which was the year with the most tropical cyclones devastating the state during the time period. From the beginning of the official Atlantic hurricane record in 1851 to 1899, there were 12 years without a known tropical cyclone affecting the state.
Historical data prior to 1700 is sparse due to lack of significant European settlements along the coastline; the few storms listed are largely records from Roanoke Colony and later the Province of Carolina. Modern meteorologists believe early storms were tropical cyclones, though due to the time period confirmation is impossible. One theory explaining the disappearance of Roanoke Colony suggests a hurricane destroyed the village, though there is no evidence to prove the theory. It is considered unlikely due to lack of damage to a fence around the village, on which the villagers left an inscription.
Between 1900 and 1949, 75 tropical cyclones or their remnants affected the state. Collectively, cyclones in North Carolina during that time period resulted in 53 total fatalities during the period, as well as about $328 million in damage (2008 USD). Tropical cyclone affected the state in all but nine seasons. In the 1916 season, five storms affected the state, which was the season with the most storms devastating the state. The strongest hurricanes to affect the state during the time period were the 1933 Outer Banks hurricane and the 1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane, which produced winds of Category 3 status on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale within the state. The 1933 Outer Banks hurricane was the deadliest hurricane in the state during the time period, which killed 21 people. The remnants of a hurricane in 1940 dropped heavy rainfall in the state, which caused over $150 million in damage (2008 USD) from flooding and landslides.
A total of 79 tropical or subtropical cyclones affected North Carolina between 1950 and 1979. Collectively, cyclones during the time period resulted in 37 total fatalities during the period, as well as about $3 billion in damage (2008 USD). A cyclone affected the state in every year during the time period, and in three seasons a total of five cyclones assailed the state. The strongest hurricane to hit the state during the time period was Hurricane Hazel, which struck the state as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale. Hazel was both the costliest and deadliest cyclone during the period, causing over $1 billion in damage (2008 USD) and 19 deaths. Most storms affected the state in September, though cyclones lashed the state between May and October.
The period from 1980 to the present encompasses 120 tropical or subtropical cyclones that affected the state. Collectively, cyclones in North Carolina during the time period resulted in over $10 billion in damage (2010 USD), primarily from hurricanes Fran and Floyd. Additionally, tropical cyclones in North Carolina were responsible for 77 direct fatalities and at least 44 indirect casualties during the period. Eight cyclones affected the state in the 1985 season, which was the year with the most tropical cyclones striking the state. Every year included at least one tropical cyclone affecting the state.
The strongest hurricane to hit the state during the time period was Hurricane Fran in 1996, which struck near Wilmington as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale; Hurricane Emily in 1993 brushed the Outer Banks also as a Category 3 hurricane. The deadliest hurricane during the period was Hurricane Floyd in 1999, which caused 35 fatalities and record -- breaking flooding in the eastern portion of the state. Hurricane Irene hit the Outer Banks on August 27th 2011 as a Category 1, making it the first of its kind to make landfall since Hurricane Ike in 2008.
The following major hurricanes either made landfall on the state or brought winds of Category 3 status to the state. Storms are listed since 1851, which is the official start of the Atlantic hurricane database.
The table lists hurricanes by death tolls of over 20 fatalities. Direct deaths are those that are directly caused by the storm passage, such as drownings or deaths from being struck by windblown objects. Indirect deaths, which are not included in the toll of Hurricane Floyd, are those that are related to the storm, but not directly from its storm effects. Due to lack of data, many early hurricanes have overall death tolls that do not specify indirect or direct.
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which three statements about food safety regulations at the local level are correct | Food safety - wikipedia
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent food - borne illness. The occurrence of two or more cases of a similar illnesses resulting from the ingestion of a common food is known as a food - borne disease outbreak. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potential health hazards. In this way food safety often overlaps with food defense to prevent harm to consumers. The tracks within this line of thought are safety between industry and the market and then between the market and the consumer. In considering industry to market practices, food safety considerations include the origins of food including the practices relating to food labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues, as well as policies on biotechnology and food and guidelines for the management of governmental import and export inspection and certification systems for foods. In considering market to consumer practices, the usual thought is that food ought to be safe in the market and the concern is safe delivery and preparation of the food for the consumer.
Food can transmit pathogens which can result in the illness or death of the person or other animals. The main mediums are bacteria, viruses, mold, and fungus (which is Latin for mushroom). It can also serve as a growth and reproductive medium for pathogens. In developed countries there are intricate standards for food preparation, whereas in lesser developed countries there are less standards and enforcement of those standards. Another main issue is simply the availability of adequate safe water, which is usually a critical item in the spreading of diseases. In theory, food poisoning is 100 % preventable. However this can not be achieved due to the number of persons involved in the supply chain, as well as the fact that pathogens can be introduced into foods no matter how many precautions are taken. The five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are:
Food safety issues and regulations concern:
ISO 22000 is a standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization dealing with food safety. This is a general derivative of ISO 9000. ISO 22000 standard: The ISO 22000 international standard specifies the requirements for a food safety management system that involves interactive communication, system management, prerequisite programs, HACCP principles. ISO 22000 was first published in 2005. It is the culmination of all previous attempts from many sources and areas of food safety concern to provide an end product that is safe as possible from pathogens and other contaminants. Every 5 years standards are reviewed to determine whether a revision is necessary, to ensure that the standards remain as relevant and useful to businesses as possible.
A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30 % of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.
In 1963, the WHO and FAO published the Codex Alimentarius which serves as an guideline to food safety.
However, according to Unit 04 - Communication of Health & Consumers Directorate - General of the European Commission (SANCO): "The Codex, while being recommendations for voluntary application by members, Codex standards serve in many cases as a basis for national legislation. The reference made to Codex food safety standards in the World Trade Organizations ' Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPS Agreement) means that Codex has far reaching implications for resolving trade disputes. WTO members that wish to apply stricter food safety measures than those set by Codex may be required to justify these measures scientifically. '' So, an agreement made in 2003, signed by all member states, inclusive all EU, in the codex Stan Codex 240 -- 2003 for coconut milk, sulphite containing additives like E223 and E 224 are allowed till 30 mg / kg, does NOT mean, they are allowed into the EU, see Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) entries from Denmark: 2012.0834; 2011.1848; en 2011.168, "sulphite unauthorised in coconut milk from Thailand ". Same for polysorbate E 435: see 2012.0838 from Denmark, unauthorised polysorbates in coconut milk and, 2007. AIC from France. Only for the latter the EU amended its regulations with (EU) No 583 / 2012 per 2 July 2012 to allow this additive, already used for decades and absolutely necessary.
Food Standards Australia New Zealand requires all food businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, and they include basic food safety training for at least one person in each business. Food safety training is delivered in various forms by, among other organisations, Registered Training Organizations (RTOs), after which staff are issued a nationally recognised unit of competency code on their certificate. Basic food safety training includes:
Food safety standards and requirements are set out at the national level in the Food Standards Code, and brought Into force in each state by state - based Acts and Regulations. Legislation means that people responsible for selling or serving unsafe food may be liable for heavy fines.
Food safety is a growing concern in Chinese agriculture. The Chinese government oversees agricultural production as well as the manufacture of food packaging, containers, chemical additives, drug production, and business regulation. In recent years, the Chinese government attempted to consolidate food regulation with the creation of the State Food and Drug Administration in 2003, and officials have also been under increasing public and international pressure to solve food safety problems. However, it appears that regulations are not well known by the trade. Labels used for "green '' food, "organic '' food and "pollution - free '' food are not well recognized by traders and many are unclear about their meaning. A survey by the World Bank found that supermarket managers had difficulty in obtaining produce that met safety requirements and found that a high percentage of produce did not comply with established standards.
Traditional marketing systems, whether in China or the rest of Asia, presently provide little motivation or incentive for individual farmers to make improvements to either quality or safety as their produce tends to get grouped together with standard products as it progresses through the marketing channel. Direct linkages between farmer groups and traders or ultimate buyers, such as supermarkets, can help avoid this problem. Governments need to improve the condition of many markets through upgrading management and reinvesting market fees in physical infrastructure. Wholesale markets need to investigate the feasibility of developing separate sections to handle fruits and vegetables that meet defined safety and quality standards.
The parliament of the European Union (EU) makes legislation in the form of directives and regulations, many of which are mandatory for member states and which therefore must be incorporated into individual countries ' national legislation. As a very large organisation that exists to remove barriers to trade between member states, and into which individual member states have only a proportional influence, the outcome is often seen as an excessively bureaucratic ' one size fits all ' approach. However, in relation to food safety the tendency to err on the side of maximum protection for the consumer may be seen as a positive benefit. The EU parliament is informed on food safety matters by the European Food Safety Authority.
Individual member states may also have other legislation and controls in respect of food safety, provided that they do not prevent trade with other states, and can differ considerably in their internal structures and approaches to the regulatory control of food safety.
From 13 December 2014, new legislation - the EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169 / 2011 - require food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, in for example catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars.
Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l'alimentation, de l'environnement et du travail (anses) is a French governmental agency dealing with food safety.
The Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMEL) is a Federal Ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany. History: Founded as Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Foresting in 1949, this name did not change until 2001. Then the name changed to Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture. At 22 November 2005, the name got changed again to its current state: Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. The reason for this last change was that all the resorts should get equal ranking which was achieved by sorting the resorts alphabetically. Vision: A balanced and healthy diet with safe food, distinct consumer rights and consumer information for various areas of life, and a strong and sustainable agriculture as well as perspectives for our rural areas are important goals of the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMELV). The Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety is under the control of the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. It exercises several duties, with which it contributes to safer food and thereby intensifies health - based consumer protection in Germany. Food can be manufactured and sold within Germany without a special permission, as long as it does not cause any damage on consumers ' health and meets the general standards set by the legislation. However, manufacturers, carriers, importers and retailers are responsible for the food they pass into circulation. They are obliged to ensure and document the safety and quality of their food with the use of in - house control mechanisms.
In Hong Kong SAR, the Food and Environmental Hygiene Department is in charge of ensuring food sold is safe and fit for consumption.
In Hungary, the National Food Chain Safety Office controls the food business operators including agricultural producers, food processors, retailers, caterers, input material suppliers and private laboratories. Its activities also cover risk assessment, risk communication and related research.
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, is the regulating body related to food safety and laying down of standards of food in India.
The New Zealand Food Safety Authority (NZFSA), or Te Pou Oranga Kai O Aotearoa is the New Zealand government body responsible for food safety. NZFSA is also the controlling authority for imports and exports of food and food - related products. The NZFSA as of 2012 is now a division of the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) and is no longer its own organization.
The Pure Food Ordinance 1960 consolidates and amends the law in relation to the preparation and the sale of foods. Its aim is to ensure purity of food being supplied to people in the market and, therefore, provides for preventing adulteration.
Pakistan Hotels and Restaurant Act, 1976 applies to all hotels and restaurants in Pakistan and seeks to control and regulate the standard of service (s) by hotels and restaurants. In addition to other provisions, under section 22 (2), the sale of food or beverages that are contaminated, not prepared hygienically or served in utensils that are not hygienic or clean is an offense.
Korea Food & Drug Administration (KFDA) is working for food safety since 1945. It is part of the Government of South Korea.
IOAS - Organic Certification Bodies Registered in KFDA: "Organic '' or related claims can be labelled on food products when organic certificates are considered as valid by KFDA. KFDA admits organic certificates which can be issued by 1) IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement) accredited certification bodies 2) Government accredited certification bodies -- 328 bodies in 29 countries have been registered in KFDA.
Food Import Report: According to Food Import Report, it is supposed to report or register what you import. Competent authority is as follows:
National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation (NIFDS) is functioning as well. The National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation is a national organization for toxicological tests and research. Under the Korea Food & Drug Administration, the Institute performs research on toxicology, pharmacology, and risk analysis of foods, drugs, and their additives. The Institute strives primarily to understand important biological triggering mechanisms and improve assessment methods of human exposure, sensitivities, and risk by (1) conducting basic, applied, and policy research that closely examines biologically triggering harmful effects on the regulated products such as foods, food additives, and drugs, and operating the national toxicology program for the toxicological test development and inspection of hazardous chemical substances assessments. The Institute ensures safety by investigation and research on safety by its own researchers, contract research by external academicians and research centers.
In Taiwan, the Ministry of Health and Welfare in charge of Food and Drug Safety, also evaluate the catering industry to maintenance the food product quality. Currently, US $29.01 million of budget is allocated each year for food safety - related efforts.
In the UK the Food Standards Agency is an independent government department responsible for food safety and hygiene across the UK. They work with businesses to help them produce safe food, and with local authorities to enforce food safety regulations. In 2006 food hygiene legislation changed and new requirements came into force. The main requirement resulting from this change is that if you own or run a food business in the UK, you must have a documented Food Safety Management System, which is based on the principles of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point HACCP.
The US food system is regulated by numerous federal, state and local officials. Since 1906 tremendous progress has been made in producing safer foods as can be seen in the section below. Still, it has been criticized as lacking in "organization, regulatory tools, and not addressing food borne illness. ''
The Food and Drug Administration publishes the Food Code, a model set of guidelines and procedures that assists food control jurisdictions by providing a scientifically sound technical and legal basis for regulating the retail and food service industries, including restaurants, grocery stores and institutional foodservice providers such as nursing homes. Regulatory agencies at all levels of government in the United States use the FDA Food Code to develop or update food safety rules in their jurisdictions that are consistent with national food regulatory policy. According to the FDA, 48 of 56 states and territories, representing 79 % of the U.S. population, have adopted food codes patterned after one of the five versions of the Food Code, beginning with the 1993 edition.
In the United States, federal regulations governing food safety are fragmented and complicated, according to a February 2007 report from the Government Accountability Office. There are 15 agencies sharing oversight responsibilities in the food safety system, although the two primary agencies are the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which is responsible for the safety of meat, poultry, and processed egg products, and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which is responsible for virtually all other foods.
The Food Safety and Inspection Service has approximately 7,800 inspection program personnel working in nearly 6,200 federally inspected meat, poultry and processed egg establishments. FSIS is charged with administering and enforcing the Federal Meat Inspection Act, the Poultry Products Inspection Act, the Egg Products Inspection Act, portions of the Agricultural Marketing Act, the Humane Slaughter Act, and the regulations that implement these laws. FSIS inspection program personnel inspect every animal before slaughter, and each carcass after slaughter to ensure public health requirements are met. In fiscal year (FY) 2008, this included about 50 billion pounds of livestock carcasses, about 59 billion pounds of poultry carcasses, and about 4.3 billion pounds of processed egg products. At U.S. borders, they also inspected 3.3 billion pounds of imported meat and poultry products.
Recognition of food safety issues and attempts to address them began after Upton Sinclair published the novel The Jungle in 1906. It was an fictional account of the lives of immigrants in the industrial cities in the U.S. around this time. Sinclair spent nine months undercover as an employee in a Chicago meat plant doing research. The book inadvertently raised public concern about food safety and sanatization of the Chicago meat packing industry. Upon reading The Jungle, President Theodore Roosevelt called on Congress to pass the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA), which passed in 1906 and 1907 respectively. These laws were the first to address food safety in the U.S. Misbranding and adulteration were defined as they concerned food additives and truth in labeling. Food preservatives such as formaldehyde and borax used to disguise unsanitary production processes were also addressed.
The first test and major court battle involving the Pure Food and Drug Act was United States v. Forty Barrels & Twenty Kegs of Coca - Cola, an attempt to outlaw Coca - Cola due to its excessive caffeine content. The Meat Inspection Act led to the formation of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Between 1906 and 1938, acts were created that monitored food coloration additives, and other chemical additives such as preservatives, as well as food labeling and food marketing.
During the winter of 1924 -- 1925, the worst food - borne illness to date in the U.S. occurred because of improper handling of oysters. This produced a typhoid fever epidemic, and food - borne illness outbreaks gained national attention. Unfortunately, it was not until 1969 that the FDA began sanitization programs specifically for shellfish and milk, and began its focus and implementation on the food service industry as a whole.
In 1970 the Center for Disease Control (CDC) began keeping records on food - borne illness deaths. This was the beginning of effective record keeping that could be used to control and prevent similar outbreaks in the future. The first major food recall in the U.S. was caused by canned mushrooms in 1973. This outbreak of botulism produced the National Botulism Surveillance System. This system collected the data on all confirmed cases of botulism in the U.S. This led to processing regulations for low - acid foods to ensure proper heat treating of canned foods. The Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak of 1993 led the Clinton administration to put $43 million into the Food Safety Initiative to create many of the common specific regulations in place today. This initiative produced regulations on seafood, meat, poultry, and shell - eggs. This initiative produced a program for DNA fingerprinting to help track outbreaks and to determine their source. It also called for a cooperative detection and response effort between the CDC, FDA, USDA and local agencies called FoodNet.
In 2011 the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) produced what is considered the most significant food safety legislation in over 70 years. The significant difference between this and previous acts was that it shifted to focus from response and containment of food - borne disease outbreaks to their prevention. This act is still in the early implementation phase but gives the FDA authority to regulate the way foods are grown, processed, and harvested.
There have been concerns over the efficacy of safety practices and food industry pressure on U.S. regulators. A study reported by Reuters found that "the food industry is jeopardizing U.S. public health by withholding information from food safety investigators or pressuring regulators to withdraw or alter policy designed to protect consumers ''. A survey found that 25 % of U.S. government inspectors and scientists surveyed have experienced during the past year corporate interests forcing their food safety agency to withdraw or to modify agency policy or action that protects consumers. Scientists have observed that management undercuts field inspectors who stand up for food safety against industry pressure. According to Dr. Dean Wyatt, a USDA veterinarian who oversees federal slaughterhouse inspectors, "Upper level management does not adequately support field inspectors and the actions they take to protect the food supply. Not only is there lack of support, but there 's outright obstruction, retaliation and abuse of power. '' A growing number of food and beverage manufacturers are improving food safety standards by incorporating a food safety management system which automates all steps in the food quality management process.
A number of U.S. states have their own meat inspection programs that substitute for USDA inspection for meats that are sold only in - state. Certain state programs have been criticized for undue leniency to bad practices.
However, other state food safety programs supplement, rather than replace, Federal inspections, generally with the goal of increasing consumer confidence in the state 's produce. For example, state health departments have a role in investigating outbreaks of food - borne disease bacteria, as in the case of the 2006 outbreak of Escherichia coli O157: H7 (a pathogenic strain of the ordinarily harmless bacteria, E. coli) from processed spinach. Health departments also promote better food processing practices to eliminate these threats.
In addition to the US Food and Drug Administration, several states that are major producers of fresh fruits and vegetables (including California, Arizona and Florida) have their own state programs to test produce for pesticide residues.
Restaurants and other retail food establishments fall under state law and are regulated by state or local health departments. Typically these regulations require official inspections of specific design features, best food - handling practices, and certification of food handlers. In some places a letter grade or numerical score must be prominently posted following each inspection. In some localities, inspection deficiencies and remedial action are posted on the Internet. In addition, states may maintain and enforce their own model of the FDA Food Code. For example California maintains the California Retail Food Code (CalCode), which is part of the Health and Safety Code and is based on most current and safe food handling practices in the retail industry.
The Vietnam Food Administration is reafor managing food hygiene, safety, and quality and has made significant progress since its establishment in 1999. Food safety remains a high priority in Vietnam with the growth of export markets and increasing food imports raising the need to rapidly build capacity of the Food Administration in order to reduce threats of foodborne disease. The Food Administration has demonstrated commitment to the food safety challenges it faces, and has embarked on an innovative capacity building activity with technical assistance from the World Health Organization.
Foodstuffs in the UK have one of two labels to indicate the nature of the deterioration of the product and any subsequent health issues. EHO Food Hygiene certification is required to prepare and distribute food. While there is no specified expiry date of such a qualification the changes in legislation it is suggested to update every five years.
Best before indicates a future date beyond which the food product may lose quality in terms of taste or texture amongst others, but does not imply any serious health problems if food is consumed beyond this date (within reasonable limits).
Use by indicates a legal date beyond which it is not permissible to sell a food product (usually one that deteriorates fairly rapidly after production) due to the potential serious nature of consumption of pathogens. Leeway is sometimes provided by producers in stating display until dates so that products are not at their limit of safe consumption on the actual date stated (this latter is voluntary and not subject to regulatory control). This allows for the variability in production, storage and display methods.
With the exception of infant formula and baby foods which must be withdrawn by their expiration date, Federal law does not require expiration dates. For all other foods, except dairy products in some states, freshness dating is strictly voluntary on the part of manufacturers. In response to consumer demand, perishable foods are typically labelled with a Sell by date. It is up to the consumer to decide how long after the Sell by date a package is usable. Other common dating statements are Best if used by, Use - by date, Expiration date, Guaranteed fresh < date >, and Pack date.
Guide to Food Labelling and Other Information Requirements: This guide provides background information on the general labelling requirements in the Code. The information in this guide applies both to food for retail sale and to food for catering purposes. Foods for catering purposes means those foods for use in restaurants, canteens, schools, caterers or self - catering institutions, where food is offered for immediate consumption. Labelling and information requirements in the new Code apply both to food sold or prepared for sale in Australia and New Zealand and food imported into Australia and New Zealand. Warning and Advisory Declarations, Ingredient Labelling, Date Marking, Nutrition Information Requirements, Legibility Requirements for Food Labels, Percentage Labelling, Information Requirements for Foods Exempt from Bearing a Label.
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the le modular system of proportion was developed by | Modulor - wikipedia
The Modulor is an anthropometric scale of proportions devised by the Swiss - born French architect Le Corbusier (1887 -- 1965).
It was developed as a visual bridge between two incompatible scales, the imperial and the metric system. It is based on the height of a man with his arm raised.
It was used as a system to set out a number of Le Corbusier 's buildings and was later codified into two books.
Le Corbusier developed the Modulor in the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci 's Vitruvian Man, the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and other attempts to discover mathematical proportions in the human body and then to use that knowledge to improve both the appearance and function of architecture. The system is based on human measurements, the double unit, the Fibonacci numbers, and the golden ratio. Le Corbusier described it as a "range of harmonious measurements to suit the human scale, universally applicable to architecture and to mechanical things ''.
With the Modulor, Le Corbusier sought to introduce a scale of visual measures that would unite two virtually incompatible systems: the Anglo Saxon foot and inch and the French metric system. Whilst he was intrigued by ancient civilisations who used measuring systems linked to the human body: elbow (cubit), finger (digit), thumb (inch) etc., he was troubled by the metre as a measure that was a forty - millionth part of the meridian of the earth.
In 1943, in response to the French National Organisation for Standardisation 's (AFNOR) requirement for standardising all the objects involved in the construction process, Le Corbusier asked an apprentice to consider a scale based upon a man with his arm raised to 2.20 m in height. The result, in August 1943 was the first graphical representation of the derivation of the scale. This was refined after a visit to the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences in Sorbonne on 7 February 1945 which resulted in the inclusion of a golden section into the representation.
Whilst initially the Modulor Man 's height was based on a French man 's height of 1.75 metres (5 ft 9 in) it was changed to 1.83 m in 1946 because "in English detective novels, the good - looking men, such as policemen, are always six feet tall! '' The dimensions were refined to give round numbers and the overall height of the raised arm was set at 2.262 m.
Of the works leading to the creation of the Modulor, Robin Evans notes that the female body "was only belatedly considered and rejected as a source of proportional harmony ''.
On the 10 January 1946, Le Corbusier on a visit to New York met with Henry J. Kaiser, an American industrialist whose Kaiser Shipyard had built Liberty Ships during World War II. Kaiser 's project was to build ten thousand new houses a day, but he had changed his mind and decided to build cars instead. During the interview, Le Corbusier sympathised with Kaiser 's problems of coordinating the adoption of equipment between the American and British armies because of the differences in units of length and promoted his own harmonious scale.
On the same trip he met with David E. Lilienthal of the Tennessee Valley Authority to promote the use of his harmonious scale on further civil engineering projects.
He also applied the principle of the Modulor to the efficient design of distribution crates in post war France.
The graphic representation of the Modulor, a stylised human figure with one arm raised, stands next to two vertical measurements, a red series based on the figure 's navel height (1.08 m in the original version, 1.13 m in the revised version) then segmented according to Phi, and a blue series based on the figure 's entire height, double the navel height (2.16 m in the original version, 2.26 m in the revised), segmented similarly. A spiral, graphically developed between the red and blue segments, seems to mimic the volume of the human figure.
The Modulor 2 was drawn by André Maissonier and Justino Serralta.
Le Corbusier used his Modulor scale in the design of many buildings, including:
In his first book on the subject The Modulor, Le Corbusier has a chapter on the use of the modular in the Unité d'Habitation. The modular governs: the plan, section and elevations; the brise - soleil; the roof; the supporting columns and the plan and section of the apartments. It was also used for the dimensions of the commemorative stone laid on 14 October 1947. A version of the Modulor Man was cast in concrete near the entrance.
In the Church of Sainte Marie de La Tourette Le Corbusier floors the majority of the church in pale concrete panels set to Modulor dimensions. Also, the engineer Iannis Xenakis applied the Modulor system to the design of the exterior vertical ventilators or "ondulatoires ''.
In the Carpenter Center the Modulor system was used for the brise - soleil distances, the floor to floor heights, the bay distances and the column thicknesses. Le Corbusier conceived that the dimensioning of the entrance ramp would be "visible essay on the mathematics of the human body ''.
Le Corbusier published Le Modulor in 1948, followed by Modulor 2 in 1955. These works were first published in English as The Modulor in 1954 and Modulor 2 (Let the User Speak Next) in 1958.
The 2004 reprinted box set including both books was printed in a square format using the Modulor with the series twenty seven to one hundred and forty reduced in size to one tenth.
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who played billy jack in the movie billy jack | Tom Laughlin - wikipedia
Thomas Robert Laughlin, Jr. (August 10, 1931 -- December 12, 2013) was an American actor and director, screenwriter, author, educator, and political activist.
Laughlin was best known for his series of Billy Jack films. He was married to actress Delores Taylor from 1954 until his death. Taylor co-produced and acted in all four of the Billy Jack films. His unique promotion of The Trial of Billy Jack (TV trailers during national news and an "opening day '' nationwide release) was a major influence on the way films are marketed.
In the early 1960s, Laughlin put his film career on hiatus to start a Montessori preschool in Santa Monica, California; it became the largest school of its kind in the United States. In his later years, he sought the office of President of the United States in 1992, 2004, and 2008. He was involved in psychology and domestic abuse counseling, writing several books on Jungian psychology and developing theories on the causes of cancer.
Laughlin was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the son of Margaret and Thomas Laughlin. He attended Washington High School, where he was involved in an athletics controversy that made headlines throughout the city. It was caused by Laughlin being forced to attend another school for a brief period, making him ineligible to play football at his former school on his return. Laughlin attended college at the University of Wisconsin, before transferring to Marquette University; he played football at both. He played safety and halfback at Marquette.
Laughlin decided to become an actor after seeing a production of A Streetcar Named Desire. According to a 1956 newspaper interview, he became involved in the drama program at Marquette after being encouraged by a university professor, Father John J. Walsh. While a student he formed a stock group and directed and starred in a production of Arthur Miller 's All My Sons. He finally transferred to the University of South Dakota, where he majored in radio acting, directing and producing. He met his future wife Delores Taylor in South Dakota.
Laughlin wrote the original screenplay for the film Billy Jack in 1954, after witnessing the treatment of Native Americans in his wife 's hometown, Winner, South Dakota. The two wed on October 15, 1954.
He began his screen - acting career in the 1955 television series Climax!. From there he went on to appear in several feature films including: These Wilder Years, Lafayette Escadrille, Tea and Sympathy and South Pacific.
He appeared in several episodes of various television series throughout the late 1950s. In 1959, he was cast as young Tom Fowler in the episode "The Fight Back '' of the NBC western series, Riverboat. In the story line, Fowler has made himself the boss of Hampton, a corrupt river town near Vicksburg, Mississippi. He blocks farmers from shipping their crops to market. In a dispute over a wedding held on the river vessel, the Enterprise, a lynch mob led by Fowler comes after Captain Grey Holden (series star Darren McGavin). Also appearing in this episode are John Ireland as Chris Slade and Karl Swenson as Ansel Torgin.
In 1959, Laughlin appeared in the film Gidget as "Lover Boy ''. However, he failed to earn a living in the early years, having told People magazine in 1975, "We were living on $5 a week and eating Spam. I stole Christmas cards from a church so I could write home saying how well we were, but then I could n't afford the stamps. ''
Laughlin 's first starring role was in Robert Altman 's 1957 film The Delinquents, in which he played Scotty White, a teenager who gets mixed up with a gang when he is told he can no longer see his girlfriend. Despite the film 's low budget, it became a cult film, with Alfred Hitchcock among its fans. However, Laughlin and Altman did not get along well, having sharply differing views on acting; Altman later describing Laughlin as "an unbelievable pain in the ass. ''
Laughlin made his directorial debut later that year with The Proper Time, though the film was n't released until 1960. The film was a romantic drama set on the campus of University of California, Los Angeles. Laughlin shot the film on the campus in six days working with a $20,000 budget.
Laughlin wrote, directed, and starred in The Young Sinner. Originally filmed in 1960, and shot in Milwaukee over a period of 14 days, it is the story of a star high school athlete who falls deeper and deeper into trouble after being caught in bed with his girlfriend. The film was intended to be the first of a trilogy entitled We Are All Christ. It premiered in 1963 under the original title Among the Thorns, which was changed to The Young Sinner upon its 1965 re-release. In 1960, Laughlin planned to make a film, Poison in Our Land, based on the true story of a Texas couple affected by atomic radiation, but the project was never realized.
In 1959, Laughlin and his wife founded a Montessori preschool in Santa Monica, California. By 1961, Laughlin had left the film business to devote all of his time to the school, which by 1964 had become the largest school of its kind in the United States. It was profiled by Time magazine in July of that year. However, by 1965, the school had gone bankrupt. One of his students was Christian Brando, son of Laughlin 's friend, Marlon Brando.
In 1965, Laughlin told the Milwaukee Sentinel that he planned to make a film on the life of a noted Catholic priest, Father William DuBay. However, the picture did not get past the planning stages. Two years later, in 1967, he wrote, directed (as T.C. Frank) and starred in the motorcycle - gang exploitation film The Born Losers. This was the first picture in which the character of Billy Jack appeared. It was a box - office hit. The film featured a late - career appearance by Jane Russell.
After The Born Losers, Laughlin was set to begin a film project with backing from such figures as Marlon Brando, Jack Lemmon, Candice Bergen, and director Robert Wise. The movie was to be a documentary on the issues facing African Americans in the 1960s and would have focused greatly on the life of Martin Luther King, Jr. followed by a discussion of race. However, the film was never made.
He followed this up with the sequel to The Born Losers, Billy Jack, in 1971. American International Pictures initially agreed to distribute the picture but after viewing it the studio refused to release the film unless many of the political references -- as well as frontal nudity -- were cut. This led the Laughlins to withhold the sound reels of the movie, which in effect made it a silent film. Eventually, Laughlin made a distribution deal with Warner Bros. but he disapproved of the studio 's marketing of the film, sued Warners, and re-released the picture himself. The movie 's re-release was successful but controversial. Roger Ebert, in his review of the film, wrote, "Billy Jack seems to be saying that a gun is better than a constitution in the enforcement of justice. Is democracy totally obsolete, then? Is our only hope that the good fascists defeat the bad fascists? ''
However, the picture was embraced by much of America 's youth, leading Laughlin to claim in 1975 that "The youth of this country have only two heroes, Ralph Nader and Billy Jack. '' When adjusted for inflation, it is, as of 2007, the highest - grossing independent film of all time. The film was among the first to introduce martial arts, especially hapkido to American audiences and contained elements of Jungian psychology, and fictional depictions of American Indian beliefs, depicting a tribe that does not exist, the "Nishnobie. '' As part of the film 's promotion, Bong Soo Han, who was in charge of the martial arts choreography for the film, toured the United States giving hapkido demonstrations.
The second sequel, The Trial of Billy Jack, released in late 1974, was a huge box office hit, while not registering as quite as big a critical success. It is notable for its casting of Native American icons such as Sacheen Littlefeather and Rolling Thunder, as well as its strong criticism of the Kent State shootings. However, Laughlin 's unique promotion of the film was its real legacy. Unlike most films of the era which opened in only a few cities before gradually spreading across the country, The Trial of Billy Jack opened in cities nationwide on the same day and commercials were broadcast for it during the national news. This promotion forever changed the way films are marketed and has been called "the first blockbuster. ''
In 1975, Laughlin released The Master Gunfighter, a western set in the 1840s, detailing the plight of the Chumash people. Laughlin grew a full beard for the film and his character fought with both a 12 - shot revolver and a samurai sword. Although it did reasonably well at the box office, critics were not pleased with the film. He returned to the Billy Jack franchise in 1977. However, the fourth entry in the series, Billy Jack Goes to Washington was a failure because of distribution problems, and it proved to be Laughlin 's final film as a director. Laughlin blamed individuals within the United States government for the failure of the picture, telling CNN 's Showbiz Tonight in 2005:
At a private screening, Senator Vance Hartke (Note: Hartke was not re-elected in 1976) got up, because it was about how the Senate was bought out by the nuclear industry. He got up and charged me. Walter Cronkite 's daughter was there, (and) Lucille Ball. And he said, ' You 'll never get this released. This house you have, everything will be destroyed. ' ``
At the time of the picture 's release, Laughlin 's company, Billy Jack Enterprises, had plans for a new Montessori school funded by his own foundation, a record label, an investigative magazine, books, a distribution company and more message - laden movies, including a special subsidiary to produce films for children. He told People magazine at the time, "Three years from today, we 'll be the new United Artists. Either that, or we 'll be out on our butt on the street. '' In 1976, Laughlin announced that he was more than $7 million in debt and blamed the financial troubles on unethical behavior by Warner Bros. Pictures, which he said had illegally sold the television rights to his films.
In the years after the failure of Billy Jack Goes to Washington, Laughlin played small roles in a few films, such as The Big Sleep in 1978 and his last acting role was The Legend of the Lone Ranger in 1981. In 1984, he purchased a series of twelve advertisements in Variety condemning various aspects of the film industry and its treatment of independent filmmakers. He created a blueprint for taking control of the home video distribution industry as a way for independent films to be seen. This plan was also a failure. In 1985, he began production of a fifth Billy Jack film, The Return of Billy Jack, which featured the title character fighting child pornographers in New York City. However, he suffered a concussion and neck injury during filming, which led to the production being suspended. During this hiatus, funding for the picture ran out and production was never resumed. In 2009, a few scenes from the unfinished film were released on Laughlin 's website. A notable incident occurred while he was filming in New York City, when he broke up a street fight on Manhattan 's West Side, threatening to rip a man 's arm off. He garnered notoriety at this time for making a citizen 's arrest of a man after an argument over Laughlin 's driving.
Laughlin had sought funding to finish the fifth Billy Jack film since at least 1996, when he spoke about it during a lawsuit against a man who had (Laughlin claimed) illegally changed his name to "Billy Jack '', and at one point Laughlin had plans to make a Billy Jack television series. In 2004, he announced that the film would be entitled Billy Jack 's Crusade to End the War in Iraq and Restore America to Its Moral Purpose; this was shortened to Billy Jack 's Moral Revolution in 2006.
In 2008, the film 's title was changed to Billy Jack for President. It was re-titled Billy Jack and Jean. Laughlin claimed it would be a "new genre of film '' and a great deal of social commentary on politics, religion, and psychology will be discussed, and a debate will take place between Billy Jack and President George W. Bush via computer manipulation of archived speeches. In 2009, Laughlin released plot details of this film on a video on his website. The video contained several scenes from the film.
In 2010, Frank, Chris, and Theresa Laughlin, founded Billy Jack Rights, LLC, which manages the rights to all of Tom Laughlin 's films, including the Billy Jack franchise.
In his later years, Laughlin turned his attention to politics. In 1992, as a protest he sought the Democratic Party nomination for U.S. President. He told the Milwaukee Sentinel, "I am the least qualified person I know to be President, except George Bush. ''
He appeared on the primary ballots in New Hampshire and Louisiana. He campaigned on a platform of a tax cut for "ordinary Americans '', term limits, an overhaul of public education, universal health care, and nuclear disarmament. While campaigning for the Iowa caucus, he said of fellow candidate and Iowan, U.S. Senator Tom Harkin: "I think he 's a sleazebag. I despise him. ''
Excluded from debates by party officials who did not consider him a serious candidate, Laughlin received 1,986 votes in the New Hampshire primary. He blamed the results on lack of cooperation by the Democratic Party, which allowed him and other candidates only five minutes to speak at the state 's convention while giving the five front - runners 20 minutes each. He participated in the Independent presidential candidates Debate on March 25, 1992, along with former U.S. Senator Eugene J. McCarthy and others who had been excluded from the major debates. However, he was seen by much of the press as a "fringe candidate. ''
Laughlin later protested at being excluded from the primary ballot in his home state of Wisconsin at the same time that David Duke, the former Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan, was included. After dropping out of the race, he worked as an advisor to the campaign of Ross Perot.
He ran for president again in 2004, this time as a Republican. Campaigning as an opponent of the Iraq War, he received 154 votes in the New Hampshire primary against U.S. President George W. Bush. He again was not allowed to participate in the debates. He ran again for President in 2008 as a Democrat, getting 47 votes in the New Hampshire primary.
Laughlin was an outspoken critic of the Iraq War and President George W. Bush. His website presented several writings calling the Iraq conflict worse than the Vietnam War, in addition to pieces on what he called "realistic exit strategies. '' He devotes several pages of the Billy Jack website to reasons that he feels justify an impeachment of George W. Bush and repeatedly stated the need for a viable, mainstream third political party. In addition, he criticized what he called the "Christian right '', which he called "false Evangelicals '', "false prophets '', and the "Christo - fascist movement. '' He released several videos and writings during the 2008 election.
Although not a professionally trained psychologist, Laughlin had an interest in psychology, having studied the subject independently. A 1975 profile of Laughlin in People magazine mentioned his deep interest in psychology and mentioned that he had a personal "dream secretary '' to whom Laughlin told his recollections of his dreams. They were written down to be analyzed later.
Laughlin lectured on Jungian psychology at universities and colleges throughout the United States since the 1970s, including Yale University and Stanford University In 1995, because of his background in football and psychology, he was brought in to counsel University of Nebraska football player Lawrence Phillips after Phillips ' suspension from the team. He said of Phillips at the time, "He should not be rewarded by being allowed to play unless there is real substantive change. I do n't mean surface change. But if he does change, then he 's not only going to not batter this girl, he 's not going to batter the girl he marries at 30 and 35. If he just pretends to change, of course he should not be allowed to play, but Lawrence has already been sanctioned in ways other batterers on this campus are not ''.
Laughlin wrote several books on psychology including The Psychology of Cancer; Jungian Psychology vol. 2: Jungian Theory and Therapy, published in 1980; 9 Indispendable Ingredients to Writing a Hit (1999), which details the psychology involved in the box office and hit filmmaking, and The Cancer Personality (1998), in which he posited his theories about cancer.
One of Laughlin 's concerns was the issue of domestic abuse. He became involved in this after witnessing a neighbor, a police officer, beating his wife. He blamed the murder of Nicole Brown Simpson on domestic abuse, saying:
O.J. Simpson was my neighbor up the street on Rockingham. He lived at 300 Rockingham Drive, I lived at 100 Rockingham. I 've known O.J. forever. This is one of the sickest, sorriest days in our culture, that he was (found) not guilty... I 've told him since 1985 he 'd end up in jail... Eight times (Nicole) cried out and eight times, because it was O.J. and it was woman - battering, it was dismissed. But now, with the trivialization, people are afraid to call because they do n't trust that the system will help them. The fact that he was found not guilty is going to make that 10 times worse.
Laughlin married Delores Taylor in 1954. They had three children: Frank, Teresa, and Christina. His daughter Teresa (known by the family as T.C.) is a fashion designer. He derived at least two of his pseudonyms from his children: Frank Laughlin, his son 's name and the name he used to direct The Trial of Billy Jack and The Master Gunfighter, and T.C. Frank, which stood for Teresa Christina Frank.
In 2001, it was announced that Laughlin was suffering from a cancer of the tongue that was inoperable. His website claimed the cancer was in remission. His book, The Psychology of Cancer, was about faith, attitude and other factors that might affect cancer. On November 20, 2007, he posted a video on YouTube explaining that poor health had caused him to leave his BillyJack.com website in a dormant state. The site was later revived. Laughlin suffered from Celiac disease, an auto - immune disorder, and suffered a series of strokes. In the video, he announced that he had his health issues under control, that he updated the website, and was planning a new Billy Jack film. However, that film was never made.
Tom Laughlin died of complications from Alzheimer 's and pneumonia on December 12, 2013 at Los Robles Hospital and Medical Center in Thousand Oaks, California.
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where is the champions league final 2018 being played | 2018 UEFA Champions League final - wikipedia
The 2018 UEFA Champions League Final was the final match of the 2017 -- 18 UEFA Champions League, the 63rd season of Europe 's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 26th season since it was renamed from the European Cup to the UEFA Champions League. It was played at the NSC Olimpiyskiy Stadium in Kiev, Ukraine on 26 May 2018, between Spanish side and defending champions Real Madrid, who had won the competition in each of the last two seasons, and English side Liverpool.
Real Madrid won the final 3 -- 1 for their 3rd consecutive and 13th overall Champions League title, becoming the first team to achieve three back - to - back titles since Bayern Munich defeated Saint - Étienne in the 1976 European Cup Final. They also earned the right to play the winners of the 2017 -- 18 UEFA Europa League, Atlético Madrid, in the 2018 UEFA Super Cup and to enter the semi-finals of the 2018 FIFA Club World Cup.
In the following table, finals until 1992 were in the European Cup era, since 1993 were in the UEFA Champions League era.
The NSC Olimpiyskiy Stadium was announced as the final venue on 15 September 2016, following the decision of the UEFA Executive Committee meeting in Athens, Greece. This was the sixth European Cup / Champions League final hosted at an Eastern European venue following those in 1973 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, the 1983, 1994 and 2007 finals hosted by Athens, Greece as well as the 2008 final in Moscow, Russia.
The Olimpiyskiy Stadium was built in 1923 and it has been renovated three times, most recently in 2011 in preparation for the UEFA Euro 2012 tournament. The stadium was used as a venue in the 1980 Summer Olympics for its football event and the aforementioned European Championship, including the final match which saw Spain thrash Italy by the record - breaking score of 4 -- 0 on the way to their third title. Its current capacity is 70,050 and it is used by the Ukraine national football team, Dynamo Kyiv, and major domestic matches like the Ukrainian Cup.
Defending champions Real Madrid reached a record 16th final after a 4 -- 3 aggregate win against German side Bayern Munich, knocking them out of the competition for the second consecutive season. This was Real Madrid 's third consecutive final, and fourth final in five tournaments with an opportunity to win a record 13th title. Previously they won finals in 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1966, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2014, 2016 and 2017; and lost in 1962, 1964 and 1981. This was also their 20th final in all seasonal UEFA competitions, having also played in two Cup Winners ' Cup finals (losing in 1971 and 1983) and two UEFA Cup finals (winning in 1985 and 1986). Real Madrid are only the third team since the competition 's rebranding as the Champions League to reach three consecutive finals after Milan in 1995 and Juventus in 1998. They are the first team in the Champions League era, and the fourth overall, to win three straight finals, a feat only achieved by the Real Madrid side of the 1950s, as they went on to win a record five successive finals, as well as the Ajax and Bayern Munich squads of the 1970s in 1973 and 1976, respectively.
Liverpool reached their eighth final, their first since 2007, after a 7 -- 6 aggregate win against Italian side Roma. They have won the final on five occasions (1977, 1978, 1981, 1984 and 2005), and have lost twice (1985 and 2007). This was also their 13th final in UEFA seasonal competitions, having played in one Cup Winners ' Cup final (losing in 1966) and four UEFA Cup / Europa League finals (winning in 1973, 1976 and 2001; and losing in 2016). Liverpool were the first team since Bayern Munich in 2011 -- 12 to reach the final having qualified for the competition through the play - off round. This was also the most recent occasion the final featured an English team (Chelsea). Liverpool were the most recent team to defeat Real Madrid in a European Cup Final, winning 1 -- 0 in Paris in 1981.
Besides the 1981 final, the two teams have played each other four times in the Champions League era. Liverpool won both matches in the 2008 -- 09 UEFA Champions League round of 16, while Real Madrid won both matches in the 2014 -- 15 UEFA Champions League group stage.
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away).
The ambassador for the final was former Ukrainian international Andriy Shevchenko, who won the UEFA Champions League with Milan in 2003.
With a stadium capacity of 63,000 for the final, a total of 40,700 tickets are available to fans and the general public, with the two finalist teams receiving 17,000 tickets each and with 6,700 tickets being available for sale to fans worldwide via UEFA.com from 15 to 22 March 2018 in four price categories: € 450, € 320, € 160, and € 70. The remaining tickets are allocated to the local organising committee, UEFA and national associations, commercial partners and broadcasters, and to serve the corporate hospitality programme.
English singer Dua Lipa performed at the opening ceremony preceding the final. Jamaican rapper Sean Paul joined Dua Lipa at the opening ceremony as a special guest to perform "No Lie '' (which is Dua Lipa and Sean Paul 's collaboration).
The 2018 UEFA Women 's Champions League Final was held two days earlier, on 24 May 2018, at the Valeriy Lobanovskyi Dynamo Stadium between Wolfsburg and Lyon, Lyon emerging victorious 4 -- 1. This was also the last time that the host city for the men 's Champions League final was also automatically assigned the Women 's Champions League final.
