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when does season 4 of the flash come on | The Flash (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of the American television series The Flash, which is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, follows a crime scene investigator with superhuman speed who fights criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. It is set in the Arrowverse, sharing continuity with the other television series of the universe, and is a spin - off of Arrow. The season is produced by Berlanti Productions, Warner Bros. Television, and DC Entertainment, with Andrew Kreisberg and Todd Helbing serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in January 2017, and filming began that July. Grant Gustin stars as Barry, with principal cast members Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin also returning from previous seasons, and are joined by Neil Sandilands.
The fourth season began airing on October 10, 2017, and ran for 23 episodes on The CW until May 22, 2018.
Barry, Oliver, Sara, Alex, Martin and Jax wake up in a Nazi concentration camp on Earth - X wearing power dampeners. The arriving SS Sturmbannführer is revealed to be the Earth - X doppelgänger of Quentin Lance, who plans to execute them, but they are saved by Citizen Cold (the Earth - X doppelgänger of Leonard Snart) and Ray Terrill. Snart and Terrill take them to the headquarters of the Freedom Fighters, where the team meets the resistance movement 's leader, General Schott (Winn Schott 's Earth - X doppelgänger). They learn that the only way back to Earth - 1 is through a temporal gateway in a research facility, which Schott plans to blow up to strand Dark Arrow (Oliver 's Earth - X doppelgänger) on Earth - 1. Oliver disguises himself as Dark Arrow to infiltrate the facility and discovers the Nazi doomsday device against parallel Earths is a militarized timeship called Wellenreiter. Barry and Ray battle the Freedom Fighters ' Red Tornado to stop it from destroying the gateway while the rest of the team enters the facility to reactivate its portal, during which Stein is shot and gravely wounded. On Earth - 1, Eobard Thawne prepares to perform surgery on Kara to save Overgirl. Felicity and Iris try to stop him, but are captured.
The series was renewed for a fourth season on January 8, 2017, earlier than usual for the series. Executive producer Andrew Kreisberg said on this, "The great thing about our dear friends at The CW and Mark Pedowitz picking the shows up as early as they did has allowed us to start building the schedules for next season. '' In May 2017, it was announced that Aaron Helbing would not return as an executive producer for season four, with only Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, Sarah Schechter, and Todd Helbing returning from previous seasons. Todd Helbing and Kreisberg were slated to serve as the season 's showrunners. In November 2017, Kreisberg was suspended from his role as executive producer and showrunner on The Flash over allegations of sexual harassment. By the end of the month, he had been fired, with his name eventually being removed from the credits from all shows he worked on. In addition, Berlanti would take additional responsibilities working with Helbing to co-showrun the season.
-- Grant Gustin on the rebirth of Barry in season four.
In March 2017, Kreisberg confirmed that the main villain for the fourth season would not be a speedster, like the previous three seasons. Executive producers Aaron and Todd Helbing also mentioned that there would be less time travel in the season, with Aaron saying, "We like playing with the timelines and the different time periods and future and past. For now, I think we 're going to focus on the present. '' In June 2017, Clifford DeVoe / Thinker was reported to be the main antagonist of the season. He was first hinted in the third season episode "Abra Kadabra '' when the titular villain mentions him among the Flash 's greatest enemies, and again in the season finale "Finish Line '' when Savitar mentions facing DeVoe but states that the Flash has not dealt with him yet. At the series ' San Diego Comic - Con panel, the speculation was confirmed, with Todd Helbing saying, "With three Speedsters in a row, this year it 's the fastest man alive against the fastest mind alive. '' He added that the writers were "making a conscious effort this year to get the fun quotient back up ''.
Regarding the possibility of Wally West taking on the mantle of the Flash in Barry 's absence, Keiynan Lonsdale said that "It 's not something that 's on my radar. I feel as though there is so much story to tell and Wally has so much growing to do... We need to see how these character realistically get to where they are headed for. '' With the action picking up six months after season three, Kid Flash and Vibe are left to protect Central City, with Carlos Valdes saying "the team is sort of clutching at straws to keep the city together,... there is a unanimous feeling amongst the remaining members that it 's just not the same without Barry... So in light of that, Cisco does whatever it takes to get his friends back. '' Valdes also confirmed the return of Cisco 's more lighthearted joking manner. Candice Patton explained Iris West 's larger role within Team Flash as "a way of distracting herself, '' adding that "(Iris) is forced to deal with that anger and resentment and abandonment by kind of focusing on protecting Central City... We 're seeing a very different Iris, almost a very hardened Iris. '' Kreisberg also hinted at some major growth for Iris this season, and noted that "the season premiere is all about Iris and Cisco, not Barry ''.
In July 2017, Sterling Gates, DC Comics comic book writer, joined as a member of the fourth season 's writing staff. At the Television Critics Association press tour in August 2017, Pedowitz stated that the fourth season of The Flash is "going to try to find the lightness... of the Barry Allen of the first two seasons, '' and said that the show was likely "done with Speedster villains ''. Later in the month, Kreisberg confirmed the return of Harry Wells from Earth - 2, saying that "season 4 for Harry is really realizing what he 's missing in his life and what it is he needs to become a better, more complete person, and so he 's going to be going on a fairly epic emotional journey this season that is tied to the Thinker 's plan, '' in addition to confirming the introduction of a new version of the Wells character.
In September 2017, Helbing noted "There 's a lot of love in the air this season, '' and compared Barry and Iris ' reunion to "somebody going off to war for six months and coming back. There 's a lot that Iris experienced that Barry did n't when he was gone, and it 's really (about) the fun and the emotional component of making up that time when they were n't together. '' Helbing also explained that the Speed Force "let (Barry) deal with all of the baggage (from the past three seasons). When he comes out, he 's sort of left that all behind. '' That month, Kreisberg also confirmed that Barry and Iris will be getting married this season, while also revealing that the pair will be going to couples therapy since "(they) keep comically clashing inadvertently because (both are) used to being in charge, and so they wind up going... to work through it. '' He added, "The two of them with the therapist is some of the funniest stuff we have ever done on this show, but it also leads to a deepening of their relationship. ''
Main cast members Grant Gustin, Candice Patton, Danielle Panabaker, Carlos Valdes, Keiynan Lonsdale, Tom Cavanagh, and Jesse L. Martin return from previous seasons as Barry Allen / The Flash, Iris West, Caitlin Snow / Killer Frost, Cisco Ramon / Vibe, Wally West / Kid Flash, Harrison Wells, and Joe West, respectively. Cavanagh will portray Harry Wells from Earth - 2 at the start of the season, without ruling out the possibility of introducing another incarnation of the Wells character later on. Teasing the arrival of a new Harrison Wells, Cavanagh said, "We 're going to start with Harry and then find a way, I think, to try and get a different version of Wells in there, be it some version of Harry or whatnot as the season 's gaps present themselves. '' Also returning from earlier in the series is Jessica Camacho as Gypsy. It was revealed that Tom Felton, who joined the cast as Julian Albert in the third season, would not be a series regular in the fourth season, and that there were no plans for him to appear. Julian 's absence will be addressed "pretty quickly -- there 's a reason why he 's no longer with the team, '' said Helbing. In the season premiere, it is revealed that Julian has returned to London. Kreisberg also confirmed that he had put on hold the planned return of Violett Beane as Jesse Quick due to the high number of speedsters on the show, but did not rule out a possible return in the future. Beane eventually appeared as Jesse on the episode "Luck Be a Lady ''. Britne Oldford, who previously appeared as Shawna Baez / Peek - a-Boo in the first season and the web series The Chronicles of Cisco, reprised her role in the season premiere.
In July 2017, Neil Sandilands was announced to be cast as Clifford DeVoe, a metahuman genius who embarks on a seasonlong battle with the Flash in order to fix all that he deems wrong with humanity; while Kim Engelbrecht was announced as The Mechanic, DeVoe 's right hand and a highly intelligent engineer who designs devices for him; and Danny Trejo as Breacher, a bounty hunter from Earth - 19 and the father of Gypsy. Also in June, the series was looking to cast a role that "should put the visual effects department to the test '', with the role later revealed to be Ralph Dibny / Elongated Man, a metahuman with the ability to stretch his body to superhuman lengths and sizes. Hartley Sawyer was cast in the recurring role that July as the fast - talking private investigator who after discovering his abilities will help Team Flash solve one of Central City 's greatest mysteries. The character was previously mentioned in the first season, as one of the fourteen people who seemingly died as a result of the particle accelerator explosion. The next month, Katee Sackhoff was announced in the recurring role of Amunet Black / Blacksmith, who operates an underground black market of metahuman supervillains.
Filming for the season began on July 4, 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and concluded on April 21, 2018. Kevin Smith returned to direct an episode in January 2018.
In August 2017, series composer Blake Neely and Nathaniel Blume began to compose the music for the fourth season.
In May 2017, The CW president Mark Pedowitz officially announced plans for a four - show Arrowverse crossover event, crossing over episodes of the television series Supergirl, The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow, and Arrow. The crossover, Crisis on Earth - X, began with Supergirl and a special airing of Arrow on November 27, 2017, and concluded on The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow on November 28. In August 2017, Berlanti noted that it would be "a big life event for a few different people '' that would bring them all together for the crossover, adding "There are many life events that happen. '' Prior to that, Arrow actress Emily Bett Rickards appears as Felicity Smoak in the fifth episode of the season. Following the crossover, Katie Cassidy (who has previously appeared on The Flash as both Laurel Lance and Black Siren) appears in the nineteenth episode as Siren - X, an alternate version of Laurel from Earth - X. Arrow actor David Ramsey appears as John Diggle, as well as DeVoe 's Diggle disguise earlier in the twenty second episode.
The season began airing on October 10, 2017, on The CW in the United States, and on CTV in Canada. The season concluded on May 22, 2018. Sky One acquired the rights to air the season in the UK & Ireland, airing it alongside the other Arrowverse shows. The season premiered October 17.
In July 2017, cast from the series appeared at San Diego Comic - Con International to promote the season, where exclusive footage was shown. During the panel, a trailer for the season was shown, with James Whitbrook at io9 feeling that despite the "grim '' tone, there was "some fun signs of the team coming together to protect the city without (Barry),... Sprinkle in a few wacky things, like, say a goddamn Samuroid ripped straight from the comics, and ladies and gents, you 've got a good season of The Flash lined up. '' Ben Pearson with / Film felt seeing Iris West deal with the absence of Barry was "a nice change of pace for that character '', but anticipated that "Barry (would) be back two or three episodes in at the latest. '' Collider 's Allison Keene also noted Iris "getting an actual storyline '' with Barry gone, and similarly presumed that he "(would) be back in the fold by the end of the first episode '' alike to Flashpoint in the third season. She added, "There are some new foes, lots of action, plenty of tech -- it 's great! ''
The season was made available for streaming on Netflix in late May 2018, soon after the season finale aired. It will be released on Blu - ray on August 28, 2018.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 88 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.82 / 10 based on 16 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "After an unsteady turn in season three, The Flash returns to its roots with a fourth season packed with humor, spectacle, and a whole lot of heart. ''
Reviewing the first two episodes of the season, Allison Keene writing for Collider.com, felt the premiere "wipes the slate clean, fixing a lot of the issues that plagued the end of the last season, and setting up a much more toned - down storyline. Most importantly, it 's brought back some fun. '' She added that with a "streamlined team, '' the core characters now have time to interact and have meaningful plot lines. On the second episode, Keene described it as "truly a delight '' with the show taking "the time to focus on character relationships, and not just romantic relationships '' and each character "feeling like a refreshed version of themselves, with new narrative purpose ''. She also highlighted the setup of the Thinker "as an Alchemy - like villain who manipulates evil metas into the Flash 's path as part of some kind of masterplan '', saying "The Flash is a series that truly works best as a procedural, with the team finding creative ways to bring down Villains of the Week. ''
The season as a whole received mixed to negative reviews from critics. In reviewing for the finale, IGN 's Jesse Schedeen gave the episode "We Are The Flash '' a rating of 4.6 / 10, opining that, "As troubled as the series has been this year, it 's disappointing but unsurprising to see The Flash 's fourth season end on such a bland note. '' Mike Cecchini of Den of Geek! similarly assigned the episode a rating of 2.5 / 5. In his review, Cecchini felt that the finale was "the weakest season finale (The Flash) has ever produced, '' and that, "despite several high points, was n't really enough to salvage the season. '' In a more positive review from The A.V. Club, Scott Von Doviak gave the finale a B+, praising the light tone and character moments, while adding that "None of this can make up for the long stretches of mediocrity this year, but at least it does n't leave me with a bad taste in my mouth. ''
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what does hfs stand for in 21 jump street | 21 Jump Street (film) - wikipedia
21 Jump Street is a 2012 American action comedy film directed by Phil Lord and Christopher Miller, written by Michael Bacall starring Jonah Hill and Channing Tatum. An adaptation of the 1987 television series of the same name by Stephen J. Cannell and Patrick Hasburgh, the film follows two police officers who are forced to relive high school when they are assigned to go undercover as high school students to prevent the outbreak of a new synthetic drug and arrest its supplier.
It was released theatrically on March 16, 2012, by Columbia Pictures and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and grossed $201 million. A sequel, titled 22 Jump Street, was released on June 13, 2014. Two further films, MIB 23 (a crossover with the Men in Black franchise) and a female - led spin - off, are currently in development.
In 2005, scholarly student Morton Schmidt (Jonah Hill) and popular underachieving jock Greg Jenko (Channing Tatum) miss their school prom; Schmidt being rejected by the girl he asked to be his date and Jenko being barred from attending because of his grades. Seven years later, the duo meets again at the Police Academy and become friends and partners on bicycle patrol. They catch a break when they arrest Domingo (DeRay Davis), the leader of a one - percenter motorcycle gang, but are forced to release him after they failed to read him his Miranda rights.
The duo is reassigned to a revived scheme from the 1980s, which specializes in infiltrating high schools. Captain Dickson (Ice Cube) assigns them to contain the spread of a synthetic drug called HFS (Holy Fucking Shit) at Sagan High School. He gives them new identities and enrolls them as students, giving them class schedules fitting their previous academic performances; Jenko taking mostly arts and humanities, and Schmidt taking mostly science classes, but the duo mixes up their identities. Schmidt gets a lead on HFS from classmate Molly (Brie Larson), and he and Jenko meet the school 's main dealer, popular student Eric (Dave Franco). The two take HFS in front of him to maintain their cover. After experiencing the drug 's effects, the duo discovers that Schmidt 's intelligence now makes him popular, while Jenko 's lax attitude is frowned upon.
Eric takes a liking to Schmidt, who develops a romantic interest in Molly. Jenko becomes friends with the students in his AP Chemistry class and finds himself becoming more interested in geeky hobbies and academic pursuits. Schmidt and Jenko throw a party at Schmidt 's parents ' house, where they are living during the course of their assignment, and invite Eric. During the party, a fight breaks out between Schmidt, Jenko, and some party crashers. Schmidt wins the fight, solidifying his social status and gaining Eric 's trust. Jenko 's friends hack Eric 's phone to enable them to listen in on his conversations.
At a party at Eric 's house, using the phone hack, Jenko and his friends overhear information about an upcoming meeting between Eric and his supplier, but also catch Schmidt making disparaging comments about Jenko. The rift between the duo grows as their new school life intrudes upon their official police work. Schmidt and Jenko track Eric to a cash transaction with the distributors of HFS -- the motorcycle gang from the park -- and a chase ensues on the freeway. They return to school, argue, and eventually begin fighting, which disrupts the school play. They are expelled from school and are removed from the Jump Street program.
Eric, stressed and terrified, recruits Schmidt and Jenko as security for a deal taking place at the school prom. While dressing for the prom, Schmidt and Jenko rekindle their friendship. At the prom, they discover that the supplier is the physical education teacher, Mr. Walters (Rob Riggle), who created the drug accidentally and started selling it to the students to supplement his teacher 's salary. Having caught Eric smoking marijuana, he was able to persuade him into being his dealer.
The motorcycle gang arrives for the deal but Molly interrupts them and starts arguing with Schmidt. As a result, the gang leader recognizes Schmidt and Jenko, and orders his men to kill them. Two of the gang members reveal themselves as undercover DEA agents Tom Hanson and Doug Penhall (Johnny Depp and Peter DeLuise), and former members of the 21 Jump Street program. In the ensuing gunfight, Hanson and Penhall are fatally wounded. Mr. Walters and Eric escape with the money and Molly as a hostage; the gang, Schmidt, and Jenko follow close behind. Jenko creates a homemade bomb and uses it to kill the gang. Mr. Walters shoots at Schmidt but Jenko takes the bullet to his arm, sparing Schmidt 's life. In response, Schmidt shoots Mr. Walters, unintentionally severing his penis. As they arrest Mr. Walters and Eric (in addition to successfully reading the Miranda rights), Schmidt and Jenko reconcile their relationship and Schmidt and Molly share a kiss.
Both officers are congratulated and reinstated in Jump Street as Dickson gives them a new assignment: infiltrating a college.
In May 2008, Columbia Pictures confirmed that a film adaptation of the series was under development. Jonah Hill rewrote an existing script by screenwriter Joe Gazzam and executive produced the film, as well as starred in the film. Hill has said he wanted horror director Rob Zombie to direct the picture. In May 2009, Hill described the film adaptation as being a "R - rated, insane, Bad Boys - meets - John Hughes - type movie ''. On December 21, 2009, it was announced that Columbia Pictures were in talks with Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs directing duo, Phil Lord and Christopher Miller, to direct the film. The film follows the same continuity as the TV series; Lord said, "So, all of those events of the original happened. And now here we are 20 years later, and we 're watching it happen to different people. '' However, the film features a highly comedic tone, departing radically from the more dramatic and earnest tone of the series.
The film was shot in and around the city of Metairie, Louisiana (suburb of New Orleans), although the filmmakers took elaborate steps to disguise the location as a generic city named "Metropolitan City ''. They replaced distinctive street signs with signs using a Helvetica typeface, digitally removed billboards from local businesses (except the recognizable local RTA signs toward the end of the film as well as a Zatarain 's billboard ad), and avoided filming locations with iconic New Orleans imagery. Despite this, signature landmarks such as the Crescent City Connection and distinctive French Quarter -- area street are still partially visible. The main school used as the stand - in for the fictional Sagan High School was Riverdale High School, located in Jefferson, Louisiana. The naked baby pictures of Hill 's character used in the film were actual pictures of Hill as a child.
The score for the film was composed by Mark Mothersbaugh. In September 2014, it was released by La - La Land Records on a double disc album, limited to 2,000 copies. The second disc of the album also contains the score from the films sequel, 22 Jump Street, composed by Mothersbaugh as well. A modernized cover of the original television 's theme song by Rye Rye (who had a small part in the film) and Esthero was released as a single in the iTunes Store.
In addition, a total of 21 songs were licensed for use in the film. The songs featured in the film include:
The premiere of 21 Jump Street took place on March 12, 2012, at the Paramount Theatre in Austin, TX, during SXSW. The film opened in a wide release in theaters on March 16, 2012. 21 Jump Street grossed $138.4 million in the United States and Canada and $63.1 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $201.6 million; it is also the top - grossing high school comedy film of all - time. The film grossed $13.2 million on its opening day. During the weekend, the film grossed $35 million, taking The Lorax out of the # 1 spot that it held for its first two weeks.
21 Jump Street was released on DVD and Blu - ray in Canada and the United States on June 28, 2012 and was released in the United Kingdom on July 9, 2012. Some of the Blu - ray bonus features include 20 deleted scenes and "Johnny Depp on Set '' explaining how they brought Johnny Depp to reprise his role as Tom Hanson. It was revealed that Johnny wanted his character to die, but for unknown reasons. In one of the deleted scenes, Tom and his partner, Doug Penhall, were shown to have survived the shootout.
On Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, the film has an approval rating of 85 % based on 210 reviews and an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A smart, affectionate satire of ' 80s nostalgia and teen movie tropes, 21 Jump Street offers rowdy mainstream comedy with a surprisingly satisfying bite. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 69 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
Richard Roeper of The Chicago - Sun Times gave the film a grade of a B+ saying, "I did n't think we needed a 21 Jump Street, but it 's actually kind of funny ''.
The film was listed as the number 6 most illegally downloaded film of 2012 using the BitTorrent protocol with approximately 7.6 million downloads.
On March 17, 2012, Sony Pictures announced that it was pursuing a sequel to the film, signing a deal that would see Hill and Bacall return to write a script treatment that would be again developed by Bacall. Hill and Tatum returned to star in the film. They were executive producers as well, alongside producer Neal H. Moritz. Phil Lord and Christopher Miller returned to direct this sequel. The film was originally scheduled to be released on June 6, 2014. On May 8, 2013, it was announced that the film would be pushed back a week until June 13, 2014. The film 's title was 22 Jump Street. Like the first film, 22 Jump Street received positive reviews.
On September 10, 2014, 23 Jump Street was confirmed. Channing Tatum has yet to sign on to the project. Tatum stated, "I do n't know if that joke works three times, so we 'll see. '' On August 7, 2015, it was revealed that Lord and Miller will not direct the film, but instead write and produce. A first draft of the film 's script has been completed. In early 2015, a female - driven 21 Jump Street film was rumoured to be in the works alongside the movie. However, with the announcement of the Men in Black crossover and no further updates, the status of the film is unclear.
On December 10, 2014, it was revealed that Sony was planning a crossover between Men in Black and Jump Street. The news was leaked after Sony 's system was hacked and then confirmed by the directors of the films, Chris Miller and Phil Lord, during an interview about it. James Bobin was announced as the director in March 2016.
A female - driven 21 Jump Street film is being developed. In December 2016, Rodney Rothman was announced as the director and screenwriter for the film. Rothman returns to the franchise after co-writing 22 Jump Street, and MIB 23 as well.
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when was the last time italy won the fifa world cup | List of FIFA World Cup finals - wikipedia
The FIFA World Cup is an international association football competition established in 1930. It is contested by the men 's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport 's global governing body. The tournament has taken place every four years, except in 1942 and 1946, when the competition was cancelled due to World War II. The most recent World Cup, hosted by Brazil in 2014, was won by Germany, who beat Argentina 1 -- 0 after extra time.
The World Cup final match is the last of the competition, and the result determines which country is declared world champions. If after 90 minutes of regular play the score is a draw, an additional 30 - minute period of play, called extra time, is added. If such a game is still tied after extra time it is decided by kicks from the penalty shoot - out. The team winning the penalty shoot - out are then declared champions. The tournament has been decided by a one - off match on every occasion except 1950, when the tournament winner was decided by a final round - robin group contested by four teams (Uruguay, Brazil, Sweden, and Spain). Uruguay 's 2 -- 1 victory over Brazil was the decisive match (and one of the last two matches of the tournament) which put them ahead on points and ensured that they finished top of the group as world champions. Therefore, this match is regarded by FIFA as the de facto final of the 1950 World Cup.
In the 20 tournaments held, 77 nations have appeared at least once. Of these, 12 have made it to the final match, and eight have won. With five titles, Brazil is the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have participated in every World Cup finals tournament. Italy and Germany have four titles. The other former champions are Uruguay and Argentina with two titles each, and England, France, and Spain with one each. The current champions, Germany, took their fourth title in 2014, and it is the first title for the reunified German team. The 2014 German team also became the first European team to win in South America. The team that wins the finals receive the FIFA World Cup Trophy, and their name is engraved in the bottom side of the trophy.
The 1970 and 1994 along with the 1986, 1990 and 2014 games are to date the only matches competed by the same teams (Brazil -- Italy and Argentina -- Germany respectively). As of 2014, the 1934 final remains the latest final to have been between two teams playing their first final. The final match of the upcoming 2018 World Cup in Russia is scheduled to take place at the country 's biggest sports complex, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow.
The 1930 and the 1966 games are the only ones that did not take place on Sunday. The former did on a Wednesday and the latter on a Saturday.
As of 2014, only nations from Europe and South America have competed in a World Cup Final.
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when is the growing season for bonsai trees | Bonsai cultivation and care - wikipedia
Bonsai cultivation and care involves the long - term cultivation of small trees in containers, called bonsai in the Japanese tradition of this art form. Similar practices exist in other Japanese art forms and in other cultures, including saikei (Japanese), penjing (Chinese), and hòn non bộ (Vietnamese). Trees are difficult to cultivate in containers, which restrict root growth, nutrition uptake, and resources for transpiration (primarily soil moisture). In addition to the root constraints of containers, bonsai trunks, branches, and foliage are extensively shaped and manipulated to meet aesthetic goals. Specialized tools and techniques are used to protect the health and vigor of the subject tree. Over time, the artistic manipulation of small trees in containers has led to a number of cultivation and care approaches that successfully meet the practical and the artistic requirements of bonsai and similar traditions.
The term bonsai is generally used in English as an umbrella term for all miniature trees in containers or pots. In this article bonsai should be understood to include any container - grown tree that is regularly styled or shaped, not just one being maintained in the Japanese bonsai tradition.
Bonsai can be created from nearly any perennial woody - stemmed tree or shrub species which produces true branches and remains small through pot confinement with crown and root pruning. Some species are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as small leaves or needles, that make them appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai. Bonsai cultivation techniques are different from other tree cultivation techniques in allowing mature (though miniature) trees to grow in small containers, to survive with extremely restricted root and canopy structures, and to support comprehensive, repeated styling manipulations.
All bonsai start with a specimen of source material, a plant that the grower wishes to train into bonsai form. Bonsai practice is an unusual form of plant cultivation in that growth from seeds is rarely used to obtain source material. To display the characteristic aged appearance of a bonsai within a reasonable time, the source plant is often partially grown or mature stock. A specimen may be selected specifically for bonsai aesthetic characteristics it already possesses, such as great natural age for a specimen collected in the wild, or a tapered, scar - free trunk from a nursery specimen. Alternatively, it may be selected for non-aesthetic reasons, such as known hardiness for the grower 's local climate or low cost (as in the case of collected materials).
While any form of plant propagation could generate bonsai material, a few techniques are favored because they can quickly produce a relatively mature trunk with well - placed branches.
Cuttings. In taking a cutting, part of a growing plant is cut off and placed in a growing medium to develop roots. If the part that is cut off is fairly thick, like a mature branch, it can be grown into an aged - looking bonsai more quickly than can a seed. Unfortunately, thinner and younger cuttings tend to strike roots more easily than thicker or more mature ones. In bonsai propagation, cuttings usually provide source material to be grown for some time before training.
Layering. Layering is a technique in which rooting is encouraged from part of a plant, usually a branch, while it is still attached to the parent plant. After rooting, the branch is removed from the parent and grown as an independent entity. For bonsai, both ground layering and air layering can create a potential bonsai, by transforming a mature branch into the trunk of a new tree. The point at which rooting is encouraged can be close to the location of side branches, so the resulting rooted tree can immediately have a thick trunk and low branches, characteristics that complement bonsai aesthetics.
Commercial bonsai growers may use any of the other means of obtaining starter bonsai material, from seed propagation to collecting expeditions, but they generally sell mature specimens that display bonsai aesthetic qualities already. The grower trains the source specimens to a greater or lesser extent before sale, and the trees may be ready for display as soon as they are bought. Those who purchase commercially grown bonsai face some challenges, however, particularly of buying from another country. If the purchaser 's local climate does not closely match the climate in which the bonsai was created, the plant will have difficulties surviving and thriving. As well, importing living plant material from a foreign source is often closely controlled by import regulations and may require a license or other special import arrangement on the buyer 's part. If a local commercial bonsai grower does not exist, buying from a distant one may be unsatisfactory.
A plant nursery is an agricultural operation where (non-bonsai) plants are propagated and grown to usable size. Nursery stock may be available directly from the nursery, or may be sold in a garden centre or similar resale establishment. Nursery stock is usually young but fully viable, and is often potted with sufficient soil to allow plants to survive a season or two before being transplanted into a more permanent location. Because the nursery tree is already pot - conditioned, it can be worked on as a bonsai immediately. The large number of plants that can be viewed in a single visit to a nursery or garden centre allows the buyer to identify plants with better - than - average bonsai characteristics. According to Peter Adams, a nursery visit "offers the opportunity to choose an instant trunk ''. One issue with nursery stock is that many specimens are shaped into popular forms, such as the standard or half - standard forms, with several feet of clear trunk rising from the roots. Without branches low on the trunk, it is difficult for a source specimen to be trained as bonsai.
Collecting bonsai consists of finding suitable bonsai material in its original wild situation, successfully moving it, and replanting it in a container for development as bonsai. Collecting may involve wild materials from naturally treed areas, or cultivated specimens found growing in yards and gardens. For example, mature landscape plants being discarded from a building site can provide excellent material for bonsai. Hedgerow trees, grown for many years but continually trimmed to hedge height, provide heavy, gnarled trunks for bonsai collectors. In locations close to a tree line (the line beyond which trees do not grow, whether due to altitude, temperature, soil moisture, or other conditions), aged and naturally dwarfed survivors can be found.
The main benefit of collecting bonsai specimens is that collected materials can be mature, and will display the natural marks and forms of age, which makes them more suitable for bonsai development than the young plants obtained through nurseries. Low cost is another potential benefit, with a tree harvest license often being more economical than purchase of nursery trees. Some of the difficulties of collecting include finding suitable specimens, getting permission to remove them, and the challenges of keeping a mature tree alive while transplanting it to a bonsai pot.
Bonsai are carefully styled to maintain miniaturization, to suggest age, and to meet the artist 's aesthetic goals. Tree styling also occurs in a larger scale in other practices like topiary and niwaki. In bonsai, however, the artist has close control over every feature of the tree, because it is small and (in its container) easily moved and worked on. The greater scale of full - sized trees means that styling them may be restricted to pruning and shaping the exterior volume once per growing season, never pruning within the canopy nor bending and forming individual branches. In contrast, in a bonsai being prepared for display, each leaf or needle may be subject to decision regarding pruning or retention, and every branch and twig may be formed and wired into place each year. Given these differences in scope and purpose, bonsai styling uses a number of styling techniques either unique to bonsai or (if used in other forms of plant cultivation) applied in ways particularly suitable to meet the goals of bonsai development.
This technique involves selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree) or needles (for coniferous trees and some others) from a bonsai 's branches. A common aesthetic technique in bonsai design is to expose the tree 's branches below groups of leaves or needles (sometimes called "pads '') by removing downward - growing material. In many species, particularly coniferous ones, this means that leaves or needles projecting below their branches must be trimmed off. For some coniferous varieties, such as spruce, branches carry needles from the trunk to the tip and many of these needles may be trimmed to expose the branch shape and bark. Needle and bud trimming can also be used in coniferous trees to force back - budding on old wood, which may not occur naturally in many conifers. Along with pruning, leaf trimming is the most common activity used for bonsai development and maintenance, and the one that occurs most frequently during the year.
The small size of the tree and some dwarfing of foliage result from pruning the trunk, branches, and roots. Pruning is often the first step in transforming a collected plant specimen into a candidate for bonsai. The top part of the trunk may be removed to make the tree more compact. Major and minor branches that conflict with the designer 's plan will be removed completely, and others may be shortened to fit within the planned design. Pruning later in the bonsai 's life is generally less severe, and may be done for purposes like increasing branch ramification or encouraging growth of non-pruned branches. Although pruning is an important and common bonsai practice, it must be done with care, as improper pruning can weaken or kill trees. Careful pruning throughout the tree 's life is necessary, however, to maintain a bonsai 's basic design, which can otherwise disappear behind the uncontrolled natural growth of branches and leaves.
Wrapping copper or aluminium wire around branches and trunks allows the bonsai designer to create the desired general form and make detailed branch and leaf placements. When wire is used on new branches or shoots, it holds the branches in place until they lignify (convert into wood). The time required is usually 6 -- 9 months or one growing season for deciduous trees, but can be several years for conifers like pines and spruce, which maintain their branch flexibility through multiple growing seasons. Wires are also used to connect a branch to another object (e.g., another branch, the pot itself) so that tightening the wire applies force to the branch. Some species do not lignify strongly, and some specimens ' branches are too stiff or brittle to be bent easily. These cases are not conducive to wiring, and shaping them is accomplished primarily through pruning.
For larger specimens, or species with stiffer wood, bonsai artists also use mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. The most common are screw - based clamps, which can straighten or bend a part of the bonsai using much greater force than wiring can supply. To prevent damage to the tree, the clamps are tightened a little at a time and make their changes over a period of months or years.
In this technique, new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) is introduced to a prepared area under the bark of the tree. There are two major purposes for grafting in bonsai. First, a number of favorite species do not thrive as bonsai on their natural root stock and their trunks are often grafted onto hardier root stock. Examples include Japanese red maple and Japanese black pine. Second, grafting allows the bonsai artist to add branches (and sometimes roots) where they are needed to improve or complete a bonsai design. There are many applicable grafting techniques, none unique to bonsai, including branch grafting, bud grafting, thread grafting, and others.
Short - term dwarfing of foliage can be accomplished in certain deciduous bonsai by partial or total defoliation of the plant partway through the growing season. Not all species can survive this technique. In defoliating a healthy tree of a suitable species, most or all of the leaves are removed by clipping partway along each leaf 's petiole (the thin stem that connects a leaf to its branch). Petioles later dry up and drop off or are manually removed once dry. The tree responds by producing a fresh crop of leaves. The new leaves are generally much smaller than those from the first crop, sometimes as small as half the length and width. If the bonsai is shown at this time, the smaller leaves contribute greatly to the bonsai aesthetic of dwarfing. This change in leaf size is usually not permanent, and the leaves of the following spring will often be the normal size. Defoliation weakens the tree and should not be performed in two consecutive years.
Bonsai growers create or shape dead wood using techniques such as jin and shari to simulate age and maturity in a bonsai. Jin is the term used when the bark from an entire branch is removed to create the impression of a snag of deadwood. Shari denotes stripping bark from areas of the trunk to simulate natural scarring from a broken limb or lightning strike. In addition to stripping bark, deadwood techniques may also involve the use of tools to scar the deadwood or to raise its grain, and the application of chemicals (usually lime sulfur) to bleach and preserve the exposed deadwood.
Small trees grown in containers, like bonsai, require specialized care. Unlike most houseplants, flowering shrubs, and other subjects of container gardening, tree species in the wild generally grow individual roots up to several meters long and root structures encompassing hundreds or thousands of liters of soil. In contrast, a typical bonsai container allows a fraction of a meter for root extension, and holds 2 to 10 liters of soil and root mass. Branch and leaf (or needle) growth in trees is also large - scale in nature. Wild trees typically grow 5 meters or taller when mature, while the largest bonsai rarely exceed 1 meter and most specimens are significantly smaller. These size differences affect maturation, transpiration, nutrition, pest resistance, and many other aspects of tree biology. Maintaining the long - term health of a tree in a container requires a number of specialized care techniques.
Most bonsai species are trees and shrubs that must by nature grow outdoors. They require temperature, humidity, and sunlight conditions approximating their native climate year round. The skill of the grower can help bonsai from outside the local hardiness zone survive and even thrive, but doing so takes careful watering, shielding of selected bonsai from excessive sunlight or wind, and possibly protection from winter conditions (e.g., through the use of cold frames or winter greenhouses).
Common bonsai species (particularly those from the Japanese tradition) are temperate climate trees from hardiness zones 7 to 9, and require moderate temperatures, moderate humidity, and full sun in summer with a dormancy period in winter that may need be near freezing. They do not thrive indoors, where the light is generally too dim, and humidity often too low, for them to grow properly. Only during their dormant period can they safely be brought indoors, and even then the plants require cold temperatures, reduced watering, and lighting that approximates the number of hours the sun is visible. Raising the temperature or providing more hours of light than available from natural daylight can cause the bonsai to break dormancy, which often weakens or kills it.
Even for bonsai specimens that are native to the grower 's location, outdoor cultivation requires specific cultivation practices to ensure successful long - term survival of the bonsai. The trees used in bonsai are constrained by the need to grow in a relatively small pot. This state greatly reduces the volume of roots and soil normally available to a freely grown tree, and brings the roots much closer to the surface of the soil than would occur in the wild. Trees in bonsai pots have much less access to water and to nutrients than they do natively, and physically confining roots changes their growth pattern and indirectly the growth pattern of the tree above the soil.
The grower has some control over the following environmental variables, and by controlling them effectively for individual specimens can ensure the health of native species grown as bonsai, and can cultivate some non-native species successfully.
Bonsai are repotted and root - pruned at intervals dictated by the vigor and age of each tree. In the case of deciduous trees, this is done as the tree is leaving its dormant period, generally around springtime. Bonsai are often repotted while in development, and less often as they become more mature. This prevents them from becoming pot - bound and encourages the growth of new feeder roots, allowing the tree to absorb moisture more efficiently.
Specimens meant to be developed into bonsai are often placed in "growing boxes '', which have a much larger volume of soil per plant than a bonsai pot does. These large boxes allow the roots to grow freely, increasing the vigor of the tree and helping the trunk and branches grow thicker. After using a grow box, the tree may be replanted in a more compact "training box '' that helps to create a smaller, denser root mass which can be more easily moved into a final presentation pot.
Special tools are available for the maintenance of bonsai. The most common tool is the concave cutter (5th from left in picture), a tool designed to prune flush, without leaving a stub. Other tools include branch bending jacks, wire pliers and shears of different proportions for performing detail and rough shaping.
Bonsai soil is usually a loose, fast - draining mix of components, often a base mixture of coarse sand or gravel, fired clay pellets, or expanded shale combined with an organic component such as peat or bark. The inorganic components provide mechanical support for bonsai roots, and -- in the case of fired clay materials -- also serve to retain moisture. The organic components retain moisture and may release small amounts of nutrients as they decay.
In Japan, bonsai soil mixes based on volcanic clays are common. The volcanic clay has been fired at some point in time to create porous, water - retaining pellets. Varieties such as akadama, or "red ball '' soil, and kanuma, a type of yellow pumice used for azaleas and other calcifuges, are used by many bonsai growers. Similar fired clay soil components are extracted or manufactured in other countries around the world, and other soil components like diatomaceous earth can fill a similar purpose in bonsai cultivation.
Opinions about fertilizers and fertilization techniques vary widely among practitioners. Some promote the use of organic fertilizers to augment an essentially inorganic soil mix, while others will use chemical fertilizers freely. Many follow the general rule of little and often, where a dilute fertilizer solution or a small amount of dry fertilizer are applied relatively frequently during the tree 's growing season. The flushing effect of regular watering moves unmetabolized fertilizer out of the soil, preventing the potentially toxic build - up of fertilizer ingredients.
The common pests afflicting bonsai include insects both above and beneath the soil, and infections, usually fungal. A tree grown as a bonsai is subject to the pests that affect the same species full - grown, and also to pests common to other potted plants. Most pests are species - specific, so a detailed understanding of the specific bonsai species is necessary for identifying and treating most pests. The same materials and techniques used for other affected plants can be applied to the bonsai, with some relatively minor variation. Pesticide chemicals are usually diluted more for bonsai than for a larger plant, as a regular - strength application may overwhelm the smaller bonsai 's biological processes.
Bonsai are sometimes marketed or promoted as house plants, but few of the traditional bonsai species can thrive or even survive inside a typical house. Most bonsai are located out of doors. The best guideline to identifying a suitable growing environment for a bonsai is its native hardiness. If the bonsai grower can closely replicate the full year 's temperatures, relative humidity, and sunlight, the bonsai should do well. In practice, this means that trees from a hardiness zone closely matching the grower 's location will generally be the easiest to grow, and others will require more work or will not be viable at all.
Tropical and Mediterranean species typically require consistent temperatures close to room temperature, and with correct lighting and humidity many species can be kept indoors all year. Those from cooler climates may benefit from a winter dormancy period, but temperatures need not be dropped as far as for the temperate climate plants and a north - facing windowsill or open window may provide the right conditions for a few winter months.
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what were some jobs in the great depression | Great Depression - wikipedia
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place mostly during the 1930s, beginning in the United States. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations; in most countries it started in 1929 and lasted until the late - 1930s. It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the world 's economy can decline.
The Great Depression started in the United States after a major fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929, and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929 (known as Black Tuesday). Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide gross domestic product (GDP) fell by an estimated 15 %. By comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1 % from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. However, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II.
The Great Depression had devastating effects in countries both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50 %. Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 25 % and in some countries rose as high as 33 %.
Cities around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60 %. Facing plummeting demand with few alternative sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most.
Economic historians usually attribute the start of the Great Depression to the sudden devastating collapse of U.S. stock market prices on October 29, 1929, known as Black Tuesday. However, some dispute this conclusion and see the stock crash as a symptom, rather than a cause, of the Great Depression.
Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time. John D. Rockefeller said "These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come and gone. Prosperity has always returned and will again. '' The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April. This was still almost 30 % below the peak of September 1929.
Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the corresponding period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered severe losses in the stock market the previous year, cut back their expenditures by 10 %. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U.S.
By mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928. Prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930. Then a deflationary spiral started in 1931. Farmers faced a worse outlook; declining crop prices and a Great Plains drought crippled their economic outlook. At it 's peak, the Great Depression saw nearly 10 % of all Great Plains farms change hands despite federal assistance.
The decline in the U.S. economy was the factor that pulled down most other countries at first; then, internal weaknesses or strengths in each country made conditions worse or better. Frantic attempts to shore up the economies of individual nations through protectionist policies, such as the 1930 U.S. Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act and retaliatory tariffs in other countries, exacerbated the collapse in global trade. By 1933, the economic decline had pushed world trade to one - third of its level just four years earlier.
Change in economic indicators 1929 -- 32
The two classical competing theories of the Great Depression are the Keynesian (demand - driven) and the monetarist explanation. There are also various heterodox theories that downplay or reject the explanations of the Keynesians and monetarists. The consensus among demand - driven theories is that a large - scale loss of confidence led to a sudden reduction in consumption and investment spending. Once panic and deflation set in, many people believed they could avoid further losses by keeping clear of the markets. Holding money became profitable as prices dropped lower and a given amount of money bought ever more goods, exacerbating the drop in demand. Monetarists believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but the shrinking of the money supply greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression.
Economists and economic historians are almost evenly split as to whether the traditional monetary explanation that monetary forces were the primary cause of the Great Depression is right, or the traditional Keynesian explanation that a fall in autonomous spending, particularly investment, is the primary explanation for the onset of the Great Depression. Today the controversy is of lesser importance since there is mainstream support for the debt deflation theory and the expectations hypothesis that building on the monetary explanation of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz add non-monetary explanations.
There is consensus that the Federal Reserve System should have cut short the process of monetary deflation and banking collapse. If they had done this, the economic downturn would have been far less severe and much shorter.
British economist John Maynard Keynes argued in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money that lower aggregate expenditures in the economy contributed to a massive decline in income and to employment that was well below the average. In such a situation, the economy reached equilibrium at low levels of economic activity and high unemployment.
Keynes ' basic idea was simple: to keep people fully employed, governments have to run deficits when the economy is slowing, as the private sector would not invest enough to keep production at the normal level and bring the economy out of recession. Keynesian economists called on governments during times of economic crisis to pick up the slack by increasing government spending and / or cutting taxes.
As the Depression wore on, Franklin D. Roosevelt tried public works, farm subsidies, and other devices to restart the U.S. economy, but never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. According to the Keynesians, this improved the economy, but Roosevelt never spent enough to bring the economy out of recession until the start of World War II.
Monetarists follow the explanation given by Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz. They argue that the Great Depression was caused by the banking crisis that caused one - third of all banks to vanish, a reduction of bank shareholder wealth and more importantly monetary contraction by 35 %. This caused a price drop by 33 % (deflation). By not lowering interest rates, by not increasing the monetary base and by not injecting liquidity into the banking system to prevent it from crumbling the Federal Reserve passively watched the transformation of a normal recession into the Great Depression. Friedman argued that the downward turn in the economy, starting with the stock market crash, would merely have been an ordinary recession if the Federal Reserve had taken aggressive action.
The Federal Reserve allowed some large public bank failures -- particularly that of the New York Bank of United States -- which produced panic and widespread runs on local banks, and the Federal Reserve sat idly by while banks collapsed. He claimed that, if the Fed had provided emergency lending to these key banks, or simply bought government bonds on the open market to provide liquidity and increase the quantity of money after the key banks fell, all the rest of the banks would not have fallen after the large ones did, and the money supply would not have fallen as far and as fast as it did.
With significantly less money to go around, businesses could not get new loans and could not even get their old loans renewed, forcing many to stop investing. This interpretation blames the Federal Reserve for inaction, especially the New York Branch.
One reason why the Federal Reserve did not act to limit the decline of the money supply was the gold standard. At that time, the amount of credit the Federal Reserve could issue was limited by the Federal Reserve Act, which required 40 % gold backing of Federal Reserve Notes issued. By the late 1920s, the Federal Reserve had almost hit the limit of allowable credit that could be backed by the gold in its possession. This credit was in the form of Federal Reserve demand notes. A "promise of gold '' is not as good as "gold in the hand '', particularly when they only had enough gold to cover 40 % of the Federal Reserve Notes outstanding. During the bank panics a portion of those demand notes were redeemed for Federal Reserve gold. Since the Federal Reserve had hit its limit on allowable credit, any reduction in gold in its vaults had to be accompanied by a greater reduction in credit. On April 5, 1933, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 6102 making the private ownership of gold certificates, coins and bullion illegal, reducing the pressure on Federal Reserve gold.
From the point of view of today 's mainstream schools of economic thought, government should strive to keep the interconnected macroeconomic aggregates money supply and / or aggregate demand on a stable growth path. When threatened by the forecast of a depression central banks should pour liquidity into the banking system and the government should cut taxes and accelerate spending in order to keep the nominal money stock and total nominal demand from collapsing. At the beginning of the Great Depression most economists believed in Say 's law and the self - equilibrating powers of the market and failed to explain the severity of the Depression. Outright leave - it - alone liquidationism was a position mainly held by the Austrian School. The liquidationist position was that a depression is good medicine. The idea was the benefit of a depression was to liquidate failed investments and businesses that have been made obsolete by technological development in order to release factors of production (capital and labor) from unproductive uses so that these could be redeployed in other sectors of the technologically dynamic economy. They argued that even if self - adjustment of the economy took mass bankruptcies, then so be it. An increasingly common view among economic historians is that the adherence of some Federal Reserve policymakers to the liquidationist thesis led to disastrous consequences. Regarding the policies of President Hoover, economists like Barry Eichengreen and J. Bradford DeLong point out that President Hoover tried to keep the federal budget balanced until 1932, when he lost confidence in his Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon and replaced him. Despite liquidationist expectations, a large proportion of the capital stock was not redeployed but vanished during the first years of the Great Depression. According to a study by Olivier Blanchard and Lawrence Summers, the recession caused a drop of net capital accumulation to pre-1924 levels by 1933. Milton Friedman called the leave - it - alone liquidationism "dangerous nonsense ''. He wrote:
The monetary explanation has two weaknesses. First it is not able to explain why the demand for money was falling more rapidly than the supply during the initial downturn in 1930 -- 31. Second it is not able to explain why in March 1933 a recovery took place although short term interest rates remained close to zero and the Money supply was still falling. These questions are addressed by modern explanations that build on the monetary explanation of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz but add non-monetary explanations.
Irving Fisher argued that the predominant factor leading to the Great Depression was a vicious circle of deflation and growing over-indebtedness. He outlined nine factors interacting with one another under conditions of debt and deflation to create the mechanics of boom to bust. The chain of events proceeded as follows:
During the Crash of 1929 preceding the Great Depression, margin requirements were only 10 %. Brokerage firms, in other words, would lend $9 for every $1 an investor had deposited. When the market fell, brokers called in these loans, which could not be paid back. Banks began to fail as debtors defaulted on debt and depositors attempted to withdraw their deposits en masse, triggering multiple bank runs. Government guarantees and Federal Reserve banking regulations to prevent such panics were ineffective or not used. Bank failures led to the loss of billions of dollars in assets.
Outstanding debts became heavier, because prices and incomes fell by 20 -- 50 % but the debts remained at the same dollar amount. After the panic of 1929, and during the first 10 months of 1930, 744 U.S. banks failed. (In all, 9,000 banks failed during the 1930s). By April 1933, around $7 billion in deposits had been frozen in failed banks or those left unlicensed after the March Bank Holiday. Bank failures snowballed as desperate bankers called in loans which the borrowers did not have time or money to repay. With future profits looking poor, capital investment and construction slowed or completely ceased. In the face of bad loans and worsening future prospects, the surviving banks became even more conservative in their lending. Banks built up their capital reserves and made fewer loans, which intensified deflationary pressures. A vicious cycle developed and the downward spiral accelerated.
The liquidation of debt could not keep up with the fall of prices which it caused. The mass effect of the stampede to liquidate increased the value of each dollar owed, relative to the value of declining asset holdings. The very effort of individuals to lessen their burden of debt effectively increased it. Paradoxically, the more the debtors paid, the more they owed. This self - aggravating process turned a 1930 recession into a 1933 great depression.
Fisher 's debt - deflation theory initially lacked mainstream influence because of the counter-argument that debt - deflation represented no more than a redistribution from one group (debtors) to another (creditors). Pure re-distributions should have no significant macroeconomic effects.
Building on both the monetary hypothesis of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz as well as the debt deflation hypothesis of Irving Fisher, Ben Bernanke developed an alternative way in which the financial crisis affected output. He builds on Fisher 's argument that dramatic declines in the price level and nominal incomes lead to increasing real debt burdens which in turn leads to debtor insolvency and consequently leads to lowered aggregate demand, a further decline in the price level then results in a debt deflationary spiral. According to Bernanke, a small decline in the price level simply reallocates wealth from debtors to creditors without doing damage to the economy. But when the deflation is severe falling asset prices along with debtor bankruptcies lead to a decline in the nominal value of assets on bank balance sheets. Banks will react by tightening their credit conditions, that in turn leads to a credit crunch which does serious harm to the economy. A credit crunch lowers investment and consumption and results in declining aggregate demand which additionally contributes to the deflationary spiral.
Since economic mainstream turned to the new neoclassical synthesis, expectations are a central element of macroeconomic models. According to Peter Temin, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and Christina Romer, the key to recovery and to ending the Great Depression was brought about by a successful management of public expectations. The thesis is based on the observation that after years of deflation and a very severe recession important economic indicators turned positive in March 1933 when Franklin D. Roosevelt took office. Consumer prices turned from deflation to a mild inflation, industrial production bottomed out in March 1933, and investment doubled in 1933 with a turnaround in March 1933. There were no monetary forces to explain that turn around. Money supply was still falling and short term interest rates remained close to zero. Before March 1933 people expected further deflation and a recession so that even interest rates at zero did not stimulate investment. But when Roosevelt announced major regime changes people began to expect inflation and an economic expansion. With these positive expectations, interest rates at zero began to stimulate investment just as they were expected to do. Roosevelt 's fiscal and monetary policy regime change helped to make his policy objectives credible. The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflation stimulated demand and investments. The analysis suggests that the elimination of the policy dogmas of the gold standard, a balanced budget in times of crises and small government led endogenously to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70 -- 80 percent of the recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change had not happened and the Hoover policy had continued, the economy would have continued its free fall in 1933, and output would have been 30 % lower in 1937 than in 1933.
The recession of 1937 -- 38, which slowed down economic recovery from the Great Depression, is explained by fears of the population that the moderate tightening of the monetary and fiscal policy in 1937 would be first steps to a restoration of the pre-March 1933 policy regime.
Theorists of the "Austrian School '' who wrote about the Depression include Austrian economist Friedrich Hayek and American economist Murray Rothbard, who wrote America 's Great Depression (1963). In their view and like the monetarists, the Federal Reserve, which was created in 1913, shoulders much of the blame; but in opposition to the monetarists, they argue that the key cause of the Depression was the expansion of the money supply in the 1920s that led to an unsustainable credit - driven boom.
In the Austrian view it was this inflation of the money supply that led to an unsustainable boom in both asset prices (stocks and bonds) and capital goods. By the time the Fed belatedly tightened in 1928, it was far too late and, in the Austrian view, a significant economic contraction was inevitable. In February 1929 Hayek published a paper predicting the Federal Reserve 's actions would lead to a crisis starting in the stock and credit markets.
According to Rothbard, government support for failed enterprises and keeping wages above their market values actually prolonged the Depression. Hayek, unlike Rothbard, believed since the 1970s, along with the monetarists, that the Federal Reserve further contributed to the problems of the Depression by permitting the money supply to shrink during the earliest years of the Depression. However, in 1932 and 1934 Hayek had criticised the FED and the Bank of England for not taking a more contractionary stance.
Hans Sennholz argued that most boom and busts that plagued the American economy in 1819 -- 20, 1839 -- 43, 1857 -- 60, 1873 -- 78, 1893 -- 97, and 1920 -- 21, were generated by government creating a boom through easy money and credit, which was soon followed by the inevitable bust. The spectacular crash of 1929 followed five years of reckless credit expansion by the Federal Reserve System under the Coolidge Administration. The passing of the Sixteenth Amendment, the passage of The Federal Reserve Act, rising government deficits, the passage of the Hawley - Smoot Tariff Act, and the Revenue Act of 1932, exacerbated the crisis, prolonging it.
Ludwig von Mises wrote in the 1930s: "Credit expansion can not increase the supply of real goods. It merely brings about a rearrangement. It diverts capital investment away from the course prescribed by the state of economic wealth and market conditions. It causes production to pursue paths which it would not follow unless the economy were to acquire an increase in material goods. As a result, the upswing lacks a solid base. It is not a real prosperity. It is illusory prosperity. It did not develop from an increase in economic wealth, i.e. the accumulation of savings made available for productive investment. Rather, it arose because the credit expansion created the illusion of such an increase. Sooner or later, it must become apparent that this economic situation is built on sand. ''
Karl Marx saw recession and depression as unavoidable under free - market capitalism as there are no restrictions on accumulations of capital other than the market itself. In the Marxist view, capitalism tends to create unbalanced accumulations of wealth, leading to over-accumulations of capital which inevitably lead to a crisis. This especially sharp bust is a regular feature of the boom and bust pattern of what Marxists term "chaotic '' capitalist development. It is a tenet of many Marxist groupings that such crises are inevitable and will be increasingly severe until the contradictions inherent in the mismatch between the mode of production and the development of productive forces reach the final point of failure. At which point, the crisis period encourages intensified class conflict and forces societal change.
Two economists of the 1920s, Waddill Catchings and William Trufant Foster, popularized a theory that influenced many policy makers, including Herbert Hoover, Henry A. Wallace, Paul Douglas, and Marriner Eccles. It held the economy produced more than it consumed, because the consumers did not have enough income. Thus the unequal distribution of wealth throughout the 1920s caused the Great Depression.
According to this view, the root cause of the Great Depression was a global over-investment in heavy industry capacity compared to wages and earnings from independent businesses, such as farms. The proposed solution was for the government to pump money into the consumers ' pockets. That is, it must redistribute purchasing power, maintaining the industrial base, and re-inflating prices and wages to force as much of the inflationary increase in purchasing power into consumer spending. The economy was overbuilt, and new factories were not needed. Foster and Catchings recommended federal and state governments to start large construction projects, a program followed by Hoover and Roosevelt.
It can not be emphasized too strongly that the (productivity, output and employment) trends we are describing are long - time trends and were thoroughly evident prior to 1929. These trends are in nowise the result of the present depression, nor are they the result of the World War. On the contrary, the present depression is a collapse resulting from these long - term trends.
The first three decades of the 20th century saw economic output surge with electrification, mass production and motorized farm machinery, and because of the rapid growth in productivity there was a lot of excess production capacity and the work week was being reduced.
The dramatic rise in productivity of major industries in the U.S. and the effects of productivity on output, wages and the work week are discussed by Spurgeon Bell in his book Productivity, Wages, and National Income (1940).
The gold standard was the primary transmission mechanism of the Great Depression. Even countries that did not face bank failures and a monetary contraction first hand were forced to join the deflationary policy since higher interest rates in countries that performed a deflationary policy led to a gold outflow in countries with lower interest rates. Under the gold standard 's price -- specie flow mechanism, countries that lost gold but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard had to permit their money supply to decrease and the domestic price level to decline (deflation).
There is also consensus that protectionist policies such as the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act helped to worsen the depression.
Some economic studies have indicated that just as the downturn was spread worldwide by the rigidities of the Gold Standard, it was suspending gold convertibility (or devaluing the currency in gold terms) that did the most to make recovery possible.
Every major currency left the gold standard during the Great Depression. Great Britain was the first to do so. Facing speculative attacks on the pound and depleting gold reserves, in September 1931 the Bank of England ceased exchanging pound notes for gold and the pound was floated on foreign exchange markets.
Great Britain, Japan, and the Scandinavian countries left the gold standard in 1931. Other countries, such as Italy and the U.S., remained on the gold standard into 1932 or 1933, while a few countries in the so - called "gold bloc '', led by France and including Poland, Belgium and Switzerland, stayed on the standard until 1935 -- 36.
According to later analysis, the earliness with which a country left the gold standard reliably predicted its economic recovery. For example, Great Britain and Scandinavia, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost avoided the depression entirely. The connection between leaving the gold standard as a strong predictor of that country 's severity of its depression and the length of time of its recovery has been shown to be consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This partly explains why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.
Many economists have argued that the sharp decline in international trade after 1930 helped to worsen the depression, especially for countries significantly dependent on foreign trade. In a 1995 survey of American economic historians, two - thirds agreed that the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act at least worsened the Great Depression. Most historians and economists partly blame the American Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act (enacted June 17, 1930) for worsening the depression by seriously reducing international trade and causing retaliatory tariffs in other countries. While foreign trade was a small part of overall economic activity in the U.S. and was concentrated in a few businesses like farming, it was a much larger factor in many other countries. The average ad valorem rate of duties on dutiable imports for 1921 -- 25 was 25.9 % but under the new tariff it jumped to 50 % during 1931 -- 35. In dollar terms, American exports declined over the next four (4) years from about $5.2 billion in 1929 to $1.7 billion in 1933; so, not only did the physical volume of exports fall, but also the prices fell by about 1 / 3 as written. Hardest hit were farm commodities such as wheat, cotton, tobacco, and lumber.
Governments around the world took various steps into spending less money on foreign goods such as: "imposing tariffs, import quotas, and exchange controls ''. These restrictions formed a lot of tension between trade nations, causing a major deduction during the depression. Not all countries enforced the same measures of protectionism. Some countries raised tariffs drastically and enforced severe restrictions on foreign exchange transactions, while other countries condensed "trade and exchange restrictions only marginally '':
The consensus view among economists and economic historians is that the passage of the Smoot - Hawley Tariff exacerbated the Great Depression, although there is disagreement as to how much. In the popular view, the Smoot - Hawley Tariff was a leading cause of the depression. However, many economists hold the opinion that the tariff act did not greatly worsen the depression.
The financial crisis escalated out of control in mid-1931, starting with the collapse of the Credit Anstalt in Vienna in May. This put heavy pressure on Germany, which was already in political turmoil. With the rise in violence of Nazi and communist movements, as well as investor nervousness at harsh government financial policies. Investors withdrew their short - term money from Germany, as confidence spiraled downward. The Reichsbank lost 150 million marks in the first week of June, 540 million in the second, and 150 million in two days, June 19 -- 20. Collapse was at hand. U.S. President Herbert Hoover called for a moratorium on Payment of war reparations. This angered Paris, which depended on a steady flow of German payments, but it slowed the crisis down and the moratorium, was agreed to in July 1931. International conference in London later in July produced no agreements but on August 19 a standstill agreement froze Germany 's foreign liabilities for six months. Germany received emergency funding from private banks in New York as well as the Bank of International Settlements and the Bank of England. The funding only slowed the process; it 's nothing. Industrial failures began in Germany, a major bank closed in July and a two - day holiday for all German banks was declared. Business failures more frequent in July, and spread to Romania and Hungary. The crisis continued to get worse in Germany, bringing political upheaval that finally led to the coming to power of Hitler 's Nazi regime in January 1933.
The world financial crisis now began to overwhelm Britain; investors across the world started withdrawing their gold from London at the rate of £ 21⁄2 millions a day. Credits of £ 25 millions each from the Bank of France and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and an issue of £ 15 millions fiduciary note slowed, but did not reverse the British crisis. The financial crisis now caused a major political crisis in Britain in August 1931. With deficits mounting, the bankers demanded a balanced budget; the divided cabinet of Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald 's Labour government agreed; it proposed to raise taxes, cut spending and most controversially, to cut unemployment benefits 20 %. The attack on welfare was totally unacceptable to the Labour movement. MacDonald wanted to resign, but King George V insisted he remain and form an all - party coalition "National government. '' The Conservative and Liberals parties signed on, along with a small cadre of Labour, but the vast majority of Labour leaders denounced MacDonald as a traitor for leading the new government. Britain went off the gold standard, and suffered relatively less than other major countries in the Great Depression. In the 1931 British election the Labour Party was virtually destroyed, leaving MacDonald as Prime Minister for a largely Conservative coalition.
In most countries of the world, recovery from the Great Depression began in 1933. In the U.S., recovery began in early 1933, but the U.S. did not return to 1929 GNP for over a decade and still had an unemployment rate of about 15 % in 1940, albeit down from the high of 25 % in 1933.
There is no consensus among economists regarding the motive force for the U.S. economic expansion that continued through most of the Roosevelt years (and the 1937 recession that interrupted it). The common view among most economists is that Roosevelt 's New Deal policies either caused or accelerated the recovery, although his policies were never aggressive enough to bring the economy completely out of recession. Some economists have also called attention to the positive effects from expectations of reflation and rising nominal interest rates that Roosevelt 's words and actions portended. It was the rollback of those same reflationary policies that led to the interruption of a recession beginning in late 1937. One contributing policy that reversed reflation was the Banking Act of 1935, which effectively raised reserve requirements, causing a monetary contraction that helped to thwart the recovery. GDP returned to its upward trend in 1938.
According to Christina Romer, the money supply growth caused by huge international gold inflows was a crucial source of the recovery of the United States economy, and that the economy showed little sign of self - correction. The gold inflows were partly due to devaluation of the U.S. dollar and partly due to deterioration of the political situation in Europe. In their book, A Monetary History of the United States, Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz also attributed the recovery to monetary factors, and contended that it was much slowed by poor management of money by the Federal Reserve System. Former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Ben Bernanke agreed that monetary factors played important roles both in the worldwide economic decline and eventual recovery. Bernanke also saw a strong role for institutional factors, particularly the rebuilding and restructuring of the financial system, and pointed out that the Depression should be examined in an international perspective.
Women 's primary role were as housewives; without a steady flow of family income, their work became much harder in dealing with food and clothing and medical care. Birthrates fell everywhere, as children were postponed until families could financially support them. The average birthrate for 14 major countries fell 12 % from 19.3 births per thousand population in 1930, to 17.0 in 1935. In Canada, half of Roman Catholic women defied Church teachings and used contraception to postpone births.
Among the few women in the labor force, layoffs were less common in the white - collar jobs and they were typically found in light manufacturing work. However, there was a widespread demand to limit families to one paid job, so that wives might lose employment if their husband was employed. Across Britain, there was a tendency for married women to join the labor force, competing for part - time jobs especially.
In rural and small - town areas, women expanded their operation of vegetable gardens to include as much food production as possible. In the United States, agricultural organizations sponsored programs to teach housewives how to optimize their gardens and to raise poultry for meat and eggs. In American cities, African American women quiltmakers enlarged their activities, promoted collaboration, and trained neophytes. Quilts were created for practical use from various inexpensive materials and increased social interaction for women and promoted camaraderie and personal fulfillment.
Oral history provides evidence for how housewives in a modern industrial city handled shortages of money and resources. Often they updated strategies their mothers used when they were growing up in poor families. Cheap foods were used, such as soups, beans and noodles. They purchased the cheapest cuts of meat -- sometimes even horse meat -- and recycled the Sunday roast into sandwiches and soups. They sewed and patched clothing, traded with their neighbors for outgrown items, and made do with colder homes. New furniture and appliances were postponed until better days. Many women also worked outside the home, or took boarders, did laundry for trade or cash, and did sewing for neighbors in exchange for something they could offer. Extended families used mutual aid -- extra food, spare rooms, repair - work, cash loans -- to help cousins and in - laws.
In Japan, official government policy was deflationary and the opposite of Keynesian spending. Consequently, the government launched a nationwide campaign to induce households to reduce their consumption, focusing attention on spending by housewives.
In Germany, the government tried to reshape private household consumption under the Four - Year Plan of 1936 to achieve German economic self - sufficiency. The Nazi women 's organizations, other propaganda agencies and the authorities all attempted to shape such consumption as economic self - sufficiency was needed to prepare for and to sustain the coming war. The organizations, propaganda agencies and authorities employed slogans that called up traditional values of thrift and healthy living. However, these efforts were only partly successful in changing the behavior of housewives.
The common view among economic historians is that the Great Depression ended with the advent of World War II. Many economists believe that government spending on the war caused or at least accelerated recovery from the Great Depression, though some consider that it did not play a very large role in the recovery. It did help in reducing unemployment.
The rearmament policies leading up to World War II helped stimulate the economies of Europe in 1937 -- 39. By 1937, unemployment in Britain had fallen to 1.5 million. The mobilization of manpower following the outbreak of war in 1939 ended unemployment.
When the United States entered into the war in 1941, it finally eliminated the last effects from the Great Depression and brought the U.S. unemployment rate down below 10 %. In the U.S., massive war spending doubled economic growth rates, either masking the effects of the Depression or essentially ending the Depression. Businessmen ignored the mounting national debt and heavy new taxes, redoubling their efforts for greater output to take advantage of generous government contracts.
The majority of countries set up relief programs and most underwent some sort of political upheaval, pushing them to the right. Many of the countries in Europe and Latin America that were democracies saw them overthrown by some form of dictatorship or authoritarian rule, most famously in Germany in 1933. The Dominion of Newfoundland gave up democracy voluntarily.
Australia 's dependence on agricultural and industrial exports meant it was one of the hardest - hit developed countries. Falling export demand and commodity prices placed massive downward pressures on wages. Unemployment reached a record high of 29 % in 1932, with incidents of civil unrest becoming common. After 1932, an increase in wool and meat prices led to a gradual recovery.
Harshly affected by both the global economic downturn and the Dust Bowl, Canadian industrial production had fallen to only 58 % of the 1929 level by 1932, the second lowest level in the world after the United States, and well behind nations such as Britain, which fell to only 83 % of the 1929 level. Total national income fell to 56 % of the 1929 level, again worse than any nation apart from the United States. Unemployment reached 27 % at the depth of the Depression in 1933.
The League of Nations labeled Chile the country hardest hit by the Great Depression because 80 % of government revenue came from exports of copper and nitrates, which were in low demand. Chile initially felt the impact of the Great Depression in 1930, when GDP dropped 14 %, mining income declined 27 %, and export earnings fell 28 %. By 1932, GDP had shrunk to less than half of what it had been in 1929, exacting a terrible toll in unemployment and business failures.
Influenced profoundly by the Great Depression, many national leaders promoted the development of local industry in an effort to insulate the economy from future external shocks. After six years of government austerity measures, which succeeded in reestablishing Chile 's creditworthiness, Chileans elected to office during the 1938 -- 58 period a succession of center and left - of - center governments interested in promoting economic growth by means of government intervention.
Prompted in part by the devastating 1939 Chillán earthquake, the Popular Front government of Pedro Aguirre Cerda created the Production Development Corporation (Corporación de Fomento de la Producción, CORFO) to encourage with subsidies and direct investments an ambitious program of import substitution industrialization. Consequently, as in other Latin American countries, protectionism became an entrenched aspect of the Chilean economy.
China was largely unaffected by the Depression, mainly by having stuck to the Silver standard. However, the U.S. silver purchase act of 1934 created an intolerable demand on China 's silver coins, and so in the end the silver standard was officially abandoned in 1935 in favor of the four Chinese national banks ' "legal note '' issues. China and the British colony of Hong Kong, which followed suit in this regard in September 1935, would be the last to abandon the silver standard. In addition, the Nationalist Government also acted energetically to modernize the legal and penal systems, stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the banking and currency systems, build railroads and highways, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in narcotics and augment industrial and agricultural production. On November 3, 1935, the government instituted the fiat currency (fapi) reform, immediately stabilizing prices and also raising revenues for the government.
The crisis affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting around 1931. While the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43 % per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63 %.
The depression was relatively mild: unemployment peaked under 5 %, the fall in production was at most 20 % below the 1929 output; there was no banking crisis.