The annual UEFA Champions Festival will be held between 24 -- 27 May 2018 at the Kiev city centre.
In late May, The New York Times reported that some fans with allocated tickets had returned them after having trouble finding flights to and accommodation in Kiev. Locals in Kiev began offering free accommodation for fans affected by cancelled hotel and apartment arrangements. Several charter flights arranged for Liverpool fans were cancelled, leaving fans with tickets stranded and leading to an unsuccessful search for alternative solutions by the club and city government. Other airlines offered flights to Kiev from airports in Liverpool and Manchester, using assigned slots at Kiev 's airports.
On 24 May, a group of Liverpool fans were attacked in a restaurant by 20 masked hooligans.
On 7 May 2018, UEFA announced that Serbian Milorad Mažić would officiate the final. Mažić has been a FIFA referee since 2009, and gained UEFA 's elite referee status in 2013. He will be joined by his fellow countrymen, with Milovan Ristić and Dalibor Đurdević as assistant referees, Nenad Đokić and Danilo Grujić as additional assistant referees, and Nemanja Petrović as reserve assistant referee. The fourth official for the final was Frenchman Clément Turpin.
The match began with Liverpool 's kickoff and the team 's successive attacks to counter Madrid 's slower, possession - based buildup. In the 23rd minute, a low shot by Trent Alexander - Arnold went through a defender 's legs and forced a late save by Keylor Navas. Two minutes later, Liverpool forward Mohamed Salah was injured competing for the ball with Sergio Ramos, who had locked Salah 's arm resulting in a fall. Due to a dislocated shoulder, Salah was substituted four minutes later for Adam Lallana. Madrid 's Dani Carvajal was substituted in the 37th minute with a hamstring injury after an attempted backheel. Minutes later, Karim Benzema 's goal was disallowed after he was determined to be offside while finishing a shot started by Cristiano Ronaldo 's header. The first half ended scoreless, with Madrid dominating possession but Liverpool having more chances to score.
The second half began with a shot by Isco, who hit the crossbar. In the 51st minute, Benzema scored the match 's first goal by deflecting a throw by Liverpool goalkeeper Loris Karius. Liverpool equalised four minutes later on a tap - in by Sadio Mané, who finished a header by Dejan Lovren during a corner kick. Gareth Bale was substituted in for Isco in the 61st minute and scored Madrid 's second goal two minutes later, using an acrobatic bicycle kick to finish a cross by Marcelo. Liverpool pressed for a second equalising goal, with a shot by Mané that hit the goal post and calls for a penalty for an alleged handball, but were also losing possession to Madrid. Ronaldo had a chance to score his first goal of the match during a counterattack in the 73rd minute, but was tackled by Liverpool defender Andrew Robertson in the penalty box. Bale scored his second goal of the match in the 83rd minute on a 40 - yard (37 m) shot that was mishandled by Karius. A second chance on goal for Ronaldo in the 93rd minute of play was interrupted by a pitch invader, who was captured by stadium stewards.
The "home '' team (for administrative purposes) was determined by an additional draw held after the semi-final draw, which was held on 13 April 2018, 13: 00 CEST, at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland.
Man of the Match: Gareth Bale (Real Madrid)
Assistant referees: Milovan Ristić (Serbia) Dalibor Đurđević (Serbia) Fourth official: Clément Turpin (France) Additional assistant referees: Nenad Đokić (Serbia) Danilo Grujić (Serbia) Reserve assistant referee: Nemanja Petrović (Serbia)
Match rules
Real Madrid became the first team since Bayern Munich in 1974 -- 76 to win three consecutive UEFA Champions Leagues or European Cups. The title was Madrid 's 13th, another Champions League record, and fourth in five years. Manager Zinedine Zidane became the first to win three consecutive Champions League titles and matched Carlo Ancelotti 's record of Champions League era wins. Cristiano Ronaldo became the first player to win the Champions League five times, beating the record set by Clarence Seedorf in 2007 and by Andrés Iniesta in 2015.
Gareth Bale became the first substitute to score two goals in a Champions League final and was named man of the match. His first goal received acclaim as one of the best in Champions League history and was compared to Ronaldo 's bicycle kick goal against Juventus in the quarter - final and manager Zinedine Zidane 's goal in the 2002 final. Sergio Ramos 's tackle on Mohammed Salah received mixed reactions from the press and fans on whether the injury was the result of a deliberate blow or an accident. Egyptian fans responded with anger on social media, including insults that became trending topics on Twitter. A Change.org petition calling on UEFA and FIFA to punish Ramos for the challenge received 400,000 signatures within two days. A separate incident involving Ramos and Liverpool goalkeeper Loris Karius raised questions after a video showed him allegedly elbowing Karius in the face prior to his first goalkeeping error. UEFA declined to take action against Ramos for the incident with Karius.
Liverpool manager Jürgen Klopp lost his sixth of seven major finals, including Champions League and league cups. After the match, Loris Karius tearfully apologised to Liverpool supporters who remained in the stands and stated that his mistakes "lost the team the final ''. After the match, Karius received online death threats and hate messages directed at him and his family.
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two examples of layer 2 mpls vpn technologies | Layer 2 MPLS VPN - wikipedia
A Layer 2 MPLS VPN is a term in computer networking. It is a method that Internet service providers use to segregate their network for their customers, to allow them to transmit data over an IP network. This is often sold as a service to businesses.
Layer 2 VPNs are a type of Virtual Private Network (VPN) that uses MPLS labels to transport data. The communication occurs between routers that are known as Provider Edge routers (PEs), as they sit on the edge of the provider 's network, next to the customer 's network.
Internet providers who have an existing Layer 2 network (such as ATM or Frame Relay) may choose to use these VPNs instead of the other common MPLS VPN, Layer 3. There is no one IETF standard for Layer 2 MPLS VPNs. Instead, two methodologies may be used. Both methods use a standard MPLS header to encapsulate data. However, they differ in their signaling protocols.
The BGP - based type is based on a draft specification by Kireeti Kompella, from Juniper Networks. It uses the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) as the mechanism for PE routers to communicate with each other about their customer connections. Each router connects to a central cloud, using BGP. This means that when new customers are added (usually to new routers), the existing routers will communicate with each other, via BGP, and automatically add the new customers to the service.
The second type is based on a draft specification by Chandan Mishra from Cisco Systems. This method is also known as a Layer 2 circuit. It uses the Label Distribution Protocol (LDP) to communicate between PE routers. In this case, every LDP - speaking router will exchange FECs (forwarding equivalence classes) and establish LSPs with every other LDP - speaking router on the network (or just the other PE router, in the case when LDP is tunnelled over RSVP - TE), which differs from the BGP - based methodology. The LDP - based style of layer 2 VPN defines new TLVs and parameters for LDP to aid in the signaling of the VPNs.
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what makes up 100 points of id in australia | 100 point check - wikipedia
The 100 point check is a personal identification system adopted by the Australian Government to combat financial transaction fraud by individuals and companies, enacted by the Financial Transactions Reports Act (1988) (FTR Act), which established the Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre (AUSTRAC) and which continued in existence under the Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Act 2006.
The 100 point system applies to individuals opening new financial accounts in Australia, including bank accounts or betting accounts. Points are allocated to the types of documentary proof of identity that the person can produce, and they must have at least 100 points of identification to be able to operate an account. The system now also applies to the establishment of a number of official identity documents, such as an Australian passport and driving licence.
"Reporting entities '' are required to identify their customers using the 100 point check system. Accounts may be opened, but can only be operated (i.e. withdrawals made) by an identified customer; and an unidentified customer is blocked from making withdrawals. Generally, identification can be transferred from one account to another, so that for instance a person once identified does not need to produce documents again when opening a second account at the same institution.
An issue for many Australian organisations is the capture of credit card primary account numbers (PANs), referred to below under the 25 Points section as Credit Card or EFTPOS Card. This practice is not compliant with the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard and must be removed from all 100 point check forms.
70 Points
Only one of the following may be claimed:
40 Points
35 Points
25 Points
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where was indiana jones and the holy grail filmed | Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade - wikipedia
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade is a 1989 American action - adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg, from a story co-written by executive producer George Lucas. It is the third installment in the Indiana Jones franchise. Harrison Ford reprises the title role and Sean Connery plays Indiana 's father, Henry Jones, Sr. Other cast members featured include Alison Doody, Denholm Elliott, Julian Glover, River Phoenix, and John Rhys - Davies. In the film, set largely in 1938, Indiana searches for his father, a Holy Grail scholar, who has been kidnapped by Nazis.
After Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Spielberg chose to compensate with a film that toned down the violence and gore. During the five years between Temple of Doom and Last Crusade, he and executive producer Lucas reviewed several scripts before accepting Jeffrey Boam 's. Filming locations included Utah, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom, Turkey and Jordan.
The film was released in North America on May 24, 1989 to mostly positive reviews and a financial success, earning $474.2 million at the worldwide box office totals. It won an Academy Award for Best Sound Editing.
In 1912, thirteen - year - old Indiana Jones is horseback riding with his Boy Scout troop at Arches National Park in Utah. While scouting caves, Indy discovers a group of grave robbers who have found a golden crucifix belonging to Coronado and steals it from them, hoping to donate it to a museum. The men give chase through a passing circus train, leaving Indy with a bloody cut across his chin from a bullwhip and a new phobia of snakes. Indy escapes, but the local sheriff makes him return the cross to the robbers. Impressed with Indy 's bravery, the leader of the robbers gives Indy his fedora, and encourages him to not give up.
In 1938, Indy recovers the cross off the coast of Portugal and donates it to Marcus Brody 's museum. Later, Indy is introduced to Walter Donovan, who informs him that Indy 's father, Henry Jones Sr., has vanished while searching for the Holy Grail, using an incomplete inscription as his guide. Indy then receives Henry 's Grail diary via mail from Venice. Realizing that he would not have sent the diary unless he was in trouble, Indy and Marcus travel to Venice, where they meet Henry 's Austrian colleague, Dr. Elsa Schneider. Beneath the library where Henry was last seen, Indy and Elsa discover the tomb of a First Crusade knight, which also contains a complete version of the inscription that Henry had used, this one revealing the location of the Grail. They flee, however, when the catacombs are set aflame by the Brotherhood of the Cruciform Sword, a secret society that protects the Grail from evildoers. Indy and Elsa capture one of the Brotherhood, Kazim, and Indy tells him that his goal is only to find his father and that he has no interest in finding the Grail. Kazim tells him that Henry is being held in Castle Brunwald on the Austrian - German border. Marcus later reveals a map drawn by Henry of the route to the Grail, which begins in Alexandretta. Indy removes the pages containing the map from the diary, gives it to Marcus for safekeeping and sends Marcus to İskenderun, the city built on the ruins of Alexandretta to rendezvous with their old friend Sallah, and he and Elsa head to Castle Brunwald.
At Castle Brunwald, Indy rescues Henry, but learns that Elsa and Donovan are actually working with the Nazis, and are using him to find the Grail for them. Meanwhile, Marcus is captured in Hatay, while waiting with Sallah for the Joneses. The Joneses escape from Castle Brunwald. Henry tells Indy that to reach the Grail, one must face three booby traps and his diary contains the clues to guide them through the challenges safely. They recover the diary from Elsa at a book burning rally in Berlin. They then board a Zeppelin to leave Germany, but the Nazis soon discover the Joneses are aboard and they escape in a parasite biplane. They crash while engaging in a dogfight with Luftwaffe fighters.
The two meet up with Sallah in Hatay, where they learn of Marcus 's abduction. The Nazis are already moving toward the Grail 's location, using the map possessed by Marcus. In exchange for a Rolls - Royce, the Sultan of Hatay has given the Nazis full access to his equipment for the expedition, including a large tank. Indy, Henry, and Sallah find the Nazi expedition, which is ambushed by the Brotherhood. During the battle, Henry is captured by SS Colonel Ernst Vogel while attempting to rescue Marcus from the tank; Kazim and his comrades are killed. The younger Jones pursues the tank on horseback and, with the aid of Sallah, saves Henry and Marcus. He is then caught up in a fight with Vogel, and barely escapes before the tank goes over a cliff, crushing Vogel to death.
Indy, Henry, Marcus, and Sallah catch up with the surviving Nazis, led by Donovan and Elsa, who have found the temple where the Grail is kept but are unable to pass through the three protective booby traps. Donovan mortally wounds Henry in order to force Indy to risk his life in the traps to find the Grail and use its healing power to save Henry. Using the information in the diary and followed by Donovan and Elsa, Indy safely overcomes the traps and reaches the Grail 's chamber, which is guarded by a knight. He has been kept alive for seven hundred years by the power of the Grail, which is hidden among dozens of false Grails; only the true Grail brings life, while a false one claims it. Elsa purposefully selects the most princely grail, a golden chalice studded with emeralds, for Donovan, who ages into dust after drinking from it, because the one Elsa chose was a false one. Indy selects the true Grail, a simple wooden cup, which the knight warns can not be taken beyond the temple 's entrance. Indy fills the Grail with holy water and takes it to Henry, which heals him instantly. Elsa, disregarding the knight 's warning, then takes the Grail and attempts to leave with it. The temple begins to collapse and Elsa falls to her death trying to recover the Grail. Indy nearly suffers the same fate but Henry persuades him to let it go. The Joneses, Marcus, and Sallah escape the temple and ride off into the sunset.
Lucas and Spielberg had intended to make a trilogy of Indiana Jones films since Lucas had first pitched Raiders of the Lost Ark to Spielberg in 1977. After the mixed critical and public reaction to Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Spielberg decided to complete the trilogy to fulfill his promise to Lucas and "to apologize for the second one ''. The pair had the intention of revitalizing the series by evoking the spirit and tone of Raiders of the Lost Ark. Throughout the film 's development and pre-production, Spielberg admitted he was "consciously regressing '' in making the film. Due to his commitment to the film, the director had to drop out of directing Big and Rain Man.
Lucas initially suggested making the film "a haunted mansion movie '', for which Romancing the Stone writer Diane Thomas wrote a script. Spielberg rejected the idea because of the similarity to Poltergeist, which he had co-written and produced. Lucas first introduced the Holy Grail in an idea for the film 's prologue, which was to be set in Scotland. He intended the Grail to have a pagan basis, with the rest of the film revolving around a separate Christian artifact in Africa. Spielberg did not care for the Grail idea, which he found too esoteric, even after Lucas suggested giving it healing powers and the ability to grant immortality. In September 1984, Lucas completed an eight - page treatment titled Indiana Jones and the Monkey King, which he soon followed with an 11 - page outline. The story saw Indiana battling a ghost in Scotland before finding the Fountain of Youth in Africa.
Chris Columbus -- who had written the Spielberg - produced Gremlins, The Goonies, and Young Sherlock Holmes -- was hired to write the script. His first draft, dated May 3, 1985, changed the main plot device to a Garden of Immortal Peaches. It begins in 1937, with Indiana battling the murderous ghost of Baron Seamus Seagrove III in Scotland. Indiana travels to Mozambique to aid Dr. Clare Clarke (a Katharine Hepburn type according to Lucas), who has found a 200 - year - old pygmy. The pygmy is kidnapped by the Nazis during a boat chase, and Indiana, Clare and Scraggy Brier -- an old friend of Indiana -- travel up the Zambezi river to rescue him. Indiana is killed in the climactic battle but is resurrected by the Monkey King. Other characters include a cannibalistic African tribe; Nazi Sergeant Gutterbuhg, who has a mechanical arm; Betsy, a stowaway student who is suicidally in love with Indiana; and a pirate leader named Kezure (described as a Toshiro Mifune type), who dies eating a peach because he is not pure of heart.
Columbus 's second draft, dated August 6, 1985, removed Betsy and featured Dash -- an expatriate bar owner for whom the Nazis work -- and the Monkey King as villains. The Monkey King forces Indiana and Dash to play chess with real people and disintegrates each person who is captured. Indiana subsequently battles the undead, destroys the Monkey King 's rod, and marries Clare. Location scouting commenced in Africa but Spielberg and Lucas abandoned Monkey King because of its negative depiction of African natives, and because the script was too unrealistic. Spielberg acknowledged that it made him "... feel very old, too old to direct it. '' Columbus 's script was leaked onto the Internet in 1997, and many believed it was an early draft for the fourth film because it was mistakenly dated to 1995.
Unsatisfied, Spielberg suggested introducing Indiana 's father, Henry Jones, Sr. Lucas was dubious, believing the Grail should be the story 's focus, but Spielberg convinced him that the father -- son relationship would serve as a great metaphor in Indiana 's search for the artifact. Spielberg hired Menno Meyjes, who had worked on Spielberg 's The Color Purple and Empire of the Sun, to begin a new script on January 1, 1986. Meyjes completed his script ten months later. It depicted Indiana searching for his father in Montségur, where he meets a nun named Chantal. Indiana travels to Venice, takes the Orient Express to Istanbul, and continues by train to Petra, where he meets Sallah and reunites with his father. Together they find the grail. At the climax, a Nazi villain touches the Grail and explodes; when Henry touches it, he ascends a stairway to Heaven. Chantal chooses to stay on Earth because of her love for Indiana. In a revised draft dated two months later, Indiana finds his father in Krak des Chevaliers, the Nazi leader is a woman named Greta von Grimm, and Indiana battles a demon at the Grail site, which he defeats with a dagger inscribed with "God is King ''. The prologue in both drafts has Indiana in Mexico battling for possession of Montezuma 's death mask with a man who owns gorillas as pets.
Spielberg suggested Innerspace writer Jeffrey Boam perform the next rewrite. Boam spent two weeks reworking the story with Lucas, which yielded a treatment that is largely similar to the final film. Boam told Lucas that Indiana should find his father in the middle of the story. "Given the fact that it 's the third film in the series, you could n't just end with them obtaining the object. That 's how the first two films ended, '' he said, "So I thought, let them lose the Grail, and let the father -- son relationship be the main point. It 's an archaeological search for Indy 's own identity and coming to accept his father is more what it 's about (than the quest for the Grail). '' Boam said he felt there was not enough character development in the previous films. In Boam 's first draft, dated September 1987, the film is set in 1939. The prologue has adult Indiana retrieving an Aztec relic for a museum curator in Mexico and features the circus train. Henry and Elsa (who is described as having dark hair) were searching for the Grail on behalf of the Chandler Foundation, before Henry went missing. The character of Kazim is here named Kemal, and is an agent of the Republic of Hatay, which seeks the grail for its own. Kemal shoots Henry and dies drinking from the wrong chalice. The Grail Knight battles Indiana on horseback, while Vogel is crushed by a boulder when stealing the Grail.
Boam 's February 23, 1988 rewrite utilized many of Connery 's comic suggestions. It included the prologue that was eventually filmed; Lucas had to convince Spielberg to show Indiana as a boy because of the mixed response to Empire of the Sun, which was about a young boy. Spielberg -- who was later awarded the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award -- had the idea of making Indiana a Boy Scout. Indiana 's mother, named Margaret in this version, dismisses Indiana when he returns home with the Cross of Coronado, while his father is on a long distance call. Walter Chandler of the Chandler Foundation features, but is not the main villain; he plunges to his death in the tank. Elsa introduces Indiana and Brody to a large Venetian family that knows Henry. Leni Riefenstahl appears at the Nazi rally in Berlin. Vogel is beheaded by the traps guarding the Grail. Kemal tries to blow up the Grail Temple during a comic fight in which gunpowder is repeatedly lit and extinguished. Elsa shoots Henry, then dies drinking from the wrong Grail, and Indiana rescues his father from falling into the chasm while grasping for the Grail. Boam 's revision on March 1 showed Henry causing the seagulls to strike the plane, and has Henry saving Indiana at the end.
Between an undated "Amblin '' revision and a rewrite by Tom Stoppard (under the pen name Barry Watson) dated May 8, 1988, further changes were made. Stoppard polished most of the dialogue, and created the "Panama Hat '' character to link the prologue 's segments featuring the young and adult Indianas. The Venetian family is cut. Kemal is renamed Kazim and now wants to protect the grail rather than find it. Chandler is renamed Donovan. The scene of Brody being captured is added. Vogel now dies in the tank, while Donovan shoots Henry and then drinks from the false grail, and Elsa falls into the chasm. The Grail trials are expanded to include the stone - stepping and leap of faith.
Principal photography began on May 16, 1988, in the Tabernas Desert in Spain 's Almería province. Spielberg originally had planned the chase to be a short sequence shot over two days, but he drew up storyboards to make the scene an action - packed centerpiece. Thinking he would not surpass the truck chase from Raiders of the Lost Ark (because the truck was much faster than the tank), he felt this sequence should be more story - based and needed to show Indiana and Henry helping each other. He later said he had more fun storyboarding the sequence than filming it. The second unit had begun filming two weeks before. After approximately ten days, the production moved to Bellas Artes to film the scenes set in the Sultan of Hatay 's palace. Cabo de Gata - Níjar Natural Park was used for the road, tunnel and beach sequence in which birds strike the plane. The Spanish portion of location filming finished on June 2, 1988, in Guadix, Granada, with filming of Brody 's capture at İskenderun train station. The filmmakers built a mosque near the station for atmosphere, rather than adding it as a visual effect.
Filming for the castle interiors took place in the United Kingdom from June 5 to 10, 1988, at Elstree Studios in Borehamwood, England. On June 16 Lawrence Hall, London, was used for the airport interiors. Filming returned to Elstree the next day to capture the motorcycle escape, continuing at the studio for interior scenes until July 18. One day was spent at North Weald Airfield on June 29 to film Indiana leaving for Venice. Ford and Connery acted much of the Zeppelin table conversation without trousers on because of the overheated set. Spielberg, Marshall and Kennedy interrupted the shoot to make a plea to the Parliament of the United Kingdom to support the economically "depressed '' British studios. July 20 -- 22 was spent filming the temple interiors. The temple set, which took six weeks to build, was supported on 80 feet of hydraulics and ten gimbals for use during the earthquake scene. Resetting between takes took twenty minutes while the hydraulics were put to their starting positions and the cracks filled with plaster. The shot of the Grail falling to the temple floor -- causing the first crack to appear -- was attempted on the full - size set, but proved too difficult. Instead, crews built a separate floor section that incorporated a pre-scored crack sealed with plaster. It took several takes to throw the Grail from six feet onto the right part of the crack. July 25 -- 26 was spent on night shoots at Stowe School, Stowe, Buckinghamshire, for the Nazi rally.
Filming resumed two days later at Elstree, where Spielberg swiftly filmed the library, Portuguese freighter, and catacombs sequences. The steamship fight in the prologue 's 1938 portion was filmed in three days on a sixty - by - forty - feet deck built on gimbals at Elstree. A dozen dump tanks -- each holding three hundred imperial gallons (360 U.S. gallons; 3000 lb.) of water -- were used in the scene. Henry 's house was filmed at Mill Hill, London. Indiana and Kazim 's fight in Venice in front of a ship 's propeller was filmed in a water tank at Elstree. Spielberg used a long focus lens to make it appear the actors were closer to the propeller than they really were. Two days later, on August 4, another portion of the boat chase using Hacker Craft sport boats, was filmed at Tilbury Docks in Essex. The shot of the boats passing between two ships was achieved by first cabling the ships off so they would be safe. The ships were moved together while the boats passed between, close enough that one of the boats scraped the sides of the ships. An empty speedboat containing dummies was launched from a floating platform between the ships amid fire and smoke that helped obscure the platform. The stunt was performed twice because the boat landed too short of the camera in the first attempt. The following day, filming in England wrapped at the Royal Masonic School in Rickmansworth, which doubled for Indiana 's college (as it had in Raiders of the Lost Ark).
Shooting in Venice took place on August 8. For scenes such as Indiana and Brody greeting Elsa, shots of the boat chase, and Kazim telling Indiana where his father is, Robert Watts gained control of the Grand Canal from 7 am to 1 pm, sealing off tourists for as long as possible. Cinematographer Douglas Slocombe positioned the camera to ensure no satellite dishes would be visible. San Barnaba di Venezia served as the library 's exterior. The next day, filming moved to the ancient city of Petra, Jordan, where Al Khazneh (The Treasury) stood in for the temple housing the Grail. The cast and crew became guests of King Hussein and Queen Noor. The Treasury had previously appeared in Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger. The main cast completed their scenes that week, after 63 days of filming.
The second unit filmed part of the prologue 's 1912 segment from August 29 to September 3. The main unit began two days later with the circus train sequence at Alamosa, Colorado, on the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad. They filmed at Pagosa Springs on September 7, and then at Cortez on September 10. From September 14 to 16, filming of Indiana falling into the train carriages took place in Los Angeles. The production then moved to Utah 's Arches National Park to shoot more of the opening. A house in Antonito, Colorado was used for the Jones family home. The production had intended to film at Mesa Verde National Park, but Native American representatives had religious objections to its use. When Spielberg and editor Michael Kahn viewed a rough cut of the film in late 1988, they felt it suffered from a lack of action. The motorcycle chase was shot during post-production at Mount Tamalpais and Fairfax near Skywalker Ranch. The closing shot of Indiana, Henry, Sallah and Brody riding into the sunset was filmed in Texas in early 1989.
Mechanical effects supervisor George Gibbs said the film was the most difficult one of his career. He visited a museum to negotiate renting a small French World War I tank, but decided he wanted to make one. The tank was based on the Tank Mark VIII, which was 36 feet (11 m) long and weighed 28 short tons (25 t). Gibbs built the tank over the framework of a 28 - short - ton (25 t) excavator and added 7 - short - ton (6.4 t) tracks that were driven by two automatic hydraulic pumps, each connected to a Range Rover V8 engine. Gibbs built the tank from steel rather than aluminum or fiberglass because it would allow the realistically suspensionless vehicle to endure the rocky surfaces. Unlike its historical counterpart, which had only the two side guns, the tank had a turret gun added as well. It took four months to build and was transported to Almería on a Short Belfast plane and then a low loader truck.
The tank broke down twice. The distributor 's rotor arm broke and a replacement had to be sourced from Madrid. Then two of the device 's valves used to cool the oil exploded, due to solder melting and mixing with the oil. It was very hot in the tank, despite the installation of ten fans, and the lack of suspension meant the driver was unable to stop shaking during filming breaks. The tank only moved at 10 to 12 miles per hour (16 to 19 km / h), which Vic Armstrong said made it difficult to film Indiana riding a horse against the tank while making it appear faster. A smaller section of the tank 's top made from aluminum and which used rubber tracks was used for close - ups. It was built from a searchlight trailer, weighed eight tons, and was towed by a four - wheel drive truck. It had safety nets on each end to prevent injury to those falling off. A quarter - scale model by Gibbs was driven over a 50 - foot (15 m) cliff on location; Industrial Light & Magic created further shots of the tank 's destruction with models and miniatures.
Michael Lantieri, mechanical effects supervisor for the 1912 scenes, noted the difficulty in shooting the train sequence. "You ca n't just stop a train, '' he said, "If it misses its mark, it takes blocks and blocks to stop it and back up. '' Lantieri hid handles for the actors and stuntmen to grab onto when leaping from carriage to carriage. The carriage interiors shot at Universal Studios Hollywood were built on tubes that inflated and deflated to create a rocking motion. For the close - up of the rhinoceros that strikes at (and misses) Indiana, a foam and fiberglass animatronic was made in London. When Spielberg decided he wanted it to move, the prop was sent to John Carl Buechler in Los Angeles, who resculpted it over three days to blink, snarl, snort and wiggle its ears. The giraffes were also created in London. Because steam locomotives are very loud, Lantieri 's crew would respond to first assistant director David Tomblin 's radioed directions by making the giraffes nod or shake their heads to his questions, which amused the crew. For the villains ' cars, Lantieri selected a 1914 Ford Model T, a 1919 Ford Model T truck and a 1916 Saxon Model 14, fitting each with a Ford Pinto V6 engine. Sacks of dust were hung under the cars to create a dustier environment.
Spielberg used doves for the seagulls that Henry scares into striking the German plane because the real gulls used in the first take did not fly. In December 1988, Lucasfilm ordered 1,000 disease - free gray rats for the catacombs scenes from the company that supplied the snakes and bugs for the previous films. Within five months, 5,000 rats had been bred for the sequence; 1,000 mechanical rats stood in for those that were set on fire. Several thousand snakes of five breeds -- including a boa constrictor -- were used for the train scene, in addition to rubber ones onto which Phoenix could fall. The snakes would slither from their crates, requiring the crew to dig through sawdust after filming to find and return them. Two lions were used, which became nervous because of the rocking motion and flickering lights.
Costume designer Anthony Powell found it a challenge to create Connery 's costume because the script required the character to wear the same clothes throughout. Powell thought about his own grandfather and incorporated tweed suits and fishing hats. Powell felt it necessary for Henry to wear glasses, but did not want to hide Connery 's eyes, so chose rimless ones. He could not find any suitable, so he had them specially made. The Nazi costumes were genuine and were found in Eastern Europe by Powell 's co-designer Joanna Johnston, to whom he gave research pictures and drawings for reference. The motorcycles used in the chase from the castle were a mixed bag: the scout model with sidecar in which Indy and Henry escape was an original Dnepr, complete with machine gun pintle on the sidecar, while the pursuing vehicles were more modern machines dressed up with equipment and logos to make them resemble German army models. Gibbs used Swiss Pilatus P - 2 army training planes standing in for Messerschmitt Bf - 109s. He built a device based on an internal combustion engine to simulate gunfire, which was safer and less expensive than firing blanks. Baking soda was applied to Connery to create Henry 's bullet wound. Vinegar was applied to create the foaming effect as the water from the Grail washes it away. At least one reproduction Kubelwagen was used during filming despite the film being set two years prior to manufacture of said vehicles.
Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) built an eight - foot foam model of the Zeppelin to complement shots of Ford and Connery climbing into the biplane. A biplane model with a two - foot wingspan was used for the shot of the biplane detaching. Stop motion animation was used for the shot of the German fighter 's wings breaking off as it crashes through the tunnel. The tunnel was a 210 feet model that occupied 14 of ILM 's parking spaces for two months. It was built in eight - foot sections, with hinges allowing each section to be opened to film through. Ford and Connery were filmed against bluescreen; the sequence required their car to have a dirty windscreen, but to make the integration easier this was removed and later composited into the shot. Dust and shadows were animated onto shots of the plane miniature to make it appear as if it disturbed rocks and dirt before it exploded. Several hundred tim - birds were used in the background shots of the seagulls striking the other plane; for the closer shots, ILM dropped feather - coated crosses onto the camera. These only looked convincing because the scene 's quick cuts merely required shapes that suggested gulls. ILM 's Wes Takahashi supervised the film 's effects sequences.
Spielberg devised the three trials that guard the Grail. For the first, the blades under which Indiana ducks like a penitent man were a mix of practical and miniature blades created by Gibbs and ILM. For the second trial, in which Indiana spells "Iehova '' on stable stepping stones, it was intended to have a tarantula crawl up Indiana after he mistakenly steps on "J ''. This was filmed and deemed unsatisfactory, so ILM filmed a stuntman hanging through a hole that appears in the floor, 30 feet above a cavern. As this was dark, it did not matter that the matte painting and models were rushed late in production. The third trial, the leap of faith that Indiana makes over an apparently impassable ravine after discovering a bridge hidden by forced perspective, was created with a model bridge and painted backgrounds. This was cheaper than building a full - size set. A puppet of Ford was used to create a shadow on the 9 - foot - tall (2.7 m) by 13 - foot - wide (4.0 m) model because Ford had filmed the scene against bluescreen, which did not incorporate the shaft of light from the entrance.
Spielberg wanted Donovan 's death shown in one shot, so it would not look like an actor having makeup applied between takes. Inflatable pads were applied to Julian Glover 's forehead and cheeks that made his eyes seem to recede during the character 's initial decomposition, as well as a mechanical wig that grew his hair. The shot of Donovan 's death was created over three months by morphing together three puppets of Donovan in separate stages of decay, a technique ILM mastered on Willow (1988). A fourth puppet was used for the decaying clothes, because the puppet 's torso mechanics had been exposed. Complications arose because Alison Doody 's double had not been filmed for the scene 's latter two elements, so the background and hair from the first shot had to be used throughout, with the other faces mapped over it. Donovan 's skeleton was hung on wires like a marionette; it required several takes to film it crashing against the wall because not all the pieces released upon impact.
Ben Burtt designed the sound effects. He recorded chickens for the sounds of the rats, and digitally manipulated the noise made by a Styrofoam cup for the castle fire. He rode in a biplane to record the sounds for the dogfight sequence, and visited the demolition of a wind turbine for the plane crashes. Burtt wanted an echoing gunshot for Donovan wounding Henry, so he fired a. 357 Magnum in Skywalker Ranch 's underground car park, just as Lucas drove in. A rubber balloon was used for the earthquake tremors at the temple. The film was released in selected theaters in the 70 mm Full - Field Sound format, which allowed sounds to not only move from side to side, but also from the theater 's front to its rear.
Matte paintings of the Austrian castle and German airport were based on real buildings; the Austrian castle was a small West German castle that was made to look larger. Rain was created by filming granulated Borax soap against black at high speed. It was only lightly double exposed into the shots so it would not resemble snow. The lightning was animated. The airport used was at San Francisco 's Treasure Island, which already had appropriate art deco architecture. ILM added a control tower, Nazi banners, vintage automobiles and a sign stating "Berlin Flughafen ''. The establishing shot of the Hatayan city at dusk was created by filming silhouetted cutouts that were backlit and obscured by smoke. Matte paintings were used for the sky and to give the appearance of fill light in the shadows and rim light on the edges of the buildings.
A son 's relationship with his estranged father is a common theme in Spielberg 's films, including E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and Hook.
The film 's exploration of fathers and sons coupled with its use of religious imagery is comparable to two other 1989 films, Star Trek V: The Final Frontier and Field of Dreams. Writing for The New York Times, Caryn James felt the combination in these films reflected New Age concerns, where the worship of God was equated to searching for fathers. James felt that neither Indiana or his father is preoccupied with finding the Grail or defeating the evil Nazis, but that, rather, both seek professional respect for one another in their boys ' own adventure. James contrasted the temple 's biblically epic destruction with the more effective and quiet conversation between the Joneses at the film 's end. James noted that Indiana 's mother does not appear in the prologue, being portrayed as already having died before the film 's events began.
The 1912 prologue refers to events in the lives of Indiana 's creators. When Indiana cracks the bullwhip to defend himself against a lion, he accidentally lashes and scars his chin. Ford gained this scar in a car accident as a young man. Indiana taking his nickname from his pet Alaskan Malamute is a reference to the character being named after Lucas 's dog. The train carriage Indiana enters is named "Doctor Fantasy 's Magic Caboose '', which was the name producer Frank Marshall used when performing magic tricks. Spielberg suggested the idea, Marshall came up with the false - bottomed box through which Indiana escapes, and production designer Elliott Scott suggested the trick be done in a single, uninterrupted shot. Spielberg intended the shot of Henry with his umbrella -- after he causes the bird strike on the German plane -- to evoke Ryan 's Daughter.
The film 's teaser trailer debuted in November 1988 with Scrooged and The Naked Gun. Rob MacGregor wrote the tie - in novelization that was released in June 1989; it sold enough copies to be included on the New York Times Best Seller list. MacGregor went on to write the first six Indiana Jones prequel novels during the 1990s. Following the film 's release, Ford donated Indiana 's fedora and jacket to the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History.
No toys were made to promote the film; Indiana Jones "never happened on the toy level '', said Larry Carlat, senior editor of the journal Children 's Business. Rather, Lucasfilm promoted Indiana as a lifestyle symbol, selling tie - in fedoras, shirts, jackets and watches. Two video games based on the film were released by LucasArts in 1989: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Action Game. A third game was produced by Taito and released in 1991 for the Nintendo Entertainment System. Ryder Windham wrote another novelization, released in April 2008 by Scholastic, to coincide with the release of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. Hasbro released toys based on The Last Crusade in July 2008.
The film was released in North America on May 24, 1989, in 2,327 theaters, earning $29,355,021 in its opening weekend. This was the third - highest opening weekend of 1989, behind Ghostbusters II and Batman. Its opening day gross of $11,181,429 was the first time a film had made over $10 million on its first day. It broke the record for the best six - day performance, with almost $47 million, added another record with $77 million after twelve days, and $100 million in nineteen days. It grossed $195.7 million by the end of the year and $475 million worldwide by March 1990. In France, the film broke a record by selling a million admissions within two and a half weeks.
The film eventually grossed $197,171,806 in North America and $277 million internationally, for a worldwide total of $474,171,806. At the time of its release, the film was the 11th highest - grossing film of all time. Despite competition from Batman, The Last Crusade became the highest - grossing film worldwide in 1989. In North America, Batman took top position. Behind Kingdom of the Crystal Skull and Raiders, The Last Crusade is the third - highest grossing Indiana Jones film in North America, though it is also behind Temple of Doom when adjusting for inflation. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 49 million tickets in North America.
The film opened to mostly positive reviews. It was panned by Andrew Sarris in The New York Observer, David Denby in New York magazine, Stanley Kauffmann in The New Republic and Georgia Brown in The Village Voice. Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader called the film "soulless ''. The Washington Post reviewed the film twice; Hal Hinson 's review on the day of the film 's release was negative, describing it as "nearly all chases and dull exposition ''. Although he praised Ford and Connery, he felt the film 's exploration of Indiana 's character took away his mystery and that Spielberg should not have tried to mature his storytelling. Two days later, Desson Thomson published a positive review praising the film 's adventure and action, as well as the father -- son relationship 's thematic depth. Joseph McBride of Variety observed the "Cartoonlike Nazi villains of Raiders have been replaced by more genuinely frightening Nazis led by Julian Glover and Michael Byrne, '' and found the moment where Indiana meets Hitler "chilling ''. In his biography of Spielberg, McBride added the film was less "racist '' than its predecessors.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said the film was "the wildest and wittiest Indy of them all ''. Richard Corliss of Time and David Ansen of Newsweek praised it, as did Vincent Canby of The New York Times. "Though it seems to have the manner of some magically reconstituted B - movie of an earlier era, The Last Crusade is an endearing original, '' Canby wrote, deeming the revelation Indiana had a father who was not proud of him to be a "comic surprise ''. Canby believed that while the film did not match the previous two in its pacing, it still had "hilariously off - the - wall sequences '' such as the circus train chase. He also said that Spielberg was maturing by focusing on the father -- son relationship, a call echoed by McBride in Variety. Roger Ebert praised the scene depicting Indiana as a Boy Scout with the Cross of Coronado; he compared it to the "style of illustration that appeared in the boys ' adventure magazines of the 1940s '', saying that Spielberg "must have been paging through his old issues of Boys ' Life magazine... the feeling that you can stumble over astounding adventures just by going on a hike with your Scout troop. Spielberg lights the scene in the strong, basic colors of old pulp magazines. '' The Hollywood Reporter felt Connery and Ford deserved Academy Award nominations.
The film was evaluated positively after its release. Internet reviewer James Berardinelli wrote that while the film did not reach the heights of Raiders of the Lost Ark, it "(avoided) the lows of The Temple of Doom. A fitting end to the original trilogy, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade captures some of the sense of fun that infused the first movie while using the addition of Sean Connery to up the comedic ante and provide a father / son dynamic. '' Neil Smith of the BBC praised the action, but said the drama and comedy between the Joneses was more memorable. He noted, "The emphasis on the Jones boys means Julian Glover 's venal villain and Alison Doody 's treacherous beauty are sidelined, while the climax (becomes) one booby - trapped tomb too many. '' Based on 55 reviews listed by Rotten Tomatoes, 88 % of critics praised the film, giving it an average score of 8 / 10. Metacritic calculated an average rating of 65 / 100, based on 14 reviews.
The film won the Academy Award for Best Sound Editing; it also received nominations for Best Original Score and Best Sound (Ben Burtt, Gary Summers, Shawn Murphy and Tony Dawe), but lost to The Little Mermaid and Glory respectively. Sean Connery received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Connery and the visual and sound effects teams were also nominated at the 43rd British Academy Film Awards. The film won the 1990 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, and was nominated for Best Motion Picture Drama at the Young Artist Awards. John Williams ' score won a BMI Award, and was nominated for a Grammy Award.
The prologue depicting Indiana in his youth inspired Lucas to create The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles television series, which featured Sean Patrick Flanery as the young adult Indiana and Corey Carrier as the 8 - to 10 - year - old Indiana. The 13 - year - old incarnation played by Phoenix in the film was the focus of a Young Indiana Jones series of young adult novels that began in 1990; by the ninth novel, the series had become a tie - in to the television show. German author Wolfgang Hohlbein revisited the 1912 prologue in one of his novels, in which Indiana encounters the lead grave robber -- whom Hohlbein christens Jake -- in 1943. The film 's ending begins the 1995 comic series Indiana Jones and the Spear of Destiny, which moves forward to depict Indiana and his father searching for the Holy Lance in Ireland in 1945. Spielberg intended to have Connery cameo as Henry in Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008), but Connery turned it down as he had retired.
Petra 's use for the movie 's climactic scenes greatly contributed to its popularity as an international tourist destination. Before the film 's release, only a few thousand visitors per year made the trip; since then it has grown to almost a million annually. Shops and hotels near the site play up the connection, and it is mentioned prominently in itineraries of locations used in the film series. Jordan 's tourism board mentions the connection on its website. In 2012 the satirical news site The Pan-Arabia Enquirer ran a mock story claiming that the board had officially renamed Petra "That Place from Indiana Jones '' to reflect how the world more commonly refers to it.
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when did the last eclipse of the moon occur | Solar eclipse - wikipedia
A solar eclipse (as seen from the planet Earth) is a type of eclipse that occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, and when the Moon fully or partially blocks ("occults '') the Sun. This can happen only at new moon when the Sun and the Moon are in conjunction as seen from Earth in an alignment referred to as syzygy. In a total eclipse, the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon. In partial and annular eclipses, only part of the Sun is obscured.
If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit, a little closer to the Earth, and in the same orbital plane, there would be total solar eclipses every new moon. However, since the Moon 's orbit is tilted at more than 5 degrees to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun, its shadow usually misses Earth. The Moon 's orbit must cross Earth 's ecliptic plane in order for an eclipse (both solar as well as lunar) to occur. In addition, the Moon 's actual orbit is elliptical, often taking it far enough away from Earth that its apparent size is not large enough to block the Sun entirely. The orbital planes cross each other at a line of nodes resulting in at least two, and up to five, solar eclipses occurring each year; no more than two of which can be total eclipses. However, total solar eclipses are rare at any particular location because totality exists only along a narrow path on the Earth 's surface traced by the Moon 's shadow or umbra.
An eclipse is a natural phenomenon. However, in some ancient and modern cultures, solar eclipses were attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens. A total solar eclipse can be frightening to people who are unaware of its astronomical explanation, as the Sun seems to disappear during the day and the sky darkens in a matter of minutes.
Since looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent eye damage or blindness, special eye protection or indirect viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar eclipse. It is technically safe to view only the total phase of a total solar eclipse with the unaided eye and without protection; however, this is a dangerous practice, as most people are not trained to recognize the phases of an eclipse, which can span over two hours while the total phase can only last a maximum of 7.5 minutes for any one location. People referred to as eclipse chasers or umbraphiles will travel to remote locations to observe or witness predicted central solar eclipses.
There are four types of solar eclipses:
The Sun 's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon 's distance, and the Sun 's diameter is about 400 times the Moon 's diameter. Because these ratios are approximately the same, the Sun and the Moon as seen from Earth appear to be approximately the same size: about 0.5 degree of arc in angular measure.
A separate category of solar eclipses is that of the Sun being occluded by a body other than the Earth 's moon, as can be observed at points in space away from the Earth 's surface. Two examples are when the crew of Apollo 12 observed the Earth eclipse the Sun in 1969 and when the Cassini probe observed Saturn eclipsing the Sun in 2006.
The Moon 's orbit around the Earth is slightly elliptical, as is the Earth 's orbit around the Sun. The apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon therefore vary. The magnitude of an eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse. An eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its closest distance to Earth (i.e., near its perigee) can be a total eclipse because the Moon will appear to be large enough to completely cover the Sun 's bright disk or photosphere; a total eclipse has a magnitude greater than or equal to 1.000. Conversely, an eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its farthest distance from Earth (i.e., near its apogee) can only be an annular eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly smaller than the Sun; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1. Slightly more solar eclipses are annular than total because, on average, the Moon lies too far from Earth to cover the Sun completely.
A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the event from less to greater than one, so the eclipse appears to be total at locations nearer the midpoint, and annular at other locations nearer the beginning and end, since the sides of the Earth are slightly further away from the Moon. These eclipses are extremely narrow in their path width and extremely short in their duration at any point, at most just a few seconds at any location within just a few kilometres of the centerline of the path. Like a focal point, the width and duration of totality and annularity are near zero at the points where the changes between the two occur.
Because the Earth 's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, the Earth 's distance from the Sun similarly varies throughout the year. This affects the apparent size of the Sun in the same way, but not as much as does the Moon 's varying distance from Earth. When Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun in early July, a total eclipse is somewhat more likely, whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in early January.
Central eclipse is often used as a generic term for a total, annular, or hybrid eclipse. This is, however, not completely correct: the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra touches the Earth 's surface. It is possible, though extremely rare, that part of the umbra intersects with the Earth (thus creating an annular or total eclipse), but not its central line. This is then called a non-central total or annular eclipse. The last (umbral yet) non-central solar eclipse was on April 29, 2014. This was an annular eclipse. The next non-central total solar eclipse will be on April 9, 2043.
The phases observed during a total eclipse are called:
The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun, Moon, and Earth during a solar eclipse. The dark gray region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra, where the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon. The small area where the umbra touches Earth 's surface is where a total eclipse can be seen. The larger light gray area is the penumbra, in which a partial eclipse can be seen. An observer in the antumbra, the area of shadow beyond the umbra, will see an annular eclipse.
The Moon 's orbit around the Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of the Earth 's orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to the north or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when new moon occurs close to one of the points (known as nodes) where the Moon 's orbit crosses the ecliptic.
As noted above, the Moon 's orbit is also elliptical. The Moon 's distance from the Earth can vary by about 6 % from its average value. Therefore, the Moon 's apparent size varies with its distance from the Earth, and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses. The distance of the Earth from the Sun also varies during the year, but this is a smaller effect. On average, the Moon appears to be slightly smaller than the Sun as seen from the Earth, so the majority (about 60 %) of central eclipses are annular. It is only when the Moon is closer to the Earth than average (near its perigee) that a total eclipse occurs.
The Moon orbits the Earth in approximately 27.3 days, relative to a fixed frame of reference. This is known as the sidereal month. However, during one sidereal month, Earth has revolved part way around the Sun, making the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month: it is approximately 29.5 days. This is known as the synodic month and corresponds to what is commonly called the lunar month.
The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node, and vice versa at its descending node. However, the nodes of the Moon 's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion, due to the action of the Sun 's gravity on the Moon 's motion, and they make a complete circuit every 18.6 years. This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or draconic month.
Finally, the Moon 's perigee is moving forwards or precessing in its orbit and makes a complete circuit in 8.85 years. The time between one perigee and the next is slightly longer than the sidereal month and known as the anomalistic month.
The Moon 's orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the new moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months (173.3 days) apart, known as eclipse seasons, and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods. Sometimes the new moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months to eclipse the Sun on both occasions in two partial eclipses. This means that, in any given year, there will always be at least two solar eclipses, and there can be as many as five.
Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 to 18 degrees of a node, (10 to 12 degrees for central eclipses). This is referred to as an eclipse limit. In the time it takes for the Moon to return to a node (draconic month), the apparent position of the Sun has moved about 29 degrees, relative to the nodes. Since the eclipse limit creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees (24 degrees for central eclipses), it is possible for partial eclipses (or rarely a partial and a central eclipse) to occur in consecutive months.
During a central eclipse, the Moon 's umbra (or antumbra, in the case of an annular eclipse) moves rapidly from west to east across the Earth. The Earth is also rotating from west to east, at about 28 km / min at the Equator, but as the Moon is moving in the same direction as the Earth 's spin at about 61 km / min, the umbra almost always appears to move in a roughly west - east direction across a map of the Earth at the speed of the Moon 's orbital velocity minus the Earth 's rotational velocity.
The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon. In the most favourable circumstances, when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee, the track can be up to 267 km (166 mi) wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes. Outside of the central track, a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of the Earth. Typically, the umbra is 100 -- 160 km wide, while the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km.
The following factors determine the duration of a total solar eclipse (in order of decreasing importance):
The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the eclipse of July 16, 2186 (with a maximum duration of 7 minutes 4 seconds over northern Guyana).
Total solar eclipses are rare events. Although they occur somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average, it is estimated that they recur at any given place only once every 360 to 410 years, on average. The total eclipse lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at any location, because the Moon 's umbra moves eastward at over 1700 km / h. Totality currently can never last more than 7 min 32 s. This value changes over the millennia and is currently decreasing. By the 8th millennium, the longest theoretically possible total eclipse will be less than 7 min 2 s. The last time an eclipse longer than 7 minutes occurred was June 30, 1973 (7 min 3 sec). Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon 's umbra. The next total eclipse exceeding seven minutes in duration will not occur until June 25, 2150. The longest total solar eclipse during the 11,000 year period from 3000 BC to at least 8000 AD will occur on July 16, 2186, when totality will last 7 min 29 s. For comparison, the longest total eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June 20, 1955, and there are no total solar eclipses over 7 min in duration in the 21st century.
If the date and time of any solar eclipse are known, it is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles. The saros is probably the best known and one of the most accurate. A saros lasts 6,585.3 days (a little over 18 years), which means that, after this period, a practically identical eclipse will occur. The most notable difference will be a westward shift of about 120 ° in longitude (due to the 0.3 days) and a little in latitude (north - south for odd - numbered cycles, the reverse for even - numbered ones). A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse near one of Earth 's polar regions, then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses, and ends with a partial eclipse at the opposite polar region. A saros series lasts 1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87 eclipses, with about 40 to 60 of them being central.
Between two and five solar eclipses occur every year, with at least one per eclipse season. Since the Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582, years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693, 1758, 1805, 1823, 1870, and 1935. The next occurrence will be 2206. On average, there are about 240 solar eclipses each century.
Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortuitous combination of circumstances. Even on Earth, the diversity of eclipses familiar to people today is a temporary (on a geological time scale) phenomenon. Hundreds of millions of years in the past, the Moon was closer to the Earth and therefore apparently larger, so every solar eclipse was total and there were no annular eclipses. Due to tidal acceleration, the orbit of the Moon around the Earth becomes approximately 3.8 cm more distant each year. Millions of years in the future, the Moon will be too far away to fully occlude the Sun, and no total eclipses will occur. In the same timeframe, the Sun may become brighter, making it appear larger in size. Estimates of the when the moon will be unable to occlude the entire sun when viewed from the Earth range between 1.4 billion and 650 million years in the future.
Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for historians, in that they allow a few historical events to be dated precisely, from which other dates and ancient calendars may be deduced. A solar eclipse of June 15, 763 BC mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for the chronology of the ancient Near East. There have been other claims to date earlier eclipses. The Book of Joshua 10: 13 could refer to an annular eclipse on 30 October 1207 BC. The King Zhong Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers, Hsi and Ho, who failed to predict an eclipse 4,000 years ago. Perhaps the earliest still - unproven claim is that of archaeologist Bruce Masse, who putatively links an eclipse that occurred on May 10, 2807 BC with a possible meteor impact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient flood myths that mention a total solar eclipse.
Eclipses have been interpreted as omens, or portents. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a battle between the Medes and the Lydians. Both sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse. The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain, although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities. One likely candidate took place on May 28, 585 BC, probably near the Halys river in Asia Minor. An eclipse recorded by Herodotus before Xerxes departed for his expedition against Greece, which is traditionally dated to 480 BC, was matched by John Russell Hind to an annular eclipse of the Sun at Sardis on February 17, 478 BC. Alternatively, a partial eclipse was visible from Persia on October 2, 480 BC. Herodotus also reports a solar eclipse at Sparta during the Second Persian invasion of Greece. The date of the eclipse (August 1, 477 BC) does not match exactly the conventional dates for the invasion accepted by historians.
Chinese records of eclipses begin at around 720 BC. The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen described the prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the Moon and Sun. The "radiating influence '' theory (i.e., the Moon 's light was reflection from the Sun) was existent in Chinese thought from about the sixth century BC (in the Zhi Ran of Zhi Ni Zi), though it was opposed by the 1st century AD philosopher Wang Chong, who made clear in his writing that this theory was nothing new. Ancient Greeks, such as Parmenides and Aristotle, also supported the theory of the Moon shining because of reflected light.
Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of Good Friday by assuming that the darkness described at Jesus 's crucifixion was a solar eclipse. This research has not yielded conclusive results, and Good Friday is recorded as being at Passover, which is held at the time of a full moon. Further, the darkness lasted from the sixth hour to the ninth, or three hours, which is much, much longer than the eight - minute upper limit for any solar eclipse 's totality. In the Western hemisphere, there are few reliable records of eclipses before 800 AD, until the advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early medieval period. The first recorded observation of the corona was made in Constantinople in 968 AD.
The first known telescopic observation of a total solar eclipse was made in France in 1706. Nine years later, English astronomer Edmund Halley accurately predicted and observed the solar eclipse of May 3, 1715. By the mid-19th century, scientific understanding of the Sun was improving through observations of the Sun 's corona during solar eclipses. The corona was identified as part of the Sun 's atmosphere in 1842, and the first photograph (or daguerreotype) of a total eclipse was taken of the solar eclipse of July 28, 1851. Spectroscope observations were made of the solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, which helped to determine the chemical composition of the Sun.
John Fiske summed up myths about the solar eclipse like this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth - Makers,
the myth of Hercules and Cacus, the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar god over the robber who steals the light. Now whether the robber carries off the light in the evening when Indra has gone to sleep, or boldly rears his black form against the sky during the daytime, causing darkness to spread over the earth, would make little difference to the framers of the myth. To a chicken a solar eclipse is the same thing as nightfall, and he goes to roost accordingly. Why, then, should the primitive thinker have made a distinction between the darkening of the sky caused by black clouds and that caused by the rotation of the earth? He had no more conception of the scientific explanation of these phenomena than the chicken has of the scientific explanation of an eclipse. For him it was enough to know that the solar radiance was stolen, in the one case as in the other, and to suspect that the same demon was to blame for both robberies.
Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun (the bright disk of the Sun itself), even for just a few seconds, can cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye, because of the intense visible and invisible radiation that the photosphere emits. This damage can result in impairment of vision, up to and including blindness. The retina has no sensitivity to pain, and the effects of retinal damage may not appear for hours, so there is no warning that injury is occurring.
Under normal conditions, the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly. However, during an eclipse, with so much of the Sun covered, it is easier and more tempting to stare at it. Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse, except during the brief period of totality, when the Sun 's disk is completely covered (totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only very briefly; it does not occur during a partial or annular eclipse). Viewing the Sun 's disk through any kind of optical aid (binoculars, a telescope, or even an optical camera viewfinder) is extremely hazardous and can cause irreversible eye damage within a fraction of a second.
Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses (and during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality) requires special eye protection, or indirect viewing methods if eye damage is to be avoided. The Sun 's disk can be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun 's radiation. Sunglasses do not make viewing the Sun safe. Only properly designed and certified solar filters should be used for direct viewing of the Sun 's disk. Especially, self - made filters using common objects such as a floppy disk removed from its case, a Compact Disc, a black colour slide film, smoked glass, etc. must be avoided.
The safest way to view the Sun 's disk is by indirect projection. This can be done by projecting an image of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars (with one of the lenses covered), a telescope, or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it (about 1 mm diameter), often called a pinhole camera. The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed; this technique can be used to observe sunspots, as well as eclipses. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that no one looks through the projector (telescope, pinhole, etc.) directly. Viewing the Sun 's disk on a video display screen (provided by a video camera or digital camera) is safe, although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun. The optical viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe. Securely mounting # 14 welder 's glass in front of the lens and viewfinder protects the equipment and makes viewing possible. Professional workmanship is essential because of the dire consequences any gaps or detaching mountings will have. In the partial eclipse path, one will not be able to see the corona or nearly complete darkening of the sky, however, depending on how much of the Sun 's disk is obscured, some darkening may be noticeable. If three - quarters or more of the sun is obscured, then an effect can be observed by which the daylight appears to be dim, as if the sky were overcast, yet objects still cast sharp shadows.
When the shrinking visible part of the photosphere becomes very small, Baily 's beads will occur. These are caused by the sunlight still being able to reach the Earth through lunar valleys. Totality then begins with the diamond ring effect, the last bright flash of sunlight.
It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly only when the Sun 's photosphere is completely covered by the Moon, and not before or after totality. During this period, the Sun is too dim to be seen through filters. The Sun 's faint corona will be visible, and the chromosphere, solar prominences, and possibly even a solar flare may be seen. At the end of totality, the same effects will occur in reverse order, and on the opposite side of the Moon.
Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the Sun / Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina, so care is recommended. Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used. Using a camera 's live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is safe for the human eye, but the Sun 's rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors unless the lens is covered by a properly designed solar filter.
A decidated group of eclipse chasers have pursued the observation of solar eclipses when they occur around the Earth. A person who chases eclipses is known as an umbraphile, meaning shadow lover. Umbraphiles travel for eclipses and use various tools to help view the sun including solar viewing glasses, also known as eclipse glasses, as well as telescopes.
A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to observe the corona (the outer layer of the Sun 's atmosphere). Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is much brighter than the corona. According to the point reached in the solar cycle, the corona may appear small and symmetric, or large and fuzzy. It is very hard to predict this in advance.
As the light filters through leaves of trees during a partial eclipse, the overlapping leaves create natural pinholes, displaying mini eclipses on the ground.
Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow bands (also known as flying shadows), which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool. They only occur just prior to and after totality, when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source.
The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, helped to confirm Einstein 's theory of general relativity. By comparing the apparent distance between stars in the constellation Taurus, with and without the Sun between them, Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical predictions about gravitational lenses were confirmed. The observation with the Sun between the stars was only possible during totality since the stars are then visible. Though Eddington 's observations were near the experimental limits of accuracy at the time, work in the later half of the 20th century confirmed his results.
There is a long history of observations of gravity - related phenomena during solar eclipses, especially during the period of totality. In 1954, and again in 1959, Maurice Allais reported observations of strange and unexplained movement during solar eclipses. The reality of this phenomenon, named the Allais effect, has remained controversial. Similarly, in 1970, Saxl and Allen observed the sudden change in motion of a torsion pendulum; this phenomenon is called the Saxl effect.
A recent published observation during the 1997 solar eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational shielding effect, which generated debate. Later in 2002, Yang and Wang published detailed data analysis, which suggested that the phenomenon still remains unexplained.
In principle, the simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible. But these events are extremely rare because of their short durations. The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5, 6757, and a Solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is expected on April 5, 15232.
More common, but still infrequent, is a conjunction of a planet (especially, but not only, Mercury or Venus) at the time of a total solar eclipse, in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun, when without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun 's glare. At one time, some scientists hypothesized that there may be a planet (often given the name Vulcan) even closer to the Sun than Mercury; the only way to confirm its existence would have been to observe it in transit or during a total solar eclipse. No such planet was ever found, and general relativity has since explained the observations that led astronomers to suggest that Vulcan might exist.
During a total solar eclipse, the Moon 's shadow covers only a small fraction of the Earth. The Earth continues to receive at least 92 percent of the amount of sunlight it receives without an eclipse -- more if the penumbra of the Moon 's shadow partly misses the Earth. Seen from the Moon, the Earth during a total solar eclipse is mostly brilliantly illuminated, with only a small dark patch showing the Moon 's shadow. The brilliantly - lit Earth reflects a lot of light to the Moon. If the corona of the eclipsed Sun were not present, the Moon, illuminated by earthlight, would be easily visible from Earth. This would be essentially the same as the earthshine which can frequently be seen when the Moon 's phase is a narrow crescent. In reality, the corona, though much less brilliant than the Sun 's photosphere, is much brighter than the Moon illuminated by earthlight. Therefore, by contrast, the Moon during a total solar eclipse appears to be black, with the corona surrounding it.
Artificial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as seen from the Earth, but none is large enough to cause an eclipse. At the altitude of the International Space Station, for example, an object would need to be about 3.35 km (2.08 mi) across to blot the Sun out entirely. These transits are difficult to watch because the zone of visibility is very small. The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second, typically. As with a transit of a planet, it will not get dark.
Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above the Earth 's atmosphere are not subject to weather conditions. The crew of Gemini 12 observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966. The partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from Mir.
During the Apollo -- Soyuz Test Project conducted in July 1975, the Apollo spacecraft was positioned to create an artificial solar eclipse giving the Soyuz crew an opportunity to photograph the solar corona.
The solar eclipse of March 20, 2015, was the first occurrence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have a significant impact on the power system, with the electricity sector taking measures to mitigate any impact. The continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas were estimated to have about 90 gigawatts of solar power and it was estimated that production would temporarily decrease by up to 34 GW compared to a clear sky day. The temperature may decrease by 3 ° C, and wind power potentially decreases as winds are reduced by 0.7 m / s.
In addition to the drop in light level and air temperature, animals change their behavior during totality. For example, birds and squirrels return to their nests and crickets chirp.
Eclipses only occur in the eclipse season, when the Sun is close to either the ascending or descending node of the Moon. Each eclipse is separated by one, five or six lunations (synodic months), and the midpoint of each season is separated by 173.3 days, which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next. The period is a little less than half a calendar year because the lunar nodes slowly regress. Because 223 synodic months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and 242 draconic months, eclipses with similar geometry recur 223 synodic months (about 6,585.3 days) apart. This period (18 years 11.3 days) is a saros. Because 223 synodic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic months or 242 draconic months, saros cycles do not endlessly repeat. Each cycle begins with the Moon 's shadow crossing the earth near the north or south pole, and subsequent events progress toward the other pole until the Moon 's shadow misses the earth and the series ends. Saros cycles are numbered; currently, cycles 117 to 156 are active. The next solar eclipse will occur on February 15, 2018. It will be a partial solar eclipse visible from Antarctica and south South America.
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what does it mean when a bacterium is described as being acid fast | Acid - fastness - wikipedia
Acid - fastness is a physical property of certain bacterial and eukaryotic cells, as well as some sub-cellular structures, specifically their resistance to decolorization by acids during laboratory staining procedures. Once stained as part of a sample, these organisms can resist the acid and / or ethanol - based decolorization procedures common in many staining protocols, hence the name acid - fast.
The mechanisms of acid - fastness vary by species, although the most well - known example is in the genus Mycobacterium, which includes the species responsible for tuberculosis and leprosy. The acid - fastness of Mycobacteria is due to the high mycolic acid content of their cell walls, which is responsible for the staining pattern of poor absorption followed by high retention. Some bacteria may also be partially acid - fast, such as Nocardia.
Acid - fast organisms are difficult to characterize using standard microbiological techniques, though they can be stained using concentrated dyes, particularly when the staining process is combined with heat. Some, such as Mycobacteria, can be stained with the Gram stain, but they do not take the crystal violet well and thus appear light purple, which can still potentially result in an incorrect gram positive identification.
The most common staining technique used to identify acid - fast bacteria is the Ziehl - Neelsen stain, in which the acid - fast species are stained bright red and stand out clearly against a blue background. Another method is the Kinyoun method, in which the bacteria are stained bright red and stand out clearly against a green background. Acid - fast Mycobacteria can also be visualized by fluorescence microscopy using specific fluorescent dyes (auramine - rhodamine stain, for example). The eggs of the parasitic lung fluke Paragonimus westermani are actually destroyed by the stain, which can hinder diagnosis in patients who present with TB - like symptoms.
Very few structures are acid - fast; this makes staining for acid - fastness particularly useful in diagnosis. The following are notable examples of structures which are acid - fast or modified acid - fast:
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when is part six of project mc2 coming out | Project Mc2 - Wikipedia
Project Mc (pronounced Project MC - squared) is an American web television series produced by DreamWorks Animation 's AwesomenessTV and MGA Entertainment for Netflix. The first season was released on August 7, 2015.
The series is set in a fictional city called Maywood Glen, California, it revolves around the fields of STEAM, and the adventures of McKeyla McAlister and her best friends, who work for a government organization called NOV8 (pronounced "innovate ''), a highly secretive group of female government operatives who are trying to protect the world.
The first season of the series, consisting of three episodes, was released on August 7, 2015. On April 6, 2016, Netflix announced that the series has been renewed for its second and third seasons. The second season was released on August 12, 2016, and the third season was released on October 14, 2016. Both consisted of six episodes. An extended 34 - minute Valentine 's Day special was released as the first and only episode of the fourth season on February 14, 2017. A fifth season consisting of five episodes was released on September 15, 2017. The sixth season is scheduled to be released on November 7, 2017.
The series is filmed primarily in and around the San Fernando Valley area of Los Angeles, including Chatsworth, Woodland Hills, Van Nuys, and Northridge, as well as in Alhambra.
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when did aston villa get relegated from the premiership | History of Aston Villa F.C. (1961 -- present) - wikipedia
The history of Aston Villa F.C. from 1961 to the current season covers the fluctuating fortunes of the club during the 1960s and 1970s, the European Cup victory in 1982 and the present day 's EFL Championship club.
The late 1960s was a turbulent time for the club and pressure from fans led to a change of ownership and management. The problems started when the club was relegated from the first tier of English football for the third time, under manager Dick Taylor in 1967. Within two years, pressure from supporters had led to the resignation of the board of directors. The club was then relegated to the Third Division. In the 1971 -- 72 season Aston Villa returned to the Second Division as champions with a record 70 points. In 1974 Ron Saunders was appointed manager and by 1975 he had led the club back into the First Division and into European competition. The club was back among the elite and it continued to have much success under Saunders and won the league in the 1980 -- 81 season. Saunders ' resignation halfway through the 1981 -- 82 season came as a surprise, with the club in the quarter - final of the European Cup. He was replaced by his assistant manager Tony Barton who guided them to 1 -- 0 victory over Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Rotterdam. However, winning the cup marked a pinnacle and the club fell steadily down the League standings over the next five years and was relegated in 1987. However, the club was promoted the following year and achieved second place in the Football League in 1989.
Villa was one of the founding members of the Premier League in 1992, and finished runners - up to Manchester United in the inaugural season. The 1990s was a decade of inconsistency; the club had three different managers and league positions were unpredictable, despite winning two League Cups. They reached the FA Cup Final for the first time since 1957 in 2000, but lost 1 -- 0 to Chelsea in the last game to be played at the old Wembley Stadium. Once again Villa 's league position fluctuated under various managers and in the summer of 2006, David O'Leary left under acrimonious circumstances. Martin O'Neill soon arrived and received a rapturous reception. After 23 years as chairman and largest shareholder, owning approximately 38 % of the club, Doug Ellis decided to sell his stake to Randy Lerner, the owner of the NFL franchise Cleveland Browns. The arrival of a new owner and manager marked the start of sweeping changes throughout the club, including a new crest, a new kit sponsor and new players in the summer of 2007. After several years of narrowly avoiding the drop, Villa were relegated at the end of the 2015 -- 16 season.
Winning the League Cup in 1961 was a pinnacle for the club. Although Villa finished seventh in 1961 -- 62, the following season saw the beginning of a decline in form that would see them finish in 15th place in 1963 and fourth from bottom in 1964. The manager Joe Mercer parted company with the club in July 1964 because of these results and his declining health. His replacement, Dick Taylor, managed to avoid relegation in the 1964 -- 65 season as Villa finished 16th after a poor start to the season. The following year Villa finished 16th once again. Following a 4 -- 2 final day defeat by Everton the club was relegated to the Second Division in the 1966 -- 67 season. Manager Dick Taylor was sacked and Tommy Cummings was appointed in his place. The decline was not solely the responsibility of the manager; the club had an ageing five - man board "who had failed to adapt to the new football reality. '' The club had neither developed a scouting network nor an effective coaching structure. The board had also sold two of Villa 's best players, Phil Woosnam and Tony Hateley. The fans ' calls for the board to resign became more and more pronounced when Villa finished 16th in the Second Division in 1968. Events on the pitch came to a head in November 1968, with Villa lying at the bottom of Division Two; the board sacked Cummings. On 21 November 1968 the problems in the boardroom were highlighted when a board member, George Robinson, resigned. Following his resignation the board issued a statement: "(The board) would make available, by their resignation, such seats as new financial arrangements might require. '' Aston Villa F.C was up for sale. After much speculation, control of the club was bought by London financier Pat Matthews, who brought in local travel - agent Doug Ellis as chairman of the new board that was convened on 16 December 1968. Two days later Tommy Docherty was appointed as manager.
Docherty rebuilt confidence in the team and Villa went on to win five consecutive games and retained a place in the Second Division. In the short time that Docherty had been at the club, attendances rose significantly from a low of just over 12,000 against Charlton Athletic in December. In the summer of 1969 the first share issue since 1896 raised £ 200,000 for the club, £ 140,000 of which was spent on new players. In the following season, however, Villa took ten games to register a win. By Christmas 1969, Villa were at the bottom of the Second Division and Docherty was sacked. His successor, Vic Crowe, was unable to prevent Aston Villa from being relegated to the third tier of English football for the first time in its history in the 1969 -- 70 season. Despite finishing fourth in the Third Division in the 1970 -- 71 season, Villa reached the League Cup final after beating Manchester United in the semi-final. They were defeated in the final by Tottenham Hotspur 2 -- 0. The 1971 -- 72 season saw the club return to the Second Division as champions with a then divisional record 70 points. They were invited to take part in the 1972 FA Charity Shield but lost 1 -- 0 to Manchester City. In the autumn of 1972, there was a revolt in the boardroom and four of the five directors voted to oust Doug Ellis from the board. Within 43 days though, Ellis was reinstated as chairman after he received the support of the largest shareholder Pat Matthews, and the supporters at an EGM, who also voted to replace the existing directors. Their first season back in the Second Division in 1972 -- 73 saw Villa narrowly miss out on a second successive promotion when they finished third. However, the following season Villa finished 14th and Ellis sacked Crowe, replacing him with Ron Saunders.
For the club 's centenary season of 1974 -- 75, Saunders brought in only two new players, Frank Carrodus and Leighton Phillips. At the end of his first season in charge, Villa were back in the First Division after finishing second, and had won the 1975 League Cup final at Wembley Stadium. Villa beat Norwich City 1 -- 0 with Ray Graydon scoring the winning goal. At the beginning of the 1975 -- 76 season Doug Ellis resigned as chairman but remained on the board. Ellis left the club in a good position on the field. They were in the First Division and the UEFA Cup for the first time due to the League Cup win of 1975. The club 's first season of European football was short - lived though as they were beaten 5 -- 1 by Antwerp in the first round. In the following season, Villa finished fourth in the League, and reached the quarter - finals of the FA Cup. In the 1976 -- 77 season, two years after their last League Cup win, they beat Everton 3 -- 2 in the 1977 Final after a second replay.
In the 1977 -- 78 season Villa reached the quarter - final of the UEFA Cup where they went out 4 -- 3 on aggregate against Barcelona. In the domestic league, however, they struggled and Saunders started rebuilding the team. As Saunders began restructuring his team in the summer of 1979, there were more changes in the boardroom. Doug Ellis set a resolution to have several directors removed from the board. The resolution was not successful and as a result, Ellis resigned from the board. Meanwhile, Saunders brought in several new players who were to become some of Villa 's most prolific players in terms of goals and appearances. Allan Evans, Ken McNaught and Kenny Swain were brought into the defence and Des Bremner was brought into the midfield to play alongside Dennis Mortimer and Gordon Cowans. Tony Morley and Gary Shaw were the new strike partnership. When Peter Withe was signed from Newcastle United in the summer of 1980, Saunders had built a team that was to see much success in the next few years.
The first success was to come in the 1980 -- 81 season when Villa won their first League Championship for 71 years, fighting off competition from Liverpool and Ipswich Town using only 14 playing staff in the whole season. The title was sealed on the final day of the season when they lost 2 - 0 at Arsenal but still finished top as Ipswich Town, the only side still in contention for the title, lost to Middlesbrough. This triumph was popularly known as the "transistor championship '' as Villa fans had turned up at the game listening to the progress of the Ipswich game on their transistor audio sets.
The next season Villa did not start well and they were in mid-table at Christmas although the club was still in the European Cup. In the first round Villa beat Valur 7 -- 0 on aggregate. In the second round they scored twice at Dynamo Berlin to achieve a 2 -- 2 draw, which saw them go through due to the away goals rule. These victories were in contrast to their poor performance in the league. By February 1982, the club were lying 19th in the First Division and Saunders resigned. It was later disclosed that the then chairman, Ron Bendall, had offered him a revised, shorter term, contract, which he had refused to accept. Saunders ' assistant Tony Barton was promoted in his place. When Barton took over, although Villa were in a poor league position, they were in the quarter - final of the European Cup. In the quarter - finals, they beat Dynamo Kiev over two legs. Gordon Cowans is quoted as saying, "Once we got past Dynamo Kiev we began thinking we could go all the way. '' In the semi-final, they played Anderlecht over two legs, with Tony Morley scoring to secure Aston Villa 's place in the final.
On 26 May 1982, just three months after being appointed manager, Barton guided Villa to a 1 -- 0 victory over Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Rotterdam. As of January 2008, Villa remain one of only five English teams to have won the European Cup, along with Chelsea, Liverpool, Manchester United and Nottingham Forest. They were the underdogs in the final and were expected to lose.
The final was held in Feyenoord Stadium, Rotterdam, with an attendance of 39,776. Only nine minutes into the game, Villa lost their experienced goalkeeper Jimmy Rimmer to a shoulder injury. He was replaced by 23 - year - old reserve goalkeeper Nigel Spink, who had only played one match for the club in five years since joining from Chelmsford. Spink went on to make one of his best performances for the club against the highly experienced Bayern strikeforce, which included Karl - Heinz Rummenigge. Other key players in this Villa side included Tony Morley, Gordon Cowans and Dennis Mortimer.
The win was not followed with more success and the team performed badly in the following seasons. At the AGM in October 1982, it was revealed that the club were in £ 1.6 million of debt, mainly due to escalating wages and building costs, including the construction of the North Stand. At the end of November Ron and Donald Bendall resigned from the board to be replaced by Doug Ellis, who bought Ron Bendall 's 42 % shareholding. In January 1983, Villa beat Barcelona 3 -- 1 on aggregate to win the 1982 UEFA Super Cup. Barton remained in charge for two seasons after the European Cup triumph, but was sacked at the end of the 1983 -- 84 season despite Villa finishing tenth in the First Division and reaching the semi-finals of the League Cup. Shrewsbury Town manager Graham Turner was brought in as his successor. Turner was unable to reverse the decline, and in 1986 Villa narrowly avoided relegation to the Second Division. A lacklustre start to the following season saw Turner sacked halfway through September. Billy McNeill was hired in his place, but was unable to save Villa from relegation. They were relegated to the Second Division just five years after winning the European Cup. McNeill handed in his notice and moved to Celtic when the season ended. Chairman Ellis persuaded Watford manager Graham Taylor to take over the reins and set about rebuilding the team.
Taylor 's first season at Villa ended with automatic promotion as Second Division runners - up, being pipped to the title by Millwall. One player who contributed to that season 's success was the recently signed David Platt, a former Manchester United reserve who had signed from Crewe Alexandra for £ 200,000 just after Taylor 's arrival. Before he left in 1991, Platt scored 68 goals in his 155 appearances for the club. Villa avoided relegation on the last day of the 1988 -- 89 season as other results favoured them. In the 1989 -- 90 season they emerged as surprise contenders for the title, leading for three weeks in the latter stages of the season before finishing in second place, nine points behind Liverpool. Taylor departed for the England manager 's job and was succeeded by Slovak coach Jozef Vengloš, the first foreign manager in the First Division.
The 1990 -- 91 season was Vengloš 's only season as manager of Aston Villa. Their second - place finish the previous season earned them qualification for the UEFA Cup as one of the first English clubs to enter European competition after ban resulting from the Heysel Stadium disaster was lifted. They beat first round opponents Baník Ostrava over two legs, and won the first leg of the second round tie against Inter Milan. However, this lead was overturned by Inter in the return leg 3 -- 0, and Villa were eliminated. The defeat started a decline, and by the end of the season they were two places above the relegation zone. Vengloš stepped down and David Platt was sold to Italian side Bari for £ 5 million. Aston Villa 's new manager was Ron Atkinson, who had taken West Bromwich Albion to the quarter - finals of the UEFA Cup and had won the League Cup with Sheffield Wednesday. In his first season in charge, 1991 -- 92, Villa finished in sixth place and thus became one of the founder members of the FA Premier League.
In his first 18 months in charge, Atkinson bought Earl Barrett, Dean Saunders, Andy Townsend, Dalian Atkinson, Kevin Richardson, Ray Houghton and Shaun Teale. They all helped the club to finish as runners - up to Manchester United in the inaugural Premier League season of 1992 -- 93. The strike partnership of Saunders and Atkinson established itself as one of the most successful partnerships in the Premiership. On 27 March 1994 Villa won the League Cup final 3 -- 1, to secure a second successive UEFA Cup campaign, although their Premier League form dipped and they finished 10th. At the end of the 1993 -- 94 season, they played their last game at a terraced Villa Park before it was converted over the summer to an all - seater stadium to comply with the Taylor Report. In November 1994, Atkinson was dismissed following a poor start to the season.
Leicester City 's manager Brian Little was forbidden to speak to Aston Villa by their board, after rumours began circulating that Ellis wanted to hire him. Although maintaining that he had not spoken to Ellis about the possibility of taking over at Villa, Little resigned from his post at Leicester even though he was contracted to the club until the end of the 1997 -- 98 season. Three days after his resignation, Ellis hired him as the new Villa manager. Little kept Villa in the Premiership, and then reshaped the squad in the 1995 close - season by selling most of the club 's older players and buying in several younger ones. Villa won the 1996 League Cup with a win over Leeds United, reached the FA Cup semi-finals and finished fourth in the Premiership in the 1995 -- 96 season. In February 1998, with Villa standing 15th in the Premiership and speculation rife that he would be sacked, Little resigned, stating that, "There were certain things going on behind the scenes which were affecting my own managerial position. '' Ellis came out with a statement directly challenging that it had anything to do with the management at Villa Park. Instead, he suggested it was due to a "variety of pressures '' including abuse directed towards Little and his family by irate fans.
Ellis appointed John Gregory, a former Aston Villa coach, as Little 's successor. Gregory revitalised the team and Villa finished seventh in the Premiership and qualified for the UEFA Cup. Usually, only the top six teams qualified for European competition, but due to the progress of other teams in the top seven it was the first time that a seventh placed club had automatically qualified for the UEFA Cup. Despite the £ 12.6 million sale of Dwight Yorke, a player who had scored 97 goals in 287 appearances for the club, to Manchester United in August 1998, John Gregory had guided Aston Villa to the top of the Premiership by the middle of the 1998 -- 99 season. Villa reached the FA Cup final in 2000 for the first time since 1957, but lost 1 -- 0 to Chelsea in the last final to be played at the old Wembley Stadium. The 2000 -- 01 season saw Villa finish eighth in the Premiership, although they did eventually qualify for the UEFA Cup by winning the Intertoto Cup in August 2001. In November 2001, Gregory accused Ellis of "living in a time - warp '', but was forced to apologise a few days later after provoking an uproar. While Gregory remained in his job, the relationship between him and Ellis was strained. Gregory resigned on 24 January 2002, with Villa occupying a familiar mid-table position in the league.
In January 2002, chairman Doug Ellis once again appointed Graham Taylor as manager. Villa finished the 2001 -- 02 season in eighth place, which was similar to most of their other Premiership finishes. Taylor quit as manager for the second time after the end of the 2002 -- 03 season. Villa had just finished 16th in the Premiership, losing twice to arch rivals Birmingham City. David O'Leary, who had taken Leeds United to the semi-finals of the 2000 -- 01 Champions League, was brought in as Taylor 's replacement. O'Leary took the team to sixth in the table, with a 2 -- 0 home defeat against Manchester United on the final day meaning that they narrowly missed out on a UEFA Cup place. In 2005 -- 06, Villa slowly fell down the table and finished in 16th place. The poor placing came despite O'Leary having spent more than £ 13 million the previous summer on players such as Milan Baroš, Kevin Phillips and Wilfred Bouma.
Frustration within the club soon reared its head when, on 14 July 2006, a group of Villa players criticised the chairman 's alleged parsimony and lack of ambition in an interview with a local newspaper. The club immediately dismissed the report as "ridiculous '', but it emerged over the following few days that a group of senior players had indeed instigated the move, possibly with O'Leary's backing. The following week, David O'Leary left the club by mutual consent after three years as Aston Villa manager and his assistant Roy Aitken became caretaker manager.
At a press conference on 4 August 2006, Doug Ellis introduced Martin O'Neill as the new manager and O'Neill said,
After several years of speculation and failed bids, the 23 - year reign of Doug Ellis as chairman came to an end. Ellis, the largest shareholder with approximately 38 %, decided to sell his stake. For many years supporters groups had been urging Ellis to resign, though the actions including two "Ellis out '' protests, and an "Ellis out '' march marked an increase in intensity. The decision to leave the club was likely to have been prompted by Ellis ' ill - health. Randy Lerner, the owner of the NFL franchise Cleveland Browns, was announced as the preferred bidder. On 25 August, it was announced that he had secured 59.69 % of the club 's shares. By 26 September 2006, Lerner had achieved a 90 % shareholding, and could complete his buy - out of the rest of the shares. Lerner appointed several new people to the Board including General Charles C Krulak. Ellis was given an President Emeritus (Life President) role.
Aston Villa started the 2006 -- 07 Premiership campaign well, with Olof Mellberg scoring the first competitive goal at Arsenal 's new Emirates Stadium. The January signings of John Carew, Ashley Young and Shaun Maloney bolstered the squad. Villa finished in 11th place in the league with 50 points, ending the season with an unbeaten run of nine league games. The last home game of the season, a 3 -- 0 victory over Sheffield United, was used to mark the 25th anniversary of Villa winning the European Cup in 1982. Before kick - off, the 1982 winning team paraded the trophy in front of a full stadium. Scarves bearing the words "Proud History -- Bright Future '' were given out to all home team supporters attending the match.
2007 - 08 saw Villa progress further, finishing sixth to qualify for the Intertoto Cup. A victory against Danish side Odense BK over two legs in the final, during the summer of 2008, put Villa into European competition for the 2008 -- 09 season, the first time in seven years. They reached the group stage of the UEFA Cup that season with relative ease, and played their first match against Dutch club Ajax at Villa Park, winning 2 -- 1. The first major final of the Lerner era was the 2010 Football League Cup Final; Villa lost 2 -- 1 to Manchester United at Wembley Stadium. Five days before the opening day of the 2010 -- 11 season, O'Neill resigned as manager with immediate effect. The reserve team coach, Kevin MacDonald, took over as caretaker manager for the opening games of the season. Randy Lerner returned to England from the United States to interview potential candidates for the post. On 8 September 2010, the club announced that Gérard Houllier would become the manager of Aston Villa, the first managerial appointment of Lerner 's reign. On 20 April 2011, Houllier was admitted to hospital suffering from chest pains. Further tests showed that Houllier had suffered from a recurrence of a heart problem. The last games of the season saw Houllier 's assistant, Gary McAllister, take over in a caretaker capacity. On 1 June 2011, the club issued a statement that Houllier had left the club by mutual consent leaving the club looking for their fifth manager, including caretakers, of the year. Houllier was replaced by the former Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish on 17 June 2011, despite numerous protests from fans against his appointment. McLeish 's appointment marked the first time in history that a manager had moved directly from Birmingham to Villa.
McLeish 's contract was terminated at the end of the 2011 -- 12 season after Villa finished in 16th place, only just above the relegation zone. On 2 July 2012, Aston Villa confirmed the appointment of former Norwich City manager Paul Lambert as the replacement for McLeish. On 28 February 2012, the club announced a financial loss of £ 53.9 million. Lerner put the club up for sale on 12 May 2014, with an estimated value of £ 200 million. With Lerner still on board, in the 2014 -- 15 season Aston Villa scored just 12 goals in 25 league games, the lowest in Premier League history, and Lambert was sacked on 11 February 2015. He was replaced by Tim Sherwood, who saved Villa from relegation in the 2014 -- 15 season and took them to the 2015 FA Cup Final.
Despite saving them from relegation the previous season, Sherwood was sacked as manager on 15 October 2015, after six consecutive league losses, with Kevin MacDonald taking the role of interim manager. On 2 November 2015, Frenchman Rémi Garde agreed a three - and - a-half year deal to become the manager, but he left on 29 March 2016 with the club rooted to the bottom of the table. The club was eventually relegated from the Premier League on 16 April following a 2 - 1 defeat to Manchester United at Old Trafford.
In June 2016, Chinese businessman Tony Xia bought the club for £ 76 million. Roberto Di Matteo was appointed as the club 's new manager before the new season in the Championship, and was sacked after 12 games, to be replaced by former Birmingham City manager Steve Bruce.
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Bibliography
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who played kaspar weiss in the red violin | Christoph Koncz - wikipedia
Christoph Koncz (born September 3, 1987 in Konstanz) is an Austrian - Hungarian classical musician. He performs internationally as a violin soloist, conductor, chamber musician and principal of the Vienna Philharmonic. At the age of just nine, he received worldwide acclaim for starring as child prodigy Kaspar Weiss in the Canadian feature film The Red Violin, which won the 1999 Academy Award for Best Original Score.
Born 1987 in Konstanz into an Austrian - Hungarian family of musicians, Christoph Koncz received his first violin lesson at the age of four and entered the Vienna University of Music only two years later, studying with Eugenia Polatschek. He went on to study violin with Josef Hell, Igor Ozim and Boris Kuschnir at the Music Universities of Vienna, Salzburg and Graz as well as conducting with Mark Stringer in Vienna. Master classes with Daniel Barenboim and Daniel Harding further enriched his musical education. In 2008, at the age of twenty, Christoph Koncz was appointed principal second violin of the Vienna Philharmonic.
He made his North American debut as a soloist aged twelve with the Montreal Symphony Orchestra conducted by Charles Dutoit, leading to collaborations with conductors such as Sir Neville Marriner, Dmitry Sitkovetsky, Gábor Takács - Nagy and Marc Minkowski. Further engagements have taken him to numerous countries across Europe and to the Middle East, Asia and Australia as well as North and South America.
Much in demand as a chamber musician, Christoph Koncz 's musical partners include Leonidas Kavakos, Joshua Bell, Vilde Frang, Renaud Capuçon, Antoine Tamestit, Kim Kashkashian, Gautier Capuçon and Rudolf Buchbinder. He also performs frequently with his brother Stephan Koncz, a sought - after cellist and member of the Berlin Philharmonic. They are both recipients of the European Music Prize for Youth.
Following his recording of works by Heise and Gade and many radio and TV broadcasts, Christoph Koncz 's world premiere recording of Ernst Krenek 's Concertino (Op. 27) with the Academy of St Martin in the Fields conducted by Sir Neville Marriner was published on Chandos Records in 2013. Furthermore, Deutsche Grammophon released an album with Johannes Brahms 's Clarinet Quintet, recorded by Christoph Koncz together with Leonidas Kavakos, Antoine Tamestit, Stephan Koncz and Andreas Ottensamer in 2015.
Christoph Koncz made his conducting debut at the Mozartwoche Salzburg festival in January 2013 and has been returning there regularly ever since. In May 2014 he took the Verbier Festival Chamber Orchestra on a tour of Germany, Austria and Switzerland with 14 performances at such prestigious venues as the Berlin, Cologne and Munich Philharmonie, Vienna Konzerthaus and KKL Lucerne. He conducted works by Mozart at the 2014 Salzburg Festival. In 2017, Christoph Koncz will make his US conducting debut with the Memphis Symphony and return to the Berlin Philharmonie. He will also continue his collaboration with the Verbier Festival Chamber Orchestra.
Christoph Koncz plays a 1762 Giuseppe Gagliano violin courtesy of the Vienna Philharmonic.
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who plays the little girl in santa claus the movie | Santa Claus: the Movie - wikipedia
Santa Claus: The Movie (known on - screen as simply Santa Claus) is a 1985 British - American Christmas film starring Dudley Moore, John Lithgow, and David Huddleston in the title role. It is the last major fantasy film produced by the Paris - based father - and - son production team of Alexander and Ilya Salkind. The film was directed by Jeannot Szwarc and released in North America on November 27, 1985, by TriStar Pictures. The 2005 DVD release was released by Anchor Bay Entertainment, now known as Starz Home Entertainment, under license from the film 's current owner, StudioCanal; however, the current, 25th Anniversary home video release (which also now includes Blu - ray) is by Lionsgate Home Entertainment, again under StudioCanal 's license.
Santa Claus: The Movie is a straightforward attempt to explore the mysteries of Santa Claus with the key objective being to answer some of the basic questions many children have about the Santa mythos, such as how his reindeer fly, how he and his wife made it to the North Pole, and how he ascends chimneys, among other things.
The film chronicles the origins of Santa Claus, who, along with his wife Anya (Judy Cornwell), goes from being a simple working man to becoming an international icon of Christmas. At the same time, the film also tells a contemporary story in which one of Santa 's elves (alternately referred to as the "Vendequm '' onscreen), a visionary named Patch (Moore), sets out to employ Santa 's toymaking methods on his own, unaware that he might be ruining the magic of Christmas in the process.
The film was a financial failure at the time of release and received mostly negative reviews from critics. Since then it has gained a cult following and has become one of the most watched Christmas movies of all time.
Sometime in the 14th century, Claus is a woodcarver in his mid-50s who, with his wife Anya, delivers his gifts to the children of local villages. One night, Claus, Anya and their two reindeer, Donner and Blitzen, are caught in a blizzard and succumb to the cold weather. In death, they are transported to the vast "ice mountains, way up at the top of the world. '' Their expected arrival is heralded with the appearance of several elves, or as Claus 's people call them in their legends, the Vendequm, led by the venerable and wise elf named Dooley. Claus and Anya also meet inventive elf Patch, and the more down - to - earth Puffy. Dooley tells Claus it is his destiny to deliver toys to the children of the world every Christmas Eve, which the elves will make in their large workshops. Donner and Blitzen are joined by six other reindeer and fed magic food that allows them to fly. When Christmas Eve comes, Claus is approached by the oldest of elves, the Ancient One, who renames him as "Santa Claus ''.
Centuries pass as the mythology of Santa is created, until the 20th century, where Santa is exhausted by the continuous workload he must do every year due to the world 's increasing population. Anya suggests he enlist an assistant, to which Patch and Puffy compete to earn via a competition to produce the most toys in a limited amount of time. Patch uses a machine he has invented, and although he wins, it begins to produce shoddy works without his knowledge (due to putting the machines on a faster speed). During his annual deliveries, Santa befriends a homeless 10 - year - old orphan boy named Joe in New York City and takes him for a flight around the skyscrapers of Manhattan in his sleigh. Santa lets Joe take the reins, who flies the sleigh underneath the Brooklyn Bridge much to Santa 's horror, who then playfully gets his own back on Joe by having his reindeer perform the "Super Duper Looper '', around the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center - an aerial trick that involves them doing a complete 360 degree turn, but Donner always fails due to acrophobia. Santa takes Joe on his deliveries where they meet 9 - year - old Cornelia, a wealthy child and also an orphan who fed Joe one previous night.