However, the depression had drastic effects on the local economy, and partly explains the February 6, 1934 riots and even more the formation of the Popular Front, led by SFIO socialist leader Léon Blum, which won the elections in 1936. Ultra-nationalist groups also saw increased popularity, although democracy prevailed into World War II.
France 's relatively high degree of self - sufficiency meant the damage was considerably less than in nations like Germany.
The Great Depression hit Germany hard. The impact of the Wall Street Crash forced American banks to end the new loans that had been funding the repayments under the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. The financial crisis escalated out of control and mid-1931, starting with the collapse of the Credit Anstalt in Vienna in May. This put heavy pressure on Germany, which was already in political turmoil. With the rise in violence of Nazi and communist movements, as well as investor nervousness at harsh government financial policies. Investors withdrew their short - term money from Germany, as confidence spiraled downward. The Reichsbank lost 150 million marks in the first week of June, 540 million in the second, and 150 million in two days, June 19 -- 20. Collapse was at hand. U.S. President Herbert Hoover called for a moratorium on Payment of war reparations. This angered Paris, which depended on a steady flow of German payments, but it slowed the crisis down and the moratorium, was agreed to in July 1931. International conference in London later in July produced no agreements but on August 19 a standstill agreement froze Germany 's foreign liabilities for six months. Germany received emergency funding from private banks in New York as well as the Bank of International Settlements and the Bank of England. The funding only slowed the process. Industrial failures began in Germany, a major bank closed in July and a two - day holiday for all German banks was declared. Business failures more frequent in July, and spread to Romania and Hungary.
In 1932, 90 % of German reparation payments were cancelled. (In the 1950s, Germany repaid all its missed reparations debts.) Widespread unemployment reached 25 % as every sector was hurt. The government did not increase government spending to deal with Germany 's growing crisis, as they were afraid that a high - spending policy could lead to a return of the hyperinflation that had affected Germany in 1923. Germany 's Weimar Republic was hit hard by the depression, as American loans to help rebuild the German economy now stopped. The unemployment rate reached nearly 30 % in 1932, bolstering support for the Nazi (NSDAP) and Communist (KPD) parties, causing the collapse of the politically centrist Social Democratic Party. Hitler ran for the Presidency in 1932, and while he lost to the incumbent Hindenburg in the election, it marked a point during which both Nazi Party and the Communist parties rose in the years following the crash to altogether possess a Reichstag majority following the general election in July 1932.
Hitler followed an autarky economic policy, creating a network of client states and economic allies in central Europe and Latin America. By cutting wages and taking control of labor unions, plus public works spending, unemployment fell significantly by 1935. Large - scale military spending played a major role in the recovery.
The reverberations of the Great Depression hit Greece in 1932. The Bank of Greece tried to adopt deflationary policies to stave off the crises that were going on in other countries, but these largely failed. For a brief period the drachma was pegged to the U.S. dollar, but this was unsustainable given the country 's large trade deficit and the only long - term effects of this were Greece 's foreign exchange reserves being almost totally wiped out in 1932. Remittances from abroad declined sharply and the value of the drachma began to plummet from 77 drachmas to the dollar in March 1931 to 111 drachmas to the dollar in April, 1931. This was especially harmful to Greece as the country relied on imports from the UK, France and the Middle East for many necessities. Greece went off the gold standard in April, 1932 and declared a moratorium on all interest payments. The country also adopted protectionist policies such as import quotas, which a number of European countries did during the time period.
Protectionist policies coupled with a weak drachma, stifling imports, allowed Greek industry to expand during the Great Depression. In 1939 Greek Industrial output was 179 % that of 1928. These industries were for the most part "built on sand '' as one report of the Bank of Greece put it, as without massive protection they would not have been able to survive. Despite the global depression, Greece managed to suffer comparatively little, averaging an average growth rate of 3.5 % from 1932 to 1939. The dictatorial regime of Ioannis Metaxas took over the Greek government in 1936, and economic growth was strong in the years leading up to the Second World War.
Icelandic post-World War I prosperity came to an end with the outbreak of the Great Depression. The Depression hit Iceland hard as the value of exports plummeted. The total value of Icelandic exports fell from 74 million kronur in 1929 to 48 million in 1932, and was not to rise again to the pre-1930 level until after 1939. Government interference in the economy increased: "Imports were regulated, trade with foreign currency was monopolized by state - owned banks, and loan capital was largely distributed by state - regulated funds ''. Due to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, which cut Iceland 's exports of saltfish by half, the Depression lasted in Iceland until the outbreak of World War II (when prices for fish exports soared).
Frank Barry and Mary E. Daly have argued that:
The Great Depression hit Italy very hard. As industries came close to failure they were bought out by the banks in a largely illusionary bail - out -- the assets used to fund the purchases were largely worthless. This led to a financial crisis peaking in 1932 and major government intervention. The Industrial Reconstruction Institute (IRI) was formed in January 1933 and took control of the bank - owned companies, suddenly giving Italy the largest state - owned industrial sector in Europe (excluding the USSR). IRI did rather well with its new responsibilities -- restructuring, modernising and rationalising as much as it could. It was a significant factor in post-1945 development. But it took the Italian economy until 1935 to recover the manufacturing levels of 1930 -- a position that was only 60 % better than that of 1913.
The Great Depression did not strongly affect Japan. The Japanese economy shrank by 8 % during 1929 -- 31. Japan 's Finance Minister Takahashi Korekiyo was the first to implement what have come to be identified as Keynesian economic policies: first, by large fiscal stimulus involving deficit spending; and second, by devaluing the currency. Takahashi used the Bank of Japan to sterilize the deficit spending and minimize resulting inflationary pressures. Econometric studies have identified the fiscal stimulus as especially effective.
The devaluation of the currency had an immediate effect. Japanese textiles began to displace British textiles in export markets. The deficit spending proved to be most profound and went into the purchase of munitions for the armed forces. By 1933, Japan was already out of the depression. By 1934, Takahashi realized that the economy was in danger of overheating, and to avoid inflation, moved to reduce the deficit spending that went towards armaments and munitions.
This resulted in a strong and swift negative reaction from nationalists, especially those in the army, culminating in his assassination in the course of the February 26 Incident. This had a chilling effect on all civilian bureaucrats in the Japanese government. From 1934, the military 's dominance of the government continued to grow. Instead of reducing deficit spending, the government introduced price controls and rationing schemes that reduced, but did not eliminate inflation, which remained a problem until the end of World War II.
The deficit spending had a transformative effect on Japan. Japan 's industrial production doubled during the 1930s. Further, in 1929 the list of the largest firms in Japan was dominated by light industries, especially textile companies (many of Japan 's automakers, such as Toyota, have their roots in the textile industry). By 1940 light industry had been displaced by heavy industry as the largest firms inside the Japanese economy.
Because of high levels of U.S. investment in Latin American economies, they were severely damaged by the Depression. Within the region, Chile, Bolivia and Peru were particularly badly affected.
Before the 1929 crisis, links between the world economy and Latin American economies had been established through American and British investment in Latin American exports to the world. As a result, Latin Americans export industries felt the depression quickly. World prices for commodities such as wheat, coffee and copper plunged. Exports from all of Latin America to the U.S. fell in value from $1.2 billion in 1929 to $335 million in 1933, rising to $660 million in 1940.
But on the other hand, the depression led the area governments to develop new local industries and expand consumption and production. Following the example of the New Deal, governments in the area approved regulations and created or improved welfare institutions that helped millions of new industrial workers to achieve a better standard of living.
From roughly 1931 to 1937, the Netherlands suffered a deep and exceptionally long depression. This depression was partly caused by the after - effects of the Stock Market Crash of 1929 in the U.S., and partly by internal factors in the Netherlands. Government policy, especially the very late dropping of the Gold Standard, played a role in prolonging the depression. The Great Depression in the Netherlands led to some political instability and riots, and can be linked to the rise of the Dutch national - socialist party NSB. The depression in the Netherlands eased off somewhat at the end of 1936, when the government finally dropped the Gold Standard, but real economic stability did not return until after World War II.
New Zealand was especially vulnerable to worldwide depression, as it relied almost totally on agricultural exports to the United Kingdom for its economy. The drop in exports led to a lack of disposable income from the farmers, who were the mainstay of the local economy. Jobs disappeared and wages plummeted, leaving people desperate and charities unable to cope. Work relief schemes were the only government support available to the unemployed, the rate of which by the early 1930s was officially around 15 %, but unofficially nearly twice that level (official figures excluded Māori and women). In 1932, riots occurred among the unemployed in three of the country 's main cities (Auckland, Dunedin, and Wellington). Many were arrested or injured through the tough official handling of these riots by police and volunteer "special constables ''.
Already under the rule of a dictatorial junta, the Ditadura Nacional, Portugal suffered no turbulent political effects of the Depression, although António de Oliveira Salazar, already appointed Minister of Finance in 1928 greatly expanded his powers and in 1932 rose to Prime Minister of Portugal to found the Estado Novo, an authoritarian corporatist dictatorship. With the budget balanced in 1929, the effects of the depression were relaxed through harsh measures towards budget balance and autarky, causing social discontent but stability and, eventually, an impressive economic growth.
In the years immediately preceding the depression, negative developments in the island and world economies perpetuated an unsustainable cycle of subsistence for many Puerto Rican workers. The 1920s brought a dramatic drop in Puerto Rico 's two primary exports, raw sugar and coffee, due to a devastating hurricane in 1928 and the plummeting demand from global markets in the latter half of the decade. 1930 unemployment on the island was roughly 36 % and by 1933 Puerto Rico 's per capita income dropped 30 % (by comparison, unemployment in the United States in 1930 was approximately 8 % reaching a height of 25 % in 1933). To provide relief and economic reform, the United States government and Puerto Rican politicians such as Carlos Chardon and Luis Munoz Marin created and administered first the Puerto Rico Emergency Relief Administration (PRERA) 1933 and then in 1935, the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration (PRRA).
As world trade slumped, demand for South African agricultural and mineral exports fell drastically. The Carnegie Commission on Poor Whites had concluded in 1931 that nearly one third of Afrikaners lived as paupers. The social discomfort caused by the depression was a contributing factor in the 1933 split between the "gesuiwerde '' (purified) and "smelter '' (fusionist) factions within the National Party and the National Party 's subsequent fusion with the South African Party.
The Soviet Union was the world 's sole communist state with very little international trade. Its economy was not tied to the rest of the world and was only slightly affected by the Great Depression. Its forced transformation from a rural to an industrial society succeeded in building up heavy industry, at the cost of millions of lives in rural Russia and Ukraine.
At the time of the Depression, the Soviet economy was growing steadily, fuelled by intensive investment in heavy industry. The apparent economic success of the Soviet Union at a time when the capitalist world was in crisis led many Western intellectuals to view the Soviet system favorably. Jennifer Burns wrote:
As the Great Depression ground on and unemployment soared, intellectuals began unfavorably comparing their faltering capitalist economy to Russian Communism... More than ten years after the Revolution, Communism was finally reaching full flower, according to New York Times reporter Walter Duranty, a Stalin fan who vigorously debunked accounts of the Ukraine famine, a man - made disaster that would leave millions dead. ''
Despite all of this, The Great Depression caused mass immigration to the Soviet Union, mostly from Finland and Germany. Soviet Russia was at first happy to help these immigrants settle, because they believed they were victims of capitalism who had come to help the Soviet cause. However, when the Soviet Union entered the war in 1941, most of these Germans and Finns were arrested and sent to Siberia, while their Russian - born children were placed in orphanages. Their fate is unknown.
Spain had a relatively isolated economy, with high protective tariffs and was not one of the main countries affected by the Depression. The banking system held up well, as did agriculture.
By far the most serious negative impact came after 1936 from the heavy destruction of infrastructure and manpower by the civil war, 1936 -- 39. Many talented workers were forced into permanent exile. By staying neutral in the Second World War, and selling to both sides, the economy avoided further disasters.
By the 1930s, Sweden had what America 's Life magazine called in 1938 the "world 's highest standard of living ''. Sweden was also the first country worldwide to recover completely from the Great Depression. Taking place in the midst of a short - lived government and a less - than - a-decade old Swedish democracy, events such as those surrounding Ivar Kreuger (who eventually committed suicide) remain infamous in Swedish history. The Social Democrats under Per Albin Hansson formed their first long - lived government in 1932 based on strong interventionist and welfare state policies, monopolizing the office of Prime Minister until 1976 with the sole and short - lived exception of Axel Pehrsson - Bramstorp 's "summer cabinet '' in 1936. During forty years of hegemony, it was the most successful political party in the history of Western liberal democracy.
In Thailand, then known as the Kingdom of Siam, the Great Depression contributed to the end of the absolute monarchy of King Rama VII in the Siamese revolution of 1932.
The World Depression broke at a time when the United Kingdom was still far from having recovered from the effects of the First World War more than a decade earlier. The country was driven off the gold standard in 1931.
The world financial crisis began to overwhelm Britain in 1931; investors across the world started withdrawing their gold from London at the rate of £ 21⁄2 millions a day. Credits of £ 25 millions each from the Bank of France and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and an issue of £ 15 millions fiduciary note slowed, but did not reverse the British crisis. The financial crisis now caused a major political crisis in Britain in August 1931. With deficits mounting, the bankers demanded a balanced budget; the divided cabinet of Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald 's Labour government agreed; it proposed to raise taxes, cut spending and most controversially, to cut unemployment benefits by 20 %. The attack on welfare was totally unacceptable to the Labour movement. MacDonald wanted to resign, but King George V insisted he remain and form an all - party coalition "National Government ''. The Conservative and Liberals parties signed on, along with a small cadre of Labour, but the vast majority of Labour leaders denounced MacDonald as a traitor for leading the new government. Britain went off the gold standard, and suffered relatively less than other major countries in the Great Depression. In the 1931 British election, the Labour Party was virtually destroyed, leaving MacDonald as Prime Minister for a largely Conservative coalition.
The effects on the northern industrial areas of Britain were immediate and devastating, as demand for traditional industrial products collapsed. By the end of 1930 unemployment had more than doubled from 1 million to 2.5 million (20 % of the insured workforce), and exports had fallen in value by 50 %. In 1933, 30 % of Glaswegians were unemployed due to the severe decline in heavy industry. In some towns and cities in the north east, unemployment reached as high as 70 % as shipbuilding fell by 90 %. The National Hunger March of September -- October 1932 was the largest of a series of hunger marches in Britain in the 1920s and 1930s. About 200,000 unemployed men were sent to the work camps, which continued in operation until 1939.
In the less industrial Midlands and Southern England, the effects were short - lived and the later 1930s were a prosperous time. Growth in modern manufacture of electrical goods and a boom in the motor car industry was helped by a growing southern population and an expanding middle class. Agriculture also saw a boom during this period.
Hoover 's first measures to combat the depression were based on voluntarism by businesses not to reduce their workforce or cut wages. But businesses had little choice and wages were reduced, workers were laid off, and investments postponed.
In June 1930 Congress approved the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act which raised tariffs on thousands of imported items. The intent of the Act was to encourage the purchase of American - made products by increasing the cost of imported goods, while raising revenue for the federal government and protecting farmers. Other nations increased tariffs on American - made goods in retaliation, reducing international trade, and worsening the Depression.
In 1931 Hoover urged bankers to set up the National Credit Corporation so that big banks could help failing banks survive. But bankers were reluctant to invest in failing banks, and the National Credit Corporation did almost nothing to address the problem.
By 1932, unemployment had reached 23.6 %, peaking in early 1933 at 25 %. Drought persisted in the agricultural heartland, businesses and families defaulted on record numbers of loans, and more than 5,000 banks had failed. Hundreds of thousands of Americans found themselves homeless, and began congregating in shanty towns -- dubbed "Hoovervilles '' -- that began to appear across the country. In response, President Hoover and Congress approved the Federal Home Loan Bank Act, to spur new home construction, and reduce foreclosures. The final attempt of the Hoover Administration to stimulate the economy was the passage of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act (ERA) which included funds for public works programs such as dams and the creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) in 1932. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was a Federal agency with the authority to lend up to $2 billion to rescue banks and restore confidence in financial institutions. But $2 billion was not enough to save all the banks, and bank runs and bank failures continued. Quarter by quarter the economy went downhill, as prices, profits and employment fell, leading to the political realignment in 1932 that brought to power Franklin Delano Roosevelt. It is important to note, however, that after volunteerism failed, Hoover developed ideas that laid the framework for parts of the New Deal.
Shortly after President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was inaugurated in 1933, drought and erosion combined to cause the Dust Bowl, shifting hundreds of thousands of displaced persons off their farms in the Midwest. From his inauguration onward, Roosevelt argued that restructuring of the economy would be needed to prevent another depression or avoid prolonging the current one. New Deal programs sought to stimulate demand and provide work and relief for the impoverished through increased government spending and the institution of financial reforms.
During a "bank holiday '' that lasted five days, the Emergency Banking Act was signed into law. It provided for a system of reopening sound banks under Treasury supervision, with federal loans available if needed. The Securities Act of 1933 comprehensively regulated the securities industry. This was followed by the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 which created the Securities and Exchange Commission. Though amended, key provisions of both Acts are still in force. Federal insurance of bank deposits was provided by the FDIC, and the Glass -- Steagall Act.
The Agricultural Adjustment Act provided incentives to cut farm production in order to raise farming prices. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) made a number of sweeping changes to the American economy. It forced businesses to work with government to set price codes through the NRA to fight deflationary "cut - throat competition '' by the setting of minimum prices and wages, labor standards, and competitive conditions in all industries. It encouraged unions that would raise wages, to increase the purchasing power of the working class. The NRA was deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1935.
These reforms, together with several other relief and recovery measures, are called the First New Deal. Economic stimulus was attempted through a new alphabet soup of agencies set up in 1933 and 1934 and previously extant agencies such as the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. By 1935, the "Second New Deal '' added Social Security (which was later considerably extended through the Fair Deal), a jobs program for the unemployed (the Works Progress Administration, WPA) and, through the National Labor Relations Board, a strong stimulus to the growth of labor unions. In 1929, federal expenditures constituted only 3 % of the GDP. The national debt as a proportion of GNP rose under Hoover from 20 % to 40 %. Roosevelt kept it at 40 % until the war began, when it soared to 128 %.
By 1936, the main economic indicators had regained the levels of the late 1920s, except for unemployment, which remained high at 11 %, although this was considerably lower than the 25 % unemployment rate seen in 1933. In the spring of 1937, American industrial production exceeded that of 1929 and remained level until June 1937. In June 1937, the Roosevelt administration cut spending and increased taxation in an attempt to balance the federal budget. The American economy then took a sharp downturn, lasting for 13 months through most of 1938. Industrial production fell almost 30 per cent within a few months and production of durable goods fell even faster. Unemployment jumped from 14.3 % in 1937 to 19.0 % in 1938, rising from 5 million to more than 12 million in early 1938. Manufacturing output fell by 37 % from the 1937 peak and was back to 1934 levels.
Producers reduced their expenditures on durable goods, and inventories declined, but personal income was only 15 % lower than it had been at the peak in 1937. As unemployment rose, consumers ' expenditures declined, leading to further cutbacks in production. By May 1938 retail sales began to increase, employment improved, and industrial production turned up after June 1938. After the recovery from the Recession of 1937 -- 38, conservatives were able to form a bipartisan conservative coalition to stop further expansion of the New Deal and, when unemployment dropped to 2 % in the early 1940s, they abolished WPA, CCC and the PWA relief programs. Social Security remained in place.
Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditure tripled, and Roosevelt 's critics charged that he was turning America into a socialist state. The Great Depression was a main factor in the implementation of social democracy and planned economies in European countries after World War II (see Marshall Plan). Keynesianism generally remained the most influential economic school in the United States and in parts of Europe until the periods between the 1970s and the 1980s, when Milton Friedman and other neoliberal economists formulated and propagated the newly created theories of neoliberalism and incorporated them into the Chicago School of Economics as an alternative approach to the study of economics. Neoliberalism went on to challenge the dominance of the Keynesian school of Economics in the mainstream academia and policy - making in the United States, having reached its peak in popularity in the election of the presidency of Ronald Reagan in the United States, and Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom.
-- John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath
The Great Depression has been the subject of much writing, as authors have sought to evaluate an era that caused both financial and emotional trauma. Perhaps the most noteworthy and famous novel written on the subject is The Grapes of Wrath, published in 1939 and written by John Steinbeck, who was awarded both the Nobel Prize for literature and the Pulitzer Prize for the work. The novel focuses on a poor family of sharecroppers who are forced from their home as drought, economic hardship, and changes in the agricultural industry occur during the Great Depression. Steinbeck 's Of Mice and Men is another important novella about a journey during the Great Depression. Additionally, Harper Lee 's To Kill a Mockingbird is set during the Great Depression. Margaret Atwood 's Booker prize - winning The Blind Assassin is likewise set in the Great Depression, centering on a privileged socialite 's love affair with a Marxist revolutionary. The era spurred the resurgence of social realism, practiced by many who started their writing careers on relief programs, especially the Federal Writers ' Project in the U.S.
A number of works for younger audiences are also set during the Great Depression, among them the Kit Kittredge series of American Girl books written by Valerie Tripp and illustrated by Walter Rane, released to tie in with the dolls and playsets sold by the company. The stories, which take place during the early to mid 1930s in Cincinnati, focuses on the changes brought by the Depression to the titular character 's family and how the Kittredges dealt with it. A theatrical adaptation of the series entitled Kit Kittredge: An American Girl was later released in 2008 to positive reviews. Similarly, Christmas After All, part of the Dear America series of books for older girls, take place in 1930s Indianapolis; while Kit Kittredge is told in a third - person viewpoint, Christmas After All is in the form of a fictional journal as told by the protagonist Minnie Swift as she recounts her experiences during the era, especially when her family takes in an orphan cousin from Texas.
The term "The Great Depression '' is most frequently attributed to British economist Lionel Robbins, whose 1934 book The Great Depression is credited with formalizing the phrase, though Hoover is widely credited with popularizing the term, informally referring to the downturn as a depression, with such uses as "Economic depression can not be cured by legislative action or executive pronouncement '' (December 1930, Message to Congress), and "I need not recount to you that the world is passing through a great depression '' (1931).
The term "depression '' to refer to an economic downturn dates to the 19th century, when it was used by varied Americans and British politicians and economists. Indeed, the first major American economic crisis, the Panic of 1819, was described by then - president James Monroe as "a depression '', and the most recent economic crisis, the Depression of 1920 -- 21, had been referred to as a "depression '' by then - president Calvin Coolidge.
Financial crises were traditionally referred to as "panics '', most recently the major Panic of 1907, and the minor Panic of 1910 -- 11, though the 1929 crisis was called "The Crash '', and the term "panic '' has since fallen out of use. At the time of the Great Depression, the term "The Great Depression '' was already used to refer to the period 1873 -- 96 (in the United Kingdom), or more narrowly 1873 -- 79 (in the United States), which has retroactively been renamed the Long Depression.
Other economic downturns have been called a "great depression '', but none had been as widespread, or lasted for so long. Various nations have experienced brief or extended periods of economic downturns, which were referred to as "depressions '', but none have had such a widespread global impact.
The collapse of the Soviet Union, and the breakdown of economic ties which followed, led to a severe economic crisis and catastrophic fall in the standards of living in the 1990s in post-Soviet states and the former Eastern Bloc, which was even worse than the Great Depression. Even before Russia 's financial crisis of 1998, Russia 's GDP was half of what it had been in the early 1990s, and some populations are still poorer as of 2009 than they were in 1989, including Moldova, Central Asia, and the Caucasus.
Some journalists and economists have taken to calling the late - 2000s recession the "Great Recession '' in allusion to the Great Depression.
The causes of the Great Recession seem similar to the Great Depression, but significant differences exist. The previous chairman of the Federal Reserve, Ben Bernanke, had extensively studied the Great Depression as part of his doctoral work at MIT, and implemented policies to manipulate the money supply and interest rates in ways that were not done in the 1930s. Generally speaking, the recovery of the world 's financial systems tended to be quicker during the Great Depression of the 1930s as opposed to the late - 2000s recession.
If we contrast the 1930s with the Crash of 2008 where gold went through the roof, it is clear that the U.S. dollar on the gold standard was a completely different animal in comparison to the fiat free - floating U.S. dollar currency we have today. Both currencies in 1929 and 2008 were the U.S. dollar, but in an analogous way it is as if one was a Saber - toothed tiger and the other is a Bengal tiger; they are two completely different animals. Where we have experienced inflation since the Crash of 2008, the situation was much different in the 1930s when deflation set in. Unlike the deflation of the early 1930s, the U.S. economy currently appears to be in a "liquidity trap, '' or a situation where monetary policy is unable to stimulate an economy back to health. In terms of the stock market, nearly three years after the 1929 crash, the DJIA dropped 8.4 % on August 12, 1932. Where we have experienced great volatility with large intraday swings in the past two months, in 2011, we have not experienced any record - shattering daily percentage drops to the tune of the 1930s. Where many of us may have that ' 30s feeling, in light of the DJIA, the CPI, and the national unemployment rate, we are simply not living in the ' 30s. Some individuals may feel as if we are living in a depression, but for many others the current global financial crisis simply does not feel like a depression akin to the 1930s.
1928 and 1929 were the times in the 20th century that the wealth gap reached such skewed extremes; half the unemployed had been out of work for over six months, something that was not repeated until the late - 2000s recession. 2007 and 2008 eventually saw the world reach new levels of wealth gap inequality that rivalled the years of 1928 and 1929.
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which of the following are parts of the usa patriot act | PATRIOT Act - wikipedia
The USA PATRIOT Act is an Act of Congress signed into law by US President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001. With its ten - letter abbreviation (USA PATRIOT) expanded, the Act 's full title is "Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 ''. The abbreviation, as well as the full title, have been attributed to Chris Cylke, a former staffer on the House Judiciary Committee.
In response to the September 11 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks, Congress moved quickly to pass legislation to strengthen security controls. On October 23, 2001, Republican Rep. Jim Sensenbrenner introduced H.R. 3162 incorporating provisions from a previously - sponsored House bill and a Senate bill also introduced earlier in the month. The next day, the Act passed the House by a vote of 357 - 66, with Democrats comprising the overwhelming portion of dissent. The three Republicans voting "no '' were Robert Ney of Ohio, Butch Otter of Idaho, and Ron Paul of Texas. On October 25, the Act passed the Senate by a 98 - 1 vote, the only dissident being Russ Feingold of Wisconsin.
Those opposing the law have criticized its authorization of indefinite detentions of immigrants; the permission given law enforcement officers to search a home or business without the owner 's or the occupant 's consent or knowledge; the expanded use of National Security Letters, which allows the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to search telephone, e-mail, and financial records without a court order; and the expanded access of law enforcement agencies to business records, including library and financial records. Since its passage, several legal challenges have been brought against the act, and federal courts have ruled that a number of provisions are unconstitutional.
Many of the act 's provisions were to sunset beginning December 31, 2005, approximately four years after its passage. In the months preceding the sunset date, anybody supporting the act pushed to make its sun - setting provisions permanent, while critics sought to revise various sections to enhance civil liberty protections. In July 2005, the U.S. Senate passed a reauthorization bill with substantial changes to several of the act 's sections, while the House reauthorization bill kept most of the act 's original language. The two bills were then reconciled in a conference committee criticized by Senators from both the Republican and Democratic parties for ignoring civil liberty concerns.
The bill, which removed most of the changes from the Senate version, passed Congress on March 2, 2006, and was signed by President Bush on March 9 and 10 of that year.
On May 26, 2011, President Barack Obama signed the PATRIOT Sunsets Extension Act of 2011, a four - year extension of three key provisions in the Act: roving wiretaps, searches of business records, and conducting surveillance of "lone wolves '' -- individuals suspected of terrorist - related activities not linked to terrorist groups.
Following a lack of Congressional approval, parts of the Patriot Act expired on June 1, 2015. With passing the USA Freedom Act on June 2, 2015, the expired parts were restored and renewed through 2019. However, Section 215 of the law was amended to stop the National Security Agency (NSA) from continuing its mass phone data collection program. Instead, phone companies will retain the data and the NSA can obtain information about targeted individuals with permission from a federal court.
Title I authorizes measures to enhance the ability of domestic security services to prevent terrorism. The title established a fund for counter-terrorist activities and increased funding for the Terrorist Screening Center which is administered by the FBI. The military was authorized to provide assistance in some situations that involve weapons of mass destruction when so requested by the Attorney General. The National Electronic Crime Task Force was expanded, along with the President 's authority and abilities in cases of terrorism. The title also condemned the discrimination against Arab and Muslim Americans that happened soon after the September 11 terrorist attacks. The impetus for many of the provisions came from earlier bills, for instance the condemnation of discrimination was originally proposed by Senator Tom Harkin (D - IA) in an amendment to the Combatting Terrorism Act of 2001, though in a different form. It originally included "the prayer of Cardinal Theodore McCarrick, the Archbishop of Washington in a Mass on September 12, 2001 for our Nation and the victims in the immediate aftermath of the terrorist hijackings and attacks in New York City, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania reminds all Americans that ' We must seek the guilty and not strike out against the innocent or we become like them who are without moral guidance or proper direction. ' '' Further condemnation of racial vilification and violence is also spelled out in Title X, where there was condemnation of such activities against Sikh Americans, who were mistaken for Muslims after the September 11th terrorist attack.
Title II is titled "Enhanced Surveillance Procedures '', and covers all aspects of the surveillance of suspected terrorists, those suspected of engaging in computer fraud or abuse, and agents of a foreign power who are engaged in clandestine activities. It primarily made amendments to FISA, and the ECPA, and many of the most controversial aspects of the USA PATRIOT Act reside in this title. In particular, the title allows government agencies to gather "foreign intelligence information '' from both U.S. and non-U.S. citizens, and changed FISA to make gaining foreign intelligence information the significant purpose of FISA - based surveillance, where previously it had been the primary purpose. The change in definition was meant to remove a legal "wall '' between criminal investigations and surveillance for the purposes of gathering foreign intelligence, which hampered investigations when criminal and foreign surveillance overlapped. However, that this wall even existed was found by the Federal Surveillance Court of Review to have actually been a long - held misinterpretation by government agencies. Also removed was the statutory requirement that the government prove a surveillance target under FISA is a non-U.S. citizen and agent of a foreign power, though it did require that any investigations must not be undertaken on citizens who are carrying out activities protected by the First Amendment. The title also expanded the duration of FISA physical search and surveillance orders, and gave authorities the ability to share information gathered before a federal grand jury with other agencies.
The scope and availability of wiretapping and surveillance orders were expanded under Title II. Wiretaps were expanded to include addressing and routing information to allow surveillance of packet switched networks -- the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) objected to this, arguing that it does not take into account email or web addresses, which often contain content in the address information. The Act allowed any district court judge in the United States to issue such surveillance orders and search warrants for terrorism investigations. Search warrants were also expanded, with the Act amending Title III of the Stored Communications Access Act to allow the FBI to gain access to stored voicemail through a search warrant, rather than through the more stringent wiretap laws.
Various provisions allowed for the disclosure of electronic communications to law enforcement agencies. Those who operate or own a "protected computer '' can give permission for authorities to intercept communications carried out on the machine, thus bypassing the requirements of the Wiretap statute. The definition of a "protected computer '' is defined in 18 U.S.C. § 1030 (e) (2) and broadly encompasses those computers used in interstate or foreign commerce or communication, including ones located outside the United States. The law governing obligatory and voluntary disclosure of customer communications by cable companies was altered to allow agencies to demand such communications under U.S.C. Title 18 provisions relating to the disclosure of electronic communications (chapter 119), pen registers and trap and trace devices (chapter 206) and stored communications (121), though it excluded the disclosure of cable subscriber viewing habits. Subpoenas issued to Internet Service Providers were expanded to include not only "the name, address, local and long distance telephone toll billing records, telephone number or other subscriber number or identity, and length of service of a subscriber '' but also session times and durations, types of services used, communication device address information (e.g. IP addresses), payment method and bank account and credit card numbers. Communication providers are also allowed to disclose customer records or communications if they suspect there is a danger to "life and limb ''.
Title II established three very controversial provisions: "sneak and peek '' warrants, roving wiretaps and the ability of the FBI to gain access to documents that reveal the patterns of U.S. citizens. The so - called "sneak and peek '' law allowed for delayed notification of the execution of search warrants. The period before which the FBI must notify the recipients of the order was unspecified in the Act -- the FBI field manual says that it is a "flexible standard '' -- and it may be extended at the court 's discretion. These sneak and peek provisions were struck down by judge Ann Aiken on September 26, 2007, after a Portland attorney, Brandon Mayfield, was wrongly jailed because of the searches. The court found the searches to violate the provision that prohibits unreasonable searches in the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
Roving wiretaps are wiretap orders that do not need to specify all common carriers and third parties in a surveillance court order. These are seen as important by the Department of Justice because they believe that terrorists can exploit wiretap orders by rapidly changing locations and communication devices such as cell phones, while opponents see it as violating the particularity clause of the Fourth Amendment. Another highly controversial provision is one that allows the FBI to make an order "requiring the production of any tangible things (including books, records, papers, documents, and other items) for an investigation to protect against international terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities, provided that such investigation of a United States person is not conducted solely upon the basis of activities protected by the first amendment to the Constitution. '' Though it was not targeted directly at libraries, the American Library Association (ALA), in particular, opposed this provision. In a resolution passed on June 29, 2005, they stated that "Section 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act allows the government to secretly request and obtain library records for large numbers of individuals without any reason to believe they are involved in illegal activity. '' However, the ALA 's stance did not go without criticism. One prominent critic of the ALA 's stance was the Manhattan Institute 's Heather Mac Donald, who argued in an article for the New York City Journal that "(t) he furor over section 215 is a case study in Patriot Act fear - mongering. ''
The title also covers a number of other miscellaneous provisions, including the expansion of the number of FISC judges from seven to eleven (three of which must reside within 20 miles (32 km) of the District of Columbia), trade Sanctions against North Korea and Taliban - controlled Afghanistan and the employment of translators by the FBI.
At the insistence of Republican Representative Richard Armey, the Act had a number of sunset provisions built in, which were originally set to expire on December 31, 2005. The sunset provision of the Act also took into account any ongoing foreign intelligence investigations and allowed them to continue once the sections had expired. The provisions that were to expire are below.
Title III of the Act, titled "International Money Laundering Abatement and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001, '' is intended to facilitate the prevention, detection and prosecution of international money laundering and the financing of terrorism. It primarily amends portions of the Money Laundering Control Act of 1986 (MLCA) and the Bank Secrecy Act of 1970 (BSA). It was divided into three subtitles, with the first dealing primarily with strengthening banking rules against money laundering, especially on the international stage. The second attempts to improve communication between law enforcement agencies and financial institutions, as well as expanding recordkeeping and reporting requirements. The third subtitle deals with currency smuggling and counterfeiting, including quadrupling the maximum penalty for counterfeiting foreign currency.
The first subtitle tightened the recordkeeping requirements for financial institutions, making them record the aggregate amounts of transactions processed from areas of the world where money laundering is a concern to the U.S. government. It also made institutions put into place reasonable steps to identify beneficial owners of bank accounts and those who are authorized to use or route funds through payable - through accounts. The U.S. Treasury was charged with formulating regulations intended to foster information sharing between financial institutions to prevent money - laundering. Along with expanding record keeping requirements, it put new regulations into place to make it easier for authorities to identify money laundering activities and to make it harder for money launderers to mask their identities. If money laundering was uncovered, the subtitle legislated for the forfeiture of assets of those suspected of doing the money laundering. In an effort to encourage institutions to take steps that would reduce money laundering, the Treasury was given authority to block mergers of bank holding companies and banks with other banks and bank holding companies that had a bad history of preventing money laundering. Similarly, mergers between insured depository institutions and non-insured depository institutions that have a bad track record in combating money - laundering could be blocked.
Restrictions were placed on accounts and foreign banks. It prohibited shell banks that are not an affiliate of a bank that has a physical presence in the U.S. or that are not subject to supervision by a banking authority in a non-U.S. country. It also prohibits or restricts the use of certain accounts held at financial institutions. Financial institutions must now undertake steps to identify the owners of any privately owned bank outside the U.S. who have a correspondent account with them, along with the interests of each of the owners in the bank. It is expected that additional scrutiny will be applied by the U.S. institution to such banks to make sure they are not engaging in money laundering. Banks must identify all the nominal and beneficial owners of any private bank account opened and maintained in the U.S. by non-U.S. citizens. There is also an expectation that they must undertake enhanced scrutiny of the account if it is owned by, or is being maintained on behalf of, any senior political figure where there is reasonable suspicion of corruption. Any deposits made from within the U.S. into foreign banks are now deemed to have been deposited into any interbank account the foreign bank may have in the U.S. Thus any restraining order, seizure warrant or arrest warrant may be made against the funds in the interbank account held at a U.S. financial institution, up to the amount deposited in the account at the foreign bank. Restrictions were placed on the use of internal bank concentration accounts because such accounts do not provide an effective audit trail for transactions, and this may be used to facilitate money laundering. Financial institutions are prohibited from allowing clients to specifically direct them to move funds into, out of, or through a concentration account, and they are also prohibited from informing their clients about the existence of such accounts. Financial institutions are not allowed to provide any information to clients that may identify such internal accounts. Financial institutions are required to document and follow methods of identifying where the funds are for each customer in a concentration account that co-mingles funds belonging to one or more customers.
The definition of money laundering was expanded to include making a financial transaction in the U.S. in order to commit a violent crime; the bribery of public officials and fraudulent dealing with public funds; the smuggling or illegal export of controlled munition and the importation or bringing in of any firearm or ammunition not authorized by the U.S. Attorney General and the smuggling of any item controlled under the Export Administration Regulations. It also includes any offense where the U.S. would be obligated under a mutual treaty with a foreign nation to extradite a person, or where the U.S. would need to submit a case against a person for prosecution because of the treaty; the import of falsely classified goods; computer crime; and any felony violation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938. It also allows the forfeiture of any property within the jurisdiction of the United States that was gained as the result of an offense against a foreign nation that involves the manufacture, importation, sale, or distribution of a controlled substance. Foreign nations may now seek to have a forfeiture or judgment notification enforced by a district court of the United States. This is done through new legislation that specifies how the U.S. government may apply for a restraining order to preserve the availability of property which is subject to a foreign forfeiture or confiscation judgement. In taking into consideration such an application, emphasis is placed on the ability of a foreign court to follow due process. The Act also requires the Secretary of Treasury to take all reasonable steps to encourage foreign governments make it a requirement to include the name of the originator in wire transfer instructions sent to the United States and other countries, with the information to remain with the transfer from its origination until the point of disbursement. The Secretary was also ordered to encourage international cooperation in investigations of money laundering, financial crimes, and the finances of terrorist groups.
The Act also introduced criminal penalties for corrupt officialdom. An official or employee of the government who acts corruptly -- as well as the person who induces the corrupt act -- in the carrying out of their official duties will be fined by an amount that is not more than three times the monetary equivalent of the bribe in question. Alternatively they may be imprisoned for not more than 15 years, or they may be fined and imprisoned. Penalties apply to financial institutions who do not comply with an order to terminate any corresponding accounts within 10 days of being so ordered by the Attorney General or the Secretary of Treasury. The financial institution can be fined $ US 10,000 for each day the account remains open after the 10 - day limit has expired.
The second annotation made a number of modifications to the BSA in an attempt to make it harder for money launderers to operate and easier for law enforcement and regulatory agencies to police money laundering operations. One amendment made to the BSA was to allow the designated officer or agency who receives suspicious activity reports to notify U.S. intelligence agencies. A number of amendments were made to address issues related to record keeping and financial reporting. One measure was a new requirement that anyone who does business file a report for any coin and foreign currency receipts that are over US $10,000 and made it illegal to structure transactions in a manner that evades the BSA 's reporting requirements. To make it easier for authorities to regulate and investigate anti-money laundering operations Money Services Businesses (MSBs) -- those who operate informal value transfer systems outside of the mainstream financial system -- were included in the definition of a financial institution. The BSA was amended to make it mandatory to report suspicious transactions and an attempt was made to make such reporting easier for financial institutions. FinCEN was made a bureau of the United States Department of Treasury and the creation of a secure network to be used by financial institutions to report suspicious transactions and to provide alerts of relevant suspicious activities was ordered. Along with these reporting requirements, a considerable number of provisions relate to the prevention and prosecution of money - laundering. Financial institutions were ordered to establish anti-money laundering programs and the BSA was amended to better define anti-money laundering strategy. Also increased were civil and criminal penalties for money laundering and the introduction of penalties for violations of geographic targeting orders and certain record - keeping requirements. A number of other amendments to the BSA were made through subtitle B, including granting the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System power to authorize personnel to act as law enforcement officers to protect the premises, grounds, property and personnel of any U.S. National reserve bank and allowing the Board to delegate this authority to U.S. Federal reserve bank. Another measure instructed United States Executive Directors of international financial institutions to use their voice and vote to support any country that has taken action to support the U.S. 's War on Terrorism. Executive Directors are now required to provide ongoing auditing of disbursements made from their institutions to ensure that no funds are paid to persons who commit, threaten to commit, or support terrorism.
The third subtitle deals with currency crimes. Largely because of the effectiveness of the BSA, money launders had been avoiding traditional financial institutions to launder money and were using cash - based businesses to avoid them. A new effort was made to stop the laundering of money through bulk currency movements, mainly focusing on the confiscation of criminal proceeds and the increase in penalties for money laundering. Congress found that a criminal offense of merely evading the reporting of money transfers was insufficient and decided that it would be better if the smuggling of the bulk currency itself was the offense. Therefore, the BSA was amended to make it a criminal offense to evade currency reporting by concealing more than US $10,000 on any person or through any luggage, merchandise or other container that moves into or out of the U.S. The penalty for such an offense is up to 5 years imprisonment and the forfeiture of any property up to the amount that was being smuggled. It also made the civil and criminal penalty violations of currency reporting cases be the forfeiture of all a defendant 's property that was involved in the offense, and any property traceable to the defendant. The Act prohibits and penalizes those who run unlicensed money transmitting businesses. In 2005, this provision of the USA PATRIOT Act was used to prosecute Yehuda Abraham for helping to arrange money transfers for British arms dealer Hermant Lakhani, who was arrested in August 2003 after being caught in a government sting. Lakhani had tried to sell a missile to an FBI agent posing as a Somali militant. The definition of counterfeiting was expanded to encompass analog, digital or electronic image reproductions, and it was made an offense to own such a reproduction device. Penalties were increased to 20 years imprisonment. Money laundering "unlawful activities '' was expanded to include the provision of material support or resources to designated foreign terrorist organizations. The Act specifies that anyone who commits or conspires to undertake a fraudulent activity outside the jurisdiction of the United States, and which would be an offense in the U.S., will be prosecuted under 18 U.S.C. § 1029, which deals with fraud and related activity in connection with access devices.
Title IV amends the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 to give more law enforcement and investigative power to the United States Attorney General and to the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS). The Attorney General was authorized to waive any cap on the number of full - time employees (FTEs) assigned to the INS on the Northern border of the United States. Enough funds were set aside to triple the maximum number of Border Patrol personnel, Customs Service personnel and INS inspectors along with an additional US $50,000,000 funding for the INS and the U.S. Customs Service to improve technology for monitoring the Northern Border and acquiring additional equipment at the Canadian northern border. The INS was also given the authority to authorize overtime payments of up to an extra US $30,000 a year to INS employees. Access was given to the Department of State and the INS to criminal background information contained in the National Crime Information Center 's Interstate Identification Index (NCIC - III), Wanted Persons File and any other files maintained by the National Crime Information Center to determine whether visa applicants and applicants could be admitted to the U.S. The Department of State was required to form final regulations governing the procedures for taking fingerprints and the conditions with which the department was allowed to use this information. Additionally, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) was ordered to develop a technology standard to verify the identity of persons applying for a United States visa. The reason was to make the standard the technology basis for a cross-agency, the cross-platform electronic system used for conducting background checks, confirming identities and ensuring that people have not received visas under different names. This report was released on November 13, 2002, however, according to NIST, this was later "determined that the fingerprint system used was not as accurate as current state - of - the - art fingerprint systems and is approximately equivalent to commercial fingerprint systems available in 1998. '' This report was later superseded by section 303 (a) of the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002.
Under Subtitle C, various definitions relating to terrorism were altered and expanded. The INA was retroactively amended to disallow aliens who are part of or representatives of a foreign organization or any group who endorses acts of terrorism from entering the U.S. This restriction also included the family of such aliens. The definition of "terrorist activity '' was strengthened to include actions involving the use of any dangerous device (and not just explosives and firearms). To "engage in terrorist activity '' is defined as committing, inciting to commit or planning and preparing to undertake an act of terrorism. Included in this definition is the gathering of intelligence information on potential terrorist targets, the solicitation of funds for a terrorist organization or the solicitation of others to undertake acts of terrorism. Those who provide knowing assistance to a person who is planning to perform such activities are defined as undertaking terrorist activities. Such assistance includes affording material support, including a safe house, transportation, communications, funds, transfer of funds or other material financial benefit, false documentation or identification, weapons (including chemical, biological, or radiological weapons), explosives, or training to perform the terrorist act. The INA criteria for making a decision to designate an organization as a terrorist organization was amended to include the definition of a terrorist act. Though the amendments to these definitions are retroactive, it does not mean that it can be applied to members who joined an organization, but since left, before it was designated to be a terrorist organization under 8 U.S.C. § 1189 by the Secretary of State.
The Act amended the INA to add new provisions enforcing mandatory detention laws. These apply to any alien who is engaged in terrorism, or who is engaged in an activity that endangers U.S. national security. It also applies to those who are inadmissible or who must be deported because it is certified they are attempting to enter to undertake illegal espionage; are exporting goods, technology, or sensitive information illegally; or are attempting to control or overthrow the government; or have, or will have, engaged in terrorist activities. The Attorney General or the Attorney General 's deputy may maintain custody of such aliens until they are removed from the U.S. unless it is no longer deemed they should be removed, in which case they are released. The alien can be detained for up to 90 days but can be held up to six months after it is deemed that they are a national security threat. However, the alien must be charged with a crime or removal proceedings start no longer than seven days after the alien 's detention, otherwise the alien will be released. However, such detentions must be reviewed every six months by the Attorney General, who can then decide to revoke it, unless prevented from doing so by law. Every six months the alien may apply, in writing, for the certification to be reconsidered. Judicial review of any action or decision relating to this section, including judicial review of the merits of a certification, can be held under habeas corpus proceedings. Such proceedings can be initiated by an application filed with the United States Supreme Court, by any justice of the Supreme Court, by any circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, or by any district court otherwise having jurisdiction to entertain the application. The final order is subject to appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Provisions were also made for a report to be required every six months of such decisions from the U.S. Attorney General to the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives and the Committee on the Judiciary of the Senate.
A sense of Congress was given that the U.S. Secretary of State should expedite the full implementation of the integrated entry and exit data system for airports, seaports, and land border ports of entry specified in the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA). They also found that the U.S. Attorney General should immediately start the Integrated Entry and Exit Data System Task Force specified in section 3 of the Immigration and Naturalization Service Data Management Improvement Act of 2000. Congress wanted the primary focus of development of the entry - exit data system was to be on the utilization of biometric technology and the development of tamper - resistant documents readable at ports of entry. They also wanted the system to be able to interface with existing law enforcement databases. The Attorney General was ordered to implement and expand the foreign student monitoring program that was established under section 641 (a) of the IIRIRA. which records the date and port of entry of each foreign student. The program was expanded to include other approved educational institutions, including air flight schools, language training schools or vocational schools that are approved by the Attorney General, in consultation with the Secretary of Education and the Secretary of State. US $36,800,000 was appropriated for the Department of Justice to spend on implementing the program.
The Secretary of State was ordered to audit and report back to Congress on the Visa waiver program specified under 8 U.S.C. § 1187 for each fiscal year until September 30, 2007. The Secretary was also ordered to check for the implementation of precautionary measures to prevent the counterfeiting and theft of passports as well as ascertain that countries designated under the visa waiver program have established a program to develop tamper - resistant passports. The Secretary was also ordered to report back to Congress on whether consulate shopping was a problem.
The last subtitle, which was introduced by Senators John Conyers and Patrick Leahy, allows for the preservation of immigration benefits for victims of terrorism, and the families of victims of terrorism. They recognized that some families, through no fault of their own, would either be ineligible for permanent residence in the United States because of being unable to make important deadlines because of the September 11 terrorist attacks, or had become ineligible to apply for special immigration status because their loved one died in the attacks.
It allows the U.S. Attorney General to pay rewards pursuant of advertisements for assistance to the Department of Justice to combat terrorism and prevent terrorist acts, though amounts over $ US250, 000 may not be made or offered without the personal approval of the Attorney General or President, and once the award is approved the Attorney General must give written notice to the Chairman and ranking minority members of the Committee on Appropriations and the Judiciary of the Senate and of the House of Representatives. The State Department Basic Authorities Act of 1956 was amended to allow the Department of State to offer rewards, in consultation with the Attorney General, for the full or significant dismantling of any terrorist organization and to identify any key leaders of terrorist organizations. The Secretary of State was given authority to pay greater than $ US5 million if he so determines it would prevent terrorist actions against the United States and Canada. The DNA Analysis Backlog Elimination Act was amended to include terrorism or crimes of violence in the list of qualifying Federal offenses. Another perceived obstacle was to allow federal agencies to share information with federal law enforcement agencies. Thus, the act now allows federal officers who acquire information through electronic surveillance or physical searches to consult with federal law enforcement officers to coordinate efforts to investigate or protect against potential or actual attacks, sabotage or international terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities by an intelligence service or network of a foreign power.
Secret Service jurisdiction was extended to investigate computer fraud, access device frauds, false identification documents or devices, or any fraudulent activities against U.S. financial institutions. The General Education Provisions Act was amended to allow the U.S. Attorney General or Assistant Attorney General to collect and retain educational records relevant to an authorized investigation or prosecution of an offense that is defined as a Federal crime of terrorism and which an educational agency or institution possesses. The Attorney General or Assistant Attorney General must "certify that there are specific and articulable facts giving reason to believe that the education records are likely to contain information (that a Federal crime of terrorism may be being committed). '' An education institution that produces education records in response to such a request is given legal immunity from any liability that rises from such a production of records.
One of the most controversial aspects of the USA PATRIOT Act is in title V, and relates to National Security Letters (NSLs). An NSL is a form of administrative subpoena used by the FBI, and reportedly by other U.S. government agencies including the CIA and the Department of Defense (DoD). It is a demand letter issued to a particular entity or organization to turn over various records and data pertaining to individuals. They require no probable cause or judicial oversight and also contain a gag order, preventing the recipient of the letter from disclosing that the letter was ever issued. Title V allowed the use of NSLs to be made by a Special Agent in charge of a Bureau field office, where previously only the Director or the Deputy Assistant Director of the FBI were able to certify such requests. This provision of the Act was challenged by the ACLU on behalf of an unknown party against the U.S. government on the grounds that NSLs violate the First and Fourth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution because there is no way to legally oppose an NSL subpoena in court, and that it was unconstitutional not to allow a client to inform their Attorney as to the order because of the gag provision of the letters. The court 's judgement found in favour of the ACLU 's case, and they declared the law unconstitutional. Later, the USA PATRIOT Act was reauthorized and amendments were made to specify a process of judicial review of NSLs and to allow the recipient of an NSL to disclose receipt of the letter to an attorney or others necessary to comply with or challenge the order. However, in 2007 the U.S. District Court struck down even the reauthorized NSLs because the gag power was unconstitutional as courts could still not engage in a meaningful judicial review of these gags. On August 28, 2015, Judge Victor Marrero of the federal district court in Manhattan ruled the gag order of Nicholas Merrill was unjustified. In his decision, Judge Marrero described the FBI 's position as, "extreme and overly broad, '' affirming that "courts can not, consistent with the First Amendment, simply accept the Government 's assertions that disclosure would implicate and create a risk. '' He also found that the FBI 's gag order on Mr. Merrill "implicates serious issues, both with respect to the First Amendment and accountability of the government to the people. '' Initially, the ruling was released in redaction by Judge Marrero. The FBI was given 90 days to pursue any other alternative course of action but elected not to do so. Upon release of the unredacted ruling on November 30, 2015, it was revealed for the first time the extent to which the FBI 's NSL accompanied by a gag order sought to collect information. Through the court documents, it was revealed for the first time that through an NSL, the FBI believes it can legally obtain information including an individual 's complete web browsing history, the IP addresses of everyone a person has corresponded with, and all the records of all online purchases within the last 180 days. The FBI also claims via the extension of an NSL, it can obtain cell site location information. In the landmark case of Nicholas Merrill the FBI in specific sought to seek the following information on an account: DSL account information, radius log, subscriber name and related subscriber information, account number, date the account opened or closed, addresses associated with the account, subscriber day / evening telephone numbers, screen names or other on - line names associated with the account, order forms, records relating to merchandise orders / shipping information for the last 180 days, all billing related to the account, internet service provider (ISP), all email addresses associated with the account, internet protocol address assigned to the account, all website information registered to the account, uniform resource locator address assigned to the account, any other information which you consider to be an electronic communication transactional record. This was the first time it was revealed the extent to which an NSL under the Patriot Act could request communication information.
Title VI amended the Victims of Crime Act of 1984 (VOCA) to change how the U.S. Victims of Crime Fund was managed and funded, improving the speedy provision of aid to families of public safety officers by expedited payments to officers or the families of officers injured or killed in the line of duty. Payments must be made no later than 30 days later. The Assistant Attorney General was given expanded authority under Section 614 of the USA PATRIOT Act to make grants to any organization that administers any Office of Justice Programs, which includes the Public Safety Officers Benefits Program. Further changes to the Victims of Crime Fund increased the amount of money in the Fund and changed the way that funds were distributed. The amount available for grants made through the Crime Victim Fund to eligible crime victim compensation programs were increased from 40 percent to 60 percent of the total in the Fund. A program can provide compensation to U.S. citizens who were adversely affected overseas. Means testing was also waived for those who apply for compensation. Under VOCA, the Director may make an annual grant from the Crime Victims Fund to support crime victim assistance programs. An amendment was made to VOCA to include offers of assistance to crime victims in the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands, and any other U.S. territory. VOCA also provides for compensation and assistance to victims of terrorism or mass violence. This was amended to allow the Director to make supplemental grants to States for eligible crime victim compensation and assistance programs, and to victim service organizations, public agencies (including Federal, State, or local governments) and non-governmental organizations that provide assistance to victims of crime. The funds could be used to provide emergency relief, including crisis response efforts, assistance, compensation, training and technical assistance for investigations and prosecutions of terrorism.
Title VII has one section. The purpose of this title is to increase the ability of U.S. law enforcement to counter terrorist activity that crosses jurisdictional boundaries. It does this by amending the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 to include terrorism as a criminal activity.
Title VIII alters the definitions of terrorism and establishes or re-defines rules with which to deal with it. It redefined the term "domestic terrorism '' to broadly include mass destruction as well as assassination or kidnapping as a terrorist activity. The definition also encompasses activities that are "dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State '' and are intended to "intimidate or coerce a civilian population, '' "influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion, '' or are undertaken "to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping '' while in the jurisdiction of the United States. Terrorism is also included in the definition of racketeering. Terms relating to cyber-terrorism are also redefined, including the term "protected computer, '' "damage, '' "conviction, '' "person, '' and "loss. ''
New penalties were created to convict those who attack mass transportation systems. If the offender committed such an attack while no passenger was on board, they are fined and imprisoned for a maximum of 20 years. However, if the activity was undertaken while the mass transportation vehicle or ferry was carrying a passenger at the time of the offense, or the offense resulted in the death of any person, then the punishment is a fine and life imprisonment. The title amends the biological weapons statute to define the use of a biological agent, toxin, or delivery system as a weapon, other than when it is used for "prophylactic, protective, bona fide research, or other peaceful purposes. '' Penalties for anyone who can not prove reasonably that they are using a biological agent, toxin or delivery system for these purposes are 10 years imprisonment, a fine or both.
A number of measures were introduced in an attempt to prevent and penalize activities that are deemed to support terrorism. It was made a crime to harbor or conceal terrorists, and those who do are subject to a fine or imprisonment of up to 10 years, or both. U.S. forfeiture law was also amended to allow authorities to seize all foreign and domestic assets from any group or individual that is caught planning to commit acts of terrorism against the U.S. or U.S. citizens. Assets may also be seized if they have been acquired or maintained by an individual or organization for the purposes of further terrorist activities. One section of the Act (section 805) prohibited "material support '' for terrorists, and in particular included "expert advice or assistance. '' In 2004, after the Humanitarian Law Project filed a civil action against the U.S. government, a Federal District Court struck this down as unconstitutionally vague; but in 2010 the Supreme Court upheld it. Congress later improved the law by defining the definitions of the "material support or resources, '' "training, '' and "expert advise or resources. ''
Cyberterrorism was dealt with in various ways. Penalties apply to those who either damage or gain unauthorized access to a protected computer and then commit a number of offenses. These offenses include causing a person to lose an aggregate amount greater than US $5,000, as well as adversely affecting someone 's medical examination, diagnosis or treatment. It also encompasses actions that cause a person to be injured, a threat to public health or safety, or damage to a governmental computer that is used as a tool to administer justice, national defense or national security. Also prohibited was extortion undertaken via a protected computer. The penalty for attempting to damage protected computers through the use of viruses or other software mechanism was set to imprisonment for up to 10 years, while the penalty for unauthorized access and subsequent damage to a protected computer was increased to more than five years imprisonment. However, should the offense occur a second time, the penalty increases up to 20 years imprisonment. The act also specified the development and support of cybersecurity forensic capabilities. It directs the Attorney General to establish regional computer forensic laboratories that have the capability of performing forensic examinations of intercepted computer evidence relating to criminal activity and cyberterrorism, and that have the capability of training and educating Federal, State, and local law enforcement personnel and prosecutors in computer crime, and to "facilitate and promote the sharing of Federal law enforcement expertise and information about the investigation, analysis, and prosecution of computer - related crime with State and local law enforcement personnel and prosecutors, including the use of multijurisdictional task forces. '' The sum of $50,000,000 was authorized for establishing such labs.
Title IX amends the National Security Act of 1947 to require the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) to establish requirements and priorities for foreign intelligence collected under FISA and to provide assistance to the United States Attorney General to ensure that information derived from electronic surveillance or physical searches is disseminated for efficient and effective foreign intelligence purposes. With the exception of information that might jeopardize an ongoing law enforcement investigation, it was made a requirement that the Attorney General, or the head of any other department or agency of the Federal Government with law enforcement responsibilities, disclose to the Director any foreign intelligence acquired by the U.S. Department of Justice. The Attorney General and Director of Central Intelligence were directed to develop procedures for the Attorney General to follow in order to inform the Director, in a timely manner, of any intention of investigating criminal activity of a foreign intelligence source or potential foreign intelligence source based on the intelligence tip - off of a member of the intelligence community. The Attorney General was also directed to develop procedures on how to best administer these matters. International terrorist activities were made to fall within the scope of foreign intelligence under the National Security Act.
A number of reports were commissioned relating to various intelligence - related government centers. One was commissioned into the best way of setting up the National Virtual Translation Center, with the goal of developing automated translation facilities to assist with the timely and accurate translation of foreign intelligence information for elements of the U.S. intelligence community. The USA PATRIOT Act required this to be provided on February 1, 2002, however the report, entitled "Director of Central Intelligence Report on the National Virtual Translation Center: A Concept Plan to Enhance the Intelligence Community 's Foreign Language Capabilities, April 29, 2002 '' was received more than two months late, which the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence reported was "a delay which, in addition to contravening the explicit words of the statute, deprived the Committee of timely and valuable input into its efforts to craft this legislation. '' Another report was commissioned on the feasibility and desirability of reconfiguring the Foreign Terrorist Asset Tracking Center and the Office of Foreign Assets Control of the Department of the Treasury. It was due by February 1, 2002 however, it was never written. The Senate Select Committee on Intelligence later complained that "(t) he Director of Central Intelligence and the Secretary of the Treasury failed to provide a report, this time in direct contravention of a section of the USA PATRIOT Act '' and they further directed "that the statutorily - directed report be completed immediately, and that it should include a section describing the circumstances which led to the Director 's failure to comply with lawful reporting requirements. ''
Other measures allowed certain reports on intelligence and intelligence - related matters to be deferred until either February 1, 2002 or a date after February 1, 2002 if the official involved certified that preparation and submission on February 1, 2002, would impede the work of officers or employees engaged in counterterrorism activities. Any such deferral required congressional notification before it was authorized. The Attorney General was charged with training officials in identifying and utilizing foreign intelligence information properly in the course of their duties. The government officials include those in the Federal Government who do not normally encounter or disseminate foreign intelligence in the performance of their duties, and State and local government officials who encounter, or potentially may encounter in the course of a terrorist event, foreign intelligence in the performance of their duties. A sense of Congress was expressed that officers and employees of the intelligence community should be encouraged to make every effort to establish and maintain intelligence relationships with any person, entity, or group while they conduct lawful intelligence activities.
Title X created or altered a number of miscellaneous laws that did not really fit into any other section of the USA PATRIOT Act. Hazmat licenses were limited to drivers who pass background checks and who can demonstrate they can handle the materials. The Inspector General of the Department of Justice was directed to appoint an official to monitor, review and report back to Congress all allegations of civil rights abuses against the DoJ. It amended the definition of "electronic surveillance '' to exclude the interception of communications done through or from a protected computer where the owner allows the interception, or is lawfully involved in an investigation. Money laundering cases may now be brought in the district the money laundering was committed or where a money laundering transfer started from. Aliens who committed money laundering were also prohibited from entering the U.S. Grants were provided to first responders to assist them in responding to and preventing terrorism. US $5,000,000 was authorized to be provided to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) to train police in South and East Asia. The Attorney General was directed to commission a study on the feasibility of using biometric identifiers to identify people as they attempt to enter the United States, and which would be connected to the FBI 's database to flag suspected criminals. Another study was also commissioned to determine the feasibility of providing airlines names of suspected terrorists before they boarded flights. The Department of Defense was given temporary authority to use their funding for private contracts for security purposes. The last title also created a new Act called the Crimes Against Charitable Americans Act which amended the Telemarketing and Consumer Fraud and Abuse Prevention Act to require telemarketers who call on behalf of charities to disclose the purpose and other information, including the name and mailing address of the charity the telemarketer is representing. It also increased the penalties from one - year imprisonment to five years imprisonment for those committing fraud by impersonating a Red Cross member.
50 USC 1861
The USA PATRIOT Act has generated a great deal of controversy since its enactment.
Opponents of the Act have been quite vocal in asserting that it was passed opportunistically after the September 11 attacks, believing that there would have been little debate. They view the Act as one that was hurried through the Senate with little change before it was passed. (Senators Patrick Leahy and Russ Feingold proposed amendments to modify the final revision.)
The sheer magnitude of the Act itself was noted by Michael Moore in his controversial film Fahrenheit 9 / 11. In one of the scenes of the movie, he records Congressman Jim McDermott alleging that no Senator had read the bill and John Conyers, Jr. as saying, "We do n't read most of the bills. Do you really know what that would entail if we read every bill that we passed? '' Congressman Conyers then answers his own rhetorical question, asserting that if they did it would "slow down the legislative process ''. As a dramatic device, Moore then hired an ice - cream van and drove around Washington, D.C. with a loud speaker, reading out the Act to puzzled passers - by, which included a few Senators.
However, Moore was not the only commentator to notice that not many people had read the Act. When Dahlia Lithwick and Julia Turne for Slate asked, "How bad is PATRIOT, anyway? '', they decided that it was "hard to tell '' and stated:
The ACLU, in a new fact sheet challenging the DOJ Web site, wants you to believe that the act threatens our most basic civil liberties. Ashcroft and his roadies call the changes in law "modest and incremental. '' Since almost nobody has read the legislation, much of what we think we know about it comes third - hand and spun. Both advocates and opponents are guilty of fear - mongering and distortion in some instances.
One prime example of a controversy of the Patriot Act is shown in the case of Susan Lindauer.
Another is the recent court case United States v. Antoine Jones. A nightclub owner was linked to a drug trafficking stash house via a law enforcement GPS tracking device attached to his car. It was placed there without a warrant, which caused a serious conviction obstacle for federal prosecutors in court. Through the years the case rose all the way to the United States Supreme Court where the conviction was overturned in favor of the defendant. The court found that increased monitoring of suspects caused by such legislation like the Patriot Act directly put the suspects ' Constitutional rights in jeopardy.
The Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) has criticized the law as unconstitutional, especially when "the private communications of law - abiding American citizens might be intercepted incidentally '', while the Electronic Frontier Foundation held that the lower standard applied to wiretaps "gives the FBI a ' blank check ' to violate the communications privacy of countless innocent Americans ''. Others do not find the roving wiretap legislation to be as concerning. Professor David D. Cole of the Georgetown University Law Center, a critic of many of the provisions of the Act, found that though they come at a cost to privacy are a sensible measure while Paul Rosenzweig, a Senior Legal Research Fellow in the Center for Legal and Judicial Studies at The Heritage Foundation, argues that roving wiretaps are just a response to rapidly changing communication technology that is not necessarily fixed to a specific location or device.
The Act also allows access to voicemail through a search warrant rather than through a title III wiretap order. James Dempsey, of the CDT, believes that it unnecessarily overlooks the importance of notice under the Fourth Amendment and under a Title III wiretap, and the EFF criticizes the provision 's lack of notice. However, the EFF 's criticism is more extensive -- they believe that the amendment "is in possible violation of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution '' because previously if the FBI listened to voicemail illegally, it could not use the messages in evidence against the defendant. Others disagree with these assessments. Professor Orin Kerr, of the George Washington University school of law, believes that the ECPA "adopted a rather strange rule to regulate voicemail stored with service providers '' because "under ECPA, if the government knew that there was one copy of an unopened private message in a person 's bedroom and another copy on their remotely stored voicemail, it was illegal for the FBI to simply obtain the voicemail; the law actually compelled the police to invade the home and rifle through peoples ' bedrooms so as not to disturb the more private voicemail. '' In Professor Kerr 's opinion, this made little sense and the amendment that was made by the USA PATRIOT Act was reasonable and sensible.
The USA PATRIOT Act 's expansion of court jurisdiction to allow the nationwide service of search warrants proved controversial for the EFF. They believe that agencies will be able to "' shop ' for judges that have demonstrated a strong bias toward law enforcement with regard to search warrants, using only those judges least likely to say no -- even if the warrant does n't satisfy the strict requirements of the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution '', and that it reduces the likelihood that smaller ISPs or phone companies will try to protect the privacy of their clients by challenging the warrant in court -- their reasoning is that "a small San Francisco ISP served with such a warrant is unlikely to have the resources to appear before the New York court that issued it. '' They believe that this is bad because only the communications provider will be able to challenge the warrant as only they will know about it -- many warrants are issued ex parte, which means that the target of the order is not present when the order is issued.
For a time, the USA PATRIOT Act allowed for agents to undertake "sneak and peek '' searches. Critics such as EPIC and the ACLU strongly criticized the law for violating the Fourth Amendment, with the ACLU going so far as to release an advertisement condemning it and calling for it to be repealed.
However supporters of the amendment, such as Heather Mac Donald, a fellow at the Manhattan Institute and contributing editor to the New York City Journal, expressed the belief that it was necessary because the temporary delay in notification of a search order stops terrorists from tipping off counterparts who are being investigated.
In 2004, FBI agents used this provision to search and secretly examine the home of Brandon Mayfield, who was wrongfully jailed for two weeks on suspicion of involvement in the Madrid train bombings. While the U.S. Government did publicly apologize to Mayfield and his family, Mayfield took it further through the courts. On September 26, 2007, Judge Ann Aiken found the law was, in fact, unconstitutional as the search was an unreasonable imposition on Mayfield and thus violated the Fourth Amendment.
Laws governing the material support of terrorism proved contentious. It was criticized by the EFF for infringement of freedom of association. The EFF argues that had this law been enacted during Apartheid, U.S. citizens would not have been able to support the African National Congress (ANC) as the EFF believes the ANC would have been classed as a terrorist organization. They also used the example of a humanitarian social worker being unable to train Hamas members how to care for civilian children orphaned in the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians, a lawyer being unable to teach IRA members about international law, and peace workers being unable to offer training in effective peace negotiations or how to petition the United Nations regarding human rights abuses.
Another group, the Humanitarian Law Project, also objected to the provision prohibiting "expert advise and assistance '' to terrorists and filed a suit against the U.S. government to have it declared unconstitutional. In 2004 a Federal District Court struck the provision down as unconstitutionally vague, but in 2010 the Supreme Court reversed that decision.
Perhaps one of the biggest controversies involved the use of National Security Letters (NSLs) by the FBI. Because they allow the FBI to search telephone, email, and financial records without a court order, they were criticized by many parties, including the American Civil Liberties Union. Although FBI officials have a series of internal "checks and balances '' that must be met before the issue of an NSL, Federal Judge Victor Marrero ruled the NSL provisions unconstitutional. In November 2005, BusinessWeek reported that the FBI had issued tens of thousands of NSLs and had obtained one million financial, credit, employment, and in some cases, health records from the customers of targeted Las Vegas businesses. Selected businesses included casinos, storage warehouses and car rental agencies. An anonymous Justice official claimed that such requests were permitted under section 505 of the USA PATRIOT Act and despite the volume of requests insisted "We are not inclined to ask courts to endorse fishing expeditions ''. Before this was revealed, however, the ACLU challenged the constitutionality of NSLs in court. In April 2004, they filed suit against the government on behalf of an unknown Internet Service Provider who had been issued an NSL, for reasons unknown. In ACLU v. DoJ, the ACLU argued that the NSL violated the First and Fourth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution because the USA PATRIOT Act failed to spell out any legal process whereby a telephone or Internet company could try to oppose an NSL subpoena in court. The court agreed, and found that because the recipient of the subpoena could not challenge it in court it was unconstitutional. Congress later tried to remedy this in a reauthorization Act, but because they did not remove the non-disclosure provision a Federal court again found NSLs to be unconstitutional because they prevented courts from engaging in meaningful judicial review.
Another provision of the USA PATRIOT Act has caused a great deal of consternation among librarians. Section 215 allows the FBI to apply for an order to produce materials that assist in an investigation undertaken to protect against international terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities. Among the "tangible things '' that could be targeted, it includes "books, records, papers, documents, and other items ''.
Supporters of the provision point out that these records are held by third parties, and therefore are exempt from a citizen 's reasonable expectations of privacy and also maintain that the FBI has not abused the provision. As proof, then Attorney General John Ashcroft released information in 2003 that showed that section 215 orders had never been used.
However, the American Library Association strongly objected to the provision, believing that library records are fundamentally different from ordinary business records, and that the provision would have a chilling effect on free speech. The association became so concerned that they formed a resolution condemning the USA PATRIOT Act, and which urged members to defend free speech and protect patrons ' privacy.
They urged librarians to seek legal advice before complying with a search order and advised their members to only keeping records for as long as was legally needed.
Consequently, reports started filtering in that librarians were shredding records to avoid having to comply with such orders.
In 2005, Library Connection, a nonprofit consortium of 27 libraries in Connecticut, known as the Connecticut Four worked with the ACLU to lift a gag order for library records, challenging the government 's power under Section 505 to silence four citizens who wished to contribute to public debate on the PATRIOT Act. This case became known as Doe v. Gonzales. In May 2006, the government finally gave up its legal battle to maintain the gag order. In a summary of the actions of the Connecticut Four and their challenge to the USA PATRIOT Act, Jones (2009: 223) notes: "Librarians need to understand their country 's legal balance between the protection of freedom of expression and the protection of national security. Many librarians believe that the interests of national security, important as they are, have become an excuse for chilling the freedom to read. ''
Another controversial aspect of the USA PATRIOT Act is the immigration provisions that allow for the indefinite detention of any alien who the Attorney General believes may cause a terrorist act. Before the USA PATRIOT Act was passed, Anita Ramasastry, an associate professor of law and a director of the Shidler Center for Law, Commerce, & Technology at the University of Washington School of Law in Seattle, Washington, accused the Act of depriving basic rights for immigrants to America, including legal permanent residents. She warned that "Indefinite detention upon secret evidence -- which the USA PATRIOT Act allows -- sounds more like Taliban justice than ours. Our claim that we are attempting to build an international coalition against terrorism will be severely undermined if we pass legislation allowing even citizens of our allies to be incarcerated without basic U.S. guarantees of fairness and justice. '' Many other parties have also been strongly critical of the provision. Russell Feingold, in a Senate floor statement, claimed that the provision "falls short of meeting even basic constitutional standards of due process and fairness (as it) continues to allow the Attorney General to detain persons based on mere suspicion ''. The University of California passed a resolution condemning (among other things) the indefinite detention provisions of the Act, while the ACLU has accused the Act of giving the Attorney General "unprecedented new power to determine the fate of immigrants... Worse, if the foreigner does not have a country that will accept them, they can be detained indefinitely without trial. ''
Another controversial aspect of the USA PATRIOT Act is its effect on the privacy of Canadians living in the province of British Columbia (B.C.). British Columbia 's privacy commissioner raises concerns that the USA PATRIOT Act will allow the United States government to access Canadians ' private information, such as personal medical records, that are outsourced to American companies. Although the government of B.C. has taken measures to prevent United States authorities from obtaining information, the widespread powers of the USA PATRIOT Act could overcome legislation that is passed in Canada. B.C. Privacy Commissioner David Loukidelis stated in a report on the consequences of the USA PATRIOT Act, "once information is sent across borders, it 's difficult, if not impossible, to control ''.
In an effort to maintain their privacy, British Columbia placed amendments on the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (FOIPPA), which was enacted as law on October 21, 2004. These amendments aim to place more firm limitations on "storing, accessing, and disclosing of B.C. public sector data by service providers. '' These laws only pertain to public sector data and do not cover trans - border or private sector data in Canada. The public sector establishments include an estimated 2,000 "government ministries, hospitals, boards of health, universities and colleges, school boards, municipal governments and certain Crown corporations and agencies. '' In response to these laws, many companies are now specifically opting to host their sensitive data outside the United States.
Legal action has been taken in Nova Scotia to protect the province from the USA PATRIOT Act 's data collecting methods. On November 15, 2007 the government of Nova Scotia passed a legislation aimed to protect Nova Scotians ' personal information from being brought forward by the USA PATRIOT Act. The act was entitled "The new Personal Information International Disclosure Protection Act ''. The goal of the act is to establish requirements to protect personal information from being revealed, as well as punishments for failing to do so. Justice Minister Murray Scott stated, "This legislation will help ensure that Nova Scotians ' personal information will be protected. The act outlines the responsibilities of public bodies, municipalities and service providers and the consequences if these responsibilities are not fulfilled. '' In the 1980s, the Bank of Nova Scotia was the center of an early, pre-Internet data - access case that led to the disclosure of banking records.
After suspected abuses of the USA PATRIOT Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about collection of American call records by the NSA and the PRISM program (see 2013 mass surveillance disclosures), Representative Jim Sensenbrenner, Republican of Wisconsin, who introduced the Patriot Act in 2001, said that the National Security Agency overstepped its bounds. He released a statement saying "While I believe the Patriot Act appropriately balanced national security concerns and civil rights, I have always worried about potential abuses. '' He added: "Seizing phone records of millions of innocent people is excessive and un-American. ''
The USA PATRIOT Act was reauthorized by three bills. The first, the USA PATRIOT and Terrorism Prevention Reauthorization Act of 2005, was passed by both houses of Congress in July 2005. This bill reauthorized provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act and the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. It created new provisions relating to the death penalty for terrorists, enhancing security at seaports, new measures to combat the financing of terrorism, new powers for the Secret Service, anti-methamphetamine initiatives and a number of other miscellaneous provisions. The second reauthorization act, the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act of 2006, amended the first and was passed in February 2006.
The first act reauthorized all but two of the provisions of Title II that would have expired. Two sections were changed to sunset on December 31, 2009: section 206 -- the roving wiretap provision -- and section 215, which allowed access to business records under FISA. Section 215 was amended further regardless so as to give greater judicial oversight and review. Such orders were also restricted to be authorized by only the FBI Director, the FBI Deputy Director, or the Executive Assistant Director for National Security, and minimization procedures were specified to limit the dissemination and collection of such information. Section 215 also had a "gag '' provision, which was changed to allow the defendant to contact their Attorney. However, the change also meant that the defendant was also made to tell the FBI who he (or she) was disclosing the order to -- this requirement was removed by the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act.
On Saturday, February 27, 2010, President Barack Obama signed into law legislation that would temporarily extend, for one year, three controversial provisions of the Patriot Act that had been set to expire:
In a vote on February 8, 2011, the House of Representatives considered a further extension of the Act through the end of 2011. House leadership moved the extension bill under suspension of the rules, which is intended for noncontroversial legislation and requires two - thirds majority to pass. After the vote, the extension bill did not pass; 277 members voted in favor, which was less than the 290 votes needed to pass the bill under suspension of the rules. Without an extension, the Act was set to expire on February 28, 2011. However, it eventually passed, 275 - 144. The FISA Sunsets Extension Act of 2011 was signed into law February 25, 2011.
On May 26, 2011, President Barack Obama used an Autopen to sign the PATRIOT Sunsets Extension Act of 2011, a four - year extension of three key provisions in the USA PATRIOT Act while he was in France: roving wiretaps, searches of business records (the "library records provision ''), and conducting surveillance of "lone wolves '' -- individuals suspected of terrorist - related activities not linked to terrorist groups. Republican leaders questioned if the use of the Autopen met the constitutional requirements for signing a bill into law.
As NSL provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act had been struck by the courts the reauthorization Act amended the law in an attempt to make them lawful. It provided for judicial review and the legal right of a recipient to challenge the validity of the letter. The reauthorization act still allowed NSLs to be closed and all evidence to be presented in camera and ex parte. Gag provisions were maintained, but were not automatic. They only occurred when the Deputy Assistant Director of the FBI or a Special Agent in Charge in a Bureau field office certified that disclosure would result in "a danger to the national security of the United States, interference with a criminal, counterterrorism, or counterintelligence investigation, interference with diplomatic relations, or danger to the life or physical safety of any person ''. However, should there be no non-disclosure order, the defendant can disclose the fact of the NSL to anyone who can render them assistance in carrying out the letter, or to an attorney for legal advice. Again, however, the recipient was ordered to inform the FBI of such a disclosure. Because of the concern over the chilling effects of such a requirement, the Additional Reauthorization Amendments Act removed the requirement to inform the FBI that the recipient spoke about the NSL to their Attorney. Later, the Additional Reauthorization Amendments Act excluded libraries from receiving NSLs, except where they provide electronic communications services. The reauthorization Act also ordered the Attorney General submit a report semi-annually to the House and Senate Judiciary Committees, the House and Senate Intelligence Committees and the House Committee on Financial Services and the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs on all NSL request made under the Fair Credit Reporting Act.
Changes were made to the roving wiretap provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act. Applications and orders for such wiretaps must describe the specific target of the electronic surveillance if the identity of the target is not known. If the nature and location of each of the facilities or places targeted for surveillance is not known, then after 10 days the agency must provide notice to the court. The notice must include the nature and location of each new facility or place at which the electronic surveillance was directed. It must also describe the facts and circumstances relied upon by the applicant to justify the applicant 's belief that each new surveillance place or facility under surveillance is or was being used by the target of the surveillance. The applicant must also provide a statement detailing any proposed minimization procedures that differ from those contained in the original application or order, that may be necessitated by a change in the facility or place at which the electronic surveillance is directed. Applicants must detail the total number of electronic surveillances that have been or are being conducted under the authority of the order.
Section 213 of the USA PATRIOT Act was modified. Previously it stated that delayed notifications would be made to recipients of "sneak and peek '' searches in a "reasonable period ''. This was seen as unreasonable, as it was undefined and could potentially be used indefinitely. Thus, the reauthorization act changed this to a period not exceeding 30 days after the date of the execution of the search warrant. Courts were given the opportunity to extend this period if they were provided good cause to do so. Section 213 states that delayed notifications could be issued if there is "reasonable cause to believe that providing immediate notification of the execution of the warrant may have an adverse result ''. This was criticized, particularly by the ACLU, for allowing potential abuse by law enforcement agencies and was later amended to prevent a delayed notification "if the adverse results consist only of unduly delaying a trial. ''. In September 2007 an Oregon US District Court struck down the Sneak and Peak provisions of the USA PATRIOT ACT, but in December 2009 the Ninth Circuit overturned this decision.
The reauthorization act also legislates increased congressional oversight for emergency disclosures by communication providers undertaken under section 212 of the USA PATRIOT Act. The duration of FISA surveillance and physical search orders were increased. Surveillance performed against "lone wolf terrorists '' under section 207 of the USA PATRIOT Act were increased to 120 days for an initial order, while pen registers and trap and trace device extensions under FISA were increased from 90 days to a year. The reauthorization act also increased congressional oversight, requiring a semi-annual report into physical searches and the use of pen registers and trap and trace devices under FISA. The "lone wolf terrorist '' provision (Section 207) was a sunset provision that also was to have expired, however this was enhanced by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. The reauthorization act extended the expiration date to December 31, 2009. The amendment to material support law done in the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act was also made permanent. The definition of terrorism was further expanded to include receiving military - type training from a foreign terrorist organization and narcoterrorism. Other provisions of the reauthorization act was to merge the law outlawing train wrecking (18 U.S.C. § 992) and the law outlawing attacks on mass transportation systems (18 U.S.C. § 1993) into a new section of Title 18 of the U.S. Code (18 U.S.C. § 1992) and also to criminalize the act of planning a terrorist attack against a mass transport system. Forfeiture law was further changed and now assets within U.S. jurisdiction will be seized for illegally trafficking in nuclear, chemical, biological or radiological weapons technology or material, if such offense is punishable under foreign law by death or imprisonment for a term exceeding one year. Alternatively, this applies if similar punishment would be so punishable if committed within the U.S. A sense of Congress was further expressed that victims of terrorism should be entitled to the forfeited assets of terrorists.
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how many books in the lying game series | The Lying Game (book series) - Wikipedia
The Lying Game is a series of books by Sara Shepard published by HarperTeen. The first book in the series, The Lying Game, was released in hardcover on December 7, 2010.
While the book and the television series based on the books share most of the same characters, there are differences in regards to the characters between the two (with the biggest difference being that Sutton is deceased in the books, but alive in the television series):
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what does the area under the elastic portion of the stress strain represent | Stress -- strain curve - wikipedia
The relationship between the stress and strain that a particular material displays is known as that particular material 's stress -- strain curve. It is unique for each material and is found by recording the amount of deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile or compressive loading (stress). These curves reveal many of the properties of a material (including data to establish the Modulus of Elasticity, E).
Stress -- strain curves of various materials vary widely, and different tensile tests conducted on the same material yield different results, depending upon the temperature of the specimen and the speed of the loading. It is possible, however, to distinguish some common characteristics among the stress -- strain curves of various groups of materials and, on this basis, to divide materials into two broad categories; namely, the ductile materials and the brittle materials.
Consider a bar of cross sectional area A being subjected to equal and opposite forces F pulling at the ends so the bar is under tension. The material is experiencing a stress defined to be the ratio of the force to the cross sectional area of the bar:
Note that for engineering purposes, we often assume the cross-section area of the material does not change during the whole deformation process, which is not true since the actual area will decrease while deforming due to necking. The one assuming cross-section area fixed is so called "engineering stress - strain curve '', the latter is "true stress - strain curve ''. In a tension test, true strain is less than engineering strain. Thus, a point defining true stress - strain curve is displaced upwards and to the left to define the equivalent engineering stress - strain curve. The difference between the true and engineering stresses and strains will increase with plastic deformation. At low strains (such as elastic deformation), the differences between the two is negligible.
Two important effects necessary to understand the true stress are the effects of strain rate susceptibility and strain rate hardening upon the true stress. Time is often neglected in the initial stress - strain curve relations, but at higher strain rates, higher stresses will occur according to the relationship σ = k ἕ where m is the strain rate susceptibility. To account for the resistance to necking, the relationship σ = kε must also be considered, where n is the strain hardening coefficient and is typically between 0.02 and 0.50, depending upon the material. By combining these two relationships, a relationship of σ = kε ἕ can be found. However, as real stresses and strains do not occur uniaxially, considerations for multiaxial stresses must be added to this relationship to model real stresses.
This stress is called the tensile stress because every part of the object is subjected to tension. The SI unit of stress is the newton per square meter, which is called the pascal. 1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N / m
Now consider a force that is applied tangentially to an object. The ratio of the shearing force to the area A is called the shear stress.
If the object is twisted through an angle q, then the shear strain is:
Finally, the shear modulus MS of a material is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain at any point in an object made of that material. The shear modulus is also known as the torsion modulus.
Ductile materials, which includes structural steel and many alloys of other metals, are characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures.
Low carbon steel generally exhibits a very linear stress -- strain relationship up to a well defined yield point (Fig. 2). The linear portion of the curve is the elastic region and the slope is the modulus of elasticity or Young 's Modulus (Young 's Modulus is the ratio of the compressive stress to the longitudinal strain). Many ductile materials including some metals, polymers and ceramics exhibit a yield point. Plastic flow initiates at the upper yield point and continues at the lower one. At lower yield point, permanent deformation is heterogeneously distributed along the sample. The deformation band which formed at the upper yield point will propagate along the gage length at the lower yield point. The band occupies the whole of the gage at the luders strain. Beyond this point, work hardening commences. The appearance of the yield point is associated with pinning of dislocations in the system. Specifically, solid solution interacts with dislocations and acts as pin and prevent dislocation from moving. Therefore, the stress needed to initiate the movement will be large. As long as the dislocation escape from the pinning, stress needed to continue it is less.
After the yield point, the curve typically decreases slightly because of dislocations escaping from Cottrell atmospheres. As deformation continues, the stress increases on account of strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate tensile stress. Until this point, the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly and randomly because of Poisson contractions. The actual fracture point is in the same vertical line as the visual fracture point.
However, beyond this point a neck forms where the local cross-sectional area becomes significantly smaller than the original. If the specimen is subjected to progressively increasing tensile force it reaches the ultimate tensile stress and then necking and elongation occur rapidly until fracture. If the specimen is subjected to progressively increasing length it is possible to the progressive necking and elongation, and to measure the decreasing tensile force in the specimen.
The appearance of necking in ductile materials is associated with geometrical instability in the system. Due to the natural inhomogeneity of the material, it is common to find some regions with small inclusions or porosity within it or surface, where strain will concentrate, leading to a locally smaller area than other regions. For strain less than the ultimate tensile strain, the increase of work - hardening rate in this region will be greater than the area reduction rate, thereby make this region harder to be further deform than others, so that the instability will be removed, i.e. the materials have abilities to weaken the inhomogeneity before reaching ultimate strain. However, as the strain become larger, the work hardening rate will decreases, so that for now the region with smaller area is weaker than other region, therefore reduction in area will concentrate in this region and the neck becomes more and more pronounced until fracture. After the neck has formed in the materials, further plastic deformation is concentrated in the neck while the remainder of the material undergoes elastic contraction owing to the decrease in tensile force.
Brittle materials, which includes cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized by the fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation.
Brittle materials such as concrete or carbon fiber do not have a yield point, and do not strain - harden. Therefore, the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same. A typical stress -- strain curve is shown in Fig. 3. Typical brittle materials like glass do not show any plastic deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic. One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape as the original component as there will not be a neck formation like in the case of ductile materials. A typical stress -- strain curve for a brittle material will be linear. For some materials, such as concrete, tensile strength is negligible compared to the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications. Glass fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not. This is because of the stress intensity factor associated with defects in the material. As the size of the sample gets larger, the size of defects also grows. In general, the tensile strength of a rope is always less than the sum of the tensile strengths of its individual fibers.
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when did the montreal canadiens win the stanley cup | List of Stanley Cup champions - wikipedia
The Stanley Cup is a trophy awarded annually to the playoff champion club of the National Hockey League (NHL) ice hockey league. It was donated by the Governor General of Canada Lord Stanley of Preston in 1892, and is the oldest professional sports trophy in North America. Inscribed the Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup, the trophy was first awarded to Canada 's amateur ice hockey clubs who won the trophy as the result of challenge games and league play. Professional clubs came to dominate the competition in the early years of the twentieth century, and in 1913 the two major professional ice hockey organizations, the National Hockey Association (NHA) (forerunner of the NHL) and the Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA), reached a gentlemen 's agreement in which their respective champions would face each other in an annual series for the Stanley Cup. After a series of league mergers and folds, it became the de facto championship trophy of the NHL in 1926, though it was nominally still subject to external challenge. After 1947, the Cup became the de jure NHL championship prize.
From 1914 to the end of the 2017 season, the trophy has been won 99 times. 23 different teams have won the cup, 18 of which are still active in the NHL. Prior to that, the challenge cup was held by nine different teams. The Montreal Canadiens have won the Stanley Cup 24 times and made the finals an additional ten times. There were two years when the Stanley Cup was not awarded: 1919, because of the Spanish flu epidemic, and 2005, because of the NHL lockout.
The origins of the Challenge era come from the method of play of the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada prior to 1893. From 1887 to 1893, the league did not play a round - robin format, but rather challenges between teams of the association that year, with the winner of the series being the ' interim ' champion, with the final challenge winner becoming the league champion for the year. The Stanley Cup kept the tradition going, but added league championships as another way that a team could win the trophy. If a team in the same league as the current champion won the league championship, it would then inherit the Cup, without a challenge. The only time this rule was not followed was in 1904, when the Ottawa Senators club withdrew from its league, the CAHL. The trustees ruled that the Cup stayed with Ottawa, instead of the CAHL league champion.
During the challenge cup period, none of the leagues that played for the trophy had a formal playoff system to decide their respective champions; whichever team finished in first place after the regular season won the league title. A playoff would only be played if teams tied for first - place in their leagues at the end of the regular season. Challenge games were played until 1912 at any time during hockey season by challenges approved and / or ordered by the Stanley Cup trustees. In 1912, Cup trustees declared that it was only to be defended at the end of the champion team 's regular season.
In 1908, the Allan Cup was introduced as the trophy for Canada 's amateurs, as the Stanley Cup became a symbol of professional hockey supremacy.
This table lists the outcome of all Stanley Cup wins, including successful victories and defenses in challenges, and league championships for the challenge era.
^ A. Although the Montreal Victorias won the AHAC title in 1895, the Stanley Cup trustees had already accepted a challenge from the 1894 Cup champion Montreal HC and Queen 's University. As a compromise, the trustees decided that if the Montreal HC won the challenge match, the Victorias would become the Stanley Cup champions. The Montreals eventually won the game, 5 -- 1, and their crosstown rivals were awarded the Cup.
^ B. Intended to be a best - of - three series, Ottawa Capitals withdrew their challenge after the first game.
^ C. The January 31 (a Saturday) game was tied 2 -- 2 at midnight and the Mayor of Westmount refused to allow play to continue on the Sunday. The game was played on February 2 (a Monday) and the January 31 game was considered to be void.
^ D. For most of 1904, the Ottawa Senators were not affiliated with any league.
^ E. The Montreal Wanderers were disqualified as the result of a dispute. After game one ended tied at the end of regulation, 5 -- 5, the Wanderers refused to play overtime with the current referee, and then subsequently refused to play the next game of the series in Ottawa.
^ F. During the series, it was revealed that the Victoria club had not filed a formal challenge. A letter arrived from the Stanley Cup trustees on March 17, stating that the trustees would not let the Stanley Cup travel west, as they did not consider Victoria a proper challenger because they had not formally notified the trustees. However, on March 18, Trustee William Foran stated that it was a misunderstanding. PCHA president Frank Patrick had not filed a challenge, because he had expected Emmett Quinn, president of the NHA to make all of the arrangements in his role as hockey commissioner, whereas the trustees thought they were being deliberately ignored. In any case, all arrangements had been ironed out and the Victoria challenge was accepted.
Several days after the Victoria Aristocrats -- Toronto Hockey Club series, Stanley Cup trustee William Foran wrote to NHA president Emmett Quinn that the trustees are "perfectly satisfied to allow the representatives of the three pro leagues (NHA, PCHA, and Maritime) to make all arrangements each season as to the series of matches to be played for the Cup. '' Maritime league did not challenge for cup in 1914, and folded after 1915 season. The Stanley Cup championship finals alternated between the East and the West each year, with games played alternately under NHA or PCHA rules. The Cup trustees agreed to this new arrangement, because after the Allan Cup became the highest prize for amateur hockey teams in Canada, the trustees had become dependent on the top two professional leagues to bolster the prominence of the trophy. After the New Westminster Royal moved to Portland in the summer of 1914 becoming the Portland Rosebuds, an American - based team, the trustees issued a statement that the Cup was no longer for the best team in Canada, but now for the best team in the world. In March 1916, the Rosebuds became the first American team to play in the Stanley Cup championship final. In 1917, the Seattle Metropolitans became the first American team to win the Cup. After that season, the NHA was suspended and the National Hockey League (NHL) took its place.
In 1919, the Spanish influenza epidemic forced the Montreal Canadiens and the Seattle Metropolitans to cancel their series tied at 2 -- 2 -- 1, marking the first time the Stanley Cup was not awarded.
The format for the Stanley Cup championship changed in 1922, with the creation of the Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL). Now three leagues competed for the Cup and this necessitated a semi-final series between two league champions, with the third having a bye directly to the final. In 1924, the PCHA folded and only the Vancouver and Victoria teams entered the WCHL. With the loss of the PCHA, the championship reverted to a single series. After their win in 1925, the Victoria Cougars became the last team outside the NHL to win the Stanley Cup. For the 1925 -- 26 season the WCHL was renamed the Western Hockey League (WHL). With the Victoria Cougars ' loss in 1926, it would be the last time a non-NHL team competed for the Stanley Cup.
The WHL folded in 1926, and its assets were bought by the NHL. This left the NHL as the only league left competing for the Cup. Other leagues and clubs have issued challenges, but from that year forward, no non-NHL team has played for it, leading it to become the de facto championship trophy of the NHL. In 1947, the NHL reached an agreement with trustees P.D. Ross and Cooper Smeaton to grant control of the cup to the NHL, allowing the league itself to reject challenges from other leagues that may have wished to play for the Cup. A 2006 Ontario Superior Court case found that the trustees had gone against Lord Stanley 's conditions in the 1947 agreement. The NHL has agreed to allow other teams to play for the Cup should the league not be operating, as was the case in the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout.
Since 1927, the league 's playoff format, deciding which teams advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals, has changed multiple times. In some systems that were previously used, playoff teams were seeded regardless of division or conference. From 1942 to 1967, the Cup was competed for by the league 's six teams, also known as the Original Six. After the 1967 NHL Expansion, the Stanley Cup was competed for by the winners of each conference. Since 1982, the Finals have been played between the league 's conference playoff champions.
Legend: SC = successful Stanley Cup challenge or defense of championship (win); UC = unsuccessful Stanley Cup challenge or defense of championship (loss); Years in bold denote a Stanley Cup win.
The following 16 teams unsuccessfully challenged for a Stanley Cup only once: Berlin Dutchmen (1910), Dawson City Nuggets (1905), Halifax Crescents (1900), Moncton Victorias (1912), Montreal Canadiens (1914), New Glasgow Cubs (1906), Ottawa Capitals (1897), Ottawa Victorias (1908), Port Arthur Bearcats (1911), Smiths Falls (1906), Sydney Millionaires (1913), Toronto Marlboros (1904), Toronto Professionals (1908), Toronto Wellingtons (1902), Victoria Aristocrats (1914), Winnipeg Rowing Club (1904).
Unless marked otherwise, teams played in the NHL exclusively at the time they competed for the Stanley Cup. A bolded year denotes a Stanley Cup win.
Five active teams have yet to make a Stanley Cup Finals appearance. Three of these teams have remained in the same location since their inceptions:
The other two teams have relocated and have not made the Finals in either location:
Five relocated teams that have won the Stanley Cup in their current locations and never appeared in the Finals in their former locations:
Listed after the team name is the name of the affiliated league (s) when the team competed for the Stanley Cup. A bold year denotes a Stanley Cup win.
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what main characters die in the walking dead comics | List of the Walking Dead (comics) characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters from The Walking Dead comic book series, created by Robert Kirkman. Plot structure and characterization between the comic and television series can be similar, derivative, or in many cases almost entirely irrelevant.
The following table graphically shows each recurring character 's status in each volume of the comic sorted by which volume they first appeared; a character marked as absent in one issue may appear in a later volume.
Rick is the group 's de facto leader. He is Lori 's husband and Carl 's father. Before the zombie apocalypse, Rick is a sheriff 's deputy in the small town of Cynthiana, Kentucky. While in a shootout against an escaped convict with his partner and best friend, Shane Walsh, Rick is wounded and subsequently awakens from a coma some time later. After finding his family in Atlanta camp, Rick quickly assumes the role of the leader of the survivor community. As the story progresses, Rick adopts a more dark and assertive nature. He lost his wife and daughter during the fall of the prison. Lori 's death leaves Rick in emotional wreck. Rick suffers frightening hallucinations of her, and for a while seems to hear conversations with her on an old phone. For the heavy loss of lives occurred, Rick constantly blames himself. At the same time, he never backs away from a difficult decision affecting his community. Rick is very protective of Carl, while at the same time feels detached from Carl 's now bleak outlook of the world. Eventually Rick begins a romantic relationship with Andrea in Alexandria. Rick is the leader of the Alexandria survivors community. As the war with Negan escalates, Negan forces Dwight to shoot Rick with a bolt (possibly with walker blood on it to infect Rick with the walker - virus), but as Rick does not turn, Dwight is proven a trustworthy ally and not a surreptitious foe. He takes Negan captive and ends the war. Two years later, he is still leading the Safe - Zone and dating Andrea. After The Whisperers attack the Safe - Zone during the fair, Rick 's leadership is questioned. To divert this, Rick manages to move the survivors anger towards The Whisperers through propaganda and army campaigns. Rick begins to trust Negan after the latter brings Alpha 's head to him. Rick then kills Sherry after the Savior 's betray his alliance, and then he learns that Andrea was bitten and is dying, causing him great grief.
Carl is the son of Rick and Lori as well as Judith 's elder brother. Carl begins as a normal and innocent child, but as the events of the new world order force him to grow up, he becomes colder and competently makes sometimes brash decisions for the good of his group of friends. When the group arrives at the prison, Carl starts dating Carol 's daughter Sophia. However, their relationship ends as they part ways during the conflict with Negan. During an invasion by walkers at the Alexandria Safe - Zone, he is accidentally shot in the eye and loses it. As a teenager, Carl resides at the Hilltop Colony as a blacksmith apprentice but still remains close friends with Sophia, while contacting and later forming a sexual relationship with Whisperer, Lydia. He is currently back at Alexandria, with the rest of the survivors of the walker attack on the Hilltop.
Judith is the newborn daughter of Lori Grimes and younger sister to Carl. Though Rick is acknowledged as her father, it is strongly implied that Shane is her biological father. During the Governor 's second attack on the prison, Lori is shot by Lilly while holding Judith, and Lori falls, crushing Judith.
Lori is Rick 's wife and Carl and Judith Grimes ' mother. During the Governor 's second attack on the prison, she is shot by Lilly while holding Judith, whom she crushes after falling.
Andrea is one of the comic 's longest - living survivors, alongside Rick, Carl, Maggie and Sophia Peletier. Andrea worked as a clerk for a Law firm before the zombie apocalypse, a job which she says she hated. She is shown to be one of the greatest rifle shooters in the Walking Dead universe, known for sniping at foes of the group whether they are human or zombies. After having a relationship with Dale in the prison, she is later in a relationship with Rick at the Alexandria Safe - Zone after Dale 's death. She acts as a motherly figure to Carl and plays an important role in running the Safe - Zone, often seen as a Vice President figure. Andrea was bitten by a walker whilst saving Eugene from the herd that attacked Alexandria. She dies in her room with Rick, and various members of Alexandria and the Hilltop say goodbye to her before she dies.
Duane Jones is a young boy hiding out with his father, Morgan, in various houses in Rick 's neighborhood, attempting to ride out the zombie apocalypse. After meeting Rick and being provided with weapons from the police station, he and Duane part ways with Rick, potentially to meet again some day. Much later, at Christmas, Morgan and Duane are seen alive and well, living in a cabin on a snowy mountain. Later still, Rick encounters the two, but while Morgan is alive, Duane has turned. Morgan now joins Rick, but leaves his reanimated son to roam freely within the house.
Morgan is the devoted father of Duane Jones struggling to get over the recent death of his wife. He and his son seek refuge in Rick 's hometown after the outbreak occurs. He is the first living person Rick encounters after waking up. He details Rick of the outbreak and what has been happening within the world the past couple months. Sometime within the following weeks / months, Duane falls prey to the walkers and gets turned. Morgan, unable to cope with the death of his son, resorts to locking Duane in the house with chains. Later Rick takes him in as one of his community. He develops an attraction and consequently a complicated relationship with Michonne. While helping fight off zombies with Michonne, Rick, and the others, he is caught off guard and bitten on the arm by a walker. Michonne chops his arm off, and from there he is left bedridden. He is shortly thereafter killed by her before he has the chance to re-animate.
Allen is the big - bearded husband of Donna and father of twins Billy and Ben. Before the dead rose, Allen was a shoe salesman gradually falling into debt. After the dead rose, Allen and his family joined the group of survivors encamped on the outer limits of Atlanta. Upon leaving, Allen suffered terribly when Donna was killed by zombies, sending him into a downward emotional spiral that he never truly recovers from. He confides in Rick and the two became close friends. Andrea tried to offer him comfort, due to her similar loss of her sister, but, Allen rejected her sympathy and maintained a bitter relationship with her. With time, he gradually gained a sense of acceptance, but this new - found peace was short - lived; Allen was bitten on the foot by a zombie, while helping the others clear out the remaining areas of the prison the group was staying in. In an effort to contain the infection, Rick made a violent and botched attempt at amputation. After a long struggle for survival against blood loss, and serious infections setting in, Allen died. After being shot in the head by Rick before he could reanimate, his body was buried outside the prison.
Amy is Andrea 's younger sister. They join the survivor group on the outskirts of Atlanta. Amy is bitten by a zombie in the opening stages of a zombie attack on their exposed camp. She dies of the bite, and Andrea shoots her in the head to prevent reanimation and buries her in the nearby forest.
Donna is the wife of Allen and mother of twins Billy and Ben. She is strong - willed, loving and caring to her family. Before the events of the series, Donna made all the big decisions in her relationship with her husband, while leaving the financial responsibilities with Allen. After the dead rise, Donna and her family join the group of survivors encamped on the outer limits of Atlanta, where she makes a point of resenting that the women of the group (herself, Carol and Lori) have to take care of most of the group 's domestic chores (e.g. laundry). Shortly after, when the group attempts to settle at Wiltshire Estates, Donna is killed by a zombie and her body devoured by more of the undead, leaving Allen permanently devastated.
Ben is Allen and Donna 's twin son. He is unofficially adopted by Dale and Andrea after their parents die. He does not seem to understand what is happening in the world as it is and believes zombies to be people too. On the road to D.C., Ben brutally slaughters Billy, convinced that he will come back. The group debates killing Ben to protect themselves, but takes no immediate action. In the night, Carl sneaks into the van where Ben is locked up, and executes him. Billy and Ben are buried side by side.
Billy is Allen and Donna 's twin son. He is unofficially adopted by Dale and Andrea after their parents die. On the road to D.C., Billy is brutally slaughtered by Ben, who is convinced that Billy will come back. Andrea and Dale are devastated by his loss.
Dale is shown to be the wisest member of the survivor group. Without telling the group he had been bitten, Dale goes off to die but is knocked out by the Hunters who then cook and eat his leg. After Rick 's group finds and kills the hunters, they take Dale back to the church. After he dies, he is shot by Andrea to prevent reanimation and his body is burned. Andrea keeps and wears Dale 's fishing hat which she uses to talk to him.
Jim joins the survivor group after his entire family is killed by zombies. During a zombie attack on the group, Jim, failing to kill one with his gun, grapples with a zombie and violently smashes its head in, his rage over his family 's death driving him momentarily insane. After coming to his senses, he, and the rest of the group realize that he has been bitten on the stomach. Jim is left under a tree on the outskirts of Atlanta, in the hopes that, upon reanimating, he can be reunited with the undead members of his family that may still exist.
Carol is a 24 - year - old housewife and the mother of Sophia. She is portrayed as a fragile woman, relying on others for emotional and physical support. She becomes Tyreese 's girlfriend until he cheats on her with Michonne, which contributes to her continuing psychological breakdown. She dies in the prison, feeding herself to a walker tied up for medical observation after convincing herself that the walker wanted to be her friend. This comes after Tyreese 's infidelity and Rick and Lori 's rejection of a polyamorous relationship. Her daughter is taken in by Glenn and Maggie.
Sophia is the daughter of Carol and adopted daughter of Maggie. Early in the series she develops a friendship and later a relationship with Carl until they are separated within the two different communities of Alexandria and the Hilltop 22 miles apart. After Carol dies at the prison, Sophia pretends that Maggie and Glenn are her real parents, until she admits she is aware of Carol, and was simply repressing the bad memories around her suicide attempts. Four years into the apocalypse, and two years after the war with Negan, Sophia and Carl reunite as he becomes a blacksmith apprentice at the Hilltop. She is brutally beaten by two bullies after she tries to stop them from harming another child, before Carl defends her and leaves them in a critical condition.
Glenn is Maggie 's boyfriend (later husband). Glenn delivered pizzas in Atlanta before the events of the comic which gave him the skills to make supply runs. On one of these runs, he found Rick and brought him back to the group, reuniting him with his family. He is a key member of Rick 's group throughout his life, often acting as a supply runner. He also makes a very close friend named Heath after the group comes to Alexandria. He planned to live with Maggie at the Hilltop Colony, So Maggie, Sophia, and their baby could be safe. He is beaten to death with a baseball bat by Negan.
Shane is a police officer and longtime friend of Rick Grimes. After Rick is shot and put into a coma, and the zombie outbreak occurs, he rescues Rick 's family and leads a group of survivors, becoming romantically involved with Rick 's wife, Lori. When Rick returns to his family alive, Shane grows increasingly jealous of their relationship, as well as Rick 's role in the group. He is shot in the neck by Carl and is later put down by Rick.
Chris is a disturbed, sixteen - year - old boyfriend of Julie, living with her and her father, Tyreese before the zombie crisis begins. The three eventually join Rick 's group in Atlanta 's outskirts, and move with them from Wiltshire Estates to the prison. Unbeknownst to the others, Chris exhorts Julie into a youthfully idealistic suicide pact, and haphazardly executes it one night, in the prison, shooting her. Julie reanimates in her father 's arms and Chris shoots her a second time. Tyreese, in furious rage chokes Chris to death, then beats his reanimated corpse until he is nothing but pulverized pieces, which he then burns. Tyreese later confesses his enraged manslaughter to Rick.
Julie is Tyreese 's sixteen - year - old teenage daughter. She is shown to be affectionate to both her father and boyfriend. The end of the world has not stopped her from seeking independence where she can find it. During the initial stages of clearing out the penitentiary, she and Chris act as babysitters. Once settled, after having sex for the first time with Chris, she carries out an ill - fated suicide pact with her boyfriend. She soon reanimates in Tyreese 's arms, and almost kills her father before being fatally shot by Chris again.
Tyreese is shown to be a devoted father as well as an able - bodied fighter and leadership figure to those around him. However, he is also a very flawed individual, suffering from emotional fragility. Despite this, he is greatly admired by his fellow survivors and is a role model to Carl, while acting as Rick 's right - hand man (despite often being conflicted with him on several issues). He is killed by The Governor outside the prison, being decapitated with Michonne 's sword.
Arnold is Hershel 's second son. He is shown as loyal and reliable to his father. He is bitten by his brother, Shawn, who had become a zombie and has been kept locked inside the family 's barn. He is shot by a distraught Hershel to prevent reanimation.
Billy is Hershel 's youngest son. Depicted as in his teens, brash and rebellious, he acts as one of the best shots of the group, second only to Andrea. Billy ends up having a one - night stand with Carol before she commits suicide, which causes him to feel guilt. He is killed in the final stages of the assault on the prison by the Woodbury Army; his death leads his father to allow himself to die as well.
Hershel is the patriarch of the Greene family and owner of the farm where Rick 's group are invited to stay after Carl is shot. He later joins up with Rick 's group at the prison after the farm becomes too unsafe only to be killed during the Governor 's second attack on the prison.
Lacey is Hershel 's eldest daughter. She is shown as sarcastic and weary of her father. Lacey shared her love of reading with Carol. She is killed by the zombies that were kept in the family 's barn while attempting to save Arnold.
Maggie is Hershel Greene 's tomboyish second oldest daughter and Glenn 's lover. She eventually becomes Glenn 's wife and later widow, and takes the role of being a surrogate mother to Sophia Peletier following the suicide of the girl 's biological mother, Carol Peletier. She soon discovers she is pregnant while living at the Alexandria Safe - Zone in Washington DC. After Glenn 's death, she moves with Sophia to the Hilltop Colony. She successfully overthrows Gregory as leader, outing him as a coward for siding with the man who murdered Glenn, only caring for his own safety. Eventually she becomes the de facto leader of the community as she moves enforcements to save the civilians of Alexandria in the war against the Saviours during the bombings. Two years after the war, she remains a strong and capable leader, while also taking care of her two - year - old son, Hershel Greene II She continues to come into conflict with Gregory, who orchestrates a plan to kill her with other parents who disagree with her actions towards their sons ' injuries after Carl Grimes had beaten them to save Sophia. Gregory manages to poison Maggie as she is dealing with one of the Whisperer captives, Lydia. The Hilltop is attacked during the Whisperer War arc, and Maggie is forced to lead the survivors to Alexandria.
Rachel is one of Hershel 's youngest twin daughters. Along with her sister, she is decapitated by Thomas when alone in the prison barbershop.
Susie is one of Hershel 's youngest twin daughters. Along with her sister, she is decapitated by Thomas when alone in the prison barbershop.
Shawn is Hershel 's oldest son and the first member of the Greene family to be killed by zombies, as shown in the video game adaptation The Walking Dead: Season One. He is reanimated and locked in Hershel 's barn until a cure for the epidemic can be discovered. He eventually escapes the barn and kills his brother Arnold. He is shot by Hershel when Hershel realizes that his son will never again be normal.
Otis is the boyfriend of Patricia and a neighbor of Hershel Greene. He accidentally shoots and almost kills Carl while out hunting for a deer. Otis remains at the farm while the Greenes leave to join Rick at the prison. Otis later follows, and is saved from zombies by the newly arrived Michonne. He rejoins the group (though ends his relationship with Patricia after learning of her part in Dexter 's attempted coup). Later, when the prison is temporarily overrun by zombies, Otis is attacked by zombies and killed. When Rick and his group return from Woodbury, Otis has turned into a walker. Rick shoots him in the head.
Patricia is Otis ' incredibly naive girlfriend. After Thomas kills Hershel 's twin daughters, Patricia attempts to free him so the other survivors do n't kill him. Thomas almost kills her soon afterward, but Patricia manages to fight him off until Maggie arrives and shoots him. Rick is wary of allowing Patricia to stay with the group but decides she is ultimately harmless. Her naiveté allows the inmates of the prison to convince her to help them take back the prison from Rick, though their plan is thwarted after Dexter is killed. Patricia then becomes an outcast amongst the survivors, but regains acceptance by saving Rick 's life via a blood transfusion before the attack on the prison. She is shot and killed by a member of Woodbury during the final assault on the prison.
Andrew is a dreadlocked former drug user who believes God sent the zombie apocalypse to help him "get clean ''. He is of African - American background. He has a relationship with Dexter, apparently in love with him, probably due to the amount of time spent locked up alone with him and the two other convicts. When Dexter is accused of murder, he organizes Andrew to find a way into the previously unexplored Block A and gather up the guards riot gear to take over the prison. After Dexter 's death, he is extremely distraught; he subsequently flees the prison during the time Michonne and Otis arrive. His fate remains unclear. Later on, the writer stated that Andrew is probably deceased. In the novel The Fall of the Governor it is revealed that Andrew has turned into a zombie. Shortly afterwards he is shot by Lilly Caul.
Axel is described as a grizzled old white biker imprisoned for armed robbery. When Dexter tries to force the survivors out of the prison, Axel stands up for them. Being the only of the four convicts to remain with the survivors over the majority of the story, he eventually finds their trust through hard work and earnest commitment. He has a brief relationship with Patricia after being shot in the arm during the first prison assault. After helping the survivors set up defenses, he is shot in the head, an early casualty of the second prison assault.
Dexter is a towering, physically intimidating African - American inmate at the prison where the group takes residence. Convicted of murdering his wife and her lover, whom he states, "were the last ''. He ironically trusts the other survivors far less than they trust him. He has a covert relationship with Andrew, but is purely in said relationship for sex. After the murders of the Greene twins, Lori leads the group to wrongly lock him up on account of being the only convict known to murder. After Thomas is revealed to be responsible and not receiving any apology, he loses his patience and orders Andrew to scavenge the prison 's riot gear. Amidst the confusion with Thomas, Dexter gathers Andrew and a defecting Patricia with their new riot gear to force out the survivors. He is soon after killed discreetly in a skirmish against zombies by Rick, who covers it up as a friendly fire mistake.
Thomas is a nerdy man who claims to be in federal prison for tax evasion (which he claims is not his fault). He is actually a homicidal lunatic who murders two of Hershel 's daughters by decapitation and attempts to murder Andrea before he is beaten senseless by an enraged Rick. Patricia attempts to free him so the other survivors would not hang him, nearly getting herself killed in the process. He is later shot repeatedly by Maggie Greene after his attempted escape. His deceased body is thrown to the zombie hordes outside of the prison.
Michonne is a katana - wielding survivor who saves the life of Otis and thereafter joins Rick 's group at the prison. Over the course of the series, she finds herself repressed and unhappy over the deaths of her loved ones, believing she does n't deserve any happiness or a chance to start over, due to the pain of leaving her daughters behind, assuming they 've been killed along with her ex-husband, Dominic. She journeys to Alexandria with the group and after two years, returns from a long sea voyage. She is the supposed leader of The Kingdom after the death of Ezekiel, but is currently helping at the Hilltop Colony after delivering a near - dead Aaron.
Mike is the reanimated boyfriend of Michonne who is used for camouflage with the other zombies. In the Michonne special, it is revealed that Mike and Terry met up with Michonne before staying in a secluded house where a zombie tried to gain entry and bit him in the arm. He is decapitated by Michonne when she gains entry into the prison, but she still speaks to him nonetheless.
Terry is the best friend of Michonne 's boyfriend, Mike.
Rosita is a woman who joins up with Sgt. Abraham Ford and Eugene in their mission to reach Washington D.C. She is a foil to Abraham 's potential brutality; kind, gentle, and understanding, capable of neutralizing and abating Abraham 's emotional instabilities or inhumane talk and urges. After Abraham has an affair with Holly, she moves in with Eugene and begins a relationship with him. She mourns Abraham along with Holly after his death. After two years, she is pregnant but tells Eugene he is not the father. After Alpha marks a border between the Whisperers and the other communities, Rosita is one of the many casualties who has been decapitated with their reanimated head on a spike.
Abraham is a Sergeant in the U.S. Army. Sometime after the zombie crisis began, Ford came into contact with Eugene, who claimed he had information that Washington D.C. is the only potential sanctuary from the zombie hordes. Teaming up with Rosita and Eugene, Ford is now on a mission to get there, intending to solve the zombie crisis after Eugene reveals he has crucial information about the zombie 's origins. At the Alexandria Safe - Zone he has an affair with Holly, which leads to him breaking up with Rosita. He is murdered by Dwight, a member of the Saviors.
Eugene is a high school science teacher who has lied about being a scientist working on a cure for the outbreak disease in order to receive protection from others. He is known for his intelligence, as he knows how to make bullets, and he contributes to the group by suggesting ideas to Rick. He lived with Rosita and they were in a relationship, but he is not the father of her child but promised to raise him as his own. However, Rosita is one of the victims at the hand of The Whisperers. After her death, Eugene becomes distraught, but eventually finds a woman on the radio he built who says she is from Ohio.
Gabriel is a priest who comes across the group after leaving his church, where he had been hiding from the undead. The group is very suspicious of his story, and does not trust him. He had survived over several months alone in the church by turning away his followers and any other civilians when the zombie attacks started, saving him from internal conflict. As a consequence, however, he now feels remorse. Since arriving at the Safe - Zone, he believes that God 's plan for him has been to meet the survivors so that he could eventually preach at the Safe - Zone 's church. He eventually redeems himself. During the conflict with the Wisperers he joins Rick 's army, training intensively with Dwight and proving to be an excellent shot. While at the guard tower, the Whisperers approach with a zombie herd. Gabriel tries to warn Rick but falls and breaks his leg. Begging for mercy, Beta disembowels him, leaving him for zombies to feast on.
The Walking Dead comic book and the television series based on it are regarded as separate continuities. Therefore, characters and events appearing in one have no effect on the continuity of the other.
Every Grimes family member besides Judith has been shot at least once: Lori (1), Rick (2), Carl (2), Andrea (2).
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history of sports medicine in india and abroad | Sports medicine - wikipedia
Sports medicine is a branch of medicine that deals with physical fitness and the treatment and prevention of injuries related to sports and exercise. Although most sports teams have employed team physicians for many years, it is only since the late 20th century that sports medicine has emerged as a distinct field of health care.
Specializing in the treatment of athletes and other physically active individuals, sports and exercise medicine physicians have extensive education in musculoskeletal medicine. SEM doctors treat injuries such as muscle, ligament, tendon and bone problems, but may also treat chronic illnesses that can affect physical performance, such as asthma and diabetes. SEM doctors also advise on managing and preventing injuries.
SEM consultants also deliver clinical physical activity interventions, negating the burden of disease directly attributable to physical inactivity and the compelling evidence for the effectiveness of exercise in the primary, secondary and tertiary prevention of disease.
The Foresight Report issued by the UK 's Government Office for Science, 17 October 2007, highlighted the unsustainable health and economic costs of a nation that continues to be largely sedentary. It forecasts that the incremental costs of this inactivity will be $10 billion per year by 2050 and the wider costs to society and businesses $49.9 billion. Physical inactivity inevitably leads to ill - health and it forecasts the cost of paying for this impact will be unsustainable in the future. No existing group of medical specialists is equipped with the skills and training to deal with this challenge.
SEM physicians are frequently involved in promoting the therapeutic benefits of physical activity, exercise and sport for the individuals and communities. SEM Physicians in the UK spend a period of their training in public health, and advise public health physicians on matters relating to physical activity promotion. An example of published work includes the Royal College of Physicians publications.
Concussion -- caused by severe head injury where the brain moves violently within the skull so that brain cells all fire at once, much like a seizure
Muscle cramps -- a sudden tight, intense pain caused by a muscle locked in spasm. Muscle cramps are also recognized as an involuntary and forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax
ACL sprains -- The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a ligament involved in knee stabilization. An ACL rupture can occur when the foot is planted and the knee twists to change direction.
ACL tears -- The anterior cruciate ligament; one of four major knee ligament necessary for comfortable knee movement, tears, causing major pain and causes the knee to "give out ''. The knee ACL can tear for a number of reasons.
Ankle sprain -- The ligaments that hold the ankle bones in place can easily be overstretched.
Shin splints -- The tissue that attaches the muscles of the lower leg to the shin bone may be pulling away from the bone, or it may be inflamed from overuse.
Muscle strains -- tears in muscle that cause pain and or loss of function
In recent years Western society has increasingly recognized the dangers of physical inactivity, and significant efforts have been made within the public health community to encourage the nation to become more physically active. To reflect this paradigm shift BASM has renamed itself BASEM (British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine) and the speciality itself has rebranded from Sports Medicine to Sport & Exercise Medicine. Since 2007 several deaneries across the UK have established training programmes in SEM, and recurrent funding for 50 National Training Numbers (NTN 's) is available.
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the lord is awaiting on you george harrison | Awaiting on You All - wikipedia
"Awaiting on You All '' is a song by English musician George Harrison, released on his 1970 triple album, All Things Must Pass. Along with the single "My Sweet Lord '', it is among the more overtly religious compositions on All Things Must Pass, and the recording typifies co-producer Phil Spector 's influence on the album, due to his liberal use of reverberation and other Wall of Sound production techniques. Harrison recorded the track in London backed by musicians such as Eric Clapton, Bobby Whitlock, Klaus Voormann, Jim Gordon and Jim Price -- many of whom he had toured with, as Delaney & Bonnie and Friends, in December 1969, while still officially a member of the Beatles. Musically, the composition reflects Harrison 's embracing of the gospel music genre, following his production of fellow Apple Records artists Billy Preston and Doris Troy.
In his lyrics to "Awaiting on You All '', Harrison espouses a direct relationship with God over adherence to the tenets of organised religion. Influenced by both his association with London - based Hare Krishna devotees, known as the Radha Krishna Temple, and the Vedanta - inspired teachings of Swami Vivekananda, Harrison sings of chanting God 's name as a means to cleanse and liberate oneself from the impurities of the material world. While acknowledging the validity of all faiths, in essence, his song words explicitly criticise the Pope and the perceived materialism of the Catholic Church -- a verse that EMI and Capitol Records continue to omit from the album 's lyrics. He also questions the validity of John Lennon and Yoko Ono 's 1969 campaign for world peace, reflecting a divergence of philosophies between Harrison and his former bandmate after their shared interest in Hindu spirituality in 1967 -- 68.
Several commentators have identified "Awaiting on You All '' as one of the highlights of All Things Must Pass; author and critic Richard Williams likens it to the Spector - produced "River Deep -- Mountain High '', by Ike & Tina Turner. The track is featured in the books 1001 Songs You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery and 1001 Songs by Toby Creswell. A similarly well - regarded live version, with backing from a large band including Clapton, Ringo Starr, Preston and Jim Keltner, was released on the 1971 album The Concert for Bangladesh and appeared in the 1972 film of the same name. Harrison 's posthumous compilation Early Takes: Volume 1 (2012) includes a demo version of the song, recorded early in the 1970 sessions for All Things Must Pass.
In his book While My Guitar Gently Weeps, Simon Leng describes George Harrison 's musical projects outside the Beatles during 1969 -- 70 -- such as producing American gospel and soul artists Billy Preston and Doris Troy, and touring with Delaney & Bonnie and Friends -- as the completion of "a musical - philosophical circle '', which resulted in his post-Beatles solo album All Things Must Pass (1970). Among the songs on that triple album, "My Sweet Lord '' and "Awaiting on You All '' each reflect Harrison 's immersion in Krishna Consciousness, via his association with the UK branch of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known as the Radha Krishna Temple. An ISKCON devotee since 1970, author Joshua Greene writes of All Things Must Pass providing an "intimately detailed account of a spiritual journey '', which had begun with Harrison 's embracing of Hinduism while in India in September -- October 1966.
Having long disavowed the Catholic faith of his upbringing, from 1966 Harrison was inspired by the teachings of Indian yogi Swami Vivekananda. The latter 's contention that "Each soul is potentially divine, the goal is to manifest that divinity '' particularly resonated with Harrison in its contrast to the doctrine of the Catholic Church. By 1967, Harrison 's religious awakening had progressed to include Gaudiya Vaishnava chanting, a form of meditation that he shared with his Beatles bandmate John Lennon and would go on to espouse in "Awaiting on You All ''. Further to Vivekananda 's assertion, chanting the Hare Krishna or other Sanskrit - worded mantras has, author Gary Tillery writes, "the ability to send spiritual energy through the body, leading to the enlightenment of the person chanting ''.
Whereas Lennon 's interest in spiritual matters waned following the Beatles ' visit to India in 1968, Harrison 's involvement with the Radha Krishna Temple led to him producing two hit singles by the devotees over 1969 -- 70, "Hare Krishna Mantra '' and "Govinda ''. While Lennon and his partner, Yoko Ono, undertook a highly publicised campaign for world peace during 1969, Harrison believed that all human suffering could be averted if individuals focused on addressing their own imperfections rather than, as he put it, "trying to fix everybody else up like the Lone Ranger ''. This divergence in philosophy also formed part of Harrison 's subject matter for "Awaiting on You All '', a song that, Greene writes, "projected his message to the world ''.
In an October 1974 radio interview with Alan Freeman, Harrison recalled writing "Awaiting on You All '' while preparing to go to bed, and mentioned it as a composition that had come easily to him. In his autobiography, I, Me, Mine, Harrison states that his inspiration for the song was "Japa Yoga meditation '', whereby mantras are sung and counted out on prayer beads. Musically, the composition has elements of gospel and rock music; Leng describes it as "gospel - drenched '' and cites Harrison 's production of "Sing One for the Lord '', which Preston recorded with the Edwin Hawkins Singers in early 1970, as a "catalyst '' for the new composition. The song opens with a descending guitar riff, later repeated after each chorus, which ends on the melody 's root chord of B major.
In his lyrics to "Awaiting on You All '', Harrison conveys the importance of experiencing spirituality directly, while rejecting organised religion as well as political and intellectual substitutes. Author Ian Inglis writes that the lyrics recognise the merit in all faiths, as Harrison sings that the key to any religion is to "open up your heart ''. The choruses proclaim that individual freedom from the physical or material world can be attained through "chanting the names of the Lord '', implying that there is a single deity who happens to be called by different names depending on the faith.
The song 's three verses provide a list of items or concepts that are unnecessary to this realisation. The opening lines -- "You do n't need no love - in / You do n't need no bed pan '' -- serve as a criticism of Lennon and Ono 's bed - ins and other forms of peace activism during 1969. While Inglis views these words as indicative of a possible rift in Harrison 's relationship with Lennon, Leng identifies the "tongue - lashing for John and Yoko '' as the singer dismissing "all political - cum - intellectual musings ''. Harrison then uses what Christian theologian Dale Allison terms "the language of pollution '' to describe the problems afflicting the world, and offers a method by which to cleanse oneself spiritually.
In verse two, Harrison sings of the futility of passports and travel for those searching to "see Jesus '', since an open heart will reveal that Christ is "right there ''. Allison remarks on the song expressing Harrison 's "syncretistic view of Jesus '', a view he shared with Lennon, and cites comments that Harrison later made to Radha Krishna Temple co-founder Mukunda Goswami, that Christ was "an absolute yogi '' yet modern - day Christian teachers misrepresent him and "(let) him down very badly ''.
In the song 's final verse, Harrison states that churches, temples, religious texts and the rosary beads associated with Catholic worship are no substitute for a direct relationship with God. These symbols of organised religion "meant searching in the wrong places '', Tillery writes, when in keeping with Vivekananda 's philosophy, "the spark of the divine is within us all. Every person is therefore the child of God... '' AllMusic critic Lindsay Planer comments on Harrison 's "observation of (religious) repression '' in the lines "We 've been kept down so long / Someone 's thinking that we 're all green. ''
Harrison 's most scathing criticism is directed at the Pope, in the lines: "While the Pope owns 51 % of General Motors / And the stock exchange is the only thing he 's qualified to quote us. '' Contrasting this statement with Harrison 's song - wide message that God "waits on us to wake up and open our hearts '', Allison concludes: "whereas the Lord is about the business of helping human beings to wake up, the Pope is about the business of business. ''
In his book No Sympathy for the Devil, Dave Ware Stowe writes of the effect of "Awaiting on You All '' on Evangelical Christian sensibilities: "this was dangerous stuff. Harrison 's lyrics exemplified what many in the Jesus Movement considered a lure and snare of the devil. No doubt the song was spiritually resonant, even reverent, but it leaves the all - important object of veneration vague. ''
While identifying a similar ISKCON - inspired theme in Harrison 's 1973 song "The Lord Loves the One (That Loves the Lord) '', Allison discusses "Awaiting on You All '' as a precedent for further statements by Harrison against organised religion, particularly Catholicism. Among these, Harrison parodied the Last Supper in his inner - gatefold artwork for Living in the Material World (1973), dressed as a Catholic priest and again mocking the "perceived materialism and violence of the Roman church '', according to Allison. In addition, in his role as film producer, Harrison supported Monty Python 's controversial parodying of the biblical story of Christ in Life of Brian (1979), about which he said: "Actually, (the film) was upholding Him and knocking all the idiotic stuff that goes on around religion. ''
Harrison and American producer Phil Spector began discussing the possibility of Harrison recording a solo album of songs in early 1970, after they had worked together on Lennon 's Plastic Ono Band single "Instant Karma! '' Before then, to show his support for Spector 's comeback from self - imposed retirement, Harrison had supplied a written endorsement of the producer 's work on the Ike & Tina Turner album River Deep -- Mountain High, when A&M Records issued the three - year - old recordings in 1969. Long a fan of Spector 's sound, Harrison praised River Deep -- Mountain High with the words: "a perfect record from start to finish. You could n't improve on it. ''
Beatles biographer Peter Doggett suggests that Harrison had intended to make an entire album of devotional songs but, with that not being "an appropriate dish to set before Phil Spector '', Harrison chose to delay starting work on All Things Must Pass and instead continued his activities with the Radha Krishna Temple. It was only after Paul McCartney 's departure from the Beatles, and the band 's break - up, that Harrison finally began sessions for his solo album -- in late May 1970, at Abbey Road Studios in London. Noting Spector 's application of his signature Wall of Sound production on "Awaiting on You All '', Inglis writes that, but for Harrison 's lyrics, the song "could be mistaken for the instrumental track of a song by the Ronettes '', one of Spector 's girl - group protégés during the 1960s.
The line - up of musicians on the basic track included Harrison and Eric Clapton, on electric guitars; bassists Klaus Voormann and Carl Radle, one of whom plays six - string bass; and drummer Jim Gordon, who formed Derek and the Dominos with Clapton and Radle during the sessions. In addition, Bobby Whitlock, the fourth member of the Dominos -- all of whom were formerly part of Delaney & Bonnie and Friends -- recalls playing Hammond organ on the song. Authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter note the presence of a piano part on the recording as well.
In his 2010 autobiography, Whitlock writes of Lennon and Ono visiting the studio during the All Things Must Pass sessions, during which Lennon "got his socks blown off '' by the music Harrison was recording. The Hare Krishna devotees regularly attended the sessions also; Spector later cited their presence as an example of how Harrison inspired tolerance in non-believers, since the Temple devotees could be "the biggest pain in the necks in the world '', according to Spector. Among the many unreleased songs from the All Things Must Pass sessions, Harrison recorded his all - Sanskrit composition "Gopala Krishna '', which Leng describes as "a rocking companion to ' Awaiting on You All ' ''.
Madinger and Easter view "Awaiting on You All '' as one of the more "heavily Spectorized '' productions on All Things Must Pass, due to Spector 's liberal use of echo and other Wall of Sound techniques. Among the extensive overdubs on the basic track, Harrison added what Leng terms a "virtual guitar orchestra '' of harmonised slide guitar parts, and former Delaney & Bonnie musicians Jim Price and Bobby Keys supplied horns. Whitlock and Clapton sang backing vocals with Harrison, credited on the album as "the George O'Hara - Smith Singers ''.
The recording also features prominent percussion such as tambourine and maracas. While the precise line - up on many of the songs on All Things Must Pass continues to invite conjecture, Badfinger drummer Mike Gibbins has said that Spector nicknamed him "Mr Tambourine Man '' due to his role on that instrument throughout the sessions, and that he and future Yes drummer Alan White played most of the percussion parts on the album, "switch (ing) on tambourine, sticks, bells, maracas... whatever was needed ''.
Apple Records released All Things Must Pass on 27 November 1970, with "Awaiting on You All '' sequenced as the penultimate track on side three, in the original LP format, preceding the album 's title song. Of the 23 tracks released on All Things Must Pass, it was one of the few overtly religious songs. Concerned at the potential offensiveness of the lyrics, EMI omitted verse three of "Awaiting on You All '' from the lyric sheet. Madinger and Easter write that the lyrical content of this verse "probably shot down any chances of it being the hit single it could otherwise have been ''.
Issued during a period when rock music was increasingly reflecting spiritual themes, All Things Must Pass was a major commercial success, outselling releases that year by Harrison 's former bandmates, and topping albums charts throughout the world. Describing the impact of the album, with reference to "Awaiting on You All '' 's exhortation to "chant the names of the Lord '', author Nicholas Schaffner wrote of Harrison being "rewarded with a Number One single all over the world '' with "My Sweet Lord ''.
On release, Rolling Stone critic Ben Gerson described "Awaiting on You All '' as "a Lesley Gore rave - up in which George manages to rhyme ' visas ' with ' Jesus ' ''. While he considered that lyrics such as "You 've been polluted so long '' "carry an air of sanctimoniousness and moral superiority which is offensive '', Gerson added: "Remarkably, he vindicates these lapses. '' Writing for the same magazine 30 years later, Anthony DeCurtis opined that "the heart of All Things Must Pass resides in its songs of spiritual acceptance '', and grouped "Awaiting on You All '' with "My Sweet Lord '' and "All Things Must Pass '' as Harrison compositions that "capture the sweet satisfactions of faith ''. In his 1970 review for the NME, Alan Smith described "Awaiting on You All '' as "a rapid fire thumper with good chord progressions '' and "one of the better tracks '' on the album. AllMusic critic Richie Unterberger views "Awaiting on You All '' as a highlight of a collection on which "nearly every song is excellent '', while author and critic Bob Woffinden lists it with "My Sweet Lord '', "Is n't It a Pity '' and "What Is Life '' as "all excellent songs ''.
In his book Phil Spector: Out of His Head, Richard Williams writes that, unlike Lennon and McCartney on their 1970 solo albums, "Harrison concentrated on pure joyous melodies -- the kind of songs that had made the group so loved '', and he says of "Awaiting on You All '': "Spector repaid Harrison for his benediction on the Ike and Tina Turner album cover by turning it into a virtual remake of ' River Deep -- Mountain High '. '' Mark Ribowsky, another Spector biographer, writes of the producer 's contribution to this and other songs on All Things Must Pass: "Phil 's rhythmically pounding basses and drum feels sutured George 's sentimentality with cheerful energy and made Indian asceticism into dance music. '' Simon Leng describes "Awaiting on You All '' as a "hot gospel stomper '' and "the most successful example of Spector 's work on the album ''. Writing for NME Originals in 2005, Adrian Thrills named "Awaiting on You All '' and "Wah - Wah '' as examples of "a tendency to over-egg the mix '' on the otherwise "magnificent '' All Things Must Pass, adding: "it is hard to think of another big rock album on which the tambourine is shaken quite so relentlessly. ''
In his AllMusic article on the song, Lindsay Planer views it as "somewhat of a sacred rocker '' with "ample lead guitar '', and comments that Harrison 's lyrics "cleverly (draw) upon an array of disparate imagery to convey a conversely simple spiritual revelation ''. Harrison biographer Alan Clayson considers the track "more uplifting '' than "My Sweet Lord '' and remarks on the aptness of Harrison 's subject matter in 1970 -- 71, when religious texts such as the Bible, the Koran and ISKCON 's Chant and Be Happy "now had discreet places on hip bookshelves ''. Former Mojo editor Mat Snow describes the song as "glorious white gospel '', in which Harrison "rejects the Catholicism of his Liverpool upbringing ''.
"Awaiting on You All '' has featured in the music reference books 1001 Songs You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery and 1001 Songs by Australian critic Toby Creswell. The latter describes the combination of Harrison 's "tasteful '' guitar parts and the "galloping '' rhythm section as "sublime and divine ''. In Dimery 's book, contributor Bruno MacDonald writes of the track: "' Awaiting on You All ' has a timeless exuberance that even Beatles - haters should experience. ''
"Awaiting on You All '' was one of the songs Harrison played at the Concert for Bangladesh, held at Madison Square Garden, New York, on 1 August 1971. Featuring backing from a band including Clapton, Voormann, Ringo Starr, Billy Preston, Jim Keltner and Jim Horn, Harrison performed the song at both the afternoon and the evening shows. The latter performance was included on the Concert for Bangladesh live album, which Spector again co-produced, and in the film of the concert. Joshua Greene comments on there being a "logical chronology '' to the first three songs in Harrison 's setlist for this second show: "starting with ' Wah Wah, ' which declared his independence from the Beatles; followed by ' My Sweet Lord, ' which celebrated his internal discovery of God and spirit; and then ' Awaiting on You All ' ''.