On Christmas Day, Patch 's toys begin to fall apart, prompting him to quit his job and let Puffy take over. Traveling to New York, Patch meets B.Z., Cornelia 's step - uncle and a scheming executive of a toy company that faces a total shutdown by Congressional investigation due to unsafe products. Believing B.Z. 's toys are popular due to witnessing several toys being removed from a shop window, Patch decides to help B.Z. make better toys, using some of the reindeer feed to create lollipops which can make people fly and giving them to children for free (the latter fact causing B.Z. to sputter and yell, "FOR FREEEEE?! ''). Patch also constructs a hovercraft called the Patchmobile to deliver the products like Santa and helps create a new holiday on March 25, which B.Z. deems "Christmas 2 ''. Santa disapproves of Patch 's actions (unaware the plan is to make Santa appreciate him again) and feels disheartened about continuing his job if the children of the world do not care anymore. Meanwhile, Patch is disturbed when B.Z. plans to turn himself into the face of Christmas, and asks Patch to develop candy canes which enable flight.
While Patch works at night, B.Z. 's assistant, Dr. Eric Towzer, appears at his house and reveals the candy canes will explode if exposed to heat. B.Z. proposes they flee to Brazil and let Patch take the fall for their criminal neglect, which Towzer eventually approves of, despite initially urging B.Z. to reconsider his actions as children are involved. Joe and Cornelia eavesdrop on the conversation, but Joe is caught and locked up in the basement of B.Z. 's factory. Patch finds Joe and discovers Santa made a carving for Joe that resembles him (which was unintentional, but pointed out by Anya). Thrilled that Santa remembers him, Patch and Joe set off in the Patchmobile to the North Pole. Cornelia sends a letter to Santa informing him of the situation. Despite Comet and Cupid having the Flu, Santa gathers up the other six reindeer and he arrives to pick Cornelia up. Santa and Cornelia pursue the Patchmobile, which is carrying a huge supply of candy canes on the verge of exploding. Santa convinces his reindeer to perform the Super Duper Looper in order to catch Patch and Joe as the Patchmobile explodes. Meanwhile, B.Z. 's crimes are uncovered when Cornelia calls the police. As Dr. Towzer and B.Z. 's chauffeur, Grizzard, are arrested, B.Z. attempts to evade the cops by eating several candy canes and tries to fly out of his office window only to fly up into the sky.
The film ends with the inhabitants of the North Pole celebrating the triumph with a joyous dance party, where Cornelia and Joe have been adopted by Santa, his wife and his elves, whilst B.Z., in spite of his pleas for help, is doomed to float off into the depths of space, among the equally - affected remains of the Patchmobile as the end credits roll.
Conceived by Ilya Salkind in the wake of the apparently waning critical and U.S. box office success of 1983 's Superman III and its immediate follow - up, 1984 's Supergirl, Santa Claus: The Movie was directed by Jeannot Szwarc, who had directed Supergirl, from a story by David and Leslie Newman. David Newman, however, took sole screenplay credit. Pierre Spengler, Ilya 's longtime partner, and the third key element of Team Salkind, joined Alexander 's son as the project 's producer. John Carpenter was originally offered the chance to direct, but also wanted a say in the writing, musical score and final cut of the movie. Carpenter 's original choice for the role of Santa was Brian Dennehy.
Among the original choices to direct the film other than Carpenter were Lewis Gilbert, who, despite initial interest, could not agree with the Salkinds over certain aspects of the script. Robert Wise was also offered the chance to direct, but Wise had a different approach to the story. Guy Hamilton, who 'd had to withdraw from directing Superman: The Movie in 1976 (because he was a tax exile, and, as such, could only spend 30 days in England, where the movie would be filming), was very interested in directing and lobbied hard for the chance to do so, but only on the condition that the film be shot either in Los Angeles, Vancouver or Rome. Ultimately, the Salkinds chose Szwarc because of their excellent working relationship on Supergirl which many executives at TriStar Pictures believed was a masterpiece and would also become a mega hit.
Santa Claus: The Movie was filmed in Buckinghamshire, England at Pinewood Studios, between August and November 1984. The film was photographed by Arthur Ibbetson, whose credits, among others, included the original Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory (1971). Santa Claus: The Movie was his final feature film. Serving as film editor was Peter Hollywood.
The production was designed by Anthony Pratt, with costume design concepts by Bob Ringwood. The visual effects unit, as well as several of the production staff, were Salkind stalwarts from the Superman films: Derek Meddings, director of visual and miniature effects; Roy Field, optical visual effects supervisor; and David Lane, flying and second unit director.
The documentary, Santa Claus: The Making of The Movie, which chronicles the film 's production, is introduced by David Huddleston, speaking straight to the camera in character as Santa, with Dudley Moore serving as on - screen host. The voice over commentary is performed by Ted Maynard, who had also done voice - overs for the film 's original UK trailer. The documentary originally aired in the United States on ABC, on Christmas Eve, 1987. Anchor Bay Entertainment 's now - out - of - print 20th anniversary DVD of the film included this documentary as a bonus feature; the Lionsgate DVD and Blu - ray versions currently feature the 50 - minute feature as well. The Blu - ray version, however, also features a brief chronicle of the filming of the "' Christmas II ' Press Conference '' sequence, as well as additional deleted scenes cut from the original theatrical version.
Moore had always been the top choice to play the lead Elf in the movie, Ilya Salkind having remembered a scene in Arthur in which Liza Minnelli 's character asks Moore if he is Santa 's Little Helper. Moore was attached to the project virtually from the outset, and therefore had a say on both scripting and choice of director. Originally, David Newman 's first - draft script called for the character to be named Ollie; but Moore decided instead that the name should be changed to Patch, Patch being the nickname of his own young son, Patrick. Moore was briefly considered to play the role of the 5th dimension imp "Mr. Mxyzptlk '' in the Salkind 's aborted original script from Superman III and for the role of Nigel in Supergirl. He turned down that role, but suggested his long time friend and comic partner Peter Cook for the part. Ilya Salkind, from the very beginning, had wanted an American actor to portray Santa Claus because he felt that the movie focused on a primary piece of Americana in much the same way that Superman: The Movie did. Brian Dennehy was the top choice of John Carpenter when he discussed the possibility of directing the film with the Salkinds. Jeannot Szwarc, however, felt that he needed an actor with more warmth than Dennehy, and toward that end, he had screen - tested such actors as David White (who, being in his late 60 's, was considered too old for the role), and Moore 's Arthur co-star Barney Martin. For a while, Ilya Salkind actively pursued Carroll O'Connor for the role before Szwarc showed him David Huddleston 's screen - test, which won Salkind over.
For the role of B.Z., the producers wanted a star with a similar stature to Gene Hackman when he had played Lex Luthor in Superman: The Movie. To this end, they offered the role to Harrison Ford who turned them down. They made offers to Dustin Hoffman, Burt Reynolds and Johnny Carson -- - all of whom, for one reason or another, turned the part down. Eventually, John Lithgow was settled on after Salkind watched Terms of Endearment and realised that he had a Grinch - type look to him. The role of the Ancient Elf was written with James Cagney in mind; however, with Cagney being very weak in his old age, the legendary actor could not adequately assume the role, despite the fact that he liked the film 's overall idea. Nonetheless, Cagney had no other choice but to turn the offer down, so Fred Astaire was considered. When this eventually came to nothing, Dudley Moore suggested his friend Burgess Meredith for the role, which he in the end won. At the time of the movie 's announcement in the middle of 1983, the British Press carried reports that diminutive actors such as David Jason, Patrick Troughton and Norman Wisdom would be cast alongside Dudley as fellow Elves. This ultimately came to nothing.
The elves in the film are portrayed as legendary beings known as the Vendequm. According to the Santa Claus: The Movie novelization written by science fiction / fantasy novelist Joan D. Vinge, the elves keep watch over all that happens in the world that borders their own magical realm. The Vendequm are described as being extremely fond of children since, after all, only children can see them, due to the innocence of their youth. The elves are fond of making things for children, and so they often journeyed out into the children 's world, leaving their newly crafted toys where children would find them. According to the novel, with the passing of each new century, and as civilizations continued to rise and fall, it became more and more difficult and dangerous for the elves to venture too far out into the human world. Thus, the vast majority of the toys the elves made could not be given out, and were left to gather dust in their magnificent storeroom, the Toy Tunnel.
The novel also describes how, on a certain long - winter 's night, the oldest and wisest elf of all, the Ancient One, foresaw the arrival of a man whose love for children would be equal to that of the elves. The Ancient One believed that this man would be the one to whom the elves would grant full immortality, along with the ability to deliver the elves ' gifts to children all over the world.
In addition to Patch, Dooley, Puffy, Boog, Honka, and Vout, the film 's screenplay and cast listing features three additional elves: Groot, the Elves ' Senior Chef; Goober, the head of the Elves ' tailoring shop, who crafts Santa 's full red robes; and Goobler, who trains several of his fellow elves in the art of painting toys with their own beards.
Santa Claus: The Movie received negative reviews upon release, with a rating of 17 % on Rotten Tomatoes, from the 17 reviews counted. Box Office Mojo lists the film 's total United States box office gross as $ 23,717,291, less than its $30 -- 50 million production budget.
Chicago Sun - Times critic Roger Ebert noted some positive points to the film, writing that the film "does an interesting job of visualizing Santa 's workshop '' and Santa 's elves. He also praised the film 's special effects, particularly the New York City fly - over sequence involving Santa. Ebert also had some praise for Lithgow 's "nice, hateful performance '', but wrote that "the villain is not drawn big enough. '' He ceded that young children would probably like most of the film, but that older children and adults are "likely to find a lot of it a little thin. ''
Vincent Canby of The New York Times was less positive than Ebert, calling the production "elaborate and tacky ''. He described the film as having "the manner of a listless musical without any production numbers ''. Unlike Ebert, he offered little praise for the film 's production design. Canby quipped that "Santa 's workshop must be the world 's largest purchaser of low - grade plywood '' and that the flyover sequences with Santa "are n't great. '' The only praise he had for the film 's acting was for John Lithgow, who Canby wrote "(gave) the film 's only remotely stylish performance. '' A more recent review by William Mager on BBC.co.uk 's review section echoed Canby and Ebert 's comments.
In his book Have Yourself a Movie Little Christmas, critic Alonso Duralde lists Santa Claus: The Movie in his chapter of worst Christmas movies ever. His reasons include weak plot, garish production design, blatant product placement (particularly for McDonald 's, though Coke and Pabst Blue Ribbon are also prominent), and scenery - chewing overacting on the part of Lithgow. Duralde ultimately concludes that the film is "a train - wreck of a Christmas movie that 's so very wrong that you wo n't be able to tear yourself away from it. ''
Despite all this though the film has developed a cult following amongst those who have grown up with it, and become one of the definitive films to watch at Christmas, often being a seasonal television staple.
The soundtrack score was composed and conducted by Henry Mancini, composer of the themes from The Pink Panther and Peter Gunn, with veteran lyricist and screenwriter Leslie Bricusse contributing five original songs. The song "It 's Christmas (All Over The World) '' was written by Bill House and John Hobbs with Freddie Mercury in mind. While it is known that Mercury recorded a demo for the House / Hobbs song at Pinewood Studios, he was never to make a full commitment to the project, as he and his Queen bandmates had already committed themselves to the Highlander soundtrack. In the end, Mercury turned down the project, stating that he felt that Queen had become overcrowded with requests to work on film soundtracks; as a result, Sheena Easton was ultimately chosen to record the tune. As mentioned on the DVD commentary of the movie by Jeannot Szwarc, Paul McCartney was asked to compose songs for the film. It is unknown why he did not do so in the end, but his song "Once Upon a Long Ago '' had been indeed originally composed with the movie in mind.
Sung by Aled Jones Performed by the Ambrosian Children 's Choir. Performed by the Ambrosian Singers Produced by Ken Scott and performed by Kaja Produced by Keith Olsen for Pogologo Corporation, and performed by Sheena Easton.
The soundtrack was originally released on record and cassette by EMI Records in 1985. Soon after, it went out of print and remained unavailable until 2009 when it was released on CD by Singular Soundtrack of Spain. This was a limited run of 1000 copies which sold out immediately upon release. In a rare situation for the label, this production suffered from several issues, most notably a master which had been subjected to heavy noise reduction resulting in a loss of sound quality. Additionally, the left & right channels had been erroneously flipped, a superficial re-edit had been performed on "It 's Christmas (All Over the World) '', and the song "Should n't Do That '' by Kaja (Kajagoogoo) had been omitted due to licensing issues. These issues necessitated a replacement pressing to correct many of the problems, save for the licensing issue. The replacement pressing had the unfortunate side - effect of introducing the lossy copies into the secondary market. (To differentiate, the original lossy edition has SER 808 # 1 stamped in the center. The replacement disc has SER 879 # 1 stamped in the center.)
At the time of the 2009 release, Singular Soundtrack became merged with Quartet Records, allowing the label to produce increasingly high - profile projects. Though problematic, the Singular edition had been well - received and had garnered enough ongoing interest to warrant an expansion. In 2012, following a run of successful releases, Quartet Records revisited the earlier release of Santa Claus: The Movie, this time with an ambitious goal: a complete score release from the original scoring tapes.
The resultant December 2012 release was an unlimited deluxe three - disc set including sixty - four tracks totaling just under three hours of music, and a 32 - page analysis by celebrated historian Jeff Bond. Every piece of score music used in the film was included, as well as several outtakes and alternates. The original soundtrack, which differs from the music recorded for the film, was remastered from the original source material, and the pop songs found on the original soundtrack were all represented, including the Kaja song "Should n't Do That. ''
Marvel Comics published a comic book adaptation of the film by writer Sid Jacobson and artist Frank Springer in Marvel Super Special # 39.
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disney song i'll make a man out of you | I 'll Make a Man Out of You - wikipedia
"I 'll Make a Man out of You '' is a song written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel for Walt Disney Pictures ' 36th animated feature film Mulan (1998). Appearing on the film 's soundtrack Mulan: An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by American singer Donny Osmond as the singing voice of Captain Li Shang in lieu of American actor BD Wong, who provides the character 's speaking voice. The song also features appearances by Lea Salonga as Mulan, Eddie Murphy as Mushu, and Harvey Fierstein, Jerry Tondo and Wilder himself as Yao, Chien - Po and Ling, respectively. Murphy 's line, however, is the only one to be spoken instead of sung.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was written to replace the song "We 'll Make a Man of You '' after the film 's original songwriter Stephen Schwartz departed from the project in favor of working on DreamWorks ' The Prince of Egypt (1998). Prior to Mulan, Osmond had auditioned for the role of Hercules in Disney 's Hercules (1997), a role for which he was ultimately turned down by the directors because they felt that he sounded too old. Disney eventually cast Osmond as the singing voice of Shang because his singing voice is similar to Wong 's speaking voice. An up - tempo military - style song, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by Shang during a rigorous training montage in which his young, inexperienced soldiers attempt to justify their worth. The song 's title is considered ironic because Mulan, who relies on intelligence, ultimately proves more competent than her male comrades, including Captain Li Shang, who takes a liking to her.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has received mostly positive reviews from film and music critics, some of whom dubbed it the film 's best song, while praising Osmond 's performance. Critics have also drawn comparisons between the song and Disney 's Hercules, while likening Mulan 's role and transformation to actress Demi Moore 's performance as Lieutenant Jordan O'Neil in the film G.I. Jane (1997). The song has since appeared on several "best of '' Disney songs lists, including those of Total Film and the New York Post. Discussed by film critics, film historians, academic journalists and feminists, the song has gone on to be recorded and covered in several different languages -- namely Mandarin, Cantonese and Spanish -- by entertainers Jackie Chan and Cristian Castro, respectively.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel, who were hired to write the songs for Mulan because, according to co-director Tony Bancroft, "Disney was trying to find different songwriters that... would give kind of different sound to each of the songs. '' While Zippel, a Broadway lyricist, was recruited because the directors were impressed by the songwriter 's work on Disney 's Hercules (1997), at the time Wilder, a pop singer and record producer, was best known for his hit single "Break My Stride ''. Bancroft believes that, although the songwriters "had two different sensibilities... I think the (y) blend worked well together, especially on (' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ') ''.
Originally, songwriter Stephen Schwartz, who had just recently worked as a lyricist opposite composer Alan Menken on Disney 's Pocahontas (1995) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996), was slated to write the lyrics for Mulan, but he was replaced by Zippel "at the last moment. '' Schwartz had written a song called "We 'll Make a Man of You '' for "when Mulan is trying to learn to be a soldier ''. The song was eventually replaced by Wilder and Zippel 's "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' when Schwartz was forced to resign from Mulan by Disney executives Peter Schneider and Michael Eisner because the songwriter had also agreed to write the songs for rival film studio DreamWorks ' animated feature film The Prince of Egypt (1998). According to The Musical Theater of Stephen Schwartz: From Godspell to Wicked and Beyond, Schwartz believed that he would have been able to work on both films simultaneously, but ultimately chose The Prince of Egypt instead because he felt pressured by Disney.
Before Mulan, American singer Donny Osmond had auditioned for the lead role in Hercules, a role for which he was ultimately not cast because the directors felt that is voice sounded "too old '' and "too deep '' for the character. Osmond later revealed in an interview with People that he was so embarrassed by his Hercules audition that he had nearly considered ending his singing career prematurely. A few months later, Disney contacted Osmond with interest in casting him as the singing voice of Shang after comparing his audition tapes to BD Wong and determining that both actors have "very similar voices. '' In one scene, Osmond 's character, Shang, is hit in the stomach while singing "I 'll Make a Man Out of You ''. In order to sound as realistic as possible, Osmond punched himself in the stomach several times while recording the song.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by Captain Li Shang during Mulan 's training montage, which has also been identified as the film 's "boot camp sequence. '' The scene explores Shang 's attempt to train his newly recruited squadron of incompetent soldiers in the hopes of ultimately transforming into a skilled army. Occupying a significant portion of the film 's plot, Shang promises to turn his team of "rag - tag recruits '' into men. The musical number is used to "compress dramatic time or narrate '' in a more compelling way than had solely dialogue been used. The scene begins with Shang shooting an arrow into the top of a tall pole and challenging all of his soldiers to retrieve it, each of whom fail until Mulan eventually succeeds. According to the book Into the Closet: Cross-Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film by Victoria Flanagan, Mulan is successful in retrieving the arrow because she uses "an ingenuity that is based upon her ability to incorporate aspects of femininity into her masculine performance. '' By the end of the scene, all of the soldiers have improved dramatically and the results of their practice and training are finally revealed. In what Joshua and Judges author Athalya Brenner called "a humorous reversal toward the end of the movie, '' Mulan and her male comrades disguise themselves as concubines in order to infiltrate the palace and rescue the emperor while "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' reprises in the background.
Critics have observed ways in which the scene explores Mulan 's growth and transformation as the character evolves from a clumsy, inexperienced recruit into one of the army 's most skilled soldiers, in spite of her gender. According to the book Literacy, Play and Globalization: Converging Imaginaries in Children 's Critical and Cultural Performances, the montage depicts Mulan 's gender as "an obstacle to overcome. '' Author Phyllis Frus wrote in her book Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works, "The need for inexperienced young men to go through a rigorous training results in a sequence common to many films, '' and that the scene "show 's the challenges Ping / Mulan faces due to her '' inexperience. As observed by Juanita Kwok in the book Film Asia: New Perspectives on Film for English, the irony of the scene lies within the fact that "Mulan proves herself more competent than any of the men. '' The author also observed that the scene 's first refrain accompanies shots of Shang, while its second "coincides with Mulan climbing to the top of the pole. '' Additionally, while the earlier, all - female musical number "Honor to Us All '' "functions as an account of the constructedness of female gender, '' "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "juxtaposes and makes explicit the contention that gender is a cultural product, '' according to Johnson Cheu, author of Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability. The Representation of Gender in Walt Disney 's "Mulan '' believes that the song emphasizes desirable masculine traits, namely "discipline... tranquility, celerity, strength and fearlessness, '' while Shang, according to Putting the Grail Back into Girl Power: How a Girl Saved Camelot, and why it Matters, "views (femininity) as comparable to weakness. '' In her article Disney 's "Mulan '' -- the "True '' Deconstructed Heroine?, Lisa Brocklebank argued the song explores themes such as othering, ostracism and abjection.
Critics have drawn similarities between the "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' sequence and Hercules ' training montage in Disney 's Hercules (1997), as well as actress Demi Moore 's role as Lieutenant Jordan O'Neil in the film G.I. Jane (1997). In the book Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, author John Stephens wrote that although both Mulan and Hercules depict "the active male body as spectacle, '' Mulan 's is less "straight - forward '' due to the character 's gender. Michael Dequina of The Movie Report observed that "Mulan 's transformation is highly reminiscent of Demi Moore 's in last year 's Disney drama G.I. Jane, but Mulan oneups that film 's hour - long toughening process by efficiently covering the same ground during a single, rousing musical number. ''
Written in common time at a tempo of 110 beats per minute and starting out in the key of E minor, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has been identified as a "heroic power ballad '' and anthem that features an upbeat, "thumping '' rhythm. The Disney Song Encyclopedia described the song as a "rhythmic military song. '' Beginning with "a military - style drum '' introduction, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '', which is immediately preceded by the emotional ballad "Reflection '' on the film 's soundtrack album, "breaks up the slower pace of the songs, '' according to Filmtracks.com. Similar to the song "A Girl Worth Fighting For '', the "ironically titled '' "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "play (s) off Mulan 's secret '' because Shang is unaware that she is actually a girl, as observed by Jeffrey Gantz of The Phoenix. Johnson Cheu, author of Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability, received the song as a counterpart to the all - female musical number "Honor to Us All ''. Going into the last verse, the song 's key shifts up to F minor and later towards the end, "the backing track falls into silence and (Osmond 's) vocals come to the fore. '' Osmond 's vocal range spans one octave, from D to F. Beginning with two verses, followed by a bridge, a refrain, a final verse and repeated choruses, the song is a total of three minutes and twenty - one seconds in length.
Entertainment Weekly identified the number as the film 's "rambunctious peak. '' According to Victoria Flanagan, author of Into the Closet: Gender and Cross-dressing in Children 's Fiction: Cross-Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is "a playful parody of conventional masculinity. '' The lyric "I 'll make a man out of you '' is constantly repeated and reinforced by Shang. According to author John Stephens of Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, the song 's lyrics "initially define masculinity in opposition to femininity, '' with its first verse beginning, "Let 's get down to business / To defeat the Huns / Did they send me daughters / When I asked for sons? '' Its chorus reads, "You must be swift as the coursing river / With all the force of the great typhoon / With all the strength of a raging fire / Mysterious as the dark side of the moon '' which, according to Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, "essentializes masculinity by asserting that it embodies the speed, strength and power of the natural world, and yet contains this within an aura of tranquility and mystery. '' According to Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works, these lyrics "add a hint of darkness as they celebrate male prowess '' by suggesting that one who has "acquired fiery strength '' is also "untamed as the moon 's dark side. '' The song has been noted by the New York Post for its "slew of one - liners from supporting characters. '' According to The Phoenix, Osmond performs the song 's lyrics with "grit. '' Meanwhile, the singer is backed up by a macho - sounding choir repeatedly chanting "Be a man! ''
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has been met with mostly positive reviews from both film and music critics. Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic wrote, "there has n't been a single chorus in all of post-Mulan pop music that has managed to rival the roaring power in the refrain. '' Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net reviewed "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as "a stirring, testosterone filled piece, '' describing the scene as "amusing. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song "has a comparable infectious punch, '' concluding, "it 's the only song in the movie that escapes Disneyfied blandness. '' Jeff Vice of the Deseret News observed that Wong and Osmond 's "voices sound eerily similar. '' Tom Henry of The Blade enjoyed Osmond 's delivery, describing the singer 's performance as "solid. '' Lloyd Paseman of The Register - Guard called "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' a favorite of his. While exploring "The History of Movie Training Montages '', Chris Giblin of Men 's Fitness opined, "Mulan served as proof that the fitness montage can work amazingly well in movies for kids. '' Giblin continued, "it has the best lyrics of any serious fitness / sports montage song. Overall, a very strong montage. '' Disney.com itself cites "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as a "song that was so epic, so legendary, that it requires an out loud sing along anytime we hear it. ''
Despite dubbing the film 's songs its "weak link, '' TV Guide wrote that the musical numbers are "crafted with a knowing, almost camp wink that 's totally in keeping with the subtext of the film, '' concluding that "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' sounds like a Village People song. Writing for The Seattle Times, Moira Macdonald criticized Wilder and Zippel 's songs as "forgettable, '' calling "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "annoying. '' The Phoenix 's Jeffrey Gantz wrote that "Donny Osmond shows some grit, but he 's still the voice of the Whitebread West. '' Amazon.ca 's Jason Verlinde commented, "Unfortunately, the voice of Donny Osmond, relegated to anthems such as ' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ' does n't really enhance the story line ''.
Total Film ranked "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' twenty - ninth on its list of the "30 Best Disney Songs ''. Similarly, M ranked the song twentieth on its list of the "Top 20 Disney Songs of All Time ''. Author Stephanie Osmanski cited "Did they send me daughters when I asked for sons? '' as her favourite lyric. Gregory E. Miller of the New York Post cited I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as one of "The best (and the most underrated) Disney songs, '' writing, "Captain Shang 's battle - preparation anthem is the movie 's most quotable, with a memorable chorus and a slew of one - liners from supporting characters. '' PopSugar ranked the song the nineteenth "Catchiest Disney Song ''. On Empire 's list of the twenty "Most Awesome Training Montages In Cinema History '', "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was ranked 14th. The author identified it as "a solid training montage in which Mulan and her friends go from hapless duffers to fearless warriors in just over two minutes. '' Similarly, Men 's Fitness also ranked "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' among the greatest training montages in film history. Stephen Fiorentine of Sneaker Report wrote that "Training montages are n't limited to just live - action movies. With movies like Mulan and Hercules, Disney mastered the art of the montage in their animated films. ''
When Mulan was released in China, Hong Kong actor Jackie Chan was hired to dub the voice of Shang and record "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' in Mandarin and Cantonese. The special edition DVD release of Mulan features a music video of Chan performing the song. The video also depicts Chan performing martial arts - inspired choreography. Positively received, Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net called Chan 's rendition "a fun addition for Chan fans, '' while Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News wrote that he performed the song "very ably. '' Mexican singer Cristian Castro, who voiced Shang in the film 's Latin American release, recorded "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' in Spanish, titled "Hombres de Acción serán hoy ''.
In July 2013, a parody of the song was uploaded to YouTube titled "I 'll Make a Mann Out Of You ''. The video uses the song with animation made in Source Filmmaker in which the Soldier from Team Fortress 2 motivates his fellow RED teammates against the BLU team. In October 2014, a parody of "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was uploaded to YouTube entitled "I 'll Make a ' Mon Out of You ''. A mashup of Mulan and the popular Pokémon franchise, the video features Digimon Gatomon attempting to masquerade as Pokémon Meowth in lieu of Mulan, while Ash occupies the role of Shang as his trainer, according to Smosh. Another parody of the song, based on the Dragon Ball franchise was uploaded to YouTube by TeamFourStar.
Credits adapted from the website Discogs.
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what is taller the cn tower or the eiffel tower | List of tallest towers - wikipedia
This is a list of extant towers that fulfill the engineering definition of a tower: "a tall human structure, always taller than it is wide, meant for public or regular operational access by humans, but not for living in or office work, and are self - supporting or free - standing, which means no guy - wires for support. '' The definition means the exclusion from this list of continuously habitable buildings and skyscrapers as well as radio and TV masts. Also excluded from this list because they are not designed for public or regular operational access are bridge towers or pylons, chimneys, transmission towers, sculptures and most large statues and obelisks.
Towers are most often built to use their height for various purposes and can stand alone or as part of a larger structure. Some common purposes are for telecommunications, and as a viewing platform.
The Tokyo Skytree, completed in February 2012, reaches a height of 634 m (2,080 ft), making it the tallest tower, and second - tallest free - standing structure in the world.
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when does the csi team get back together | CSI: Crime scene investigation (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation premiered on CBS on September 23, 2004 and ended May 19, 2005. The series stars William Petersen and Marg Helgenberger.
Greg begins his journey from a lab rat to a field mouse, as the Las Vegas Crime Lab faces a personnel overhaul ("Ch - Ch - Changes ''), during the fifth season of CSI. The team 's final days together are plagued with more investigations into the insane and the unusual, including the discovery of an "alien '' corpse just outside the boundary of Area 51 ("Viva Las Vegas ''), a body washed up in a thunderstorm ("Down the Drain ''), the kidnapping of a thirteen - year - old girl ("Harvest ''), a death at a fumigation ("Crows Feet ''), a swingers party ("Swap Meet ''), the return of the Blue Paint Killer ("What 's Eating Gilbert Grissom? ''), and a kidnapping at a hotel ("Formalities ''). It 's the appearance of new evidence that appears literally as Grisson is on the witness stand, however, that causes Ecklie to separate Grissom and Willows ' team ("Mea Culpa ''), with Catherine, Nick, and Warrick delving into cases such as brain death ("No Humans Involved ''), a body in a car ("Who Shot Sherlock? ''), a severed head containing a snake ("Snakes ''), the death of a bear ("Unbearable ''), and a murder involving sports betting ("Big Middle ''). The risk of losing of one of their own, however, allows Ecklie and Grisson to set aside their differences, both personal and professional, and reunite the team once again ("Grave Danger '').
Sara and Greg investigate the death of two students in a dorm room. Nick, Warrick and Catherine investigate a man found dead in a ' crop circle '. Ecklie has to find out what happened to the corpse in the case he was working on, when it goes missing.
After Grissom gives the kidnapper the ransom money, the kidnapper blows himself up without revealing where Nick is buried. The team must then use all their knowledge and resources, as well as race against time, to find Nick before he runs out of air.
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what section of the male urethra passes through the urogenital diaphragm | Urethra - wikipedia
In anatomy, the urethra (from Greek οὐρήθρα -- ourḗthrā) is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the urinary meatus for the removal of urine from the body. In males, the urethra travels through the penis and also carries semen. In human females (and in other primates), the urethra connects to the urinary meatus above the vagina, whereas in non-primates, the female 's urethra empties into the urogenital sinus.
Females use their urethra only for urinating, but males use their urethra for both urination and ejaculation. The external urethral sphincter is a striated muscle that allows voluntary control over urination. Only in the male is there an additional internal urethral sphincter muscle.
In the human male, the urethra is about 8 inches (20 cm) long and opens at the end of the external urethral meatus. The urethra provides an exit for urine as well as semen during ejaculation.
The urethra is divided into four parts in men, named after the location:
There is inadequate data for the typical length of the male urethra; however, a study of 109 men showed an average length of 22.3 cm (SD = 2.4 cm), ranging from 15 cm to 29 cm.
In the human female, the urethra is about 1.9 inches (4.8 cm) to 2 inches (5.1 cm) long and exits the body between the clitoris and the vagina, extending from the internal to the external urethral orifice. The meatus is located below the clitoris. It is placed behind the symphysis pubis, embedded in the anterior wall of the vagina, and its direction is obliquely downward and forward; it is slightly curved with the concavity directed forward. The proximal 2 / 3rds is lined by transitional epithelium cells while distal 1 / 3rd is lined by stratified squamous epithelium cells.
The urethra consists of three coats: muscular, erectile, and mucous, the muscular layer being a continuation of that of the bladder. Between the superior and inferior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm, the female urethra is surrounded by the urethral sphincter. Somatic (conscious) innervation of the external urethral sphincter is supplied by the pudendal nerve.
The epithelium of the urethra starts off as transitional cells as it exits the bladder. Further along the urethra there are pseudostratified columnar and stratified columnar epithelia, then stratified squamous cells near the external urethral orifice.
There are small mucus - secreting urethral glands, that help protect the epithelium from the corrosive urine.
The urogenital sinus may be divided into three component parts. The first of these is the cranial portion which is continuous with the allantois and forms the bladder proper. In the male the pelvic part of the sinus forms the prostatic urethra and epithelium as well as the membranous urethra and bulbo urethral glands. Part of the vagina in females is also formed from the pelvic part.
The urethra is the vessel through which urine passes after leaving the bladder. During urination, the smooth muscle lining the urethra relaxes in concert with bladder contraction (s) to forcefully expel the urine in a pressurized stream. Following this, the urethra re-establishes muscle tone by contracting the smooth muscle layer, and the bladder returns to a relaxed, quiescent state. Urethral smooth muscle cells are mechanically coupled to each other to coordinate mechanical force and electrical signaling in an organized, unitary fashion.
The male urethra is the conduit for semen during sexual intercourse. It also serves as a passage for urine to flow. Urine typically contains epithelial cells shed from the urinary tract. Urine cytology evaluates this urinary sediment for the presence of cancerous cells from the lining of the urinary tract, and it is a convenient noninvasive technique for follow - up analysis of patients treated for urinary tract cancers. For this process, urine must be collected in a reliable fashion, and if urine samples are inadequate, the urinary tract can be assessed via instrumentation. In urine cytology, collected urine is examined microscopically. One limitation is the inability to definitively identify low - grade cancer cells and urine cytology is used mostly to identify high - grade tumors.
As the urethra is an open vessel with a lumen, investigations of the genitourinary tract may involve the urethra. Endoscopy of the bladder may be conducted by the urethra, called cystoscopy.
During a hospital stay or surgical procedure, a catheter may be inserted through the urethra to drain urine from the bladder. The length of a male 's urethra, and the fact it contains a prominent bend, makes catheterization more difficult. The integrity of the urethra can be determined by a procedure known as retrograde urethrogram.
Position of the urethra in males
Transverse section of the penis.
Male urethral opening
Muscles of the female perineum
Urethra. Deep dissection. Serial cross section.
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when did new orleans became part of the united states | New Orleans - Wikipedia
New Orleans (/ nj uː ˈɔːrli. ən z, - ˈɔːrˈliːnz, - ˈɔːrlənz /, or / ˈnɔːrlənz /; French: La Nouvelle - Orléans (la nuvɛlɔʁleɑ̃) (listen)) is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana.
The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U.S. Census. The New Orleans metropolitan area (New Orleans -- Metairie -- Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area) had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans -- Metairie -- Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a larger trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. Before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, and East Baton Rouge Parish.
It is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music (particularly as the birthplace of jazz), and its annual celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras, dating to French colonial times. The city is often referred to as the "most unique '' in the United States.
New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, and developed on both sides of the Mississippi River. The heart of the city and French Quarter is on the north side of the river as it curves through this area. The city and Orleans Parish (French: paroisse d'Orléans) are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north and Lake Borgne lies to the east.
The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and strongly influenced by their European culture. It also has a number of illustrative nicknames:
La Nouvelle - Orléans (New Orleans) was founded May 7, 1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time. His title came from the French city of Orléans.
The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris (1763). During the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a southern campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans (Spanish: Nueva Orleans) remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight. Nearly all of the surviving 18th - century architecture of the Vieux Carré (French Quarter) dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent.
Napoleon sold Louisiana (New France) to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians. Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city.
The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the second republic in the Western Hemisphere and the first republic led by black people. It had occurred over several years in what was then the French colony of Saint - Domingue. Thousands of refugees from the violent revolution, both whites and free people of color (affranchis or gens de couleur libres), arrived in New Orleans, often bringing slaves of African descent with them. While Governor Claiborne and other officials wanted to keep out additional free black men, the French Creoles wanted to increase the French - speaking population. As more refugees were allowed into the Territory of Orleans, Haitian émigrés who had first gone to Cuba also arrived. Many of the white Francophones had been deported by officials in Cuba in retaliation for Bonapartist schemes in Spain.
Nearly 90 percent of these immigrants settled in New Orleans. The 1809 migration brought 2,731 whites; 3,102 free persons of African descent; and 3,226 enslaved persons of African descent, doubling the city 's population. The city became 63 percent black in population, a greater proportion than Charleston, South Carolina 's 53 percent.
During the final campaign of the War of 1812, the British sent a force of 11,000 soldiers, marines, and sailors, in an attempt to capture New Orleans. Despite great challenges, General Andrew Jackson, with support from the U.S. Navy on the river, successfully cobbled together a motley military force of: militia from Louisiana and Mississippi, including free men of color, U.S. Army regulars, a large contingent of Tennessee state militia, Kentucky riflemen, Choctaw fighters, and local privateers (the latter led by the pirate Jean Lafitte), to decisively defeat the British troops, led by Sir Edward Pakenham, in the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815. The armies had not learned of the Treaty of Ghent which had been signed on December 24, 1814. (However, the treaty did not call for cessation of hostilities until after both governments had ratified the treaty, and the US government did not ratify it until February 16, 1815.) The fighting in Louisiana had begun in December 1814 and did not end until late January, after the Americans held off the British Navy during a ten - day siege of Fort St. Philip. (The Royal Navy went on to capture Fort Bowyer near Mobile, before the commanders received news of the peace treaty.)
As a principal port, New Orleans played a major role during the antebellum era in the Atlantic slave trade. Its port also handled huge quantities of commodities for export from the interior and imported goods from other countries, which were warehoused and transferred in New Orleans to smaller vessels and distributed the length and breadth of the vast Mississippi River watershed. The river in front of the city was filled with steamboats, flatboats, and sailing ships. Despite its role in the slave trade, New Orleans at the same time had the largest and most prosperous community of free persons of color in the nation, who were often educated and middle - class property owners.
Dwarfing in population the other cities in the antebellum South, New Orleans had the largest slave market in the domestic slave trade, which expanded after the United States ' ending of the international trade in 1808. Two - thirds of the more than one million slaves brought to the Deep South arrived via the forced migration of the domestic slave trade. The money generated by the sale of slaves in the Upper South has been estimated at 15 percent of the value of the staple crop economy. The slaves represented half a billion dollars in property. An ancillary economy grew up around the trade in slaves -- for transportation, housing and clothing, fees, etc., estimated at 13.5 percent of the price per person. All of this amounted to tens of billions of dollars (2005 dollars, adjusted for inflation) during the antebellum period, with New Orleans as a prime beneficiary.
According to the historian Paul Lachance,
After the Louisiana Purchase, numerous Anglo - Americans migrated to the city. The population of the city doubled in the 1830s and by 1840, New Orleans had become the wealthiest and the third-most populous city in the nation. Large numbers of German and Irish immigrants began arriving in the 1840s, working as laborers in the busy port. In this period, the state legislature passed more restrictions on manumissions of slaves, and virtually ended it in 1852.
In the 1850s, white Francophones remained an intact and vibrant community; they maintained instruction in French in two of the city 's four school districts (all were white). In 1860, the city had 13,000 free people of color (gens de couleur libres), the class of free, mostly mixed - race people that developed during French and Spanish rule. The census recorded 81 percent as mulatto, a term used to cover all degrees of mixed race. Mostly part of the Francophone group, they constituted the artisan, educated and professional class of African Americans. Most blacks were still enslaved, working at the port, in domestic service, in crafts, and mostly on the many large, surrounding sugar cane plantations.
After growing by 45 percent in the 1850s, by 1860, the city had nearly 170,000 people The city was a destination for immigrants. It had grown in wealth, with a "per capita income (that) was second in the nation and the highest in the South. '' The city had a role as the "primary commercial gateway for the nation 's booming mid-section. '' The port was the third largest in the nation in terms of tonnage of imported goods, after Boston and New York, handling 659,000 tons in 1859.
As the French Creole elite feared, during the Civil War their world changed. In 1862, following the occupation by the Navy after the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, Northern forces under Gen. Benjamin F. Butler, a respected state lawyer of the Massachusetts militia, occupied the city. Later New Orleans residents nicknamed him as "Beast '' Butler, because of a military order he issued. After his troops had been assaulted and harassed in the streets by Southern women, his order warned that future such occurrences would result in his men treating such "ladies '' as those "plying their avocation in the streets '', implying that they would treat the women like prostitutes. Accounts of this spread like wildfire across the South and the North. He also came to be called "Spoons '' Butler because of the alleged looting that his troops did while occupying New Orleans.
Butler abolished French language instruction in city schools; statewide measures in 1864 and, after the war, 1868 further strengthened English - only policy imposed by federal representatives. With the predominance of English speakers in the city and state, that language had already become dominant in business and government. By the end of the 19th century, French usage in the city had faded significantly; it was also under pressure from new immigrants: English speakers such as the Irish, and other Europeans, such as the Italians and Germans. However, as late as 1902 "one - fourth of the population of the city spoke French in ordinary daily intercourse, while another two - fourths was able to understand the language perfectly, '' and as late as 1945, one still encountered elderly Creole women who spoke no English. The last major French language newspaper in New Orleans, L'Abeille de la Nouvelle - Orléans (New Orleans Bee), ceased publication on December 27, 1923, after ninety - six years. According to some sources, Le Courrier de la Nouvelle Orleans continued until 1955.
As the city was captured and occupied early in the war, it was spared the destruction through warfare suffered by many other cities of the American South. The Union Army eventually extended its control north along the Mississippi River and along the coastal areas of the State. As a result, most of the southern portion of Louisiana was originally exempted from the liberating provisions of the 1863 "Emancipation Proclamation '' issued by President Abraham Lincoln. Large numbers of rural ex-slaves and some free people of color from the city volunteered for the first regiments of Black troops in the War. Led by Brig. Gen. Daniel Ullman (1810 -- 1892), of the 78th Regiment of New York State Volunteers Militia, they were known as the "Corps d'Afrique. '' While that name had been used by a militia before the war, that group was composed of free people of color. The new group was made up mostly of former slaves. They were supplemented in the last two years of the War by newly organized United States Colored Troops, who played an increasingly important part in the war.
Violence throughout the South, especially the Memphis Riots of 1866 followed by the New Orleans Riot in July of that year, resulted in Congress passing the Reconstruction Act and the Fourteenth Amendment, to extend the protections of full citizenship to freedmen and free people of color. Louisiana and Texas were put under the authority of the "Fifth Military District '' of the United States during Reconstruction. Louisiana was eventually readmitted to the Union in 1868; its Constitution of 1868 granted universal manhood suffrage and established universal public education. Both blacks and whites were elected to local and state offices. In 1872, lieutenant governor P.B.S. Pinchback, who was of mixed race, succeeded Henry Clay Warmouth for a brief period as Republican governor of Louisiana, becoming the first governor of African descent of an American state. (The next African American to serve as governor of an American state was Douglas Wilder, elected in Virginia in 1989.) New Orleans even operated a racially - integrated public school system during this period.
Wartime damage to levees and cities along the Mississippi River adversely affected southern crops and trade for the port city for some time. The federal government contributed to restoring infrastructure, but it took time. The nationwide financial recession and Panic of 1873 also adversely affected businesses and slowed economic recovery.
From 1868, elections in Louisiana were marked by violence, as white insurgents tried to suppress black voting and disrupt Republican gatherings. Violence continued around elections. The disputed 1872 gubernatorial election resulted in conflicts that ran for years. The "White League '', an insurgent paramilitary group that supported the Democratic Party, was organized in 1874 and operated in the open, violently suppressing the black vote and running off Republican officeholders. In 1874, in the Battle of Liberty Place, 5,000 members of the White League fought with city police to take over the state offices for the Democratic candidate for governor, holding them for three days. By 1876, such tactics resulted in the white Democrats, the so - called Redeemers, regaining political control of the state legislature. The federal government gave up and withdrew its troops in 1877, ending Reconstruction.
White Democrats passed Jim Crow laws, establishing racial segregation in public facilities. In 1889, the legislature passed a constitutional amendment incorporating a "grandfather clause '' that effectively disfranchised freedmen as well as the propertied people of color free before the war. Unable to vote, African Americans could not serve on juries or in local office, and were closed out of formal politics for several generations in the state. It was ruled by a white Democratic Party. Public schools were racially segregated and remained so until 1960.
New Orleans ' large community of well - educated, often French - speaking free persons of color (gens de couleur libres), who had been free prior to the Civil War, sought to fight back against Jim Crow. They organized the Comité des Citoyens (Citizens Committee) to work for civil rights. As part of their legal campaign, they recruited one of their own, Homer Plessy, to test whether Louisiana 's newly enacted Separate Car Act was constitutional. Plessy boarded a commuter train departing New Orleans for Covington, Louisiana, sat in the car reserved for whites only, and was arrested. The case resulting from this incident, Plessy v. Ferguson, was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1896. The court ruled that "separate but equal '' accommodations were constitutional, effectively upholding Jim Crow measures. In practice, African - American public schools and facilities were underfunded in Louisiana and across the South. The Supreme Court ruling contributed to this period as the nadir of race relations in the United States. The rate of lynchings of black men was high across the South, as other states also disfranchised blacks and sought to impose Jim Crow to establish white supremacy. Anti-Italian sentiment in 1891 contributed to the lynchings of 11 Italians, some of whom had been acquitted of the murder of the police chief. Some were shot and killed in the jail where they were being held. It was the largest mass lynching in U.S. history. In July 1900 the city was swept by white mobs rioting after Robert Charles, a young African American, had killed a policeman and temporarily escaped. They killed him and an estimated 20 other blacks; seven whites died in the conflict, which lasted a few days until a state militia suppressed it.
Throughout New Orleans ' history, until the early 20th century when medical and scientific advances ameliorated the situation, the city suffered repeated epidemics of yellow fever and other tropical and infectious diseases.
New Orleans ' zenith as an economic and population center, in relation to other American cities, occurred in the decades prior to 1860. At this time New Orleans was the nation 's fifth - largest city and was significantly larger than all other American South population centers. New Orleans continued to increase in population from the mid-19th century onward, but rapid economic growth shifted to other areas of the country, meaning that New Orleans ' relative importance steadily declined. First to emerge in importance were the new industrial and railroad hubs of the Midwest, then the rapidly growing metropolises of the Pacific Coast in the decades before and after the turn of the 20th century. Construction of railways and highways decreased river traffic, diverting goods to other transportation corridors and markets. Thousands of the most ambitious blacks and people of color left New Orleans and the state in the Great Migration around World War II and after, many for West Coast destinations. In the post-war period, other Sun Belt cities in the South and West surpassed New Orleans in population.
From the late 1800s, most U.S. censuses recorded New Orleans ' slipping rank among American cities. Reminded every ten years of its declining relative importance, New Orleans would periodically mount attempts to regain its economic vigor and pre-eminence, with varying degrees of success.
By the mid-20th century, New Orleanians recognized that their city was being surpassed as the leading urban area in the South. By 1950, Houston, Dallas, and Atlanta exceeded New Orleans in size, and in 1960 Miami eclipsed New Orleans, even as the latter 's population reached what would be its historic peak that year. As with other older American cities in the postwar period, highway construction and suburban development drew residents from the center city to newer housing outside. The 1970 census recorded the first absolute decline in the city 's population since it joined the United States. The New Orleans metropolitan area continued expanding in population, however, just not as rapidly as other major cities in the Sun Belt. While the port remained one of the largest in the nation, automation and containerization resulted in significant job losses. The city 's relative fall in stature meant that its former role as banker to the South was inexorably supplanted by competing companies in larger peer cities. New Orleans ' economy had always been based more on trade and financial services than on manufacturing, but the city 's relatively small manufacturing sector also shrank in the post -- World War II period. Despite some economic development successes under the administrations of DeLesseps "Chep '' Morrison (1946 -- 1961) and Victor "Vic '' Schiro (1961 -- 1970), metropolitan New Orleans ' growth rate consistently lagged behind more vigorous cities.
During the later years of Morrison 's administration, and for the entirety of Schiro 's, the city was a center of the Civil Rights Movement. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference was founded in the city, and lunch counter sit - ins were held in Canal Street department stores. A prominent and violent series of confrontations occurred in 1960 when the city attempted school desegregation, following the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education (1954). When six - year - old Ruby Bridges integrated William Frantz Elementary School in the city 's Ninth Ward, she was the first child of color to attend a previously all - white school in the South.
The Civil Rights Movement 's success in gaining federal passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 provided enforcement of constitutional rights, including renewed voting for blacks. Together, these resulted in the most far - reaching changes in New Orleans ' 20th century history. Though legal and civil equality were re-established by the end of the 1960s, a large gap in income levels and educational attainment persisted between the city 's White and African - American communities. As the middle class and wealthier members of both races left the center city, its population 's income level dropped, and it became proportionately more African American. From 1980, the African - American majority has elected primarily officials from its own community. They have struggled to narrow the gap by creating conditions conducive to the economic uplift of the African - American community.
New Orleans became increasingly dependent on tourism as an economic mainstay during the administrations of Sidney Barthelemy (1986 -- 1994) and Marc Morial (1994 -- 2002). Relatively low levels of educational attainment, high rates of household poverty, and rising crime threatened the prosperity of the city in the later decades of the century. The negative effects of these socioeconomic conditions contrasted with the changes to the economy of the United States, which were based on a post-industrial, knowledge - based paradigm in which mental skills and education were far more important to advancement than manual skills.
In the 20th century, New Orleans ' government and business leaders believed they needed to drain and develop outlying areas to provide for the city 's expansion. The most ambitious development during this period was a drainage plan devised by engineer and inventor A. Baldwin Wood, designed to break the surrounding swamp 's stranglehold on the city 's geographic expansion. Until then, urban development in New Orleans was largely limited to higher ground along the natural river levees and bayous.
Wood 's pump system allowed the city to drain huge tracts of swamp and marshland and expand into low - lying areas. Over the 20th century, rapid subsidence, both natural and human - induced, resulted in these newly populated areas declining to several feet below sea level.
New Orleans was vulnerable to flooding even before the city 's footprint departed from the natural high ground near the Mississippi River. In the late 20th century, however, scientists and New Orleans residents gradually became aware of the city 's increased vulnerability. In 1965, flooding from Hurricane Betsy killed dozens of residents, although the majority of the city remained dry. The rain - induced flood of May 8, 1995, demonstrated the weakness of the pumping system. After that event, measures were undertaken to dramatically upgrade pumping capacity. By the 1980s and 1990s, scientists observed that extensive, rapid, and ongoing erosion of the marshlands and swamp surrounding New Orleans, especially that related to the Mississippi River -- Gulf Outlet Canal, had the unintended result of leaving the city more vulnerable to hurricane - induced catastrophic storm surges than earlier in its history.
New Orleans was catastrophically affected by what the University of California Berkeley 's Dr. Raymond B. Seed called "the worst engineering disaster in the world since Chernobyl '', when the Federal levee system failed during Hurricane Katrina in 2005. By the time the hurricane approached the city at the end of August 2005, most residents had evacuated. As the hurricane passed through the Gulf Coast region, the city 's federal flood protection system failed, resulting in the worst civil engineering disaster in American history. Floodwalls and levees constructed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers failed below design specifications and 80 % of the city flooded. Tens of thousands of residents who had remained in the city were rescued or otherwise made their way to shelters of last resort at the Louisiana Superdome or the New Orleans Morial Convention Center. More than 1,500 people were recorded as having died in Louisiana, most in New Orleans, and others are still unaccounted for. Before Hurricane Katrina, the city called for the first mandatory evacuation in its history, to be followed by another mandatory evacuation three years later with Hurricane Gustav.
The city was declared off - limits to residents while efforts to clean up after Hurricane Katrina began. The approach of Hurricane Rita in September 2005 caused repopulation efforts to be postponed, and the Lower Ninth Ward was reflooded by Rita 's storm surge.
Because of the scale of damage, many people settled permanently outside the city in other areas where they had evacuated, as in Houston. Federal, state, and local efforts have been directed at recovery and rebuilding in severely damaged neighborhoods. The Census Bureau in July 2006 estimated the population of New Orleans to be 223,000; a subsequent study estimated that 32,000 additional residents had moved to the city as of March 2007, bringing the estimated population to 255,000, approximately 56 % of the pre-Katrina population level. Another estimate, based on data on utility usage from July 2007, estimated the population to be approximately 274,000 or 60 % of the pre-Katrina population. These estimates are somewhat smaller than a third estimate, based on mail delivery records, from the Greater New Orleans Community Data Center in June 2007, which indicated that the city had regained approximately two - thirds of its pre-Katrina population. In 2008, the Census Bureau revised its population estimate for the city upward, to 336,644. Most recently, 2010 estimates show that neighborhoods that did not flood are near 100 % of their pre-Katrina populations, and in some cases, exceed 100 % of their pre-Katrina populations.
Several major tourist events and other forms of revenue for the city have returned. Large conventions are being held again, such as those held by the American Library Association and American College of Cardiology. College football events such as the Bayou Classic, New Orleans Bowl, and Sugar Bowl returned for the 2006 -- 2007 season. The New Orleans Saints returned that season as well, following speculation of a move. The New Orleans Hornets (now named the Pelicans) returned to the city fully for the 2007 -- 2008 season, having partially spent the 2006 -- 2007 season in Oklahoma City. New Orleans successfully hosted the 2008 NBA All - Star Game and the 2008 BCS National Championship Game. The city hosted the first and second rounds of the 2007 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament. New Orleans and Tulane University hosted the Final Four Championship in 2012. Additionally, the city hosted the Super Bowl XLVII on February 3, 2013 at the Mercedes - Benz Superdome.
Major annual events such as Mardi Gras and the Jazz & Heritage Festival were never displaced or canceled. Also, an entirely new annual festival, "The Running of the Bulls New Orleans '', was created in 2007.
On February 7, 2017, a large EF3 wedge tornado hit parts of the eastern side of the city, causing severe damages to homes and other buildings, as well as destroying a mobile home park. At least 25 people were left injured by the event.
New Orleans is located at 29 ° 57 ′ 53 '' N 90 ° 4 ′ 14 '' W / 29.96472 ° N 90.07056 ° W / 29.96472; - 90.07056 (29.964722, − 90.070556) on the banks of the Mississippi River, approximately 105 miles (169 km) upriver from the Gulf of Mexico. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 350 square miles (910 km), of which 169 square miles (440 km) is land and 181 square miles (470 km) (52 %) is water. Orleans Parish is the smallest parish by land area in Louisiana.
The city is located in the Mississippi River Delta on the east and west banks of the Mississippi River and south of Lake Pontchartrain. The area along the river is characterized by ridges and hollows.
New Orleans was originally settled on the natural levees or high ground, along the Mississippi River. After the Flood Control Act of 1965, the US Army Corps of Engineers built floodwalls and man - made levees around a much larger geographic footprint that included previous marshland and swamp. Over time, pumping of nearby marshland allowed for development into lower elevation areas. Today, a large portion of New Orleans is at or below local mean sea level and evidence suggests that portions of the city may be dropping in elevation due to subsidence.
A 2007 study by Tulane and Xavier University suggested that "51 %... of the contiguous urbanized portions of Orleans, Jefferson, and St. Bernard parishes lie at or above sea level, '' with the more densely populated areas generally on higher ground. The average elevation of the city is currently between 1 foot (0.30 m) and 2 feet (0.61 m) below sea level, with some portions of the city as high as 20 feet (6 m) at the base of the river levee in Uptown and others as low as 7 feet (2 m) below sea level in the farthest reaches of Eastern New Orleans. A study published by the ASCE Journal of Hydrologic Engineering in 2016, however, stated:
The magnitude of subsidence potentially caused by the draining of natural marsh in the New Orleans area and southeast Louisiana is a topic of debate. A study published in Geology in 2006 by an associate professor at Tulane University claims:
The study noted, however, that the results did not necessarily apply to the Mississippi River Delta, nor the New Orleans Metropolitan area proper. On the other hand, a report by the American Society of Civil Engineers claims that "New Orleans is subsiding (sinking) '':
In May 2016, NASA published a study which suggested that most areas of New Orleans were, in fact, experiencing subsidence at a "highly variable rate '' which was "generally consistent with, but somewhat higher than, previous studies. ''
The Central Business District of New Orleans is located immediately north and west of the Mississippi River, and was historically called the "American Quarter '' or "American Sector. '' It was developed after the heart of French and Spanish settlement. It includes Lafayette Square. Most streets in this area fan out from a central point in the city. Major streets of the area include Canal Street, Poydras Street, Tulane Avenue and Loyola Avenue. Canal Street functions as the street which divides the traditional "downtown '' area from the "uptown '' area.
Every street crossing Canal Street between the Mississippi River and Rampart Street, which is the northern edge of the French Quarter, has a different name for the "uptown '' and "downtown '' portions. For example, St. Charles Avenue, known for its street car line, is called Royal Street below Canal Street, though where it traverses the Central Business District between Canal and Lee Circle, it is properly called St. Charles Street. Elsewhere in the city, Canal Street serves as the dividing point between the "South '' and "North '' portions of various streets. In the local parlance downtown means "downriver from Canal Street '', while uptown means "upriver from Canal Street ''. Downtown neighborhoods include the French Quarter, Tremé, the 7th Ward, Faubourg Marigny, Bywater (the Upper Ninth Ward), and the Lower Ninth Ward. Uptown neighborhoods include the Warehouse District, the Lower Garden District, the Garden District, the Irish Channel, the University District, Carrollton, Gert Town, Fontainebleau, and Broadmoor. However, the Warehouse and the Central Business District, despite being above Canal Street, are frequently called "Downtown '' as a specific region, as in the Downtown Development District.
Other major districts within the city include Bayou St. John, Mid-City, Gentilly, Lakeview, Lakefront, New Orleans East, and Algiers.
New Orleans is world - famous for its abundance of unique architectural styles which reflect the city 's historical roots and multicultural heritage. Though New Orleans possesses numerous structures of national architectural significance, it is equally, if not more, revered for its enormous, largely intact (even post-Katrina) historic built environment. Twenty National Register Historic Districts have been established, and fourteen local historic districts aid in the preservation of this tout ensemble. Thirteen of the local historic districts are administered by the New Orleans Historic District Landmarks Commission (HDLC), while one -- the French Quarter -- is administered by the Vieux Carre Commission (VCC). Additionally, both the National Park Service, via the National Register of Historic Places, and the HDLC have landmarked individual buildings, many of which lie outside the boundaries of existing historic districts.
Many styles of housing exist in the city, including the shotgun house and the bungalow style. Creole townhouses, notable for their large courtyards and intricate iron balconies, line the streets of the French Quarter. Throughout the city, there are many other historic housing styles: Creole cottages, American townhouses, double - gallery houses, and Raised Center - Hall Cottages. St. Charles Avenue is famed for its large antebellum homes. Its mansions are in various styles, such as Greek Revival, American Colonial and the Victorian styles of Queen Anne and Italianate architecture. New Orleans is also noted for its large, European - style Catholic cemeteries, which can be found throughout the city.
For much of its history, New Orleans ' skyline consisted of only low - and mid - rise structures. The soft soils of New Orleans are susceptible to subsidence, and there was doubt about the feasibility of constructing large high rises in such an environment. Developments in engineering throughout the twentieth century eventually made it possible to build sturdy foundations to support high rise structures in the city, and in the 1960s, the World Trade Center New Orleans and Plaza Tower were built, demonstrating the viability of tall skyscrapers in New Orleans. One Shell Square took its place as the city 's tallest building in 1972. The oil boom of the 1970s and early 1980s redefined New Orleans ' skyline with the development of the Poydras Street corridor. Today, most of New Orleans ' tallest buildings are clustered along Canal Street and Poydras Street in the Central Business District.
The climate of New Orleans is humid subtropical (Köppen climate classification Cfa), with short, generally mild winters and hot, humid summers; most suburbs and parts of Wards 9 and 15 fall in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 9a, while the city 's other 15 wards are rated 9b in whole. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 53.4 ° F (11.9 ° C) in January to 83.3 ° F (28.5 ° C) in July and August. Officially, as measured at New Orleans International Airport, temperature records range from 11 to 102 ° F (− 12 to 39 ° C) on December 23, 1989 and August 22, 1980, respectively; Audubon Park has recorded temperatures ranging from 6 ° F (− 14 ° C) on February 13, 1899 up to 104 ° F (40 ° C) on June 24, 2009. Dewpoints in the summer months (June -- August) are relatively high, ranging from 71.1 to 73.4 ° F (21.7 to 23.0 ° C).
The average precipitation is 62.5 inches (1,590 mm) annually; the summer months are the wettest, while October is the driest month. Precipitation in winter usually accompanies the passing of a cold front. On average, there are 77 days of 90 ° F (32 ° C) + highs, 8.1 days per winter where the high does not exceed 50 ° F (10 ° C), and 8.0 nights with freezing lows annually. It is rare for the temperature to reach 20 or 100 ° F (− 7 or 38 ° C), with the last occurrence of each being February 5, 1996 and June 26, 2016, respectively.
New Orleans experiences snowfall only on rare occasions. A small amount of snow fell during the 2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm and again on Christmas (December 25) when a combination of rain, sleet, and snow fell on the city, leaving some bridges icy. The New Year 's Eve 1963 snowstorm affected New Orleans and brought 4.5 inches (11 cm). Snow fell again on December 22, 1989, when most of the city received 1 -- 2 inches (2.5 -- 5.1 cm).
The last significant snowfall in New Orleans was on the morning of December 11, 2008.
Hurricanes pose a severe threat to the area, and the city is particularly at risk because of its low elevation; because it is surrounded by water from the north, east, and south; and because of Louisiana 's sinking coast. According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, New Orleans is the nation 's most vulnerable city to hurricanes. Indeed, portions of Greater New Orleans have been flooded by: the Grand Isle Hurricane of 1909, the New Orleans Hurricane of 1915, 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane, Hurricane Flossy in 1956, Hurricane Betsy in 1965, Hurricane Georges in 1998, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, and Hurricane Gustav in 2008, with the flooding in Betsy being significant and in a few neighborhoods severe, and that in Katrina being disastrous in the majority of the city.
In 2005, storm surge from Hurricane Katrina caused catastrophic failure of the federally designed and built levees, flooding 80 % of the city. A report by the American Society of Civil Engineers says that "had the levees and floodwalls not failed and had the pump stations operated, nearly two - thirds of the deaths would not have occurred ''.
New Orleans has always had to consider the risk of hurricanes, but the risks are dramatically greater today due to coastal erosion from human interference. Since the beginning of the 20th century, it has been estimated that Louisiana has lost 2,000 square miles (5,000 km) of coast (including many of its barrier islands), which once protected New Orleans against storm surge. Following Hurricane Katrina, the Army Corps of Engineers has instituted massive levee repair and hurricane protection measures to protect the city.
In 2006, Louisiana voters overwhelmingly adopted an amendment to the state 's constitution to dedicate all revenues from off - shore drilling to restore Louisiana 's eroding coast line. Congress has allocated $7 billion to bolster New Orleans ' flood protection.
According to a study by the National Academy of Engineering and the National Research Council, levees and floodwalls surrounding New Orleans -- no matter how large or sturdy -- can not provide absolute protection against overtopping or failure in extreme events. Levees and floodwalls should be viewed as a way to reduce risks from hurricanes and storm surges, not as measures that completely eliminate risk. For structures in hazardous areas and residents who do not relocate, the committee recommended major floodproofing measures -- such as elevating the first floor of buildings to at least the 100 - year flood level.
Historical Population Figures
According to the 2010 Census, 343,829 people and 189,896 households were in New Orleans. The racial and ethnic makeup of the city was 60.2 % African American, 33.0 % White, 2.9 % Asian (1.7 % Vietnamese, 0.3 % Indian, 0.3 % Chinese, 0.1 % Filipino, 0.1 % Korean), 0.0 % Pacific Islander, and 1.7 % were people of two or more races. People of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 5.3 % of the population; 1.3 % of New Orleans is Mexican, 1.3 % Honduran, 0.4 % Cuban, 0.3 % Puerto Rican, and 0.3 % Nicaraguan.
The last population estimate before Hurricane Katrina was 454,865, as of July 1, 2005. A population analysis released in August 2007 estimated the population to be 273,000, 60 % of the pre-Katrina population and an increase of about 50,000 since July 2006. A September 2007 report by The Greater New Orleans Community Data Center, which tracks population based on U.S. Postal Service figures, found that in August 2007, just over 137,000 households received mail. That compares with about 198,000 households in July 2005, representing about 70 % of pre-Katrina population. More recently, the Census Bureau revised upward its 2008 population estimate for the city, to 336,644 inhabitants. In 2010, estimates showed that neighborhoods that did not flood were near 100 % of their pre-Katrina populations, and in some cases, exceeded 100 % of their pre-Katrina populations.
A 2006 study by researchers at Tulane University and the University of California, Berkeley determined that there are as many as 10,000 to 14,000 undocumented immigrants, many from Mexico, currently residing in New Orleans. Janet Murguía, president and chief executive officer of the National Council of La Raza, stated that there could be up to 120,000 Hispanic workers in New Orleans. In June 2007, one study stated that the Hispanic population had risen from 15,000, pre-Katrina, to over 50,000.
The Times - Picayune reported in January 2009 that the metropolitan area had a recent influx of 5,300 households in the later half of 2008, bringing the population to around 469,605 households, or 88.1 % of its pre-Katrina levels. While the area 's population has been on an upward trajectory since the storm, much of that growth was attributed to residents returning after Katrina. Many observers predicted that growth would taper off, but the data center 's analysis suggests that New Orleans and the surrounding parishes are benefiting from an economic migration resulting from the global financial crisis of 2008 -- 2009.
As of 2010, 90.31 % of New Orleans residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 4.84 % spoke Spanish, 1.87 % Vietnamese, and 1.05 % spoke French. In total, 9.69 % of New Orleans 's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.
New Orleans ' colonial history of French and Spanish settlement has resulted in a strong Roman Catholic tradition. Catholic missions administered to slaves and free people of color, establishing schools for them. In addition, many late 19th and early 20th century European immigrants, such as the Irish, some Germans, and Italians, were Catholic. In New Orleans and the surrounding Louisiana Gulf Coast area, the predominant religion is Catholicism. Within the Archdiocese of New Orleans (which includes not only the city but the surrounding Parishes as well), 35.9 % percent of the population is Roman Catholic. The influence of Catholicism is reflected in the city 's French and Spanish cultural traditions, including its many parochial schools, street names, architecture, and festivals, including Mardi Gras.
New Orleans notably has a distinctive variety of Louisiana Voodoo, due in part to syncretism with African and Afro - Caribbean Roman Catholic beliefs. The fame of the voodoo practitioner Marie Laveau contributed to this, as did New Orleans ' distinctly Caribbean cultural influences. Although the tourism industry has strongly associated Voodoo with the city, only a small number of people are serious adherents to the religion.
Jewish settlers, primarily Sephardim, settled in New Orleans from the early nineteenth century. Some migrated from the communities established in the colonial years in Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia. The merchant Abraham Cohen Labatt helped found the first Jewish congregation in New Orleans and Louisiana in the 1830s, which became known as the Portuguese Jewish Nefutzot Yehudah congregation (he and some other members were Sephardic Jews, whose ancestors had lived in Portugal and Spain). Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe came as immigrants in the late 19th and 20th centuries. By the 21st century, there were 10,000 Jews in New Orleans. This number dropped to 7,000 after the disruption of Hurricane Katrina.
In the wake of Katrina, all New Orleans synagogues lost members, but most re-opened in their original locations. The exception was Congregation Beth Israel, the oldest and most prominent Orthodox synagogue in the New Orleans region. Beth Israel 's building in Lakeview was destroyed by flooding. After seven years of holding services in temporary quarters, the congregation consecrated a synagogue in August 2012 on land purchased from its new neighbor, the Reform Congregation Gates of Prayer in Metairie.
As of 2011 there had been increases in the Hispanic population in the New Orleans area, including in Kenner, central Metairie, and Terrytown in Jefferson Parish and eastern New Orleans and Mid-City in New Orleans proper.
Prior to Hurricane Katrina there were few persons of Brazilian origin in the city, but after Katrina and by 2008 a population emerged. Portuguese speakers were the second most numerous group to take English as a second language classes in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans, after Spanish speakers. Many Brazilians worked in skilled trades such as tile and flooring; fewer worked as day laborers than did Latinos. Many had moved to New Orleans from Brazilian communities in the Northeastern United States, Florida, and Georgia. Brazilians settled throughout the New Orleans metropolitan area. Most of the Brazilians were undocumented immigrants. In January 2008 Bruce Nolan of the Houston Chronicle stated that estimates of the New Orleans Brazilian population had a mid-range of 3,000, but no entity had determined exactly how many Brazilians resided in the city. By 2008 Brazilians had opened many small churches, shops, and restaurants catering to their community.
The city of New Orleans faced a decreasing population before and after Hurricane Katrina. Beginning in 1960, the population of the city decreased due to several factors. Jobs and population followed the cycles of oil production and tourism, and the city 's population declined as suburbanization increased (common to many US cities), and jobs migrated to surrounding parishes. This economic and population decline resulted in high levels of poverty among city residents; in 1960 it was the fifth - highest of all US cities, and was almost twice the national average in 2005, at 24.5 %. New Orleans experienced an increase in residential segregation from 1900 to 1980, leaving the poor, who were disproportionately African - American in older, low - lying locations within the city 's core. These areas were especially susceptible to flood and storm damage.
Hurricane Katrina, which displaced 800,000 people in total, contributed significantly to the continued decline of the city 's population. As of 2010, the population of New Orleans was at 76 % of what it was in 2005. African Americans, renters, the elderly, and people with low income were disproportionately affected by Katrina, compared to affluent and white residents. In Katrina 's aftermath, city government commissioned groups such as Bring New Orleans Back Commission, the New Orleans Neighborhood Rebuilding Plan, the Unified New Orleans Plan, and the Office of Recovery Management to contribute to plans addressing depopulation. Their ideas included shrinking the city 's footprint from before the storm, incorporating community voices into development plans, and creating green spaces, some of which incited controversy.
From 2010 to 2014 the city grew by 12 %, adding an average of more than 10,000 new residents each year following the 2010 Census.
New Orleans has one of the largest and busiest ports in the world, and metropolitan New Orleans is a center of maritime industry. The New Orleans region also accounts for a significant portion of the nation 's oil refining and petrochemical production, and serves as a white - collar corporate base for onshore and offshore petroleum and natural gas production.
New Orleans is also a center for higher learning, with over 50,000 students enrolled in the region 's eleven two - and four - year degree granting institutions. A top - 50 research university, Tulane University, is located in New Orleans ' Uptown neighborhood. Metropolitan New Orleans is a major regional hub for the health care industry and boasts a small, globally competitive manufacturing sector. The center city possesses a rapidly growing, entrepreneurial creative industries sector, and is renowned for its cultural tourism. Greater New Orleans, Inc. (GNO, Inc.) acts as the first point - of - contact for regional economic development, coordinating between Louisiana 's Department of Economic Development and the various parochial business development agencies.
New Orleans was developed as a strategically located trading entrepôt, and it remains, above all, a crucial transportation hub and distribution center for waterborne commerce. The Port of New Orleans is the fifth - largest port in the United States based on volume of cargo handled, and second - largest in the state after the Port of South Louisiana. It is the twelfth - largest in the U.S. based on value of cargo. The Port of South Louisiana, also based in the New Orleans area, is the world 's busiest in terms of bulk tonnage. When combined with the Port of New Orleans, it forms the 4th - largest port system in volume handled. Many shipbuilding, shipping, logistics, freight forwarding and commodity brokerage firms either are based in metropolitan New Orleans or maintain a large local presence. Examples include Intermarine, Bisso Towboat, Northrop Grumman Ship Systems, Trinity Yachts, Expeditors International, Bollinger Shipyards, IMTT, International Coffee Corp, Boasso America, Transoceanic Shipping, Transportation Consultants Inc., Dupuy Storage & Forwarding and Silocaf. The largest coffee - roasting plant in the world, operated by Folgers, is located in New Orleans East.
Like Houston, New Orleans is located in proximity to the Gulf of Mexico and the many oil rigs that lie just offshore. Louisiana ranks fifth among states in oil production and eighth in reserves in the United States. It has two of the four Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) storage facilities: West Hackberry in Cameron Parish and Bayou Choctaw in Iberville Parish. Other infrastructure includes 17 petroleum refineries, with a combined crude oil distillation capacity of nearly 2.8 million barrels per day (450,000 m / d), the second highest in the nation after Texas. Louisiana 's numerous ports include the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), which is capable of receiving ultra large oil tankers. Given the quantity of oil importing, Louisiana is home to many major pipelines supplying the nation: Crude Oil (Exxon, Chevron, BP, Texaco, Shell, Scurloch - Permian, Mid-Valley, Calumet, Conoco, Koch Industries, Unocal, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Locap); Product (TEPPCO Partners, Colonial, Plantation, Explorer, Texaco, Collins); and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (Dixie, TEPPCO, Black Lake, Koch, Chevron, Dynegy, Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, Dow Chemical Company, Bridgeline, FMP, Tejas, Texaco, UTP). Several major energy companies have regional headquarters in the city or its suburbs, including Royal Dutch Shell, Eni and Chevron. Numerous other energy producers and oilfield services companies are also headquartered in the city or region, and the sector supports a large professional services base of specialized engineering and design firms, as well as a term office for the federal government 's Minerals Management Service.
The city is the home to a single Fortune 500 company: Entergy, a power generation utility and nuclear powerplant operations specialist. In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, the city lost its other Fortune 500 company, Freeport - McMoRan, when it merged its copper and gold exploration unit with an Arizona company and relocated that division to Phoenix. Its McMoRan Exploration affiliate remains headquartered in New Orleans. Other companies either headquartered or with significant operations in New Orleans include: Pan American Life Insurance, Pool Corp, Rolls - Royce, Newpark Resources, AT&T, TurboSquid, iSeatz, IBM, Navtech, Superior Energy Services, Textron Marine & Land Systems, McDermott International, Pellerin Milnor, Lockheed Martin, Imperial Trading, Laitram, Harrah 's Entertainment, Stewart Enterprises, Edison Chouest Offshore, Zatarain 's, Waldemar S. Nelson & Co., Whitney National Bank, Capital One, Tidewater Marine, Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits, Parsons Brinckerhoff, MWH Global, CH2M HILL, Energy Partners Ltd, The Receivables Exchange, GE Capital, and Smoothie King.
Tourism is another staple of the city 's economy. Perhaps more visible than any other sector, New Orleans ' tourist and convention industry is a $5.5 billion juggernaut that accounts for 40 percent of the city 's tax revenues. In 2004, the hospitality industry employed 85,000 people, making it the city 's top economic sector as measured by employment totals. New Orleans also hosts the World Cultural Economic Forum (WCEF). The forum, held annually at the New Orleans Morial Convention Center, is directed toward promoting cultural and economic development opportunities through the strategic convening of cultural ambassadors and leaders from around the world. The first WCEF took place in October 2008.
Federal agencies and the Armed forces have significant facilities in the area. The U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals operates at the US Courthouse downtown. NASA 's Michoud rocket factory is located in New Orleans East and is operated by Lockheed Martin. It is a huge manufacturing facility that produced the external fuel tanks for the space shuttles, and is now used for the construction of NASA 's Space Launch System. The rocket factory lies within the enormous New Orleans Regional Business Park, also home to the National Finance Center, operated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Crescent Crown distribution center. Other large governmental installations include the U.S. Navy 's Space and Naval Warfare (SPAWAR) Systems Command, located within the University of New Orleans Research and Technology Park in Gentilly, Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base New Orleans; and the headquarters for the Marine Force Reserves in Federal City in Algiers.
According to the City 's 2008 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
New Orleans has many visitor attractions, from the world - renowned French Quarter; to St. Charles Avenue, (home of Tulane and Loyola Universities, the historic Pontchartrain Hotel, and many 19th - century mansions); to Magazine Street, with its boutique stores and antique shops.
According to current travel guides, New Orleans is one of the top ten most - visited cities in the United States; 10.1 million visitors came to New Orleans in 2004. Prior to Hurricane Katrina (2005), there were 265 hotels with 38,338 rooms in the Greater New Orleans Area. In May 2007, there were over 140 hotels and motels in operation with over 31,000 rooms.
A 2009 Travel + Leisure poll of "America 's Favorite Cities '' ranked New Orleans first in ten categories, the most first - place rankings of the 30 cities included. According to the poll, New Orleans is the best U.S. city as a spring break destination and for "wild weekends '', stylish boutique hotels, cocktail hours, singles / bar scenes, live music / concerts and bands, antique and vintage shops, cafés / coffee bars, neighborhood restaurants, and people watching. The city also ranked second for the following: friendliness (behind Charleston, South Carolina), gay - friendliness (behind San Francisco), bed and breakfast hotels / inns, and ethnic food. However, the city was voted last in terms of active (?) residents, and it placed near the bottom in cleanliness, safety, and as a family destination.
The French Quarter (known locally as "the Quarter '' or Vieux Carré), which was the colonial - era city and is bounded by the Mississippi River, Rampart Street, Canal Street, and Esplanade Avenue, contains many popular hotels, bars, and nightclubs. Notable tourist attractions in the Quarter include Bourbon Street, Jackson Square, St. Louis Cathedral, the French Market (including Café du Monde, famous for café au lait and beignets), and Preservation Hall. Also in the French Quarter is the old New Orleans Mint, a former branch of the United States Mint which now operates as a museum, and The Historic New Orleans Collection, a museum and research center housing art and artifacts relating to the history of New Orleans and the Gulf South.
Close to the Quarter is the Tremé community, which contains the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park and the New Orleans African American Museum -- a site which is listed on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail.
To tour the port, one can ride the Natchez, an authentic steamboat with a calliope, which cruises the Mississippi the length of the city twice daily. Unlike most other places in the United States, New Orleans has become widely known for its element of elegant decay. The city 's historic cemeteries and their distinct above - ground tombs are attractions in themselves, the oldest and most famous of which, Saint Louis Cemetery, greatly resembles Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.
The National WWII Museum, opened in the Warehouse District in 2000 as the "National D - Day Museum, '' has undergone a major expansion. Nearby, Confederate Memorial Hall, the oldest continually - operating museum in Louisiana (although under renovation since Katrina), contains the second - largest collection of Confederate Civil War memorabilia in the world. Art museums in the city include the Contemporary Arts Center, the New Orleans Museum of Art (NOMA) in City Park, and the Ogden Museum of Southern Art.
New Orleans also boasts a decidedly natural side. It is home to the Audubon Nature Institute (which consists of Audubon Park, the Audubon Zoo, the Aquarium of the Americas, and the Audubon Insectarium), and home to gardens which include Longue Vue House and Gardens and the New Orleans Botanical Garden. City Park, one of the country 's most expansive and visited urban parks, has one of the largest stands (if not the largest stand) of oak trees in the world.
There are also various points of interest in the surrounding areas. Many wetlands are found in close proximity to the city, including Honey Island Swamp and Barataria Preserve. Chalmette Battlefield and National Cemetery, located just south of the city, is the site of the 1815 Battle of New Orleans.
In 2009, New Orleans ranked No. 7 on Newsmax magazine 's list of the "Top 25 Most Uniquely American Cities and Towns '', a piece written by current CBS News travel editor Peter Greenberg. In determining his ranking, Greenberg cited the city 's rebuilding effort post-Katrina as well as its mission to become eco-friendly.
The New Orleans area is home to numerous celebrations, the most popular of which is Carnival, often referred to as Mardi Gras. Carnival officially begins on the Feast of the Epiphany, also known as the "Twelfth Night ''. Mardi Gras (French for "Fat Tuesday ''), the final and grandest day of festivities, is the last Tuesday before the Catholic liturgical season of Lent, which commences on Ash Wednesday.
The largest of the city 's many music festivals is the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival. Commonly referred to simply as "Jazz Fest '', it is one of the largest music festivals in the nation, featuring crowds of people from all over the world, coming to experience music, food, arts, and crafts. Despite the name, it features not only jazz but a large variety of music, including both native Louisiana music and international artists. Along with Jazz Fest, New Orleans ' Voodoo Experience ("Voodoo Fest '') and the Essence Music Festival are both large music festivals featuring local and international artists.
Other major festivals held in the city include Southern Decadence, the French Quarter Festival, and the Tennessee Williams / New Orleans Literary Festival.
In 2002, Louisiana began offering tax incentives for film and television production. This led to a substantial increase in the number of films shot in the New Orleans area and brought the nickname "Hollywood South. '' Films which have been filmed or produced in and around New Orleans include: Ray, Runaway Jury, The Pelican Brief, Glory Road, All the King 's Men, Déjà Vu, Last Holiday, The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, 12 Years a Slave, and numerous others. In 2006, work began on the Louisiana Film & Television studio complex, based in the Tremé neighborhood. Louisiana began to offer similar tax incentives for music and theater productions in 2007, leading many to begin referring to New Orleans as "Broadway South. ''
The first theatre in New Orleans was the French - language Theatre de la Rue Saint Pierre, which opened in 1792. The first opera in New Orleans was given there in 1796. In the nineteenth century the city was the home of two of America 's most important venues for the performance of French opera, the Théâtre d'Orléans and later the French Opera House. Today, opera is performed by the New Orleans Opera.
New Orleans has always been a significant center for music, showcasing its intertwined European, Latin American, and African cultures. The city 's unique musical heritage was born in its colonial and early American days from a unique blending of European musical instruments with African rhythms. As the only North American city to have allowed slaves to gather in public and play their native music (largely in Congo Square, now located within Louis Armstrong Park), New Orleans gave birth to an indigenous music: jazz. Soon, brass bands formed, gaining popular attraction which continues today. The Louis Armstrong Park area, near the French Quarter in Tremé, contains the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park. The city 's music was later significantly influenced by Acadiana, home of Cajun and Zydeco music, and by Delta blues.
New Orleans ' unique musical culture is further evident in its traditional funerals. A spin on military brass band funerals, New Orleans traditional funerals feature sad music (mostly dirges and hymns) on the way to the cemetery and happier music (hot jazz) on the way back. Such musical funerals are still held when a local musician, a member of a social club, krewe, or benevolent society, or a noted dignitary has passed. Until the 1990s, most locals preferred to call these "funerals with music '', but visitors to the city have long dubbed them "jazz funerals. ''
Much later in its musical development, New Orleans was home to a distinctive brand of rhythm and blues that contributed greatly to the growth of rock and roll. An example of the New Orleans ' sound in the 1960s is the # 1 US hit "Chapel of Love '' by the Dixie Cups, a song which knocked the Beatles out of the top spot on the Billboard Hot 100. New Orleans became a hotbed for funk music in the 1960s and 1970s, and by the late 1980s, it had developed its own localized variant of hip hop, called bounce music. While never commercially successful outside of the Deep South, it remained immensely popular in the poorer neighborhoods of the city throughout the 1990s.
A cousin of bounce, New Orleans hip hop has seen commercial success locally and internationally, producing Lil Wayne, Master P, Birdman, Juvenile, Cash Money Records, and No Limit Records. Additionally, the wave of popularity of cowpunk, a fast form of southern rock, originated with the help of several local bands, such as The Radiators, Better Than Ezra, Cowboy Mouth, and Dash Rip Rock. Throughout the 1990s, many sludge metal bands started in the area. New Orleans ' heavy metal bands like Eyehategod, Soilent Green, Crowbar, and Down have incorporated styles such as hardcore punk, doom metal, and southern rock to create an original and heady brew of swampy and aggravated metal that has largely avoided standardization.
New Orleans is the southern terminus of the famed Highway 61.
New Orleans is world - famous for its food. The indigenous cuisine is distinctive and influential. New Orleans food developed from centuries of amalgamation of the local Creole, haute Creole, and New Orleans French cuisines. Local ingredients, French, Spanish, Italian, African, Native American, Cajun, Chinese, and a hint of Cuban traditions combine to produce a truly unique and easily recognizable Louisiana flavor.
New Orleans is known for specialties like beignets (locally pronounced like "ben - yays ''), square - shaped fried pastries that could be called "French doughnuts '' (served with café au lait made with a blend of coffee and chicory rather than only coffee); and Po - boy and Italian Muffuletta sandwiches; Gulf oysters on the half - shell, fried oysters, boiled crawfish, and other seafood; étouffée, jambalaya, gumbo, and other Creole dishes; and the Monday favorite of red beans and rice. (Louis Armstrong often signed his letters, "Red beans and ricely yours ''.) Another New Orleans specialty is the praline locally / ˈprɑːliːn /, a candy made with brown sugar, granulated sugar, cream, butter, and pecans. The city also has notable street food including the Asian inspired beef Yaka mein.
New Orleans has developed a distinctive local dialect of American English over the years that is neither Cajun nor the stereotypical Southern accent, so often misportrayed by film and television actors. It does, like earlier Southern Englishes, feature frequent deletion of the pre-consonantal "r ''. This dialect is quite similar to New York City area accents such as "Brooklynese '', to people unfamiliar with either. There are many theories regarding how it came to be, but it likely resulted from New Orleans ' geographic isolation by water and the fact that the city was a major immigration port throughout the 19th century. As a result, many of the ethnic groups who reside in Brooklyn also reside in New Orleans, such as the Irish, Italians (especially Sicilians), and Germans, among others, as well as a very sizable Jewish community.
One of the strongest varieties of the New Orleans accent is sometimes identified as the Yat dialect, from the greeting "Where y'at? '' This distinctive accent is dying out generation by generation in the city itself, but remains very strong in the surrounding parishes.
Less visibly, various ethnic groups throughout the area have retained their distinctive language traditions to this day. Although rare, languages still spoken are the Kreyol Lwiziyen by the Creoles; an archaic Louisiana - Canarian Spanish dialect spoken by the Isleño people and older members of the population; and Cajun.
New Orleans ' professional sports teams include the 2009 Super Bowl XLIV champion New Orleans Saints (NFL), the New Orleans Pelicans (NBA), and the New Orleans Baby Cakes (PCL). It is also home to the Big Easy Rollergirls, an all - female flat track roller derby team, and the New Orleans Blaze, a women 's football team. A local group of investors began conducting a study in 2007 to see if the city could support a Major League Soccer team. New Orleans is also home to two NCAA Division I athletic programs, the Tulane Green Wave of the American Athletic Conference and the UNO Privateers of the Southland Conference.
The Mercedes - Benz Superdome is the home of the Saints, the Sugar Bowl, and other prominent events. It has hosted the Super Bowl a record seven times (1978, 1981, 1986, 1990, 1997, 2002, and 2013). The Smoothie King Center is the home of the Pelicans, VooDoo, and many events that are not large enough to need the Superdome. New Orleans is also home to the Fair Grounds Race Course, the nation 's third - oldest thoroughbred track. The city 's Lakefront Arena has also been home to sporting events.
Each year New Orleans plays host to the Sugar Bowl, the New Orleans Bowl and the Zurich Classic, a golf tournament on the PGA Tour. In addition, it has often hosted major sporting events that have no permanent home, such as the Super Bowl, ArenaBowl, NBA All - Star Game, BCS National Championship Game, and the NCAA Final Four. The Rock ' n ' Roll Mardi Gras Marathon and the Crescent City Classic are two road running events held annually in the city.
The City of New Orleans is a political subdivision of the State of Louisiana. It has a mayor - council government according to a Home Rule Charter adopted in 1954, as later amended. The city council consists of seven council members, who are elected by district and two at - large councilmembers. The current mayor, Mitch Landrieu, was elected on February 6, 2010 and assumed office on May 3, 2010. The Orleans Parish Civil Sheriff 's Office serves papers involving lawsuits and provides security for the Civil District Court and Juvenile Courts. The Criminal Sheriff, Marlin Gusman, maintains the parish prison system, provides security for the Criminal District Court, and provides backup for the New Orleans Police Department on an as - needed basis. An ordinance in 2006 established an Office of Inspector General for city government.
The city of New Orleans and the parish of Orleans operate as a merged city - parish government. Before the city of New Orleans became co-extensive with Orleans Parish, Orleans Parish was home to numerous smaller communities. The original city of New Orleans was composed of what are now the 1st through 9th wards. The city of Lafayette (including the Garden District) was added in 1852 as the 10th and 11th wards. In 1870, Jefferson City, including Faubourg Bouligny and much of the Audubon and University areas, was annexed as the 12th, 13th, and 14th wards. Algiers, on the west bank of the Mississippi, was also annexed in 1870, becoming the 15th ward.
New Orleans ' government is now largely centralized in the city council and mayor 's office, but it maintains a number of relics from earlier systems when various sections of the city ran much of their affairs separately. For example, New Orleans had seven elected tax assessors, each with their own staff, representing various districts of the city, rather than one centralized office. A constitutional amendment passed on November 7, 2006, consolidated the seven assessors into one in 2010. On February 18, 2010, Errol Williams was elected as the first citywide assessor. The New Orleans government operates both a fire department and the New Orleans Emergency Medical Services.
Crime has been recognized as an ongoing problem for New Orleans, although the issue is outside the view of most visitors to the city. As in other U.S. cities of comparable size, the incidence of homicide and other violent crimes is highly concentrated in certain impoverished neighborhoods, such as housing projects. The murder rate for the city has been historically high for its population and has always stayed among cities with the highest murder rates. In 1979, 242 killings was the first record of homicides broken in New Orleans. Murders would later go up to 305 by the end of 1990 and to 345 in 1991.
In 1994 New Orleans was named the Murder Capitol of America as the city hit a historic peak of 424 killings. The murder count surpassed Washington D.C., Chicago, Baltimore and Miami.
In 2012, Travel + Leisure named New Orleans the # 2 "America 's Dirtiest City '', down from a # 1 "Dirtiest '' status of the previous year. The magazine surveyed both national readership and local residents, from a list of prominent cities having the most visible illegal littering, dumping, and other environmental crime conditions.
Across New Orleans, homicides peaked in 1994 at 86 murders per 100,000 residents. By 2009, despite a 17 % decrease in violent crime in the city, the homicide rate remained among the highest in the United States, at between 55 and 64 per 100,000 residents. In 2010, New Orleans was 49.1 per 100,000, and in 2012, that number climbed to 53.2. This is the highest rate among cities of 250,000 population or larger. Offenders in New Orleans are almost exclusively black men, with 97 % of the offenders being black and 95 % being male.
The violent crime rate was also a key issue in the city 's 2010 mayoral race. In January 2007, several thousand New Orleans residents marched through city streets and gathered at City Hall for a rally demanding police and city leaders tackle the crime problem. Then - Mayor Ray Nagin said he was "totally and solely focused '' on addressing the problem. Later, the city implemented checkpoints during late night hours in problem areas. The murder rate climbed 14 % higher in 2011 to 57.88 per 100,000 retaining its status as the ' Murder Capital of the United States ' and rising to 21 in the world. In 2016, according to annual crime statistics released by the New Orleans Police Department, there were 176 murders in the city.
There are several higher education institutions in the city:
New Orleans Public Schools (NOPS) is the name given to the city 's public school system. Pre-Katrina, NOPS was one of the area 's largest systems (along with the Jefferson Parish public school system). In the years leading up to Hurricane Katrina, the New Orleans public school system was widely recognized as the lowest performing school district in Louisiana. According to researchers Carl L. Bankston and Stephen J. Caldas, only 12 of the 103 public schools within the city limits of New Orleans showed reasonably good performance at the beginning of the 21st century.