Writing in Rolling Stone, Jon Landau compared the less - polished performance of "Awaiting on You All '' with the studio version 's "perfect production '' and concluded: "it is exhilarating to hear his voice clearly singing the song for the first time, likewise the excellent guitar. '' In his album review for Melody Maker, Williams wrote of Harrison 's opening trio of songs: "Unbelievably, they 're as good as the originals, and in some ways even better, because they combine the power of the arrangements for horns and rhythm with a sense of joy that comes only in live performance. The two drummers (Ringo and Jim Keltner) are just breathtaking on ' Awaiting '... '' Planer also compliments what he calls "the tag - team percussion '' of Starr and Keltner, which "driv (es) through the heart of the performance ''.
In February 2001, during his extensive promotion for the 30th anniversary reissue of All Things Must Pass, Harrison named "Awaiting on You All '' among his three favourite tracks on the album. The electronic press kit accompanying the release included a scene where Harrison plays back the song at his Friar Park studio and isolates certain parts of the recording in turn, such as the backing vocals and slide guitars. In the CD booklet, Harrison 's liner notes conclude with a thank - you to "the amazing Mr. Phil Spector '' and the acknowledgement: "He helped me so much to get this record made. In his company I came to realise the true value of the Hare Krishna Mantra. '' The Pope - related lyrics in "Awaiting on You All '' were again omitted from the booklet; they similarly do not appear on the lyric sheet supplied with the 2014 Apple Years reissue.
Part of the 2001 playback scene was included in Martin Scorsese 's documentary George Harrison: Living in the Material World, and an early take from the 1970 sessions appeared on the bonus disc accompanying that film 's DVD release in late 2011. This demo version, which Harrison introduces as "Awaiting for You All '', was included on the compilation Early Takes: Volume 1 (2012). Referring to Harrison 's stated regret at the amount of echo Spector used on All Things Must Pass, compilation producer Giles Martin says of the song 's sparse arrangement on Early Takes: "I think this is really cool, it 's got a good basic band groove, I think of it as George breaking down a wall of sound. ''
In 1971, Detroit band Silver Hawk released a cover version of "Awaiting on You All '' as a single, which peaked at number 108 on Billboard magazine 's Bubbling Under listings. In Canada, Silver Hawk 's single climbed to number 49 on the RPM Top 100. A cover "worth mentioning '', according to Planer, is a version recorded by pedal steel guitarist Joe Goldmark, released on the 1997 tribute album Steelin ' the Beatles.
According to authors Simon Leng and Bruce Spizer, the line - up of musicians on "Awaiting on You All '' is as follows:
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who did vincent van gogh sell his painting to | The Red Vineyard - wikipedia
The Red Vineyards near Arles is an oil painting by the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh, executed on a privately primed Toile de 30 piece of burlap in early November 1888. The painting is believed to be the only van Gogh painting ever sold in his lifetime and has been listed among his major works.
The Red Vineyard was exhibited for the first time at the annual exhibition of Les XX, 1890 in Brussels, and sold for 400 Francs (equal to about $ 1,000 - 1,050 today) to Anna Boch, an impressionist painter, member of Les XX and art collector from Belgium; Anna was the sister of Eugène Boch, another impressionist painter and a friend of Van Gogh, too, who had painted Boch 's portrait (Le Peintre aux Étoiles) in Arles, in autumn 1888.
Like The Night Café, it was acquired by the famous Russian collector Sergei Shchukin, was then nationalised by the Bolsheviks with the rest of his collection, which eventually passed to the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow.
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who brought the teachings of quran in india | Quran - wikipedia
The Quran (/ kɔːrˈɑːn / kor - AHN; Arabic: القرآن al - Qurʾān, literally meaning "the recitation ''; also romanized Qur'an or Koran) is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God (Allah). It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature. The Quran is divided into chapters (surah in Arabic), which are then divided into verses (ayah).
Muslims believe that the Quran was verbally revealed by God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel (Jibril), gradually over a period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609 CE, when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as the most important miracle of Muhammad, a proof of his prophethood, and the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam and ended with Muhammad. The word "Quran '' occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names and words are also said to be references to the Quran.
According to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammad 's death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and memorized parts of it. These codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthman 's codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with mostly minor differences in meaning.
The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures. It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance for mankind 2: 185. It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. Hadith are additional oral and written traditions supplementing the Quran; from careful authentication they are believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad, and in some traditions also those closest to him. In most denominations of Islam, the Quran is used together with hadith to interpret sharia (Islamic) law; in a small number of denominations, only the Quran is used as a source. During prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic.
Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz. Quranic verse (ayah) is sometimes recited with a special kind of elocution reserved for this purpose, called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers. In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on exegesis, or tafsir.
The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (maṣdar) of the Arabic verb qaraʼa (قرأ), meaning "he read '' or "he recited ''. The Syriac equivalent is (ܩܪܝܢܐ) qeryānā, which refers to "scripture reading '' or "lesson ''. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qaraʼa itself. Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad 's lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the "act of reciting '', as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it (qurʼānahu). ''
In other verses, the word refers to "an individual passage recited (by Muhammad) ''. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al - qurʼān is recited, listen to it and keep silent. '' The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.
The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb (book); āyah (sign); and sūrah (scripture). The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al -), the word is referred to as the "revelation '' (waḥy), that which has been "sent down '' (tanzīl) at intervals. Other related words are: dhikr (remembrance), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning, and ḥikmah (wisdom), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.
The Quran describes itself as "the discernment '' (al - furqān), "the mother book '' (umm al - kitāb), "the guide '' (huda), "the wisdom '' (hikmah), "the remembrance '' (dhikr) and "the revelation '' (tanzīl; something sent down, signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place). Another term is al - kitāb (The Book), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term mus'haf (' written work ') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books.
Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in the Cave of Hira during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to hadith and Muslim history, after Muhammad immigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the Quraysh who were taken prisoners at the Battle of Badr regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones, and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most suras were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources, relating Muhammad 's use of the Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad 's death in 632. There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.
Sahih al - Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell '' and Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over). '' Muhammad 's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power '', the one who "grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he was (distant) two bows ' length or even nearer. '' The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad 's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad 's inspirations. However, Muhammad 's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad 's initial claim of prophethood.
The Quran describes Muhammad as "ummi '', which is traditionally interpreted as "illiterate, '' but the meaning is rather more complex. Medieval commentators such as Al - Tabari maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Muhammad 's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al - Din al - Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as Watt prefer the second meaning of "ummi '' -- they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts.
The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of Dhu al - Hijjah in the year 10 A.H., a date that roughly corresponds to February or March 632. The verse was revealed after the Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm.
Following Muhammad 's death in 632, a number of his companions who knew the Quran by heart were killed in the Battle of Yamama by Musaylimah. The first caliph, Abu Bakr (d. 634), subsequently decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved. Zayd ibn Thabit (d. 655) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah 's Apostle ''. Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand - written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died. Zayd 's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm - leaf stalks, thin stones and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. After Abu Bakr, Hafsa bint Umar, Muhammad 's widow, was entrusted with the manuscript. In about 650, the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (d. 656) began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula into Persia, the Levant, and North Africa. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr 's copy and prepare a standard copy of the Quran. Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad 's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed. The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.
According to Shia, Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661) compiled a complete version of the Quran shortly after Muhammad 's death. The order of this text differed from that gathered later during Uthman 's era in that this version had been collected in chronological order. Despite this, he made no objection against the standardized Quran and accepted the Quran in circulation. Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas'ud 's and Ubay ibn Ka'b 's codex, none of which exist today.
The Quran most likely existed in scattered written form during Muhammad 's lifetime. Several sources indicate that during Muhammad 's lifetime a large number of his companions had memorized the revelations. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support the above - mentioned understanding of the Quran 's early development. The Quran in its present form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants has not yielded any differences of great significance. University of Chicago professor Fred Donner states that "... there was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission. (...) After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts -- despite their numerous variants -- seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established. '' Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based. Historically, controversy over the Quran 's content has rarely become an issue, although debates continue on the subject.
In 1972, in a mosque in the city of Sana'a, Yemen, manuscripts were discovered that were later proved to be the most ancient Quranic text known to exist at the time. The Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsests, a manuscript page from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again -- a practice which was common in ancient times due to scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed - off underlying text (scriptio inferior) is still barely visible and believed to be "pre-Uthmanic '' Quranic content, while the text written on top (scriptio superior) is believed to belong to Uthmanic time. Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability.
In 2015, fragments of a very early Quran, dating back to 1370 years ago, were discovered in the library of the University of Birmingham, England. According to the tests carried out by Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, "with a probability of more than 95 %, the parchment was from between 568 and 645 ''. The manuscript is written in Hijazi script, an early form of written Arabic. This is possibly the earliest extant exemplar of the Quran, but as the tests allow a range of possible dates, it can not be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest. Saudi scholar Saud al - Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later.
Muslims believe the Quran to be the book of divine guidance revealed from God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years and view the Quran as God 's final revelation to humanity.
Revelation in Islamic and Quranic contexts means the act of God addressing an individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is tanzil (to send down) or nuzūl (to come down). As the Quran says, "With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down. ''
The Quran frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained. Some verses in the Quran seem to imply that even those who do not speak Arabic would understand the Quran if it were recited to them. The Quran refers to a written pre-text, "the preserved tablet '', that records God 's speech even before it was sent down.
The issue of whether the Quran is eternal or created became a theological debate (Quran 's createdness) in the ninth century. Mu'tazilas, an Islamic school of theology based on reason and rational thought, held that the Quran was created while the most widespread varieties of Muslim theologians considered the Quran to be co-eternal with God and therefore uncreated. Sufi philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.
Muslims believe that the present wording of the Quran corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad, and according to their interpretation of Quran 15: 9, it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be its guardian. ''). Muslims consider the Quran to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion.
Inimitability of the Quran (or "I'jaz '') is the belief that no human speech can match the Quran in its content and form. The Quran is considered an inimitable miracle by Muslims, effective until the Day of Resurrection -- and, thereby, the central proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran where in five different verses opponents are challenged to produce something like the Quran: "If men and sprites banded together to produce the like of this Quran they would never produce its like not though they backed one another. '' So the suggestion is that if there are doubts concerning the divine authorship of the Quran, come forward and create something like it. From the ninth century, numerous works appeared which studied the Quran and examined its style and content. Medieval Muslim scholars including al - Jurjani (d. 1078) and al - Baqillani (d. 1013) have written treatises on the subject, discussed its various aspects, and used linguistic approaches to study the Quran. Others argue that the Quran contains noble ideas, has inner meanings, maintained its freshness through the ages and has caused great transformations at the individual level and in history. Some scholars state that the Quran contains scientific information that agrees with modern science. The doctrine of the miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad 's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.
The first sura of the Quran is repeated in daily prayers and in other occasions. This sura, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited sura of the Quran:
Praised be God, Lord of the Universe, the Beneficent, the Merciful and Master of the Day of Judgment, You alone We do worship and from You alone we do seek assistance, guide us to the right path, the path of those to whom You have granted blessings, those who are neither subject to Your anger nor have gone astray. ''
Other sections of the Quran of choice are also read in daily prayers.
Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims, and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran 56: 79 ("none shall touch but those who are clean ''), some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water before touching a copy of the Quran, although this view is not universal. Worn - out copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water.
In Islam, most intellectual disciplines, including Islamic theology, philosophy, mysticism and jurisprudence, have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings. Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called ajr, thawab or hasanat.
The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so - called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination. The Quran is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as mosque lamps, metal work, pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums.
Calligraphy, 18th century. Brooklyn Museum.
Quranic inscriptions, Bara Gumbad mosque, Delhi, India.
Typical glass and enamel mosque lamp with the Ayat an - Nur or "Verse of Light '' (24: 35).
Quranic verses, Shahizinda mausoleum, Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
Quran page decoration art, Ottoman period.
The leaves from this Quran written in gold and contoured with brown ink have a horizontal format. This is admirably suited to classical Kufic calligraphy, which became common under the early Abbasid caliphs.
Manuscript of the Quran at the Brooklyn Museum
The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a sura. Suras are classified as Meccan or Medinan, depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina. However, a sura classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Sura titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the sura. Suras are arranged roughly in order of decreasing size. The sura arrangement is thus not connected to the sequence of revelation. Each sura except the ninth starts with the Bismillah (بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم), an Arabic phrase meaning "In the name of God ''. There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the Bismillah in the Quran, due to its presence in Quran 27: 30 as the opening of Solomon 's letter to the Queen of Sheba.
Each sura consists of several verses, known as ayat, which originally means a "sign '' or "evidence '' sent by God. The number of verses differs from sura to sura. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the Quran is 6,236; however, the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately.
In addition to and independent of the division into suras, there are various ways of dividing the Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 juz ' (plural ajzāʼ) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. Some of these parts are known by names -- which are the first few words by which the juzʼ starts. A juz ' is sometimes further divided into two ḥizb (plural aḥzāb), and each hizb subdivided into four rubʻ al - ahzab. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, manzil (plural manāzil), for it to be recited in a week.
A different structure is provided by semantical units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten ayat each. Such a section is called a rukū `.
The Muqattaʿat (Arabic: حروف مقطعات ḥurūf muqaṭṭaʿāt "disjoined letters '' or "disconnected letters ''; also "mysterious letters '') are combinations of between one and five Arabic letters figuring at the beginning of 29 out of the 114 surahs (chapters) of the (Quran just after the basmala. The letters are also known as fawātih (فواتح) or "openers '' as they form the opening verse of their respective suras. Four surahs are named for their muqatta'at, Ṭāʾ - Hāʾ, Yāʾ - Sīn, Ṣād and Qāf. The original significance of the letters is unknown. Tafsir (exegesis) has interpreted them as abbreviations for either names or qualities of God or for the names or content of the respective surahs.
According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 stems, 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots.
The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of God and the resurrection. Narratives of the early prophets, ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad 's time, charity and prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message.
The central theme of the Quran is monotheism. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., Quran 2: 20, 2: 29, 2: 255). God 's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., Quran 13: 16, 50: 38, etc.). All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well - being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.
The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You can not see any fault in God 's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw? ''
The doctrine of the last day and eschatology (the final fate of the universe) may be reckoned as the second great doctrine of the Quran. It is estimated that approximately one - third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time. There is a reference to the afterlife on most pages of the Quran and belief in the afterlife is often referred to in conjunction with belief in God as in the common expression: "Believe in God and the last day ''. A number of suras such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and its preparations. Some suras indicate the closeness of the event and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day. For instance, the first verses of Sura 22, which deal with the mighty earthquake and the situations of people on that day, represent this style of divine address: "O People! Be respectful to your Lord. The earthquake of the Hour is a mighty thing. ''
The Quran is often vivid in its depiction of what will happen at the end time. Watt describes the Quranic view of End Time:
The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man 's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection.
According to the Quran, God communicated with man and made his will known through signs and revelations. Prophets, or ' Messengers of God ', received revelations and delivered them to humanity. The message has been identical and for all humankind. "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty. '' The revelation does not come directly from God to the prophets. Angels acting as God 's messengers deliver the divine revelation to them. This comes out in Quran 42: 51, in which it is stated: "It is not for any mortal that God should speak to them, except by revelation, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal by his permission whatsoever He will. ''
Belief is a fundamental aspect of morality in the Quran, and scholars have tried to determine the semantic contents of "belief '' and "believer '' in the Quran. The ethico - legal concepts and exhortations dealing with righteous conduct are linked to a profound awareness of God, thereby emphasizing the importance of faith, accountability, and the belief in each human 's ultimate encounter with God. People are invited to perform acts of charity, especially for the needy. Believers who "spend of their wealth by night and by day, in secret and in public '' are promised that they "shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve ''. It also affirms family life by legislating on matters of marriage, divorce, and inheritance. A number of practices, such as usury and gambling, are prohibited. The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic law (sharia). Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the formal prayers (salat) and fasting in the month of Ramadan. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration. The term for charity, zakat, literally means purification. Charity, according to the Quran, is a means of self - purification.
The astrophysicist Nidhal Guessoum while being highly critical of pseudo-scientific claims made about the Quran, has highlighted the encouragement for sciences that the Quran provides by developing "the concept of knowledge. ''. He writes: "The Qur'an draws attention to the danger of conjecturing without evidence (And follow not that of which you have not the (certain) knowledge of... 17: 36) and in several different verses asks Muslims to require proofs (Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful 2: 111), both in matters of theological belief and in natural science. '' Guessoum cites Ghaleb Hasan on the definition of "proof '' according the Quran being "clear and strong... convincing evidence or argument. '' Also, such a proof can not rely on an argument from authority, citing verse 5: 104. Lastly, both assertions and rejections require a proof, according to verse 4: 174. Ismail al - Faruqi and Taha Jabir Alalwani are of the view that any reawakening of the Muslim civilization must start with the Quran; however, the biggest obstacle on this route is the "centuries old heritage of tafseer (exegesis) and other classical disciplines '' which inhibit a "universal, epidemiological and systematic conception '' of the Quran 's message. The philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, considered the Quran 's methodology and epistemology to be empirical and rational.
It 's generally accepted that there are around 750 verses in the Quran dealing with natural phenomena. In many of these verses the study of nature is "encouraged and highly recommended, '' and historical Islamic scientists like Al - Biruni and Al - Battani derived their inspiration from verses of the Quran. Mohammad Hashim Kamali has stated that "scientific observation, experimental knowledge and rationality '' are the primary tools with which humanity can achieve the goals laid out for it in the Quran. Ziauddin Sardar built a case for Muslims having developed the foundations of modern science, by highlighting the repeated calls of the Quran to observe and reflect upon natural phenomenon.
The physicist Abdus Salam, in his Nobel Prize banquet address, quoted a well known verse from the Quran (67: 3 -- 4) and then stated: "This in effect is the faith of all physicists: the deeper we seek, the more is our wonder excited, the more is the dazzlement of our gaze ''. One of Salam 's core beliefs was that there is no contradiction between Islam and the discoveries that science allows humanity to make about nature and the universe. Salam also held the opinion that the Quran and the Islamic spirit of study and rational reflection was the source of extraordinary civilizational development. Salam highlights, in particular, the work of Ibn al - Haytham and Al - Biruni as the pioneers of empiricism who introduced the experimental approach, breaking with Aristotle 's influence and thus giving birth to modern science. Salam was also careful to differentiate between metaphysics and physics, and advised against empirically probing certain matters on which "physics is silent and will remain so, '' such as the doctrine of "creation from nothing '' which in Salam 's view is outside the limits of science and thus "gives way '' to religious considerations.
The Quran 's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the suras and verses employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience 's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.
The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose '' as it partakes of both poetry and prose; however, this description runs the risk of failing to convey the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is more poetic in some parts and more prose - like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Sura 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.
The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net. The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and repetitiousness. Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown 's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression -- its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells 's phrase -- is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated. Sells also addresses the much - discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device.
A text is self - referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild, the Quran demonstrates this metatextuality by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self - referentiality is evident in those passages where the Quran refers to itself as revelation (tanzil), remembrance (dhikr), news (naba '), criterion (furqan) in a self - designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it? ''), or in the frequent appearance of the "Say '' tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g., "Say: ' God 's guidance is the true guidance ' '', "Say: ' Would you then dispute with us concerning God? ' ''). According to Wild the Quran is highly self - referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras.
The Quran has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication (tafsir), aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Quranic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance ''.
Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Quran, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims. Other early exegetes included a few Companions of Muhammad, like ʻ Ali ibn Abi Talib, ʻ Abdullah ibn Abbas, ʻ Abdullah ibn Umar and Ubayy ibn Kaʻb. Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (hadith) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.
Because the Quran is spoken in classical Arabic, many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always understand the Quranic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Quran. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad 's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "abrogating '' (nāsikh) the earlier text (mansūkh). Other scholars, however, maintain that no abrogation has taken place in the Quran. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has published a ten - volume Urdu commentary on the Quran, with the name Tafseer e Kabir.. Following this commentary, a five volume English commentary was also published as The English Commentary of the Holy Quran.
Esoteric or Sufi interpretation attempts to unveil the inner meanings of the Quran. Sufism moves beyond the apparent (zahir) point of the verses and instead relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (batin) and metaphysical dimensions of consciousness and existence. According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, they are allusions (isharat) rather than explanations (tafsir). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of each writer.
Sufi interpretation, according to Annabel Keeler, also exemplifies the use of the theme of love, as for instance can be seen in Qushayri 's interpretation of the Quran. Quran 7: 143 says:
when Moses came at the time we appointed, and his Lord spoke to him, he said, ' My Lord, show yourself to me! Let me see you! ' He said, ' you shall not see me but look at that mountain, if it remains standing firm you will see me. ' When his Lord revealed Himself to the mountain, He made it crumble. Moses fell down unconscious. When he recovered, he said, ' Glory be to you! I repent to you! I am the first to believe! '
Moses, in 7: 143, comes the way of those who are in love, he asks for a vision but his desire is denied, he is made to suffer by being commanded to look at other than the Beloved while the mountain is able to see God. The mountain crumbles and Moses faints at the sight of God 's manifestation upon the mountain. In Qushayri 's words, Moses came like thousands of men who traveled great distances, and there was nothing left to Moses of Moses. In that state of annihilation from himself, Moses was granted the unveiling of the realities. From the Sufi point of view, God is the always the beloved and the wayfarer 's longing and suffering lead to realization of the truths.
Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ta'wil indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (tanzil), as opposed to ta'wil, is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of ta'wil, which originally meant "to return '' or "the returning place ''. In Tabatabaei 's view, what has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse -- rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality -- which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute -- and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to.
According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like Muhammad and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except God '' remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran 's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent.
According to Tabatabaei, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God and ca n't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable ta'wil is where one "transfers '' the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable ta'wil has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and can not be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.
One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is Sulami (d. 1021) without whose work the majority of very early Sufi commentaries would not have been preserved. Sulami 's major commentary is a book named haqaiq al - tafsir ("Truths of Exegesis '') which is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), Daylami (d. 1193), Shirazi (d. 1209) and Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami 's books plus the author 's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Maybudi (d. 1135) kashf al - asrar ("the unveiling of the secrets ''). Rumi (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book Mathnawi. Rumi makes heavy use of the Quran in his poetry, a feature that is sometimes omitted in translations of Rumi 's work. A large number of Quranic passages can be found in Mathnawi, which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran. Rumi 's book is not exceptional for containing citations from and elaboration on the Quran, however, Rumi does mention Quran more frequently. Simnani (d. 1336) wrote two influential works of esoteric exegesis on the Quran. He reconciled notions of God 's manifestation through and in the physical world with the sentiments of Sunni Islam. Comprehensive Sufi commentaries appear in the 18th century such as the work of Ismail Hakki Bursevi (d. 1725). His work ruh al - Bayan (the Spirit of Elucidation) is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author 's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali).
Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some other Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect. For them, it is an essential idea that the Quran also has inward aspects. Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad:
The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth).
According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body. Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.
Commentaries dealing with the zahir (outward aspects) of the text are called tafsir, and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil ("interpretation '' or "explanation ''), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God. In contrast, Quranic literalism, followed by Salafis and Zahiris, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.
Reappropriation is the name of the hermeneutical style of some ex-Muslims who have converted to Christianity. Their style or reinterpretation is ad hoc and unsystematized and geared towards apologetics. This tradition of interpretation draws on the following practices: grammatical renegotiation, renegotiation of textual preference, retrieval, and concession.
Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult. Many argue that the Quranic text can not be reproduced in another language or form. Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.
Nevertheless, the Quran has been translated into most African, Asian, and European languages. The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian, who translated surat al - Fatiha into Persian during the seventh century. Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 in Alwar (Sindh, India, now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.
The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian. The Samanid king, Mansur I (961 -- 976), ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al - Tabari, originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al - Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian. In the 12th century, Najm al - Din Abu Hafs al - Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times.
Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran. In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.
In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known. In 2010, the Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.
Robert of Ketton 's 1143 translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, was the first into a Western language (Latin). Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of L'Alcoran de Mahomet (1647) by Andre du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has published translations of the Quran in 50 different languages besides a five - volume English commentary and an English translation of the Quran.
As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular "ye '' and "thou '' instead of the more common "you ''.
The oldest Gurumukhi translation of the Quran Sharif in Gurmukhi has been found in village Lande of Moga district of Punjab which was printed in 1911.
Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era.
The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: L'Alcoran de Mahomet, André du Ryer, 1647.
Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran.
Verses 33 and 34 of surat Yā Sīn in this Chinese translation of the Quran.
The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.
In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation, reciters who are not native speakers of Arabic language follow a program of training in countries such as Egypt or Saudi Arabia. The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters were highly influential in the development of the art of recitation. Southeast Asia is well known for world - class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah of Jakarta.
There are two types of recitation: murattal is at a slower pace, used for study and practice. Mujawwad refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the mujawwad reciter seeks to involve the listeners.
Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds were introduced into the Arabic language by the end of the 9th century. The first Quranic manuscripts lacked these marks, therefore several recitations remain acceptable. The variation in readings of the text permitted by the nature of the defective vocalization led to an increase in the number of readings during the 10th century. The 10th - century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, Ibn Mujāhid, is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th - century readers from the cities of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Damascus. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad 's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven "ahruf '' (meaning seven letters or modes). Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d. 796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid 's reciters, Aasim ibn Abi al - Najud (Kufa, d. 745) and Nafi ' al - Madani (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Quran of Cairo (1924) uses an elaborate system of modified vowel - signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim 's recitation, the 8th - century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran.
The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant. According to Melchert, the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line.
Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes, including internal vowels, long vowels, gemination (shaddah), assimilation and alternation.
Occasionally, an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir ad - Dimashqi. Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of himsi region.
Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in Ḥijāzī - type script. The Hijazi style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as Kufic scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles. Beginning in the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the naskh, muhaqqaq, rayḥānī and, on rarer occasions, the thuluth script. Naskh was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Spain, the Maghribī style was popular. More distinct is the Bihari script which was used solely in the north of India. Nastaʻlīq style was also rarely used in Persian world.
In the beginning, the Quran did not have vocalization markings. The system of vocalization, as we know it today, seems to have been introduced towards the end of the ninth century. Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or juzʼ. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.
Folio from the "Blue '' Quran. Brooklyn Museum.
kufic script, Eighth or ninth century.
maghribi script, 13th - 14th centuries.
muhaqaq script, 14th - 15th centuries.
shikasta nastaliq script, 18th - 19th centuries.
kufic script, with border decorations.
Wood - block printing of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century.
Arabic movable type printing was ordered by Pope Julius II (r. 1503 -- 1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians. The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537 / 1538 for the Ottoman market by Paganino Paganini and Alessandro Paganini. Two more editions include those published by the pastor Abraham Hinckelmann in Hamburg in 1694, and by Italian priest Ludovico Maracci in Padua in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary.
Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from Muslim legal scholars: printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1726 -- initially, even on penalty of death. The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non-religious texts only upon the request of Ibrahim Muteferrika, who printed his first book in 1729. Very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century.
In 1786, Catherine the Great of Russia, sponsored a printing press for "Tatar and Turkish orthography '' in Saint Petersburg, with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types. A Quran was printed with this press in 1787, reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg, and in 1803 in Kazan. The first edition printed in Iran appeared in Tehran (1828), a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842, and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in Constantinople between 1875 and 1877 as a two - volume set, during the First Constitutional Era.
Gustav Flügel published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in Leipzig, which remained authoritative for close to a century, until Cairo 's Al - Azhar University published an edition of the Quran in 1924. This edition was the result of a long preparation as it standardized Quranic orthography and remains the basis of later editions.
The Quran 's statements on the creation of the universe and earth, the origins of human life, biology, earth sciences and so on have been criticized by scientists as containing fallacies, being unscientific, and likely to be contradicted by evolving scientific theories. Several scholars have said that it lacks clarity despite calling itself a clear book.
The Quran speaks well of the relationship it has with former books (the Torah and the Gospels) and attributes their similarities to their unique origin and saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.
The Quran 's language was similar to the Syriac language according to The Syro - Aramaic Reading of the Koran. The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual. Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad, while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than the New Testament.
Some non-Muslim groups such as Baha'is and Druze view the Quran as holy. Unitarian Universalists may also seek inspiration from the Quran. The Quran has been noted to have certain narratives similarities to the Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel. One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a gospel harmony, may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.
After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form.
Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago, and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University, state:
Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad 's prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that the Quran was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature.
The main areas in which the Quran exerted noticeable influence on Arabic literature are diction and themes; other areas are related to the literary aspects of the Quran particularly oaths (q.v.), metaphors, motifs and symbols. As far as diction is concerned, one could say that Quranic words, idioms and expressions, especially "loaded '' and formulaic phrases, appear in practically all genres of literature and in such abundance that it is simply impossible to compile a full record of them. For not only did the Quran create an entirely new linguistic corpus to express its message, it also endowed old, pre-Islamic words with new meanings and it is these meanings that took root in the language and subsequently in the literature...
"Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence. ''
"It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it. ''
Introductory texts:
Traditional Quranic commentaries (tafsir):
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Coordinates: 41 ° 55 ′ 48 '' N 87 ° 38 ′ 37 '' W / 41.93 ° N 87.643611 ° W / 41.93; - 87.643611
The Wieners Circle is a hot dog stand on Clark Street in the Lincoln Park neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois, United States. It is known for its Maxwell Street Polish, Char - dogs, hamburgers, cheese fries, and the mutual verbal abuse between the employees and the customers during the late - weekend hours.
The establishment is known for its char - grilled food, especially its hot dogs and hamburgers (commonly called char - dogs and char - burgers). A Wiener Circle char dog with "the works '' is a grilled Vienna Beef hot dog on a warm poppy seed bun, topped with mustard, onions, relish, dill pickle spears, tomato slices, sport peppers and a dash of celery salt.
The Weiners Circle opened for business in 1983. Sometime in the early 1990s (circa 1992) Larry Gold, one of the proprietors, called a drunk and distracted customer an "asshole '' in order to get his attention. This set off the late - night abuse culture of the restaurant. The atmosphere can range from playful to hostile. The language used by both the staff and customers during these hours is notoriously foul and aggressive. On the weekends, the establishment stays open as late as 5: 00 am, drawing many drunken customers who have arrived from bars and clubs.
The nightly tips are very high, and people have worked there for ten years or more. The location of the hot dog stand is just north of what used to be the Wrightwood Hotel. In 2008, the restaurant was briefly closed by health inspectors for not having hot running water where employees would wash their hands, and other food safety violations.
In March 2016, the restaurant offered 3 - inch "Trump footlong '' hot dogs. In June 2017 they advertised "Paris Accord compliant covfefe ''.
One of the more famous employees is Roberta "Poochie '' Jackson, who was featured (along with the restaurant) in a 2007 episode of the Showtime television version of the Chicago Public Radio program This American Life, as well as an episode of Extreme Fast Food on the Travel Channel. In Chicago travel guides, The Wieners Circle is often extolled as a source for authentic Chicago - style hot dogs and its uniquely abrasive customer relations. Journalist Catherine Price listed The Wieners Circle in her book 101 Places Not to See Before You Die, calling it "a microcosm of segregation in Chicago '', and commenting, "If our metric were ' places that make me sad about humanity, ' late night at Wiener 's Circle would have been at the top. ''
The restaurant was featured in an episode of Insomniac with Dave Attell on Comedy Central in 2002.
The restaurant is the setting for a truTV reality game show.
The Wieners Circle was featured in both radio and TV episodes of This American Life.
The restaurant was the setting of a sketch featuring Jack McBrayer and Triumph, the Insult Comic Dog in the June 14, 2012 episode of the late night talk show Conan, which was the last in a week of shows taped in Chicago.
The restaurant was featured in an episode of the Extreme Fast Food specials on the Travel Channel.
In the "Going Deep '' episode of The Great Indoors Jack takes Eddie there to cheer him up after his divorce, only to have staffer Valerie (played by Poochie Jackson herself) unwittingly razzes Eddie about his divorce. Jack later sends Clark and Emma there as a prank, as they do n't understand that the insults are part of the experience.
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what is the minimum age for president of united states | Age of candidacy - wikipedia
Age of candidacy is the minimum age at which a person can legally qualify to hold certain elected government offices. In many cases, it also determines the age at which a person may be eligible to stand for an election or be granted ballot access.
The first known example of a law enforcing age of candidacy was the Lex Villia Annalis, a Roman law enacted in 180 BCE which set the minimum ages for senatorial magistrates.
Many youth rights groups view current age of candidacy requirements as unjustified age discrimination. Occasionally people who are younger than the minimum age will run for an office in protest of the requirement or because they do n't know that the requirement exists. On extremely rare occasions, young people have been elected to offices they do not qualify for and have been deemed ineligible to assume the office.
In 1934, Rush Holt of West Virginia was elected to the Senate of the United States at the age of 29. Since the U.S. Constitution requires senators to be at least 30, Holt was forced to wait until his 30th birthday, six months after the start of the session, before being sworn in.
In 1954, Richard Fulton won election to the Tennessee Senate. Shortly after being sworn in, Fulton was ousted from office because he was only 27 years old at the time. The Tennessee State Constitution required that senators be at least 30. Rather than hold a new election, the previous incumbent, Clifford Allen, was allowed to resume his office for another term. Fulton went on to win the next State Senate election in 1956 and was later elected to the US House of Representatives where he served for 10 years.
In South Carolina, two Senators aged 24 were elected, but were too young according to the State Constitution: Mike Laughlin in 1969 and Bryan Dorn (later a US Congressman) in 1941. They were seated anyway.
On several occasions, the Socialist Workers Party (USA) has nominated candidates too young to qualify for the offices they were running for. In 1972, Linda Jenness ran as the SWP presidential candidate, although she was only 31 at the time. Since the U.S. Constitution requires that the President and Vice President be at least 35 years old, Jenness was not able to receive ballot access in several states in which she otherwise qualified. Despite this handicap, Jenness still received 83,380 votes. In 2004, the SWP nominated Arrin Hawkins as the party 's vice-presidential candidate, although she was only 28 at the time. Hawkins was also unable to receive ballot access in several states due to her age.
In the United States, many groups have attempted to lower age of candidacy requirements in various states. In 1994, South Dakota voters rejected a ballot measure that would have lowered the age requirements to serve as a State Senator or State Representative from 30 to 18. In 1998, however, they approved a similar ballot measure that reduced the age requirements for those offices from 25 to 21. In 2002, Oregon voters rejected a ballot measure that would have reduced the age requirement to serve as a State Representative from 21 to 18.
During the early 2000s, the British Youth Council and other groups successfully campaigned to lower age of candidacy requirements in the United Kingdom. The age of candidacy was reduced from 21 to 18 in England, Wales and Scotland on 1 January 2007, when section 17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 entered into force.
In Australia a person must be aged 18 or over to stand for election to public office at federal, state or local government level.
The youngest ever member of the House of Representatives was 20 - year - old Wyatt Roy elected in the 2010 federal election after the Electoral Act 1918 was amended (in 1973) to reduce the age of candidacy for that office from 21 to 18.
In Austria, a person must be 18 years of age or older to stand in elections to the European Parliament or National Council. The Diets of regional Länder are able to set a minimum age lower than 18 for candidacy in elections to the Diet itself as well as to municipal councils in the Land. In presidential elections the candidacy age is 35.
Any Belgian who has reached the age of 21 years can stand for election for the Chamber of Representatives, can become a member of the Senate, or can be elected in one of the regional parliaments. This is regulated in the Constitution and in the Special Law on the Reform of the Institutions.
According to the Constitution of Belize, a person must be at least 18 years old to be elected as a member of the House of Representatives and must be at least 30 to be Speaker of the House. A person must be at least 18 years old to be appointed to the Senate and must be at least 30 to be President or Vice-President of the Senate. As only members of the House of Representatives are eligible to be appointed Prime Minister, the Prime Minister must be at least 18 years old. A person must also be at least 18 years old to be elected to a village council.
The Brazilian Constitution (Article 14, Section 3 (VI)) defines 35 years as the minimum age for someone to be elected President, Vice-President or Senator; 30 years for state Governor or Vice-Governor; 21 for Federal or State Deputy, Mayor or Vice-Mayor; and 18 for city Councilman.
In Canada (other than Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, the Prince Edward Island, Quebec and Saskatchewan) a person must be aged 19 or over (18 in Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, the Prince Edward Island, Quebec and Saskatchewan) to stand for election to public office. However, to be appointed to the Senate, one must be at least 30 years of age, must possess land worth at least $4,000 in the province for which he or she is appointed, and must own real and personal property worth at least $4,000, above his or her debts and liabilities.
In Chile the minimum age required to be elected President of the Republic is 35 years on the day of the election. Before the 2005 reforms the requirement was 40 years, and from 1925 to 1981 it was 30 years. For senators it is 35 years (between 1981 and 2005 it was 40 years) and for deputies it is 21 years (between 1925 and 1970 it was 35 years).
In China the minimum age to be elected as president or vice-president is 45.
In Cyprus the minimum age to be elected president is 35 years.
In the Czech Republic, a person must be at least 18 years old to be elected in local elections. A person must be at least 21 years old to be elected to the lower house of the Czech Parliament or to the European Parliament and 40 years old to be a member of the upper house (Senate) of the Parliament or the President of the Czech Republic.
In Denmark, any adult 18 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected in any public election.
In Estonia, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected in local elections, and 21 years or older in parliamentary elections. The minimum age for the President of Estonia is 40.
In France, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected to the lower house of Parliament, and 24 years or older for the Senate. The minimum age for the President of France is 18.
In Germany, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected in national, regional or local elections. The only exception is the Landtag election in Hesse where a minimum age of 21 is required. The minimum age for the President is 40.
In Hong Kong a person must be at least 21 to be candidate in a district council or Legislative Council election. A person must be at least 40 to be candidate in the Chief Executive election, and also at least 40 to be candidate in the election for the President of the Legislative Council from among the members of the Legislative Council.
In India a person must be at least:
In Indonesia a person must be at least:
In Israel one must be at least 21 to become a member of the Knesset (Basic Law: The Knesset section 6 (a)) or a municipality. When the Prime Minister was directly elected, one must have been a member of the Knesset who is at least 30 to be a candidate for Prime Minister. Every Israeli Citizen (including minors) can be appointed as a Government Minister, or elected as President of Israel, but the latter role is mostly ceremonial and elected by the Parliament.
In Italy, a person must be at least 50 to be President of the Republic, 40 to be a Senator, and 25 to be a Deputy, as specified in the 1947 Constitution of Italy. 18 years of age is sufficient, however, to be elected member of the Council of Regions, Provinces, and Municipalities (Communes).
In Iran a person must be at least 21 years old to run for president.
The Iraqi constitution states that a person must be at least 40 years old to run for president and 35 years old to be Prime Minister. The Iraqi Election Law No. 45 of 2013 states that a person must be 30 years old to run for the House of Representatives. There are proposals by various MP 's to amend the Law and reduce the age from 30 to 25.
The 1937 Constitution of Ireland requires the President to be at least 35 and members of the Oireachtas (legislature) to be 21. Members of the European Parliament for Ireland must also be 21. Members of local authorities must be 18, reduced from 21 in 1973. The 1922 -- 37 Constitution of the Irish Free State required TDs (members of the Dáil, lower house) to be 21, whereas Senators had to be 35 (reduced to 30 in 1928). The Thirty - fifth Amendment of the Constitution (Age of Eligibility for Election to the Office of President) Bill 2015 proposes to lower the presidential age limit to 21. However, this proposal was rejected by 73 % of the voters.
In Japan a person must be at least:
In South Korea, a person must be at least 40 years old to be President. A person must be at least 25 years old to be the member of the National Assembly or to be Mayor or Governor.
In Malaysia, any citizen 21 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected to the Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Undangan Negeri. Minimum age for the Senator is 30 by constitution.
In Mexico, a person must be at least 35 to be President, 25 to be a Senator, or 21 to be a Congressional Deputy, as specified in the 1917 Constitution of Mexico.
In the Netherlands, any adult 18 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected in any public election.
In New Zealand the minimum age to be Prime Minister of New Zealand is 18 years old. Citizens and permanent residents who are enrolled as an elector are eligible to be a candidate for election as a Member of Parliament.
In Nigeria, a person must be at least 35 years of age to be elected President or Vice President, 30 to be a Senator or State Governor, and 25 to be a Representative in parliament.
In Norway, any adult can become a candidate and be elected in any public election, from the calendar year that he or she turns 18 years.
In Pakistan, a person must be at least 45 years old to be President. A person must be at least 25 years old to be a member of the provincial assembly or national assembly.
In Singapore a person must be at least 45 years old to run for president.
Section 47, Clause 1 of the 1996 Constitution of South Africa states that "Every citizen who is qualified to vote for the National Assembly is eligible to be a member of the Assembly '', defaulting to Section 46 which "provides for a minimum voting age of 18 years '' in National Assembly elections; Sections 106 and 105 provide the same for provincial legislatures.
In Sweden, any citizen who resides, or who has resided in the realm can be elected to parliament, country council or municipal council.
In Switzerland, any citizen aged 18 or over can become a candidate and be elected in any federal election.
In Thailand the minimum age to be elected to the National Assembly is 35 years.
The 1876 constitution set the age for parliamentary elections as 30. This remained unchanged until 13 October 2006, when it was lowered to 25 through a constitutional amendment. In 2017, it was further lowered to 18, the same as the voting age.
The Prime Minister of Turkey has to be a member of the parliament, hence it has the same requirements as parliamentary eligibility. The age of candidacy for the President is 18. Due to new laws being voted in as said Prime Minister is related to parliament and in order to be in parliament you have to be 18 and the government of Turkey said that 18 will be the age for when you can run for prime minister.
In the United Kingdom, a person must be aged 18 or over in Northern Ireland, England, and Wales, and 16 or over in Scotland to stand in elections to all parliaments, assemblies, and councils at the European, UK, devolved, or local level. This age requirement also applies in elections to any individual elective public office; the main example is that of an elected mayor, whether of London or a local authority. There are no higher age requirements for particular positions in public office. Candidates are required to be aged 18 on both the day of nomination and the day of the poll. This was reduced from 21 by the Electoral Administration Act 2006.
In the United States, a person must be aged 35 or over to be President or Vice President, 30 or over to be a Senator, and 25 or over to be a Representative, as specified in the U.S. Constitution. Most states in the U.S. also have age requirements for the offices of Governor, State Senator, and State Representative. Some states have a minimum age requirement to hold any elected office (usually 21 or 18).
In Venezuela, a person must be at least 30 to be President or Vice President, 21 to be a deputy for the National Assembly and 25 to be the Governor of a state.
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how many subscribers did dantdm have in 2014 | DanTDM - wikipedia
Daniel Robert Middleton (born 8 November 1991), known online as DanTDM (formerly The Diamond Minecart), is a British YouTube personality, professional gamer, and author. His online video channels have covered many video games, mainly the popular game Minecraft. His channel has been listed among the top YouTube channels in the United Kingdom. In 2014, Business Insider estimated Middleton 's annual income to be somewhere between $213,000 and $2.15 million. In July 2015, his channel was listed as one of the most popular YouTubers in the world by viewership. He has earned several Kids ' Choice Awards as well as set Guinness World Records for his gaming and presenting. In 2017, Middleton topped the Forbes list of Highest - Paid YouTube Stars, earning $16.5 million (about GB £ 12.2 million) in one year. As of August 2018, Middleton has over 13 billion views and 20 million subscribers, making him the 44th most - subscribed YouTuber.
Middleton was born on 8 November 1991 in Aldershot, England, as the elder of two siblings. His parents divorced when he was a child. He attended the University of Northampton, and started a YouTube channel in 2010 dedicated to Pokémon while at university, in which he called himself "PokemanDanLv45 ''.
In 2012, Middleton created The Diamond Minecart, a gaming channel whose audience consists of mostly children ages 5 -- 10. He changed his YouTube channel name to TheDiamondMinecart / / DanTDM, and then, on 12 December 2016, to just DanTDM. He produces videos out of his home studio in Wellingborough. In an interview with The Big Issue, Middleton describes his process in making videos: he gets up around 9am and starts working on the video an hour later. He checks for Minecraft updates, edits the videos in the afternoon, and uploads the finished product at 8: 30pm, after which, he checks for comments. He said "There is n't another game where free content comes out every day made by fans, and some of it is mind blowing. '' On weekends, he prepares videos in advance. In addition to Let 's Play videos, he makes mini films that involve original characters.
Middleton has been a regular guest at the Insomnia gaming festivals. He was also featured twice on CBBC 's Technobabble, where he commented on several videogames, and once on ITV 's Lorraine, where he talked about being a YouTuber.
He released a graphic novel called Trayaurus and the Enchanted Crystal on 6 October 2016. The graphic novel features characters from his YouTube shows including: DanTDM and his dog Grim, the scientist Dr. Trayaurus, evil lab boss Denton and sidekick Fin. The novel reached the number one spot on The New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover graphic books in Japan for eleven weeks. He was a featured guest at the Cheltenham Literature Festival and went on a book tour that included parts of the UK and a visit to New York City. In 2017, he has gone on another tour to the United States to 21 venues. In that same year, he went on another tour in Australia.
His online video channel had focused primarily on the popular game Minecraft, but as of 2016, he has allocated part of his channel to playing other video games, such as Roblox and Tomodachi Life.
He was in an episode of the Netflix animated web series Skylanders Academy where he voiced a character named Cy.
In 2017, he created a web series called DanTDM Creates a Big Scene starring himself and featuring other social media entertainers and actors. The series premiered on April 7, 2017 exclusively for YouTube Red, YouTube 's subscription service, The show "follows DanTDM and his group of animated friends as they battle to keep their live show on the road ''. and ran for 6 episodes.
In June 2013, when his channel exceeded 100,000 subscribers, he posted a video showing his real - life self for the first time, thanking the fans, and announcing plans to create video blogs about his real life. The channel was called MoreTDM in 2014, in which he posts videos about his daily "non-Minecraft '' life.
Middleton married his girlfriend Jemma on 17 March 2013; she also enjoys Minecraft: "we spend a lot of time gaming together, and I bounce ideas off her as well ''.
Middleton mentioned in his 2013 "Draw My Life '' video that he has a brother.
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close encounters of the third kind oscar nominations | Close Encounters of the Third Kind - wikipedia
Close Encounters of the Third Kind is a 1977 American science fiction film written and directed by Steven Spielberg, and starring Richard Dreyfuss, Melinda Dillon, Teri Garr, Bob Balaban, Cary Guffey, and François Truffaut. It tells the story of Roy Neary, an everyday blue - collar worker in Indiana, whose life changes after an encounter with an unidentified flying object (UFO).
Close Encounters was a long - cherished project for Spielberg. In late 1973, he developed a deal with Columbia Pictures for a science fiction film. Though Spielberg received sole credit for the script, he was assisted by Paul Schrader, John Hill, David Giler, Hal Barwood, Matthew Robbins, and Jerry Belson, all of whom contributed to the screenplay in varying degrees. The title is derived from Ufologist J. Allen Hynek 's classification of close encounters with aliens, in which the third kind denotes human observations of aliens or "animate beings. '' Douglas Trumbull served as the visual effects supervisor, while Carlo Rambaldi designed the aliens.
Made on a production budget of $20 million, Close Encounters was released in a limited number of cities on November 16, 1977 and November 23, 1977 before expanding into wide release the following month. It was a critical and financial success, eventually grossing over $300 million worldwide. The film received numerous awards and nominations at the 50th Academy Awards, 32nd British Academy Film Awards, the 35th Golden Globe Awards, the 5th Saturn Awards, and has been widely acclaimed by the American Film Institute.
In December 2007, it was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. A Special Edition of the film, featuring additional scenes, was released theatrically in 1980. A third cut of the film was issued on VHS and LaserDisc in 1998 (and later DVD and Blu - ray). The film was remastered in 4K and re-released in theatres on September 1, 2017 for its 40th anniversary.
In the Sonoran Desert, French scientist Claude Lacombe and his American interpreter, cartographer David Laughlin, along with other government scientific researchers, discover Flight 19, a squadron of Grumman TBM Avengers that went missing more than 30 years earlier. The planes are intact and operational, but there is no sign of the pilots. An old man who witnessed the event claimed "the sun came out at night, and sang to him. '' They also find a lost cargo ship in the Gobi Desert named SS Cotopaxi. At an air traffic control center in Indianapolis, a controller listens as two airline flights narrowly avoid a mid-air collision with an unidentified flying object (UFO), which neither pilot chooses to report, even when invited to do so. In Muncie, Indiana, 3 - year - old Barry Guiler is awakened in the night when his toys start operating on their own. Fascinated, he gets out of bed and discovers something or someone (off - screen) in the kitchen. He runs outside, forcing his mother, Jillian, to chase after him.
Investigating one of a series of large - scale power outages, Indiana electrical lineman Roy Neary experiences a close encounter with a UFO, when it flies over his truck and lightly burns the side of his face with its bright lights. The UFO, joining a group of three other UFOs, is pursued by Neary and three police cars, but the spacecraft fly off into the night sky. Roy becomes fascinated by UFOs, much to the dismay of his wife, Ronnie. He also becomes increasingly obsessed with subliminal, mental images of a mountain - like shape and begins to make models of it. Jillian also becomes obsessed with sketching a unique - looking mountain. Soon after, she is terrorized in her home by a UFO which descends from the clouds. The presence of the UFO energy field makes every appliance in Jillian 's house malfunction and Barry is abducted by unseen beings.
Lacombe and Laughlin -- along with a group of United Nations experts -- continue to investigate increasing UFO activity and strange, related occurrences. Witnesses in Dharamshala, India report that the UFOs make distinctive sounds: a five - tone musical phrase in a major scale. Scientists broadcast the phrase to outer space, but are mystified by the response: a seemingly meaningless series of numbers (104 44 30 40 36 10) repeated over and over until Laughlin, with his background in cartography, recognizes it as a set of geographical coordinates, which point to Devils Tower near Moorcroft, Wyoming. Lacombe and the U.S. military converge on Wyoming. The United States Army evacuates the area, planting false reports in the media that a train wreck has spilled a toxic nerve gas, all the while preparing a secret landing zone for the UFOs and their occupants.
Meanwhile, Roy 's increasingly erratic behavior causes Ronnie to become upset and leave him, taking their three children with her, never to be seen again. When a despairing Roy inadvertently sees a television news program about the train wreck near Devils Tower, he realizes the mental image of a mountain plaguing him is real. Jillian sees the same broadcast, and she and Roy, as well as others with similar visions and experiences, travel to the site in spite of the public warnings about nerve gas.
While most of the civilians who are drawn to the site are apprehended by the Army, Roy and Jillian persist and make it to the site just as dozens of UFOs appear in the night sky. The government specialists at the site begin to communicate with the UFOs by use of light and sound on a large electrical billboard controlled by a multiple - manual synthesizer. Following this, an enormous mother ship lands at the site, releasing animals and over a dozen long - missing adults and children, all from different past eras. Among these returned abductees include the missing pilots from Flight 19 and sailors from the Cotopaxi, all of whom have strangely not aged since their abductions. Barry is also returned and reunited with a relieved Jillian. The government officials decide to include Roy in a group of people whom they have selected to be potential visitors to the mothership, and hastily prepare him.
As the aliens finally emerge from the mothership, they select Roy to join them on their travels. As Roy enters the mothership, one of the aliens pauses for a few moments with the humans. Lacombe uses Curwen hand signs that correspond to the five - note alien tonal phrase. The alien replies with the same gestures, smiles, and returns to its ship, which ascends into space, as Barry bids Roy goodbye.
J. Allen Hynek makes a cameo appearance in the closing scene. Spielberg 's friends Hal Barwood and Matthew Robbins cameo as two World War II pilots returning from the mother ship. Real - life ARP technician Phil Dodds cameos as the operator of the ARP 2500 synthesizer communicating with the alien ship. Musician Jerry Garcia also makes an appearance in the crowd scene. Carl Weathers appeared as a soldier in the film.
The film 's origins can be traced to director Steven Spielberg 's youth, when he and his father watched a meteor shower in New Jersey. As a teenager, Spielberg completed the full - length science fiction film Firelight. Many scenes from Firelight would be incorporated in Close Encounters on a shot - for - shot basis. In 1970 he wrote a short story called Experiences about a lovers ' lane in a Midwestern United States farming community and the "light show '' a group of teenagers see in the night sky. In late 1973, during post-production on The Sugarland Express, Spielberg developed a deal with Columbia Pictures for a science fiction film. 20th Century Fox previously turned down the offer. Julia and Michael Phillips instantly signed on as producers.
He first considered doing a documentary or a low - budget feature film about people who believed in UFOs. Spielberg decided "a film that depended on state of the art technology could n't be made for $2.5 million. '' Borrowing a phrase from the ending of The Thing from Another World, he retitled the film Watch the Skies, rewriting the premise concerning Project Blue Book and pitching the concept to Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz. Katz remembered "It had flying saucers from outer space landing on Robertson Boulevard (in West Hollywood, California). I go, ' Steve, that 's the worst idea I ever heard. '' Spielberg brought Paul Schrader to write the script in December 1973 with principal photography to begin in late 1974. However, Spielberg started work on Jaws in 1974, pushing Watch the Skies back.
With the financial and critical success of Jaws, Spielberg earned a vast amount of creative control from Columbia, including the right to make the film any way he wanted. Schrader turned in his script, which Spielberg called, "one of the most embarrassing screenplays ever professionally turned in to a major film studio or director. It was a terribly guilt - ridden story not about UFOs at all. '' Titled Kingdom Come, the script 's protagonist was a 45 - year - old Air Force Officer named Paul Van Owen who worked with Project Blue Book. "(His) job for the government is to ridicule and debunk flying saucers. '' Schrader continued. "One day he has an encounter. He goes to the government, threatening to blow the lid off to the public. Instead, he and the government spend 15 years trying to make contact. '' Spielberg and Schrader experienced creative differences, hiring John Hill to rewrite. At one point the main character was a police officer. Spielberg "(found) it hard to identify with men in uniform. I wanted to have Mr. Everyday Regular Fella. '' Spielberg rejected the Schrader / Hill script during post-production on Jaws. He reflected, "they wanted to make it like a James Bond adventure. ''
David Giler performed a rewrite; Hal Barwood and Matthew Robbins, friends of Spielberg, suggested the plot device of a kidnapped child. Spielberg then began to write the script. The song "When You Wish upon a Star '' from Pinocchio influenced Spielberg 's writing style. "I hung my story on the mood the song created, the way it affected me personally. '' Jerry Belson and Spielberg wrote the shooting script together. In the end, Spielberg was given solo writing credit. During pre-production, the title was changed from Kingdom Come to Close Encounters of the Third Kind. J. Allen Hynek, who worked with the United States Air Force on Project Blue Book, was hired as a scientific consultant. Hynek felt "even though the film is fiction, it 's based for the most part on the known facts of the UFO mystery, and it certainly catches the flavor of the phenomenon. Spielberg was under enormous pressure to make another blockbuster after Jaws, but he decided to make a UFO movie. He put his career on the line. '' USAF and NASA declined to cooperate on the film. In fact, NASA reportedly sent a 20 - page letter to Spielberg, telling him that releasing the film was dangerous. In an interview, he said: "I really found my faith when I heard that the Government was opposed to the film. If NASA took the time to write me a 20 - page letter, then I knew there must be something happening. ''
Early in pre-production, Spielberg hired the film title designer Dan Perri to design a logotype for Close Encounters. Perri, who had previously worked on The Exorcist (1973) and Taxi Driver (1976), produced a logotype in Handel Gothic typeface, with only a script to work from. Spielberg was delighted with the result, and applied the logo to all production stationery and crew shirts. Unusually in filmmaking, Spielberg carried enough influence to maintain creative control over the film 's entire branding, and asked Perri to design the advertising campaign and title sequence for Close Encounters based on his logo. Perri later went on to design titles for a number of other major Hollywood pictures, including Star Wars (1977), Raging Bull (1980), and Airplane! (1980).
Principal photography began on May 16, 1976, though an Associated Press report in August 1975 had suggested filming would start in late 1975. Spielberg did not want to do any location shooting because of his negative experience on Jaws and wanted to shoot Close Encounters entirely on sound stages, but eventually dropped the idea.
Filming took place in Burbank, California; Devils Tower National Monument in Wyoming; two abandoned World War II airship hangars at the former Brookley Air Force Base in Mobile, Alabama; and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad depot in Bay Minette. The home where Barry was abducted is located outside the town of Fairhope, Alabama. Roy Neary 's home is at Carlisle Drive East in Mobile. The UFOs fly through the former toll booth at the Vincent Thomas Bridge, San Pedro, California. The Gobi Desert sequence was photographed at the Dumont Dunes, California, and the Dharmsala - India exteriors were filmed at the small village of Hal near Khalapur, 35 miles (56 km) outside Bombay, India. The hangars in Alabama were six times larger than the biggest sound stage in the world. Various technical and budgetary problems occurred during filming. Spielberg called Close Encounters "twice as bad and twice as expensive (as Jaws) ''.
Matters worsened when Columbia Pictures experienced financial difficulties. Spielberg estimated the film would cost $2.7 million to make in his original 1973 pitch to Columbia, but the final budget came to $19.4 million. Columbia studio executive John Veich remembered, "If we knew it was going to cost that much, we would n't have greenlighted it because we did n't have the money. '' Spielberg hired Joe Alves, his collaborator on Jaws, as production designer. In addition the 1976 Atlantic hurricane season brought tropical storms to Alabama. A large portion of the sound stage in Alabama was damaged because of a lightning strike. Columbia raised $7 million from three sources: Time Inc., EMI, and German tax shelters.
Cinematographer Vilmos Zsigmond said that, during the time of shooting for the film, Spielberg got more ideas by watching movies every night which in turn extended the production schedule because he was continually adding new scenes to be filmed. Zsigmond previously turned down the chance to work on Jaws. In her 1991 book You 'll Never Eat Lunch in This Town Again, producer Julia Phillips wrote highly profane remarks about Spielberg, Zsigmond, and Truffaut, because she was fired during post-production due to a cocaine addiction. Phillips blamed it on Spielberg being a perfectionist.
Douglas Trumbull was the visual effects supervisor, while Carlo Rambaldi designed the aliens. Trumbull joked that the visual effects budget, at $3.3 million, could have been used to produce an additional film. His work helped lead to advances in motion control photography. The mother ship was designed by Ralph McQuarrie and built by Greg Jein. The look of the ship was inspired by an oil refinery Spielberg saw at night in India. Instead of the metallic hardware look used in Star Wars, the emphasis was on a more luminescent look for the UFOs. One of the UFO models was an oxygen mask with lights attached to it, used because of its irregular shape. As a subtle in - joke, Dennis Muren (who had just finished working on Star Wars) put a small R2 - D2 model onto the underside of the mothership. The model of the mothership is now on display in the Smithsonian Institution 's Air and Space Museum Udvar - Hazy Annex at Washington Dulles Airport in Chantilly, Virginia.
Since Close Encounters was filmed anamorphically, the visual effects sequences were shot on 70 mm film to better conform with the 35 mm film used for the rest of the movie. A test reel using computer - generated imagery was used for the UFOs, but Spielberg found it would be too expensive and ineffective since CGI was in its infancy in the mid-1970s.
The small aliens in the final scenes were played by local girls in Mobile, Alabama. That decision was requested by Spielberg because he felt "girls move more gracefully than boys. '' Puppetry was attempted for the aliens, but the idea failed. However, Rambaldi successfully used puppetry to depict two of the aliens, the first being a marionette (for the tall alien that is the first to be seen emerging from the mothership) and an articulated puppet for the alien that communicates via hand signals with Lacombe near the end of the film.
Close Encounters is the first collaboration between film editor Michael Kahn and Spielberg. Their working relationship has continued for the rest of Spielberg 's films. Spielberg stated that no film he has ever made since has been as hard to edit as the last 25 minutes of Close Encounters and he and Kahn would go through thousands of feet of footage just to find the right shots for the end sequence. When Kahn and Spielberg completed the first cut of the film, Spielberg was dissatisfied, feeling "there was n't enough wow - ness ''. Pick - ups were commissioned but cinematographer Vilmos Zsigmond could not participate due to other commitments. John A. Alonzo, László Kovács, and Douglas Slocombe worked on the pick - ups. Lacombe was originally to find Flight 19 hidden in the Amazon Rainforest, but the idea was changed to the Sonoran Desert. Spielberg also took 7.5 minutes out from the preview.
Post-production was completed by June 1977, too late for the film to be released as a ' summer blockbuster ' which might have been just as well, as Star Wars opened that summer.
The score for the film was composed, conducted and produced by John Williams, who had previously worked on Spielberg 's Jaws. Williams wrote over 300 examples of the iconic five - tone motif for Close Encounters -- the five tones are used by scientists to communicate with the visiting spaceship as a mathematical language -- before Spielberg chose the one incorporated into the film 's signature theme. Spielberg called Williams ' work "When You Wish upon a Star meets science fiction ''. Incidentally, Williams briefly included the song 's signature melody in the score at Spielberg 's behest, just before Roy Neary turns to board the mothership. Spielberg initially included Cliff Edwards ' original "When You Wish upon a Star '' from Pinocchio in the closing credits, but after a Dallas preview where several members of the audience audibly snickered at the inclusion, the song was dropped and replaced with Williams ' orchestral version of it. The score was recorded at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California.
Williams was nominated for two Academy Awards in 1978, one for his score to Star Wars and one for his score to Close Encounters. He won for Star Wars, though he later won two Grammy Awards in 1979 for his Close Encounters score (one for Best Original Film Score and one for Best Instrumental Composition for "Theme from Close Encounters ''). Much like his two - note Jaws theme, the "five - tone '' motif for Close Encounters has since become ingrained in popular culture.
The soundtrack album was released on vinyl album (with a gatefold sleeve), 8 - track tape and audio cassette by Arista Records in 1977, with a total running time of 41 minutes (it was later released on compact disc in 1990). The soundtrack album was a commercial success, peaking at # 17 on the US Billboard album chart in February 1978 and was certified Gold by the RIAA for 500,000 copies shipped. It also peaked at # 40 in the UK album charts.
Although not included on the original soundtrack album, a 7 '' single of a disco treatment of the five - note motif, titled, "Theme from Close Encounters of the Third Kind '', was included with the album as a free bonus item. Despite being a giveaway, Billboard chart rules at that time allowed the single itself to chart, and it peaked at # 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in March 1978. The single was later added as a bonus track to the cassette.
Following the release of the "Collector 's Edition '' of the film in 1998, a new expanded soundtrack was released on compact disc by Arista. The "Collector 's Edition Soundtrack '' was made using 20 - bit digital remastering from the original tapes, and contained 26 tracks totalling 77 minutes of music. The CD also came with extensive liner notes including an interview with Williams. Cues were given new titles, and it also contained previously unreleased material, as well as material that was recorded but never used in the film.
† 1978 reissue - bonus track (cassette), free bonus 7 '' single (vinyl album).
Film critic Charlene Engel observed Close Encounters "suggests that humankind has reached the point where it is ready to enter the community of the cosmos. While it is a computer which makes the final musical conversation with the alien guests possible, the characteristics bringing Neary to make his way to Devils Tower have little to do with technical expertise or computer literacy. These are virtues taught in schools that will be evolved in the 21st century. '' The film also evokes typical science fiction archetypes and motifs. The film portrays new technologies as a natural and expected outcome of human development and indication of health and growth.
Other critics found a variety of Judeo - Christian analogies. Devils Tower parallels Mount Sinai, the aliens as God and Roy Neary as Moses. Cecil B. DeMille 's The Ten Commandments is seen on television at the Neary household. Some found close relations between Elijah and Roy; Elijah was taken into a "chariot of fire '', akin to Roy going in the UFO. Climbing Devils Tower behind the faltering Jillian, Neary exhorts Jillian to keep moving and not to look back, similar to Lot 's wife who looked back at Sodom and turned into a pillar of salt. Spielberg explained, "I wanted to make Close Encounters a very accessible story about the everyday individual who has a sighting that overturns his life, and throws it into complete upheaval as he starts to become more and more obsessed with this experience. ''
Roy 's wife Ronnie attempts to hide the sunburn caused by Roy 's exposure to the UFOs and wants him to forget his encounter with them. She is embarrassed and bewildered by what has happened to him and desperately wants her ordinary life back. The expression of his lost life is seen when he is sculpting a huge model of Devils Tower in his living room, with his family deserting him. Roy 's obsession with an idea implanted by an alien intelligence, his construction of the model, and his gradual loss of contact with his wife, mimic the events in the short story "Dulcie and Decorum '' (1955) by Damon Knight.
Close Encounters also studies the form of "youth spiritual yearning ''. Barry Guiler, the unfearing child who refers to the UFOs and their paraphernalia as "toys '' (although that was unscripted, with the child being drawn to smile by being shown toys offstage), serves as a motif for childlike innocence and openness in the face of the unknown. Spielberg also compared the theme of communication as highlighting that of tolerance. "If we can talk to aliens in Close Encounters of the Third Kind, '' he said, "why not with the Reds in the Cold War? '' Sleeping is the final obstacle to overcome in the ascent of Devils Tower. Roy, Jillian Guiler and a third invitee, Larry Butler, climb the mountain pursued by government helicopters spraying sleeping gas. Larry stops to rest, is gassed, and falls into a deep sleep.
In his interview with Spielberg on Inside the Actors Studio, James Lipton suggested Close Encounters had another, more personal theme for Spielberg: "Your father was a computer engineer; your mother was a concert pianist, and when the spaceship lands, they make music together on the computer '', suggesting that Roy Neary 's boarding the spaceship is Spielberg 's wish to be reunited with his parents. In a 2005 interview, Spielberg stated that he made Close Encounters when he did not have children, and if he were making it today, he would never have had Neary leave his family and go on the mother ship.
The film was originally to be released in summer 1977, but was pushed back to November because of the various problems during production. Upon its release, Close Encounters had a huge impact on society and became a certified box office success, grossing $116.39 million in North America and $171.7 million in foreign countries, totaling $288 million. It became Columbia Pictures ' most successful film at that time. Jonathan Rosenbaum refers to the film as "the best expression of Spielberg 's benign, dreamy - eyed vision. '' A.D. Murphy of Variety gave a positive review but felt "Close Encounters lacks the warmth and humanity of George Lucas 's Star Wars ''. Murphy found most of the film slow - paced, but praised the film 's climax. Pauline Kael called it "a kid 's film in the best sense. '' Jean Renoir compared Spielberg 's storytelling to Jules Verne and Georges Méliès. Ray Bradbury declared it the greatest science fiction film ever made. Based on 46 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 96 % ("Certified Fresh '') of the reviewers have enjoyed the film and the site 's consensus states "Close Encounters most iconic bits (the theme, the mashed - potato sculpture, etc.) have been so thoroughly absorbed into the culture that it 's easy to forget that its treatment of aliens as peaceful beings rather than warmongering monsters was somewhat groundbreaking in 1977. ''
On the final cut privilege, Spielberg was dissatisfied with the film. Columbia Pictures was experiencing financial problems, and they were depending on this film to save their company. "I wanted to have another six months to finish off this film, and release it in summer 1978. They told me they needed this film out immediately, '' Spielberg explained. "Anyway, Close Encounters was a huge financial success and I told them I wanted to make my own director 's cut. They agreed on the condition that I show the inside of the mothership so they could have something to hang a (reissue marketing) campaign on. I never should have shown the inside of the mother ship. '' In 1979, Columbia gave Spielberg $1.5 million to produce what became the "Special Edition '' of the film. Spielberg added seven minutes of new footage, but also deleted or shortened various existing scenes by a total of ten minutes, so that the Special Edition was three minutes shorter than the original 1977 release. The Special Edition featured several new character development scenes, the discovery of the SS Cotopaxi in the Gobi Desert, and a view of the inside of the mothership. Close Encounters of the Third Kind: The Special Edition was released in August 1980, making a further $15.7 million, accumulating a final $303.7 million box office gross. Roger Ebert "thought the original film was an astonishing achievement, capturing the feeling of awe and wonder we have when considering the likelihood of life beyond the Earth... This new version... is, quite simply, a better film... Why did n't Spielberg make it this good the first time? ''
The 1980 Special Edition was the version officially available for some time, until The Criterion Collection offered both versions on LaserDisc in 1990. This triple - disc LaserDisc set also included an interactive "Making Close Encounters '' documentary featuring interviews with Spielberg and other cast and crew involved with the film, as well as stills and script excerpts. In 1993, the Special Edition was released on VHS and LaserDisc and did not see a further release for 14 years.
In 1998, Spielberg recut Close Encounters again for what would become the "Collector 's Edition, '' and it was released on home video and LaserDisc. This version of the film is a re-edit of the original 1977 release with some elements of the 1980 Special Edition, but omits the mothership interior scenes as Spielberg felt they should have remained a mystery. This LaserDisc edition also includes a new 101 - minute documentary, The Making of Close Encounters, which was produced in 1997 and features interviews with Spielberg, the main cast and notable crew members. There have also been many other alternate versions of the film for network and syndicated television, as well as a previous LaserDisc version. Some of these combined all released material from the 1977 and 1980 versions. However, none of these versions were edited by Spielberg, who regards the "Collector 's Edition '' as his definitive version of Close Encounters. The Collector 's Edition was given a limited release as part of a roadshow featuring select films to celebrate Columbia Pictures ' 75th anniversary in 1999. It was the first time this version of the film had been shown theatrically. The director 's cut was once again released in theaters on September 1, 2017 in tribute to the film 's 40th anniversary. It made $1.8 million in the weekend ($2.3 million over the four - day Labor Day holiday), pushing its career global gross to over $306 million worldwide.
Close Encounters was released on DVD in June 2001 as a two - disc set that contained the "Collector 's Edition ''. This set contained several extra features, including the 1997 "Making of '' documentary, a featurette from 1977, trailers and deleted scenes that included the mothership interior from the 1980 Special Edition.
Close Encounters was given a second DVD release alongside its first release on Blu - ray Disc in November 2007 for the film 's 30th anniversary. These sets contain all three official versions of the film from 1977, 1980 and 1998, and a new interview with Spielberg, detailing the film 's impact 30 years after its release. The set also includes the 1977 featurette, various trailers and the 1997 "Making of '' documentary. The two - disc Blu - ray set additionally included storyboard - to - scene comparisons, an extensive photo gallery, and a "View from Above: Editor 's Fact Track '' highlighting the differing scenes in each version of the movie. A single disc version has also been released on Blu - ray, which contains the three versions of the film along with the "View from Above '' feature.
A third DVD and second Blu - ray release for the film 's 40th anniversary had an early September 2017 release. At 145 minutes long, the presentation includes an eight minute introduction followed by the film in its 1998 cut.
The film was nominated for eight Oscars at the 50th Academy Awards, including Best Director, Supporting Actress (Melinda Dillon), Visual Effects, Art Direction (Joe Alves, Daniel A. Lomino, Phil Abramson), Original Music Score, Film Editing, and Sound (Robert Knudson, Robert Glass, Don MacDougall and Gene Cantamessa). The film 's only win was for Vilmos Zsigmond 's cinematography, although the Academy honored the film 's sound effects editing with a Special Achievement Award (Frank Warner).
At the 32nd British Academy Film Awards, Close Encounters won Best Production Design, and was nominated for Best Film, Direction, Screenplay, Actor in a Supporting Role (François Truffaut), Music, Cinematography, Editing, and Sound.
Close Encounters lost the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation to Star Wars, but was successful at the Saturn Awards. There, the film tied with Star Wars for Direction and Music. Spielberg 's screenplay, Richard Dreyfuss, Melinda Dillon and the visual effects department received nominations. Close Encounters was nominated for Best Science Fiction Film.
The film received four more nominations at the 35th Golden Globe Awards: Best Director (Steven Spielberg); Best Film - Drama; Best Original Score (John Williams); and Best Screenplay (Steven Spielberg).
Shortly after the film 's release in late 1977, Spielberg desired to do either a sequel or prequel, before deciding against it. He explained, "The army 's knowledge and ensuing cover - up is so subterranean that it would take a creative screen story, perhaps someone else making the picture and giving it the equal time it deserves. ''
When asked in 1990 to select a single "master image '' that summed up his film career, Spielberg chose the shot of Barry opening his living room door to see the blazing orange light from the UFO. "That was beautiful but awful light, just like fire coming through the doorway. (Barry 's) very small, and it 's a very large door, and there 's a lot of promise or danger outside that door. '' In 2007, Close Encounters was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' by the United States Library of Congress, and was added to the National Film Registry for preservation. In American Film Institute polls, Close Encounters has been voted the 64th - greatest American film, the 31st-most thrilling, and the 58th-most inspiring. It was also nominated for the top 10 science fiction films in AFI 's 10 Top 10 and the tenth - anniversary edition of the 100 Movies list. The score by John Williams was nominated for AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores.
Alongside Star Wars and Superman, Close Encounters led to the reemergence of science fiction films. In 1985 Spielberg donated $100,000 to the Planetary Society for Megachannel ExtraTerrestrial Assay. In the 1979 James Bond film Moonraker the five - note sequence is heard when a scientist punches the combination into an electronic door lock. In the South Park episode "Imaginationland '', a government scientist uses the five - note sequence to try to open a portal. In "Over Logging '', a government scientist uses the five - note sequence to try to get the central Internet router working. The "mashed potato '' sculpture was parodied in the film UHF, the film Canadian Bacon, an episode of Spaced, an episode of The X-Files, an episode of That ' 70s Show, and an episode of The Simpsons. It was satirized in the 200th issue of Mad, July 1978, by Stan Hart and Mort Drucker as Clod Encounters of the Absurd Kind.
In 2011, ABC aired a primetime special, Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time, that counted down the best movies chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and People magazine. Close Encounters of the Third Kind was selected as the # 5 Best Sci - Fi Film.
American Film Institute Lists
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when did the tax cuts and jobs act pass | Tax cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 - Wikipedia
Public law no. 115 - 97, an Act to provide for reconciliation pursuant to titles II and V of the concurrent resolution on the budget for fiscal year 2018, is a congressional revenue act originally introduced in Congress as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA). Public law no. 115 - 97 ("the Act '') amended the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 based on tax reform advocated by congressional Republicans and the Trump administration. Major elements include reducing tax rates for businesses and individuals; a personal tax simplification by increasing the standard deduction and family tax credits, but eliminating personal exemptions and making it less beneficial to itemize deductions; limiting deductions for state and local income taxes (SALT) and property taxes; further limiting the mortgage interest deduction; reducing the alternative minimum tax for individuals and eliminating it for corporations; reducing the number of estates impacted by the estate tax; and repealing the individual mandate of the Affordable Care Act (ACA).
The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported that under the Act individuals and pass - through entities like partnerships and S corporations would receive about $1,125 billion in net benefits (i.e. net tax cuts offset by reduced healthcare subsidies) over 10 years, while corporations would receive around $320 billion in benefits. The individual and pass - through tax cuts fade over time and become net tax increases starting in 2027 while the corporate tax cuts are permanent. This enabled the Senate to pass the bill with only 51 votes, without the need to defeat a filibuster, under the budget reconciliation process.
The CBO estimated that implementing the Act would add an estimated $1.455 trillion to the national debt over ten years, or about $1.0 trillion after macroeconomic feedback effects, in addition to the $10 trillion increase forecast under the current policy baseline and existing $20 trillion national debt. CBO reported on December 21, 2017: "Overall, the combined effect of the change in net federal revenue and spending is to decrease deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in spending) allocated to lower - income tax filing units and to increase deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in taxes) allocated to higher - income tax filing units ''. The nonpartisan Joint Committee on Taxation also estimated that the GDP level would be 0.7 % percent higher, employment level would be 0.6 % higher and personal consumption level would be 0.6 % higher during the 2018 -- 2027 period on average due to the Act. These are higher levels, not higher annual growth rates, so these are relatively minor economic impacts over 10 years.
The distribution of impact by individual income group varies significantly based on the assumptions involved and point in time measured. In general, businesses and upper income groups will mostly benefit regardless, while lower income groups will see the initial benefits fade over time or be adversely impacted. For example, the CBO and JCT estimated that:
The Tax Policy Center (TPC) estimated that the bottom 80 % of taxpayers (income under $149,400) would receive 35 % of the benefit in 2018, 34 % in 2025 and none of the benefit in 2027, with some groups incurring costs. TPC also estimated 72 % of taxpayers would be adversely impacted in 2019 and beyond, if the tax cuts are paid for by spending cuts separate from the legislation, as most spending cuts would impact lower - to middle - income taxpayers and outweigh the benefits from the tax cuts. Bloomberg reported in March 2018 that an estimated 60 % of corporate tax savings were going to shareholders, while 15 % was going to employees, based on analysis of 51 S&P 500 companies.
The law also impacts healthcare by repealing the ACA individual mandate, resulting in projections of up to 13 million fewer persons covered by health insurance as some younger, healthier persons will likely choose not to participate. Those in the remaining less healthy pool will pay higher insurance costs on the ACA exchanges, which will result in additional persons dropping coverage.
Critics in the media, think tanks and academia assailed the law, mainly based on forecasts of its adverse impact (e.g., higher budget deficit, higher trade deficit, greater income inequality, lower healthcare coverage and higher healthcare costs), disproportionate impact on certain states and professions and the misrepresentations made by its advocates. Some of the reforms passed by the Republicans have become controversial within key states, particularly the $10,000 cap on state and local tax deductibility, and are being challenged in federal court.
The House passed the penultimate version of the bill on December 19, 2017, though for Senate procedural reasons small changes were needed and a revote was held in the House. The Senate passed the final version on December 20 in a 51 -- 48 vote and that final version was passed by the House of Representatives on that same day. The bill was signed into law by President Donald Trump on December 22, 2017. Most of the changes introduced by the bill went into effect on January 1, 2018 and will not affect 2017 taxes.
Under the law, there are numerous changes to the individual income tax, including changing the income level of individual tax brackets, lowering tax rates, and increasing the standard deductions and family tax credits while the personal exemption and itemized deductions are reduced or eliminated.
Most individual income taxes are reduced, until 2025. The number of income tax brackets remain at seven, but the income ranges in several brackets have been changed and each new bracket has lower rates. These are marginal rates that apply to income in the indicated range as under current law (i.e., prior Public Law 115 - 97 or the Act), so a higher income taxpayer will have income taxed at several different rates. A different inflation measure (Chained CPI or C - CPI) will be applied to the brackets instead of the Consumer Price Index (CPI), so the brackets increase more slowly. This is effectively a tax increase over time, as people move more quickly into higher brackets as their income rises; this element is permanent.
The standard deduction nearly doubles, from $12,700 to $24,000 for married couples. For single filers, the standard deduction will increase from $6,350 to $12,000. About 70 % of families choose the standard deduction rather than itemized deductions; this could rise to over 84 % if doubled. The personal exemption is eliminated -- this was a deduction of $4,150 per taxpayer and dependent, unless it is in an estate or trust.
The child tax credit is doubled from $1,000 to $2,000, $1,400 of which will be refundable. There is also a $500 credit for other dependents, versus zero under current law. The lower threshold for the high - income phaseout for the Child Tax Credit changes from $110,000 AGI to $400,000 for married filers.
Mortgage interest deduction for newly purchased homes (and second homes) would be lowered from total loan balances of $1 million under current law to $750,000. Interest from home equity loans (aka second mortgages) will no longer be deductible, unless the money is used for home improvements.
The deduction for state and local income tax, sales tax, and property taxes ("SALT deduction '') will be capped at $10,000. This would have more impact on taxpayers with more expensive property, generally those who live in higher - income areas, or people in states with higher state tax rates.
The act repeals the individual mandate of the Affordable Care Act starting in 2019. This is estimated to save the government over $300 billion, by reducing the number of people with coverage by up to 13 million over time along with related health insurance premium tax subsidies. It is estimated to increase premiums on the health insurance exchanges by up to 10 %. It also expands the amount of out - of - pocket medical expenses that may be deducted by lowering threshold from 10 % of adjusted gross income to 7.5 %, but only for 2017 (retroactively) and 2018. For 2019 and later years, the threshold will increase to 10 %.
No changes are made to major education deductions and credits, or to the teacher deduction for unreimbursed classroom expenses, which remains at $250. The bill initially expanded usage of 529 college savings accounts for both K - 12 private school tuition and homeschools, but the provision regarding homeschools was overruled by the Senate parliamentarian and removed. The 529 savings accounts for K - 12 private school tuition provision was left intact.
Taxpayers will only be able to deduct a casualty loss if it occurs in a disaster that is declared by the president.
Alimony paid to an ex-spouse will no longer be deductible by the payer, and alimony payments will no longer be included in the recipient 's gross income. This effectively shifts the tax burden of alimony from the recipient to the payer. This provision is effective for divorce and separation agreements signed after December 31, 2018.
Employment - related moving expenses will no longer be deductible, except for moves related to active - duty military service.
The miscellaneous itemized deductions (which included deductions for tax preparation fees, investment expenses, union dues, and unreimbursed employee expenses) are eliminated.
Fewer people will pay the Alternative minimum tax (AMT) because the act increases the exemption level (from $84,500 to $109,400 for couples; from $54,300 to $70,300 for singles).
The act repeals the ability to recharacterize Roth conversions.
Under current law, estates that exceed $5.6 million are subject to a 40 % tax at time of death. The TCJA doubles the taxable threshold to $11.2 million.
The final bill reduces pass - through taxes via a 20 % deduction, after which a lower rate of 29.6 % will be applied. This benefit phases out starting at $315,000. Many businesses are incorporated as pass - through entities (e.g., partnerships, and S - corporations) meaning the owners pay taxes at individual rates. These represent 95 % of businesses and most of corporate tax revenues. Approximately the largest 2 % of pass - through businesses represent 40 % of pass - through income and under current law are taxed at 39.6 %, the top individual rate.
The corporate tax rate would fall from 35 % to 21 %, while some related business deductions and credits would either be reduced or eliminated. The Act would also change the U.S. from a global to a territorial tax system with respect to corporate income tax. Instead of a corporation paying the U.S. tax rate (35 %) for income earned in any country (less a credit for taxes paid to that country), each subsidiary would pay the tax rate of the country in which it is legally established. In other words, under a territorial tax system, the corporation saves the difference between the generally higher U.S. tax rate and the lower rate of the country in which the subsidiary is legally established. Bloomberg Journalist Matt Levine explained the concept: "If we 're incorporated in the U.S. (under today 's global tax regime), we 'll pay 35 percent taxes on our income in the U.S. and Canada and Mexico and Ireland and Bermuda and the Cayman Islands, but if we 're incorporated in Canada (under a territorial tax regime, proposed by the Act), we 'll pay 35 percent on our income in the U.S. but 15 percent in Canada and 30 percent in Mexico and 12.5 percent in Ireland and zero percent in Bermuda and zero percent in the Cayman Islands. '' In theory, the law would reduce the incentive for tax inversion, which is used today to obtain the benefits of a territorial tax system by moving U.S. corporate headquarters to other countries.
One time repatriation tax of profits in overseas subsidiaries of 8 %, 15.5 % for cash. U.S. multinationals have accumulated nearly $3 trillion offshore, much of it subsidiaries in tax haven countries. The Act may encourage companies to bring the money home over time, but at these much lower rates.
The corporate Alternative Minimum Tax would be eliminated.
The final bill includes a 1.4 % excise tax on investment income of private colleges with assets valued at $500,000 per full - time student, and with at least 500 students. This provision has been referred to as an endowment tax, and it has been estimated that it would apply to around 32 universities. Some provisions from the earlier House bill were dropped that would have taxed graduate student tuition waivers, tuition benefits for children and spouses of employees, and student loan interest. A Senate Parliamentarian ruling on December 19 changed the exemption threshold from 500 tuition - paying students to 500 total students. Endowment funds used to carry out a college 's tax - exempt purpose are excluded from the asset threshold, but IRS regulations specifically defining this have not yet been made.
The Act contains a variety of miscellaneous tax provisions, many advantaging particular special interests. Miscellaneous provisions include:
The Act contains provisions that would open 1.5 million acres in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to oil and gas drilling. This major push to include this provision in the tax bill came from Republican Senator Lisa Murkowski. The move is part of the long - running Arctic Refuge drilling controversy; Republicans had attempted to allow drilling in ANWR almost 50 times. Opening the Arctic Refuge to drilling "unleashed a torrent of opposition from conservationists and scientists. '' Democrats and environmentalist groups such as the Wilderness Society criticized the Republican effort.
Under the Statutory Pay - as - You - Go Act of 2010 (PAYGO), laws that increase the federal deficit will trigger automatic spending cuts unless Congress votes to waive them. Because the Act adds $1.5 trillion to the deficit, automatic cuts of $150 billion per year over ten years would have applied, including a $25 billion annual cut to Medicare. Because the PAYGO waiver is not allowed in a reconciliation bill, it requires separate legislation which requires 60 votes in the Senate to end a filibuster. If Congress had not passed the waiver, it would have been the first time that statutory PAYGO sequestration would have occurred. However, the PAYGO waiver was included in the continuing resolution passed by Congress on December 22 and signed by President Trump.
The non-partisan Joint Committee on Taxation of the U.S. Congress published its macroeconomic analysis of the final version of the Act, on December 22, 2017:
The Tax Policy Center (TPC) reported its macroeconomic analysis of the November 16 Senate version of the Act on December 1, 2017:
The Penn Wharton Budget Model (PWBM) estimated relative to a prior law baseline that by 2027:
The non-partisan Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimated on December 15, 2017, that implementing the Act would add an estimated $1,455 billion to the national debt over ten years, in addition to the $10 trillion increase forecast under the current policy baseline and existing $20 trillion national debt. Analysis of the similar Senate version indicated the deficit increase from the Act would be $1.0 trillion after macroeconomic feedback effects. CBO reported on December 21, 2017, that: "Overall, the combined effect of the change in net federal revenue and spending is to decrease deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in spending) allocated to lower - income tax filing units and to increase deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in taxes) allocated to higher - income tax filing units. ''
The Joint Committee on Taxation estimated the Act would add $1,456 billion total to the annual deficits (debt) over ten years and described the deficit effects of particular elements of the Act on December 18, 2017:
Individual and Pass - Through (total: $1,127 billion deficit increase)
Business / Corporate and International (total: $330 billion deficit increase)
In a November 2017 survey of leading economists, only 2 % agreed with the notion that a tax bill similar to those currently moving through the House and Senate would substantially increase U.S. GDP. The economists unanimously agreed that the bill would increase the U.S. debt.
On December 21, 2017, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) released its distribution estimate of the Act:
CBO stated that lower income groups will incur costs, while higher income groups will receive benefits: "Overall, the combined effect of the change in net federal revenue and spending is to decrease deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in spending) allocated to lower - income tax filing units and to increase deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in taxes) allocated to higher - income tax filing units. ''
The Tax Policy Center (TPC) reported its distributional estimates for the Act. This analysis excludes the impact from repealing the ACA individual mandate, which would apply significant costs primarily to income groups below $40,000. It also assumes the Act is deficit financed and thus excludes the impact of any spending cuts used to finance the Act, which also would fall disproportionally on lower income families as a percentage of their income.
The TPC also estimated the amount of the tax cut each group would receive, measured in 2017 dollars:
According to the CBO, under the Senate version of the bill, businesses receive a $890 billion benefit or 63 %, individuals $441 billion or 31 %, and estates $83 billion or 6 %. U.S. corporations would likely use the extra after - tax income to repurchase shares or pay more dividends, which mainly flow to wealthy investors. According to the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (CBPP), "Mainstream estimates conclude that more than one - third of the benefit of corporate rate cuts flows to the top 1 % of Americans, and 70 % flows to the top fifth. Corporate rate cuts could even hurt most Americans since they must eventually be paid for with other tax increases or spending cuts. '' Corporations have significant cash holdings ($1.9 trillion in 2016) and can borrow to invest at near - record low interest rates, so a tax cut is not a prerequisite for investment or giving workers a raise. As of Q2 2017, corporate profits after taxes were near record levels in dollar terms at $1.77 trillion annualized, and very high measured historically as a percentage of GDP, at 9.2 %.
In 2017, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) compared the U.S. corporate tax rates (statutory and effective rates) as of 2012 across the G20 countries:
An Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy analysis indicated the Act has more of a tax increase impact on "upper - middle - class families in major metropolitan areas, particularly in Democratic - leaning states where taxes, and usually property values, are higher. While only about one - in - five families between the 80th and 95th income percentiles in most red states would face higher taxes by 2027 under the House GOP bill, that number rises to about one - third in Colorado and Illinois, around two - fifths or more in Oregon, Virginia, Massachusetts, New York and Connecticut, and half or more in New Jersey, California and Maryland... ''
The scoring by the organizations above assumes the tax cuts are deficit - financed, meaning that over ten years the deficit rises by $1.4 trillion relative to the current law baseline; or $1.0 trillion after economic feedback effects. However, if one assumes the tax cuts are paid for by spending cuts, the distribution is much more unfavorable to lower - and middle - income persons, as most government spending is directed to them; the higher income taxpayers tend to get tax breaks, not direct payments. According to the Tax Policy Center, if the Senate bill were financed by a $1,210 per household cut in government spending per year (a more likely scenario than focusing cuts proportionally by income or income taxes paid), then during 2019:
Republican politicians such as Paul Ryan have advocated for spending cuts to help finance the tax cuts, while the President Trump 's 2018 budget includes $2.1 trillion in spending cuts over ten years to Medicaid, Affordable Care Act subsidies, food stamps, Social Security disability insurance, Supplemental security income, and cash welfare (TANF).
The Senate bill repeals the individual mandate that requires all Americans under 65 to have health insurance or pay a penalty. The CBO estimated that 13 million fewer persons would have health insurance by 2025, including 8 million fewer on the Affordable Care Act exchanges and 5 million fewer on Medicaid. Fewer persons with healthcare means lower costs for the government, so CBO estimated over $300 billion in savings. This allowed Republicans to increase the size of the tax cuts in the bill. Health insurance premiums on the exchanges could rise as much as 10 percentage points more than they would otherwise.
The Administration and its Council of Economic Advisors have made several claims in advocating the Act during 2017, including:
Maya MacGuineas of the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget wrote that the tax cuts would add $1.5 trillion more to the debt over a decade, on top of $10 trillion already forecast. She explained that when the 2001 Bush tax cuts were passed, debt was 31 % GDP, while today it is 77 % GDP, "higher than any time in history other than just after World War II. '' She concluded that: "Instead of trickling down economic growth, the House plan will unleash a tidal wave of debt that will ultimately slow wage growth and hurt the economy. ''
Both the House and Senate versions of the bill will raise taxes for middle - and lower - income persons, after initial cuts. For example, the Senate version of the bill will result in tax increases for those earning less than $75,000 by 2027. David Leonhardt wrote: "An assortment of middle - class tax increases -- again, to help cover the cost of the tax cuts for the wealthy -- last for the full life of the Senate bill. As a result, it ends up being a tax increase on households making less than $75,000. '' Leonhardt explained that in 2027, after - tax income falls between 0.1 -- 1.5 % for incomes below $75 k, while incomes above $500 k see benefits of 0.4 -- 0.6 %.
Leonhardt referred to the JCT study of the Senate version of the bill, which indicated that: a) Starting in 2021 those earning $10,000 -- 30,000 (24 % of taxpayers) pay more in taxes; b) In 2023 and 2025, those earning $0 -- $30,000 (34 % of taxpayers) pay more in taxes; and c) In 2027, income groups below $75,000 (65 % of taxpayers) pay more in taxes, while tax cuts remain for those earning over $75,000 (35 % of taxpayers).
Paul Krugman disputed the Administration 's primary argument that tax cuts for businesses will stimulate investment and higher wages:
In November 2017, the University of Chicago asked over 40 economists if U.S. GDP would be substantially higher a decade from now, if either the House or Senate bills were enacted, with the following results: 52 % either disagreed or strongly disagreed, while 36 % were uncertain and only 2 % agreed.
The Tax Policy Center estimated that GDP would be 0.3 % higher in 2027 under the House bill versus current law, while the University of Pennsylvania Penn Wharton budget model estimates approximately 0.3 -- 0.9 % for both the House and Senate bills. The very limited effect estimated is due to the expectation of higher interest rates and trade deficits. These estimates are both contrary to the Administration 's claims of 10 % increase by 2027 (about 1 % per year) and Senator Mitch McConnell 's estimate of a 4.1 % increase.
Federal Reserve Bank of NY President and CEO William C. Dudley stated in January 2018: "While this legislation will reduce federal revenues by about 1 percent of GDP in both 2018 and 2019, I anticipate the boost to economic growth will be less than that. Most importantly, most of the tax cuts accrue to the corporate sector and to higher - income households that have a relatively low marginal propensity to consume. This suggests that a significant portion of the tax cuts will be saved, not spent. ''
Corporate executives indicated that raising wages and investment were not priorities should they have additional funds due to a tax cut. A survey conducted by Bank of America - Merrill Lynch of 300 executives of major U.S. corporations asked what they would do with a corporate tax cut. The top three responses were: 1) Pay down debt; 2) Stock buybacks, which are a form of payment to shareholders; and 3) Mergers. An informal survey of CEO 's conducted by Trump economic advisor Gary Cohn resulted in a similar response, with few hands raised in response to his request for them to do so if their company would invest more.
Economist and former Treasury Secretary Larry Summers referred to the analysis provided by the Trump administration of its tax proposal as "... some combination of dishonest, incompetent, and absurd. '' Summers wrote that the Trump administration 's "central claim that cutting the corporate tax rate from 35 percent to 20 percent would raise wages by $4,000 per worker '' lacked peer - reviewed support and was "absurd on its face. ''
On December 20, 2017, the day the final bill was passed by the House, Wells Fargo, Fifth Third Bancorp and Western Alliance Bancorp announced they would raise the minimum wage of its workers to $15 an hour upon signing of the bill. A number of companies announced bonuses for workers, including AT&T which said it will give a $1,000 bonus to every single one of its 200,000 employees as a result of the Tax Cut bill. Democratic Senator Chuck Schumer stated that these were the exception to the rule and that AT&T was in litigation with the government over a pending merger. He stated: "There is a reason so few executives have said the tax bill will lead to more jobs, investments, and higher wages -- because it will actually lead to share buybacks, corporate bonuses, and dividends. ''
In the immediate aftermath of the passage of the Act, a relatively small number of corporations -- many of them involved in mergers disputed by the government or regulatory difficulties -- raised wages or paid bonuses to employees. About 18 companies in the S&P did so; when companies paid awards to employees, these were usually a small percentage of corporate savings from the Act. A January 2018 study from the firm Willis Towers Watson found that 80 % of companies were not "considering giving raises at all. '' Bloomberg reported in March 2018 that an estimated 60 % of corporate tax savings were going to shareholders, while 15 % was going to employees, based on analysis of 51 S&P 500 companies.
Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin argued that the corporate income tax cut will benefit workers the most; however, the nonpartisan Joint Committee on Taxation and Congressional Budget Office estimate that owners of capital benefit vastly more than workers.
The New York Times compared average tax rates under the TCJA vs. current law for each income group over time using a series of charts. They show that the Senate version of the bill cuts taxes for lower income persons initially relative to a current law baseline, but by 2027, those earning $50,000 or less would face a tax increase. In contrast, those earning $500,000 or more would have lower taxes initially as well as in 2027. The effect on the lower income persons is more significant if the ACA individual mandate is repealed, as more persons would choose not to sign up for healthcare coverage and thus lose subsidies.
The Act also lowers the taxes paid by pass through entities such as S - corporations, partnerships, and limited liability companies, even though pass - through income mainly flows to higher income owners:
The New York Times editorial board explained the tax bill as both consequence and cause of income and wealth inequality: "Most Americans know that the Republican tax bill will widen economic inequality by lavishing breaks on corporations and the wealthy while taking benefits away from the poor and the middle class. What many may not realize is that growing inequality helped create the bill in the first place. As a smaller and smaller group of people cornered an ever - larger share of the nation 's wealth, so too did they gain an ever - larger share of political power. They became, in effect, kingmakers; the tax bill is a natural consequence of their long effort to bend American politics to serve their interests. '' The corporate tax rate was 48 % in the 1970s and is 21 % under the Act. The top individual rate was 70 % in the 1970s and is 37 % under the Act. Despite these large cuts, incomes for the working class have stagnated and workers now pay a larger share of the pre-tax income in payroll taxes.
The share of income going to the top 1 % has doubled, from 10 % to 20 %, since the pre-1980 period, while the share of wealth owned by the top 1 % has risen from around 25 % to 42 %. Despite President Trump promising to address those left behind, the House and Senate bills would increase economic inequality:
In 2027, if the tax cuts are paid for by spending cuts borne evenly by all families, after - tax income would be 3.0 % higher for the top 0.1 %, 1.5 % higher for the top 10 %, - 0.6 % for the middle 40 % (30th to 70th percentile) and - 2.0 % for the bottom 50 %.
A potential consequence of the proposed tax reform, specifically lowering business taxes, is that (in theory) the U.S. would be a more attractive place for foreign capital (investment money). This inflow of foreign capital would help fund the surge in investment by corporations, one of the stated goals of the legislation. However, a large inflow of foreign capital would drive up the price of the dollar, making U.S. exports more expensive, thus increasing the trade deficit. Paul Krugman estimated this could adversely impact up to 2.5 million U.S. jobs.
According to The New York Times, "wide range of experts agree that cutting taxes is likely to increase the trade deficit '' with other countries, which conflicts with the stated priority of the White House to reduce the trade deficit. However, Economists widely reject however that reducing the trade deficit necessarily has to be good for the economy. So the fact that this bill may increase the trade deficit will not necessarily decrease American welfare.
Paul Krugman wrote that deficits driven by tax cuts could trigger cuts in Medicare by law, opening the door to other safety net cuts to programs such as disability insurance. An estimated 13 million Americans could no longer have health insurance under the Senate version of the Act, which would repeal the ACA 's individual health insurance mandate, a provision in the ACA which imposes a tax penalty on those who choose not to buy health insurance.
Neither the House nor the Senate versions of the Act specify how the approximately $1.7 trillion debt increase will be paid for. Therefore, the estimates of its impact on the lower - to middle - classes do not include future reductions in spending that Republicans may attempt to pass to offset the Act 's deficit impact. For example, David Leonhardt explained in The New York Times that: "(A) ll of these estimates understate the long - term damage to the middle class, because they ignore the cuts to education, transportation, Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security that will eventually be necessary to reduce the deficit. ''
Three former Secretaries of Defense (Leon Panetta, Ash Carter, and Chuck Hagel) wrote a letter to congressional leaders on November 15, 2017, arguing the additional deficits driven by the tax cuts would ultimately result in reduced military spending and endanger national security by forcing the reduction in funding "for training, maintenance, force structure, flight missions, procurement and other key programs. '' Panetta, Carter, and Hagel wrote that the Act would increase the danger of a "' hollowed out ' military force that lacks the ability to sustain the intensive deployment requirements of our global defense mission. ''
Federal Reserve officials had indicated earlier in 2017 that aggressive tax cuts could increase the pace of interest rate increases already planned. Higher interest rates make borrowing more expensive, slowing economic growth (GDP), other things equal. The Fed also raises interest rates to help offset the risk of inflation in a growing economy near full employment. However, as the tax plan became clearer and its impact on the economy was judged to be relatively minor, the Fed indicated that a plan to raise interest rates incrementally as many as three times in 2018 would not be changed.
In November 2017, the OECD reported that the U.S. tax burden was lower in 2016 than the OECD country average, measured as a percentage of GDP:
Journalist Justin Fox wrote in Bloomberg that Americans may feel financial pressure due to healthcare and college tuition costs, which are much higher than other OECD countries measured as a share of GDP, offsetting the benefit of the already lower tax structure.
Fact - checkers such as FactCheck.Org, PolitiFact and The Washington Post 's fact - checker have found that Trump 's claims that his economic proposal and tax plan would not benefit wealthy persons like himself are likely false. The elimination of the estate tax (which only applies to inherited wealth greater than $11 million for a married couple) benefits only the heirs of the very rich (such as Trump 's children), and there is a reduced tax rate for people who report business income on their individual returns (as Trump does). An analysis by The New York Times found that if Trump 's tax plan had been in place in 2005 (the one recent year in which his tax returns were leaked), he would have saved $11 million in taxes. The analysis also found that Trump would save $4.4 million on his eventual estate tax bill. Experts say that the financial windfall for the President and his family from this bill is "virtually unprecedented in American political history ''.
A number of Republican congressmen also stand to benefit personally from the tax plan. Most notably, Tennessee Senator Bob Corker was for some time the sole Republican Senator to oppose the tax plan, having stated that he would not support a tax plan that would increase the deficit; but Corker changed his vote to yes on the final version of the bill after a specific carved - out provision was added to the bill that Corker stood to benefit from. Corker rejected that he traded his vote for provisions that benefited him and said that he had no idea that there were provisions in the bill that he personally stood to benefit from.
The bill that passed the House has been criticized for its significant negative impact on graduate students. Graduate students in private universities might see their effective tax rate go above 41.9 %, a rate higher than what even the richest of Americans typically pay. The change is due to one of the propositions in the bill that repeals the deduction for qualified tuition and related expenses, meaning that graduate students ' waived tuition would be viewed as taxable income. Given that their stipends are significantly less than the waived tuition, this would typically increase their taxes by 30 -- 60 % for public universities and hundreds of percent for private ones. The Senate version of the bill does not contain these provisions.
The House bill 's disadvantageous treatment of graduate students was criticized because of its projected negative effect on the training of U.S. scientists. The bill 's impact on U.S. science and innovation has been criticized by Stanford professor emeritus Burton Richter, a winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics and the National Medal of Science, who critiqued the bill 's negative impact on Americans seeking advanced degrees and wrote that the budget impact of the tax cuts would force a dramatic reduction in federal funding for scientific research.
According to The New York Times, "economists and tax experts across the political spectrum warn that the proposed system would invite tax avoidance. The more the tax code distinguishes among types of earnings, personal characteristics or economic activities, the greater the incentive to label income artificially, restructure or switch categories in a hunt for lower rates. '' According to The Wall Street Journal, the bill 's changes to "business and individual taxation could lead to a new era of business reorganization and tax - code gamesmanship with unknown consequences for the economy and federal revenue collection. ''
Republicans justified the tax reform initially as an effort to simplify the tax code. Kevin Brady, the chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, and Speaker Paul Ryan said in November 2017 that they would simplify the tax code so much that 9 in 10 Americans would be able to file their taxes on a postcard. President Donald Trump said on December 13, 2017, that people would be able to file their taxes "on a single, little, beautiful sheet of paper ''. However, when the final version of the tax legislation passed through houses of Congress, the legislation kept most loopholes intact and did not simplify the tax code. The announcements by the House leaders hurt the stock prices of tax preparers, but upon the release of the actual bill, the stock prices of tax preparers sharply increased.
The legislation was passed by Congress with little debate regarding the comprehensive reforming nature of the Act. The 400 - page House bill was passed two weeks after the legislation was first released, "without a single hearing '' held. In the Senate, the final version of the bill did not receive a public hearing, "was largely crafted behind closed doors, and was released just ahead of the final vote. '' Republicans rewrote major portions of tax bill just hours before the floor vote, making major changes in order to win the votes of several Republican holdouts. Many last - minute changes were handwritten on earlier drafts of the bill. The revisions appeared "first in the lobbying shops of K Street, which sent back copies to some Democrats in the Senate, who took to social media to protest being asked to vote in a matter of hours on a bill that had yet to be shared with them directly. ''
The rushed approval of the legislation prompted an outcry from Democrats. Senate Minority Leader Charles Schumer (D -- NY) proposed giving senators more time to read the legislation, but this motion failed after every Republican voted no. Requests to wait until incoming Democratic senator Doug Jones of Alabama could vote on the bill were also denied. Some commentators also criticized the process. The New York Times editorial board wrote that the Senate 's move to rapidly approve the bill "is not how lawmakers are supposed to pass enormous pieces of legislation '' and contrasted the bill to the 1986 tax bill, in which "Congress and the Reagan administration worked across party lines, produced numerous drafts, held many hearings and struck countless compromises. '' Bloomberg columnist Al Hunt classified the legislation as a "slipshod product, legislated with minimal transparency '' that was "rushed so fast through a short - circuited lawmaking process '' in which many members of Congress who voted in favor of the bill did not fully understand what they had done.
The finance ministers of the five largest European economies (Britain, Germany, France, Italy and Spain) wrote a letter to U.S. Treasury Secretary Steve Mnuchin, expressing concern that the tax reforms could trigger a trade war, as they would violate World Trade Organization rules and distort international trade. Similar concerns were voiced by China. In response to the Act, German economists called for the German government to enact tax reform and additional subsidies to prevent a loss of jobs and investments to the US.
The Short Title reference of "Tax Cuts and Jobs Act '' was not approved by Senate in the final enactment of the reconciliation law due to a dispute that was settled by the Senate Parliamentarian. The tax act is, officially, a set of tax law changes to the Internal Revenue Code that were appended to a budget reconciliation law without Short Title, and its proper reconciliation name (either, the Long Title, or Public Law 115 - 97, or some generic abbreviation) is currently used in referring to the actual law. Nevertheless, as of early 2018, the proposed rejected Short Title name had gained currency within some political and professional circles who continue to use "Tax Cuts and Jobs Act '' to refer to Public Law 115 - 97, and so the Act may be inaccurately referred to by its rejected Short Title in some instances.
The bill was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on November 2, 2017, by Congressman Kevin Brady, Republican representative from Texas. On November 9, 2017, the House Ways and Means Committee passed the bill on a party - line vote, advancing the bill to the House floor. The House passed the bill on November 16, 2017, on a mostly - party line vote of 227 -- 205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it. Companion legislation was passed by the Senate Finance Committee and Senate Budget Committee, both times on a straight party - line vote. In the early morning hours of December 2, 2017, the Senate passed their version of the bill by a 51 -- 49 vote. Bob Corker (R -- TN) was the only Republican senator to vote against the measure and it received no Democratic Party support. Differences between the House and Senate bills were reconciled in a conference committee that signed the final version on December 15, 2017. The final version contained relatively minor changes from the Senate version. The President then signed the bill into law on December 22, 2017.
There were important differences between the House and Senate versions of the bills, due in part to the Senate reconciliation rules, which required that the bill impact the deficit by less than $1.5 trillion over ten years and have minimal deficit impact thereafter. For example:
In final changes prior to approval of the Senate bill on December 2, additional changes were made (among others) that were reconciled with the House bill in a conference committee, prior to providing a final bill to the President for signature. The Conference Committee version was published on December 15, 2017. It had relatively minor differences compared to the Senate bill. Individual and pass - through tax cuts "sunset '' (expire) after ten years, while the corporate tax changes are permanent.
Leading Republicans support the bill, including President Donald Trump and Vice President Mike Pence, and Republicans in Congress, such as:
The House passed the bill on a mostly - party line vote of 227 -- 205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it.
In the Senate, Republicans "eager for a major legislative achievement after the Affordable Care Act debacle... have generally been enthusiastic about the tax overhaul. ''
A number of Republican senators who initially expressed trepidation over the bill, including Ron Johnson of Wisconsin, Susan Collins of Maine, and Steve Daines of Montana, ultimately voted for the Senate bill.
The Senate passed the bill, with amendments, on a mostly - party line vote of 51 -- 49. Every Democrat voted against the bill, while every Republican voted for it, except Senator Bob Corker of Tennessee.
Republican supporters of the tax bill have characterized it as a simplification of the tax code. While some elements of the legislation would simplify the tax code, other provisions would add additional complexity. For most Americans, the process for filing taxes under the Republican legislation would be similar to what it is today.
Democrats oppose the legislation, viewing it as a giveaway to corporations and high earners at the expense of the middle class. Every House Democrat voted against the bill when it came to the House floor; they were joined by 13 Republicans who voted against it.
The top congressional Democrats -- Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer of New York and House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi -- strongly oppose the bill. Schumer said of the bill that "The more it 's in sunlight, the more it stinks. '' Pelosi said the legislation was "designed to plunder the middle class to put into the pockets of the wealthiest 1 percent more money... It raises taxes on the middle class, millions of middle - class families across the country, borrows trillions from the future, from our children and grandchildren 's futures to give tax cuts to the wealthiest and encourages corporations to ship jobs overseas. ''
The 13 House Republicans who voted against the bill were mostly from New York, New Jersey, and California, and were opposed to the bill 's elimination of the state and local income tax deduction in the bill, which benefits those states.
Most academic economists stated that there is no empirical evidence that the tax plan would benefit the economy as much as the Trump administration claimed it will. There is, however, a consensus that it will widen public deficits and economic inequalities.
Four winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics have spoken out against the legislation: Joseph Stiglitz, Paul Krugman, Richard Thaler, and Angus Deaton.
A group of 137 economists signed an open letter expressing support for the bill; the letter was touted by President Trump, House Speaker Paul Ryan and the Senate Finance Committee as support for the legislation among economists; the letter was criticized by left - liberal publications that cited independent research which contradicted some of its claims and alleged that it contained signatories who did not exist. A group of nine economists (largely from the Reagan and Bush administrations) wrote a letter which estimated 3 percent growth from the reduction in the corporate tax rate within a decade; the letter was challenged by Harvard economists Larry Summers and Jason Furman (both of whom served in the Obama administration), and the nine economists appeared to back off from their original claims.
In November 2017, Senator Lindsey Graham (R -- SC) said that "financial contributions will stop '' flowing to the Republican Party if tax reform is unable to be passed. This echoed comments by Representative Chris Collins (R -- NY), who said, "My donors are basically saying ' get it done or do n't ever call me again. ' ''
It was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on November 2, 2017, by Congressman Kevin Brady, Republican of Texas. On November 9, 2017, the House Ways and Means Committee passed the bill on a party - line vote, advancing the bill to the House floor. The House passed the bill on November 16, 2017, on a mostly - party line vote of 227 -- 205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it. On the same day, companion legislation passed the Senate Finance Committee, again on a party - line vote, 14 -- 12. On November 28, the legislation passed the Senate Budget Committee, again on a party - line vote. On December 2, the Senate passed its version by 51 -- 49, with Bob Corker being the only Republican not to vote in support of the bill.
The benefits of the individual tax cuts fade over time, so the Senate can attempt to pass the bill with only 51 votes under the budget reconciliation process. This is specifically to comply with the Byrd Rule, which allows Senators to block legislation if it would increase the deficit significantly beyond a ten - year term.
The final version of the bill initially passed in the House of Representatives by a vote of 227 -- 203 on December 19, 2017. In the December 19 vote, the same Republicans who voted against the original House bill still voted against it, with the exception of Tom McClintock. However, several provisions of the bill violated the Senate 's procedural rules, causing the need for the House of Representatives to re-vote with the provisions removed. On December 20, the Senate passed the bill by a party - line vote of 51 -- 48. On the same day, the House of Representatives re-voted on the bill and passed it by a vote of 224 -- 201.
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how many pages is little house in the big woods | Little House in the Big Woods - wikipedia
Little House in the Big Woods is an autobiographical children 's novel written by Laura Ingalls Wilder and published by Harper in 1932 (reviewed in June). It was Wilder 's first book published and it inaugurated her Little House series. It is based on memories of her early childhood in the Big Woods near Pepin, Wisconsin, in the early 1870s.
Based on a 2007 online poll, the U.S. National Education Association named the novel one of its "Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children ''. In 2012, it was ranked number 19 among all - time children 's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal -- the first of three Little House books in the Top 100.
The novel describes the homesteading skills Laura observed and began to practice during her fifth year (see comment on her age, above). It does not contain the more mature (yet real) themes addressed in later books of the series (danger from Indians, serious illness, death, drought, and crop destruction). Hard work is the rule, though fun is often made in the midst of it. Laura gathers woodchips, and helps Ma and Pa when they butcher animals. She also helps Ma preserve the meat. This is all in preparation for the upcoming winter. Fall is a very busy time, because the harvest from the garden and fields must be brought in as well.
The cousins come for Christmas that year, and Laura receives a doll, which she names Charlotte. Later that winter, the Ingalls go to Grandma Ingalls ' house and have a "sugaring off, '' when they harvest sap and make maple syrup. They return home with buckets of syrup, enough to last the year. Laura remembered that sugaring off, and the dance that followed, for the rest of her life.
Each season has its work, which Laura makes attractive by the good things that result. In the spring, the cow has a calf, so there is milk, butter and cheese. Everyday housework is also described in detail.
That summer and fall, the Ingalls again plant a garden and fields, and store food for the winter. Pa trades labor with other farmers so that his own crops will be harvested faster when it is time. Not all work was farming. Hunting and gathering were important parts of providing for the Ingalls as well. When Pa went into the woods to hunt, he usually came home with a deer and then smoked the meat for the coming winter. One day he noticed a bee tree and returned early to get the wash tub and milk pail to collect the honey. When he returned in winter evenings, Laura and Mary always begged him to play his fiddle; he was too tired from farm work to play during summer. In the winter, they enjoyed the comforts of their home and danced to Pa 's fiddle playing.
The novel (price two dollars) was reviewed at length for the New York Herald Tribune in its June 12 issue. Jessie Hirsohl advised, "It should be read by all Middle Border children -- and by many others to whom its experiences will not be even an echo of word - of - mouth inheritance. Too few, nowadays, can tell as real and treasurable a story... Moreover, this story is delightfully told. '' In conclusion, "The book 's make - up is entirely in character -- a homespun - color linen jacket, and inner boards calicoed with tiny strawberry leaves and blossoms. The illustrations are by Helen Sewell, and are pleasantly reminiscent of woodcuts and daguerreotypes. ''
In addition to the Little House series, four series of books expand them to include five generations of Wilder 's family. The success of the Little House series has produced many related books including two series ("Little House Chapter Books '' and "My First Little House Books '') that present the original stories in condensed and simplified form for younger readers. There are also Little House themed craft, music, and cookbooks.
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was parks and rec supposed to be a spin off of the office | Parks and Recreation - wikipedia
Parks and Recreation is an American political comedy television sitcom starring Amy Poehler as Leslie Knope, a perky, mid-level bureaucrat in the Parks Department of Pawnee, a fictional town in Indiana. Created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur, the series aired on NBC from April 9, 2009 to February 24, 2015, for 125 episodes, over seven seasons. It was written by the same writers and uses the same filming style as The Office, with the same implication of a documentary crew filming everyone. The ensemble and supporting cast feature Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins, Paul Schneider as Mark Brendanawicz, Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford, Nick Offerman as Ron Swanson, Aubrey Plaza as April Ludgate, Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer, Adam Scott as Ben Wyatt, Rob Lowe as Chris Traeger, Jim O'Heir as Garry "Jerry '' or "Larry '' Gergich, Retta as Donna Meagle, and Billy Eichner as Craig Middlebrooks.
The writers researched local California politics for the show, and consulted with urban planners and elected officials. Poehler 's character, Leslie Knope, underwent major changes after the first season, in response to audience feedback that she seemed unintelligent and "ditzy ''. The writing staff incorporated current events into the episodes, such as a government shutdown in Pawnee inspired by the real - life global financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008. Several guest stars, such as Jason Mantzoukas, Kathryn Hahn, Sam Elliott, Bill Murray, Megan Mullally, Louis C.K., Paul Rudd, Henry Winkler, and Jon Hamm, have been featured in the show, and their characters often appear in multiple episodes.
Parks and Recreation was part of NBC 's "Comedy Night Done Right '' programming during its Thursday night prime - time block. The series received mixed reviews during its first season, but, after a re-approach to its tone and format, the second and subsequent seasons were widely acclaimed. Throughout its run, Parks and Recreation received several awards and nominations, including two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Comedy Series, six Primetime Emmy Award nominations, a Golden Globe Award win for Poehler 's performance, and a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy. In TIME 's 2012 year - end lists issue, Parks and Recreation was named the number one television series of that year. In 2013, after receiving four consecutive nominations in the category, Parks and Recreation won the Television Critics Association Award for Outstanding Achievement in Comedy.
Parks and Recreation focuses on Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler), the deputy director of the Parks and Recreation Department in the fictional Indiana town of Pawnee. Local nurse Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones) demands that a construction pit in the abandoned lot beside her house be filled in after her boyfriend, Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt), fell in and broke his legs. Leslie promises to turn the pit into a park, despite resistance from the parks director Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), an anti-government libertarian. City planner Mark Brendanawicz (Paul Schneider) -- for whom Leslie harbors romantic feelings -- pragmatically insists the project is unrealistic due to government red tape, but nevertheless secretly convinces Ron to approve the project. Leslie and her staff, including the sarcastic underachieving materialist Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari) and the uninterested intern April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza), try encouraging community interest in the pit project, but meet resistance. Later, Ann becomes furious to learn Andy had his cast removal postponed for two weeks so Ann would pamper him longer. Meanwhile, after a blind date for Leslie set up by her mother that ended horribly, a drunken Leslie and Mark share a kiss at the pit. Mark falls into the pit, and is quickly rescued by Leslie, Ann, and Andy.
Ann breaks up with Andy and begins dating Mark, with Leslie 's approval. It is revealed that Tom 's marriage to pediatric surgeon Wendy (Jama Williamson) is actually a green card marriage (she is a Canadian illegally in the United States), which, to his disappointment, eventually ends in divorce. The pit is eventually filled in, after which Ron is visited by his horrible ex-wife Tammy Two (Megan Mullally), a librarian who unsuccessfully tries seducing him into allowing a branch library to be built on the filled - in lot. April becomes attracted to Andy, but he remains fixated on Ann. Just as Mark plans to propose to Ann, she reveals she no longer has feelings for him. They break up, and Mark leaves his city hall career for a private sector job (he never appears again on the show). Meanwhile, a crippling budget deficit leads state auditors Chris Traeger (Rob Lowe) and Ben Wyatt (Adam Scott) to shut down the Pawnee government temporarily, much to Leslie 's horror and Ron 's delight. Meanwhile, Andy develops feelings for April, but she fears he is still hung up on Ann. Ann later kisses Andy due to conflicting emotions from her break - up with Mark, prompting April to reject Andy angrily. The season ends with Tom 's shocked discovery that Ron is now dating his ex-wife, Wendy.
Leslie decides to bring back the defunct Pawnee harvest festival, the success or failure of which will determine the financial future of the department. While working on the festival, Leslie and Ben begin to develop feelings for each other. After weeks of planning, the festival becomes a tremendous success through Leslie 's efforts. Ann and Chris briefly date, but they break up after he returns to his old job in Indianapolis. Later, Chris returns to become Pawnee 's acting city manager, and Ben also takes a job in Pawnee. Jealous over Ron dating Wendy, Tom briefly dates Tammy Two to get even, but the two eventually reconcile. Andy wins April back and they start dating. Only a few weeks later, they marry in a surprise ceremony. Leslie and Ben begin dating, but keep it secret due to Chris 's policy against workplace romances. Leslie is approached about possibly running for elected office, a lifelong dream of hers, but when asked about potential scandals in her life she neglects to mention her relationship with Ben. Tom quits his city hall job to form an entertainment company with his friend, Jean - Ralphio (Ben Schwartz). The season ends with a horrified Ron learning that his first ex-wife, also named Tammy ("Tammy One ''), has come to see him.
With Ben 's encouragement, Leslie decides to run for City Council, and ends their relationship. Leslie hires Andy as her assistant. Patricia Clarkson appears as Ron 's first ex-wife, "Tammy One '', who uses her power as an IRS employee to trick Ron into thinking he 's being audited and temporarily takes complete control over his life. Tom and Jean - Ralphio 's company, Entertainment 720, quickly blows through massive amounts of promotional funding while performing little actual work; the company goes out of business and Tom returns to his old job. Chris starts dating Millicent Gergich, the daughter of Garry Gergich. After struggling to move on both personally and professionally, Ben and Leslie get back together, and Ben sacrifices his job to save Leslie from losing hers. The scandal leads her political advisors to abandon Leslie 's campaign, and the Parks Department volunteers to become her new campaign staff. Ben agrees to be Leslie 's campaign manager. Leslie 's ex-boyfriend Dave (Louis C.K.) reappears and unsuccessfully attempts to win Leslie back. Leslie 's campaign faces myriad setbacks against her main opponent, Bobby Newport (Paul Rudd), and his famous campaign manager Jennifer Barkley (Kathryn Hahn). Ann and Tom begin an extremely rocky romantic relationship. April takes on more responsibility in the department, shouldering much of Leslie 's usual work. Towards the end of the season, Millicent breaks up with Chris when she no longer has feelings for him. In the season finale, Jennifer offers Ben a job in Washington, which he reluctantly accepts, and after the race is initially called for Newport, Leslie wins the position in a recount.
Ben flourishes in his new job on a congressional campaign in Washington DC, as does April whom he brought along as an intern. Leslie and Andy visit Ben and April, and Leslie begins to feel self - conscious about her small town job. Leslie begins working as a City Councillor, but finds opposition in her fellow councilmen, particularly Councilman Jeremy Jamm (Jon Glaser), an immature orthodontist who becomes her arch - enemy. Andy begins training to become a cop with help from Chris. Tom tries to find a new business idea. Ron meets Diane (Lucy Lawless), a woman who needs help fixing a pothole, and begins dating her despite being intimidated by her two young daughters. Jennifer offers Ben a job on another campaign in Florida, much to Leslie 's displeasure, but Ben turns it down and returns to Pawnee, surprising Leslie by proposing to her. She happily says yes. Ben 's divorced parents come to their engagement party and argue the whole time. April proposes turning Lot 48 into a dog park, which bothers Leslie, but they compromise. Tom starts a business renting high end clothing to teenagers. Ben wants to bring in an architect from neighboring Eagleton (an ultra-affluent town involved in a longstanding rivalry with Pawnee) to help with the park, now called the Pawnee Commons, which is hard for Leslie to accept. Ann decides she 's ready to be a single mom and begins searching for sperm donors. Leslie and Ben plan a fundraising event for the Pawnee Commons, and decide to have an impromptu wedding that night. When Jamm ruins the ceremony, Ron knocks him out with a single punch, and the wedding recommences in City Hall. Andy finds out he failed the cop test. Ann, seeing Chris console Andy in a fatherly way, decides she would like to have her baby with him. Leslie continues pushing forward with much resistance from Jamm. Ben gets a job with Sweetums, heading their charity foundation, and hires Andy as an assistant. In "Ron and Diane '', Millicent reveals she got engaged, to Chris ' disappointment. Jerry retires from the Parks Department but comes back to work a few hours per week. A mystery person rips off Tom 's business idea and offers to buy his business off of him. Angry locals, led by Jamm, petition for Leslie to be recalled from office. Andy goes on a hunt to find out who is pregnant, and it is revealed to be Diane.
On May 9, 2013, NBC renewed Parks and Recreation for a sixth season. The season debuted on September 26, 2013 with an hour - long episode set in London. It was announced in July 2013 that Rob Lowe and Rashida Jones would leave the show during the fall broadcast program season. Diane announces she 's pregnant as the season begins; Ron proposes to her, she accepts, and they get married. It is also revealed that Ann is pregnant with Chris ' child. Andy takes a temporary job in London. The town of Eagleton goes into bankruptcy and is absorbed by Pawnee, an effort spearheaded by Leslie after she sees no other way to save the town. As the governments merge, several Eagleton staffers briefly join the Pawnee parks department, with only Craig (Billy Eichner) remaining long - term. Leslie loses the recall vote and returns to the parks department full - time, but remains devoted to assuring the merger is successful. Tom sells Rent - A-Swag in a cash settlement. Ben is fired from Sweetum 's and comes back to work at the local accounting firm, but quits promptly (again) after Chris tells him that he has been voted in as the next City Manager. April buys Ron 's cabin in the woods. It is later revealed that Chris and Ann are having a boy. Leslie starts breaking ground on Pawnee Commons. Ann and Chris leave town for Michigan. Beginning with "Anniversaries, '' Jim O'Heir and Retta get a spot in the opening theme, replacing Rashida Jones and Rob Lowe. As a way to garner public support for the unpopular merger of Pawnee and Eagleton, the parks department begins work on the Pawnee / Eagleton Unity Concert. In "The Wall '', it is revealed that Ron and Diane have had their baby, John Swanson, without informing anyone in the office. Afterward, Ron single - handedly renovates the third floor of City Hall. In "Galentine 's Day '', Ann and Chris have their baby, Oliver Perkins - Traeger. In "Flu Season 2 '' Leslie reveals that she is pregnant. Leslie and Ben also find out that they are having triplets. In the finale, Tom 's Bistro opens to a terrible start with the investor pulling out, but becomes a hotspot when it plays host to the after party for the highly successful Unity Concert. Leslie takes the job as Regional Director for the National Park Service in Chicago, immediately submitting a proposal to bring the job to Pawnee. The finale ends three years in the future, where Leslie has had her triplets and is competently running the Midwest Regional office of the National Park Service from the third floor of Pawnee City Hall.
NBC confirmed that the show was renewed for a seventh season on March 19, 2014. On May 11, 2014, NBC confirmed that season seven (comprising 13 episodes) would be its last. Although the program had always aired in NBC 's Thursday night block, the final episodes were moved to Tuesdays, NBC 's new comedy night, to compete with CBS 's and ABC 's dramas. The seventh season began airing on January 13, 2015 and concluded on February 24, 2015.
Taking place in 2017, all the major characters, besides Craig, have left the Parks Department, and Ron and Leslie are shown to be enemies due to Ron 's company having torn down Ann 's old house in order to build an apartment building. Ben convinces a technology company, Gryzzl, to bring free Wi - Fi to the city of Pawnee by beating them at a board game he had invented, The Cones of Dunshire. Gryzzl engages in intense data mining, inducing Ron, whose new construction company Very Good Building and Development Company, has been handling their construction needs, to reconnect with Leslie to correct the issue. After he and Leslie resolve their differences, Ron and Leslie convince Gryzzl to change its ways, and the firm becomes a positive influence in Pawnee, building its headquarters in a previously run - down part of town and eventually donating a significant quantity of land, which Leslie turns into a national park. Tom hires his old girlfriend Lucy as manager of his restaurant. Eventually he proposes, and she accepts. He later experiences financial ruin, but finds success again by publishing a best selling book on his failure. Donna marries, moves to Seattle, and becomes a successful real estate agent, which supplements the income from the financially strained school district where her husband Joe works.
Andy makes a popular television show starring his Johnny Karate character, though he and April choose to allow the show to end so that April can start a new job as a career placement advisor in Washington, D.C.. Ben and Leslie also move to Washington, D.C. with their three children, Wesley, Steven, and Sonia. Eventually, she and Ben are both approached with offers to run for Indiana governor. Ben chooses to manage Leslie 's campaign in lieu of running himself. Leslie wins the office, but eventually moves on to an even higher, unspecified role (presumably as the President of the United States). Ann and Chris are revealed to have a second child, a daughter named Leslie and plan to return to Pawnee. April and Andy have a son named Jack. April also reveals she is pregnant again. Before leaving Pawnee, Ben appoints Garry Gergich interim mayor of Pawnee, who is re-elected until his death on the night of his 100th birthday. After Ron eventually tires of his construction company, Leslie arranges for him to become the superintendent of Pawnee National Park, which he accepts.
Deedle - Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios produced Parks and Recreation starting with the first season; the production companies Fremulon and 3 Arts Entertainment also became involved with the show starting with the second season. The series was created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur, who served as executive producers along with Howard Klein. Klein previously worked with Daniels and Schur on The Office, a half - hour NBC comedy Daniels adapted from the British comedy of the same name, created by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant. Schur served as the showrunner of Parks and Recreation, while Amy Poehler and Morgan Sackett worked as producers. Dean Holland, an editor on The Office, also worked as an editor on Parks and Recreation. Mike Scully, a former executive producer and showrunner for The Simpsons, joined Parks and Recreation as a consulting producer starting in the middle of the first season. Allison Jones, who worked as a casting director for The Office, served in the same capacity at the start of Parks and Recreation, along with Nancy Perkins, for whom the character Ann Perkins was named. Dorian Frankel became the casting director starting with the second season. Alan Yang, Harris Wittels, and Katie Dippold, all of whom were Parks and Recreation screenwriters, also worked as executive story editors.
The pilot episode was written by Daniels and Schur, and directed by Daniels. Daniels also directed the second season episode "Hunting Trip '', while Schur made his directorial debut with the first season finale "Rock Show '', and wrote or directed several other episodes including "Sister City '', "The Master Plan '' and "Time Capsule ''.
Poehler wrote three episodes: "Telethon '' in season 2, "The Fight '' in season 3, and "The Debate '' in season 4 (for which she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series). She also co-wrote "Second Chunce '' in season 6, the series ' 100th episode, and "One Last Ride '', the series finale, with Schur.
Holland also directed several episodes throughout the series, including "The Master Plan ''. Norm Hiscock, a consulting producer on the show, wrote a number of episodes, including the first season finale "Rock Show '' and second season premiere "Pawnee Zoo ''. Other regular screenwriters included Katie Dippold, Dan Goor, Aisha Muharrar, Harris Wittels, and Alan Yang. Frequent Parks and Recreation directors include Dean Holland, Randall Einhorn, Troy Miller, and Jason Woliner, with several others guest - directing one or two episodes such as Jeffrey Blitz, Paul Feig, Tucker Gates, Seth Gordon, Nicole Holofcener, Beth McCarthy - Miller, Michael McCullers, and Charles McDougall.
The principal cast starting in season one included:
Several cast members were introduced or developed, and added to the opening credits over the course of the series:
Numerous actors have made recurring guest appearances throughout the show, including Pamela Reed as Leslie 's mother and fellow politician Marlene Griggs - Knope, Ben Schwartz as Tom 's fast - talking friend Jean - Ralphio and Jenny Slate as his twin sister Mona - Lisa, Jama Williamson as Tom 's ex-wife Wendy, Mo Collins as morning talk show host Joan Callamezzo, Jay Jackson as television broadcaster Perd Hapley, Alison Becker as newspaper reporter Shauna Malwae - Tweep, Darlene Hunt as conservative activist Marcia Langman, and Andy Forrest as Andy 's frequent shoeshine customer Kyle. Megan Mullally, the real - life wife of Nick Offerman, portrayed Ron 's ex-wife Tammy in the second season 's "Ron and Tammy '', a role she reprised in later episodes. Lucy Lawless had a recurring role in the fifth and sixth seasons of the show as Diane Lewis a single mother who later falls in love with Ron.
Mullally 's performance was well received, which made the Parks and Recreation producers feel more comfortable about using celebrity guest actors in later episodes. Other such celebrity guests included: Blake Anderson, Fred Armisen, Will Arnett, Kristen Bell, H. Jon Benjamin, Matt Besser, Chris Bosh, Louis C.K., The Decemberists, Sam Elliott, Will Forte, Ginuwine, Michael Gross, Jon Hamm, Nick Kroll, John Larroquette, Letters to Cleo, Natalie Morales, Parker Posey, Andy Samberg, Roy Hibbert, Detlef Schrempf, Justin Theroux, Wilco, Henry Winkler, and Yo La Tengo. Paul Rudd appeared in several season four episodes as Bobby Newport, Leslie 's opponent in the City Council race, and returned for two episodes in the final season.
The show has had cameos by several real - life political figures, including Vice President Joe Biden, Senator Barbara Boxer, former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, Senator John McCain, First Lady Michelle Obama, former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, and Senator Olympia Snowe.
Immediately after Ben Silverman was named co-chairman of NBC 's entertainment division in 2007, he asked Greg Daniels to create a spin - off of The Office. Daniels co-created Parks and Recreation with Michael Schur, who had been a writer on The Office. The two spent months considering ideas for the new series and debating whether to make it a stand - alone show rather than a spin - off. According to Daniels, they eventually abandoned the original spin - off plan because they "could n't find the right fit ''. They considered a series about a local government official trying to rebuild a political career following a humiliating public spectacle. They eventually abandoned the idea, though it did end up being incorporated into the backstory for Ben Wyatt late in the second season. After Amy Poehler agreed to play the lead, they decided the show would revolve around an optimistic bureaucrat in small - town government.
The idea was partly inspired by the portrayal of local politics on the HBO drama series The Wire, as well as the renewed interest in and optimism about politics stemming from the 2008 United States presidential election. The staff was also drawn to the idea of building a show around a female relationship, namely Leslie Knope and Ann Perkins. Reports that Daniels and Schur were developing a show together led to press speculation that it would, in fact, be a spin - off of The Office. The producers insisted their new series would be entirely independent. Nevertheless, their concept for it shared several elements with The Office, particularly the mockumentary approach and the encouragement of improvisation among the cast, even though the episodes were scripted. The series was scheduled as a mid-season replacement, and was rushed into production to meet the premiere date of April 9, 2009. Before the title Parks and Recreation was chosen, the name Public Service was considered, but ultimately rejected because network officials did not want to be accused of mocking the idea.
The writers spent time researching local California politics and attending Los Angeles City Council meetings. Schur said they observed that many community hearings were attended only by those opposed, often angrily, to the proposals under consideration. This fact became a major component of town hall scenes, and was the basis for the "Canvassing '' episode. The writers consulted with real - life government officials such as urban planners and elected officials. Scott Albright, a California city planner, provided direct feedback for the Mark Brendanawicz character, and the inspiration for Ron Swanson 's anti-government convictions came from a real - life encounter Schur had in Burbank with a Libertarian government official who admitted, "I do n't really believe in the mission of my job. '' The concept of turning a construction pit into a park was seen as a device to bring all the characters together working toward a common goal. The writers originally envisioned the pit becoming a park only in the series finale, although those plans were later changed and the pit was filled in during the second season. While researching whether such a project could realistically last several months or longer, Schur spoke to urban planners in Claremont, California who said it was entirely plausible because they had recently broken ground on a park that had been in various planning stages for 18 years.
Daniels and Schur wrote the script for the pilot episode in mid-2008. The original script portrayed Leslie and Mark as slightly less likable than they appeared in the final draft, and they were changed to be more appealing in response to feedback the episode received from focus groups and press tour screenings. For example, while an early draft of the pilot script had Mark saying he did n't care about Leslie or the pit but would support her plan because he liked Ann Perkins and wanted an excuse to spend more time with her, the finished pilot had Mark backing Leslie because he admired her passion and drive. Schur said the writing staff strove to avoid the type of cynical humor prevalent in most television comedies at the time, and wanted the characters to have genuine appreciation for each other. Schur said of this, "I 've never liked mean - spirited comedy. The characters on our show make fun of each other, but not in a biting, angry way. And there 's no shortage of conflict in the world of government. '' The first season episodes were written and developed relatively quickly after each other, and Schur said the staff was treating the entire six - episode season as if it were a single television pilot. Daniels felt due to pre-expectations from viewers familiar with The Office, the first season episodes were "just about trying to tell people what we were n't '', and that the writers had a better understanding of the characters by season two and could better write to their strengths.
During the first season, the writing staff received audience feedback that Leslie Knope seemed unintelligent and "ditzy ''. Schur said the writers did not intend for Leslie to be stupid, but rather an overeager woman who "takes her job too seriously, '' so a particular effort was made to present that character as more intelligent and capable at her job starting in the second season. The staff also decided to move on from the construction pit story arc, having the pit filled in the second season episode "Kaboom ''. Although it was originally conceived that the pit would only become a park in the series finale, Schur said the plotline was accelerated because early episodes were too focused on the pit and had led viewers to believe the entire show was about filling it in, which was not the writers ' intention. Also starting with the second season, the writers made an effort to be more topical and incorporate current events into their scripts. For example, the episode "Pawnee Zoo '' included social commentary about same - sex marriage. "The Stakeout '' included a parody of the controversial arrest of Harvard University professor Henry Louis Gates, and a sex scandal involving a Pawnee councilman in "Practice Date '' mirrored the real - life 2009 scandal of South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford.
Starting in the middle of the second season, the writing staff began to draw inspiration from the premise of The Contender (2000). Schur explained that The Contender was about a female politician trying to succeed amid intense scrutiny in a political arena dominated by men, which is similar to challenges Leslie Knope occasionally encounters. The financial difficulties Pawnee experiences during the late second season and third season episodes were reflective of the financial crisis facing the nation and much of the world when the episodes were produced. The introduction of Chris Traeger and Ben Wyatt as state auditors visiting Pawnee, and the subsequent government shutdown, were inspired by news reports at the time of a number of states considering a shut down of schools, parks and other services due to the global recession. The third season included a seven - episode story arc about the characters organizing a harvest festival, and staking the financial future of their department on its success. The festival served as a device to unite the characters, much like the construction pit had earlier in the show. Schur said this was done because the first six episodes were written and filmed early, and the writing staff felt that having one concise storyline to tie them together kept the writers focused and, in Schur 's words, helped "organize our tired, end - of - the - year brains ''. For the romance arc between Leslie and Ben in seasons three and four, The Remains of the Day was used as an inspiration, as a story about two people who are forced not to convey their romantic feelings for each other due to a repressive social system, which Schur compared to modern - day government.