Following Hurricane Katrina, the state of Louisiana took over most of the schools within the system (all schools that fell into a nominal "worst - performing '' metric); many of these schools, in addition to others that were not subject to state takeover, were subsequently granted operating charters giving them administrative independence from the Orleans Parish School Board, the Recovery School District and / or the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education (BESE). At the start of the 2014 school year, all public school students in the NOPS system will attend these independent public charter schools, making New Orleans "the nation 's first completely privatized public school district in the nation. ''
The last few years have witnessed significant and sustained gains in student achievement, as outside operators like KIPP, the Algiers Charter School Network, and the Capital One -- University of New Orleans Charter School Network have assumed control of dozens of schools. The most recent release of annual school performance scores (October 2009) demonstrated continued growth in the academic performance of New Orleans ' public schools. If the scores of all public schools in New Orleans (Orleans Parish School Board - chartered, Recovery School District - chartered, Recovery School District - operated, etc.) are considered, an overall school district performance score of 70.6 results. This score represents a 6 % increase over an equivalent 2008 metric, and a 24 % improvement when measured against an equivalent pre-Katrina (2004) metric, when a district score of 56.9 was posted. Notably, this score of 70.6 approaches the score (78.4) posted in 2009 by the adjacent, suburban Jefferson Parish public school system, though that system 's performance score is itself below the state average of 91.
This longstanding pattern is changing, however, as the NOPS system is engaged in the most promising and far - reaching public school reforms in the nation, reforms aimed at decentralizing power away from the pre-Katrina school board central bureaucracy to individual school principals and independent public charter school boards, monitoring charter school performance by granting renewable, five - year operating contracts permitting the closure of those not succeeding, and vesting choice in parents of public schools students, allowing them to enroll their children in almost any school in the district.
There are numerous academic and public libraries and archives in New Orleans, including Monroe Library at Loyola University, Howard - Tilton Memorial Library at Tulane University, the Law Library of Louisiana, and the Earl K. Long Library at the University of New Orleans.
The New Orleans Public Library includes 13 locations, most of which were damaged by Hurricane Katrina. However, only four libraries remained closed in 2007. The main library includes a Louisiana Division housing city archives and special collections.
Other research archives are located at the Historic New Orleans Collection and the Old U.S. Mint.
An independently operated lending library called Iron Rail Book Collective specializes in radical and hard - to - find books. The library contains over 8,000 titles and is open to the public. It was the first library in the city to re-open after Hurricane Katrina.
The Louisiana Historical Association was founded in New Orleans in 1889. It operated first at Howard Memorial Library. Then its own Memorial Hall was added to Howard Library. The design for the new building was undertaken by the New Orleans architect Thomas Sully.
Historically, the major newspaper in the area was The Times - Picayune. The paper made headlines of its own in 2012 when owner Advance Publications cut its print schedule to three days each week, instead focusing its efforts on its website, NOLA.com. That action briefly the made New Orleans the largest city in the country without a daily newspaper, until the Baton Rouge newspaper The Advocate began a New Orleans edition in September 2012. In June 2013, the Times - Picayune resumed daily printing with a condensed newsstand tabloid edition, nicknamed TP Street, which is published on the three days each week that its namesake broadsheet edition is not printed. (The Picayune has not returned to daily delivery.) With the resumption of daily print editions from the Times - Picayune and the launch of the New Orleans edition of The Advocate, now The New Orleans Advocate, the city now has two daily newspapers for the first time since the afternoon States - Item ceased publication on May 31, 1980.
In addition to the daily newspapers, weekly publications include The Louisiana Weekly and Gambit Weekly. Also in wide circulation is the Clarion Herald, the newspaper of the Archdiocese of New Orleans.
Greater New Orleans is the 54th largest Designated Market Area (DMA) in the U.S., serving 566,960 homes. Major television network affiliates serving the area include:
Two radio stations that were influential in promoting New Orleans - based bands and singers were 50,000 - watt WNOE - AM (1060) and 10,000 - watt WTIX (690 AM). These two stations competed head - to - head from the late 1950s to the late 1970s.
WWOZ, the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Station, broadcasts, 24 hours per day, modern and traditional jazz, blues, rhythm and blues, brass band, gospel, cajun, zydeco, Caribbean, Latin, Brazilian, African, bluegrass, and Irish at 90.7 FM and at www.wwoz.org.
WTUL, a local college radio station (Tulane University), broadcasts a wide array of programming, including 20th century classical, reggae, jazz, showtunes, indie rock, electronic music, soul / funk, goth, punk, hip hop, New Orleans music, opera, folk, hardcore, Americana, country, blues, Latin, cheese, techno, local, world, ska, swing and big band, kids shows, and even news programming from DemocracyNow. WTUL is listener supported and non-commercial. The disc jockeys are volunteers, many of them college students.
Louisiana 's film and television tax credits have spurred some growth in the television industry, although to a lesser degree than in the film industry. Many films and advertisements have in part or whole been filmed in the city, as have television programs such as The Real World: New Orleans in 2000, The Real World: Back to New Orleans in 2009 and 2010 and Bad Girls Club: New Orleans in 2011.
New Orleans has four active streetcar lines:
More lines are at the planning stage.
The city 's streetcars were also featured in the Tennessee Williams play, A Streetcar Named Desire. The streetcar line to Desire Street became a bus line in 1948. There are proposals to revive a Desire streetcar line, running along the neutral grounds of North Rampart and St. Claude, as far downriver as Poland Avenue, near the Industrial Canal.
Hurricane Katrina destroyed the power lines supplying the St. Charles Avenue line. The associated levee failures flooded the Mid-City facility storing the red streetcars which normally run on the Riverfront and Canal Street lines. Restoration of service has been gradual, with vintage St. Charles line cars running on the Riverfront and Canal lines until the more modern Czech - built red cars are back in service; they are being individually restored at the RTA 's facility between Willow and Jeannette streets in the Carrollton neighborhood. On December 23, 2007, streetcars were restored to running on the St. Charles line up to Carrolton Avenue. The much - anticipated re-opening of the second portion of the historic route, which continues until the intersection of Carrolton Avenue and Claiborne Avenue, was commemorated on June 28, 2008.
The city 's flat landscape, simple street grid, and mild winters, facilitate bicycle ridership, helping to make New Orleans eighth among U.S. cities in its rate of bicycle and pedestrian transportation, and sixth in terms of the percentage of bicycling commuters. The city 's bicyclists benefit from being located at the start of the Mississippi River Trail, a 3,000 - mile (4,800 km) bicycle path that stretches from the city 's Audubon Park to Minnesota. The first 25 miles (40 km) of the path, through Destrehan, is paved with a smooth macadam surface. Bicyclists looking to cross the river have access to the city 's ferries. Since the 2005 levee - breach, the city has actively sought to promote bicycling by constructing a $1.5 million bike trail from Mid-City to Lake Pontchartrain, and by adding over 37 miles (60 km) of bicycle lanes to various streets, including St. Charles Avenue. In 2009, Tulane University contributed to these efforts by converting the main street through its Uptown campus, McAlister Place, into a pedestrian mall opened to bicycle traffic. In 2010, work began to add a 3.1 - mile (5.0 km) bicycle corridor from the French Quarter to Lakeview, and 14 miles (23 km) of additional bike lanes on existing streets. New Orleans has also been recognized as a place with an abundance of uniquely decorated and uniquely designed bicycles.
Public transportation in the city is operated by the New Orleans Regional Transit Authority ("RTA ''). There are many bus routes connecting the city and suburban areas. The RTA lost 200 + buses due to Hurricane Katrina, this would mean that there would be a 30 -- 60 minute waiting period for the next bus to come to the bus stop, and the streetcars took until 2008 to return, so the RTA placed an order for 38 Orion VII Next Generation clean diesel buses, which arrived in July 2008. The RTA has these new buses running on biodiesel. The Jefferson Parish Department of Transit Administration operates Jefferson Transit, which provides service between the city and its suburbs.
New Orleans is served by Interstate 10, Interstate 610 and Interstate 510. I - 10 travels east -- west through the city as the Pontchartrain Expressway. In the far eastern part of the city, New Orleans East, it is known as the Eastern Expressway. I - 610 provides a direct shortcut for traffic passing through New Orleans via I - 10, allowing that traffic to bypass I - 10 's southward curve. In the future, New Orleans will have another interstate highway, Interstate 49, which will be extended from its current terminus in Lafayette to the city.
In addition to the interstate highways, U.S. 90 travels through the city, while U.S. 61 terminates in the city 's downtown center. In addition, U.S. 11 terminates in the eastern portion of the city.
New Orleans is home to many bridges, the Crescent City Connection is perhaps the most notable. It serves as New Orleans ' major bridge across the Mississippi River, providing a connection between the city 's downtown on the eastbank and its westbank suburbs. Other bridges that cross the Mississippi River in the New Orleans area are the Huey P. Long Bridge, over which U.S. 90 travels, and the Hale Boggs Memorial Bridge, which carries Interstate 310.
The Twin Span Bridge, a five - mile (8 km) causeway in eastern New Orleans, carries I - 10 across Lake Pontchartrain. Also in eastern New Orleans, Interstate 510 / LA 47 travels across the Intracoastal Waterway / Mississippi River - Gulf Outlet Canal via the Paris Road Bridge, connecting New Orleans East and suburban Chalmette.
The tolled Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, consisting of two parallel bridges are, at 24 miles (39 km) long, the longest bridges in the world. Built in the 1950s (southbound span) and 1960s (northbound span), the bridges connect New Orleans with its suburbs on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain via Metairie.
The metropolitan area is served by the Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport, located in the suburb of Kenner. New Orleans also has several regional airports located throughout the metropolitan area. These include the Lakefront Airport, Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base New Orleans (locally known as Callender Field) in the suburb of Belle Chasse and Southern Seaplane Airport, also located in Belle Chasse. Southern Seaplane has a 3,200 - foot (980 m) runway for wheeled planes and a 5,000 - foot (1,500 m) water runway for seaplanes. New Orleans International suffered some damage as a result of Hurricane Katrina, but as of April 2007, it contained the most traffic and is the busiest airport in the state of Louisiana and the sixth busiest in the Southeast. As of 2017, the airport handled more than 11 million passengers, with service to more than 57 destinations. The airport 's international service includes nonstop flights to the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Mexico, Honduras, Bahamas, and Dominican Republic.
The city is served by rail via Amtrak. The New Orleans Union Passenger Terminal is the central rail depot, and is served by three trains: the Crescent, operating between New Orleans and New York City; the City of New Orleans, operating between New Orleans and Chicago; and the Sunset Limited, operating through New Orleans between Orlando and Los Angeles. From late August 2005 to the present, the Sunset Limited has remained officially an Orlando - to - Los Angeles train, being considered temporarily truncated due to the lingering effects of Hurricane Katrina. At first (until late October 2005) it was truncated to a San Antonio - to - Los Angeles service; since then (from late October 2005 on) it has been truncated to a New Orleans - to - Los Angeles service. As time has passed, particularly since the January 2006 completion of the rebuilding of damaged tracks east of New Orleans by their owner, CSX Transportation, the obstacles to restoration of the Sunset Limited 's full route have been more managerial and political than physical.
With the strategic benefits of both a major international port and one of the few double - track Mississippi River crossings, the city is served by six of the seven Class I railroads in North America: Union Pacific Railroad, BNSF Railway, Norfolk Southern Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, CSX Transportation and Canadian National Railway. The New Orleans Public Belt Railroad provides interchange services between the railroads.
Recently, many have proposed extending New Orleans ' public transit system by adding light rail routes from downtown, along Airline Highway through the airport to Baton Rouge and from downtown to Slidell and the Mississippi Gulf Coast. Proponents of this idea claim that these new routes would boost the region 's economy, which has been badly damaged by Hurricane Katrina, and serve as an evacuation option for hospital patients out of the city.
New Orleans has had continuous ferry service since 1827, with three routes in current operation. The Canal Street Ferry (or Algiers Ferry) connects downtown New Orleans at the foot of Canal Street with the National Historic Landmark District of Algiers Point on the other side of the Mississippi River ("West Bank '' in local parlance) and is popular with tourists and locals alike. This downtown ferry terminal also serves the Canal Street / Gretna Ferry, connecting Gretna, Louisiana. The Gretna Ferry serves pedestrians and bicyclists only. The Canal Street Ferry services passenger vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians, as does a third ferry miles downriver, connecting Chalmette, Louisiana and Lower Algiers.
New Orleans has ten sister cities:
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percentage of shia and sunni muslim in india | Shia Islam in India - wikipedia
Shia Muslims are a large minority among India 's Muslims. There has been no particular census conducted in India with regards to sects, but Pew Research Center claimed the estimated Shia population in 2009 was between 10 % and 15 %. However, as per an estimation of one reputed Shia NGO Alimaan Trust, it claimed India 's Shia population in early 2000 was around 30 million with Sayyids comprising just a tenth of the Shia population. According to some national and international sources Indian Shia population is the world 's second - largest after Iran. According to the 2012 International Religious Freedom Report Shiites constitute 13 - 14 % of the Indian Muslim Population.
The Shia population was also acclaimed publicly as second largest by the 14th Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh quoted in the year 2005. One of the lingering problems in estimating the Shia population is that even though the Shia form a significant minority in a Muslim country, the entire population is often listed as Sunni. Shiite sources claim that there are estimated to be 21 -- 35 percent of the Muslim population in South Asia, although the total number is difficult to estimate due to the intermingling between the Islamic schools and branches and practice of taqiyya by Shias.
There are many big and small towns and villages with a majority Shiite Muslim population in India. Many Sayyids between 11th to 16th century migrated to the Indian subcontinent to escape the persecution of Shias in mostly Sunni ruled Middle East, Prominent places in India with majority or considerable Shia Muslim population are Kargil, Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Hallaur, Amroha and others.
Among the Shias of India, an overwhelming majority belongs to the Ithna Ashari (Twelver) division, while the Shias among the Khoja and Bohra communities are Ismaili. Dawoodi Bohras are primarily based in India, even though the Dawoodi theology originated in Yemen. India is home to the majority Dawoodi Bohra population most of them concentrated in Gujarat out of over 1 million followers worldwide.
As per historical evidences and the genealogy maintained by the Sayyids who migrated to India from the Middle East, the history of Shia Islam in India traces long back, around 1000 years. According to historical records earliest known Muslim settlers in Awadh region (now a part of state of Uttar Pradesh) were father and son duo Saiyed Salar Dawood Ghazi and Saiyed Saiyed Salar Masud Ghazi. In 422 AH / 1030 AD Saiyed Salaar Dawood Ghazi his son Saiyed Salaar Masud Ghazi and nephew Saiyed Salaar Sulaiman established themselves at Satrikh (also known as Sulaimanabad), district Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh. In the year 462 AH / 1070 AD Saiyed Abdullah Zarbaqsh and Saiyed Zaid Shahsawar viz. the son - in - law and grandson (daughter 's son) of Saiyed Salaar Dawood Ghazi established the town Zaidpur, district Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh. The rulers of various dynasties of India and also in the 11th century the rulers of Multan and Sindh and all the Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad were adherents of Shia Islam. The Nawabs of Awadh
Shia culture and belief has left its influence all over India with Imam Hussein ibn Ali becoming the revered personality in India not only for the Shias but also from non-Muslim communities, especially the Hindus of northern India who participate in ceremonies commemorating Hussein ibn Ali 's martyrdom on the Day of Ashura.
Shaykh al - Mufid writes that before the Battle of Karbala, Hussein ibn Ali and the commander of the enemy forces, Umar ibn Saad, met at night and talked together for a long time. After that meeting Umar ibn Saad sent a letter to the Governor of Kufa, Ubayd - Allah ibn Ziyad in which he wrote that Hussein ibn Ali has suggested that he go to ' one of the border outposts ' of the rapidly expanding Muslim empire as a way of resolving conflict. Other traditions name that border outpost as Al Hind or India. Even though Hussein ibn Ali himself was not able to go to India, some of the Shia did emigrate there for various reasons, including those who came as refugees from Umayyads and Abbasids persecution. These refugees brought with them rituals which kept alive the remembrance of Karbala and their Shia Identity.
Its narrated by Abd al Razzaq al Muqarram in his work of Maqtal al - Husayn that prior to his martyrdom, Al - Abbas ibn Ali while asking water for Mohammad 's family from the Yazid I 's army expressed his desire to go either Rome or to India. This made some people weep in the army of Yazid.
It has been believed that in 7th century few ladies from the household of Prophet Mohammad after Battle of Karbala came to Punjab province which became a part of Pakistan. One of the prominent of them was Ruqayyah bint Ali, the daughter of Ali through his wife Umm ul - Banin, Ruqayyah bint Ali was the sister of Al - Abbas ibn Ali and wife of Muslim ibn Aqeel. Still her shrine in Lahore, Punjab of Pakistan, is visited by people all around and she is referred as Bibi Pak Daman.
Most of the Shias migrated to South Asia to prosper and obtain high positions in various Muslim Sultanates and later Mughal Empire. There were also rebels and nobles who lost royal favour and migrated to Mughal Empire. The Mughals also preferred to employ foreign Muslim officials that had no local interests and thus were loyal to the Mughal emperor.
Shiites in India faced persecution by some local rulers of various muslim dynasties which resulted in the martyrdom of Indian Shia scholars like Qazi Nurullah Shustari (also known as Shaheed - e-Thaalis, the third Martyr) and Mirza Muhammad Kamil Dehlavi (also known as Shaheed - e - Rabay, the fourth Martyr) who are two of the five martyrs of Shia Islam.
In post-Independence India, Shias are free to profess their faith without any restriction, and Ashura is an observed as a holiday in many parts of the country, however, some degree of persecution remains in Kashmir region of India by the majority Sunni community. In Kashmir, Ashura Procession has been banned by the government.
Nathanvilal Wahshi, a Hindu Writer narrated about the arrival of a helper for Hussein ibn Ali 's cause on the eight day of Moharram. Hussein ibn Ali welcomed him and immediately confirmed his Indian Identity. Hussein ibn Ali then goes on to praise India and its people in the following words:
"The perfumed fragrance entered the realm of love from your country The cool breeze came to my grandfather Mohammad from that garden. ''
Upon asking more about the guest 's background he finds out that he is an Indian merchant residing in neighboring city of Basra, his father had been entrusted with the treasury of the war booty by none other than Ali. For this reason the merchant holds himself morally responsible for assisting Hussein ibn Ali in any possible way when the later is in trouble. Hussein ibn Ali appreciated gesture, but discouraged the merchant from taking up arms in following words:
"Brother, in my opinion you are the beloved of the world. In this country you are the treasure of India. ''
Munshi Premchand further narrates the perception of this merchant on the part of Imam as suspicion about Hussein ibn Ali 's sincerity because of being a Hindu.
With tear filled eyes the traveler said: '' I am a Hindu, perhaps my fidelity is not convincing Master! Even though this heart is the land of Idol Temple, In it is also lit the light of affection ''.
Hussein ibn Ali said: What have you said in passion, Why should my eyes doubt your fidelity? My lord is aware of my conscience. What 's the difference between Hindu and Muslim is the quest for truth. This has the guiding principle for the People of the Cloak or Ahl al - Kisa. ''.
India, the only non-Muslim nation in the world with Shiite population of 4 -- 5 percent of its entire population, has recognized the day of Ashura listed as Moharram as the Public Holiday in India. India also has the Birthday of Imam Ali as public Holiday in states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, whose capital Lucknow is considered as the centre of India 's Shiite Muslim community. The Birthdate of Ali is not recognized by any country in any of its states other than India, Azerbaijan and Iran as public Holiday. It is also a known fact that when Saddam mercilessly quelled a Shia uprising in 1992, the world media remained silent and damage to the shrines of Hussein ibn Ali and his half - brother Al - Abbas ibn Ali, in the course of Baathist attempts to flush out Shia rebels was a tightly kept secret of the Saddam regime but Indian media Doordarshan was the only network in the world to have shown that footage.
India being a Secular state, Shiite Muslims in India practice their religion freely without any restriction.
Shias also claim to be sidelined in India, hence the All India Shia Personal Law Board was formed after segregation from the All India Muslim Personal Law Board in 2005 to address the legal needs of the Shia population. AISPLB feels that there should be a national policy for the Shias to prevent their exploitation by vested interests. The attitude of the government towards Muslims especially in Maharashtra came in for criticism. The newly formed All India Shia Personal Law Board had 69 members at the time of formation compared to 204 members in the All India Muslim Personal Law Board. The Shia body had the support of the erstwhile royal family of Lucknow, some 2000 descendants of the family claim to have extended their support. Shias claim they have been sidelined by the Sunni - dominated law board, which was set up in 1972. Maulana Mirza Mohammed Athar, president of the breakaway All India Shia Personal Law Board explained the reason for segregation saying that, Shias have formed a forum of themselves because the All India Muslim Personal Law Board never took interest in their well being. '' Shias and Sunnis do not interpret family laws in a similar way. Shiites also have different Mosques and Burial grounds in India. ''
Some sources claim that India has the second largest Shia population in the world, after Iran. though there has been no particular census conducted in India with regards to sects. However, some external sources such as the BBC claim that there are close to 45 million Shia 's in India, and the India 2013 International Religious Freedom Report puts a figure of less than 15 % and the Pew Research Center figure them between 15 and 20 percent of the Muslim population estimating the numbers between 30,000,000 and 40,000,000. However national and International reports suggest that the numbers maybe higher after taking into consideration the report released by Britannica Book of the year in 1997 which put the estimates of Shia population in India in 1996 over 26,000,000 out of entire Indian Muslim population of 103,000,000 in 1996. Shias live in the town of Badgam, Jammu and Kashmir with a majority population, and has been peaceful and has resisted separatism. Shia population is 15 lakhs of Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, which is 14 % of entire state population.
There are notable Shia Muslims involved in many prominent Indian affairs, such as Arts, Business, Diplomates, Bureaucracrates, Journalism, Sports, Science, Religion, Literature, Politics, etc.
Azim Hashim Premji, being 3rd richest Indian, belongs to Shia community. Bismillah Khan, the winner of Bharat Ratna award and Badey Ghulam Ali Khan are regarded as one of the most important figures in Indian music. In Politics, majority of Shia Muslims, shia muslims are generally supporters of the Bharatiya Janta Party.
Some Shia organisations in India include: -
Azadari or the mourning practice of Imam Husain ibn Ali is very much prevalent across India. One thing which is worth noting in Indian Azadari is the participation of non Muslims in Shia rituals on the day of Ashura.
The Hindu rulers of Vijayanagar during the 16th and 17th centuries even donned blackened garments and helped to arrange the Kala Tazia (Black Tazia) processions. Even the Scindias of Gwalior and the Holkar Maharajas of Indore conducted Majlis or Muharram congregations. In Lucknow Hindus regularly join Muslims in the Azadari and Alam processions. The Sufi saints of India along with the Shi'ite Scholars encouraged the mixing and merging of indigenous elements from the rich cultural heritage of the land to that of Muharram thus proclaiming the message of peaceful co-existence among communities and united resistance to tyrannical authority.
The carrying of Alams through fire by men is more common. There are several occasions when these are traditionally practiced particularly in the town of Vizianagaram 550 km outside of Hyderabad where 110 Alams are taken through the fire. A significant aspect of firewalking in the context of Moharram commemorations in Andhra Pradesh is the participation of Hindus in the ceremonies. In Vizinagaram 109 of the Alams are carried by Hindus. The Grand Ashura Procession In Kashmir is banned by the state government of Kashmir.
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can you put different engines in a car | Engine swap - wikipedia
An engine swap is the process of removing a car 's original engine and replacing it with another.
This is done either because of failure, or to install a different engine, usually one that is more modern, this may make it more powerful and or efficient. Older engines may also have a shortage of spare parts and so a modern replacement may be more easily and cheaply maintained. Swapping to a diesel engine for improved fuel economy is a long established practice, with modern high efficiency and torque diesel engines this does not necessarily mean a reduction in performance associated with older diesel engine swaps. For the particular application of off - road vehicles the high torque at low speed of turbo diesels combined with good fuel economy makes these conversions particularly effective. Older non-electronic fuel injection diesels were well known for their reliability especially in wet conditions.
An engine swap can either be to another engine intended to work in the car by the manufacturer, or one totally different. The former is much simpler than the latter. Fitting an engine into a car that was never intended to accept it may require much work and money; modifying the car to fit the engine, modifying the engine to fit the car, and building custom engine mounts and transmission bellhousing adaptors to interface them along with a custom built driveshaft. Some small businesses build conversion kits for engine swaps, such as the Fiat Twin cam into a Morris Minor or similar.
Swapping the engine may have implications on the cars safety, performance, handling and reliability. The new engine may be lighter or heavier than the existing one which affects the amount of weight over the nearest axle and the overall weight of the car - this can adversely affect the car 's ride, handling and braking ability. Existing brakes, transmission and suspension components may be inadequate to handle the increased weight and / or power of the new engine with either upgrades being required or premature wear and failure being likely.
Insurance companies may charge more or even refuse to insure a vehicle that has been fitted with a different engine to its initial configuration.
A common anecdote among tuners in the United States is that the easiest way to make a car faster is to drop in a General Motors small block engine as used in the Corvette. The Chevrolet Vega (and its Astre, Monza, and Skyhawk sisters) is a candidate for a small block swap; some have also seen big blocks, also. Chevrolet engines have been used in such cars as Toyota Supras, BMWs, RX - 7s, Mazda Miatas, Jaguar sedans, Datsun 240s, 260s, and 280Zs, Corvairs, and others.
In the Honda world, engine swaps include the Civic Si (B16A), The Civic Type R (B16B), Integra GSR (B18C), and the Integra Type R (B18C5) engines. More recently, swapping larger displacement Honda engines (such as the J - series V6) has become more popular. Swapping any of these motors into a lightweight 88 - 00 Honda Civic chassis can achieve greater performance.
Chrysler made many turbocharged vehicles in the 1980s, and these engines share much in common with the naturally aspirated ones. It is quite common to obtain an engine from a vehicle such as a Dodge Daytona and swap it into a Dodge Aries. The Mopar Performance arm even offered a kit to upgrade the Dodge Daytona to rear wheel drive with a Mopar V8.
Engine swaps are also somewhat common within the Volkswagen tuning scene, often placing Type 2 (Bus), Type 3, and Type 4 (Squareback) engines in the Type 1 (Beetle). Water - cooled engines, such as the GTI 16 - valve four, VR6, or 1.8 T are commonly swapped into the Mark II GTI, Jetta, and Corrado. Less common is the swap into a Mark 1 Golf or Cabriolet, giving an amazing power - to - weight ratio, even with minimally modified powerplants. Porsche engines are also very popular one of the most popular is to take the engine from a Porsche 911 super 1600.
In jurisdictions such as California, with strict, arbitrary smog rules, it may not be possible to register a late - model vehicle with an engine swap, even if it can be proven to produce less pollution than the original engine (owing to "visual inspection '' rules).
In the Super GT racing series, engine swaps can be considered a way of life for the upper tier GT500 cars, most of which are provided with specially modified racing engines from the manufacturers. GT500 class rules themselves allow for any engine to be swapped into a car as long as it is from the same manufacturer. Notable examples include Toyota swapping in highly tuned 4 - cylinder engines originally from the Toyota Celica into their Toyota Supra GT500 race cars.
British sports cars (such as MGs and Triumphs) from the late 1960s and early 1970s were attractive light - weight cars that had excellent suspensions, but were known for troublesome electrical systems, barely adequate power levels and unreliability. It is popular to take one of these classic sports cars and add a more powerful engine. The all - aluminum 215 cu in (3,520 cc) Buick and Oldsmobile V8 engines are a traditional choice for these cars. Swapping an MGB all - iron 1.8 L 4 - cylinder engine and 4 - speed transmission for a Buick 215 V8 and a modern 5 - speed transmission actually improves both cornering and acceleration because it reduces the overall weight of the car by about 40 lb (18 kg). Power is approximately doubled; torque increases even more. Derivatives of that classic General Motors engine, the 3.5 L, 3.9 L, and 4.2 L Rover V8s are also frequently used. (The original Buick and Oldsmobile, the Rover, and the related Morgan - licensed V8, are bolt - ins.) Although more recent narrow sixty - degree Ford and GM V6 engines are more compact, they usually do n't equal the Rover engine 's power - to - weight ratio. They can, however, be very cost effective and an easier fit, notably the Chevrolet 3.4 L. The cast iron block Ford 302 (5.0 L) V8 in particular results in spectacular power - to - weight ratios for straight - line acceleration. With aluminium heads, intake, and water pump fitted, the Ford 302 only adds about 40 lb (18 kg) to the front of an MGB, and is substantially more powerful and lighter weight than an MGC or TR6 iron - block six - cylinder. An aluminium 302 performance block is available that weighs 60 lb (27 kg) less than the common iron version, as is displacements of 331 and 347 ci, but they are significantly more expensive. The Nissan SR20DET is an all - aluminium fuel - injected DOHC turbocharged 4 - cylinder. This compact engine, along with the very compact, light, and powerful Mazda 13B rotary engine, have both been transplanted into too many different cars to list.
Note: These are the most common examples and are not an exhaustive list, just a representative cross section.
The early ' 90s six bolt engines are the most desirable because the connecting rods are much stronger and they do not suffer from crank walk and bearing failure seen in many of the later (mid ' 90s) seven bolt engines.
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when did the mongols control the silk road | Mongol Empire - wikipedia
The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: Mongolyn Ezent Güren listen (help info); Mongolian Cyrillic: Монголын эзэнт гүрэн; (mɔŋɡ (ɔ) ɮˈiːŋ ɛt͡sˈɛnt ˈɡurəŋ); also Орда ("Horde '') in Russian chronicles) existed during the 13th and 14th centuries and was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in the steppes of Central Asia, the Mongol Empire eventually stretched from Eastern Europe and parts of Central Europe to the Sea of Japan, extending northwards into Siberia, eastwards and southwards into the Indian subcontinent, Indochina and the Iranian Plateau; and westwards as far as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains.
The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the Mongol homeland under the leadership of Genghis Khan, whom a council proclaimed ruler of all the Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants, who sent invasions in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected the East with the West with an enforced Pax Mongolica, allowing the dissemination and exchange of trade, technologies, commodities and ideologies across Eurasia.
The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei or from one of his other sons, such as Tolui, Chagatai, or Jochi. The Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagataid factions, but disputes continued among the descendants of Tolui. A key reason for the split was the dispute over whether the Mongol Empire would become a sedentary, cosmopolitan empire, or would stay true to their nomadic and steppe lifestyle. After Möngke Khan died (1259), rival kurultai councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai Khan, who fought each other in the Toluid Civil War (1260 -- 1264) and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of Genghis. Kublai successfully took power, but civil war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of the Chagatayid and Ögedeid families.
During the reigns of Genghis and Ögedei, the Mongols suffered the occasional defeat when a less skilled general was given a command. The Siberian Tumads defeated the Mongol forces under Borokhula around 1215 -- 1217; Jalal al - Din defeated Shigi - Qutugu at the Battle of Parwan; and the Jin generals Heda and Pu'a defeated Dolqolqu in 1230. In each case, the Mongols returned shortly after with a much larger army led by one of their best generals, and were invariably victorious. The Battle of Ain Jalut in Galilee in 1260 marked the first time that the Mongols would not return to immediately avenge a defeat, due to a combination of the death of Möngke Khan, the Toluid Civil War between Arik Boke and Khubilai, and Berke of the Golden Horde attacking Hulegu in Persia. Though the Mongols launched many more invasions of the Levant, briefly occupying it and raiding as far as Gaza after a decisive victory at the Battle of Wadi al - Khazandar in 1299, they withdrew due to various geopolitical factors.
By the time of Kublai 's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives:
In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Yuan dynasty, but in 1368 the Han Chinese Ming dynasty took over the Mongol capital. The Genghisid rulers of the Yuan retreated to the Mongolian homeland and continued to rule there as the Northern Yuan dynasty. The Ilkhanate disintegrated in the period 1335 -- 1353. The Golden Horde had broken into competing khanates by the end of the 15th century whilst the Chagatai Khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687.
What is referred to in English as the Mongol Empire was called the Ikh Mongol Uls (ikh: "great '', uls: "state ''; Great Mongolian State). In the 1240s, one of Genghis 's descendants, Güyük Khan, wrote a letter to Pope Innocent IV which used the preamble "Dalai (great / oceanic) Khagan of the great Mongolian state (ulus) ''.
After the succession war between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke, Ariq limited Kublai 's power to the eastern part of the empire. Kublai officially issued an imperial edict on 18 December 1271 to name the country Great Yuan (Dai Yuan, or Dai Ön Ulus) to establish the Yuan dynasty. Some sources state that the full Mongolian name was Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus.
The area around Mongolia, Manchuria, and parts of North China had been controlled by the Liao dynasty since the 10th century. In 1125, the Jin dynasty founded by the Jurchens overthrew the Liao dynasty and attempted to gain control over former Liao territory in Mongolia. In the 1130s the Jin dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings, successfully resisted the Khamag Mongol confederation, ruled at the time by Khabul Khan, great - grandfather of Temujin (Genghis Khan).
The Mongolian plateau was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations (khanlig): Keraites, Khamag Mongol, Naiman, Mergid, and Tatar. The Jin emperors, following a policy of divide and rule, encouraged disputes among the tribes, especially between the Tatars and the Mongols, in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles and thereby away from the Jin. Khabul 's successor was Ambaghai Khan, who was betrayed by the Tatars, handed over to the Jurchen, and executed. The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143.
In 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing a peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing from a score of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, opening a long period of active hostilities. The Jin and Tatar armies defeated the Mongols in 1161.
During the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the usually cold, parched steppes of Central Asia enjoyed their mildest, wettest conditions in more than a millennium. It is thought that this resulted in a rapid increase in the number of war horses and other livestock which significantly enhanced Mongol military strength.
Known during his childhood as Temujin, Genghis Khan was a son of a Mongol chieftain. As a young man he rose very rapidly by working with Toghrul Khan of the Kerait. The most powerful Mongol leader at the time was Kurtait; he was given the Chinese title "Wang '', which means Prince. Temujin went to war with Wang Khan. After Temujin defeated Wang Khan he gave himself the name Genghis Khan. He then enlarged his Mongol state under himself and his kin. The term Mongol came to be used to refer to all Mongolic speaking tribes under the control of Genghis Khan. His most powerful allies were his father 's friend, Khereid chieftain Wang Khan Toghoril, and Temujin 's childhood anda (friend) Jamukha of the Jadran clan. With their help, Temujin defeated the Merkit tribe, rescued his wife Börte, and went on to defeat the Naimans and the Tatars.
Temujin forbade looting of his enemies without permission, and he implemented a policy of sharing spoils with his warriors and their families instead of giving it all to the aristocrats. These policies brought him into conflict with his uncles, who were also legitimate heirs to the throne; they regarded Temujin not as a leader but as an insolent usurper. This dissatisfaction spread to his generals and other associates, and some Mongols who had previously been allies broke their allegiance. War ensued, and Temujin and the forces still loyal to him prevailed, defeating the remaining rival tribes between 1203 and 1205 and bringing them under his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as the khagan of the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol State) at a kurultai (general assembly / council). It was there that he assumed the title of Genghis Khan (universal leader) instead of one of the old tribal titles such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan, marking the start of the Mongol Empire.
Genghis Khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army: for example dividing it into decimal subsections of arbans (10 soldiers), zuuns (100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000). The Kheshig, the imperial guard, was founded and divided into day (khorchin torghuds) and night (khevtuul) guards. Genghis rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, as heads of army units and households, even though many of them came from very low - ranking clans.
Compared to the units he gave to his loyal companions, those assigned to his own family members were relatively few. He proclaimed a new code of law of the empire, Ikh Zasag or Yassa; later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads. He forbade the selling of women, theft, fighting among the Mongols, and the hunting of animals during the breeding season.
He appointed his adopted brother Shigi - Khuthugh as supreme judge (jarughachi), ordering him to keep records of the empire. In addition to laws regarding family, food, and the army, Genghis also decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade. He exempted the poor and the clergy from taxation. He also encouraged literacy, adopting the Uyghur script, which would form the Uyghur - Mongolian script of the empire, and he ordered the Uyghur Tatatunga, who had previously served the khan of Naimans, to instruct his sons.
Genghis quickly came into conflict with the Jin dynasty of the Jurchens and the Western Xia of the Tanguts in northern China. He also had to deal with two other powers, Tibet and Qara Khitai. Towards the west he moved into Central Asia, devastating Transoxiana and eastern Persia, then raiding into Kievan Rus ' (a predecessor state of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine) and the Caucasus.
Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, making the Mongol Empire the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class.
Prior to the three western khanates ' adoption of Islam, Genghis Khan and a number of his Yuan successors placed restrictions on religious practices they saw as alien. Muslims, including Hui, and Jews, were collectively referred to as Huihui. Muslims were forbidden from Halal or Zabiha butchering, while Jews were similarly forbidden from Kashrut or Shehita butchering. Referring to the conquered subjects as "our slaves, '' Genghis Khan demanded they no longer be able to refuse food or drink, and imposed restrictions on slaughter. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.
Among all the (subject) alien peoples only the Hui - hui say "we do not eat Mongol food ''. (Cinggis Qa'an replied:) "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right? '' He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime. '' He issued a regulation to that effect... (In 1279 / 1280 under Qubilai) all the Muslims say: "if someone else slaughters (the animal) we do not eat ''. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman (Muslim) Huihui and Zhuhu (Jewish) Huihui, no matter who kills (the animal) will eat (it) and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.
Genghis Khan arranged for the Chinese Taoist master Qiu Chuji to visit him in Afghanistan, and also gave his subjects the right to religious freedom, despite his own shamanistic beliefs.
Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea -- an empire twice the size of the Roman Empire or the Muslim Caliphate at their height. Genghis named his third son, the charismatic Ögedei, as his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was buried in a secret location. The regency was originally held by Ögedei 's younger brother Tolui until Ögedei 's formal election at the kurultai in 1229.
Among his first actions Ögedei sent troops to subjugate the Bashkirs, Bulgars, and other nations in the Kipchak - controlled steppes. In the east, Ögedei 's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing the Eastern Xia regime and the Water Tatars. In 1230, the great khan personally led his army in the campaign against the Jin dynasty of China. Ögedei 's general Subutai captured the capital of Emperor Wanyan Shouxu in the siege of Kaifeng in 1232. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234 when the Mongols captured Caizhou, the town to which Wanyan Shouxu had fled. In 1234, three armies commanded by Ögedei 's sons Kochu and Koten and the Tangut general Chagan invaded southern China. With the assistance of the Song dynasty the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234.
Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima (劉 黑馬, Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were four Han Tumens and three Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The Yuan dynasty created a Han army 漢 軍 from Jin defectors, and another of ex-Song troops called the Newly Submitted Army 新 附 軍.
In the West Ögedei 's general Chormaqan destroyed Jalal ad - Din Mingburnu, the last shah of the Khwarizmian Empire. The small kingdoms in southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy. In East Asia, there were a number of Mongolian campaigns into Goryeo Korea, but Ögedei 's attempt to annex the Korean Peninsula met with little success. Gojong, the king of Goryeo, surrendered but later revolted and massacred Mongol darughachis (overseers); he then moved his imperial court from Gaeseong to Ganghwa Island.
As the empire grew, Ögedei established a Mongol capital at Karakorum in northwestern Mongolia.
Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the Song dynasty, Mongol armies captured Siyang - yang, the Yangtze and Sichuan, but did not secure their control over the conquered areas. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang - yang from the Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ögedei 's son Kochu in Chinese territory the Mongols withdrew from southern China, although Kochu 's brother Prince Koten invaded Tibet immediately after their withdrawal.
Batu Khan, another grandson of Genghis Khan, overran the territories of the Bulgars, the Alans, the Kypchaks, Bashkirs, Mordvins, Chuvash, and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237 the Mongols were encroaching upon Ryazan, the first Kievan Rus ' principality they were to attack. After a three - day siege involving fierce fighting, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants. They then proceeded to destroy the army of the Grand Principality of Vladimir at the Battle of the Sit River.
The Mongols captured the Alania capital Maghas in 1238. By 1240, all Kievan Rus ' had fallen to the Asian invaders except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persia connecting his invasion of Transcaucasia with the invasion of Batu and Subutai, forced the Georgian and Armenian nobles to surrender as well.
Giovanni de Plano Carpini, the pope 's envoy to the Mongol great khan, travelled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote:
They (the Mongols) attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery.
Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. Batu 's relations with Güyük, Ögedei 's eldest son, and Büri, the beloved grandson of Chagatai Khan, remained tense and worsened during Batu 's victory banquet in southern Kievan Rus '. Nevertheless, Güyük and Buri could not do anything to harm Batu 's position as long as his uncle Ögedei was still alive. Ögedei continued with offensives into the Indian subcontinent, temporarily investing Uchch, Lahore, and Multan of the Delhi Sultanate and stationing a Mongol overseer in Kashmir, though the invasions into India eventually failed and were forced to retreat. In northeastern Asia, Ögedei agreed to end the conflict with Goryeo by making it a client state and sent Mongolian princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his keshig with the Koreans through both diplomacy and military force.
The advance into Europe continued with Mongol invasions of Poland and Hungary. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a European alliance among the Poles, the Moravians, and the Christian military orders of the Hospitallers, Teutonic Knights and the Templars assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly, the Mongol advance at Legnica. The Hungarian army, their Croatian allies and the Templar Knights were beaten by Mongols at the banks of the Sajo River on 11 April 1241. Before Batu 's forces could continue on to Vienna and northern Albania, news of Ögedei 's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the invasion. As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes of Genghis 's line had to attend the kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year.
Following the Great Khan Ögedei 's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ögedei 's widow Töregene took over the empire. She persecuted her husband 's Khitan and Muslim officials and gave high positions to her own allies. She built palaces, cathedrals, and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education. She was able to win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ögedei 's son Güyük. But Batu, ruler of the Golden Horde, refused to come to the kurultai, claiming that he was ill and that the Mongolian climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate lasted more than four years and further destabilized the unity of the empire.
When Genghis Khan 's youngest brother Temüge threatened to seize the throne, Güyük came to Karakorum to try to secure his position. Batu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to the kurultai convened by Töregene in 1246. Güyük by this time was ill and alcoholic, but his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of stature necessary for a great khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire -- leaders of vassal nations, representatives from Rome, and other entities who came to the kurultai to show their respects and conduct diplomacy.
Güyük took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue the policies of his father Ögedei, not those of Töregene. He punished Töregene 's supporters, except for governor Arghun the Elder. He also replaced young Qara Hülëgü, the khan of the Chagatai Khanate, with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke, to assert his newly conferred powers. He restored his father 's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by Uyghur, Naiman and Central Asian officials, favoring Han Chinese commanders who had helped his father conquer Northern China. He continued military operations in Korea, advanced into Song China in the south, and into Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire - wide census. Güyük also divided the Sultanate of Rum between Izz - ad - Din Kaykawus and Rukn ad - Din Kilij Arslan, though Kaykawus disagreed with this decision.
Not all parts of the empire respected Güyük 's election. The Hashshashins, former Mongol allies whose Grand Master Hasan Jalalud - Din had offered his submission to Genghis Khan in 1221, angered Güyük by refusing to submit. Instead he murdered the Mongol generals in Persia. Güyük appointed his best friend 's father Eljigidei as chief commander of the troops in Persia and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the Assassins Muslim movement and conquering the Abbasids at the center of the Islamic world, Iran and Iraq.
In 1248, Güyük raised more troops and suddenly marched westwards from the Mongol capital of Karakorum. The reasoning was unclear. Some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate at his personal estate, Emyl; others suggested that he might have been moving to join Eljigidei to conduct a full - scale conquest of the Middle East, or possibly to make a surprise attack on his rival cousin Batu Khan in Russia.
Suspicious of Güyük 's motives, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Genghis 's son Tolui, secretly warned her nephew Batu of Güyük 's approach. Batu had himself been traveling eastwards at the time, possibly to pay homage, or perhaps with other plans in mind. Before the forces of Batu and Güyük met, Güyük, sick and worn out by travel, died en route at Qum - Senggir (Hong - siang - yi - eulh) in Xinjiang, possibly a victim of poison.
Güyük 's widow Oghul Qaimish stepped forward to take control of the empire, but she lacked the skills of her mother - in - law Töregene, and her young sons Khoja and Naku and other princes challenged her authority. To decide on a new great khan, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. As it was far from the Mongolian heartland, members of the Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu, but he rejected it, claiming he had no interest in the position. Batu instead nominated Möngke, a grandson of Genghis from his son Tolui 's lineage. Möngke was leading a Mongol army in Russia, the northern Caucasus and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction supported Batu 's choice, and Möngke was elected; though given the kurultai 's limited attendance and location, it was of questionable validity.
Batu sent Möngke, under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a more formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Möngke repeatedly invited Oghul Qaimish and the other major Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time. The Ögedeid and Chagataid princes refused to accept a descendant of Genghis 's son Tolui as leader, demanding that only descendants of Genghis 's son Ögedei could be great khan.
When Möngke 's mother Sorghaghtani and their cousin Berke organized a second kurultai on 1 July 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke great khan of the Mongol Empire. This marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire, transferring power from the descendants of Genghis 's son Ögedei to the descendants of Genghis 's son Tolui. The decision was acknowledged by a few of the Ögedeid and Chagataid princes, such as Möngke 's cousin Kadan and the deposed khan Qara Hülëgü, but one of the other legitimate heirs, Ögedei 's grandson Shiremun, sought to topple Möngke.
Shiremun moved with his own forces towards the emperor 's nomadic palace with a plan for an armed attack, but Möngke was alerted by his falconer of the plan. Möngke ordered an investigation of the plot, which led to a series of major trials all across the empire. Many members of the Mongol elite were found guilty and put to death, with estimates ranging from 77 -- 300, though princes of Genghis 's royal line were often exiled rather than executed.