Like The Office, Parks and Recreation is filmed with a single - camera setup in a cinéma vérité style simulating the look of an actual documentary, with no studio audience or laugh track. Within the context of the show, the characters are being filmed by a documentary crew, the members of which are never seen or heard from on - screen. The actors occasionally look at and directly address the cameras, and in some scenes directly engage the cameras in one - on - one interviews with the documentary crew members. The episodes are scripted, but the production encourages the cast to improvise, and dialogue or performances the actors make up during filming often make the final cut of the episodes. Schur said he believes the mockumentary style is particularly fitting for a show about city government because, "It 's a device for showing the ways people act and behave differently when they 're in public and private (and) the difference between what goes on behind closed doors and what people present to the public is a huge issue. ''
The Parks and Recreation producers approach each episode as if filming a real documentary. They typically shoot enough for a 35 or 40 - minute episode, then cut it down to 22 minutes, using the best material. Due to the improvisational acting and hand - held camerawork, a great deal of extra footage is shot that must be discarded for the final cut; for example, the original cut of the 22 - minute pilot was 48 minutes long. The producers film about nine pages of the script each day, a large amount by U.S. television standards.
Despite the similarities in the mockumentary style with The Office, Daniels and Schur sought to establish a slightly different tone in the camerawork of the pilot episode. The one - on - one interviews, for example, sometimes feature two separate camera angles on the same person; the footage is intercut to create the final version of the scene. This technique was inspired by The Five Obstructions, a 2003 experimental documentary directed by Lars von Trier and Jørgen Leth, which Daniels watched at the suggestion of actor Paul Schneider. Another distinction from The Office is that, while almost all footage from that show is filmed in a workplace setting, the documentary crew on Parks and Recreation regularly follows the characters into more intimate, non-work settings, such as on dates or at their homes. Parks and Recreation also makes frequent use of the jump cut technique. For instance, one scene in the pilot episode repeatedly jump cuts between brief clips in which Leslie seeks permission from Ron to pursue the pit project. Early in the season, editor Dean Holland developed a technique that would be used throughout the series. During a scene in "The Reporter '' in which Leslie reacts to quotes read to her by the journalist, Poehler improvised a number of jokes, many of which were ultimately going to be cut from the episode. Holland thought they were all funny, so he created a brief montage intercutting several of the lines.
Principal photography began on February 18, 2009, less than two months before the show premiered. The show faced early production delays because Poehler was pregnant when she signed on, and filming had to be postponed until she gave birth. The show was filmed in Southern California. The exterior of the Pawnee government building, and several of the hallway scenes, were shot at Pasadena City Hall. The parks and recreation department interiors, as well as the Town Hall courtyard, were filmed on a large studio set sound stage. The set 's windows were outfitted with water systems to simulate falling rain, and the windowsills included fake pigeons. The set also includes four hallways that make up the hospital setting where Ann Perkins works as a nurse. The construction pit featured throughout the first and second seasons was dug by the episode 's producers at an undeveloped property in Van Nuys, a district of Los Angeles. The producers went door - to - door in the neighborhood, seeking residents ' permission for the dig. The pit was guarded 24 hours a day. Scenes set in playgrounds and elsewhere outdoors were filmed on location in Los Angeles. Most scenes set in locations outside the usual Parks and Recreation settings are also filmed in Los Angeles - area locations. For example, public forum scenes in the pilot episode were filmed in one of the city 's middle schools, and a town meeting scene in the episode "Eagleton '' was shot at the Toluca Lake Sports Center in the Toluca Lake district of Los Angeles. Other Eagleton scenes were also shot at the Huntington Library and Botanical Gardens, located in San Marino. Elaborate festival setting and corn maze sets featured in "Harvest Festival '' was filmed at a real - life festival setting at Los Angeles Pierce College, a community college in Woodland Hills, California. Schur said an aerial shot of the harvest festival at the end of the episode was the most expensive shot in the entire series.
Toward the end of production on the second season, Poehler became pregnant again and the producers of the show were forced to go into production on season three early and film an additional six episodes to accommodate not only Poehler 's pregnancy, but also a projected September 2010 air date. After the episodes were already filmed, NBC opted not to put the show on the fall schedule and instead delayed the premiere of the third season until the beginning of 2011. This allowed for the network to run its new comedy, Outsourced, in two - hour comedy schedule block rather than Parks and Recreation. The schedule change meant that all sixteen episodes from the third season were filmed before any of them were shown; the rest of the episodes, starting with the seventh, were filmed in the fall of 2010. NBC chief executive officer Jeff Gaspin said this move was not a reflection on Parks and Recreation, and suggested the extended hiatus would not only have no negative effect on the show, but could actually build anticipation for its return. The move proved frustrating for the cast and crew of Parks and Recreation, although Poehler also pointed out it gave them additional time to go back and re-edit episodes or shoot and add new material.
The producers hired BMI as music consultants to find a theme song. With less than three weeks until the show first aired, BMI sent out a mass e-mail to a slew of composers, giving them just five days to submit an entry. According to the terms of the submission request, the only compensated composer would be the winner, who would receive $7,500 in exchange for release of all rights to NBC. The winning entry was written by Gaby Moreno and Vincent Jones. Michael Schur said this theme song was chosen because producers wanted something that would immediately make the viewer associate the music with the series and the characters. He said Moreno and Jones ' song "does a really good job of explaining what the town is like. (The) credits do a really good job of establishing it 's just sort of a normal, every - day town in the middle of the country. '' Due to its realistic mockumentary - style cinematography technique, Parks and Recreation does not use composed background music.
Several songs were written for the show to be performed by Chris Pratt 's character, Andy Dwyer, and his band within the show, Mouse Rat. Pratt sings and plays guitar in the band himself, while the drums are played by Mark Rivers, the guitar by Andrew Burlinson, and the bass guitar by Alan Yang, a screenwriter with the show.
Pratt and the other band members played live during filming of the episode, rather than being pre-recorded and dubbed later. One song featured in "Rock Show '', called "The Pit '', chronicles Andy 's experience falling into a construction pit and breaking his legs. Pratt wrote "Ann '', a ballad about Ann Perkins, featured in the episode "Boys ' Club ''. Schur wrote the lyrics to "November '', a song featured in "The Master Plan '' about April Ludgate. In the episode "Woman of the Year '', Andy claims every song he writes includes either the lyrics, "Spread your wings and fly '', or "You deserve to be a champion. '' As a result of that joke, every "Mouse Rat '' song featured in the series since then has included one of those two lyrics. In the episode "Telethon '', Andy plays the song "Sex Hair '', about how one can tell whether someone has had sex because their hair is matted. In "Li'l Sebastian '', Andy performs a tribute song called "5,000 Candles in the Wind '', so - called because he tried to write a song 5,000 times better than Elton John 's "Candle in the Wind ''.
Parks and Recreation was broadcast in the 8: 30 PM timeslot Thursdays on NBC, in the United States, during its first two seasons, as part of the network 's Comedy Night Done Right line - up. It was moved to a 9: 30 PM timeslot during its third season, where it premiered as a mid-season replacement. In the fall of 2011, the show returned to its original 8: 30 pm timeslot for the fourth season.
In Australia, the series airs on Channel Seven 's digital channel, 7mate, on Mondays at 10: 00 PM, after having aired Season 1 and five episodes of Season 2 on Seven at a late timeslot of 11: 00 PM.
In Canada, Parks and Recreation is simsubbed in most areas on City.
In India, it airs on Zee Cafe.
In the Philippines, it airs on Jack TV every Friday at 9: 30 PM, Wednesday at 2: 30 AM, and 10: 00 AM.
In Portugal, the show airs on AXN White.
In the Republic of Ireland, it airs on RTÉ Two.
In South Africa, the show airs on Pay - TV operator MNET.
In the UK, the show began airing on BBC Four in 2013. The first three seasons aired on this channel before moving to Dave in the summer of 2015, starting with Season 4.
In March 2011, Universal Media Studios announced their intentions to sell the syndication rights to Parks and Recreation. Comedy Central, FX, and Spike were all described as possible contenders to buy the syndication rights.
Syndicated episodes are thus far planned to air on multiple cable networks including NBCUniversal owned Esquire Network (after relaunching from Style) and WGN America. The pilot episode also served as the first official broadcast of FX sister network, FXX, when it launched on September 2, 2013, followed by an all - day marathon, marking the first time the NBC comedy appeared off - network.
The first season of Parks and Recreation started to receive criticism before the premiere episode aired. According to a March 18, 2009 report that was leaked to writer Nikki Finke, focus groups responded poorly to a rough - cut version of the pilot. Many focus group members felt the show was a "carbon copy '' of The Office. Some found it predictable, slow paced, and lacking in character development; others said the show lacked strong male characters, particularly a "datable '' lead. Schur insisted the pilot had been completely re-edited at least four times since the focus groups described in the report were held. Nevertheless, the early feedback left many critics and industry observers skeptical about the show 's chances of success.
After it aired, the first season received generally mixed reviews; it currently holds a Metacritic score of 59 out of 100. Many critics said the series was too similar to The Office, and several commentators said Leslie Knope too closely resembled Michael Scott, the dimwitted protagonist of The Office. Some critics said the show 's characters and overall tone were too mean - spirited in the early episodes, and although reviewers praised various cast members in individual episodes, some said the supporting characters in general needed to be more fully developed and provided with better material. The season finale "Rock Show '' received far better reviews, with several commentators declaring that Parks and Recreation had finally found the right tone both generally and for the Leslie Knope character in particular.
Season two was better received and currently holds a Metacritic score of 72 out 100, indicating "Generally Positive '' reviews. Several publications declared it among the best shows of 2009 including the Los Angeles Times, the Chicago Tribune, Time, Entertainment Weekly, GQ, New York magazine, The Star - Ledger, the San Francisco Chronicle, the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Paste magazine, IGN, and TV Squad. Several reviewers called the second season one of the most impressive comebacks in television history. Some reviewers said the supporting cast was now working with better material and that Amy Poehler 's character had improved and become less over-the - top and more human than in the first season. Others praised the decision to drop subplots from season one that risked becoming stale, like Leslie 's long - standing crush on Mark, as well as the decision to fill in the pit during the second season, which some commentators said freed the show up for more stories and better scripts.
The critical acclaim continued into the third season, which currently holds a Metacritic score of 83 out of 100, indicating "Universal Acclaim ''. Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com said he believed third season "will become (sic) to be recognized as one of the best seasons of any sitcom ever '', and that the characters and setting of Pawnee were so fully developed that he felt a close, personal connection to them. Henry Hanks of CNN called it "a near - flawless season ''. Scott Meslow of The Atlantic said during the third season, Parks and Recreation was "the funniest, sweetest, most consistent sitcom on television ''. TIME magazine writer James Poniewozik called it "a fabulous season -- the best thing on TV in 2011 so far '', and which TV Squad writer Maureen Ryan, who previously criticized the series, called one of the 10 best shows of 2011. In TIME magazine 's 2012 year - end top 10 lists, Parks and Recreation was named the top TV series.
Parks and Recreation featured on the February 11, 2011 cover of Entertainment Weekly, which called it, "the smartest comedy on TV. '' The magazine included an article called "101 Reasons to Love Parks and Recreation. ''
Poehler said the first season struggled in part due to extremely high expectations from comparisons to The Office. After the first season ended, she said, "I think it was something we had to work through in the beginning, and I 'm kind of hoping we 're on the other side of that and people will start to judge the show on its own, for what it is and realize it 's just a completely different world in a similar style. '' Likewise, Schur said he believed much of the early criticism stemmed from the fact that audiences were not yet familiar with the characters, and he thought viewers who revisited the episodes would enjoy them more with a better understanding of the characters.
Poehler received wide praise for her performance from the beginning of the series; several reviewers, even those who did not enjoy the show, said her talent, timing and likability helped elevate the series above some of its flaws.
Nick Offerman received particularly strong praise for his minimalist and understated performance as Ron Swanson, whom many considered the show 's breakout character. By the end of the second season, the character had taken on a cult status; Jonah Weiner of Slate magazine declared Swanson "Parks and Recreation 's secret weapon ''.
Reviewers also consistently praised the performances by supporting actors Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford, and Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer.
Parks and Recreation struggled in the Nielsen ratings throughout its entire run on NBC. The series premiere was seen by 6.77 million viewers, which media outlets described as a strong opening, comparable to the average Nielsen ratings for 30 Rock, another Thursday - night show on NBC. Viewership declined almost every week over the rest of the season, culminating in a season low of 4.25 million viewers for the final episode. Parks and Recreation ended the first season with an overall average rating of 5.97 million viewers viewers, ranking 94th in a list of 193 network shows for the 2008 -- 09 television season. The Office experienced similarly poor ratings during its first season and later became a success. Low viewership presented a greater challenge for Parks and Recreation because NBC now trailed CBS, ABC and Fox in the ratings, and the move of comedian Jay Leno from The Tonight Show to a variety show in NBC 's 10: 00 pm weeknight slot left less room on the network 's primetime schedule. At the end of the season, members of the cast and crew were stressed because they did not know whether the show would be renewed.
Although Parks and Recreation achieved critical success during the second season, the show continued to suffer in the ratings. By December 2009, the average episode viewership was 5.3 million viewers, which was lower than the average ratings for other Thursday - night NBC comedy shows like Community 's 6.5 million viewers, 30 Rock 's 7.3 million and The Office 's 10.1 million. For the overall second season, Parks and Recreation had an overall average viewership of 4.6 million viewers, making it the 108th ranked network series for the 2009 -- 10 season. The poor ratings continued into the third season, which ended with an overall average rating of 5.1 million viewers, the 116th ranked network series of the 2010 -- 11 television season. Michael Schur partially attributed the continually low viewership to a decline in ratings for NBC in general, as well as changing viewer trends due to a large number of available channels.
Despite the generally low ratings, Parks and Recreation was renewed for a sixth season on May 9, 2013. NBC had a financial incentive to continue the series, as it owns the distribution rights via its NBCUniversal Television Distribution company: the sixth season put the series over the 100 episodes milestone, making it more viable for syndication.
In 2010, Amy Poehler was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for her work in the second season. Also that year, Parks and Recreation was nominated for the Television Critics Association Award for Outstanding Achievement in Comedy and Individual Achievement in Comedy for Nick Offerman for his work in the second season. The second season premiere episode, "Pawnee Zoo '', won the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Individual Episode (in a Series without a Regular LGBT Character). Also in 2010, Parks and Recreation received two nominations from Entertainment Weekly 's EWwy Awards: Best Comedy Series and Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series for Offerman.
In 2011, Parks and Recreation was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series and Amy Poehler received her second Emmy nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series. In June 2011, Parks and Recreation was nominated for three awards for the inaugural Critics ' Choice Television Awards: Best Comedy Series, Best Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for Poehler, and Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series for Nick Offerman. Also that month, Parks and Recreation was nominated for four TCA Awards: Program of the Year, Outstanding Achievement in Comedy, and Individual Achievement in Comedy for Offerman and Poehler. Offerman hosted the TCA Awards ceremony that year.
In January 2014, Amy Poehler won her first Golden Globe award for her portrayal of Leslie Knope. Poehler was hosting the ceremony along with Tina Fey.
The first season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in region 1 on September 8, 2009. The DVD included all six episodes, as well as an "Extended Producer 's Cut '' of the season finale, "Rock Show ''. The disc also included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode, as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes. The second season was released in a four - disc set in region 1 on November 30, 2010. They included extended episodes for "The Master Plan '' and "Freddy Spaghetti '', as well as two - and - a-half hours of deleted scenes, a third season preview and additional video clips. Audio commentaries were recorded for the episodes "Sister City '', "Ron and Tammy '', "Hunting Trip '', "Woman of the Year '', "The Master Plan '' and "Freddy Spaghetti ''.
All seven seasons of Parks and Recreation can be viewed on the streaming video service Hulu, as well as the "Instant Watch '' streaming feature of Netflix and Amazon Prime. Individual episodes can also be purchased on the iTunes Store and viewed on an NBC mobile browser on the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad.
Parks and Recreation is not available on Blu - ray for any season despite airing in high definition and its availability in HD through streaming; the episode "The Hunting Trip '' is available as a bonus feature on the Blu - ray set for Season Six of The Office, making it the only Parks and Recreation episode on Blu - ray.
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who dies by negan in the walking dead | Negan - wikipedia
Negan is a fictional character in the comic book series The Walking Dead and in the television series of the same name. He is the leader of a group of roughly 500 survivors in The Sanctuary, called the Saviors, a group that trades with others. In the comics, the character 's appearance is based on Henry Rollins, as confirmed by Charlie Adlard; Robert Kirkman worked in his excessive use of profanity, derived from other people he knew. Jeffrey Dean Morgan portrays Negan in the television series of the same name and first appeared in the series ' sixth season finale.
After Rick Grimes and his fellow survivors agree to begin a trading relationship with the Hilltop Colony, they are ambushed by the Saviors and are forced to obey Negan 's orders to give the Saviors half of their supplies, as the other communities do. Initially obedient, Rick and the others secretly conspire with other communities in the Washington, D.C. area to prepare for war against the Saviors. Negan resides in an abandoned factory, where most of the attractive women -- formerly other men 's girlfriends or wives -- act as his wives. He soon grows fond of Rick 's son, Carl Grimes.
Morgan has received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Negan in the television series upon his debut, earning himself the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Guest Performer in a Drama Series and Saturn Award for Best Guest Starring Role on Television. After first being offered the role of Negan, Morgan immediately accepted the offer due to being a fan of The Walking Dead prior.
Robert Kirkman conceptualized the character after scrapping the idea of Rick Grimes being forced to protect his son, Carl Grimes, by killing fellow survivor, Glenn Rhee.
Negan has a unique personality, different from the volatility, manipulative behavior, and lack of remorse The Governor expressed. Negan is feared and respected as a king; he is the first and last word on the activities of his group: the Saviors. He controls his subordinates by power, intimidation, and punishment. Brutal, foul - mouthed, and possessing a twisted sense of humor, Negan carries a barbed wire - wrapped baseball bat named Lucille, after his late wife (as Jeffrey Dean Morgan confirmed in an interview).
Negan is inexplicably violent at times and kills people unaccountably. However, his behavior in certain situations might not always be construed as evil. While Rick was out scavenging for supplies to appease Negan, Spencer tried to convince Negan to kill Rick and place him in charge of Alexandria. Negan instead kills Spencer for being a coward. While he can be merciless and unrelenting when getting a point across, he is also (at least superficially) understanding of others, willing to spare those he sees as potentially useful, and has been shown to be reasonable when people attempt to negotiate with him. He has a genuine disgust for the act of rape and affirms that his wives are with him voluntarily.
Negan has a penchant for provocation and power games. The stronger the resistance to his will, the more he seems to enjoy the test of wills. Having insight rarely associated with violent antagonists, Negan appears to both observe and appreciate the concerns and intentions of his opposite numbers. This gives him a significant psychological advantage in most contests of will, as he can anticipate and preempt an enemy 's plans.
Before the outbreak, Negan is playing Ping - Pong in his garage with some of the neighborhood boys who attend the school where he works. The boys refer to him as "Coach Negan ''. After defeating and belittling one of the boys, they run off and he instantly expresses regret about his behavior. His wife Lucille comes out to yell at him and Negan expresses his desire for the students to respect him by being the "cool teacher '' outside of school. Lucille then suddenly collapses.
At some point after the outbreak, Negan is found by a group led by a man named Dwight. He slowly took control over this group from Dwight, thus forming The Saviors and fiercely ruled over his group. Negan, along with his team (which includes at least 50 or more other men), had made a deal with the Hilltop Colony: the Saviors would use the weaponry the other group was lacking to kill all zombies wandering near the Hilltop 's premises. In return, the Saviors would obtain half of Hilltop 's supplies, such as livestock and crops. To get his point across, if a potential problem would arise, Negan and his men would resort to cruel measures. For example, if they sensed they were being tracked, or if they believed they were n't getting sufficient supplies, the Saviors beat or killed people from Hilltop. The Saviors also sent "messages '' to the Hilltop community, which were usually very deadly, such as Ethan having to kill Gregory.
Later, Negan, along with 50 other Saviors, snuck up on Rick 's group and subdued Rick by surprise. They lined up all of the survivors from the van (Rick, Carl, Glenn, Maggie, Sophia, Michonne, and Heath), telling them that Negan wanted revenge for the Saviors who were killed. Without Rick 's consent, Negan imposed a binding deal: everything that belonged to the Alexandria Safe - Zone now belonged to the Saviors. Negan also introduced his weapon of choice; Lucille, a baseball bat covered in barbed wire. After a long talk about the new world order and whom he should beat to death using Lucille, he finally chose his victim at random: Glenn. Maggie panicked, while Glenn tried talking Negan out of it. However, Negan ignored him and used Lucille to smash Glenn 's skull. Negan laughed, when Glenn attempted to get to his feet, hiking, "He 's taking it like a champ '', before swinging the bat again, dislocating Glenn 's jaw and beating Glenn to death. Glenn 's last words were "Mag - Maggie! ''. Negan told the mourning and crying group that the Saviors would be back in one week to collect half of everything that Alexandria Safe - Zone owned, or there would be more killings. Rick vowed to avenge Glenn 's murder and kill Negan. Negan laughed at this, beat Rick with his bare hands, and then turned around, leaving the survivors with Glenn 's mangled corpse.
Negan and the Saviors later arrived at the Alexandria Safe - Zone for their first offering. Spencer Monroe arrived at the gate, questioning Negan 's identity, and Negan laughs, referencing the events of Issue 100. Bemused that not everyone knows his name, Negan remarks that he "had to make a pretty fucking strong first impression '' and asks Spencer to get Rick. When Spencer leaves, Negan and the Saviors begin killing the roamers in the surrounding area. While the Saviors scavenge each of the houses for supplies, Negan makes several rude comments about his beating of Glenn, about Olivia being overweight, and towards Carl when Carl threatens him. Negan also forces Rick to hold "Lucille '' while he scavenges the Safe - Zone. When Denise threatens a Savior for taking important medical supplies (all their opioid painkillers), and Rick attempts to reason with Negan, Negan tells the group that their big walls are the only medicine they need. Before Negan departs, he retrieves "Lucille '' from Rick and whispers, "I just slid my dick down your throat, and you thanked me for it. ''
Negan and his men depart from the Safe - Zone with supplies, but, unbeknownst to them, Carl is hiding in the truck with an assault rifle. Once the Saviors get back to their base, Negan is amazed to see that Dwight is still alive. "There is always next time, I suppose, '' he says, much to Dwight 's disgust. A Savior finds Carl, and Carl uses the rifle to kill six Saviors. They surround Carl, and he demands to speak with Negan. When Negan arrives, Carl fires at them until he loses control of his gun. Dwight is about to kill Carl when Negan stops Dwight and says, "Is that any way to treat our new guest? ''
Instead of taking immediate action against young Carl, Negan shows interest in getting to know the child. He goes as far as to lead him through the Saviors ' facilities, revealing that he is the leader of a cult - like domain of selfless followers who bow to his every word and command. Many followers in his ranks are living on a point system in order to sustain their lives, though many give into his graces in exchange for a better lifestyle, most notably the women in his "harem '' whom he considers his "wives ''.
It is brought to Negan 's attention that one of his many wives, Amber, has committed adultery against him with her former lover. As Negan goes to handle the situation, he brings Carl along to see his wives and how he handles his affairs, before degrading the terrified Amber in front of them all. Afterward, Negan and Carl share a private moment in Negan 's quarters, where he reveals that he 'd like to get to know Carl a little better, but he gets distracted by Carl 's bandaged face. He orders Carl to remove the bandages, showing interest in seeing the injury to his eye. Carl allows him to see it only after being threatened; he removes the bandages to reveal the disturbing results of having been shot. Negan, in a state of disbelief and awe, jokingly mocks the deformity and goes as far as to ask Carl if he can touch the part of his skull showing through Carl 's exposed eye - socket, which causes Carl to break finally and cry. This appears to have an odd effect on Negan, who takes back the gesture and apologizes, seeing that he has finally found a weakness in the child he finds so dangerous.
They are interrupted by one of Negan 's followers who returns "Lucille '' to him and leaves them alone once again. Negan reverts to coldness and orders Carl to sing a song for him while he swings the bat dangerously close. After this intense encounter, they are interrupted once again, and Negan is told the iron is ready. Negan has Carl hold "Lucille '' while he follows him to witness the event.
In a ritualistic fashion, complete with call and response chanting, with the followers answering to Negan 's words, Negan demonstrates that whoever falls onto his bad graces is dealt with by having their face seared by a hot iron. Tied to the end of a pole, the tool is held over a fire before being handed to Negan, who presses it against the victim 's face as punishment for their betrayal. In this case, it is the face of Amber 's former lover Mark, who is left deformed in the same manner as Dwight, with a portion of his face permanently scarred and an eyeball exposed. After the ritual, Negan dismisses his congregation before turning to Carl, who hands back "Lucille '', and Negan leads him away, contemplating what to do with him.
Negan runs into Rick while the latter was on his way to find Carl. Negan tells Rick how eager he is to show him "what he has done to his son ''. Rick, in a fit of rage, then attacks Negan before Negan reveals that Carl is fine, and Negan clarifies that he is eager to show Rick "that he has done nothing to his son. ''
Several days later, Negan arrives at the Alexandria Safe - Zone a few days ahead of schedule; he 's informed that the community is "practically '' out of supplies, and Rick went out looking for more. Negan decides that he will stay in Alexandria until Rick returns from the supply run. He makes an offhand comment about Olivia 's weight; she overhears it and starts to cry. He tries to apologize, but she slaps him. Despite several Saviors ' offering to kill her, Negan dismisses them. Negan is later approached by Spencer Monroe and asks for a little background on the Safe - Zone. After a while, Negan gets impatient with Spencer and wants to know why he came to him. Spencer then tells Negan that Rick is not a suitable leader for the community and asks that once Negan assassinates Rick, Spencer be given control over the Safe - Zone. Negan feels insulted that Spencer would wait until Rick was gone to tell him this. He responds by telling Spencer that Rick may hate him, but, he has guts, unlike Spencer, who acted like a coward. Negan then slashes Spencer 's stomach, killing him almost instantly, causing Spencer 's guts to spill out onto the ground. Negan then remarks that "he had guts after all. '' He then orders one of his men to clean the mess up "before a kid sees it. ''
Negan asks Denise, who witnessed the attack, where Spencer lived so he could go and shoot some pool. Rick later returns and confronts Negan, who casually blows him off. Rick demands to know what happened, or Negan wo n't leave Alexandria alive. After picking up Lucille and praying to give him strength, Negan drops the excessive profanity he normally uses and tells Rick that he feels like he 's "bent over backwards to show how reasonable I can be '' in regards to how he brought Carl back to the Safe - Zone safely, and he hints about how Spencer wanted to have him assassinate Rick. After seeing the supplies Rick has gathered, Negan initially demands all of it but then decides to take nothing, as repayment for having killed Spencer. Rick insists that they take their share, and Negan has no objections. As the Saviors are driving back to the foundry, Negan notices Rick and a few others are following them. An instant later, the driver is shot and killed. Confused and angry, Negan takes Lucille and sees Rick pointing a gun at his head. Suddenly, a gunshot is heard, and Rick 's gun is destroyed as well as those of the others who came out with him. Negan remarks on how stupid Rick and the others are to use bullets on the roamers instead of saving them for "the much more dangerous thinkers '' (i.e., the living). Negan reveals that before every pickup, he has a back - up team armed with guns surround the Safe - Zone and guard the area while he and the other Saviors go in and salvage for supplies. With a crazed smile on his face, Negan leans into Rick and says that he and the Safe - Zone residents are "fucking fucked. ''
Negan smiles and says that in a stand - off situation, snipers tend to give away their position after several shots. He clarifies that Rick 's "sniper bitch is as good as dead, '' causing Rick to try and strike him. As Negan holds him off, Carl shoots off a portion of Lucille, causing the Saviors to open fire at the Safe - Zone walls. Negan orders them to stop, and is shocked and angry about the damage to Lucille. Rick tackles him from behind, but Negan subdues him once more. He calls Carl a one - eyed asshole and shouts for Carl to be thrown over the wall, saying: "I want him to pay for what he 's done! '' Rick tries to object, but Negan beats him and issues an ultimatum: "Give me the boy, or I 'll bash in all four skulls of the people out here! '' Negan admits that he liked Carl at first and that he never had a kid of his own; if he did, he wanted him to be like Carl. Rick says that if Carl dies, their agreement is over, but, Negan states that it already is over. He orders his men to line up Rick, Heath, Nicholas, and Holly, then begins to decide which one to kill first. He notices a figure falling from the bell tower and smugly repeats that he knew Rick 's sniper was good as dead, not realizing that it 's not Andrea, but Connor.
Negan taunts Rick about Andrea 's supposed demise, and Nicholas interrupts him, pleading for his life. Negan berates Nicholas for doing this and accuses him of being a coward. He asks Rick, Heath, or Holly to ask him to kill Nicholas and says if they do so, he will spare them. However, Heath tells him, no, and so Negan begins to pick which one of them he will kill.
Negan is interrupted when Paul Monroe grabs a Savior by the foot and uses him as a shield from the Saviors ' bullets. Negan tells his men to stand down, and when he does this, Paul leaps out of a trench and kicks the nearest Savior in the face. Paul orders Rick and the others into a trench and proceeds to fight his way towards Negan. When Paul reaches Negan, he manages to disarm him and hold him hostage. Paul stalls the Saviors until Ezekiel and his men arrive. Negan breaks free from Paul and runs to a truck, where he retreats back to The Sanctuary with his men. Negan is later seen back at The Sanctuary, where he gives the Saviors a speech about their being the dominant force in the world, and they need to remind people of that. Negan then states they are going to war.
Several days later, Rick 's army arrives at the Saviors ' base and demands that Negan come out. Initially, Negan is amused by this and begins to taunt him. Rick reveals that they know there are women, children, and others inside who are n't part of this fight, he offers a chance to surrender and let them live; for the rest, he reaffirms his old saying: "You kill, and you die. '' Negan plays along with it and asks what will happen if he refuses. After hearing that "whatever happens, happens '' Negan thinks for a split second and blatantly refuses Rick 's offer. He muses that if he thinks the army he 's assembled "can actually accomplish something... that 's fucking rich. '' He briefly entertains the idea of letting Rick 's plan go through only to reveal a wildcard; after the ambush at Alexandria, Negan ordered Gregory kidnapped and brought to him. Afraid of what Negan might do, Gregory quickly pledged his allegiance (and that of the Hilltop) to Negan and the Saviors. After Gregory informed his loyalty towards Negan, he told Negan that the majority of Rick 's army was people from the Hilltop Colony. Negan is pleased with this, but when Rick 's army arrived, he is furious that only eight people accept the ultimatum and leave. Negan berates Gregory for this misinformation and kicks him off the balcony. He refuses Rick 's offer once more, and his snipers begin to fire at the militia. Negan asks Lucille if she "believes this shit '' and retreats from the bullets and falling glass. He calls Dwight, ordering him to bring the men from the outposts back to help drive off Rick 's army. Dwight agrees but due to the commotion, Negan does n't notice the former 's hesitation to act immediately. As more men rush outside, Negan orders them to start shooting the army before all their snipers are killed. He suddenly notices that all their snipers are taking cover and is initially confused as to why Rick 's militia are shooting not the snipers, but the windows. He then notices the large herd of zombies that are rapidly approaching the Sanctuary walls. He looks outside the fence and tells Dwight that "I hope you 're wearing your shitting pants. '' Suddenly, Holly drives through the fence, destroying a portion of it and letting the herd inside. Negan frantically orders his men back inside the foundry but notices that Holly is still alive from the crash. He sees a zombie about to kill her and dispatches it. As she looks up, Negan smiles and says that she was n't "going to get off THAT fucking easy. '' As the zombies converge on the courtyard area, the Saviors retreat inside the foundry to develop a new strategy.
Negan delivers an analogy to a group of Saviors about how you can destroy a man "by fucking his vagina '', meaning that the best way to destroy a man 's heart is by destroying the woman he loves; Negan clearly believes this to be Holly since Rick "was going to drive a car at us... you would n't let him sacrifice himself to tear our gate down. '' She corrects him by saying he 's got the wrong woman; Rick loves Andrea, and she was in love with Abraham, the man Dwight killed. Negan refuses to listen, insisting that she is the one who killed Connor "and a terrible liar. '' He then orders her taken away and goes off to clear his head. Later, Negan is seen outside with more Saviors trying to clear the courtyard of all the zombies, swearing that if any of them die he will "fuck them up. '' Eventually, too many roamers pour in the fence and Negan 's group retreat inside once more. Negan realizes that if the herd keeps them stuck inside for more than one day, they will all be dead, and he orders squads outside every two hours to clean up the infestation by any means necessary. He goes to interrogate Holly some more but catches David in the middle of trying to rape her. Negan demands that he get away from her and grabs him by the collar. He angrily reminds David one of the Savior 's main rules: "We do n't rape '', thus proving Negan does hate sexual violence. As punishment for him breaking this rule, Negan proceeds to stab David in the neck and apologizes to Holly, telling her that "they (The Saviors) are n't monsters. '' After killing David, it is presumed that Negan got word of one of his outposts being overrun by Rick 's army and sent more to fortify the remaining ones. This, in turn, led to Ezekiel 's army being eradicated in a failed attack. Negan also found a way to eliminate all of the zombies that had flooded into The Sanctuary 's courtyard, for he is later seen heading towards Alexandria. When he arrives at the Safe - Zone, he throws a grenade over the wall, and it detonates, demolishing one of the houses and getting Rick 's attention. He threatens that ' there 's more where that came from ' and insists that he 's here to parlay. To support his claim, he has a blindfolded Holly brought out of his truck and offers to release her back to Rick. Rick agrees to talk only when Holly is safely back inside, to which Negan agrees. This is later shown to be a ploy as it 's revealed that Negan had Holly killed and she later reanimated. As the Alexandrians are distracted by this revelation, Negan orders his men to surround Alexandria and throws another grenade over the wall, yelling "Bombs away, motherfuckers! ''. Negan is happy seeing all the destruction and chaos and admits to Lucille that "my dick 's so hard right now... I should wrap it in barbed wire and call it ' Lucille II '. '' He asks Lucille if seeing him use the grenades makes her jealous of not being inside to take part in all the mayhem and wishes that he was inside as well watching them all burn. Davis, overhearing the conversation, awkwardly agrees that he 's got a boner too and says (they 're) hungry for death as well. Negan, confused by this, asks what the hell he 's talking about. Suddenly, Davis is shot through the eye and gunfire erupts from behind several buildings. Surprised by this, Negan orders his men behind one of the trucks. He asks for one more grenade to use as cover and tells his men "the last boat is leaving... you 'd better fucking be on it. '' He manages to escape, and they can make a fast exit. When a Savior makes an offhand comment about retreating, Negan retorts that this was n't a retreat. Pointing towards the smoke coming from Alexandria, he comments that this means they 've "just fucking won. ''
After successfully bombarding Alexandria, Negan is seen leading his men back to Sanctuary when he sees a herd of roamers attacking several people from Alexandria. He orders them to kill the roamers and wonders aloud why they are out here beyond the wall. Nevertheless, he orders Eugene and the others to be taken back with them. Later, Negan somehow finds out that Eugene was making ammunition for Rick 's army and goes to see him. Flanked by Dwight and Carson, Negan demands Eugene to begin producing ammo for the Saviors. When the latter refuses, Negan hands Carson Lucille, then proceeds to grab his own groin (referring to it as his ' crystal balls ') and tells Eugene what will happen if he refuses to cooperate; smiling, he says that he could iron Eugene 's face (while glancing at Dwight) or castrate him. Negan insists that he does n't want to do this, but threatens Eugene by saying that he does things he does n't like all the time. Eugene still refuses to betray Rick and Negan leaves Eugene "with his thoughts and his dick... while he still has it. '' After ordering Dwight to lock Eugene up and to check on the others, Negan goes to have sex with one of his wives (it is implied to be Sherry due to the look he throws at Dwight), saying that he 'll see them both the next morning. Early the following day, Negan reveals to the Saviors that he 's come up with a brilliant plan that will help them win the war. He has assembled a group of roamers inside the courtyard to demonstrate his idea, exclaiming "they are the lynchpin of our plans going forward. '' Reminding them about the fever that comes from getting bit or from any other injury caused by a roamer, Negan approaches one with Lucille. After apologizing to Lucille, Negan begins to rub it all over the roamer, covering the bat with guts and the bacteria that causes the fever. Holding up ' the new and improved Lucille, ' Negan says that even the slightest touch from Lucille will now essentially be a death sentence. He orders the Saviors to do the same to their weapons and then hit the road. Arriving at the Hilltop later that day, Negan and his men hide in the forest just outside the Hilltop. He then issues the order: "We attack at sundown. ''
Several hours later, Negan and his troops arrive at the Hilltop gates, demanding to see Rick. Kal is atop the wall and threatens them by saying they wo n't survive what 's behind the walls. Negan tells him to bring Rick, but Kal says, "you 're talking to me. '' Insulted, Negan has one of his men shoot Kal off the wall. Once again, Negan demands Rick to show himself. After no response from him, Negan orders his men to further gunk up their weapons, saying "we 're going in. '' He goes up to Dwight, making sure his arrows are covered. Dwight offhandedly talks back, but Negan dismisses it. He warns Rick one more time what will happen and then orders a truck to ram into the front gates. The truck gets shot up, but Negan issues another to take its place and has motorcycles come in as well. The Saviors pour into the Hilltop and begin to kill off the residents. As gunfire continues to erupt towards them, Negan and Dwight get separated from the other Saviors. Negan is unaware that Dwight is loading an arrow to kill him when he spots Rick away from the other survivors. He tells Dwight to shoot Rick; no matter where he aims "that muck will make him sick. '' Dwight is hesitant to do so, but Negan demands to know why he 's waiting and screams at him to shoot Rick. Dwight finally (and reluctantly) does so, hitting Rick in the side. After this, Negan declares that "without him, they 're nothing. Game fucking over. ''
After Rick is hit with the arrow, Negan and Dwight retreat to the rest of The Savior horde, hoping to devise a plan of attack against the remaining survivors at Hilltop. When night completely falls on the colony, Negan is almost accidentally shot by one of The Saviors, who states he could n't see properly in the darkness. Negan says that it is not that dark and asks one of his Saviors the status of the battle. The Savior tells him most of The Saviors are now re-grouped, and they are ready to get back on the defensive and Negan orders him and the rest of the men to get ready for their attack on the Hilltop mansion. When they begin their attack, they are immediately surrounded by many of Rick 's forces, who manage to cause Negan to order and retreat and head back to The Savior camps on the hillside near Hilltop. After his and The Saviors ' retreat, Negan is seen back at the camp alongside Dwight, who questions if camping so close to Hilltop is a good idea. Negan says that they are doing it and remarks that he sometimes wonders if Dwight has ever had a brain in his head. He elaborates by saying that Rick 's forces wo n't have enough manpower to counterattack and that because Dwight shot Rick with an arrow, his death will cause the remaining forces to bow back down to Negan, and he says that he will be their Savior again, as long as they let him urinate on Rick 's dead body. Seeing the look on Dwight 's face, Negan says that there 's nothing weird about that; Negan says that since Rick 's ruined everything, "it 'd be weird if I DIDN 'T piss all over his dead, bloated body. '' He is informed that Carson has escaped with Eugene. Negan tells him not to worry about it, and that they will deal with them later. Negan arrives at Hilltop 's gates and shoots twice into the air. He claims that he 's here to accept their surrender and asks them to send whoever is now in charge out. He swears the area he 's in will be a safe zone, and there wo n't be any bloodshed. After getting impatient, Negan threatens to come back inside when Rick exits the Hilltop. Bowled over with shock to see him still alive, Negan turns towards Dwight for an answer, but Rick tells him to "look at me. '' Overcoming his initial shock, Negan asks Rick to surrender, to "let things go back the way they were '' but Rick refuses. Negan repeats that he only kills people to make an example and threatens Rick that he will do so again if pushed too far, but Rick replies by saying he 's "the stupidest fucking person still alive. '' Taken aback, Negan asks what he 's talking about. Rick goes on to say that they should pool their resources and people together. Negan does n't believe him, saying that with the system he 's been using, he is saving lives. Rick tells him in the current situation, the only ones who are winning are the undead; the only way to get through this is by working together. Negan takes this all in, and Rick says that they can take their supplies, but they must give the survivors something in return; make supplies of their own to give or trade for others via a barter system. A fog seems to lift from Negan 's mind and finally sees what Rick has been talking about; he realizes that his actions and methods have only helped himself while the communities he 's been threatening have suffered. Negan says he 's been wrong all along and that Rick is right. Rick then slashes Negan 's throat with a knife, responding "Good. '' Caught by surprise, Negan begins bleeding out while Rick begins to address the remaining Saviors. Negan then tackles Rick and begins beating him. Despite Rick putting up a fight, Negan catches one of Rick 's legs and breaks it. Laughing, he eventually passes out due to blood loss. He eventually wakes up inside one of the rooms in the Hilltop and sees Rick standing over him. He admits to Rick that during the conversation Rick had with Carl, he was able only to catch bits and pieces of it. He knows that Rick decided not to kill him, but asks what 's going to happen now. Rick reveals that he 's going to keep Negan alive so he can see how much Negan was holding the survivors back. Rick also tells Negan that he 's going to rot in jail until he dies an old man.
Two years after the war, Carl goes to the basement of an unknown house and talks to a figure in the shadows. He tells the figure of how he, Mikey and some other boys went to a girl 's house after class, and that she showed them her breasts. He says it was cool and all, but he had a crush on her; after this, he is not sure, remarking how he does not want to have someone who does that sort of thing. The figure says that nothing is wrong with the girl and suggest Carl not hold this one instance against her. He then says to Carl that he enjoys their talks and that it is good for him to keep track of the time and days passed. Carl says he is leaving, but before he leaves, the figure asks him if, after all this time, all the things they have shared and the talks they have had, Carl still wants to kill him. He turns around and faces the person behind bars, simply saying: "Yes, Negan. You know I do. '' Negan asks how he was supposed to know that Carl wanted to kill him and tells him not to insult his intelligence. Negan says that he thought the two of them were friends to which Carl walks away, making Negan retreat into the corner of his cell.
Negan says to Rick that his least favorite part of the day is shitting in a bucket, but it is also his favorite as Rick has to be the one to get it. Rick says that he is only bringing him food and that someone else will be out to clean his bucket later. Negan asks if Rick is taking Carl to the Hilltop, slightly shocking Rick. Negan says that he and Carl are friends and that Rick could not break that bond. Negan asks if the creaking he can hear is a windmill, making Rick say that life went on without him, just as he said it would. Negan tells Rick that he is just getting things ready for him and that he will not be in his cell forever. Rick says that he knows Negan will die behind bars, to which Negan says that he wo n't and that deep down, Rick knows he should have killed Negan. Rick asks Negan if he noticed that he does not use profanity all that much anymore and asks why that is. Negan says he does not see the point and that it is best to save his energy. Rick disagrees and responds that "It 's because I 've fucking neutered you like a dog. You 've got no fight left, you pathetic sack of shit. '' Negan stares at Rick angrily as he turns around and leaves, telling Negan to enjoy his food.
Magna and her group later come down to see who was in the jail. When they walk down the stairs to where Negan is being held, Negan grabs the bars to his cell and asks if they are here to rescue him, saying that "they 're animals. '' This shocks Magna and her group. Negan begs to be released and claims Rick is a monster who locked him up and tortured him for speaking out against him. However, Magna does not believe him, having seen actual victims of torture. Negan admits he was lying but had to give it a try. Magna and her companions leave the cell.
Some time later, Negan is bathing and having his hair cut by Olivia outside his cell door. After finishing, Negan walks back to his cell at gunpoint from Andrea, who calls him a ' fucking monster, ' much to Negan 's amusement. Olivia then proceeds to lock the door, and they both leave Negan alone. However, it turns out Olivia did n't lock Negan 's cell properly as the door swings open, which Negan notices. However, Negan decides not to escape and remains in his cell with the door open until Rick comes downstairs, then taunts him about the numerous ways he could have destroyed Alexandria without anyone realizing, but claimed to stay as sign of good faith and an offering to amend their trust. As Rick locks up the cage and leaves, Negan taunts him again by stating the only reason he 's alive is so Rick can prove to himself that he 's still a good person, and that he wants everyone else to believe he is the only one who can fix the world.
After a tumultuous community meeting regarding Rick 's proposed plan regarding the Whisperers, Rick goes to Negan 's cell and asks for his help. He fills him in on everything that has happened since they 've come into conflict with this new group. Negan advises Rick to keep his group happy, even if that means lying to them, touting his expertise as leader of the Saviors, some of whom disliked him. Rick leaves, and Negan dons a grin. When Negan hears the chants and cheers of Rick 's name at a later town meeting, Negan smiles and says, "atta boy. ''
While in his cell, Negan is approached by Brandon Rose, a young Hilltop resident who bears a grudge against Rick, Carl, and the Whisperers; Rick killed his father as an act of self - defense, Carl beat him up after he had attacked Sophia, and Alpha beheaded his mother. He proposes to help Negan escape, and Negan says he will think about it. Later on Rick and Michonne discover Negan 's empty cell. After his escape, Negan and Brandon enter Whisperer terrain. Here Brandon tells Negan that he wants Negan to pit Rick and the Whisperers against one another. In response, Negan stabs Brandon in the chest and enters the Whisperer zone alone. Shortly afterwards, Negan is ambushed by a group of Whisperers led by Beta and is taken prisoner. They bring him to Alpha. Negan introduces himself and declares his love for Alpha. Negan starts to live with the Whisperers, though without Beta 's trust. During a night at camp, Negan sees two Whisperers trying to rape a woman. He stops them but is knocked down by Beta for interfering. Alpha explains that they allow for things like this to happen in order for women to prove their strength, causing Negan to become angry with her. Later that night, Negan and Alpha have a face to face conversation where Negan reveals how dead inside this world has made him and that he knows Alpha is just pretending to have no emotions, causing Alpha to breakdown. Alpha says that maybe Negan does belong with the Whisperers after all. Negan then slits Alpha 's throat, followed by decapitating her, saying "wait until Rick gets a look at you... '', revealing Negan had no feelings for Alpha all along.
A week after disappearing, Negan turns up with Alpha 's decapitated head and shows it to Rick and Andrea, who are very hesitant to believe and trust him. Negan reassures them that he only wants trust. He says Rick 's way of thinking is inspiring and tries to convince them that his time in prison has rehabilitated him. He says he could 've taken several chances and attacked Rick, but he did n't. He wants to fight with him, not against him. Rick finally agrees to let Negan out of the cell, but not in a community. He will live in an outpost, alone, with only enough food and weaponry to keep him surviving. He is not allowed these freedoms yet, though. He is going to be monitored for a long time and will fight on the front lines against the Whisperers. He will earn his freedom after the war, unless he slips up, in which case he will be immediately killed.
Sometime after the outbreak, Negan established himself as the tyrannical dictator of a community of survivors called the "Saviors ''. He wields a baseball bat wrapped in barbed wire that he calls "Lucille ''. Negan quickly gathered a large following and established outposts in various locations around the Washington, D.C. area. Within the structure of the Saviors, Negan has a right - hand man named Simon as well as several lieutenants including Wade, Bud, Gavin, Arat and Dwight. At some point, Negan and the Saviors encountered the Hilltop Colony and extorted its leader Gregory into giving them half their supplies on a regular basis; failure to do so would result in the Saviors killing members of their community. To set an example, his goons used a baseball bat to beat a 16 - year - old resident named Rory to death, after which Gregory submitted to Negan 's demands. Negan and his men also made contact with the community known as the Kingdom and made a similar agreement with their leader King Ezekiel. At some point, one of Negan 's followers - Dwight - fled the Saviors with his wife Sherry, sister - in - law Tina, and a truck full of supplies that they refer to as Patty. Negan subsequently sent out a large group, led by Wade, to retrieve them and the stolen supplies.
The Saviors become the main antagonists during the second half of season 6 and with their mysterious leader known as Negan being mentioned several times prior to his appearance in the season finale. His name is first heard in "No Way Out '' when a group of bikers, led by a man named Bud, accost Daryl Dixon, Abraham Ford and Sasha Williams and attempt to steal their weapons, but Daryl kills them.
In the season finale, "Last Day on Earth '', while driving the ailing Maggie Greene to the Hilltop, Rick and his group run into multiple roadblocks set by the Saviors, which eventually causes Rick 's group to travel by foot. While walking through the woods, the group is ambushed by a large contingent of the Saviors led by Negan 's right - hand man Simon, who take Rick and his group 's weapons and make them get on their knees.
Dwight also brings out Daryl, Glenn Rhee, Michonne, and Rosita Espinosa, and makes them get on their knees, too. Negan then comes out of an RV and tells Rick that he must give him all of his possessions, and that Rick and everyone else at Alexandria work for Negan now; he "owns '' them. Because Rick 's group killed a lot of Saviors, Negan tells Rick 's group they have to be punished, and he is going to beat one of them to death with "Lucille '', a bat wrapped in barbed wire. Negan ca n't decide whom to kill, so he decides to choose the victim in a game of "Eeny, meeny, miny, moe '', which he recites while pointing Lucille at each member of the group, before landing on an unseen individual, saying, "you are it. '' Negan warns the group not to say anything or to move, and he begins to beat the unseen individual to death, as everyone else in the group screams.
The season premiere, "The Day Will Come When You Wo n't Be '', reveals that Negan 's chosen victim is Abraham, whom he bludgeons to death with "Lucille ''. Enraged, Daryl rushes Negan and punches him in the face, only to be stopped by three Saviors directly. As a reprisal for Daryl 's attack, Negan beats Glenn to death in front of Maggie, his wife.
Negan then presents Rick with an ultimatum: pledge total loyalty, or the rest of the group will die. When Rick remains defiant, Negan threatens to kill Rick 's son Carl and the rest of the group unless Rick cuts the boy 's arm off. After some hesitation, Rick raises the axe; Negan stops him, knowing that he has broken the elder Grimes ' will. Negan then allows the surviving members of the group to depart with the warning that the Saviors will return in a week to collect their supplies. As insurance against further retaliation, Negan takes Daryl with him.
In the episode "The Cell '', Negan is shown to rule the Sanctuary (the main Savior stronghold) through fear and rewarding his personal army of enforcers (who identify themselves as "Negan '' in a show of loyalty). He keeps Daryl locked in a cell and hopes to break his will and mold him into one of his Saviors. He later tells Daryl about how he married Dwight 's wife Sherry to spare him for fleeing Negan (although Dwight got half his face burned with an iron). He offers to end Daryl 's tortures and make his life better if he submits, but Daryl refuses.
In the episode "Service '', Negan and his men arrive at Alexandria earlier than expected. He forces Rick to give him a tour while Rick holds Lucille and makes pithy comments along the way. Both Rick and Father Gabriel lied to Negan that Maggie did n't make it. He later talks Carl out of shooting a Savior (though he states he likes the boy and that Carl has "giant balls '') and decides to take all of Alexandria 's guns. When two guns go missing from the inventory, Negan threatens to kill Olivia (Ann Mahoney) if they are n't found. This is later resolved when Rick finds them as well as a hunting rifle which was n't in the armory. This impresses Negan who states that "this is something to build a relationship on '' before telling him to find them something interesting for next time. Before leaving, Negan takes back Lucille and tells Rick that "I just slid my dick down your throat and you thanked me for it '' as a way of gloating over Rick 's deference to him.
Negan next appears in the episode "Sing Me a Song '', when he meets his men returning with supplies from the Hilltop. They are attacked by Carl, who kills two of the Saviors and demands Negan come forward. Negan is nonchalant about the imminent danger though he admits to Carl that he "scares the shit out of him. '' This causes Carl to hesitate and allows for Dwight to disarm him. Negan admonishes Dwight for treating a guest that way and helps Carl up before showing him around the Sanctuary. He brings him to his harem of wives where he asks Sherry about one of his wives cheating on him with her former husband Mark. Sherry confirms it, but asks Negan to be merciful, to which he responds with surprise as he claims he 's never hurt one of them. He later sits Carl down and states that he wants to get to know him better so he should uncover his eye. When Carl begrudgingly does so, Negan pokes fun at the deformity, but when he sees Carl become visibly upset, he shows genuine remorse and apologizes stating that he was just kidding around. He later brings Carl to watch as he burns Mark 's face with a hot iron to teach everyone a lesson about following the rules.
He then decides to bring Carl back to Alexandria where they wait for Rick. He interrogates Olivia about his whereabouts and then makes a comment about her weight, which she cries about. When she stops, Negan suggests that they have sex to pass the time, causing her to slap him, which made him like her more. He tells her to make him lemonade whilst Carl gives him a tour of the Safe - Zone. The episode ends with Negan holding Judith while answering Carl 's earlier question about why he had n't killed him or his father with "I just might do that. ''
In the mid-season finale, "Hearts Still Beating '', Negan is approached in Alexandria by Spencer Monroe who attempts to bond with him over whiskey and a game of pool. The two seem to hit it off, until Spencer tells Negan about how dangerous Rick is and that he should be in charge for both of their sakes. Negan states that while Rick hates him, he respects that Rick was brave enough to threaten him and swallow his pride to protect others. Disappointed that Spencer "has no guts '' for going to him while Rick is gone, Negan eviscerates Spencer with a knife while jokingly stating that "he did have guts after all. '' This provokes Rosita to draw a gun and shoot at Negan, though she misses and instead hits Lucille. Enraged at the attempt on his life and the damage done to Lucille, Negan threatens to have Rosita 's face mutilated unless she tells him where she got the bullet. When she refuses, Negan tells his lieutenant Arat to kill someone, causing Olivia to be gunned down.
Rick, having just arrived, sees this and demands to know what happened. Negan calmly replies that he has tried to be reasonable as he returned Carl unharmed and killed Spencer for Rick. When Eugene confesses to making the bullet, Negan takes him prisoner and tells Rick that he is "way in the hole '' for this incident no matter how many supplies they gather, before departing. After this, Rick finally knows he has to stop Negan, and hereby attempts to convince other communities to put an end to Negan 's reign of terror by forming an alliance to defeat their common enemy. Negan reappears in "Hostiles and Calamities '' where he greets Eugene entering the Sanctuary. After determining that Eugene is indeed highly intelligent, Negan allows him to get comfortable within the Sanctuary and even sends him two of his wives to provide him with company. When Negan discovers that Sherry is gone, he suspects her of freeing Daryl and has Dwight beaten and thrown in a cell. When he is convinced that Dwight was n't involved and is still loyal, he sends him after Sherry only to learn that she supposedly was killed by walkers. When he finds evidence of Dr. Carson aiding in Daryl 's escape (secretly planted by Dwight), Negan throws him in the fire - pit before apologizing to Dwight for doubting him as well as for his loss. "Something They Need '' shows Negan visiting a captive Sasha Williams (who came to the Sanctuary to kill him) and discovers one of his Saviors, David, attempting to rape her. Negan states that rape is against their rules and that he does n't tolerate such behavior. David apologizes, but Negan rams a knife through his throat, stating he "does not accept his apology. '' He then apologizes to Sasha and gets her a new T - shirt to replace the one David ripped before complimenting her on her brazen attack. After confirming Rick did n't sanction it, Negan states that she would make a welcome addition to the Saviors, despite his actions against her. He then leaves her with a knife and a choice: kill herself or kill David once he reanimates to show him she 's willing to work with him. He later returns to find, to his delight, that she has killed David. He takes the knife back and informs her that she 's on the right path before stating he knows Rick is conspiring against him as he has a spy in his midst. He 's confident Sasha will be able to help him put an end to Rick 's plans.
In the season finale "The First Day of the Rest of Your Lives '', Negan leads a convoy of Saviors to Alexandria with Simon, Dwight, Eugene and Sasha in tow with plans to bring Rick back under his control. He reveals the Scavengers (a group of survivors Rick paid to help them) are actually working for him as they hold Rick at gunpoint. Negan brings a coffin forward and reveals Sasha is inside, stating they can have her back alive and he 'll let most of them live if they meet his demands which include all their weapons, Daryl returned to him and Rick to pick someone to be killed by Lucille (among other things). He opens the coffin to find Sasha has reanimated as a walker. After fending her off, the situation devolves into a gunfight. Negan manages to capture Rick and Carl, telling them he did n't want this, but Rick has forced his hand again. Negan then prepares to kill Carl though he admits that he likes him and does n't want him to suffer. Unfortunately for Negan, the Saviors are ambushed by Ezekiel and forces from the Kingdom as well as Maggie leading a group from Hilltop. Caught off guard by Rick 's reinforcements and rapidly losing men, Negan orders a retreat. Once back at the Sanctuary, he questions Eugene as to how Sasha died in the coffin (suspecting foul play on his part) before declaring to the assembled Saviors that they are going to war.
Jeffrey Dean Morgan was cast as Negan. He made his debut in the sixth season finale.
The character of Negan has been praised by both critics and fans as an antagonist of the series.
IGN on their review of Negan 's first appearance, the 100th issue said: "The new villain already looks to be worthy addition to the book 's cast. I did n't realize how much I missed having a truly awful antagonist like The Governor in this series until now. The villain 's voice is very distinct, allowing Kirkman to toy with a very different approach to dialogue. For a series where the characters sometimes ramble on too much without making a clear point, this character is very much appreciated. '' On their review for Issue # 103, IGN felt Negan was "quickly giving the Governor a run for his money in the villainy department ''. When Negan 's community was explored as well as his relationship with Carl Grimes, it was said that "There 's a palpable tension as we wonder what fate Negan has in mind for his young enemy. But even at his most sinister, Negan remains strangely charismatic. It 's not difficult to understand how he managed to build such a lofty position for himself, complete with multiple wives and the total devotion of an entire town. ''
On the Talking Dead for the season six finale, Morgan stated that soon after issue # 100 was released, he had many fans approach him and told him that he was right for the role of Negan in the show.
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which one of the following would be a standard pronunciation | Standard language - wikipedia
A standard language or standard variety may be defined either as a language variety used by a population for public purposes or as a variety that has undergone standardization. Typically, varieties that become standardized are the local dialects spoken in the centers of commerce and government, where a need arises for a variety that will serve more than local needs. Standardization typically involves a fixed orthography, codification in authoritative grammars and dictionaries and public acceptance of these standards. A standard written language is sometimes termed by the German word Schriftsprache.
A pluricentric language has multiple interacting standard varieties. Examples include English, French, Portuguese, German, Korean, Spanish, Swedish, Armenian and Chinese. Monocentric languages, such as Russian and Japanese, have only one standardized version.
A standard variety is developed from a group of related varieties. This may be done by elevating a single variety, such as the local variety of a center of government or culture. Alternatively, a new variety may be defined as a selection of features from existing varieties. A fixed orthography is typically created for writing the variety. It may be codified in normative dictionaries and grammars, or by an agreed collection of exemplary texts. Whether these dictionaries and grammars are created by private individuals (like Webster 's Dictionary) or by state institutions, they become standard if they are treated as authorities for correcting language. A fixed written form and subsequent codification make the standard variety more stable than purely spoken varieties, and provide a base for further development or ausbau. This variety becomes the norm for writing, is used in broadcasting and for official purposes, and is the form taught to non-native learners.
Through this process, the standard variety acquires prestige and a greater functional importance than local varieties. Those varieties are said to be dependent on, or heteronomous with respect to, the standard variety, because speakers read and write the standard, refer to it as an authority is such matters as specialist vocabulary, and any standardizing changes in their speech are towards that standard. In some cases, such as Standard English, this process may take place over an extended period without government intervention. In others it may be deliberately directed by official institutions, such as the Académie française or Real Academia Española, and can proceed much more quickly.
Language standardization is often linked to the formation, or attempted formation, of nation states, as language is seen as the vehicle of a shared culture. Different national standards derived from a dialect continuum may be regarded as different languages, even if they are mutually intelligible. The Scandinavian languages, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, are often cited as examples.
In other cases governments or neighbouring populations may seek to deny a standard independent status. In response, developers of a standard may base it on more divergent varieties. Thus after Norway became independent at the start of the 20th century, the Bokmål standard based on the speech of Oslo was felt to be too similar to Danish by Ivar Aasen, who developed a rival Nynorsk standard based on western varieties. Similarly, when a standard was developed in the Yugoslav republic of Macedonia from local varieties within a continuum with Serbia to the north and Bulgaria to the east, it was deliberately based on varieties from the west of the republic that were most different from standard Bulgarian. Now known as Macedonian, it is the national standard of the independent Republic of Macedonia, but viewed by Bulgarians as a dialect of Bulgarian.
Arabic comprises many varieties (some of which are mutually unintelligible) which are considered a single language because the standardised register of Arabic, called Modern Standard Arabic, is generally intelligible to literate speakers. It is based on simplified Classical Arabic, the language of the Quran, which dates from the 7th century CE.
The Aramaic language has been diglossic for much of its history, with many different literary standards serving as the "high '' liturgical languages, including Syriac language, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic language and Mandaic language, while the vernacular Neo-Aramaic languages serve as the vernacular language spoken by the common people like Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo language, Lishana Deni, Lishanid Noshan and Lishán Didán).
Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, the most commonly spoken Aramaic variety today, has two standardized dialects: Standard Urmian, which is based in Iran, and the more popular Iraqi Koine, which is a koine dialect that features elements of the Urmian dialect and the Hakkari dialects such as Tyari, Barwari, Jilu and / or Nochiya, among others.
The Armenian language has Classical Armenian serving as the "high '' literary standard, and the standardised vernacular Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian dialects.
Bengali has many spoken varieties. Some are totally mutually unintelligible. But Standard Bengali use as lingua franca of Bengal region.
Cantonese (粵語) is a language spoken in the Chinese province of Guangdong. It is a de facto standard language used by the court, media, schools, and the government in Hong Kong and Macau. The standard accent of Cantonese spoken in Hong Kong and Macau is based on the accent of West Gate (西關) in modern - day western Guangzhou and is mutually intelligible with the Cantonese spoken in Guangzhou, although there exist minor differences in pronunciation and vocabulary due to its evasion of Mandarin influence and communist ideologies.
In Hong Kong Cantonese, the major difference from Guangzhou Cantonese is that the nasal sound / ŋ / (ng) is either faded out or merged into / l / or / m / initials. There is also a set of loanwords and unique slangs developed in Hong Kong. Hong Kong people also tend to speak Cantonese mixed with certain English vocabulary.
Chinese consists of hundreds of local varieties, many of which are not mutually intelligible, usually classified into seven to ten major groups, including Mandarin, Wu, Yue, Hakka and Min. Before the 20th century, most Chinese spoke only their local variety. For two millennia, formal writing had been done in Literary Chinese (or Classical Chinese), a style modelled on the classics and far removed from any contemporary speech. As a practical measure, officials of the late imperial dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as Guānhuà (literally "speech of officials '').
In the early 20th century, many Chinese intellectuals argued that the country needed a standardized language. By the 1920s, Literary Chinese had been replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on Mandarin dialects. In the 1930s, Standard Chinese was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect, but with vocabulary also drawn from other Mandarin varieties and its syntax based on the written vernacular. It is the official spoken language of the People 's Republic of China (where it is called Pǔtōnghuà "common speech '') and of the Republic of China governing Taiwan (as Guóyǔ "national language ''), and one of the official languages of Singapore (as Huáyǔ "Chinese language ''). Standard Chinese now dominates public life, and is much more widely studied than any other variety of Chinese.
The Chinese language also enjoys official status in Hong Kong (together with English) and in Macau (together with Portuguese). Although the written standard is widely understood and used almost exclusively on formal and semi-formal occasions (e.g. government documents, books) while the spoken standard is often taught at school, Standard Chinese is not widely employed in these areas. In daily life, most of the population speak Cantonese, the prestige dialect of Yue, and often write it on casual occasions (e.g. text messages, advertisements). Even when they read out a passage in the written standard, they would read it with the Cantonese pronunciation of each character, not Mandarin.
Dutch is a monocentric language, with all speakers using the same standard form (authorized by the Dutch Language Union) based on a Dutch orthography employing the Latin alphabet when writing. A process of standardisation of Dutch started in the Middle Ages, especially under the influence of the Burgundian Ducal Court in Dijon (Brussels after 1477). Till then every region spoke a different Middle Dutch dialect. The dialects of the County of Flanders and the Duchy of Brabant were the most influential around this time. The process of standardisation became much stronger at the start of the 16th century, mainly based on the urban dialect of Antwerp. In 1585 Antwerp fell to the Spanish army: many from the Southern Netherlands fled to the Northern Netherlands (that declared itself independent from Spain), especially to the province of Holland, where they influenced the urban dialects. In 1637, a further important step was made towards a unified language, when the Statenvertaling, the first major Bible translation into Dutch, was created that people from all over the new republic could understand. It used elements from various dialects but was predominantly based on the urban dialects of Holland of post 16th century.
In the Southern Netherlands (now Belgium and Luxembourg) developments were different. Under Spanish, then Austrian, and then French rule standardisation of Dutch language came to a standstill. The state, law, and increasingly education used French, yet more than half the Belgian population were speaking a Dutch dialect. In the course of the nineteenth century the Flemish movement stood up for the rights of Dutch, mostly called Flemish. But in competing with the French language the variation in dialects was a serious disadvantage. Since standardisation is a lengthy process, Dutch - speaking Belgium associated itself with the standard language that had already developed in the Netherlands over the centuries. Therefore, the situation in Belgium is essentially no different from that in the Netherlands, although there are recognisable differences in pronunciation, comparable to the pronunciation differences between standard British and standard American English. In 1980 the Netherlands and Belgium concluded the Language Union Treaty. This treaty lays down the principle that the two countries must gear their language policy to each other, among other things, for a common system of spelling.
In British English the standard, known as Standard English (SE), is historically based on the language of the medieval English court of Chancery. The late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw the establishment of this standard as the norm of "polite '' society, that is to say of the upper classes. The spoken standard has come to be seen as a mark of good education and social prestige. Although often associated with the RP accent, SE can be spoken with any accent.
The dialects of American English vary throughout the US, but the General American accent is the unofficial standard language for being considered supposedly "accentless. ''
Standard Estonian was developed on the basis of the Central dialect of the North Estonian dialect group, being most similar to the sub-dialects spoken a little southeast of the capital Tallinn. The standard was developed in the 19th century after a long regional and language strife between Northern Estonia and Southern Estonia and their corresponding dialect groups.
By today, the standard has practically replaced all Northern Estonian dialects, with only the West Estonian archipelago retaining its local island varieties, although their dialects are in strong decline as well (the exception being the Kihnu island sub-dialect). Some South Estonian dialects like Mulgi and Tartu have been more or less replaced by Standard Estonian as well, while Võro and Seto in the southeast corner of Estonia are still alive and commonly spoken.
The Standard Estonian language itself varies in its accents in the West Estonian archipelago, with distinctive main island accents, and in Southern Estonia.
Filipino is the standardized form of the Metro Manila dialect of Tagalog, and is an official language of the Philippines. Most regions have a different Philippine language as their first language, but all Filipinos learn Tagalog in school. Tagalog is thus used as a lingua franca, with national television employing it almost exclusively, and with national printed media are sometimes in Tagalog but more often in English.
The basic structure and words of standard Finnish (yleiskieli) are mostly based upon the dialects of Western Finland, because Mikael Agricola, who codified the written language in the sixteenth century, was from Turku, the regional centre of the time. Finnish was developed to integrate all of the nation 's dialects, and so yield a logical language for proper written communication. One aim was national unification, in accordance to the nationalistic principle; the second aim was linguistic regularity and consistency, even if contradicting general colloquial usage, e.g. in Standard Finnish, ruoka becomes ruoan, and the pronunciation is ruuan.
Parisian French is the standard in French literature.
The Georgian language has a literary liturgical form, the Old Georgian language, while the vernacular spoken varieties are the Georgian dialects and other related Kartvelian languages like Svan language, Mingrelian language, and Laz language.
Standard German was developed over several centuries, during which time writers tried to write in a way intelligible to the greatest number of readers and speakers, thus, until about 1800, Standard German was mostly a written language. In that time, in northern Germany and in the Netherlands and Flanders Low German and Low Franconian dialects were spoken that were much different from Standard German. Later, the Northern pronunciation of written German became considered the universal standard; in Hanover, because of that adoption, the local dialect disappeared. The Netherlands and Flanders developed standard languages of their own towards the end of the 16th century.
The Standard form of Modern Greek is based on the Southern dialects; these dialects are spoken mainly in the Peloponnese, the Ionian Islands, Attica, Crete and the Cyclades. However the Northerners call this dialect, and the Standard form, ' Atheneika ' which means ' the Athens dialect '. This form is also official in Cyprus, where people speak a South - Eastern dialect (dialects spoken in the Dodecanese and Cyprus), Cypriot Greek and a Greek variant spoken in Southern Albania called Himariote Greek.
Two standardised registers of the Hindustani language have legal status India: Standard Hindi (one of 23 co-official national languages) and Urdu (Pakistan 's official tongue), resultantly, Hindustani often called "Hindi - Urdu ''.
Standard Hungarian is based on the Hungarian dialect originally spoken in the territory what is today part of Northeastern Hungary, Carpathian Ruthenia (Ukraine), Kosice Region of Slovakia and Satu Mare and Bihor counties of Romania, as both Bible translator Gáspár Károli (1529 - 1591) and language reformer Ferenc Kazinczy (1759 - 1831) were born in this region. However standard Hungarian first spread in the 19th century in the that day predominantly German speaking Budapest, today it is spoken by the overwhelming majority of Hungarians, partially due to television programs.
An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ("The Official Standard ''), often shortened to An Caighdeán, is official standard of the Irish language. It is taught in most schools in Ireland, though with strong influences from local dialects. It was first published by the translators in Dáil Éireann in the 1950s. As of September 2013, the first major revision of the Caighdeán Oifigiúil is available, both online and in print. Among the changes to be found in the revised version are, for example, various attempts to bring the recommendations of the Caighdeán closer to the spoken dialect of Gaeltacht speakers, including allowing further use of the nominative case where the genitive would historically have been found.
Standard Italian is derived from the Tuscan dialect, specifically from its Florentine variety -- the Florentine influence upon early Italian literature established that dialect as base for the standard language of Italy. In particular, Italian became the language of culture for all the people of Italy, thanks to the prestige of the masterpieces of Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Francesco Guicciardini. It would later become the official language of all the Italian states, and after the Italian unification it became the national language of the Kingdom of Italy. Modern Standard Italian 's lexicon has been deeply influenced by almost all regional languages of Italy while its received pronunciation (known as Pronuncia Fiorentina Emendata, Amended Florentine Pronunciation) is based on the accent of Romanesco (Roman dialect); these are the reasons why Standard Italian differs significantly from the Tuscan dialect.
There are two standard forms of Republic of Korea which is called Pyojun - eo (표준어) based on Seoul dialect, and North Korean standard form Munhwaŏ (문화어) based on Pyeongyang dialect
Classical Latin was the literary standard dialect of Latin spoken by higher socioeconomic classes, as opposed to the Vulgar Latin which is the generic term of the colloquial sociolects of Latin spoken across the Roman Empire by uneducated and less - educated classes. The Latin brought by Roman soldiers to Gaul, Iberia, or Dacia was not identical to the Latin of Cicero, and differed from it in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. Some literary works with low - register language from the Classical Latin period give a glimpse into the world of early Vulgar Latin. The works of Plautus and Terence, being comedies with many characters who were slaves, preserve some early basilectal Latin features, as does the recorded speech of the freedmen in the Cena Trimalchionis by Petronius Arbiter. At the third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language -- either in the rustica lingua romanica (Vulgar Latin), or in the Germanic vernaculars -- since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. Catholic Church continued to use Latin at present, and the name of the form of Latin is named Ecclesiastical Latin which is regarded a modernized standard dialect of Latin based on simplified Classical Latin with some lexical variations, a simplified syntax in some cases, and, commonly, an Italianized pronunciation.
The Malay language exists in a Classical variety, and modern standard variety and several vernacular dialects. The modern standard variety is based on Johore - Riau dialect of Malay. Indonesian is one of the variants of the Malay language.
Standard Manchu was based on the language spoken by the Jianzhou Jurchens during Nurhaci 's time, while other unwritten Manchu dialects such as that of Aigun and Sanjiazi were also spoken in addition to the related Xibe language.
Classical Mongolian language was the high register used for religious and official purposes while the various Mongolian dialects serve as the low reigster, like Khalkha Mongolian, Chakhar Mongolian, Khorchin Mongolian, Kharchin Mongolian, Baarin Mongolian, Ordos Mongolian, and the Buryat language. The Tibetan Buddhist canon was translated into Classical Mongolian. The Oirat Mongols who spoke the Oirat Mongol language and dialects like Kalmyk language or Torgut Oirat used a separate standard written with the Clear script.
The Mongolian language, based on Khalkha Mongolian, now serves as the high register in Mongolia itself while in Inner Mongolia a standard Mongolian based on Chakhar Mongolian serves as the high register for all Mongols in China. The Buryat language has been turned into a standard literary form itself in Russia.
In Norwegian there are two parallel standard languages: (i) Bokmål (partly derived from the local pronunciation of Danish, when Denmark ruled Norway), (ii) Nynorsk (comparatively derived from Norwegian dialects).
Portuguese has two official written standards, (i) Brazilian Portuguese (used chiefly in Brazil) and (ii) European Portuguese (used in Portugal and Angola, Cape Verde, East Timor, Guinea - Bissau, Macau, Mozambique, and São Tomé and Príncipe). The written standards slightly differ in spelling and vocabulary, and are legally regulated. Unlike the written language, however, there is no spoken - Portuguese official standard, but the European Portuguese reference pronunciation is the educated speech of Lisbon.
In Brazil, actors and journalists usually adopt an unofficial, but de facto, spoken standard Portuguese, originally derived from the middle - class dialect of Rio de Janeiro, but that now encompasses educated urban pronunciations from the different speech communities in the southeast. In that standard, ⟨ s ⟩ represents the phoneme / s / when it appears at the end of a syllable (whereas in Rio de Janeiro this represents / ʃ /) the rhotic consonant spelled ⟨ r ⟩ is pronounced (h) in the same situation (whereas in São Paulo this is usually an alveolar flap or trill). European and African dialects have differing realizations of / ʁ / than Brazilian dialects, with the former using (ʁ) and (r) and the latter using (x), (h), or (χ). Between vowels, ⟨ r ⟩ represents / ɾ / for most dialects.
Four standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo - Croatian are spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia. They all have the same dialect basis (Štokavian). These variants do differ slightly, as is the case with other pluricentric languages. The differences between the variants do not hinder mutual intelligibility and do not undermine the integrity of the system as a whole. Compared to the differences between the variants of English, German, French, Spanish, or Portuguese, the distinctions between the variants of Serbo - Croatian are less significant. Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro in their constitution have all named the language differently.
In Somalia, Northern Somali (or North - Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali, particularly the Mudug dialect of the northern Darod clan. Northern Central Somali has frequently been used by famous Somali poets as well as the political elite, and thus has the most prestige among other Somali dialects. Standardization of the language is regulated by the Regional Somali Language Academy.
In Spain, Standard Spanish is based partly upon the speech of educated speakers from Madrid, but mainly upon the literary language. In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish standard is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo. This is known as Rioplatense Spanish ("River Plate Spanish ''), distinguishable, from other standard Spanish dialects, by the greater use of the voseo. Like Rioplatense Spanish, all Standard Spanish dialects in all Latin America, United States, and Canary Islands are related to Andalusian Spanish.
Classical Tibetan was the high register used universally by all Tibetans while the various mutually unintelligible Tibetic languages serve as the low register vernacular, like Central Tibetan language in Ü - Tsang (Tibet proper), Khams Tibetan in Kham, Amdo Tibetan in Amdo, Ladakhi language in Ladakh, and Dzongkha in Bhutan. Classical Tibetan was used for official and religious purposes, such as in Tibetan Buddhist religious texts like the Tibetan Buddhist canon and taught and learned in monasteries and schools in Tibetan Buddhist regions.
Now Standard Tibetan, based on the Lhasa dialect, serves as the high register in China. In Bhutan, the Tibetan Dzongkha language has been standarized and replaced Classical Tibetan for official purposes and education, in Ladakh, the standard official language learned are now the unrelated languages Hindi - Urdu and English, and in Baltistan, the Tibetan Balti language serves as the low register while the unrelated Urdu language is the official language.
Modern standard Turkish is based on the dialect of Istanbul. Dialectal variation persists, in spite of the levelling influence of the standard used in mass media and the Turkish education system since the 1930s.
The Turkic Chagatai language had served as the high - register literary standard for Central Asian Turkic peoples, while the vernacular low - register languages were the Uzbek language and Eastern Turki (Modern Uyghur). After the Soviet Union abolished Chagatai as the literary standard, the Uzbek language was standarized as a literary language, and the Taranchi dialect of Ili was chosen as the literary standard for Modern Uyghur. Other dialects like the Kashgar and Turpan dialects continue to be spoken.
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who are they going to put on the $20 bill | United States twenty - dollar bill - wikipedia
The United States twenty - dollar bill ($20) is a denomination of U.S. currency. The seventh U.S. President (1829 -- 1837), Andrew Jackson, has been featured on the front side of the bill since 1928; the White House is featured on the reverse.
As of December 2013, the average circulation life of a $20 bill is 7.9 years before it is replaced due to wear. About 11 % of all notes printed in 2009 were $20 bills. Twenty - dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in violet straps.
Andrew Jackson first appeared on the $20 bill in 1928. Although 1928 coincides with the 100th anniversary of Jackson 's election as president, it is not clear why the portrait on the bill was switched from Grover Cleveland to Jackson. (Cleveland 's portrait was moved to the new $1000 bill the same year). According to the U.S. Treasury, "Treasury Department records do not reveal the reason that portraits of these particular statesmen were chosen in preference to those of other persons of equal importance and prominence. ''
The placement of Jackson on the $20 bill may be a historical irony; as president, he vehemently opposed both the National Bank and paper money and made the goal of his administration the destruction of the National Bank. In his farewell address to the nation, he cautioned the public about paper money.
In a campaign called "Women on 20s '', selected voters were asked to choose three of 15 female candidates to have a portrait on the $20 bill. The goal was to have a woman on the $20 bill by 2020, the centennial of the 19th Amendment which gave women the right to vote. Among the candidates on the petition were Harriet Tubman, Eleanor Roosevelt, Rosa Parks, and Wilma Mankiller, the first female chief of the Cherokee Nation.
On May 12, 2015, Tubman was announced as the winning candidate of that "grassroots '' poll with more than 600,000 people surveyed and more than 118,000 choosing Tubman, followed by Roosevelt, Parks and Mankiller.
On June 17, 2015, then - Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced that a woman 's portrait would be featured on a redesigned $10 bill by 2020, replacing Alexander Hamilton. However, that decision was reversed, at least in part due to Hamilton 's surging popularity following the hit Broadway musical Hamilton.
On April 20, 2016, Lew officially announced that Alexander Hamilton would remain on the $10 bill, while Andrew Jackson would be replaced by Tubman on the front of the $20 bill, with Jackson appearing on the reverse. Lew simultaneously announced that the five - and ten - dollar bills would also be redesigned in the coming years and put into production in the next decade.
On August 31, 2017, Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin said that he would not commit to putting Tubman on the twenty - dollar bill, explaining "People have been on the bills for a long period of time. This is something we 'll consider; right now we have a lot more important issues to focus on. '' According to a Bureau of Engraving and Printing spokesperson, the next redesigned bill will be the ten - dollar bill, not set to be released into circulation until at least 2026. Because of this, it appears that a redesigned twenty - dollar bill featuring Tubman might not be released until years after the original 2020 release date.
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where did the renaissance start and where did it spread | Renaissance - wikipedia
The Renaissance (UK: / rɪˈneɪsəns /, US: / rɛnəˈsɑːns /) is a period in European history, covering the span between the 14th and 17th centuries. It is an extension of the Middle Ages, and is bridged by the Age of Enlightenment to modern history. It grew in fragments, with the very first traces found seemingly in Italy, coming to cover much of Europe, for some scholars marking the beginning of the modern age.
The intellectual basis of the Renaissance was its own invented version of humanism, derived from the concept of Roman Humanitas and the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said that "Man is the measure of all things. '' This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science and literature. Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of metal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe: the very first traces appear in Italy as early as the late 13th century, in particular with the writings of Dante and the paintings of Giotto.
As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th - century resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and gradual but widespread educational reform. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man ''.
The Renaissance began in Florence, Italy, in the 14th century. Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time: its political structure; the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici; and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. Other major centres were northern Italian city - states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, and finally Rome during the Renaissance Papacy.
The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography, and, in line with general scepticism of discrete periodizations, there has been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th - century glorification of the "Renaissance '' and individual culture heroes as "Renaissance men '', questioning the usefulness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation. The art historian Erwin Panofsky observed of this resistance to the concept of "Renaissance '':
It is perhaps no accident that the factuality of the Italian Renaissance has been most vigorously questioned by those who are not obliged to take a professional interest in the aesthetic aspects of civilization -- historians of economic and social developments, political and religious situations, and, most particularly, natural science -- but only exceptionally by students of literature and hardly ever by historians of Art.
Some observers have called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance '' from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for classical antiquity, while social and economic historians, especially of the longue durée, have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras, which are linked, as Panofsky observed, "by a thousand ties ''.
The word Renaissance, literally meaning "Rebirth '' in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelet 's 1855 work, Histoire de France. The word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century.
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.
Renaissance humanists such as Poggio Bracciolini sought out in Europe 's monastic libraries the Latin literary, historical, and oratorical texts of Antiquity, while the Fall of Constantinople (1453) generated a wave of émigré Greek scholars bringing precious manuscripts in ancient Greek, many of which had fallen into obscurity in the West. It is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts.
In the revival of neo-Platonism Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the Renaissance 's greatest works were devoted to it, and the Church patronized many works of Renaissance art. However, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first time since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the New Testament promoted by humanists Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus, would help pave the way for the Protestant Reformation.
Well after the first artistic return to classicism had been exemplified in the sculpture of Nicola Pisano, Florentine painters led by Masaccio strove to portray the human form realistically, developing techniques to render perspective and light more naturally. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe political life as it really was, that is to understand it rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance humanism Giovanni Pico della Mirandola wrote the famous text "De hominis dignitate '' (Oration on the Dignity of Man, 1486), which consists of a series of theses on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renaissance authors also began increasingly to use vernacular languages; combined with the introduction of printing, this would allow many more people access to books, especially the Bible.
In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark, play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city - states in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution that preceded and financed the Renaissance.
Many argue that the ideas characterizing the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th - century Florence, in particular with the writings of Dante Alighieri (1265 -- 1321) and Petrarch (1304 -- 1374), as well as the paintings of Giotto di Bondone (1267 -- 1337). Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery of the Florence Cathedral (Ghiberti won). Others see more general competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins.
During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand. Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia and Europe. Silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa and Venice.
Jules Michelet defined the 16th - century Renaissance in France as a period in Europe 's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world.
In stark contrast to the High Middle Ages, when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics, Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars such as Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati (1331 -- 1406), Niccolò de ' Niccoli (1364 -- 1437) and Poggio Bracciolini (1380 -- 1459) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors as Cicero, Lucretius, Livy and Seneca. By the early 15th century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.
Unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Ages in Western Europe and in the medieval Islamic world (normally in translation), but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as Homer, the Greek dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydides) were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity. Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Iberia and Sicily, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic to Medieval Latin were established in Iberia. Most notably the Toledo School of Translators. This work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history. This movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts back into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to the 1396 invitation from Coluccio Salutati to the Byzantine diplomat and scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (c. 1355 -- 1415) to teach Greek in Florence. This legacy was continued by a number of expatriate Greek scholars, from Basilios Bessarion to Leo Allatius.
The unique political structures of late Middle Ages Italy have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist as a political entity in the early modern period. Instead, it was divided into smaller city states and territories: the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south, the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the center, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and west respectively, and the Venetians to the east. Fifteenth - century Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in Europe. Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire 's heartland.
Historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner points out that Otto of Freising (c. 1114 -- 1158), a German bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new form of political and social organization, observing that Italy appeared to have exited from Feudalism so that its society was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti-monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Government in Siena by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (painted 1338 -- 1340), whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner reports that there were many defences of liberty such as the Matteo Palmieri (1406 -- 1475) celebration of Florentine genius not only in art, sculpture and architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same time ''.
Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable for their merchant Republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Although in practice these were oligarchical, and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy, they did have democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty. The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant. Venice was Europe 's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th - century Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife. It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art. However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance 's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.
The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the bubonic plague. Florence 's population was nearly halved in the year 1347. As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically.
The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30 to 40 % in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400. Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives.
The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. Epidemics ravaged cities, particularly children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation. Children were hit the hardest because many diseases, such as typhus and syphilis, target the immune system, leaving young children without a fighting chance. Children in city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy.
The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence 's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government.
It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life that may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici, a banking family and later ducal ruling house, in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de ' Medici (1449 -- 1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission works from the leading artists of Florence, including Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, and Michelangelo Buonarroti. Works by Neri di Bicci, Botticelli, da Vinci and Filippino Lippi had been commissioned additionally by the convent di San Donato agli Scopeti of the Augustinians order in Florence.
The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo de ' Medici came to power -- indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society. Some historians have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e. because "Great Men '' were born there by chance: Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men '' were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.
In some ways humanism was not a philosophy but a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the programme of ' Studia Humanitatis ', the study of five humanities: poetry, grammar, history, moral philosophy and rhetoric. Although historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of the road definition... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome ''. Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind ''.
Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas More revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers and applied them in critiques of contemporary government. Pico della Mirandola wrote the "manifesto '' of the Renaissance, the Oration on the Dignity of Man, a vibrant defence of thinking. Matteo Palmieri (1406 -- 1475), another humanist, is most known for his work Della vita civile ("On Civic Life ''; printed 1528), which advocated civic humanism, and for his influence in refining the Tuscan vernacular to the same level as Latin. Palmieri drew on Roman philosophers and theorists, especially Cicero, who, like Palmieri, lived an active public life as a citizen and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and also Quintilian. Perhaps the most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La città di vita, but an earlier work, Della vita civile (On Civic Life), is more wide - ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include ideas about how children develop mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is pragmatically useful and that which is honest.
The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body, which could be attained with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose person combined intellectual and physical excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any situation. This ideology was referred to as the uomo universale, an ancient Greco - Roman ideal. Education during the Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient literature and history as it was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of human behavior.
A unique characteristic of some Renaissance libraries is that they were open to the public. These libraries were places where ideas were exchanged and where scholarship and reading were considered both pleasurable and beneficial to the mind and soul. As freethinking was a hallmark of the age, many libraries contained a wide range of writers. Classical texts could be found alongside humanist writings. These informal associations of intellectuals profoundly influenced Renaissance culture. Some of the richest "bibliophiles '' built libraries as temples to books and knowledge. A number of libraries appeared as manifestations of immense wealth joined with a love of books. In some cases, cultivated library builders were also committed to offering others the opportunity to use their collections. Prominent aristocrats and princes of the Church created great libraries for the use of their courts, called "court libraries '', and were housed in lavishly designed monumental buildings decorated with ornate woodwork, and the walls adorned with frescoes (Murray, Stuart A.P.)
Renaissance art marks a cultural rebirth at the close of the Middle Ages and rise of the Modern world. One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. Giotto di Bondone (1267 -- 1337) is credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 -- 1446) and the subsequent writings of Leon Battista Alberti (1404 -- 1472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique.
The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. Painters developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci, human anatomy. Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were much imitated by other artists. Other notable artists include Sandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in Florence, Donatello, another Florentine, and Titian in Venice, among others.
In the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed. The work of Hugo van der Goes and Jan van Eyck was particularly influential on the development of painting in Italy, both technically with the introduction of oil paint and canvas, and stylistically in terms of naturalism in representation (see Renaissance in the Netherlands). Later, the work of Pieter Brueghel the Elder would inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life.
In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi was foremost in studying the remains of ancient classical buildings. With rediscovered knowledge from the 1st - century writer Vitruvius and the flourishing discipline of mathematics, Brunelleschi formulated the Renaissance style that emulated and improved on classical forms. His major feat of engineering was building the dome of the Florence Cathedral. Another building demonstrating this style is the church of St. Andrew in Mantua, built by Alberti. The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding of St. Peter 's Basilica, combining the skills of Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sangallo and Maderno.
During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system. The Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. These can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (1421 -- 1440) by Brunelleschi. Arches, semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not have ribs; they are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault, which is frequently rectangular.
Renaissance artists were not pagans, although they admired antiquity and kept some ideas and symbols of the medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220 -- c. 1278) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from the Bible. His Annunciation, from the Baptistry at Pisa, demonstrates that classical models influenced Italian art before the Renaissance took root as a literary movement
The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of more widely distributed ideas. In the first period of the Italian Renaissance, humanists favoured the study of humanities over natural philosophy or applied mathematics, and their reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Writing around 1450, Nicholas Cusanus anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Copernicus, but in a philosophical fashion.
Science and art were intermingled in the early Renaissance, with polymath artists such as Leonardo da Vinci making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. Da Vinci set up controlled experiments in water flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics, and he devised principles of research method that led Fritjof Capra to classify him as the "father of modern science ''. Other examples of Da Vinci 's contribution during this period include machines designed to saw marbles and lift monoliths and new discoveries in acoustics, botany, geology, anatomy and mechanics.
A suitable environment had developed to question scientific doctrine. The discovery in 1492 of the New World by Christopher Columbus challenged the classical worldview. The works of Ptolemy (in geography) and Galen (in medicine) were found to not always match everyday observations. As the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation clashed, the Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements.
Some view this as a "scientific revolution '', heralding the beginning of the modern age, others as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day. Significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. Copernicus, in De Revolutionibus, posited that the Earth moved around the Sun. De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body), by Andreas Vesalius, gave a new confidence to the role of dissection, observation, and the mechanistic view of anatomy.
Another important development was in the process for discovery, the scientific method, focusing on empirical evidence and the importance of mathematics, while discarding Aristotelian science. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus, Galileo, and Francis Bacon. The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy.
Applied innovation extended to commerce. At the end of the 15th century Luca Pacioli published the first work on bookkeeping, making him the founder of accounting.
From this changing society emerged a common, unifying musical language, in particular the polyphonic style of the Franco - Flemish school. The development of printing made distribution of music possible on a wide scale. Demand for music as entertainment and as an activity for educated amateurs increased with the emergence of a bourgeois class. Dissemination of chansons, motets, and masses throughout Europe coincided with the unification of polyphonic practice into the fluid style that culminated in the second half of the sixteenth century in the work of composers such as Palestrina, Lassus, Victoria and William Byrd.
The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against a Christian backdrop, especially in the Northern Renaissance. Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church. However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God. Many of the period 's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including Erasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.
The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The late Middle Ages was a period of political intrigue surrounding the Papacy, culminating in the Western Schism, in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true Bishop of Rome. While the schism was resolved by the Council of Constance (1414), a resulting reform movement known as Conciliarism sought to limit the power of the pope. Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously of simony, nepotism and fathering four children (most of whom were married off, presumably for the consolidation of power) while a cardinal.
Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism of the New Testament. In October 1517 Luther published the 95 Theses, challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to instances of sold indulgences. The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.
Pope Paul III came to the papal throne (1534 -- 1549) after the sack of Rome in 1527, with uncertainties prevalent in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Reformation. Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) to Paul III, who became the grandfather of Alessandro Farnese (cardinal), who had paintings by Titian, Michelangelo, and Raphael, as well as an important collection of drawings, and who commissioned the masterpiece of Giulio Clovio, arguably the last major illuminated manuscript, the Farnese Hours.
By the 15th century, writers, artists, and architects in Italy were well aware of the transformations that were taking place and were using phrases such as modi antichi (in the antique manner) or alle romana et alla antica (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their work. In the 1330s Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (ancient) and to the Christian period as nova (new). From Petrarch 's Italian perspective, this new period (which included his own time) was an age of national eclipse. Leonardo Bruni was the first to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442). Bruni 's first two periods were based on those of Petrarch, but he added a third period because he believed that Italy was no longer in a state of decline. Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439 -- 1453).
Humanist historians argued that contemporary scholarship restored direct links to the classical period, thus bypassing the Medieval period, which they then named for the first time the "Middle Ages ''. The term first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas (middle times). The term la rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari 's Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568. Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains Cimabue, Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second phase contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello; the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.
In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread rapidly from its birthplace in Florence to the rest of Italy and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the printing press by German printer Johannes Gutenberg allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements.
The Renaissance in Northern Europe has been termed the "Northern Renaissance ''. While Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, particularly in music. The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in music, and the polyphony of the Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of the first true international style in music since the standardization of Gregorian Chant in the 9th century. The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School, which spread northward into Germany around 1600.
The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renaissance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval painters. Northern Renaissance artists initially remained focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary religious upheaval portrayed by Albrecht Dürer. Later, the works of Pieter Bruegel influenced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. It was also during the Northern Renaissance that Flemish brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck perfected the oil painting technique, which enabled artists to produce strong colors on a hard surface that could survive for centuries. A feature of the Northern Renaissance was its use of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek, which allowed greater freedom of expression. This movement had started in Italy with the decisive influence of Dante Alighieri on the development of vernacular languages; in fact the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major source of Florentine ideas expressed in Latin. The spread of the printing press technology boosted the Renaissance in Northern Europe as elsewhere, with Venice becoming a world center of printing.
In England, the sixteenth century marked the beginning of the English Renaissance with the work of writers William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More, Francis Bacon, Sir Philip Sidney, as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones who introduced Italianate architecture to England), and composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, and William Byrd.
The word "Renaissance '' is borrowed from the French language, where it means "re-birth ''. It was first used in the eighteenth century and was later popularized by French historian Jules Michelet (1798 -- 1874) in his 1855 work, Histoire de France (History of France).
In 1495 the Italian Renaissance arrived in France, imported by King Charles VIII after his invasion of Italy. A factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the inability of the Church to offer assistance against the Black Death. Francis I imported Italian art and artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, and built ornate palaces at great expense. Writers such as François Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Michel de Montaigne, painters such as Jean Clouet, and musicians such as Jean Mouton also borrowed from the spirit of the Renaissance.
In 1533, a fourteen - year - old Caterina de ' Medici (1519 -- 1589), born in Florence to Lorenzo II de ' Medici and Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, married Henry II of France, second son of King Francis I and Queen Claude. Though she became famous and infamous for her role in France 's religious wars, she made a direct contribution in bringing arts, sciences and music (including the origins of ballet) to the French court from her native Florence.
In the second half of the 15th century, the Renaissance spirit spread to Germany and the Low Countries, where the development of the printing press (ca. 1450) and early Renaissance artists such as the painters Jan van Eyck (1395 -- 1441) and Hieronymus Bosch (1450 -- 1516) and the composers Johannes Ockeghem (1410 -- 1497), Jacob Obrecht (1457 -- 1505) and Josquin des Prez (1455 -- 1521) predated the influence from Italy. In the early Protestant areas of the country humanism became closely linked to the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, and the art and writing of the German Renaissance frequently reflected this dispute. However, the gothic style and medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg (ruling 1493 -- 1519) was the first truly Renaissance monarch of the Holy Roman Empire.
Culture in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th century was influenced by the Italian Renaissance through trade via Bruges, which made Flanders wealthy. Its nobles commissioned artists who became known across Europe. In science, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius led the way; in cartography, Gerardus Mercator 's map assisted explorers and navigators. In art, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting ranged from the strange work of Hieronymus Bosch to the everyday life depictions of Pieter Brueghel the Elder.
The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese Crown and the city of Valencia. Many early Spanish Renaissance writers come from the Kingdom of Aragon, including Ausiàs March and Joanot Martorell. In the Kingdom of Castile, the early Renaissance was heavily influenced by the Italian humanism, starting with writers and poets such as the Marquis of Santillana, who introduced the new Italian poetry to Spain in the early 15th century. Other writers, such as Jorge Manrique, Fernando de Rojas, Juan del Encina, Juan Boscán Almogáver and Garcilaso de la Vega, kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. Miguel de Cervantes 's masterpiece Don Quixote is credited as the first Western novel. Renaissance humanism flourished in the early 16th century, with influential writers such as philosopher Juan Luis Vives, grammarian Antonio de Nebrija and natural historian Pedro de Mexía.
Later Spanish Renaissance tended towards religious themes and mysticism, with poets such as fray Luis de León, Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross, and treated issues related to the exploration of the New World, with chroniclers and writers such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega and Bartolomé de las Casas, giving rise to a body of work, now known as Spanish Renaissance literature. The late Renaissance in Spain produced artists such as El Greco and composers such as Tomás Luis de Victoria and Antonio de Cabezón.
Although Italian Renaissance had a modest impact in Portuguese arts, Portugal was influential in broadening the European worldview, stimulating humanist inquiry. Renaissance arrived through the influence of wealthy Italian and Flemish merchants who invested in the profitable commerce overseas. As the pioneer headquarters of European exploration, Lisbon flourished in the late 15th century, attracting experts who made several breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy and naval technology, including Pedro Nunes, João de Castro, Abraham Zacuto and Martin Behaim. Cartographers Pedro Reinel, Lopo Homem, Estêvão Gomes and Diogo Ribeiro made crucial advances in mapping the world. Apothecary Tomé Pires and physicians Garcia de Orta and Cristóvão da Costa collected and published works on plants and medicines, soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist Carolus Clusius.
In architecture, the huge profits of the spice trade financed a sumptuous composite style in the first decades of the 16th century, the Manueline, incorporating maritime elements. The primary painters were Nuno Gonçalves, Gregório Lopes and Vasco Fernandes. In music, Pedro de Escobar and Duarte Lobo produced four songbooks, including the Cancioneiro de Elvas. In literature, Sá de Miranda introduced Italian forms of verse. Bernardim Ribeiro developed pastoral romance, plays by Gil Vicente fused it with popular culture, reporting the changing times, and Luís de Camões inscribed the Portuguese feats overseas in the epic poem Os Lusíadas. Travel literature especially flourished: João de Barros, Castanheda, António Galvão, Gaspar Correia, Duarte Barbosa, and Fernão Mendes Pinto, among others, described new lands and were translated and spread with the new printing press. After joining the Portuguese exploration of Brazil in 1500, Amerigo Vespucci coined the term New World, in his letters to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de ' Medici.
The intense international exchange produced several cosmopolitan humanist scholars, including Francisco de Holanda, André de Resende and Damião de Góis, a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of King Manuel I. Diogo and André de Gouveia made relevant teaching reforms via France. Foreign news and products in the Portuguese factory in Antwerp attracted the interest of Thomas More and Dürer to the wider world. There, profits and know - how helped nurture the Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age, especially after the arrival of the wealthy cultured Jewish community expelled from Portugal.
After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the renaissance appeared. The Renaissance style came directly from Italy during the Quattrocento to Hungary first in the Central European region, thanks to the development of early Hungarian - Italian relationships -- not only in dynastic connections, but also in cultural, humanistic and commercial relations -- growing in strength from the 14th century. The relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason -- exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring clean and light structures. Large - scale building schemes provided ample and long term work for the artists, for example, the building of the Friss (New) Castle in Buda, the castles of Visegrád, Tata and Várpalota. In Sigismund 's court there were patrons such as Pipo Spano, a descendant of the Scolari family of Florence, who invited Manetto Ammanatini and Masolino da Pannicale to Hungary.
The new Italian trend combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Acceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous arrival of humanist thought in the country. Many young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the Florentine humanist center, so a direct connection with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to Buda, helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them Vitéz János, archbishop of Esztergom, one of the founders of Hungarian humanism. During the long reign of emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg the Royal Castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. King Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458 -- 1490) rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance style and further expanded it.
After the marriage in 1476 of King Matthias to Beatrice of Naples, Buda became one of the most important artistic centres of the Renaissance north of the Alps. The most important humanists living in Matthias ' court were Antonio Bonfini and the famous Hungarian poet Janus Pannonius. András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. Matthias Corvinus 's library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe 's greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century. His library was second only in size to the Vatican Library. (However, the Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious materials.)
In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de ' Medici founded his own Greek - Latin library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian king. Corvinus 's library is part of UNESCO World Heritage. Other important figures of Hungarian Renaissance include Bálint Balassi (poet), Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos (poet), Bálint Bakfark (composer and lutenist), and Master MS (fresco painter).
An early Italian humanist who came to Poland in the mid-15th century was Filippo Buonaccorsi. Many Italian artists came to Poland with Bona Sforza of Milan, when she married King Sigismund I the Old in 1518. This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly established universities. The Polish Renaissance lasted from the late 15th to the late 16th century and was the Golden Age of Polish culture. Ruled by the Jagiellon dynasty, the Kingdom of Poland (from 1569 known as the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth) actively participated in the broad European Renaissance. The multi-national Polish state experienced a substantial period of cultural growth thanks in part to a century without major wars -- aside from conflicts in the sparsely populated eastern and southern borderlands. The Reformation spread peacefully throughout the country (giving rise to the Polish Brethren), while living conditions improved, cities grew, and exports of agricultural products enriched the population, especially the nobility (szlachta) who gained dominance in the new political system of Golden Liberty. The Polish Renaissance architecture has three periods of development.
The greatest monument of this style in the territory of the former Duchy of Pomerania is the Ducal Castle in Szczecin.
Renaissance trends from Italy and Central Europe influenced Russia in many ways. Their influence was rather limited, however, due to the large distances between Russia and the main European cultural centers and the strong adherence of Russians to their Orthodox traditions and Byzantine legacy.
Prince Ivan III introduced Renaissance architecture to Russia by inviting a number of architects from Italy, who brought new construction techniques and some Renaissance style elements with them, while in general following the traditional designs of Russian architecture. In 1475 the Bolognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin, which had been damaged in an earthquake. Fioravanti was given the 12th - century Vladimir Cathedral as a model, and he produced a design combining traditional Russian style with a Renaissance sense of spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.
In 1485 Ivan III commissioned the building of the royal residence, Terem Palace, within the Kremlin, with Aloisio da Milano as the architect of the first three floors. He and other Italian architects also contributed to the construction of the Kremlin walls and towers. The small banquet hall of the Russian Tsars, called the Palace of Facets because of its facetted upper story, is the work of two Italians, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario, and shows a more Italian style. In 1505, an Italian known in Russia as Aleviz Novyi or Aleviz Fryazin arrived in Moscow. He may have been the Venetian sculptor, Alevisio Lamberti da Montagne. He built 12 churches for Ivan III, including the Cathedral of the Archangel, a building remarkable for the successful blending of Russian tradition, Orthodox requirements and Renaissance style. It is believed that the Cathedral of the Metropolitan Peter in Vysokopetrovsky Monastery, another work of Aleviz Novyi, later served as an inspiration for the so - called octagon - on - tetragon architectural form in the Moscow Baroque of the late 17th century.
Between the early 16th and the late 17th centuries, an original tradition of stone tented roof architecture developed in Russia. It was quite unique and different from the contemporary Renaissance architecture elsewhere in Europe, though some research terms the style ' Russian Gothic ' and compares it with the European Gothic architecture of the earlier period. The Italians, with their advanced technology, may have influenced the invention of the stone tented roof (the wooden tents were known in Russia and Europe long before). According to one hypothesis, an Italian architect called Petrok Maly may have been an author of the Ascension Church in Kolomenskoye, one of the earliest and most prominent tented roof churches.
By the 17th century the influence of Renaissance painting resulted in Russian icons becoming slightly more realistic, while still following most of the old icon painting canons, as seen in the works of Bogdan Saltanov, Simon Ushakov, Gury Nikitin, Karp Zolotaryov and other Russian artists of the era. Gradually the new type of secular portrait painting appeared, called parsúna (from "persona '' -- person), which was transitional style between abstract iconographics and real paintings.
In the mid 16th - century Russians adopted printing from Central Europe, with Ivan Fyodorov being the first known Russian printer. In the 17th century printing became widespread, and woodcuts became especially popular. That led to the development of a special form of folk art known as lubok printing, which persisted in Russia well into the 19th century.
A number of technologies from the European Renaissance period were adopted by Russia rather early and subsequently perfected to become a part of a strong domestic tradition. Mostly these were military technologies, such as cannon casting adopted by at least the 15th century. The Tsar Cannon, which is the world 's largest bombard by caliber, is a masterpiece of Russian cannon making. It was cast in 1586 by Andrey Chokhov and is notable for its rich, decorative relief. Another technology, that according to one hypothesis originally was brought from Europe by the Italians, resulted in the development of vodka, the national beverage of Russia. As early as 1386 Genoese ambassadors brought the first aqua vitae ("water of life '') to Moscow and presented it to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy. The Genoese likely developed this beverage with the help of the alchemists of Provence, who used an Arab - invented distillation apparatus to convert grape must into alcohol. A Moscovite monk called Isidore used this technology to produce the first original Russian vodka c. 1430.
The Italian artist and critic Giorgio Vasari (1511 -- 1574) first used the term rinascita retrospectively in his book The Lives of the Artists (published 1550). In the book Vasari attempted to define what he described as a break with the barbarities of gothic art: the arts (he held) had fallen into decay with the collapse of the Roman Empire and only the Tuscan artists, beginning with Cimabue (1240 -- 1301) and Giotto (1267 -- 1337) began to reverse this decline in the arts. Vasari saw antique art as central to the rebirth of Italian art.
However, only in the 19th century did the French word Renaissance achieve popularity in describing the self - conscious cultural movement based on revival of Roman models that began in the late - 13th century. French historian Jules Michelet (1798 -- 1874) defined "The Renaissance '' in his 1855 work Histoire de France as an entire historical period, whereas previously it had been used in a more limited sense. For Michelet, the Renaissance was more a development in science than in art and culture. He asserted that it spanned the period from Columbus to Copernicus to Galileo; that is, from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century. Moreover, Michelet distinguished between what he called, "the bizarre and monstrous '' quality of the Middle Ages and the democratic values that he, as a vocal Republican, chose to see in its character. A French nationalist, Michelet also sought to claim the Renaissance as a French movement.
The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (1818 -- 1897) in his The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860), by contrast, defined the Renaissance as the period between Giotto and Michelangelo in Italy, that is, the 14th to mid-16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of individuality, which the Middle Ages had stifled. His book was widely read and became influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance. However, Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a linear Whiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world.
More recently, some historians have been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even as a coherent cultural movement. The historian Randolph Starn, of the University of California Berkeley, stated in 1998:
"Rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in between, the Renaissance can be (and occasionally has been) seen as a movement of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in different times and places. It would be in this sense a network of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a single, time - bound culture ''.
There is debate about the extent to which the Renaissance improved on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renaissance towards the modern age. Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being removed from man 's eyes, allowing him to see clearly.
In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness -- that which was turned within as that which was turned without -- lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues.
On the other hand, many historians now point out that most of the negative social factors popularly associated with the medieval period -- poverty, warfare, religious and political persecution, for example -- seem to have worsened in this era, which saw the rise of Machiavellian politics, the Wars of Religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the intensified witch - hunts of the 16th century. Many people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it as the "golden age '' imagined by certain 19th - century authors, but were concerned by these social maladies. Significantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Middle Ages. Some Marxist historians prefer to describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy were part of a general economic trend from feudalism towards capitalism, resulting in a bourgeois class with leisure time to devote to the arts.
Johan Huizinga (1872 -- 1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. In his book The Waning of the Middle Ages, he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the High Middle Ages, destroying much that was important. The Latin language, for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep economic recession. Meanwhile, George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientific progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed. Finally, Joan Kelly argued that the Renaissance led to greater gender dichotomy, lessening the agency women had had during the Middle Ages.
Some historians have begun to consider the word Renaissance to be unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive "Dark Ages '', the Middle Ages. Most historians now prefer to use the term "early modern '' for this period, a more neutral designation that highlights the period as a transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern era. Others such as Roger Osborne have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation.
The term Renaissance has also been used to define periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles H. Haskins (1870 -- 1937), for example, made a case for a Renaissance of the 12th century. Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, and still later for an Ottonian Renaissance in the 10th century. Other periods of cultural rebirth have also been termed "renaissances '', such as the Bengal Renaissance, Tamil Renaissance, Nepal Bhasa renaissance, al - Nahda or the Harlem Renaissance.
Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which has characterized the development of science since the 17th century, had never occurred before that time. The new kind of scientific activity emerged only in a few countries of Western Europe, and it was restricted to that small area for about two hundred years. (Since the 19th century, scientific knowledge has been assimilated by the rest of the world).
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when does episode 3 of grand tour come out | The Grand Tour (TV series) - wikipedia
The Grand Tour is a British motoring television series for Amazon Video, presented by Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond, and James May, and produced by Andy Wilman.
The four agreed to produce the series following their departures from the BBC series Top Gear with an initial agreement of 36 episodes over three years. Episodes are scheduled to be released weekly to those with Amazon Prime Video accounts in the United Kingdom, United States, India, Germany, Austria and Japan, beginning November 2016.
Studio audience segments for the first series were filmed in the travelling tent between 17 July and 11 December 2016, and premiered on 18 November 2016. In the days following the launch it became Amazon Video 's most watched premiere episode. As of December 2016 the show was made available to an additional 195 countries and various territories. Repeats of the first series began airing on traditional broadcasters in late 2017.
A teaser trailer for the second series was released on 11 July 2017, featuring a Mercedes AMG GT R, Ripsaw EV - 2, McLaren 720S, Bugatti Chiron, Audi TT RS, Rimac Concept One, a Grumman American AA - 5 light aircraft. A second trailer, released on 1 November 2017, featured a Lamborghini Aventador S, Honda NSX, Ariel Nomad and Kia Stinger GT. The second series filmed its studio segments on Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Fridays between 25 October and 19 December 2017, and premiered on 8 December 2017.
The Grand Tour is presented as a mix of pre-recorded television films and live - audience segments presented in a large tent to an audience of about 300 members. The show and its segments are hosted by Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond, and James May. The show is presented from a pair of large tents on a Grand Tour around the world. The presenters sit around a trestle table, with the studio audience seated in front of them.
Each show is generally bookended by two television films, or two parts of the same film, produced by one or more of the hosts. Similar to the films from Top Gear, these may focus on one or more cars and their features, including how it performs on the test track. These have also included similar Top Gear - like challenges, such as building their own eco-friendly car chassis atop a Land Rover engine base and undergoing challenges sent by text message by their producer Mr. Wilman, unconventional races between the hosts in different forms of transportation, selecting and driving certain types of cars along a route in a foreign locale in the same manner as the Top Gear specials, or other motoring - related segments.
The show has a dedicated test track called the "Eboladrome '', at the former RAF Wroughton. Clarkson states in the first episode that the name is due to its shape resembling the structure of the Ebola virus.
It is designed to "trip cars up '', according to Clarkson. Section names include the "Is n't Straight '', "Your Name Here '', "Old Lady 's House '', "Substation '' and "Field of Sheep ''. In the first episode, the track was said to have been modified following the discovery of an unexploded Second World War bomb.
In the first series, the cars were driven by former NASCAR driver Mike Skinner, known as "The American ''; Amazon had requested that their test driver be American, according to the hosts. "The American '' was portrayed a stereotypical redneck accent and viewpoints, and prone to tangential speech and calling several things communist. Due to poor reception, Skinner was replaced by British racing driver Abbie Eaton.
Prior to the airing of the first episode the lap - board had been pre-populated with ten lap - times by a selection of cars. The laps themselves were not shown, only their lap - times. The first car to be shown, with an on - screen lap - time, was a 2016 BMW M2 with a time of 1: 26.2 set by Skinner. The Eboladrome is also used for general filming and testing by the presenters, meaning that other vehicles -- such as a Ferrari 488 used in episode one -- may appear on the track, but do not set a lap - time set by the racing driver.
For the second series, a new test track was created at Enstone Airfield, close to the fixed studio tent location, and which the production team had previously tried to use for Top Gear. The main Eboladrome track was planned to continue to serve for the testing of loud and fast cars.
Following complaints regarding the "Celebrity Brain Crash '' segment in the first series, this segment was replaced by "Celebrity Face Off ''. Two celebrities join the show each week, with a similar background or connection and often from different countries, to see which one of the two is faster. The car used for this segment is a Jaguar F - Type coupe, racing around a half gravel, half asphalt track at Enstone. Prior to showing the lap results, Clarkson spends time to interview the guests.
The trio discuss car news. Running jokes in the first series include Hammond "oversharing '' intimate personal information, and Clarkson being cut off after asking "Can I talk about...? '' before either Hammond or May introduce the next segment; frequently, the subject he attempts to raise is Alfa Romeo and their new cars. The video introduction to the segment shows the men, in silhouette talking animatedly: in each episode the silhouettes change in various ways.
The first series included several running gags. During the opening titles of each episode, a camera drone was destroyed. From episode three onward, one of the presenters ' names is always seen misspelt during the opening. For "Celebrity Brain Crash '', celebrity guests are humorously "killed '' in an accident while making their way to the tent. After each "death '', May asks "Does that mean he / she 's not coming on then? '' to which Hammond deadpans "No James, they 're not '' while bluntly outlining how "dead '' the celebrity is. This element of the show reflects the BBC 's efforts to stop The Grand Tour from interviewing celebrity guests, as had been the focus of the Top Gear "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car '' segment.
It was announced on 16 November 2017 that both "The American '' and "Celebrity Brain Crash '' would not be returning and will be replaced for the second series as they had been unpopular with the viewers. The segment was replaced by "Celebrity Face Off '' in which celebrities compete for the best lap times around a new track in a Jaguar F - Type. Abbie Eaton replaced "The American '', being billed as "Driver ''. Hammond 's crash in Switzerland and Clarkson 's pneumonia, both of which were talked about between series, are also often used as a joke.
Clarkson, Hammond and May had been presenters on BBC 's Top Gear, both as part of the rotating hosts of the original, and permanent hosts for the 2002 rebooted series up through 2015. Under them, the show had an estimated worldwide audience of 350 million, and listed by Guinness World Records as the highest - viewed factual television programme. Due to several incidents involving Clarkson, BBC terminated Clarkson 's contract with the show in March 2015. Both May and Hammond affirmed they would not return to Top Gear without Clarkson, even though the BBC offered them lucrative salaries to remain on for additional series. Along with their departure, their long - time producer and Clarkson 's classmate Andy Wilman also opted to leave at this time. BBC retooled the show for 2016, bringing in new hosts Chris Evans and Matt LeBlanc.
Shortly after his dismissal, Clarkson stated his intent to start a new car show, saying "I have lost my baby but I shall create another. I do n't know who the other parent will be or what the baby will be like. '' Rumors that Clarkson, Hammond, and May were developing a new show through discreet meetings with various networks emerged starting in April 2015. These rumors pointed to a potential American broadcaster, as the terms of Clarkson 's non-compete clause with the BBC stipulated he could not make a rival car show on a BBC competitor, like ITV. Among those that had been approached included Netflix, who felt Clarkson 's team wanted too much money for what they were worth, and BT Sport, believing this show would be a better fit on a network with a more global reach.
In July 2015, Clarkson announced he had signed a deal with Amazon to develop a new car show that followed a similar format as Top Gear, with both Hammond and May joining him as co-hosts, and Wilman directing. The deal included 36 episodes across three series which would be available to Amazon Prime members starting in 2016. Wilman stated that Amazon promised them to have the freedom they wanted to make the show how they wanted along with the necessary budget. Additionally, by using a subscription - based service over an advert - based network, they would not be beholden to commercial pressure for their advertisers. Jeff Bezos, CEO of Amazon, said he was "very excited '' about bringing this program to Amazon, and that producing the show would be "very, very, very expensive '', but added, "(Clarkson, Hammond and May are) worth a lot and they know it. '' According to insider information reported by The Daily Mirror, Amazon paid GB £ 160 million for all three series. Wilman denied the show cost this much, but did admit the show was costly, partially due to Amazon 's intent to have it filmed in 4K resolutions. The production of this show would be based in the United Kingdom, and done by W Chump & Sons, a company set up by Wilman, Clarkson, Hammond and May.
The show 's name, The Grand Tour, was revealed in May 2016. Clarkson said the name brought to mind the tradition of Grand Tours, and reflected how the show would travel to several different countries to film. There was speculation that the show could be called Gear Knobs after a trademark application was made for that name by an associated company, but Clarkson stated in October 2015 that this would not be the title. He explained in April 2016 that the word "Gear '' could not be used for legal reasons.
Initially, the show 's format was to present individual television films, using location shooting without studio segments. They later came up with the idea of using a traveling tent to provide a mobile "studio '', to go along with The Grand Tour name. They would be able to use local audience members, and would give the hosts the opportunity to explore the local culture around cars. According to Wilman, the idea to film audience segments in a tent came from Clarkson, who had seen an episode of True Detective that took place at a Baptist revival ceremony.
Wilman said that lawyers for Amazon were very mindful of any perceived similarities in segments to Top Gear, requiring changes to the format and regular segments. Named elements from Top Gear like The Star in a Reasonably Priced Car, the Cool Wall, and the Stig could not be used at all, but they also had to clear other legal concerns. For example, the lawyers said they could test cars on a test track, but they could not post the times using hand - written signs as they had done on Top Gear; instead, they used a digital leaderboard. Wilman described some of the lawyers concerns "got funnier and funnier '', such as whether May could say "c * ck '', or whether during one of their exotic roadtrips, if they could stop and admire the scenery by saying "it 's beautiful '' as they frequently did on Top Gear.
BBC had explicitly told the crew they could not have celebrities come on the show and race around a track. As a joking response to this, they developed the "Celebrity Brain Crash '' segment where celebrities invited on the show would appear to be killed off before reaching the tent. "Celebrity Brain Crash '' was replaced in series two by "Celebrity Face Off '' where two celebrities compete to be fastest around a track, avoiding the legal complications with the BBC.
United Broadcast Facilities (UBF) in The Netherlands won the contract for the outside broadcasting tent segments. Fourteen microphones are used for recording the audience reaction laugh track within the tent. The mobile studio audio setup uses Lawo mixing desks connected via MADI for live sound mixing, recording and talkback intercoms.
During the first series, the studio segments were filmed in various locations around the world. Studio recording for the first series began in Johannesburg, South Africa on 17 July 2016. Recording in the United States took place on 25 September 2016 in Southern California, with further recording taking place in Nashville on 21 November 2016. Studio recording in the United Kingdom took place in Whitby on 13 October 2016, with further recordings taking place at Loch Ness in December 2016. Further studio recording took place in Rotterdam on 22 October 2016 and Lapland on 3 November 2016. Stuttgart (Ludwigsburg) was also a filming location. The final studio filming took place in Dubai in December 2016.
For the second series, following Clarkson 's pneumonia and Hammond 's car crash, the producers decided that there would no longer be a travelling tent. Instead the tent would be in one location near Clarkson 's home in the Cotswolds as this would be more convenient for the crew to operate. It also would be useful for new features such as Celebrity Face Off. In September 2017, West Oxfordshire District Council gave planning permission for three months of filming from a fixed tent location on the Great Tew Estate, near Chipping Norton. Two - hundred parking spaces already used for hosting the Cornbury Music Festival on the same site would be used to accommodate 350 guests per week, plus 80 members of staff. The time window allowed for the series 2 filming was between October and December 2017.
Following the public naming of the show, Amazon offered new customers a £ 20 discount for their first year on Amazon Prime during 14 -- 16 May 2016. A trailer announcing the release date of the show as 18 November 2016 was posted on the show 's YouTube channel on 15 September 2016. A second, full - length trailer, was released on 6 October 2016. Trailers for series one have used the music "Come with Me Now '' by Kongos., while series two trailers have used "Live and Let Die '' by Wings.
As part of their marketing campaign, Amazon placed crashed Toyota Prius cars at Hackescher Markt in Berlin, in front of London King 's Cross railway station, and on the Hollywood Walk of Fame outside the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles.
In mid-2016 DHL began sponsoring the transport costs of the tent and mobile studio. In June 2016, in connection with the sponsorship deal, the presenters had uploaded videos of themselves attempting to assemble DHL - branded shipping boxes. The first episode stated that "promotional consideration '' had been given by the Breitling Jet Team, DHL and Samsung. Eight of the Breitling Jet aircraft took part in the opening sequence flyovers. For episode 2, the list included 5.11 Tactical. A DHL Boeing 757 was featured in the opening sequence of episode 5, the tent was located in Rotterdam, and the DHL logo is featured on part of the crash barrier at the Eboladrome.
As of November 2016 the show has received positive reviews from critics, with The Guardian saying "Jeremy Clarkson and co leave the BBC in their dust ''.
Daily Express TV reporter, Neela Debnath commented that the first episode "resembled a Hollywood blockbuster '' and added that "(The Grand Tour is) basically Top Gear on steroids ''. However, BBC Arts Editor, Will Gompertz said of the opening that "there is no irony. It feels uncomfortably hubristic '' but once the presenters were in the tent "Normal service has been resumed '' and that "It seemed to me that Grand Tour is a TV show that wants to be -- and quite possibly should be -- a movie '' The Independent described The Grand Tour as "the best of Top Gear but with a greater budget '' TheWrap reported an estimate by Symphony Advanced Media that the opening weekend viewer count for The Grand Tour was three times the size of the opening weekend of The Man in the High Castle.
Episode 2 was somewhat less favourably received by fans and critics. The Telegraph wrote about the Jordan segment: "(...) a tedious action movie segment suggested that they were in danger of losing the run of themselves slightly and that Amazon 's hands - off policy towards the production had potential downsides. '' Radio Times said that "many of the viewers were disgruntled to say the least, branding the show as dull and not funny. ''
Richard Hammond was criticised by Stonewall, Peter Tatchell, and Olly Alexander, amongst others, for a comment he made in episode six where he implied that men who eat ice - cream are homosexual. It was later revealed that the comment was an in - joke for the Finnish audience as a reference to a controversial TV commercial that aired in Finland.
The Grand Tour received a nomination in the Original OTT Streamed category at the 2017 Television and Radio Industries Club Awards.
Kevin Yeoman of Screen Rant gave the show a positive review, stating "Fans can rest assured Top Gear has n't gone anywhere, it 's just hiding out at Amazon under a different name. '' Sonia Saraiya of Variety was also positive of the show, stating "When it comes to the cars, The Grand Tour delivers gearhead porn in spades... Clarkson, Hammond, and May 's love for machinery... is still present, pure, and appealing, even with the shift in networks and formats. ''
Conversely, in April 2017 Brad Anderson of CarScoops stated that he prefers Top Gear to The Grand Tour. According to Anderson, Top Gear had "become even better '', whereas The Grand Tour "seemed more scripted, less natural and at stages, forced... attention is often skewed away from the cars as the presenters, namely Clarkson, seemed to chase controversy and headlines ''. Anderson continues that in - studio segments became repetitive quickly, particularly "Celebrity Brain Crash '', also noting that all three hosts seem to spend far too much time needling each other, and test driver Mike Skinner offers no worthwhile commentary.
On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the first series of The Grand Tour has a "fresh '' rating of 86 %, based on 7 reviews, with an average rating of 8.0 / 10.
Digital Spy was positive of series 2, episode 1, calling it "An understated premiere for a show that feels like it 's finding its feet. '' The Times was also positive, giving the show 4 out of 5 stars, stating "Some parts of the show are flat but mostly it works, the production values remain high and it has clearly been hit with a juggernaut of money. '' The Daily Telegraph, while not as positive, still approved of the episode, stating "The writing is still rather ropey. Clarkson 's suggestion of a new nickname for May -- "Dingleberry Handpump '' -- failed to raise a titter even among the super-fans gathered for the London premiere '' but also said that "for each wobble, there are just as many moments when The Grand Tour manages the clever trick Top Gear could pull off at its best: raising a chuckle while sneaking in a bit of serious journalism at the same time. '' and ultimately gave the episode 3 out of 5 stars. Jeremy Clarkson himself believed that they had "hit the ground running with series 2 of the Grand Tour ''.
Radio Times has criticised the gender balance of guests on the "Celebrity Face Off '' segment.
Australian free - to - air network Seven Network started broadcasting the first series of The Grand Tour in mid-October 2017.
French channel RMC Découverte started broadcasting the first series with the Namibian special episodes on 29 November 2017 and L'Équipe (TV channel) broadcast episodes 1 and 13 on 15 January 2018.
At the start of 2018 high - speed Eurostar train services between Paris or Brussels and London began to feature The Grand Tour as part of the available on board entertainment package.
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when did the donkey speak in the bible | Balaam - wikipedia
Balaam / ˈbeɪlæm / (Hebrew: בִּלְעָם , Standard Bilʻam Tiberian Bilʻām) is a diviner in the Torah, his story occurring towards the end of the Book of Numbers (Hebrew: במדבר ). The etymology of his name is uncertain, and discussed below. Every ancient reference to Balaam considers him a non-Israelite, a prophet, and the son of Beor, though Beor is not clearly identified. Though some sources may only describe the positive blessings he delivers upon the Israelites, he is reviled as a "wicked man '' in both Torah and its commentaries, as well as in the New Testament. Balaam refused to speak what God did not speak and would not curse the Israelites, even though King Balak of Moab offered him money to do so (Numbers 22 -- 24). But Balaam 's error and the source of his wickedness came from sabotaging the Israelites as they entered the Promised Land. According to Revelation 2: 14, Balaam told King Balak how to get the Israelites to commit sin by enticing them with sexual immorality and food sacrificed to idols. The Israelites fell into transgression due to these traps and God sent a deadly plague to them as a result (Numbers 31: 16).
The main story of Balaam occurs during the sojourn of the Israelites in the plains of Moab, east of the Jordan River, at the close of forty years of wandering, shortly before the death of Moses and the crossing of the Jordan. The Israelites have already defeated two kings in Transjordan: Sihon, king of the Amorites, and Og, king of Bashan. Balak, king of Moab, consequently becomes alarmed, and sends elders of Midian and his Moabite messengers, to Balaam, son of Beor, to induce him to come and curse Israel. Balaam 's location, Pethor, is simply given as "which is by the river of the land of the children of his people '' in the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, though the Samaritan Pentateuch, Vulgate, and Peshitta all identify his land as Ammon.
Balaam sends back word that he can only do what YHWH commands, and God has, via a nocturnal dream, told him not to go. Balak consequently sends higher - ranking priests and offers Balaam honours; Balaam continues to press God, and God finally permits him to go but with instructions to say only what he commands. Balaam then sets out in the morning with the princes of Moab. God becomes angry that he went, and sends the Angel of the Lord (Numbers 22: 22) to prevent him. At first the angel is seen only by the donkey Balaam is riding, which tries to avoid the angel. After Balaam starts punishing the donkey for refusing to move, it is miraculously given the power to speak to Balaam (Numbers 22: 28), and it complains about Balaam 's treatment. At this point, Balaam is allowed to see the angel, who informs him that the donkey is the only reason the angel did not kill Balaam. Balaam immediately repents, but is told to go on.
Balak meets with Balaam at Kirjat Huzoth, and they go to the "high places of Baal '', and offer sacrifices on seven altars, leading to Balaam being given a prophecy by Yahweh, which he speaks to Balak. However, the prophecy blesses Israel; Balak remonstrates, but Balaam reminds him that he can only speak the words put in his mouth, so Balak takes him to another "high place '' at Pisgah, to try again. Building another seven altars here, and making sacrifices on each, Balaam provides another prophecy blessing Israel.
Balaam finally gets taken by a now very frustrated Balak to Peor, and, after the seven sacrifices there, decides not to "seek enchantments '' but instead looks upon the Israelites from the peak. The Spirit of God comes upon Balaam and he delivers a third positive prophecy concerning Israel. Balak 's anger rises to the point where he threatens Balaam, but Balaam merely offers a prediction of fate. Balaam then looks upon the Kenites, and Amalekites and offers two more predictions of their fates. Balak and Balaam then go to their respective homes.
Later, Numbers 25: 1 - 9 describes how Israel engaged in sexual immorality and idolatry with the women of Moab, resulting in God 's anger and a deadly plague. Numbers 31: 16 attributes this to the advice of Balaam: "Behold, these caused the children of Israel, through the counsel of Balaam, to commit trespass against the LORD in the matter of Peor, and there was a plague among the congregation of the LORD. ''
Book of Deuteronomy 23: 3 -- 6 summarises these incidents, and further states that the Ammonites were associated with the Moabites. Joshua, in his farewell speech, also makes reference to it. With God 's protection taken from him, Balaam is later listed among the Midianites who were killed in revenge for the "matter of Peor. '' Joshua 13: 22 records that Balaam died "by the sword '' during a battle for the Reubenite occupation of Moabite land.
Revelation also states that Balaam "taught Balak to cast a stumbling block before the children of Israel. ''
All the prophecies which Balaam makes take the form of (Hebrew) poems:
The poems fall into three groups. The first group consists of two poems which characteristically start immediately. The third group of three poems also start immediately, but are much shorter. The second group, however, consists of two poems which both start:
Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said: He hath said, which heard the words of God, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open...
Of these, the first and third groups are considered, according to the Documentary Hypothesis, to originate within the Elohist text, whereas the second group is considered to belong to the Jahwist. Thus the Elohist describes Balaam giving two blessings, making sacrifices on seven altars, at the high places of Baal, before each, then deciding not to "seek enchantments '' after the third set of sacrifices, but to "set his face upon the wilderness, '' which Balak views as a third blessing, and so Balaam then gives the three final predictions of fate. Conversely, in the Jahwist source, Balaam arrives, the spirit of God comes upon him, and he simply delivers a blessing and a prophecy, in succession.
The poems themselves are considered to predate the Jahwist and Elohist, and simply to have been embedded by them in their works. While the Elohist took off whatever introduction was present in the poems they chose, the Jahwist left it on. An archaeological discovery in 1967 uncovered references to a Book of Balaam, from which these poems may have originally been taken. The first four poems are commonly regarded as ancient lyrics of the early monarchy of Israel and Judah, although several critics suspect that they have been edited either from less edifying oracles or from oracles which did not refer to Israel.
Agag, mentioned in the third poem, is described as a great king, which does not correspond to the king of the Amalekites who was named Agag, and described in I Samuel 15, since that description considers Amalek to be small and obscure. While it is the Masoretic text of the poem that uses the word Agag, the Septuagint, other Greek versions, and the Samaritan Pentateuch, all have Gog (i.e., king Gyges of Lydia, 716 BC to 678 BC), implying a very late date for the poem. These names are consequently thought to be textual corruptions, and Og has been suggested as the original.
The final three poems do not refer either to Israel or to Moab, and are thus considered unusual, since they seem to have little relevance to the narrative. It is thought that they may have been added to bring the number of poems either up to five, if inserted into the Elohist source, or up to seven, if only inserted once JE was constructed. While the sixth poem refers to Assyria, it is uncertain whether it is an historical reference to ancient Ninevah, or a prophecy, which some religious commentators consider refers to the Seleucid kingdom of Syria, which also took the name Assyria. The seventh is also ambiguous, and may either be a reference to the Sea Peoples, or, again in the view of some religious commentators, to the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great.
In the view of textual criticism the narrative, excepting the episode involving the donkey, is simply a framework invented in order to be able to insert much older poems.
In rabbinic literature Balaam is represented as one of seven gentile prophets; the other six being Beor (Balaam 's father), Job, and Job 's four friends (Talmud, B.B. 15b). In this literature, Balaam gradually acquired a position among the non-Jews, which was exalted as much as that of Moses among the Jews (Midrash Numbers Rabbah 20); at first being a mere interpreter of dreams, but later becoming a magician, until finally the spirit of prophecy descended upon him (ib. 7).
According to a negative view of Balaam in the Talmud, Balaam possessed the gift of being able to ascertain the exact moment during which God is wroth -- a gift bestowed upon no other creature. Balaam 's intention was to curse the Israelites at this moment of wrath, and thus cause God himself to destroy them; but God purposely restrained His anger in order to baffle the wicked prophet and to save the nation from extermination (Talmud, Berachot 7a). The Talmud also recounts a more positive view of Balaam, stating that when the Law was given to Israel, a mighty voice shook the foundations of the earth, so much so that all kings trembled, and in their consternation turned to Balaam, inquiring whether this upheaval of nature portended a second deluge; the prophet assured them that what they heard was the voice of God, giving the sacred law to the Israelites (Talmud, Zeb. 116a).
According to Jewish legend, Balaam was made this powerful in order to prevent the non-Jewish tribes from saying: "If we had only had our own Moses, we would be as pious as the Jews. '' The wicked Balaam is included in the list of persons born circumcised along with Moses in the book Abbot De-Rabbi Natan.
In rabbinical literature the epithet rasha, translating as the wicked one, is often attached to the name of Balaam (Talmud Berachot l.c.; Taanit 20a; Midrash Numbers Rabbah 20: 14). Balaam is pictured as blind in one eye and lame in one foot (Talmud Sanhedrin 105a); and his disciples (followers) are distinguished by three morally corrupt qualities:
Due to his behavior with the Midianites, the Rabbis interpret Balaam as responsible for the behavior during the Heresy of Peor, which they consider to have been unchastity, and consequently the death of 24,000 victims of the plague which God sent as punishment. When Balaam saw that he could not curse the children of Israel, the Rabbis assert that he advised Balak, as a last resort, to tempt the Hebrew nation to immoral acts and, through these, to the worship of Baal - peor. The God of the Hebrews, adds Balaam, according to the Rabbis, hates lewdness; and severe chastisement must follow (San. 106a; Yer. ib. x. 28d; Num. R. l.c.).
The Rabbis, playing on the name Balaam, call him "Belo ' Am '' (without people; that is, without a share with the people in the world to come), or "Billa ' ' Am '' (one that ruined a people); and this hostility against his memory finds its climax in the dictum that whenever one discovers a feature of wickedness or disgrace in his life, one should preach about it (Sanh. 106b). In the process of killing Balaam (Num. xxxi. 8), all four legal methods of execution -- stoning, burning, decapitating, and strangling -- were employed (Sanh. l.c.). He met his death at the age of thirty - three (ib.); and it is stated that he had no portion in the world to come (Sanh. x. 2; 90a). The book devotes a special section to the history of the prophet discussing why God has taken away the power of prophecy from the Gentiles (Tan., Balak, 1). Moses is expressly mentioned as the author of this episode in the Pentateuch (B.B. 14b). J. Sr. H.M.
"Ahithophel of the house of Israel and Balaam of the heathen nations were the two great sages of the world who, failing to show gratitude to God for their wisdom, perished in dishonor. To them the prophetic word finds application: ' Let not the wise man glory in his wisdom, ' Jer. ix. 23 '' (Num. R. xxii.).
In (Sanhedrin 106b) and (Giṭtin 57a) Balaam may be likened to Jesus. Some have theorized that Balaam became used as a pseudonym for Jesus in Jewish literature.
An interesting, but doubtful, emendation makes this poem describe the nun of Shamal, a state in northwest Syria. In the New Testament, Balaam is cited as a type of avarice; for example in Book of Revelation 2: 14 we read of false teachers at Pergamum who held the "teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to cast a stumbling - block before the children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed to idols, and to commit fornication. '' Balaam has attracted much interest, alike from Jews, Christians and Muslims. Josephus paraphrases the story more so, and speaks of Balaam as the best prophet of his time, but with a disposition ill - adapted to resist temptation. Philo describes him as a great magician in the Life of Moses; elsewhere he speaks of "the sophist Balaam, being, '' i.e. symbolizing "a vain crowd of contrary and warring opinions '' and again as "a vain people '' -- both phrases being based on a mistaken etymology of the name Balaam.
A man also named Balaam also figures as an example of a false prophet motivated by greed or avarice in both 2 Peter 2: 15 and in Jude 1: 11. This Balaam is listed as the son of Bezer, which is usually identified as Beor. Some authors claim that Bezer was the Aramaic pronunciation of Beor, while others hold that Peter was attempting to play off the Hebrew word basar or "flesh '' to insult Balaam. Later Jewish tradition similarly played with Balaam 's name to call him corrupt and imply bestiality. Still, some other authors hold that Bezer and Beor are distinct while still identifying the Balaams of the Old and New Testaments, claiming that Beor is Balaam 's father and Bezer Balaam 's home town.