Möngke confiscated the estates of the Ögedeid and the Chagatai families and shared the western part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan. After the bloody purge, Möngke ordered a general amnesty for prisoners and captives, but thereafter the power of the great khan 's throne remained firmly with the descendants of Tolui.
Möngke was a serious man who followed the laws of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism. He was tolerant of outside religions and artistic styles, leading to the building of foreign merchants ' quarters, Buddhist monasteries, mosques, and Christian churches in the Mongol capital. As construction projects continued, Karakorum was adorned with Chinese, European, and Persian architecture. One famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes that dispensed various drinks. The tree, topped by a triumphant angel, was crafted by Guillaume Boucher, a Parisian goldsmith.
Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on Muslim and Mongol administrators and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution system to a fixed poll tax which was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need. His court also tried to lighten the tax burden on commoners by reducing tax rates. He also centralized control of monetary affairs and reinforced the guards at the postal relays. Möngke ordered an empire - wide census in 1252 that took several years to complete and was not finished until Novgorod in the far northwest was counted in 1258.
In another move to consolidate his power, Möngke assigned his brothers Hulagu and Kublai to rule Persia and Mongol - held China respecively. In the southern part of the empire he continued his predecessors ' struggle against the Song dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Möngke dispatched Mongol armies under his brother Kublai to Yunnan, and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as well.
Kublai conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of Yunnan. Möngke 's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule. Subutai 's son Uryankhadai reduced the neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and defeated the Trần dynasty in northern Vietnam in 1257, but they had to draw back in 1258. The Mongol Empire tried to invade Vietnam again in 1284 and 1287 but were defeated both times.
After stabilizing the empire 's finances, Möngke once again sought to expand its borders. At kurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the Middle East and south China. Möngke put Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu 's army.
The Muslims from Qazvin denounced the menace of the Nizari Ismailis, a heretical sect of Shiites. The Mongol Naiman commander Kitbuqa began to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu advanced in 1256. Ismaili Grand Master Rukn ud - Din surrendered in 1257 and was executed. All of the Ismaili strongholds in Persia were destroyed by Hulagu 's army in 1257, except for Girdukh which held out until 1271.
The center of the Islamic Empire at the time was Baghdad, which had held power for 500 years but was suffering internal divisions. When its caliph al - Mustasim refused to submit to the Mongols, Baghdad was besieged and captured by the Mongols in 1258 and subjected to a merciless sack, an event considered as one of the most catastrophic events in the history of Islam, and sometimes compared to the rupture of the Kaaba. With the destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Hulagu had an open route to Syria and moved against the other Muslim powers in the region.
His army advanced towards Ayyubid - ruled Syria, capturing small local states en route. The sultan Al - Nasir Yusuf of the Ayyubids refused to show himself before Hulagu; however, he had accepted Mongol supremacy two decades earlier. When Hulagu headed further west, the Armenians from Cilicia, the Seljuks from Rum and the Christian realms of Antioch and Tripoli submitted to Mongol authority, joining the them in their assault against the Muslims. While some cities surrendered without resisting, others such as Mayafarriqin fought back; their populations were massacred and the cities were sacked.
Meanwhile, in the northwestern portion of the empire, Batu 's successor and younger brother Berke sent punitive expeditions to Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. Dissension began brewing between the northwestern and southwestern sections of the Mongol Empire as Batu suspected that Hulagu 's invasion of Western Asia would result in the elimination of Batu 's own dominance there.
In the southern part of the empire, Möngke Khan himself led his army to complete the conquest of China. Military operations were generally successful, but prolonged, so the forces did not withdraw to the north as was customary when the weather turned hot. Disease ravaged the Mongol forces with bloody epidemics, and Möngke died there on 11 August 1259. This event began a new chapter in the history of the Mongols, as again a decision needed to be made on a new great khan. Mongol armies across the empire withdrew from their campaigns to convene a new kurultai.
Möngke 's brother Hulagu broke off his successful military advance into Syria, withdrawing the bulk of his forces to Mughan and leaving only a small contingent under his general Kitbuqa. The opposing forces in the region, the Christian Crusaders and Muslim Mamluks, both recognizing that the Mongols were the greater threat, took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with each other.
In 1260, the Mamluks advanced from Egypt, being allowed to camp and resupply near the Christian stronghold of Acre, and engaged Kitbuqa 's forces just north of Galilee at the Battle of Ain Jalut. The Mongols were defeated, and Kitbuqa executed. This pivotal battle marked the western limit for Mongol expansion in the Middle East, and the Mongols were never again able to make serious military advances farther than Syria.
In a separate part of the empire, Kublai Khan, another brother of Hulagu and Möngke, heard of the great khan 's death at the Huai River in China. Rather than returning to the capital, he continued his advance into the Wuchang area of China, near the Yangtze River. Their younger brother Ariqboke took advantage of the absence of Hulagu and Kublai, and used his position at the capital to win the title of great khan for himself, with representatives of all the family branches proclaiming him as the leader at the kurultai in Karakorum. When Kublai learned of this, he summoned his own kurultai at Kaiping, and nearly all the senior princes and great noyans in North China and Manchuria supported his own candidacy over that of Ariqboke.
Battles ensued between the armies of Kublai and those of his brother Ariqboke, which included forces still loyal to Möngke 's previous administration. Kublai 's army easily eliminated Ariqboke 's supporters and seized control of the civil administration in southern Mongolia. Further challenges took place from their cousins, the Chagataids. Kublai sent Abishka, a Chagataid prince loyal to him, to take charge of Chagatai 's realm. But Ariqboke captured and then executed Abishka, having his own man Alghu crowned there instead. Kublai 's new administration blockaded Ariqboke in Mongolia to cut off food supplies, causing a famine. Karakorum fell quickly to Kublai, but Ariqboke rallied and re-took the capital in 1261.
In southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but clashes with their cousin Berke, the ruler of the Golden Horde, began in 1262. The suspicious deaths of Jochid princes in Hulagu 's service, unequal distribution of war booty, and Hulagu 's massacres of Muslims increased the anger of Berke, who considered supporting a rebellion of the Georgian Kingdom against Hulagu 's rule in 1259 -- 1260. Berke also forged an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks against Hulagu and supported Kublai 's rival claimant, Ariqboke.
Hulagu died on 8 February 1264. Berke sought to take advantage and invade Hulagu 's realm, but he died along the way, and a few months later Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate died as well. Kublai named Hulagu 's son Abaqa as new Ilkhan, and nominated Batu 's grandson Möngke Temür to lead the Golden Horde. Abaqa sought foreign alliances, such as attempting to form a Franco - Mongol alliance against the Egyptian Mamluks. Ariqboqe surrendered to Kublai at Shangdu on 21 August 1264.
In the south, after the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, the Mongols sought the final conquest of the Song dynasty in South China. In 1271, Kublai renamed the new Mongol regime in China as the Yuan dynasty and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China to win the control of the Chinese people. Kublai moved his headquarters to Dadu, the genesis for what later became the modern city of Beijing. His establishment of a capital there was a controversial move to many Mongols who accused him of being too closely tied to Chinese culture.
The Mongols were eventually successful in their campaigns against (Song) China, and the Chinese Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Chinese people to conquer all of China. Kublai used his base to build a powerful empire, creating an academy, offices, trade ports and canals, and sponsoring arts and science. Mongol records list 20,166 public schools created during his reign.
After achieving actual or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia and successfully conquering China, Kublai pursued further expansion. His invasions of Burma and Sakhalin were costly, and his attempted invasions of Annam and Champa ended in devastating defeat, but secured vassal statuses of those countries. The Mongol armies were repeatedly beaten in Annam and were crushed at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288).
Nogai and Konchi, the khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate. Political disagreement among contending branches of the family over the office of great khan continued, but the economic and commercial success of the Mongol Empire continued despite the squabbling.
Major changes occurred in the Mongol Empire in the late 1200s. Kublai Khan, after having conquered all of China and established the Yuan dynasty, died in 1294. He was succeeded by his grandson Temür Khan, who continued Kublai 's policies. At the same time the Toluid Civil War, along with the Berke -- Hulagu war and the subsequent Kaidu -- Kublai war, greatly weakened the authority of the great khan over the entirety of the Mongol Empire and the empire fractured into autonomous khanates, the Yuan dynasty and the three western khanates: the Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate and the Ilkhanate. Only the Ilkhanate remained loyal to the Yuan court but endured its own power struggle, in part because of a dispute with the growing Islamic factions within the southwestern part of the empire.
After the death of Kaidu, the Chatagai ruler Duwa initiated a peace proposal and persuaded the Ögedeids to submit to Temür Khan. In 1304, all of the khanates approved a peace treaty and accepted Yuan emperor Temür 's supremacy. This established the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty over the western khanates, which was to last for several decades. This supremacy was based on weaker foundations than that of the earlier Khagans and each of the four khanates continued to develop separately and function as independent states.
Nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability, the Pax Mongolica, and international trade and cultural exchanges flourished between Asia and Europe. Communication between the Yuan dynasty in China and the Ilkhanate in Persia further encouraged trade and commerce between east and west. Patterns of Yuan royal textiles could be found on the opposite side of the empire adorning Armenian decorations; trees and vegetables were transplanted across the empire; and technological innovations spread from Mongol dominions towards the West. Pope John XXII was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing the Pax Mongolica: "... Khagan is one of the greatest monarchs and all lords of the state, e.g., the king of Almaligh (Chagatai Khanate), emperor Abu Said and Uzbek Khan, are his subjects, saluting his holiness to pay their respects. '' However, while the four khanates continued to interact with one another well into the 14th century, they did so as sovereign states and never again pooled their resources in a cooperative military endeavor.
In spite of his conflicts with Kaidu and Duwa, Yuan emperor Temür established a tributary relationship with the war - like Shan people after his series of military operations against Thailand from 1297 to 1303. This was to mark the end of the southern expansion of the Mongols.
When Ghazan took the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1295, he formally accepted Islam as his own religion, marking a turning point in Mongol history after which Mongol Persia became more and more Islamic. Despite this, Ghazan continued to strengthen ties with Temür Khan and the Yuan dynasty in the east. It was politically useful to advertise the great khan 's authority in the Ilkhanate, because the Golden Horde in Russia had long made claims on nearby Georgia. Within four years, Ghazan began sending tribute to the Yuan court and appealing to other khans to accept Temür Khan as their overlord. He oversaw an extensive program of cultural and scientific interaction between the Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty in the following decades.
Ghazan 's faith may have been Islamic, but he continued his ancestors ' war with the Egyptian Mamluks, and consulted with his old Mongolian advisers in his native tongue. He defeated the Mamluk army at the Battle of Wadi al - Khazandar in 1299, but he was only briefly able to occupy Syria, due to distracting raids from the Chagatai Khanate under its de facto ruler Kaidu, who was at war with both the Ilkhans and the Yuan dynasty.
Struggling for influence within the Golden Horde, Kaidu sponsored his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan (r. 1299 -- 1304), the khan of the White Horde. Bayan, after receiving military support from the Mongols in Russia, requested assistance from both Temür Khan and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack against Kaidu 's forces. Temür was amenable and attacked Kaidu a year later. After a bloody battle with Temür 's armies near the Zawkhan River in 1301, Kaidu died and was succeeded by Duwa.
Duwa was challenged by Kaidu 's son Chapar, but with the assistance of Temür, Duwa defeated the Ögedeids. Tokhta of the Golden Horde, also seeking a general peace, sent 20,000 men to buttress the Yuan frontier. Tokhta died in 1312, though, and was succeeded by Ozbeg (r. 1313 -- 41), who seized the throne of the Golden Horde and persecuted non-Muslim Mongols. The Yuan 's influence on the Horde was largely reversed and border clashes between Mongol states resumed. Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan 's envoys backed Tokhta 's son against Ozbeg.
In the Chagatai Khanate, Esen Buqa I (r. 1309 -- 1318) was enthroned as khan after suppressing a sudden rebellion by Ögedei 's descendants and driving Chapar into exile. The Yuan and Ilkhanid armies eventually attacked the Chagatai Khanate. Recognising the potential economic benefits and the Genghisid legacy, Ozbeg reopened friendly relations with the Yuan in 1326. He strengthened ties with the Muslim world as well, building mosques and other elaborate structures such as baths. By the second decade of the 14th century, Mongol invasions had further decreased. In 1323, Abu Said Khan (r. 1316 -- 35) of the Ilkhanate signed a peace treaty with Egypt. At his request, the Yuan court awarded his custodian Chupan the title of commander - in - chief of all Mongol khanates, but Chupan died in late 1327.
Civil war erupted in the Yuan dynasty in 1328 -- 29. After the death of Yesün Temür in 1328, Tugh Temür became the new leader in Dadu, while Yesün Temür 's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu, leading to the civil war known as the War of the Two Capitals. Tugh Temür defeated Ragibagh, but the Chagatai khan Eljigidey (r. 1326 -- 29) supported Kusala, elder brother of Tugh Temür, as great khan. He invaded with a commanding force, and Tugh Temür abdicated. Kusala was elected khan on 30 August 1329. Kusala was then poisoned by a Kypchak commander under Tugh Temür, who returned to power.
Tugh Temür (1304 -- 32) was knowledgeable about Chinese language and history and was also a creditable poet, calligrapher, and painter. In order to be accepted by other khanates as the sovereign of the Mongol world, he sent Genghisid princes and descendants notable Mongol generals to the Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhan Abu Said, and Ozbeg. In response to the emissaries, they all agreed to send tribute each year. Furthermore, Tugh Temür gave lavish presents and an imperial seal to Eljigidey to mollify his anger.
With the death of Ilkhan Abu Said Bahatur in 1335, Mongol rule faltered and Persia fell into political anarchy. A year later his successor was killed by an Oirat governor, and the Ilkhanate was divided between the Suldus, the Jalayir, Qasarid Togha Temür (d. 1353), and Persian warlords. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Georgians pushed the Mongols out of their territory, and the Uyghur commander Eretna established an independent state (Ertenids) in Anatolia in 1336. Following the downfall of their Mongol masters, the loyal vassal, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, received escalating threats from the Mamluks and were eventually overrun.
Along with the dissolution of the Ilkhanate in Persia, Mongol rulers in China and the Chagatai Khanate were also in turmoil. The plague known as the Black Death, which started in the Mongol dominions and spread to Europe, added to the confusion. Disease devastated all the khanates, cutting off commercial ties and killing millions. Plague may have taken 50 million lives in Europe alone in the 14th century.
As the power of the Mongols declined, chaos erupted throughout the empire as non-Mongol leaders expanded their own influence. The Golden Horde lost all of its western dominions (including modern Belarus and Ukraine) to Poland and Lithuania between 1342 and 1369. Muslim and non-Muslim princes in the Chagatai Khanate warred with each other from 1331 -- 43, and the Chagatai Khanate disintegrated when non-Genghisid warlords set up their own puppet khans in Transoxiana and Moghulistan. Janibeg Khan (r. 1342 -- 1357) briefly reasserted Jochid dominance over the Chaghataids. Demanding submission from an offshoot of the Ilkhanate in Azerbaijan, he boasted that "today three uluses are under my control ''.
However, rival families of the Jochids began fighting for the throne of the Golden Horde after the assassination of his successor Berdibek Khan in 1359. The last Yuan ruler Toghan Temür (r. 1333 -- 70) was powerless to regulate those troubles, a sign that the empire had nearly reached its end. His court 's unbacked currency had entered a hyperinflationary spiral and the Han - Chinese people revolted due to the Yuan 's harsh impositions. In the 1350s, Gongmin of Goryeo successfully pushed Mongolian garrisons back and exterminated the family of Toghan Temür Khan 's empress while Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen managed to eliminate the Mongol influence in Tibet.
Increasingly isolated from their subjects, the Mongols quickly lost most of China to the rebellious Ming forces and in 1368 fled to their heartland in Mongolia. After the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty the Golden Horde lost touch with Mongolia and China, while the two main parts of the Chagatai Khanate were defeated by Timur (Tamerlane) (1336 -- 1405), who founded the Timurid Empire. However, remnants of the Chagatai Khanate survived; the last Chagataid state to survive was the Yarkent Khanate, until its defeat by the Oirat Dzungar Khanate in the Dzungar conquest of Altishahr in 1680. The Golden Horde broke into smaller Turkic - hordes that declined steadily in power over four centuries. Among them, the khanate 's shadow, the Great Horde, survived until 1502, when one of its successors, the Crimean Khanate, sacked Sarai. The Crimean Khanate lasted until 1783, whereas khanates such as the Khanate of Bukhara and the Kazakh Khanate lasted even longer.
The number of troops mustered by the Mongols is the subject of some scholarly debate, but was at least 105,000 in 1206. The Mongol military organization was simple but effective, based on the decimal system. The army was built up from squads of ten men each, arbans (10 people), zuuns (100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000).
The Mongols were most famous for their horse archers, but troops armed with lances were equally skilled, and the Mongols recruited other military talents from the lands they conquered. With experienced Chinese engineers and a bombardier corps which was expert at building trebuchets, catapults and other machines, the Mongols could lay siege to fortified positions, sometimes building machinery on the spot using available local resources.
Forces under the command of the Mongol Empire were trained, organized, and equipped for mobility and speed. Mongol soldiers were more lightly armored than many of the armies they faced but were able to make up for it with maneuverability. Each Mongol warrior would usually travel with multiple horses, allowing him to quickly switch to a fresh mount as needed. In addition, soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of supply lines, considerably speeding up army movement. Skillful use of couriers enabled the leaders of these armies to maintain contact with each other.
Discipline was inculcated during a nerge (traditional hunt), as reported by Juvayni. These hunts were distinctive from hunts in other cultures, being the equivalent to small unit actions. Mongol forces would spread out in a line, surround an entire region, and then drive all of the game within that area together. The goal was to let none of the animals escape and to slaughter them all.
Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large distances, even in unusually cold winters; for instance, frozen rivers led them like highways to large urban centers on their banks. The Mongols were adept at river - work, crossing the river Sajó in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry soldiers in a single night during the Battle of Mohi (April 1241) to defeat the Hungarian king Béla IV. Similarly, in the attack against the Muslim Khwarezmshah a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river.
Traditionally known for their prowess with ground forces, the Mongols rarely used naval power. In the 1260s and 1270s they used seapower while conquering the Song dynasty of China, though their attempts to mount seaborne campaigns against Japan were unsuccessful. Around the Eastern Mediterranean, their campaigns were almost exclusively land - based, with the seas controlled by the Crusader and Mamluk forces.
All military campaigns were preceded by careful planning, reconnaissance, and the gathering of sensitive information relating to enemy territories and forces. The success, organization, and mobility of the Mongol armies permitted them to fight on several fronts at once. All adult males up to the age of 60 were eligible for conscription into the army, a source of honor in their tribal warrior tradition.
The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis, called Yassa, meaning "order '' or "decree ''. A particular canon of this code was that those of rank shared much the same hardship as the common man. It also imposed severe penalties -- e.g., the death penalty if one mounted soldier following another did not pick up something dropped from the mount in front. Penalties were also decreed for rape and to some extent for murder. Any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive collective punishment. Cities were destroyed and their inhabitants slaughtered if they defied Mongol orders. Under Yassa, chiefs and generals were selected based on merit. The empire was governed by a non-democratic, parliamentary - style central assembly, called kurultai, in which the Mongol chiefs met with the great khan to discuss domestic and foreign policies. Kurultais were also convened for the selection of each new great khan.
Genghis Khan also created a national seal, encouraged the use of a written alphabet in Mongolia, and exempted teachers, lawyers, and artists from taxes.
The Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China and sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, thus using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. The Mongols were tolerant of other religions, and rarely persecuted people on religious grounds. This was associated with their culture and progressive thought. Some historians of the 20th century thought this was a good military strategy: when Genghis was at war with Sultan Muhammad of Khwarezm, other Islamic leaders did not join the fight, as it was seen as a non-holy war between two individuals.
At the time of Genghis Khan, virtually every religion had found Mongol converts, from Buddhism to Christianity, from Manichaeism to Islam. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a tengrist or shamanist. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation and from public service.
Initially there were few formal places of worship because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Ögedei (1186 -- 1241), several building projects were undertaken in the Mongol capital. Along with palaces, Ögedei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist followers. The dominant religions at that time were Shamanism, Tengrism, and Buddhism, although Ögedei 's wife was a Nestorian Christian.
Eventually, each of the successor states adopted the dominant religion of the local populations: the Chinese - Mongolian Yuan dynasty in the East (originally the great khan 's domain) embraced Buddhism and Shamanism, while the three Western khanates adopted Islam.
The oldest surviving literary work in the Mongolian language is The Secret History of the Mongols, which was written for the royal family some time after Genghis Khan 's death in 1227. It is the most significant native account of Genghis 's life and genealogy, covering his origins and childhood through to the establishment of the Mongol Empire and the reign of his son, Ögedei.
Another classic from the empire is the Jami ' al - tawarikh, or "Universal History ''. It was commissioned in the early 14th century by the Ilkhan Abaqa Khan as a way of documenting the entire world 's history, to help establish the Mongols ' own cultural legacy.
Mongol scribes in the 14th century used a mixture of resin and vegetable pigments as a primitive form of correction fluid; this is arguably its first known usage.
The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their taste in portraiture was strictly focused on portraits of their horses, rather than of people.
The Mongol Empire had an ingenious and efficient mail system for the time, often referred to by scholars as the Yam. It had lavishly furnished and well - guarded relay posts known as örtöö set up throughout the Empire. A messenger would typically travel 25 miles (40 km) from one station to the next, either receiving a fresh, rested horse, or relaying the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery. The Mongol riders regularly covered 125 miles (200 km) per day, better than the fastest record set by the Pony Express some 600 years later. The relay stations had attached households to service them. Anyone with a paiza was allowed to stop there for re-mounts and specified rations, while those carrying military identities used the Yam even without a paiza. Many merchants, messengers, and travelers from China, the Middle East, and Europe used the system. When the great khan died in Karakorum, news reached the Mongol forces under Batu Khan in Central Europe within 4 -- 6 weeks thanks to the Yam.
Genghis and his successor Ögedei built a wide system of roads, one of which carved through the Altai mountains. After his enthronement, Ögedei further expanded the road system, ordering the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde to link up roads in western parts of the Mongol Empire.
Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty, built special relays for high officials, as well as ordinary relays, that had hostels. During Kublai 's reign, the Yuan communication system consisted of some 1,400 postal stations, which used 50,000 horses, 8,400 oxen, 6,700 mules, 4,000 carts, and 6,000 boats.
In Manchuria and southern Siberia, the Mongols still used dogsled relays for the yam. In the Ilkhanate, Ghazan restored the declining relay system in the Middle East on a restricted scale. He constructed some hostels and decreed that only imperial envoys could receive a stipend. The Jochids of the Golden Horde financed their relay system by a special yam tax.
The Mongols had a history of supporting merchants and trade. Genghis Khan had encouraged foreign merchants early in his career, even before uniting the Mongols. Merchants provided information about neighboring cultures, served as diplomats and official traders for the Mongols, and were essential for many goods, since the Mongols produced little of their own.
Mongols sometimes provided capital for merchants and sent them far afield, in an ortoq (merchant partner) arrangement. As the empire grew, any merchants or ambassadors with proper documentation and authorization received protection and sanctuary as they traveled through Mongol realms. Well - traveled and relatively well - maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing overland trade and resulting in some dramatic stories of those who travelled through what would become known as the Silk Road.
Western explorer Marco Polo traveled east along the Silk Road, and the Chinese Mongol monk Rabban Bar Sauma made a comparably epic journey along the route, venturing from his home of Khanbaliq (Beijing) as far as Europe. European missionaries, such as William of Rubruck, also traveled to the Mongol court to convert believers to their cause, or went as papal envoys to correspond with Mongol rulers in an attempt to secure a Franco - Mongol alliance. It was rare, however, for anyone to journey the full length of Silk Road. Instead, merchants moved products like a bucket brigade, goods being traded from one middleman to another, moving from China all the way to the West; the goods moved over such long distances fetched extravagant prices.
After Genghis, the merchant partner business continued to flourish under his successors Ögedei and Güyük. Merchants brought clothing, food, information, and other provisions to the imperial palaces, and in return the great khans gave the merchants tax exemptions and allowed them to use the official relay stations of the Mongol Empire. Merchants also served as tax farmers in China, Russia and Iran. If the merchants were attacked by bandits, losses were made up from the imperial treasury.
Policies changed under the Great Khan Möngke. Because of money laundering and overtaxing, he attempted to limit abuses and sent imperial investigators to supervise the ortoq businesses. He decreed that all merchants must pay commercial and property taxes, and he paid off all drafts drawn by high - ranking Mongol elites from the merchants. This policy continued under the Yuan dynasty.
The fall of the Mongol Empire in the 14th century led to the collapse of the political, cultural, and economic unity along the Silk Road. Turkic tribes seized the western end of the route from the Byzantine Empire, sowing the seeds of a Turkic culture that would later crystallize into the Ottoman Empire under the Sunni faith. In the East, the native Chinese overthrew the Yuan dynasty in 1368, launching their own Ming dynasty and pursuing a policy of economic isolationism.
The Mongol Empire -- at its height the largest contiguous empire in history -- had a lasting impact, unifying large regions. Some of these (such as eastern and western Russia and the western parts of China) remain unified today. Mongols might have been assimilated into local populations after the fall of the empire, and some of these descendants adopted local religions -- for example, the eastern khanate largely adopted Buddhism, and the three western khanates adopted Islam, largely under Sufi influence.
According to some interpretations, Genghis Khan 's conquests caused wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale in certain geographical regions, leading to changes in the demographics of Asia.
Non-military achievements of the Mongol Empire included the introduction of a writing system, a Mongol alphabet based on the characters of the Uyghur language, that is still used today in Mongolia.
Some of the other long - term consequences of the Mongol Empire include:
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which two forms of energy do muscles produce | Glycogen - wikipedia
Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in humans, animals, fungi, and bacteria. The polysaccharide structure represents the main storage form of glucose in the body.
Glycogen functions as one of two forms of long - term energy reserves, with the other form being triglyceride stores in adipose tissue (i.e., body fat). In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle. In the liver, glycogen can make up from 5 -- 6 % of the organ 's fresh weight and the liver of an adult weighing 70 kg can store roughly 100 -- 120 grams of glycogen. In skeletal muscle, glycogen is found in a low concentration (1 -- 2 % of the muscle mass) and the skeletal muscle of an adult weighing 70 kg can store roughly 400 grams of glycogen. The amount of glycogen stored in the body -- particularly within the muscles and liver -- mostly depends on physical training, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits. Small amounts of glycogen are also found in other tissues and cells, including the kidneys, red blood cells, white blood cells, and glial cells in the brain. The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo.
Approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of humans at all times; in fasted individuals, blood glucose is maintained constant at this level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle. Glycogen stores in skeletal muscle serve as a form of energy storage for the muscle itself; however, the breakdown of muscle glycogen impedes muscle glucose uptake, thereby increasing the amount of blood glucose available for use in other tissues. Liver glycogen stores serve as a store of glucose for use throughout the body, particularly the central nervous system. The human brain consumes approximately 60 % of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.
Glycogen is the analogue of starch, a glucose polymer that functions as energy storage in plants. It has a structure similar to amylopectin (a component of starch), but is more extensively branched and compact than starch. Both are white powders in their dry state. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol / cytoplasm in many cell types, and plays an important role in the glucose cycle. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose, but one that is less compact than the energy reserves of triglycerides (lipids).
Glycogen is a branched biopolymer consisting of linear chains of glucose residues with an average chain length of approximately 8 -- 12 glucose units. Glucose units are linked together linearly by α (1 → 4) glycosidic bonds from one glucose to the next. Branches are linked to the chains from which they are branching off by α (1 → 6) glycosidic bonds between the first glucose of the new branch and a glucose on the stem chain.
Due to the way glycogen is synthesised, every glycogen granule has at its core a glycogenin protein.
Glycogen in muscle, liver, and fat cells is stored in a hydrated form, composed of three or four parts of water per part of glycogen associated with 0.45 millimoles of potassium per gram of glycogen.
As a meal containing carbohydrates or protein is eaten and digested, blood glucose levels rise, and the pancreas secretes insulin. Blood glucose from the portal vein enters liver cells (hepatocytes). Insulin acts on the hepatocytes to stimulate the action of several enzymes, including glycogen synthase. Glucose molecules are added to the chains of glycogen as long as both insulin and glucose remain plentiful. In this postprandial or "fed '' state, the liver takes in more glucose from the blood than it releases.
After a meal has been digested and glucose levels begin to fall, insulin secretion is reduced, and glycogen synthesis stops. When it is needed for energy, glycogen is broken down and converted again to glucose. Glycogen phosphorylase is the primary enzyme of glycogen breakdown. For the next 8 -- 12 hours, glucose derived from liver glycogen is the primary source of blood glucose used by the rest of the body for fuel.
Glucagon, another hormone produced by the pancreas, in many respects serves as a countersignal to insulin. In response to insulin levels being below normal (when blood levels of glucose begin to fall below the normal range), glucagon is secreted in increasing amounts and stimulates both glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen) and gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose from other sources).
Muscle cell glycogen appears to function as an immediate reserve source of available glucose for muscle cells. Other cells that contain small amounts use it locally, as well. As muscle cells lack glucose - 6 - phosphatase, which is required to pass glucose into the blood, the glycogen they store is available solely for internal use and is not shared with other cells. This is in contrast to liver cells, which, on demand, readily do break down their stored glycogen into glucose and send it through the blood stream as fuel for other organs.
Glycogen was discovered by Claude Bernard. His experiments showed that the liver contained a substance that could give rise to reducing sugar by the action of a "ferment '' in the liver. By 1857, he described the isolation of a substance he called "la matière glycogène '', or "sugar - forming substance ''. Soon after the discovery of glycogen in the liver, A. Sanson found that muscular tissue also contains glycogen. The empirical formula for glycogen of (C 6H 10 O 5) was established by Kekule in 1858.
Glycogen synthesis is, unlike its breakdown, endergonic -- it requires the input of energy. Energy for glycogen synthesis comes from uridine triphosphate (UTP), which reacts with glucose - 1 - phosphate, forming UDP - glucose, in a reaction catalysed by UTP -- glucose - 1 - phosphate uridylyltransferase. Glycogen is synthesized from monomers of UDP - glucose initially by the protein glycogenin, which has two tyrosine anchors for the reducing end of glycogen, since glycogenin is a homodimer. After about eight glucose molecules have been added to a tyrosine residue, the enzyme glycogen synthase progressively lengthens the glycogen chain using UDP - glucose, adding α (1 → 4) - bonded glucose. The glycogen branching enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a terminal fragment of six or seven glucose residues from a nonreducing end to the C - 6 hydroxyl group of a glucose residue deeper into the interior of the glycogen molecule. The branching enzyme can act upon only a branch having at least 11 residues, and the enzyme may transfer to the same glucose chain or adjacent glucose chains.
Glycogen is cleaved from the nonreducing ends of the chain by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase to produce monomers of glucose - 1 - phosphate:
In vivo, phosphorolysis proceeds in the direction of glycogen breakdown because the ratio of phosphate and glucose - 1 - phosphate is usually greater than 100. Glucose - 1 - phosphate is then converted to glucose 6 - phosphate (G6P) by phosphoglucomutase. A special debranching enzyme is needed to remove the α (1 - 6) branches in branched glycogen and reshape the chain into a linear polymer. The G6P monomers produced have three possible fates:
The most common disease in which glycogen metabolism becomes abnormal is diabetes, in which, because of abnormal amounts of insulin, liver glycogen can be abnormally accumulated or depleted. Restoration of normal glucose metabolism usually normalizes glycogen metabolism, as well.
In hypoglycemia caused by excessive insulin, liver glycogen levels are high, but the high insulin levels prevent the glycogenolysis necessary to maintain normal blood sugar levels. Glucagon is a common treatment for this type of hypoglycemia.
Various inborn errors of metabolism are caused by deficiencies of enzymes necessary for glycogen synthesis or breakdown. These are collectively referred to as glycogen storage diseases.
Long - distance athletes, such as marathon runners, cross-country skiers, and cyclists, often experience glycogen depletion, where almost all of the athlete 's glycogen stores are depleted after long periods of exertion without sufficient carbohydrate consumption. This phenomenon is referred to as "hitting the wall ''.
Glycogen depletion can be forestalled in three possible ways. First, during exercise, carbohydrates with the highest possible rate of conversion to blood glucose (high glycemic index) are ingested continuously. The best possible outcome of this strategy replaces about 35 % of glucose consumed at heart rates above about 80 % of maximum. Second, through endurance training adaptations and specialized regimens (e.g. fasting low - intensity endurance training), the body can condition type I muscle fibers to improve both fuel use efficiency and workload capacity to increase the percentage of fatty acids used as fuel, sparing carbohydrate use from all sources. Third, by consuming large quantities of carbohydrates after depleting glycogen stores as a result of exercise or diet, the body can increase storage capacity of intramuscular glycogen stores. This process is known as carbohydrate loading. In general, glycemic index of carbohydrate source does not matter since muscular insulin sensitivity is increased as a result of temporary glycogen depletion.
When experiencing glycogen debt, athletes often experience extreme fatigue to the point that it is difficult to move. As a reference, the very best professional cyclists in the world will usually finish a 4 - to 5 - hr stage race right at the limit of glycogen depletion using the first three strategies.
When athletes ingest both carbohydrate and caffeine following exhaustive exercise, their glycogen stores tend to be replenished more rapidly; however, the minimum dose of caffeine at which there is a clinically significant effect on glycogen repletion has not been established.
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april 1980 armed gunmen stormed the iranian embassy in princes gate | Iranian embassy siege - wikipedia
The Iranian Embassy siege took place from 30 April to 5 May 1980, after a group of six armed men stormed the Iranian embassy in South Kensington, London. The gunmen, members of an Iranian Arab group campaigning for Arab national sovereignty in the southern Iranian region of Khuzestan Province, took 26 people hostage -- mostly embassy staff, but also several visitors as well as a police officer who had been guarding the embassy. They demanded the release of Arab prisoners from prisons in Khuzestan and their own safe passage out of the United Kingdom. Margaret Thatcher 's government quickly resolved that safe passage would not be granted, and a siege ensued. Over the following days, police negotiators secured the release of five hostages in exchange for minor concessions, such as the broadcasting of the hostage - takers ' demands on British television.
By the sixth day of the siege the gunmen had become increasingly frustrated at the lack of progress in meeting their demands. That evening, they killed one of the hostages and threw his body out of the embassy. As a result, the government ordered the Special Air Service (SAS), a special forces regiment of the British Army, to conduct an assault -- Operation Nimrod -- to rescue the remaining hostages. Shortly afterwards, SAS soldiers abseiled from the roof of the building and forced entry through the windows. During the 17 - minute raid, they rescued all but one of the remaining hostages, and killed five of the six hostage - takers. The soldiers later faced accusations of unnecessarily killing two of the five, but an inquest into the deaths eventually cleared the SAS of any wrongdoing. The sole remaining gunman was prosecuted and served 27 years in British prisons.
The hostage - takers and their cause were largely forgotten after the Iran -- Iraq War broke out later that year and the hostage crisis in Tehran continued until January 1981. Nonetheless, the operation brought the SAS to the public eye for the first time and bolstered the reputation of Thatcher. The SAS was quickly overwhelmed by the number of applications it received from people inspired by the operation and experienced greater demand for its expertise from foreign governments. The building, having suffered major damage from a fire that broke out during the assault, was not reopened as the Iranian embassy until 1993.
The hostage - takers were members of the Democratic Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Arabistan (DRFLA) -- Iranian Arabs protesting for the establishment of an autonomous Arab state in the southern region of the Iranian province of Khūzestān (also known as Arabistan) which is home to an Arabic - speaking minority. The oil - rich area had become the source of much of Iran 's wealth, having been developed by multi-national companies during the reign of the Shah.
According to Oan Ali Mohammed, suppression of the Arab sovereignty movement was the spark that led to his desire to attack the Iranian Embassy in London -- a plan inspired by the Iran hostage crisis in which supporters of the revolution held the staff of the American embassy in Tehran hostage.
Using Iraqi passports, Oan and three other members of the DRFLA arrived in London on 31 March 1980 and rented a flat in Earls Court. They claimed they had met by chance on the flight. The men typically returned to the flat drunk, late at night, and sometimes accompanied by prostitutes. Within a week, the housekeeper asked them to leave. They soon found another flat, where they told their new landlord they were moving because they had been joined by other men and required larger accommodation. Over the following days, the group swelled, with up to a dozen men in the flat on one occasion.
Oan was 27 and from Khūzestān; he had studied at the University of Tehran, where he became politically active. He had been imprisoned by SAVAK, the Shah 's secret police, and bore scars which he said were from torture in SAVAK custody. The other members of his group were Shakir Abdullah Radhil, known as "Faisal '', Oan 's second - in - command who also claimed to have been tortured by SAVAK; Shakir Sultan Said, or "Hassan ''; Themir Moammed Hussein, or Abbas; Fowzi Badavi Nejad, or "Ali ''; and Makki Hanoun Ali, the youngest of the group, who went by the name of "Makki ''.
On 30 April the men informed their landlord that they were going to Bristol for a week and then returning to Iraq, stated that they would no longer require the flat, and arranged for their belongings to be sent to Iraq. They left the building at 09: 30 (BST) on 30 April. Their initial destination is unknown, but en route to the Iranian Embassy they collected firearms (including pistols and submachine guns), ammunition and hand grenades. The weapons, predominantly Soviet - made, are believed to have been smuggled into the United Kingdom in a diplomatic bag belonging to Iraq. Shortly before 11: 30, and almost two hours after vacating the nearby flat in Lexham Gardens in South Kensington, the six men arrived outside the embassy.
The Special Air Service (SAS) is a regiment of the British Army and part of the United Kingdom 's special forces. The regiment was formed by Colonel David Stirling in Africa in 1941, at the height of the Second World War. Its original role was to penetrate enemy lines and strike at airfields and supply lines deep in enemy territory, first in North Africa and later around the Mediterranean and in occupied Europe. Stirling established the principle of using small teams, usually of just four men, to carry out raids -- having realised that a four - man team could sometimes prove much more effective than a unit of hundreds of soldiers.
Western governments were prompted to form specialist anti-terrorist units following the "Munich massacre ''. During the 1972 Olympic Games, a firefight between a group of hostage - takers and West German police left a police officer and all the hostages dead. The British government, worried that the country was unprepared for a similar crisis in the United Kingdom, ordered the formation of the Counter Revolutionary Warfare (CRW) Wing of the SAS, which became the UK 's primary anti-terrorist and anti-hijacking unit. The SAS had taken part in counter-insurgency operations abroad since 1945, and had trained the bodyguards of influential people whose deaths would be contrary to British interests. Thus, it was believed to be better prepared for the role than any unit in the police or elsewhere in the armed forces. The CRW Wing 's first operational experience was the storming of Lufthansa Flight 181 in 1977, when a small detachment of soldiers were sent to assist GSG 9 -- the elite West German police unit set up after the events of 1972.
At approximately 11: 30 on Wednesday 30 April the six heavily armed members of DRFLA stormed the Iranian Embassy building on Princes Gate, South Kensington. The gunmen quickly overpowered Police Constable Trevor Lock of the Metropolitan Police 's Diplomatic Protection Group (DPG). Lock was carrying a concealed Smith & Wesson. 38 - calibre revolver, but was unable to draw it before he was overpowered, although he did manage to press the "panic button '' on his radio. Lock was later frisked, but the gunman conducting the search did not find the constable 's weapon. He remained in possession of the revolver, and refused to remove his coat -- which he told the gunmen was to "preserve his image '' as a police officer -- in order to keep it concealed. The officer also refused offers of food throughout the siege for fear that the weapon would be seen if he had to use the toilet and a gunman decided to escort him.
Although the majority of the people in the embassy were captured, three managed to escape -- two by climbing out of a ground - floor window and the third by climbing across a first - floor parapet to the Ethiopian Embassy next door. A fourth person, Gholam - Ali Afrouz -- the chargé d'affaires and thus the most senior Iranian official present -- briefly escaped by jumping out of a first - floor window, but was injured in the process and quickly captured. Afrouz and the 25 other hostages were all taken to a room on the second floor. The majority of the hostages were embassy staff -- predominantly Iranian nationals, but several British employees were also captured. The other hostages were all visitors, with the exception of Lock, the British police officer tasked with guarding the embassy. Afrouz had been appointed to the position less than a year before, his predecessor having been dismissed after the revolution. Abbas Fallahi, who had been a butler before the revolution, was appointed the doorman by Afrouz. One of the British members of staff was Ron Morris, from Battersea, who had worked for the embassy in various positions since 1947.
During the course of the siege, police and journalists established the identities of several other hostages. Mustapha Karkouti was a journalist covering the crisis at the US Embassy in Tehran and was at the embassy for an interview with Abdul Fazi Ezzati, the cultural attaché. Muhammad Hashir Faruqi was another journalist, at the embassy to interview Afrouz for an article on the Iranian Revolution. Simeon "Sim '' Harris and Chris Cramer, both employees of the BBC, were at the embassy attempting to obtain visas to visit Iran -- hoping to cover the aftermath of the 1979 revolution -- after several unsuccessful attempts. They found themselves sitting next to Moutaba Mehrnavard, who was there to consult Ahmad Dadgar, the embassy 's medical adviser, and Ali Asghar Tabatabai, who was collecting a map for use in a presentation he had been asked to give at the end of a course he had been attending.
Police arrived at the embassy almost immediately after the first reports of gunfire, and, within ten minutes, seven DPG officers were on the scene. The officers moved to surround the embassy, but retreated when a gunman appeared at a window and threatened to open fire. Deputy Assistant Commissioner John Dellow arrived nearly 30 minutes later and took command of the operation. Dellow established a temporary headquarters in his car before moving it to the Royal School of Needlework further down Princes Gate and then to 24 Princes Gate, a nursery school. From his various command posts, Dellow coordinated the police response, including the deployment of D11, the Metropolitan Police 's marksmen, and officers with specialist surveillance equipment. Police negotiators made contact with Oan via a field telephone passed through one of the embassy windows, and were assisted by a negotiator and a psychiatrist. At 15: 15 Oan issued the DRFLA 's first demand, the release of 91 Arabs held in prisons in Khūzestān, and threatened to blow up the embassy and the hostages if this were not done by noon on 1 May.
Large numbers of journalists were on the scene quickly and were moved into a holding area to the west of the front of the embassy, while dozens of Iranian protesters also arrived near the embassy and remained there throughout the siege. Shortly after the beginning of the crisis, the British government 's emergency committee COBRA, was assembled. COBRA is made up of ministers, civil servants and expert advisers -- including representatives from the police and the armed forces. The meeting was chaired by William Whitelaw, the Home Secretary, as Margaret Thatcher, the Prime Minister, was unavailable. The Iranian government accused the British and American governments of sponsoring the attack as revenge for the ongoing siege of the US Embassy in Tehran. Given the lack of co-operation from Iran, Thatcher -- who was kept apprised of the situation by Whitelaw -- determined that British law would be applied to the embassy, despite the Vienna Convention, under which the embassy is considered Iranian soil.
At 16: 30, the gunmen released their first hostage, Frieda Mozaffarian. She had been unwell since the siege began, and Oan had asked for a doctor to be sent into the embassy to treat her, but the police refused. The other hostages deceived Oan into believing that Mozaffarian was pregnant, and Oan eventually released Mozaffarian after her condition deteriorated.
The COBRA meetings continued through the night and into Thursday. Meanwhile, two teams were dispatched from the headquarters of the Special Air Service (SAS) near Hereford, and arrived at a holding area in Regent 's Park Barracks. The teams -- from B Squadron, complemented by specialists from other squadrons -- were equipped with CS gas, stun grenades, and explosives and armed with Browning Hi - Power pistols and Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns. Lieutenant Colonel Michael Rose, commander of 22 SAS had travelled ahead of the detachment and introduced himself to Dellow, the commander of the police operation. At approximately 03: 30 on 1 May, one of the SAS teams moved into the building next door to the embassy, normally occupied by the Royal College of General Practitioners, where they were briefed on Rose 's "immediate action '' plan -- to be implemented should the SAS be required to storm the building before a more sophisticated plan could be formed.
Early in the morning of 1 May, the gunmen ordered one of the hostages to telephone the BBC 's news desk. During the call, Oan took the receiver and spoke directly to the BBC journalist. He identified the group to which the gunmen belonged and stated that the non-Iranian hostages would not be harmed, but refused to allow the journalist to speak to any other hostages. At some point during the day, the police disabled the embassy 's telephone lines, leaving the hostage - takers just the field telephone for outside communication. As the hostages woke up, Chris Cramer, a sound organiser for the BBC, became seriously ill and his colleague, Sim Harris, was taken to the field telephone to negotiate for a doctor. The police negotiator refused the request, instead telling Harris to persuade Oan to release Cramer. The ensuing negotiations between Harris, Oan, and the police took up most of the morning, and Cramer was eventually released at 11: 15. He was rushed to hospital in an ambulance, accompanied by police officers sent to gather information from him.
As the deadline of noon approached, set the previous day for the release of the Arab prisoners, the police became convinced that the gunmen did not have the capability to carry out their threat of blowing up the embassy, and persuaded Oan to agree to a new deadline of 14: 00. The police allowed the deadline to pass, to no immediate response from the gunmen. During the afternoon, Oan altered his demands, requesting that the British media broadcast a statement of the group 's grievances and for ambassadors of three Arab countries to negotiate the group 's safe passage out of the UK once the statement had been broadcast. At approximately 20: 00, Oan became agitated by noises coming from the Ethiopian Embassy next door. The noise came from technicians who were drilling holes in the wall to implant listening devices, but PC Trevor Lock, when asked to identify the sound, attributed it to mice. COBRA decided to create ambient noise to cover the sound created by the technicians and instructed British Gas to commence drilling in an adjacent road, supposedly to repair a gas main. The drilling was aborted after it agitated the gunmen, and instead British Airports Authority, owner of London Heathrow Airport, was told to instruct approaching aircraft to fly over the embassy at low altitude.
At 09: 30 on 2 May, Oan appeared at the first - floor window of the embassy to demand access to the telex system, which the police had disabled along with the telephone lines, and threatened to kill Abdul Fazi Ezzati, the cultural attaché. The police refused and Oan pushed Ezzati, who he had been holding at gunpoint at the window, across the room, before demanding to speak to somebody from the BBC who knew Sim Harris. The police, relieved to have a demand to which they could easily agree, produced Tony Crabb, managing director of BBC Television News and Harris 's boss. Oan shouted his demands -- for safe passage out of the UK, to be negotiated by three ambassadors from Arab countries -- to Crabb from the first - floor window, and instructed that they should be broadcast along with a statement of the hostage - takers ' aims by the BBC. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office informally approached the embassies of Algeria, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Syria and Qatar to ask if their ambassadors would be willing to talk to the hostage - takers. The Jordanian ambassador immediately refused and the other five said they would consult their governments. The BBC broadcast the statement that evening, but in a form unsatisfactory to Oan, who considered it to be truncated and incorrect.
Meanwhile, the police located the embassy caretaker and took him to their forward headquarters to brief the SAS and senior police officers. He informed them that the embassy 's front door was reinforced by a steel security door, and that the windows on the ground floor and first floor were fitted with armoured glass -- the result of recommendations made after the SAS had been asked to review security arrangements for the embassy several years earlier. Plans for entering the embassy by battering the front door and ground - floor windows were quickly scrapped and work began on other ideas.
Oan, angered by the BBC 's incorrect reporting of his demands the previous evening, contacted the police negotiators shortly after 06: 00 and accused the authorities of deceiving him. He demanded to speak with an Arab ambassador, but the negotiator on duty claimed that talks were still being arranged by the Foreign Office. Recognising the delaying tactic, Oan told the negotiator that the British hostages would be the last to be released because of the British authorities ' deceit. He added that a hostage would be killed unless Tony Crabb was brought back to the embassy. Crabb did not arrive at the embassy until 15: 30, nearly ten hours after Oan demanded his presence, to the frustration of both Oan and Sim Harris. Oan then relayed another statement to Crabb via Mustapha Karkouti, a journalist also being held hostage in the embassy. The police guaranteed that the statement would be broadcast on the BBC 's next news bulletin, in exchange for the release of two hostages. The hostages decided amongst themselves that the two to be released would be Hiyech Kanji and Ali - Guil Ghanzafar; the latter was apparently released for no other reason than his loud snoring, which kept the other hostages awake at night.
Later in the evening, at approximately 23: 00, an SAS team reconnoitred the roof of the embassy. They discovered a skylight, and succeeded in unlocking it for potential use as an access point, should they later be required to storm the building. They also attached ropes to the chimneys to allow soldiers to abseil down the building and gain access through the windows if necessary.
During the day, the Foreign Office held further talks with diplomats from Arabian countries in the hope of persuading them to go to the embassy and talk to the hostage - takers. The talks, hosted by Douglas Hurd, ended in stalemate. The diplomats insisted they must be able to offer safe passage out of the UK for the gunmen, believing this to be the only way to guarantee a peaceful outcome, but the British government was adamant that safe passage would not be considered under any circumstances. Karkhouti, through whom Oan had issued his revised demands the previous day, became increasingly ill throughout the day and by the evening was feverish, which led to suggestions that the police had spiked the food that had been sent into the embassy. John Dellow, the commander of the police operation, had apparently considered the idea and even consulted a doctor about its viability, but eventually dismissed it as "impracticable ''.
The SAS officers involved in the operation -- including Brigadier Peter de la Billière, Director Special Forces; Lieutenant Colonel Mike Rose, Commander of 22 SAS; and Major Hector Gullan, commander of the team that would undertake any raid -- spent the day refining their plans for an assault.
Oan woke Lock at dawn, convinced that an intruder was in the embassy. Lock was sent to investigate, but no intruder was found. Later in the morning, Oan called Lock to examine a bulge in the wall separating the Iranian embassy from the Ethiopian embassy next door. The bulge had, in fact, been caused by the removal of bricks to allow an assault team to break through the wall and to implant listening devices, resulting in a weakening of the wall. Although Lock assured him that he did not believe the police were about to storm the building, Oan remained convinced that they were "up to something '' and moved the male hostages from the room in which they had spent the last four days to another down the hall. Tensions rose throughout the morning and, at 13: 00, Oan told the police that he would kill a hostage unless he was able to speak to an Arab ambassador within 45 minutes. At 13: 40, Lock informed the negotiator that the gunmen had taken Abbas Lavasani -- the embassy 's chief press officer -- downstairs and were preparing to execute him. Lavasani, a devout believer in the Iranian Revolution, had repeatedly provoked his captors during the siege. According to Lock, Lavasani stated that "if they were going to kill a hostage, (Lavasani) wanted it to be him. '' At exactly 13: 45, 45 minutes after Oan 's demand to speak to an ambassador, three shots were heard from inside the embassy.
Home Secretary Willie Whitelaw, who had been chairing COBRA during the siege, was rushed back to Whitehall from a function he had been attending in Slough, roughly 20 miles (30 km) away, arriving 19 minutes after the shots had been reported. He was briefed on the SAS plan by de la Billière, who told him to expect that up to 40 percent of the hostages would be killed in an assault. After deliberations, Whitelaw instructed the SAS to prepare to assault the building at short notice, an order that was received by Mike Rose at 15: 50. By 17: 00, the SAS were in a position to assault the embassy at ten minutes ' notice. The police negotiators recruited the imam from a local mosque at 18: 20, fearing that a "crisis point '' had been reached, and asked him to talk to the gunmen. Three further shots were fired during the course of the imam 's conversation with Oan. Oan announced that a hostage had been killed, and the rest would die in 30 minutes unless his demands were met. A few minutes later, Lavasani 's body was dumped out of the front door. Upon a preliminary examination, conducted at the scene, a forensic pathologist estimated that Lavasani had been dead for at least an hour -- meaning he could not have been killed by the three most recent shots, and leading the police to believe that two hostages had been killed. In fact, only Lavasani had been shot.
After Lavasani 's body had been recovered, Sir David McNee, Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, contacted the Home Secretary to request approval to hand control of the operation over to the British Army, under the provisions of Military Aid to the Civil Power. Whitelaw relayed the request to Thatcher, and the prime minister agreed immediately. Thus John Dellow, the ranking police officer at the embassy, signed over control of the operation to Lieutenant Colonel Mike Rose at 19: 07, authorising Rose to order an assault at his discretion. Meanwhile, the police negotiators began stalling Oan. They offered concessions in order to distract him and prevent him killing further hostages, buying time for the SAS to make its final preparations for the now - inevitable assault.
The two SAS teams on - scene -- Red Team and Blue Team -- were ordered to begin their simultaneous assaults, under the codename Operation Nimrod, at 19: 23. One group of four men from Red Team abseiled from the roof down the rear of the building, while another four - man team lowered a stun grenade through the skylight. The detonation of the stun grenade was supposed to coincide with the abseiling teams detonating explosives to gain entry to the building through the second - floor windows. Their descent had not gone according to plan and the staff sergeant leading the abseilers became entangled in his rope. While trying to assist him, one of the other soldiers had accidentally smashed a window with his foot. The noise of the breaking window alerted Oan, who was on the first floor communicating with the police negotiators, and he went to investigate. The soldiers were unable to use explosives for fear of injuring their stranded staff sergeant, but managed to smash their way into the embassy.
After the first three soldiers entered, a fire started and travelled up the curtains and out of the second - floor window, severely burning the staff sergeant. A second wave of abseilers cut him free, and he fell to the balcony below before entering the embassy behind the rest of his team. Slightly behind Red Team, Blue Team detonated explosives on a first - floor window -- forcing Sim Harris, who had just run into the room, to take cover. Much of the operation at the front of the embassy took place in full view of the assembled journalists and was broadcast on live television, thus Harris 's escape across the parapet of a first - floor balcony was famously captured on video. As the soldiers emerged onto the first - floor landing, Lock tackled Oan to prevent him attacking the SAS men. Oan, still armed, was subsequently shot dead by one of the soldiers. Meanwhile, further teams entered the embassy through the back door and cleared the ground floor and cellar. The SAS then began evacuating hostages, manhandling them down the stairs towards the back door of the embassy. Two of the terrorists were hiding amongst the hostages -- one of them produced a hand grenade when he was identified. An SAS soldier, who was unable to shoot for fear of hitting a hostage or another soldier, pushed the grenade - wielding terrorist to the bottom of the stairs, where two other soldiers shot him dead.
The raid lasted seventeen minutes and involved 30 -- 35 soldiers. The terrorists killed one hostage and seriously wounded two others during the raid while the SAS killed all but one of the terrorists. The rescued hostages and the remaining terrorist, who was still concealed amongst them, were taken into the embassy 's back garden and restrained on the ground while they were identified. The last terrorist was identified by Sim Harris and led away by the SAS.
After the end of the siege, PC Trevor Lock was widely considered a hero. He was awarded the George Medal, the United Kingdom 's second - highest civil honour, for his conduct during the siege and for tackling Oan during the SAS raid -- the only time during the siege that he drew his concealed side arm. In addition, he was honoured with the Freedom of the City of London and in a motion in the House of Commons. Police historian Michael J. Waldren, referring to the television series Dixon of Dock Green, suggested that Lock 's restraint in the use of his revolver was "a defining example of the power of the Dixon image '', and Maurice Punch noted the contrast between Lock 's actions and the highly aggressive tactics of the SAS. Sergeant Tommy Palmer was awarded the Queen 's Gallantry Medal for his part in the assault, in which he shot dead a terrorist who was apparently about to throw a grenade amongst the hostages. After the operation concluded, the staff sergeant who was caught in his abseil rope was treated at St Stephen 's Hospital in Fulham. He suffered serious burns to his legs, but went on to make a full recovery.
The Iranian government welcomed the end of the siege, and declared that the two hostages killed were martyrs for the Iranian Revolution. They also thanked the British government for "the persevering action of your police force during the unjust hostage - taking event at the Embassy ''.
After the assault concluded, the police conducted an investigation into the siege and the deaths of the two hostages and five terrorists, including the actions of the SAS. The soldiers ' weapons were taken away for examination and, the following day, the soldiers themselves were interviewed at length by the police at the regiment 's base in Hereford. There was controversy over the deaths of two terrorists in the telex room, where the male hostages were held. Hostages later said in interviews that they had persuaded their captors to surrender and television footage appeared to show them throwing weapons out of the window and holding a white flag. The two SAS soldiers who killed the men both stated at the inquest into the terrorists ' deaths that they believed the men had been reaching for weapons before they were shot. The inquest jury reached the verdict that the soldiers ' actions were justifiable homicide (later known as "lawful killing '').
Fowzi Nejad was the only gunman to survive the SAS assault. After being identified, he was dragged away by an SAS trooper, who allegedly intended to take him back into the building and shoot him. The soldier reportedly changed his mind when it was pointed out to him that the raid was being broadcast on live television. It later emerged that the footage from the back of the embassy was coming from a wireless camera placed in the window of a flat overlooking the embassy. The camera had been installed by ITN technicians, who had posed as guests of a local resident in order to get past the police cordon, which had been in place since the beginning of the siege. Nejad was arrested, and was eventually tried, convicted, and sentenced to life imprisonment for his role in the siege. He became eligible for parole in 2005. As a foreign national, he would normally have been immediately deported to his home country but Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights, incorporated into British law by the Human Rights Act 1998, has been held by the European Court of Human Rights to prohibit deportation in cases where the person concerned would be likely to be tortured or executed in his home country. Nejad was eventually paroled in 2008 and granted leave to remain in the UK, but was not given political asylum. The Home Office released a statement, saying "We do not give refugee status to convicted terrorists. Our aim is to deport people as quickly as possible but the law requires us to first obtain assurances that the person being returned will not face certain death ''. After 27 years in prison, Nejad was deemed no longer to be a threat to society, but Trevor Lock wrote to the Home Office to oppose his release.
The SAS raid, codenamed "Operation Nimrod '', was broadcast live at peak time on a bank holiday Monday evening and was viewed by millions of people, mostly in the UK, making it a defining moment in British history. Both the BBC and ITV interrupted their scheduled programming to show the end of the siege, which proved to be a major career break for several journalists. Kate Adie, the BBC 's duty reporter at the embassy when the SAS assault began, went on to report from war zones across the world and eventually to become chief news correspondent for BBC News, while David Goldsmith and his team, responsible for the hidden camera at the back of the embassy, were awarded a BAFTA for their coverage. The success of the operation, combined with the high - profile it was given by the media, invoked a sense of national pride compared to Victory in Europe Day -- the end of the Second World War in Europe. The operation was declared "an almost unqualified success ''. Margaret Thatcher recalled that she was congratulated wherever she went over the following days, and received messages of support and congratulation from other world leaders. However, the incident strained already - tense relations between the UK and Iran following the Iranian Revolution. The Iranian government declared that the siege of the embassy was planned by the British and American governments, and that the hostages who had been killed were martyrs for the Revolution.
Operation Nimrod brought the SAS, a regiment that was largely unknown at the time owing to the covert nature of its operations, into the public eye. The regiment was not pleased with its new high profile, having enjoyed its previous obscurity. Nonetheless, the operation vindicated the SAS, which had been threatened with disbandment and whose use of resources had previously been considered a waste. The regiment was quickly overwhelmed by new applicants. Membership of 22 SAS is open only to individuals currently serving in the Armed Forces (allowing applications from any individual in any service), but the unit also has two regiments from the volunteer Territorial Army (TA) -- 21 SAS and 23 SAS. Both the TA regiments received hundreds more applications than in previous years, prompting de la Billière to remark that the applicants seemed "convinced that a balaclava helmet and a Heckler & Koch sub-machine gun would be handed to them over the counter, so that they could go off and conduct embassy - style sieges of their own ''. All three units were forced to introduce additional fitness tests at the start of the application process. The SAS also experienced an increased demand for their expertise in training the forces of friendly countries and those whose collapse was considered not to be in Britain 's interest.
The British government 's response to the crisis, and the successful use of force to end it, strengthened the Conservative government of the day and boosted Thatcher 's personal credibility. McNee believed that the conclusion of the siege exemplified the British government 's policy of refusing to give in to terrorist demands, "nowhere was the effectiveness of this response to terrorism more effectively demonstrated ''.
The embassy building was severely damaged by fire. It was more than a decade before the British and Iranian governments came to an agreement whereby the United Kingdom would repair the damage to the embassy in London and Iran would pay for repairs to the British embassy in Tehran, which had been damaged during the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Iranian diplomats began working from 16 Princes Gate again in December 1993.
The DRFLA was undermined by its links with the Iraqi government after it emerged that Iraq had sponsored the training and equipping of the hostage - takers. The Iran -- Iraq War started five months after the end of the siege and continued for eight years. The campaign for autonomy of Khūzestān was largely forgotten in the wake of the hostilities, as was the DRFLA.
Bibliography
Citations
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what i like that's what i like | That 's What I Like (Bruno Mars song) - wikipedia
"That 's What I Like '' is a song by American singer and songwriter Bruno Mars from his third studio album 24K Magic (2016). The song was released as the album 's second single on January 30, 2017. It is the highest charting single in the United States from Mars ' studio album 24K Magic, surpassing the single of the same name by reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100. The song 's also received remixes, featuring artists including Gucci Mane, PartyNextDoor and Alan Walker. "That 's What I Like '' received a Grammy Award nomination for Song of the Year, Best R&B Song and Best R&B Performance at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.
All Access first revealed that the recording would be sent to Top 40 radio stations in late January. The single was sent on January 30, 2017, to Hot AC radio stations in the United States by Atlantic Records. A day later, it impacted American contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary stations via the same label. It was released to Italian contemporary hit radio on March 3, 2017, through Warner. On April 20, 2017, four different remixes were made available worldwide.
"That 's What I Like '' was co-written by Bruno Mars, Philip Lawrence, Christopher Brody Brown, James Fauntleroy, Johnathan Yip, Ray Romulus, Jeremy Reeves, and Ray McCullough II. Its production was handled by the former three under their alias, Shampoo Press & Curl, along with co-production by latter four as The Stereotypes. Eric "E-Panda '' Hernandez played the live drums, while Mars, Fauntleroy, and Lawrence served as the recording 's background vocalists. The recording was done and engineered by Charles Moniz with additional engineering assistance by Jacob Dennis at Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank, California. It was mixed at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach by Serban Ghenea, with John Hanes serving as mixing engineer. Tom Coyne mastered the song at Sterling Sound in New York City.
"That 's What I Like '' is a hip hop soul, new jack swing and R&B song composed in the key of B ♭ minor. The song moves at a tempo of 134 beats per minute in common time, while Mars ' vocals span from A ♭ to D ♭, while also reaching up to F in the ending adlibs. Christopher R. Weingarten of Rolling Stone noted that the track "brings the silky vibes of 12 Play -- era R. Kelly into the boom of modern trap ''. In the album review provided by Vulture, Craig Jenkins said that "It 's one of the album 's best and most modern - sounding cuts by some distance, thanks to a killer vocal and tasteful trap drums (although to be fair, it carries more than a passing resemblance to Beyoncé and the Neptunes ' B'Day sleeper ' Kitty Kat ') ''.
The song debuted at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue week of December 10, 2016. In its fifteenth week, it climbed to the top spot, becoming Mars ' seventh number one on the Hot 100. As of September 2017, it has sold 1,625,000 copies in the United States.
As the song reached the top spot of the Pop Songs chart, Mars tied with Justin Timberlake for the most number - one songs on the latter chart among male soloists. It has spent nine weeks on the top of the Billboard Radio Songs, a new record for Mars, as a solo artist. It has surpassed its previous seventh - week number one runs for "Just the Way You Are '' (2010) and "Locked Out of Heaven '' (2013). It has spent 20 weeks on the top of Hot R&B Songs, tying the record for most week spent at number one with The Weeknd 's "Starboy '' and Drake 's "One Dance ''. The single spent 24 weeks on the Hot 100 's Top Five, becoming only one of the five singles to spend at least that much time in the top five. It also spent 28 weeks in total in the top ten, becoming one of the longest runs in the top 10 in Billboard history.
The music video for "That 's What I Like '' premiered on March 1, 2017. It was directed by Mars and Jonathan Lia, and produced by Good Company. The effects of the video were also available on Facebook for users to try.
As of December 27, 2017, the video has been viewed more than 1.1 billion times.
Mars performed "That 's What I Like '' during the 59th Grammy Awards. He also performed that song during the 2017 Brit Awards. The song was performed as a medley of "Treasure '' at the 2017 iHeartRadio Music Awards and at the Charlie Rose show.
The song has been used in the television series Crashing, Being Mary Jane and Undressed.
Recording
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of 24K Magic, Atlantic Records
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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grey's anatomy who killed the burn victim | I Saw What I Saw - wikipedia
"I Saw What I Saw '' is the sixth episode of the sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, and the show 's 108th episode overall. It was written by Peter William Harper and directed by Allison Liddi - Brown. The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on October 22, 2009.
The episode begins in medias res, depicting events following a whodunit style, exposing them from alternating points of view in a fast - paced way. Katherine Heigl (Dr. Izzie Stevens) was absent from the episode, due to her hiatus to film the 2010 blockbuster Life as We Know It. Upon its initial airing, the episode was viewed by 15.40 million people, garnered a 5.6 / 4 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, and ranked first for the night in terms of viewership and ratings.
After victims burned in a hotel fire are brought to the hospital, Seattle Grace and Mercy West residents compete to get the best cases. Unexpectedly, a woman (Cathy Becker, played by Erinn Hayes) about to be discharged dies after a medical negligence mistake committed by one of the many surgeons who treated her. Chief Webber then starts a witch hunt to trace back the culprit and identify the cause of death. Each doctor gives his point of view of the chaotic scene that happened in the ER that day: Owen, Cristina, Bailey, Alex, Callie, Lexie, Charles, Jackson, April and Reed. The case of the patient then starts to be reconstructed. Her deep second degree burning, her chest pain, her pneumothorax and the cricothyrotomy Alex had to perform on her are exposed, as well as several other parallel storylines and medical cases linked to the fire.
Reed ultimately realizes that the mistake was committed by April, who forgot to check the patient 's airways, already swelled by the smoke, after being distracted by a patient with an axe stuck in his chest. Richard then fires her. The residents are shown having various reactions, as some complain about the absurdity of April 's mistake, while Cristina shows empathy for her former enemy. Derek then criticizes Richard, telling him he was initially responsible for the situation by setting chaos in the ER with the merger.
A subplotline of the episode includes Alex desperately seeking Izzie and calling her frequently to convince her to come back, even threatening to file a missing person report.
The episode was written by William Harper and directed by Allison Liddi - Brown. David Greenspan edited the episode and Donald Lee Harris served as production designer. Featured music included (...).
The episode received positive reviews among television critics, and it outperformed the previous episode in terms of viewership. "I Saw What I Saw '' was originally broadcast on October 22, 2009 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). The episode was viewed by a total of 15.40 million people, up 1.61 % from the previous episode "Invasion '', which garnered 13.79 million viewers. In terms of viewership, "I Saw What I Saw '' ranked first for the night, beating out CBS 's Survivor, The Mentalist, and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. In addition to placing at the top of the night for viewership, its 5.6 / 14 Nielsen rating ranked first in its 9: 00 Eastern time - slot and the entire night, for both the rating and share percentages of the key 18 -- 49 demographic, beating out Survivor, NBC 's The Office and 30 Rock, and ABC 's Flash Forward. In comparison to the previous episode 's rating, "I Saw What I Saw '' showed an increase, with the former garnering a 5.0 / 13 rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic.
BuddyTV gave a largely positive review saying, "Notice how good Grey 's Anatomy gets when it focuses on the medicine and ignores people 's drama? '' That, in a nutshell, is what happened to Seattle Grace following the so - called invasion last week. It was an awesome episode. Flashbacks are made of win, especially when you sort of know the ending, and everything feels like a gradual build - up to it. ''
The review posted on TV Squad gave a mixed review, "There was a lot of potential that this episode could have gone with. (...) The thing about what made (...) the Grey 's episode poor was the fact that in Grey 's all perspectives were the same. '' A review posted on TVFanatic says: "The question is whether it worked. We 're going to go with a definitive yes... and no. ''
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episode of ed edd n eddy where ed eats the moon | Ed, Edd n Eddy (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of the Canadian - American animated comedy television series Ed, Edd n Eddy, created by Danny Antonucci, originally aired on Cartoon Network from November 26, 1999, to December 22, 2000, and consists of 26 episodes. The series revolves around three adolescent boys collectively known as "the Eds '', who live in a suburban cul - de-sac. Unofficially led by Eddy, the Eds constantly scheme to make money off their peers in order to purchase their favorite confectionery, jawbreakers. However, their plans usually fail, leaving them in various predicaments.
The first season was a success in Nielsen ratings, prompting Cartoon Network for a November 1999 premiere. While the first season itself received generally positive reviews, the second season proved to be an improvement in reception, garnering acclaim and earning two Leo Awards, while the first received one.
The Complete Second Season DVD was released in Region 1 in 2007. The Ed, Edd n Eddy DVD volume Edifying Ed - Ventures, also featured season two episodes. Both DVDs were published by Warner Home Video. Many Cartoon Network compilation DVDs featured episodes from the season. It can also be purchased from the iTunes Store. It was written by Antonucci, Jono Howard, Mike Kubat, and Robert Leighton.
Ed, Edd n Eddy follows the lives of three adolescent boys who all share variations of the name Ed, but differ greatly in their personalities. In the pursuit of buying jawbreakers and fitting in with the other kids, dimwitted Ed and intellectual Double Dee aid the self - appointed leader, Eddy, in his plans to scam the other children in their cul - de-sac out of their money during a perpetual summer vacation; however problems always ensue. The other children mostly dislike or show indifference to the Eds, though they all share a common fear of the Kanker Sisters, a group of teenage girls who live in the nearby "Park n ' Flush '' trailer park. The series takes place mostly within the fictional town of Peach Creek, and new locations were rarely introduced.
Danny Antonucci, a cartoonist known for his edgy adult work such as Lupo the Butcher and The Brothers Grunt, was dared by someone to prouduce a children 's cartoon. In 1996, Antonucci pitched Ed, Edd n Eddy, which he conceived while designing a commercial, to Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon. After Cartoon Network agreed to give Antonucci creative control over the show, the series went into production and premiered its first season on January 4, 1999.
According to Cartoon Network executive Linda Simensky, the first season did "remarkably well '' in ratings ever since its premiere, becoming one of the top - rated series on the network and prompting Cartoon Network to quickly order a second season for a November 1999 premiere, making it one of four seasons which Ed, Edd n Eddy was set to run. Antonucci stated that change in the characters from the first to the second season is "very '' noticeable, due to the amount of development they 've went through. Antonucci directed the season, and co-wrote the episodes with Jono Howard and Mike Kubat, although Robert Leighton was credited as a co-writer for "To Sir with Ed ''.
The cast mostly remained the same as in season one; Matt Hill, Samuel Vincent, and Tony Sampson were cast as Ed, Double Dee, and Eddy, David Paul Grove as Jonny 2x4, Keenan Christenson as Jimmy, Janyse Jaud as Sarah and Lee Kanker, Kathleen Barr as Kevin and Marie, Peter Kelamis as Rolf, and Erin Fitzgerald as May Kanker, but Tabitha St. Germain, the voice of Nazz, was replaced by Fitzgerald.
The second season of Ed, Edd n Eddy was generally acclaimed by critics and marked an improvement in reception from the first season. In 2000, the season won Danny Antonucci the Leo Award for Best Director of an Animated Production. In 2001, Patric Caird was nominated for the Leo Award for Best Musical Score of an Animation Program or Series, for his work on the episode "Ed in a Halfshell ''.
In his review of The Complete Second Season DVD, David Cornelius of DVD Talk considered the Eds adolescent equivalents of The Three Stooges, believing: "The series revels in the sort of frantic, often gross humor kids love so much, and there 's just enough oddball insanity at play to make adults giggle just as easily. '' Cornelius also concurred that the "animation is colorful and intentionally bizarre; bold lines forming the characters and backgrounds wiggle and morph in a delirious haze. This is animation that 's, well, really animated. ''
Two Ed, Edd n Eddy DVDs which featured a number of season 2 episodes were released by Warner Home Video in Region 1 from 2005 to 2007. The DVD volume titled Edifying Ed - Ventures was released on May 10, 2005, featuring three season two episodes out of a total six. The Complete Second Season was released on April 24, 2007. Both DVDs can also be purchased on the Cartoon Network Shop. The season is also available for download on the iTunes Store. Selected episodes from the season were also featured on several Cartoon Network compilation DVDs.
Know It All Ed: When the Eds find turkey basters at the junkyard, they develop a scam using the basters as squirt guns.
Knock Knock, Who 's Ed: The Eds try to watch a monster movie marathon at other kids ' houses after Sarah kicks them out of her and Ed 's house.
Eeny, Meeny, Miney, Ed: When Eddy tells Ed that Edd is n't human since he 's so smart, the Eds get invited to a barbecue at Nazz 's place and Ed thinks it is a ceremony to transform kids into bugs.
Hands Across Ed: Eddy has the idea for his next scam: holding a telethon to raise money. They claim that Ed 's eyebrow is beginning to spread all over his body, and they need money for the operation.
In Like Ed: The Eds think that Kevin "knows too much '' and try to find out where he gets his information from by crashing Jimmy 's birthday party.
Home Cooked Eds: The Kankers take a vacation on Eddy 's lawn and Eddy tries to get rid of them.
To Sir with Ed: Nazz babysits Eddy while his parents are out, the latter mistaking it for a date with her, flattering and terrifying Eddy in the process.
Urban Ed: Getting bored with suburban life, the Eds create a city of their own.
Honor Thy Ed: The Eds investigate an abandoned house as a bet Eddy makes with Kevin, trapping themselves in the process.
Rent - a-Ed: After another failed scam, the Eds start a repair business.
Ed in a Half Shell: While Sarah is at a ballet lesson, Ed and Jimmy bond, causing Eddy to make Jimmy a scammer like him.
Hot Buttered Ed: When Kevin steals the Eds ' spot at the creek, they try to find another one.
Fa - La - La - La - Ed: After hearing Edd talking about his family 's Christmas fruitcake, Ed believes that it is really Christmas. The Eds then try to bring the holiday spirit to the other kids. Eddy tries to sing Christmas carols for money, but Ed gives away all their jawbreakers.
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trees of the tropical rainforest are characterized by leaves that are | Tropical rainforest - wikipedia
Tropical rainforests occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season -- all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm -- and may also be referred to as lowland equatorial evergreen rainforest. True rainforests are typically found between 10 degrees north and south of the equator (see map); they are a sub-set of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28 degree latitudes (in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn). Within the World Wildlife Fund 's biome classification, tropical rainforests are a type of tropical moist broadleaf forest (or tropical wet forest) that also includes the more extensive seasonal tropical forests.
Tropical rainforests can be characterized in two words: hot and wet. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 ° C (64 ° F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 1,680 mm (66 in) and can exceed 10 m (390 in) although it typically lies between 1,750 mm (69 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). This high level of precipitation often results in poor soils due to leaching of soluble nutrients in the ground.
Tropical rainforests exhibit high levels of biodiversity. Around 40 % to 75 % of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests. Rainforests are home to half of all the living animal and plant species on the planet. Two - thirds of all flowering plants can be found in rainforests. A single hectare of rainforest may contain 42,000 different species of insect, up to 807 trees of 313 species and 1,500 species of higher plants. Tropical rainforests have been called the "world 's largest pharmacy '', because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered within them. It is likely that there may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests.
Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally due to large - scale fragmentation as a result of human activity. Habitat fragmentation caused by geological processes such as volcanism and climate change occurred in the past, and have been identified as important drivers of speciation. However, fast human driven habitat destruction is suspected to be one of the major causes of species extinction. Tropical rain forests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century, and the area covered by rainforests around the world is rapidly shrinking.
Tropical rainforests have existed on earth for hundreds of millions of years. Most tropical rainforests today are on fragments of the Mesozoic era supercontinent of Gondwana. The separation of the landmass resulted in a great loss of amphibian diversity while at the same time the drier climate spurred the diversification of reptiles. The division left tropical rainforests located in five major regions of the world: tropical America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Madagascar, and New Guinea, with smaller outliers in Australia. However, the specifics of the origin of rainforests remain uncertain due to an incomplete fossil record.
Several biomes may appear similar - to, or merge via ecotones with, tropical rainforest:
Moist seasonal tropical forests receive high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. Some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the winter dry season, thus they are sometimes called "tropical mixed forest ''. They are found in parts of South America, in Central America and around the Caribbean, in coastal West Africa, parts of the Indian subcontinent, and across much of Indochina.
These are found in cooler - climate mountainous areas, becoming are known as cloud forests at higher elevations. Depending on latitude, the lower limit of montane rainforests on large mountains is generally between 1500 and 2500 m while the upper limit is usually from 2400 to 3300 m.
Tropical freshwater swamp forests, or "flooded forests '', are found in Amazon basin (the Várzea) and elsewhere.
Rainforests are divided into different strata, or layers, with vegetation organized into a vertical pattern from the top of the soil to the canopy. Each layer is a unique biotic community containing different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular strata. Only the emergent layer is unique to tropical rainforests, while the others are also found in temperate rainforests.
The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2 % of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. This more open quality permits the easy movement of larger animals such as: ungulates like the okapi (Okapia johnstoni), tapir (Tapirus sp.), Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), and apes like the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), as well as many species of reptiles, amphibians, and insects. The forest floor also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste.
The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. The understory is home to a number of birds, small mammals, insects, reptiles, and predators. Examples include leopard (Panthera pardus), poison dart frogs (Dendrobates sp.), ring - tailed coati (Nasua nasua), boa constrictor (Boa constrictor), and many species of Coleoptera. The vegetation at this layer generally consists of shade - tolerant shrubs, herbs, small trees, and large woody vines which climb into the trees to capture sunlight. Only about 5 % of sunlight breaches the canopy to arrive at the understory causing true understory plants to seldom grow to 3 m (10 feet). As an adaptation to these low light levels, understory plants have often evolved much larger leaves. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are in the understory.
The canopy is the primary layer of the forest forming a roof over the two remaining layers. It contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 -- 45 m in height. Tall, broad - leaved evergreen trees are the dominant plants. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, as it often supports a rich flora of epiphytes, including orchids, bromeliads, mosses and lichens. These epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. It is suggested that the total arthropod species richness of the tropical canopy might be as high as 20 million. Other species habituating this layer include many avian species such as the yellow - casqued wattled hornbill (Ceratogymna elata), collared sunbird (Anthreptes collaris), African gray parrot (Psitacus erithacus), keel - billed toucan (Ramphastos sulfuratus), scarlet macaw (Ara macao) as well as other animals like the spider monkey (Ateles sp.), African giant swallowtail (Papilio antimachus), three - toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus), kinkajou (Potos flavus), and tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla).
The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees, called emergents, which grow above the general canopy, reaching heights of 45 -- 55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70 -- 80 m tall. Some examples of emergents include: Balizia elegans, Dipteryx panamensis, Hieronyma alchorneoides, Hymenolobium mesoamericanum, Lecythis ampla and Terminalia oblonga. These trees need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Several unique faunal species inhabit this layer such as the crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus), the king colobus (Colobus polykomos), and the large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus).
However, stratification is not always clear. Rainforests are dynamic and many changes affect the structure of the forest. Emergent or canopy trees collapse, for example, causing gaps to form. Openings in the forest canopy are widely recognized as important for the establishment and growth of rainforest trees. It 's estimated that perhaps 75 % of the tree species at La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica are dependent on canopy opening for seed germination or for growth beyond sapling size, for example.
Tropical rainforests are located around and near the equator, therefore having what is called an equatorial climate characterized by three major climatic parameters: temperature, rainfall, and dry season intensity. Other parameters that affect tropical rainforests are carbon dioxide concentrations, solar radiation, and nitrogen availability. In general, climatic patterns consist of warm temperatures and high annual rainfall. However, the abundance of rainfall changes throughout the year creating distinct moist and dry seasons. Tropical forests are classified by the amount of rainfall received each year, which has allowed ecologists to define differences in these forests that look so similar in structure. According to Holdridge 's classification of tropical ecosystems, true tropical rainforests have an annual rainfall greater than 2 m and annual temperature greater than 24 degrees Celsius, with a potential evapotranspiration ratio (PET) value of < 0.25. However, most lowland tropical forests can be classified as tropical moist or wet forests, which differ in regards to rainfall. Tropical forest ecology - dynamics, composition, and function - are sensitive to changes in climate especially changes in rainfall.
Soil types are highly variable in the tropics and are the result of a combination of several variables such as climate, vegetation, topographic position, parent material, and soil age. Most tropical soils are characterized by significant leaching and poor nutrients, however there are some areas that contain fertile soils. Soils throughout the tropical rainforests fall into two classifications which include the ultisols and oxisols. Ultisols are known as well weathered, acidic red clay soils, deficient in major nutrients such as calcium and potassium. Similarly, oxisols are acidic, old, typically reddish, highly weathered and leached, however are well drained compared to ultisols. The clay content of ultisols is high, making it difficult for water to penetrate and flow through. The reddish color of both soils is the result of heavy heat and moisture forming oxides of iron and aluminium, which are insoluble in water and not taken up readily by plants.
Soil chemical and physical characteristics are strongly related to above ground productivity and forest structure and dynamics. The physical properties of soil control the tree turnover rates whereas chemical properties such as available nitrogen and phosphorus control forest growth rates. The soils of the eastern and central Amazon as well as the Southeast Asian Rainforest are old and mineral poor whereas the soils of the western Amazon (Ecuador and Peru) and volcanic areas of Costa Rica are young and mineral rich. Primary productivity or wood production is highest in western Amazon and lowest in eastern Amazon which contains heavily weathered soils classified as oxisols. Additionally, Amazonian soils are greatly weathered, making them devoid of minerals like phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, which come from rock sources. However, not all tropical rainforests occur on nutrient poor soils, but on nutrient rich floodplains and volcanic soils located in the Andean foothills, and volcanic areas of Southeast Asia, Africa, and Central America.
Oxisols, infertile, deeply weathered and severely leached, have developed on the ancient Gondwanan shields. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red color and sometimes produces minable deposits (e.g., bauxite). On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile.
This high rate of decomposition is the result of phosphorus levels in the soils, precipitation, high temperatures and the extensive microorganism communities. In addition to the bacteria and other microorganisms, there are an abundance of other decomposers such as fungi and termites that aid in the process as well. Nutrient recycling is important because below ground resource availability controls the above ground biomass and community structure of tropical rainforests. These soils are typically phosphorus limited, which inhibits net primary productivity or the uptake of carbon. The soil contains microbial organisms such as bacteria, which break down leaf litter and other organic matter into inorganic forms of carbon usable by plants through a process called decomposition. During the decomposition process the microbial community is respiring, taking up oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. The decomposition rate can be evaluated by measuring the uptake of oxygen. High temperatures and precipitation increase decomposition rate, which allows plant litter to rapidly decay in tropical regions, releasing nutrients that are immediately taken up by plants through surface or ground waters. The seasonal patterns in respiration are controlled by leaf litter fall and precipitation, the driving force moving the decomposable carbon from the litter to the soil. Respiration rates are highest early in the wet season because the recent dry season results in a large percentage of leaf litter and thus a higher percentage of organic matter being leached into the soil.
A common feature of many tropical rainforests is the distinct buttress roots of trees. Instead of penetrating to deeper soil layers, buttress roots create a widespread root network at the surface for more efficient uptake of nutrients in a very nutrient poor and competitive environment. Most of the nutrients within the soil of a tropical rainforest occur near the surface because of the rapid turnover time and decomposition of organisms and leaves. Because of this, the buttress roots occur at the surface so the trees can maximize uptake and actively compete with the rapid uptake of other trees. These roots also aid in water uptake and storage, increase surface area for gas exchange, and collect leaf litter for added nutrition. Additionally, these roots reduce soil erosion and maximize nutrient acquisition during heavy rains by diverting nutrient rich water flowing down the trunk into several smaller flows while also acting as a barrier to ground flow. Also, the large surface areas these roots create provide support and stability to rainforests trees, which commonly grow to significant heights. This added stability allows these trees to withstand the impacts of severe storms, thus reducing the occurrence of fallen trees.
Succession is an ecological process that changes the biotic community structure over time towards a more stable, diverse community structure after an initial disturbance to the community. The initial disturbance is often a natural phenomenon or human caused event. Natural disturbances include hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, river movements or an event as small as a fallen tree that creates gaps in the forest. In tropical rainforests, these same natural disturbances have been well documented in the fossil record, and are credited with encouraging speciation and endemism.
Tropical rainforests exhibit a vast diversity in plant and animal species. The root for this remarkable speciation has been a query of scientists and ecologists for years. A number of theories have been developed for why and how the tropics can be so diverse.
Interspecific competition results from a high density of species with similar niches in the tropics and limited resources available. Species which "lose '' the competition may either become extinct or find a new niche. Direct competition will often lead to one species dominating another by some advantage, ultimately driving it to extinction. Niche partitioning is the other option for a species. This is the separation and rationing of necessary resources by utilizing different habitats, food sources, cover or general behavioral differences. A species with similar food items but different feeding times is an example of niche partitioning.
The theory of Pleistocene refugia was developed by Jürgen Haffer in 1969 with his article Speciation of Amazonian Forest Birds. Haffer proposed the explanation for speciation was the product of rainforest patches being separated by stretches of non forest vegetation during the last glacial period. He called these patches of rainforest areas refuges and within these patches allopatric speciation occurred. With the end of the glacial period and increase in atmospheric humidity, rainforest began to expand and the refuges reconnected. This theory has been the subject of debate. Scientists are still skeptical of whether or not this theory is legitimate. Genetic evidence suggests speciation had occurred in certain taxa 1 -- 2 million years ago, preceding the Pleistocene.
Tropical rainforests have harboured human life for many millennia, with many Indian tribes in South - and Central America, who belong to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Congo Pygmies in Central Africa, and several tribes in South - East Asia, like the Dayak people and the Penan people in Borneo. Food resources within the forest are extremely dispersed due to the high biological diversity and what food does exist is largely restricted to the canopy and requires considerable energy to obtain. Some groups of hunter - gatherers have exploited rainforest on a seasonal basis but dwelt primarily in adjacent savanna and open forest environments where food is much more abundant. Other people described as rainforest dwellers are hunter - gatherers who subsist in large part by trading high value forest products such as hides, feathers, and honey with agricultural people living outside the forest.
A variety of indigenous people live within the rainforest as hunter - gatherers, or subsist as part - time small scale farmers supplemented in large part by trading high - value forest products such as hides, feathers, and honey with agricultural people living outside the forest. Peoples have inhabited the rainforests for tens of thousands of years and have remained so elusive that only recently have some tribes been discovered. These indigenous peoples are greatly threatened by loggers in search for old - growth tropical hardwoods like Ipe, Cumaru and Wenge, and by farmers who are looking to expand their land, for cattle (meat), and soybeans, which are used to feed cattle in Europe and China. On 18 January 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes. The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in the island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.
The pygmy peoples are hunter - gatherer groups living in equatorial rainforests characterized by their short height (below one and a half meters, or 59 inches, on average). Amongst this group are the Efe, Aka, Twa, Baka, and Mbuti people of Central Africa. However, the term pygmy is considered pejorative so many tribes prefer not to be labeled as such.
Some notable indigenous peoples of the Americas, or Amerindians, include the Huaorani, Ya̧nomamö, and Kayapo people of the Amazon. The traditional agricultural system practiced by tribes in the Amazon is based on swidden cultivation (also known as slash - and - burn or shifting cultivation) and is considered a relatively benign disturbance. In fact, when looking at the level of individual swidden plots a number of traditional farming practices are considered beneficial. For example, the use of shade trees and fallowing all help preserve soil organic matter, which is a critical factor in the maintenance of soil fertility in the deeply weathered and leached soils common in the Amazon.
There is a diversity of forest people in Asia, including the Lumad peoples of the Philippines and the Penan and Dayak people of Borneo. The Dayaks are a particularly interesting group as they are noted for their traditional headhunting culture. Fresh human heads were required to perform certain rituals such as the Iban "kenyalang '' and the Kenyah "mamat ''. Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as "Negrito ''.
Yam, coffee, chocolate, banana, mango, papaya, macadamia, avocado, and sugarcane all originally came from tropical rainforest and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest. In the mid-1980s and 1990s, 40 million tons of bananas were consumed worldwide each year, along with 13 million tons of mango. Central American coffee exports were worth US $3 billion in 1970. Much of the genetic variation used in evading the damage caused by new pests is still derived from resistant wild stock. Tropical forests have supplied 250 cultivated kinds of fruit, compared to only 20 for temperate forests. Forests in New Guinea alone contain 251 tree species with edible fruits, of which only 43 had been established as cultivated crops by 1985.
In addition to extractive human uses, rain forests also have non-extractive uses that are frequently summarized as ecosystem services. Rain forests play an important role in maintaining biological diversity, sequestering and storing carbon, global climate regulation, disease control, and pollination.
Despite the negative effects of tourism in the tropical rainforests, there are also several important positive effects.
Deposits of precious metals (gold, silver, coltan) and fossil fuels (oil and natural gas) occur underneath rainforests globally. These resources are important to developing nations and their extraction is often given priority to encourage economic growth. Mining and drilling can require large amounts of land development, directly causing deforestation. In Ghana, a West African nation, deforestation from decades of mining activity left about 12 % of the country 's original rainforest intact.
With the invention of agriculture, humans were able to clear sections of rainforest to produce crops, converting it to open farmland. Such people, however, obtain their food primarily from farm plots cleared from the forest and hunt and forage within the forest to supplement this. The issue arising is between the independent farmer providing for his family and the needs and wants of the globe as a whole. This issue has seen little improvement because no plan has been established for all parties to be aided.
Agriculture on formerly forested land is not without difficulties. Rainforest soils are often thin and leached of many minerals, and the heavy rainfall can quickly leach nutrients from area cleared for cultivation. People such as the Yanomamo of the Amazon, utilize slash - and - burn agriculture to overcome these limitations and enable them to push deep into what were previously rainforest environments. However, these are not rainforest dwellers, rather they are dwellers in cleared farmland that make forays into the rainforest. Up to 90 % of the typical Yanamomo diet comes from farmed plants.
Some action has been taken by suggesting fallow periods of the land allowing secondary forest to grow and replenish the soil. Beneficial practices like soil restoration and conservation can benefit the small farmer and allow better production on smaller parcels of land.
The tropics take a major role in reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide. The tropics (most notably the Amazon rainforest) are called carbon sinks. As major carbon reducers and carbon and soil methane storages, their destruction contributes to increasing global energy trapping, atmospheric gases. Climate change has been significantly contributed to by the destruction of the rainforests. A simulation was performed in which all rainforest in Africa were removed. The simulation showed an increase in atmospheric temperature by 2.5 to 5 degrees Celsius.
Efforts to protect and conserve tropical rainforest habitats are diverse and widespread. Tropical rainforest conservation ranges from strict preservation of habitat to finding sustainable management techniques for people living in tropical rainforests. International policy has also introduced a market incentive program called Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) for companies and governments to outset their carbon emissions through financial investments into rainforest conservation.
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