Regarding the Islamic view of Balaam, there is no clear reference to Balaam in the Qur'an. However, the commentators argue that he is the one that the following text is referring to:
Relate to them the story of the man to whom We sent Our signs, but he passed them by: so Satan followed him up, and he went astray. If it had been Our will, We should have elevated him with Our signs; but he inclined to the earth, and followed his own vain desires. His similitude is that of a dog: if you attack him, he lolls out his tongue, or if you leave him alone, he (still) lolls out his tongue. That is the similitude of those who reject Our signs; So relate the story; perchance they may reflect.
The Muslim commentators explain that Balaam was a Canaanite who had been given knowledge of some of the books of God. His people asked him to curse Moses (Musa) and those who were with him, but he said, "How can I curse one who has angels with him? '' They continued to press him, however, until he cursed the Israelites, and, as a consequence, they remained forty years in the Wilderness of the Wanderings. Then, when he had cursed Moses, his tongue came out and fell upon his breast, and he began to pant like a dog.
The story as told by Tabari is somewhat more Biblical. Balaam had the knowledge of the Most Sacred Name of God, and whatever he asked of God was granted to him. The story of Balaam and the ass, then follows at length. When it came to the actual cursing, God "turned his tongue '' so that the cursing fell upon his own people and the blessing upon Israel. Then his tongue came out and hung down on his breast. Finally, he advised his people to adorn and beautify their women and to send them out to ensnare the Israelites. The story of the plague at Baal - peor and of Cozbi and Zimri follows.
According to another story which al - Tabari gives, Balaam was a renegade Israelite who knew the Most Sacred Name and, to gain the things of this world, went over to the Canaanites. Al - Tha'labi adds that Balaam was descended from Lot. He gives, too, the story of Balaam 's dream, his being forbidden by God to curse Israel. Another version is that Balak, the king of Bal'a, compelled Balaam to use the Most Sacred Name against Israel. The curse fell automatically, and Moses, having learned whence it came, entreated God to take from Balaam his knowledge of the Name and his faith. This being done, they went out from him in the form of a white dove.
In 1967, at Deir Alla, Jordan, archaeologists found an inscription with a story relating visions of the seer of the gods Bala'am, son of Be'or, who may be the same Bala'am mentioned in Numbers 22 -- 24 and in other passages of the Bible. This Bala'am differs from the one in Numbers in that rather than being a prophet of Yahweh he is associated with Ashtar, a god named Shgr, and Shadday gods and goddesses.
The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies describes it as "the oldest example of a book in a West Semitic language written with the alphabet, and the oldest piece of Aramaic literature. '' The inscription is datable to ca. 840 -- 760 BCE; it was painted in red and black inks, apparently to emphasize the text, on fragments of a plastered wall: 119 pieces of inked plaster were recovered. According to the story in the inscription, Balaam wakes up weeping and tells his people that the gods appeared to him in the night telling him about a goddess threatening to destroy the land. She is to cover the sky and reduce the world to complete darkness. Meindert Dijkstra suggests that "the reticence of OT scholarship to take account of the text may be attributable to its damaged state, the difficulty of reconstructing and reading it, and the many questions it raises of script, language, literary form and religious content. ''
Attribution
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where did they film dan in real life | Dan in Real Life - wikipedia
Dan in Real Life is a 2007 American comedy - drama film directed by Peter Hedges, and stars Steve Carell, Alison Pill, Juliette Binoche, Dianne Wiest, John Mahoney and Dane Cook.
Dan Burns is a newspaper advice columnist, a widower, and single - parent to his three girls, living in Northern New Jersey. The family takes a trip to the rambling, Rhode Island home of his parents for an annual family gathering. Also in attendance are Dan 's sister and brother with their families and Dan 's younger brother Mitch who is known for his carefree bachelor ways.
The morning after their arrival, Dan meets Marie in a bookshop. They share a muffin and a heart - felt chat, although Marie gently warns Dan that she has a boyfriend. Dan returns to his parents ' house and announces that he has ' met someone '. Brother Mitch introduces his new girlfriend Annie. Lo and behold, Dan 's Marie is Mitch 's Annie. Dan is disheartened and resists his father 's relationship advice about finding someone of his own.
Dan reluctantly agrees to a foursome dinner with their once unattractive childhood friend, "pig - faced '' Ruthie. Marie jealously watches Dan and Ruthie. The next morning, Dan endures her ' punishment ' for his late night with Ruthie by eating the burnt pancakes which she serves him. Tension grows between Dan and Marie, culminating at the family talent show. Dan accompanies Mitch on the guitar as Mitch sings, "Let My Love Open the Door '' -- however, during the bridge, Dan begins to sing too -- seemingly to Marie. The next morning, Marie breaks up with Mitch. However, Marie and Dan meet to talk at a bowling alley. The meeting evolves into a date and finally a passionate kiss, but unfortunately Dan 's entire family arrives to bowl. Mitch punches Dan in the face, and Marie hurries out.
The plot resolves with Dan and his daughters going to New York City, where they finally find Marie at her gym. As he makes eye contact with her, Dan, in voice - over, tells the readers of his advice column that instead of merely planning ahead in life, they should "plan to be surprised. ''
The film ends with Dan and Marie celebrating their wedding at his parents ' Rhode Island home, and Mitch happily dancing with Ruthie.
The film opened October 26, 2007 in the United States and Canada and grossed $11.8 million in 1,921 theaters its opening weekend, ranking # 2 at the box office. As of February 2, 2011, it has grossed $68,377,859.
It was released on DVD and Blu - ray on March 11, 2008.
The opening scene was in New Jersey and then Rhode Island in the cities of Newport, East Greenwich, West Greenwich, Jamestown, Westerly, and Providence in November and December 2006. The opening scene was filmed at Seven Stars Bakery in Providence. However, the facade of the building and the interior are altered. The first time Dan is pulled over by the Jamestown, Rhode Island police, he is on Ocean Ave Newport, Rhode Island. The second time Dan is pulled over by Mackerel Cove in Jamestown. In scenes filmed in Jamestown, two bridges are clearly visible: the Jamestown Bridge and its replacement, the Jamestown - Verrazzano Bridge. Demolition of the Jamestown Bridge was initiated on April 18, 2006. The film also cast local residents of neighboring towns and cities consisting of Middletown, North Kingstown and North Providence as Dan 's nieces and nephews. The date scene was filmed in two different places in Westerly. The inside shots were filmed at Alley Katz Bowling center, while the exterior shots were filmed at Misquamicut Beach. What is now the Windjammer was dressed to look like the outside of the bowling center. The sunset scene with the entire family on the beach was filmed at Napatree Point in Westerly.
Norwegian singer - songwriter Sondre Lerche composed the majority of the music in the film, and has a cameo appearance in a scene at the end.
Full soundtrack listing:
"Mr. Blue Sky '' by the Electric Light Orchestra is featured in the TV and radio advertisements for the movie, as well as "Let My Love Open the Door '' by Pete Townshend and "Henrietta '' by The Fratellis. The club mix of Inaya Day 's "Nasty Girl '' and Earth, Wind & Fire 's "September ' 99 (Phats & Small Remix) '' are also featured in separate scenes in the movie but are not on the soundtrack. "Human Hands '' written by Elvis Costello (original version appears on his album Imperial Bedroom).
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 64 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.2 / 10 based on 169 reviews. The site 's consensus reads: "The fine performances elevate Dan in Real Life beyond its sentimental plot, '' while others draw attention to characterization questions regarding the female roles, and ' high ickiness levels. ' Review aggregator Metacritic, which provides a score out of 100 based on a weighted average, gave the film a score of 65 / 100 from 34 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews. '' Other critics describe it as a non-holiday holiday film that is derived from that genre and the rom - com genre in general. The advice of A.O. Scott in the New York Times is ' not to expect too much from "Dan in Real Life, '' that way you can be pleasantly surprised. '
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where does bella's mom live in twilight | Bella Swan - wikipedia
Isabella Marie "Bella '' Swan (later Bella Cullen) is a character and the protagonist of the Twilight series, written by Stephenie Meyer. The Twilight series, consisting of the novels Twilight, New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn, is primarily narrated from Bella 's point of view. In the film series, Bella is portrayed by actress Kristen Stewart.
In Twilight, Bella moves to her father 's home in Forks, Washington, meets the mysterious Cullen family, and falls in love with Edward Cullen. However, she soon discovers that the family is a coven of vampires. Bella expresses a desire to become a vampire herself, but Edward refuses to "turn '' her. In the second novel, New Moon, Edward and the other Cullens leave Forks in an effort to keep Bella safe from the vampire world. Jacob Black, a member of the Quileute tribe who is also a shape shifter taking a wolf form, comforts the distraught and severely depressed Bella. She comes to care deeply for Jacob, though less than she loves Edward. At the end of Eclipse, Bella becomes engaged to Edward, and they marry in Breaking Dawn. On their honeymoon, she becomes pregnant by Edward and, due to the peculiar nature of her baby, Bella nearly dies giving birth to their daughter, Renesmee Cullen. Edward turns her into a vampire to save her life.
The premise for both the Bella Swan character and the Twilight series originated in a dream Stephenie Meyer had in which an "average girl '' and a "fantastically beautiful, sparkly... vampire... were having an intense conversation in a meadow in the woods. '' In this dream, the pair "were discussing the difficulties inherent in the facts that... they were falling in love with each other while... the vampire was particularly attracted to the scent of her blood, and was having a difficult time restraining himself from killing her. ''
Meyer 's original characters were unnamed; she took to calling the characters, who would later become Edward Cullen and Bella, ' he ' and ' she ' for the purpose of convenience as she, "did n't want to lose the dream. '' The name ' Isabella ' was decided upon, Meyer explains, because "after spending so much time with (the character), I loved her like a daughter... Inspired by that love, I gave her the name I was saving for my daughter,... Isabella. ''
Bella 's positive reception at her new school in Forks, particularly her popularity with male characters, was modelled after Meyer 's real life move from high school to college. Meyer has said that there are similarities between Bella and the title character of Charlotte Brontë 's Jane Eyre, a novel which she has cited as an influence on the Twilight Saga.
Bella, who first appears in Twilight, is a 17 - year - old girl, who moves out from her mother 's home in Phoenix, Arizona, to live with her father, Charlie Swan, a police chief, in her birthplace of Forks, Washington. There, she is enrolled at Forks High School, where she becomes intrigued by a student, Edward Cullen. When Edward saves her life, he exhibits super-human qualities. Bella learns from her family friend Jacob Black that Quileute legends say the Cullen family are actually vampires. Edward eventually admits to this truth, though his family hunts only animals, not humans, through moral choice. Edward constantly warns Bella against being with him, perceiving her life to be at constant risk if she continues to associate with him, because the scent of her blood is more powerful to him than that of any other human he has ever met. Bella 's love and confidence in Edward 's restraint is such that his warnings go unheeded, and on an outing with the rest of the Cullen family, she becomes the target of a sadistic vampire, James. With his family 's help, Edward is able to save Bella from James ' predations, though Edward is still unwilling to change Bella into a vampire himself.
New Moon begins on Bella 's eighteenth birthday. She dreams about looking much older than Edward Cullen, her boyfriend. During a birthday celebration at the Cullen residence, Bella gets a small paper cut while unwrapping a present. Edward 's brother, Jasper, instinctively thirsting for her blood, launches an attack, though he is stopped. Edward realizes that his relationship with Bella is putting her in danger. In a misguided attempt to protect Bella, he convinces that he no longer loves her, and moves away with his family. Edward 's departure results in Bella being depressed and isolated for months.
To appease her worried father, Bella attends a movie with her school friend, Jessica. While there, she carelessly approaches a group of dangerous - looking men outside a bar, and discovers she can hear Edward 's voice when her adrenaline runs high. Desperate to hear his voice again, Bella continually seeks out danger; she convinces Jacob Black to repair two old motorcycle, s and teach her how to ride. Their friendship increases, and Jacob admits that he has romantic feelings for Bella, though she does not reciprocate them. When a vampire named Laurent tries to attack her, Bella is saved by a pack of wolves. Later, Bella learns that Jacob and other tribe members are shapeshifters, who assume a wolf form to protect humans from vampires. Bella also discovers that the vampire, Victoria, has returned to Forks, seeking to kill Bella to avenge her mate, James ', death.
To hear Edward 's voice, Bella attempts cliff - diving and nearly drowns, but she is saved by Jacob. Edward, after mistakenly being informed that Bella has committed suicide, travels to Volterra, Italy, to request the Volturi to destroy him. Alice returns to Forks and discovers Bella is still alive; she and Bella pursue Edward to Italy and successfully prevent him from showing himself in daylight to humans, an act that would result in his execution. The trio are taken to the Volturi. Because Bella knows about vampires, the Volturi would want to kill her, but Alice claims she has foreseen Bella becoming a vampire. Because most humans are unaware that vampires exist, the Volturi threaten to kill Bella if this does not happen soon. Upon returning home, Edward tells Bella that he never stopped loving her, and he only left Forks, because he thought it would protect her. He apologizes for his misguided action, and asks for her forgiveness, which Bella accepts. Bella, intent on becoming a vampire, decides that Edward 's family should vote on her fate. All but Rosalie and Edward vote for her to be changed, but Edward agrees to change her himself if she will ever marry him.
Eclipse continues the drama of Bella and Edward 's relationship. Edward explains that he is reluctant to change Bella into a vampire, because he believes that vampires are soulless creatures, who have no place in heaven. Bella, whose opinion of marriage is jaded by her own parents ' early divorce, agrees to marry Edward on the condition that he will make love with her while she is still human and then turn her into a vampire. He initially refuses, saying that he could easily lose control in the heat of the moment and unintentionally kill her. However, seeing how important it is to Bella, he agrees to try, but only after they are married.
The plot is driven by the machinations of the vampire Victoria, who first encountered Bella and the Cullens during the first novel, Twilight. Victoria, seeking to avenge her lover, James ', death, hunts Bella while building a new vampire army. To combat this threat, a grudging truce is struck between the Cullen family, and the Native American shape - shifting wolf pack led by Sam Uley and Jacob Black, who pits himself against Edward as a love interest for Bella. Initially, Bella considers Jacob only as a friend but, despite her engagement to Edward, she shares a kiss with Jacob, and realizes that she loves him as well. Ultimately, Edward accepts Bella 's love for Jacob, and successfully destroys Victoria. Bella acknowledges that Edward is the most important person in her life, agreeing to announce their engagement to her father.
Breaking Dawn begins with the wedding of Bella and Edward at the Cullen home in the outskirts of Forks. They spend their honeymoon on Isle Esme, a small island off the coast of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil that was given to Esme as a gift from Carlisle. They consummate their marriage, but their lovemaking sparks a conflict between the newlywed couple: Edward is horrified that he has bruised Bella, but she insists that she is fine and wants Edward to make love to her again. He vows not to do so again while she is still human. He eventually gives in. Afterwards, Bella becomes very sick, and realizes that she is pregnant with their child.
Edward is shocked and rushes Bella home to see Carlisle, who, as a doctor, confirms that she is expecting a child. As the pregnancy takes a toll on Bella 's health, Edward tries to talk her into having an abortion to save her own life. However, Bella feels a bond with her unborn child, and insists on giving birth. Soon, Edward comes to love the baby as well, after he hears its thoughts, and learns that the baby loves Bella in return, and does n't mean to hurt her.
Bella nearly dies giving birth, but Edward successfully delivers their baby girl, and then injects his venom into Bella, thus healing her wounds by turning her into a vampire. During Bella 's transformation, Jacob imprints -- an involuntary process in which a shape - shifter finds his soul mate -- on the baby, Renesmee Cullen.
After a vampire named Irina mistakes Renesmee for an immortal vampire child (a creation that is forbidden in the vampire world), Alice foresees the Volturi will arrive to destroy the Cullen family as punishment for the alleged transgression. The Cullen family finds an array of vampire witnesses to observe the mortality of Renesmee. Bella soon discovers her ability to shield people from their mental thoughts and senses. Edward stands with Bella and their allies to convince the Volturi that Renesmee is not an immortal child, and poses no threat to their existence. Once the Volturi leave, Edward and Bella are finally free to live their lives in peace with their daughter forever, and stay with them.
Bella is describes as being petite, with a height of roughly 5'4 ", and a very translucent, frail complexion. She has thick long, wavy brown hair with a wide forehead, and a widows peak. Her eyes are described as being "chocolate brown '' and widely spaced. She has a small thin nose, prominent cheekbones, lips a bit too full for her slim jawline, and thin eyebrows that are straighter than they are arched.
The scent of her negative O blood is incredibly attractive to vampires, described by Bree Tanner to be the "sweetest scent she 'd ever smelled '', though it is a thousand times more intense to Edward Cullen.
As for distinguishing features, Bella has a small crescent - shaped scar on her hand where she was bitten by James, a tracker vampire, in Twilight. The scar is described as being pale, always a few degrees colder than the rest of her body, and it shines like a vampire 's skin when exposed to the sunlight. After Bella is changed into a vampire by Edward, she becomes extremely beautiful with even paler skin, straight waist - length hair, and crimson red eyes that will eventually turn gold after months of drinking animal blood. Her features are also heightened and perfected by the transformation.
Bella wears plain shirts and jeans everywhere she goes, as she lacks care in her appearance.
Bella is described as being clumsy, having a weak constitution, being nonathletic and hating anything physical. Bella is also described as a reclusive loner, shy, quiet, insecure, and very sensitive. She also cares for the rest of the Cullen family, her father Charlie and mother Renée, and her friend Jacob Black. She has a tendency to underestimate the people around her mainly because of her concerns for their safety.
Having learned to take care of her mother over the years and being naturally responsible, Bella had developed into a very mature person, especially for her age. Because she lacks any skill in anything noticeable or redeeming as a human, she mostly prefers to spend her free time reading classics from school.
When it comes to fashion, Bella is n't a girly girl. She hates dressing up, saying that makeup "is a pain '' and that she feels uncomfortable in impractical, elegant clothes; however, Alice does n't care what Bella thinks and continues to persuade her to dress up and look glamorous. She is n't materialistic and does n't like spending money on luxurious items, as she stated to Edward in New Moon ' not to spend a dime on my birthday, ' and that fast cars are unnecessary, saying that Edward gave her himself and anything else he gives her would throw their relationship off balance. She hates being singled out, and does n't like her birthday being celebrated. She also has very negative views on teen marriage due to her parents ' early experience, but learns to overcome them later.
She is an extremely private person who keeps her thoughts and feelings to herself and hates when someone tries to understand her, which is thought to be why Edward is unable to hear her thoughts. She is also known to be incredibly stubborn with her self, because of her determination to become a vampire in order to be with Edward forever. She is also said to possess poor acting skills. Ironically, she demonstrates good acting ability in Twilight when she makes her father believe that she has dumped Edward and is leaving Forks. She is a very shy and timid girl with a stiff uptight position, habit of biting her lip, which she shares with Kristen Stewart. Bella knits together her eyebrows when feeling strong emotions such as anxiety. As a human, Bella easily fainted at the sight or smell of blood, which she said smells like rust and salt in Twilight, though it changes after she became a vampire. Bella is also shown in Breaking Dawn, to have a good mood climate, and is able to run away from the smell of human blood when she goes on her first hunting trip as a vampire.
Bella has a sarcastic sense of humor, especially when she gets mad; Bella is almost always a very soft and forgiving person who is hard to anger. She is easily scared but can be surprisingly very brave, able to block painful thoughts and memories (hence her special vampire ability), and tends to come face - to - face with life - threatening danger head - on, even though she can get scared later. She puts Edward before herself and everybody and everything else, but several ' selfish ' tendencies emerge (as when she asked Edward to stay with her instead of fighting vampires in Eclipse). Meyer has stated that Bella 's "tragic flaw '' in Eclipse is her lack of self - knowledge. This is most obviously illustrated in her consistent denial of any romantic feelings for Jacob Black, despite the fact that she later realizes that she is, indeed, in love with him.
Bella is also a very bad liar except to herself. According to Eclipse, Jacob and Edward saying that she 's a terrible liar, are evidence to this. Besides, she also admits this throughout the whole saga, though she seemingly manages to lie to herself about her romantic feelings for Jacob.
In contrary to her fearful demeanor, Bella, according to Edward in Midnight Sun, has no sense of fear when she finds out Edward is a vampire. Instead of running away, as she should have, she decides to ask lots of questions with extreme curiosity. This makes Edward believe that it is not bad luck that follows her around, but that she has no sense of self - preservation. Bella is n't very rational nor sensible as she lacks common sense and street intelligence.
She hates anything cold and wet, even snow, which is why she initially hated to live in Forks. However, after meeting Edward, she found the town much more comfortable, even calling it "home ''. As a vampire, she also dislikes the idea of feeding on humans, but is glad to have found the strength she needed to protect her loved ones.
Bella inherited her mother 's high perceptiveness to some degree, as she was able to guess Edward was a mind reader, the first human to do so. However, she was not able to guess that Edward was in love with her.
After being turned into a vampire, she describes having a much clearer view of the world. She is also very self - controlled, being able to ignore the scent of human blood on her first hunting trip. Bella 's private mind that was able to repel some vampires ' mental abilities while she was human evolved after she became a vampire; her skill strengthened, allowing her to shield herself and those around her from other vampires ' mental gifts. By the end of Breaking Dawn, she is able to cast the shield away from herself. She is also described by Edward as "very graceful '', even for a vampire, in comparison to her earlier clumsiness.
In the film adaptations, Bella is portrayed by actress Kristen Stewart. Meyer stated that she was "very excited '' to see Stewart play the part and that she was "thrilled to have a Bella who has practice (in a vast array of film genres) '', since, according to Meyer, Twilight has moments that fit into many genres. Stewart wears contact lenses in the films in order to achieve a chocolate brown eye color as described in the books. Despite that exception, Stewart and Bella are very similar in personality, both reserved and inexpressive.
Bella has received a generally negative reception from critics. Publishers Weekly states that, after her transformation into a vampire, "it 's almost impossible to identify with her '' in Breaking Dawn. Lilah Lohr of the Chicago Tribune compares Bella 's character to the story of the Quileute wolves and describes it as "less satisfying. '' During Twilight, Kirkus Reviews stated that "Bella 's appeal is based on magic rather than character '', but that her and Edward 's "portrayal of dangerous lovers hits the spot ''. In the review of New Moon, Kirkus Reviews said that Bella 's personality was "flat and obsessive ''. Laura Miller of salon.com said, in regards to Edward and Bella, "neither of them has much personality to speak of. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Jennifer Reese, in her review of Breaking Dawn noted, in regard to Bella, "You may wish she had loftier goals and a mind of her own, but these are fairy tales, and as a steadfast lover in the Disney Princess mold, Bella has a certain saccharine appeal '', and that during Bella 's pregnancy "she is not only hard to identify with but positively horrifying, especially while guzzling human blood to nourish the infant. '' Washington Post journalist Elizabeth Hand noted how Bella was often described as breakable and that "Edward 's habit of constantly pulling her onto his lap or having her ride on his back further emphasize her childlike qualities '', continuing to write that "the overall effect is a weird infantilization that has repellent overtones to an adult reader and hardly seems like an admirable model to foist upon our daughters (or sons). '' Gina Dalfonzo, in an article posted on the National Review website, calls Bella "self - deprecating '' before her transformation into a vampire, and afterwards she is "insufferably vain ''. Dalfonzo also states that Bella gets what she wants and discovers her worth "by giving up her identity and throwing away nearly everything in life that matters. '' Bella Swan was often compared to Katniss Everdeen on the publication of The Hunger Games.
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who is the best football player in the nfl right now | NFL Top 100 - wikipedia
The NFL Top 100 is an annual list that features the top one hundred players in the National Football League (NFL), as chosen by fellow NFL players. The rankings are based on an off - season poll organized by the NFL, whereby players vote on their peers based on their performance for the recent NFL season. Only players that are not retired in the next season are eligible for consideration. In the eight - year history of the countdown, only Tom Brady has been voted No. 1 multiple times (2011, 2017, 2018).
NFL Network released ten episodes, each revealing ten players on the list during the 2011 offseason. The first episode, revealing the players ranked # 100 through # 91 was aired on April 30, 2011. The list 's top 10 players were revealed when the tenth episode of the 2011 list was aired on July 3, 2011. The list, and series, began with the # 100 ranked player, Washington Redskins quarterback, Donovan McNabb and ended when New England Patriots quarterback and 2010 NFL MVP Tom Brady was selected as the number one ranked player.
The NFL Top 100 list returned for the 2012 NFL season. The season ran from April 28 to June 27, 2012. The list began with Tennessee Titans running back, Chris Johnson, and concluded the reveal of the number one ranked player, and the 2011 MVP, Green Bay Packers quarterback, Aaron Rodgers. Each episode of the season was followed up by NFL Top 100 Reaction Show, which featured NFL Network analysts reacting and voicing their opinions on the ten most recent players revealed on the list.
The NFL Top 100 list returned for the 2013 NFL season. The season ran from April 27 to June 27, 2013. The list began with Baltimore Ravens tight end Dennis Pitta. The number one ranked player of 2013 was Adrian Peterson, the 2012 MVP.
The NFL Top 100 list returned for the 2014 NFL season. The season ran from May 10 to July 9, 2014. The number one ranked player of 2014 was Denver Broncos quarterback Peyton Manning.
The NFL Top 100 list returned for the 2015 NFL season. The season ran from May 6 to July 8, 2015. The number one ranked player of 2015 was Houston Texans defensive end J.J. Watt. It marked the first year a defensive player ranked # 1. It was also the first time the # 1 ranked player was not the reigning MVP of the league. The reigning MVP of that season, Aaron Rodgers, was ranked number two.
The NFL Top 100 list returned for the 2016 NFL season. The season ran from on May 4 to July 6, 2016. The number one ranked player of 2016 was Carolina Panthers quarterback Cam Newton. Marcell Dareus and Steve Smith fell out of Top 100, but were in honorable mentions list alongside Jameis Winston.
The NFL Top 100 list returned for the 2017 NFL season. The season ran from on May 1 to June 26, 2017. The number one ranked player of 2017 was New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, becoming the first player to be voted No. 1 more than once. It was also the second time the # 1 ranked player was not the reigning MVP of the league. Matt Ryan, The reigning MVP of that season was ranked number ten.
The NFL Top 100 list returned for the 2018 NFL season. The season ran from on April 30 to June 25, 2017. The number one ranked player of 2018 was New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, marking his third time being voted No. 1.
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where is the liberty bowl played in memphis | Liberty Bowl - wikipedia
The Liberty Bowl, officially the AutoZone Liberty Bowl for sponsorship purposes, is an annual American college football bowl game played in late December or early January since 1959. Since 1965, the game has been held at Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium in Memphis, Tennessee. For its first five years, it was played in Philadelphia. Since 2004, the game has been sponsored by Memphis - based auto parts retailer AutoZone. Because of the scheduling of the bowl game near the end of the calendar year, no game was played during calendar years 2008 or 2015, while two games were played in calendar years 2010 and 2016.
A.F. "Bud '' Dudley, a former Villanova athletic - director, created the Liberty Bowl in Philadelphia in 1959. The game was played at Philadelphia 's Municipal Stadium. It was the only cold - weather bowl game of its time, and was plagued by poor attendance. The inaugural game was the most successful of the five held in Philadelphia, as 38,000 fans watched Penn State beat Alabama 7 -- 0 in 1959.
A group of Atlantic City businessmen convinced Dudley to move his game from Philadelphia to Atlantic City 's Convention Hall for 1964 and guaranteed Dudley $25,000. It would be the first major (University Division, now Division I) bowl game played indoors. AstroTurf was still in its developmental stages and was unavailable for the game. Convention Hall was equipped with a 4 - inch - thick (100 mm) grass surface with two inches of burlap underneath it (as padding) on top of concrete. To keep the grass growing, artificial lighting was installed and kept on 24 hours a day. The entire process cost about $16,000. End - zones were only 8 yards long. 6,059 fans saw Utah rout West Virginia. Dudley was paid $25,000 from Atlantic City businessmen, $60,000 from the gate, and $95,000 from television revenues, for $10,000 net profit.
Dudley moved the game to Memphis in 1965, where it has made its home at what became Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium to much larger crowds and has established itself as one of the oldest non-BCS bowls.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Liberty Bowl offered an automatic invitation to the winner of the Commander - in - Chief 's Trophy, if that team was bowl eligible.
Beginning in 1996, the Liberty Bowl began an affiliation with the newly launched Conference USA, offering its champion an automatic bid. Beginning in 2005, the winner of C - USA was determined by the newly created C - USA championship game. The winner of that game was customarily offered the bowl berth from 2005 -- 2013.
In 1996 and 1997, the opponent for the C - USA champion was a team from the Big East. In 1998, the Liberty Bowl replaced the Holiday Bowl in a shared contract with the Cotton Bowl and had second choice between the WAC champion and a team from the SEC. From 1999 to 2005, the opponent for the C - USA champion was the Mountain West champion. There were two exceptions:
In 1999, the Mountain West Conference did not have an outright champion, as three teams tied for the conference lead. The conference 's bid for the game was given to Colorado State.
The bowl 's contract from 2006 until 2013 pitted the winner of the C - USA championship game against the eighth pick from the SEC. The American was to provide its fifth - place team as an alternate if the SEC could not provide a team. The SEC was also given veto power for the bowl, and elected to use it in 2011 to block C - USA champion Southern Miss from playing Vanderbilt; instead Cincinnati got the spot and Southern Miss accepted an invitation to the Hawaii Bowl instead.
Since 2014, the matchup features a team from the SEC against the # 4 pick from the Big 12 Conference. The Liberty Bowl is part of a six - bowl SEC pool arrangement that also involves the Belk, Music City, Outback, TaxSlayer, and Texas bowls; these bowls will choose one representative from the conference each, while the College Football Playoff receiving first choice (usually the Sugar Bowl in years it does not serve as a national semifinal) and the Citrus Bowl second choice.
The game is televised nationally on ESPN, and is carried nationwide by ESPN Radio, and internationally by ESPN International.
The 2010 win by UCF was the program 's first - ever bowl victory.
The 2011 game matched Coaches ' Poll # 24 ranked Cincinnati against upstart Vanderbilt, and unlike most lower tier bowls, it aired on the broadcast network ABC rather than its cable brethren ESPN. Cincinnati defeated Vanderbilt in a second - half comeback.
The 2012 Liberty Bowl featured a matchup between the Iowa State Cyclones (9th place in the Big 12) and the Tulsa Golden Hurricane (Conference USA champions). Iowa State defeated Tulsa 38 -- 23 in the season 's first weekend, however Tulsa defeated Iowa State 31 -- 17 in the rematch of the regular season game. Though the bowl normally selects a team from the SEC, it invited Iowa State because the SEC did not have enough bowl - eligible teams to fill all of its contracted bowl games.
The inaugural Liberty Bowl in 1959 was televised by NBC, followed by ABC for 11 years. Between 1981 and 1988, the game was broadcast by several different networks. Since 1990, the game has been broadcast annually by ABC or ESPN.
Through the December 2017 playing, there have been 59 games (118 total appearances).
Won: Baylor, Cincinnati, Georgia Tech, Indiana, Kentucky, Nebraska, Notre Dame, Oregon State, Purdue, USC Lost: Boise State, Boston College, Fresno State, Kansas, Kansas State, Maryland, Memphis, Michigan State, Minnesota, Navy, North Carolina, Oregon, Pittsburgh, Rice, Stanford, UCLA, Vanderbilt, Villanova
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who played the role of dumbledore in harry potter | Albus Dumbledore - wikipedia
Professor Albus Percival Wulfric Brian Dumbledore is a fictional character in J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series. For most of the series, he is the headmaster of the wizarding school Hogwarts. As part of his backstory, it is revealed that he is the founder and leader of the Order of the Phoenix, an organisation dedicated to fighting Lord Voldemort.
Dumbledore is portrayed by Richard Harris in the film adaptations of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. After Harris ' death, Michael Gambon portrayed Dumbledore for all of the remaining Harry Potter films. Jude Law will portray Dumbledore in Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald.
Rowling stated she chose the name Dumbledore, which is a dialectal word for "bumblebee '', because of Dumbledore 's love of music: she imagined him walking around "humming to himself a lot ''.
The author has stated that she enjoys writing Dumbledore because he "is the epitome of goodness. '' Rowling said that Dumbledore speaks for her, as he "knows pretty much everything '' about the Harry Potter universe. Rowling mentioned that Dumbledore regrets "that he has always had to be the one who knew, and who had the burden of knowing. And he would rather not know. '' As a mentor to the central character Harry Potter, "Dumbledore is a very wise man who knows that Harry is going to have to learn a few hard lessons to prepare him for what may be coming in his life. He allows Harry to get into what he would n't allow another pupil to do, and he also unwillingly permits Harry to confront things he 'd rather protect him from. '' In a 1999 interview, Rowling stated that she imagined Dumbledore "more as a John Gielgud type, you know, quite elderly and -- and quite stately. '' During his time as a student, Dumbledore was in Gryffindor House. Rowling said in an interview that Dumbledore was about 150 years old. However, on her website, she states that Dumbledore was born in 1881, making him either 115 or 116 when he died.
On 19 October 2007, Rowling was asked by a young fan whether Dumbledore finds "true love. '' Rowling said that she always thought of Dumbledore as being homosexual and that he had fallen in love with Gellert Grindelwald, which was Dumbledore 's "great tragedy ''; Rowling did not explicitly state whether Grindelwald returned his affections. Rowling explains this further by elaborating on the motivations behind Dumbledore 's flirtation with the idea of wizard domination of Muggles: "He lost his moral compass completely when he fell in love and I think subsequently became very mistrustful of his own judgement in those matters so became quite asexual. He led a celibate and a bookish life. ''
In the opening chapter of the first novel of the series, Dumbledore arrives at number four, Privet Drive in Little Whinging, Surrey. When the evil wizard Lord Voldemort kills Harry 's parents before being reduced to a lesser form, Dumbledore decides to place the now - orphaned Harry in the home of Vernon and Petunia Dursley. He knows that Harry will be protected by the special magic caused by his mother 's sacrifice, after he evokes the magic of the bond of blood and Harry 's aunt, his mother 's sister - Petunia Evans Dursley, sealed it by accepting her nephew into her home. This old magic of binding love renders Voldemort incapable of touching Harry. Dumbledore leaves Harry upon the doorstep of the Dursley home with a letter explaining the situation. He departs with the final phrase, "Good luck, Harry. ''
When Harry arrives at Hogwarts, Dumbledore tells him about the secrets of the Mirror of Erised, claiming that when he looks into it, he sees himself "holding a pair of thick, woollen socks. '' Harry later recalls in the final book that this was probably the only dishonest answer Dumbledore ever gave him. He is also responsible for somehow enchanting the Mirror so that it hides the Philosopher 's Stone and only someone who looked into the Mirror and whose desire was "to find the Stone... but not use it '' would receive it, as anybody else would only see themselves using the Stone due to the Mirror 's special magic. He is called out to the Ministry of Magic by a false message on the night when Professor Quirinus Quirrell, Harry Potter, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger enter the dungeons to retrieve the Stone, but realises during the trip that he is needed at Hogwarts and returns in time to rescue Harry from Quirrell and Voldemort. He also has a final conversation with Harry after the events down in the dungeons and tells him that he is too young to comprehend the information about why Voldemort attempts to kill him.
In the second novel, Dumbledore suspects that Tom Riddle is somehow involved in the attacks on the muggle born students, as he says, when asked who is the culprit, "not who, but how? '' A younger Dumbledore appears in Riddle 's diary, when Harry sees his memory, and asks Riddle if he knows anything about the attacks on the students. During the last half of the novel, Lucius Malfoy forces the school 's other eleven governors to suspend Dumbledore as Headmaster in the wake of attacks by a basilisk in the school when the Chamber of Secrets is opened. Dumbledore is reinstated when the governors discover that Ginny Weasley was taken into the Chamber of Secrets and Lucius is found to have coerced the other governors into suspending him.
At the beginning of the third novel, Dumbledore is forced to accept Dementors onto his school 's grounds for the protection of his students from Sirius Black, the supposed murderer and accessory to murder, who had escaped from Azkaban. After Black 's breach into Hogwarts, Dumbledore issues orders to close every entrance to the school and grounds. After Harry falls off his broomstick during a Quidditch match because of the Dementors, Dumbledore becomes uncharacteristically angry with them and uses his wand to cause Harry to levitate safely to the ground. Later in that book, Dumbledore suggests Hermione Granger use her Ministry - approved Time - Turner to go back three hours to save Buckbeak the hippogriff and Sirius from their unjust executions.
In the fourth novel, Dumbledore introduces the Triwizard Tournament. He also serves as a judge during the entire event. When Harry 's name comes out of the Goblet of Fire, Dumbledore is not enraged, but remains calm; simply asking Harry whether he had himself, or had asked an older student to submit his name (although in the film version he does get angry to the point of manhandling Harry). When Harry answers no, he believes him. By the end of the book, Dumbledore 's fears are realised when Harry returns from his encounter with Voldemort clutching the dead body of Cedric Diggory and when Mad - Eye Moody (being impersonated by Barty Crouch Jr, through Polyjuice Potion) takes Harry away from Dumbledore and to his office inside the castle. Dumbledore immediately becomes suspicious and heads straight towards Moody 's office with Minerva McGonagall and Severus Snape to save Harry and to interrogate Crouch. Afterwards, Dumbledore listens to Harry 's eyewitness account about Voldemort 's return. Harry though, only wakes up later to find Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge in the hospital wing arguing with McGonagall and Dumbledore. In the end, Fudge and Dumbledore "part ways '' after an argument about the situation of Voldemort 's return and the consequences that would follow should Fudge remain in denial of this fact.
In the fifth book, Dumbledore is demoted from Chief Warlock of the Wizengamot, voted out of the Chairmanship of the International Confederation of Wizards, and is almost stripped of his Order of Merlin First Class due to his speeches regarding the return of Voldemort, although it is reported that he is unconcerned as long as he is not taken off the Chocolate Frog cards. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Magic does everything they can to discredit him and Harry -- mainly through the Daily Prophet. At the beginning of the book, Dumbledore enrages Fudge when he stops by at Harry 's hearing with a witness (Arabella Figg) to ensure that he is not expelled. While Harry feels better when Dumbledore assists him, he becomes annoyed to the point of being angry that the headmaster refuses to speak to or even look at him.
During the following year at Hogwarts, the Ministry passes Educational Decree Twenty - two, allowing Fudge to place Dolores Umbridge to the post of Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher (after Dumbledore failed to find a suitable candidate). Through her, Fudge gradually gains power over Hogwarts and Dumbledore, who he fears is building an under - age wizard army to overthrow the Ministry. Umbridge forbids practical defence practice in her classes, forcing Harry, Ron, and Hermione to form Dumbledore 's Army (a defence group led by Harry) with fellow friends. It is when the Ministry discovers the D.A. that Dumbledore, choosing to accept the responsibility, falsely claims that the organisation was his own subversive creation, and allows himself to be removed as headmaster (for the second time) rather than allow Harry to be expelled.
Dumbledore is not heard of again in the book until he arrives in the Department of Mysteries to aid the Order in the battle against the Death Eaters. He subdues all the Death Eaters, except for Bellatrix Lestrange, and binds them with an Anti-Disapparition Jinx to prevent them from magically escaping. He then saves Harry from the Avada Kedavra curse conjured by Voldemort and engages in a ferocious duel with the Dark Lord. This culminates in Voldemort 's attempting to possess Harry in an attempt to make Dumbledore kill the boy. Voldemort is forced to leave Harry 's body and flee with Bellatrix after this ruse fails. Many ministry officials having witnessed the end of the battle, Dumbledore is reinstated as headmaster and retrieves all his distinctions. Towards the end of the book, Dumbledore explains to Harry that Voldemort chose him as his equal and that one must kill the other in the end, and confesses that his great affection for Harry has clouded his judgement.
In the sixth book, Dumbledore fetches Harry from Privet Drive and takes him to persuade Horace Slughorn to rejoin the Hogwarts staff. Harry notices that Dumbledore 's right hand is shrivelled and black. During the school year, Dumbledore teaches Harry of events in Voldemort 's past that he feels are of immense importance. Using the Pensieve, they visit the memories of others, which contain important information about Voldemort 's life and his genocidal rise to power. While using the pensieve, Harry sees a vision of Dumbledore 's first encounter with Voldemort, then a disturbed young orphan named Tom Riddle; Dumbledore had known from the beginning that the boy was dangerous, but believed that Hogwarts would change him.
It is learned that Voldemort created six Horcruxes to gain immortality and that they must all be destroyed before Harry goes after the final piece of Voldemort 's soul in the Dark Lord 's body. Harry also repeatedly warns Dumbledore in most of their lessons that Draco Malfoy is working for Voldemort. Dumbledore refuses to take any action against Draco, and instead tells Harry that he already knows more about what is happening than Harry does.
By the end of the book, Dumbledore and Harry set out to the cave where Dumbledore believes a Horcrux resides. In the cave, Dumbledore drinks a potion inside the Horcrux 's container; while drinking it, he begins to scream, seemingly enduring mental torture and being weakened. Dumbledore begins to call out for water after he finishes the potion, and Harry, realising he has no other choice, dips the goblet into the lake to give him a drink. When he does this though, all the Inferi that reside in the lake grab at Harry and attempt to drag him down and drown him in the lake. Dumbledore suddenly recovers, thanks to the water, and conjures a fire lasso around them. Dumbledore takes the horcrux (a locket) and both make their way back out of the cave and back to Hogsmeade. When they return, Madam Rosmerta informs them that the Dark Mark was conjured over the Astronomy Tower. In the tower, Dumbledore enjoins Harry not to interfere in the events that are about to take place there, and places him in a body - binding curse under his invisibility cloak. Hidden, Harry is unable to intervene as Dumbledore (now extremely weak) is disarmed by Draco. Dumbledore is conversing with Draco about the plot to kill him, when several other Death Eaters enter the tower and try to persuade Draco to kill Dumbledore. When Draco hesitates, Snape appears and performs the Killing Curse on Dumbledore, only after Dumbledore pleads with Snape saying, "Severus, please... ''. To what Dumbledore was referring is not revealed until the seventh book. Dumbledore dies in Hogwarts ' grounds.
Shortly after his death, Dumbledore 's portrait magically appears in the Headmaster 's office. His funeral is attended by students, Hogwarts staff, members of the Ministry of Magic, ghosts, centaurs, merpeople and others who wish to pay their respects. Shrouded in purple velvet, he is entombed in a white marble sarcophagus beside the lake at Hogwarts, and it is said that he is the only headmaster to be buried on the school grounds.
Rowling used several chapters in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows to reveal two main matters concerning Dumbledore: his early life and his death. The book introduces his parents, Percival and Kendra Dumbledore, as well as his little sister, Ariana; his brother, Aberforth Dumbledore, was mentioned in previous books. At six years old, Ariana was attacked by three Muggle boys who had witnessed her doing magic. Because of this attack, Ariana was seriously traumatised and never able to control her magic again, having recurring outbursts of magic. Enraged, Percival mercilessly attacked the Muggle boys (killing them in the film version), and was sentenced to life in Azkaban. After this, Kendra moved her family to the village of Godric 's Hollow. In one of her outbursts, Ariana accidentally kills Kendra around the time Albus has completed his education. Albus becomes the head of the family and is forced to remain in his house with his sister Ariana while Aberforth completes his education.
Soon afterward, a young Gellert Grindelwald arrived in Godric 's Hollow to live with his great - aunt, Bathilda Bagshot, author of A History of Magic. The two young men took to each other immediately, and together they dreamed of a world ruled by wizards over Muggles by uniting the legendary Deathly Hallows. They believed that if they were forced to destroy a few along the way, it would still be "for the greater good '', and the sufferings and losses would be rewarded a hundredfold in the end. This scenario would never happen, though. A discussion between Albus, Aberforth, and Grindelwald led to a duel that resulted in Ariana 's death. For the rest of his life, Albus felt guilty, never certain whether it was his own curse or another 's that had killed his sister. Grindelwald stormed back to Bagshot 's home and departed to begin his own rule, leaving the country hours later. As a result of his mistakes, Albus felt that he was not to be trusted with power and, because of this, never took the position of Minister for Magic, despite being offered it several times. Dumbledore returned to Hogwarts as professor of Transfiguration, and he served in recruiting students for the school.
Decades later, in 1945, Dumbledore finally defeated the now - Dark wizard Grindelwald, who had come to possess the Elder Wand. Grindelwald 's defeat made Dumbledore the master of the Elder Wand, which remained his until just before his death, when Draco used the Disarming Charm on him.
Dumbledore had another Hallow in his keeping since the death of James Potter: the Invisibility Cloak, which he had borrowed to examine. When James died, Dumbledore kept the cloak and decided to pass it on to Harry, James 's son.
The truth about Dumbledore 's death is revealed through Snape 's last memories in the Pensieve. Harry learns that Dumbledore made a terrible error by placing a cursed ring on his right hand, sometime between the fifth and sixth book, forgetting the curses that must be on the ring. The ring held the Resurrection Stone, which Dumbledore hoped to use to allow him to apologise to his sister and parents. Dumbledore called Snape to help him; however, when Snape arrived and assessed the curse, all he could do was contain it. Snape told Dumbledore that he had little more than a year to live. After hearing this news, Dumbledore revealed to Snape that he knew about Voldemort 's plan to have Draco kill him. He asked Snape to use the Killing Curse on him when the time came because he did not want Draco to have to kill him, saying that the boy 's soul was still intact; Draco 's soul would have been damaged in killing Dumbledore out of malice, whereas Snape was fully aware that he would be merely sparing Dumbledore pain and humiliation. He also intended for Snape to be the one to kill him and for the Elder Wand to be buried with him, in order to prevent the wand from being passed on again.
Dumbledore 's spirit appears to Harry towards the end of the book in a limbo - like King 's Cross, after Harry is struck with the Killing Curse which was conjured by Voldemort. During the last book, Harry finds out that he must die because he is a Horcrux. When Voldemort conjures the Killing Curse, Harry does not fight back, which stops him from dying. When they meet again, the boy comforts Dumbledore as he confesses all of his many regrets. Dumbledore then informs Harry of the choice he still has: of moving on to the next life or returning to his body to face Voldemort one last time. After returning from the mystical King 's Cross and defeating Voldemort for good, Harry has a short conversation with Dumbledore 's portrait in the Headmaster 's office about the fate of each of the three Deathly Hallows. He keeps the Cloak, leaves the Stone in the Forbidden Forest where he dropped it, and returns the Elder Wand to Dumbledore 's tomb (from which Voldemort had stolen it). In the epilogue, it is revealed that Harry names his second son Albus Severus Potter after Dumbledore and Snape.
In the film adaptations of Philosopher 's Stone (2001) and Chamber of Secrets (2002), Dumbledore was played by Richard Harris, who was expected to play the character throughout the series. Harris mentioned that he was originally not going to take the role, since he knew his own health was in decline. He accepted because his then - 11 - year - old granddaughter threatened never to speak to him again if he did not take it. Harris was determined to portray Dumbledore again in Prisoner of Azkaban (2004), despite having been diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma, and asked David Heyman not to recast the role. However, his death on 25 October 2002 necessitated recasting.
Ian McKellen was offered the role, but he turned it down, having played the similar character Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, as well as feeling it would have been inappropriate to take Harris 's role, as Harris had called McKellen a "dreadful '' actor. Harris 's family had expressed an interest in seeing Peter O'Toole being chosen as his replacement.
Michael Gambon was cast as Harris 's replacement four months after Harris 's death. Gambon was not concerned about bettering Harris, and he portrayed the character in his own way, putting on a slight Irish accent for the role, as well as completing his scenes in three weeks. Gambon reprised his role in all the remaining films.
Toby Regbo was chosen to portray Dumbledore in his youth in Deathly Hallows Part 1 and Part 2, for flashbacks scenes which provide essential information on the character 's backstory.
Jude Law will be playing the role of a younger Dumbledore in the second prequel film, Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald.
Albus Dumbledore is tall and thin, with silver hair and beard (auburn in his youth) so long that they can be tucked into his belt. He has a very long and crooked nose that looks as if it has been broken at least twice. (It is speculated that his brother 's punch during their sister 's funeral may have played a role in shaping his nose.) He is also said to have long and skillful fingers. His eyes are described as being a brilliant, soul - piercing shade of blue, and usually twinkled with kindness and mischief.
Dumbledore wears half - moon spectacles and a colourful array of robes, ranging from purple to bright orange. He once claimed to have a scar above his left knee in the precise shape of a map of the London Underground, but whether or not he actually does is unknown. His demeanour is often -- if not always -- serene and ethereal, and he usually speaks in a calm, pleasant voice even when Harry thought that he is actually furious.
During the last year of his life, Dumbledore 's right hand is scarred when he dons Marvolo Gaunt 's Ring, which was cursed. Had Snape not intervened with a counter-curse, Dumbledore would have died much more quickly. Regardless, the curse left his hand blackened and dead - looking, and no amount of healing could repair the appearance. According to Snape, the curse would eventually spread itself from the contained hand, and Dumbledore was doomed to die in no more than one year 's time. Whether this means the blackening dead - look appearance would spread throughout the entire body is unknown.
Considered the most powerful wizard in the world, Dumbledore is benevolent and wise, a good wizard in the style of Merlin. He almost constantly gives off an aura of serenity and composure, rarely displaying intense emotions of anger or fear. Yet despite his benign nature, it is said that Dumbledore was the only wizard Lord Voldemort ever truly feared. Dumbledore is very eccentric and even slightly effeminate; he is very fond of knitting patterns and frequently wears flamboyant clothing (at one point, he is seen wearing a flowered bonnet). He is also known for his odd displays of whimsicality; he often uses humour to make people feel comfortable in his presence. As a supremely talented wizard, Dumbledore displays numerous examples of extraordinary powers. His abilities as a wizard are combined with a kind of cunning and subtlety of mind that allowed him to comprehend human nature and turn the better aspects of humanity (trust, love, and friendship) to Voldemort 's disadvantage in particular.
More than anything else, Dumbledore has a deep capacity for love, frequently reminding Harry that love was the greatest magic of all. Dumbledore believes in the good in everyone and insists on giving second chances. The greatest example of this is Dumbledore 's relationship with Snape, in whom Dumbledore is willing to place a considerable amount of faith because he showed remorse. Dumbledore is highly perceptive and emotionally intelligent; his knowledge of a person 's true personality goes beyond simply being a good judge of character. This is never more apparent than in his complex insights into Voldemort 's psyche, which he pieces together with Harry to deduce where Voldemort 's horcruxes are hidden.
However, in spite of Dumbledore 's many extraordinary qualities, he was no saint. According to Rowling, "Although Dumbledore seems to be so benign for six books, he 's quite a Machiavellian figure, really. He 's been pulling a lot of strings. '' In a 2005 interview, Rowling commented: "Immense brainpower does not protect you from emotional mistakes, and I think Dumbledore really exemplifies that. '' Dumbledore 's greatest personality flaw, which he explained to Harry, was his desire for power. He eventually found that those best suited for power are those who do not seek it. When he and Grindelwald met each other, they made plans to enslave Muggles and re-establish wizards as the natural rulers of the world. However, Dumbledore was disillusioned of this fantasy after his sister Ariana was killed during a duel between himself, his brother Aberforth, and Grindelwald.
Dumbledore was haunted by his sad family history. In particular, he was riddled with guilt over the circumstances surrounding the death of his sister. He felt enormous remorse for his selfishness and was tortured for the rest of his life by the possibility that he might have been the one who cast the spell that killed his sister. When he looked into the Mirror of Erised, he saw himself redeemed in the eyes of his brother and his entire family alive and together.
Since a young age, Dumbledore has always shown great magical abilities. During his education at Hogwarts, Dumbledore was known as the most brilliant student to have ever stepped into the school, winning "every prize of note that the school offered '', and in his N.E.W.T.s, "... did things with a wand (the examiner had) never seen before ''. Rowling has said that Dumbledore is primarily self - taught, although he "had access to superb teachers at Hogwarts, '' and, as far as his education is concerned, "Dumbledore 's family would be a profitable line of inquiry. '' While he is not vain, Dumbledore also exhibits no false modesty, readily acknowledging that he is unusually intelligent and an exceptionally powerful wizard. He admits a number of times to Harry in their occasional meetings in Half - Blood Prince that he makes mistakes, and since he is smarter than most men, his mistakes "tend to be correspondingly huger. ''
Dumbledore is an expert at nonverbal spells and is famous as an alchemist who has worked with Nicolas Flamel, the only known maker of the Philosopher 's Stone, and is credited with discovering the twelve uses of dragon 's blood. His Patronus takes the form of a phoenix, a recurring symbol in the books.
His knowledge of the most powerful kind of magic, love, is extensive. He taught Harry about its very essence, and the innate power of his ability to love his parents, which eventually helped Harry realise his destiny to kill Lord Voldemort.
He is known to be able to conjure Gubraithian fire (magical everlasting fire). He has claimed to be able to become invisible without using an invisibility cloak, which is a powerful Disillusionment Charm. Dumbledore is also skilled in Occlumency and Legilimency. Dumbledore is an expert at Transfiguration too, having taught the subject before becoming headmaster. He frequently creates complex objects like sofa chairs out of thin air (or from less comfortable chairs). Dumbledore is also proficient at Charms and Potions; according to the obituary written by Elphias Doge, his papers were published in journals such as Achievements in Charming and The Practical Potioneer. Dumbledore is famous for defeating Grindelwald, who is second on a list of Most Dangerous Dark Wizards of All Time only to Voldemort himself, in a "spectacular duel of legend '', succeeding in doing so despite the fact that Grindelwald possessed the Elder Wand, which supposedly guarantees invincibility in duels due to its power. His skill at duelling is further shown when he calmly engages Voldemort in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, overpowering him and eventually forcing him to possess Harry to be spared from total defeat. (It is known in retrospect that Dumbledore possessed the Elder Wand when duelling Voldemort, having taken it from Grindelwald.) Unlike most wizards who make a distinct popping sound when they apparate, Dumbledore notably is able to apparate silently; the only other wizard shown to possess this skill is Voldemort. Dumbledore is known to be able to understand Mermish and Gobbledegook (Goblin language) and Parseltongue.
Dumbledore 's office houses "a number of curious (...) instruments. '' Among them is a Pensieve, a stone receptacle used to store and review memories, which witches and wizards are able to extract from their heads as a type of fluid. Harry first discovers this device in Goblet of Fire, and it is frequently used for flashback scenes throughout the remainder of the series. In the first chapter of Philosopher 's Stone, Dumbledore is seen using the Deluminator, a device for removing and later returning light, and for use as a homing device. It is confirmed in Deathly Hallows when the object is inherited by Ron that the Deluminator is of Dumbledore 's own design. Dumbledore is the possessor and master of the Elder Wand, an extremely powerful object known also as the "Wand of Destiny '' or the "Deathstick '', and one of the Deathly Hallows. Unlike many of the wand 's previous owners, Dumbledore keeps its identity a closely guarded secret. He also has a pet phoenix named Fawkes. It is revealed in Philosopher 's Stone by Mr. Ollivander that Harry 's wand carries a phoenix feather as its magical core and that particular phoenix only gave one other feather, the one in Voldemort 's wand that gave Harry his scar. It is later revealed in Goblet of Fire that Fawkes was the phoenix whose feathers provide the magical core in Harry 's and Voldemort 's wands.
Through various interviews and discussions about the character, Rowling has established that Albus Dumbledore was born in July or August 1881 to Percival and Kendra Dumbledore. The character had previously referenced his brother Aberforth, and in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, it is revealed that Albus is three years older than Aberforth. The same book established their sister Ariana who, at six years old, suffered a vicious attack by three male Muggle youths who had witnessed her doing magic. Frightened, they first tried to get her to repeat what they had seen, and upon her failure to recreate it due to her young age, they tried to stop her from being "different ''. It is not explicitly stated in the novel what form this attack took, but Percival was sentenced to life in Azkaban for tracking down and hexing the boys who seriously traumatised his daughter. The severe trauma of the attack left Ariana unable to function socially or to properly perform magic again. To prevent her being institutionalised in St. Mungo 's Hospital, or hurting someone accidentally with her uncontrolled magic, Kendra moved the family to Godric 's Hollow, and her illness was concealed. Neighbours assumed that Ariana was a non-magical squib.
When Dumbledore and his friend Elphias left Hogwarts, they planned to take their "then - traditional '' tour of the world. On the eve of their trip, the eighteen - year - old Dumbledore suffered the death of his mother Kendra, who was accidentally killed by Ariana during one of her uncontrolled outbursts of magic. Because Dumbledore 's parents were absent (his father in Azkaban and his mother dead), Albus became the head of the family and it became his duty to put food on the table, as they were not left with much gold. He was forced to remain in his house with his sister Ariana while Aberforth completed his education. Aberforth knew of his brother 's resentment and offered to care for Ariana himself, saying that she preferred him, but Albus refused by stating that it was his duty as eldest to care for the family.
When Grindelwald arrived at Godric 's Hollow, he immediately became friends with Dumbledore and together dreamed of a new world order in which wizards ruled over Muggles "for the greater good ''. Dumbledore and Grindelwald suggested that they had to move to carry on their plans, but Aberforth refused because Ariana 's state did not allow her to be moved. The discussion between Albus, Aberforth and Grindelwald turned into a duel that resulted in Ariana 's accidental death. According to the author, as a result of this incident, Albus 's boggart became Ariana 's corpse. In Philosopher 's Stone, he mentions to Harry that the deepest desire of his heart, revealed by the Mirror of Erised, is to have a pair of woollen socks. In the seventh novel, Harry realises that he and Dumbledore see the same thing in the Mirror: their reunited families.
The character of Albus Dumbledore has been compared to other archetypal "wise old man '' characters. Dumbledore acts much like Merlin from The Sword in the Stone, in the manner of an "absent - minded professor ''; both Merlin and Dumbledore educate a story 's main character in a castle. As writer Evelyn Perry notes, "Dumbledore resembles Merlin both personally and physically; he is an avid lover of books and wisdom who wears flowing robes and a long, white beard. '' Dumbledore has also been compared with Gandalf from Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings. Dave Kopel draws comparisons between Rowling 's writing and John Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress and states that, among the Christian symbols that Rowling has used in her books, Dumbledore acts like "the bearded God the Father '' figure in which Harry puts his faith to be saved from Voldemort and his servants. IGN also listed Dumbledore as their fifth favourite Harry Potter character, saying that "(f) or a character that was introduced into popular culture a mere twelve years ago, it speaks volumes that Professor Dumbledore has already taken his place among the great mentor figures in literature and film ''. IGN 's Joe Utichi called Dumbledore his third favourite Harry Potter character, calling the revelation that he was n't so "infallible '' one of the most heartbreaking themes of the final book. Actor Michael Gambon received some criticism for his louder, more aggressive, portrayal of the character, who is depicted as exhibiting a more subdued, unflappable calm in the books. This has been attributed to Gambon 's policy of not reading the source material from which his films are adapted.
As a main character of the series, major facts relating to Dumbledore have generated a vast number of essays and discussions. The death of Dumbledore at the end of Half - Blood Prince was discussed by fans and critics alike. A website named DumbledoreIsNotDead.com sought to understand the events of the sixth book in a different way and provided arguments to claim that the character did not really die. However, Rowling confirmed on 2 August 2006 that Dumbledore was, in fact, dead, humorously apologising to the website as she did so. Along with DumbledoreIsNotDead.com, a collection of essays, Who Killed Albus Dumbledore?: What Really Happened in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince? Six Expert Harry Potter Detectives Examine the Evidence, was published by Zossima Press in November 2006. In NextMovie. com 's Harry Potter Mega Poll, Dumbledore 's death was voted as the most unforgettable moment in the whole series.
In the Chamber of Secrets DVD interview, screenwriter Steve Kloves stated that he considers Dumbledore a fascinating character because of the wisdom he provides, but he feels that "Dumbledore bears such a tremendous dark burden, and he knows secrets and I think in many ways he bears the weight of the future of the wizard world '' and the "only way that he can keep that at bay, the darkness, is to be whimsical and humorous ''.
Rowling 's statement that Dumbledore was gay caused a great debate among critics. Melissa Anelli, webmaster of the fan site The Leaky Cauldron, told The Associated Press, "J.K. Rowling calling any Harry Potter character gay would make wonderful strides in tolerance toward homosexuality... By dubbing someone so respected, so talented and so kind, as someone who just happens to be also homosexual, she 's reinforcing the idea that a person 's gayness is not something of which they should be ashamed. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Mark Harris said "her choice to make a beloved professor - mentor gay in a world where gay teachers are still routinely slandered as malign influences was, I am certain, no accident. '' The stars and director of the Harry Potter films were supportive of Rowling 's revelation as well.
Some critics discussed the implications of this statement. The New York Times columnist Edward Rothstein said that "Ms. Rowling may think of Dumbledore as gay ''; however, "there is no reason why anyone else should ''. The East Tennessee State University 's student newspaper accused Rowling of lying, saying her answer was a publicity stunt. Michelle Smith quoted the Death of the Author principle, stating that Rowling 's subsequent commentary is irrelevant to the understanding of the books.
Dumbledore 's sexuality was also condemned by several right - wing Christian groups, such as Mission America and the Christian Coalition of America.
Slate quotes an attendee of the book talk who said, "It was clear that JKR did n't plan to out Dumbledore. She just cares about being true to her readers. '' Mike Thomas of the Orlando Sentinel said that upon reflection, Dumbledore was gay from the beginning, and that this neatly explains the behaviour of his character and his relationship with Grindelwald. Thomas notes the skill Rowling displays in writing a gay character without having to put a gay label on him.
Gay rights campaigner Peter Tatchell stated that "It 's good that children 's literature includes the reality of gay people, since we exist in every society. But I am disappointed that she did not make Dumbledore 's sexuality explicit in the Harry Potter book. Making it obvious would have sent a much more powerful message of understanding and acceptance. '' A spokesperson for Stonewall praised Rowling, saying "It 's great that JK has said this. It shows that there 's no limit to what gay and lesbian people can do, even being a wizard headmaster. ''
Regarding Dumbledore 's sexuality in the Fantastic Beasts series, Rowling said in 2016 that, "As far as his sexuality is concerned, watch the space. ''
Dumbledore has been parodied in several sketches and animated series:
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who sings i'm going back to cali | Going Back to Cali (the Notorious B.I.G. Song) - wikipedia
"Going Back to Cali '' is a song recorded by rapper The Notorious B.I.G. and Puff Daddy (uncredited) from the album Life After Death. The song is noted as one of Biggie 's popular songs from the album, well known for its catchy hook and beat. The song contains a sample of Zapp hit "More Bounce to the Ounce ''.
The song is about Smalls going back to Los Angeles and the West Coast. It starts off with Puff Daddy and Smalls in a phone conversation in which Daddy is telling Smalls that he needs to get ready for a flight to Los Angeles. The second verse opens up with Smalls ' thoughts on the East Coast -- West Coast hip hop rivalry and his relationship with the West Coast:
If I got to choose a coast, I got to choose the East I live out there, so do n't go there But that do n't mean a nigga ca n't rest in the West See some nice breasts in the West Smoke some nice sess in the West Y'all niggas is a mess Thinkin ' I 'm gon ' stop givin ' L.A. props All I got is beef with those that violate me I shall annihilate thee
Harlem rapper Mase (who was associated with Biggie) recorded a cover version of the song named "Going Back To Harlem ''.
The song is heavily sampled in E-40 's song "Bust Moves '' featuring labelmates Big Omeezy and Droop - E, the latter of whom is E-40's son, from his 2012 album The Block Brochure: Welcome to the Soil 1.
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when does violet find out she's pregnant | Violet Turner - wikipedia
Dr. Violet Marianne Turner is a fictional character on the American television drama Private Practice, a spin - off from Grey 's Anatomy. She is portrayed by Amy Brenneman.
Violet is a psychiatrist at the Oceanside Wellness Centre. Though she tells her patients that "happiness can be attained with focus '', she fails to find any happiness in her own life and she even questions the usefulness of her chosen profession. Six months previously, her boyfriend Allan had ended their romantic relationship, devastating her. The situation was made worse when she ran into Allan in a supermarket, only to discover that he married a younger woman only a few months after their break - up. This has shaken Violet badly and she continues to telephone Allan as she tries to deal with their dissolved relationship.
Violet is highly offended by women who lie about being raped. In a conversation with Dell Parker, she confirms that she was raped during her junior year of college and her best friend in college helped her get through it. In Episode 4.08 ("What Happens Next ''), Violet also reveals this experience to Charlotte (after Charlotte 's own rape).
Violet is best friends with her co-worker, Cooper Freedman, often getting him out of humiliating situations with women.
Violet also attended the University of Oregon, pursuing medicine at Harvard Medical School. She is a member of the American Psychiatric Association and the American College of Psychiatrists.
More recently, Violet has had relationships with both her co-worker Peter Wilder and Sheldon, a psychiatrist working for "the enemy '', the fourth floor. After choosing to stay with Sheldon, she discovers that she is pregnant but is unsure who the father is. At first, she keeps this information to herself, as she fears her abilities as a potential mother. In a moment of confidence, she tells one of her patients this and afterwards confides in Cooper. Cooper willingly moves in with her to help her get through it and encourages her to see Addison about the baby. During a conversation with Dell, she experiences some cramping and admits to him that she is pregnant. He performs an ultrasound to make sure there are no problems and after seeing the baby 's heartbeat for the first time, Violet has a panic attack. Dell then convinces her to tell both Sheldon and Pete about the situation. Gathering them both in her office, she tells them they are not responsible for this and she says she knows that neither of them want children. Sheldon and Pete, both shocked, are instantly angry that she did n't tell them sooner and that she assumes they would n't want to be a part of the child 's life, depending on who the father is. Pete then bluntly asks if this conversation means she 's keeping the baby. Pausing, Violet admits that yes she will be raising the child, which up until that point was undecided. Later on, Sheldon proposes to Violet. In the Season 2 finale, Pete confronts Violet and says that he loves her and wants them to try as a family. She turns him down, but later kisses Pete and tells him she loves him too.
Also in the Season 2 finale cliffhanger, Violet is drugged and trapped in her home by Katie, a mentally ill former patient who is convinced that Violet has her baby. Earlier in the episode, Violet thinks that Katie is off her psychiatric medications as Katie, who recently experienced a miscarriage, is almost euphoric about Violet 's pregnancy. In the end, Katie blames Violet for her own unsuccessful pregnancy and is determined to hold Violet hostage until she gives her the baby. However, Katie begins to follow instructions for a caesarian section from a textbook, claiming she can not wait for a normal delivery since she knows she will be arrested. Violet begins to instruct Katie on the C - section to save the baby 's life, since she fears she can not save her own. The season ends with Katie preparing to cut into Violet 's belly.
At the beginning of Season 3, Pete and Naomi find Violet barely alive in a pool of blood, with her baby gone. She 's rushed to the hospital where Naomi and Addison work frantically to save her life. While waiting, Pete and Sheldon argue over the fact that Violet knew something was wrong with Katie and they did n't believe her. Meanwhile, Katie shows up at the hospital with Violet 's baby and Pete and Cooper convince her to let them make sure the baby is all right. She relents and they take the baby and she is arrested. Addison works to save the baby while Naomi works to save Violet. In the end both surgeries are a success and Violet later awakens, asking for her baby.
A month after being rescued, Violet is still trying to recover from her trauma. Pete lives with her and takes care of her and baby Lucas. Violet wo n't leave her house and has panic attacks every time the doorbell rings. After getting advice from Sheldon, Pete decides to move out, to help Violet recover and push her to go outside. Violet realizes that after dramatic events in her life she ca n't bond with her baby and gives Lucas to Pete, asking him to take care of the baby. Sheldon then files a paternity suit but the results reveal that Pete is the baby 's father. Later during Katie Kent 's trial, Violet lets Katie off by saying she was delusional during the attack which further agitates Pete. When Violet sleeps with Addison 's father, Pete gives up on her.
Violet refuses to have anything to do with Lucas at all and eventually runs off on vacation with Cooper. When Cooper returns, Violet is not with him. It is n't until much later Violet returns, obviously more calm and sane. While gone she spent time in New York working through her issues with a therapist and has come home to try to be a mother to Lucas.
When Violet returns, she finds Pete in a relationship with Addison, something that causes her much pain. She tells Pete she wants shared custody, which he staunchly refuses. They get into a court battle in which everyone, including Cooper, says that she is unfit to share parenting duties completely. She confesses that she 's still in love with Pete. Even though the Judge rules in favor of Pete, he agrees to slowly start introducing Violet to co-parenting Lucas. In the season 3 finale, Addison tells Pete he should be with Violet and they once again resume a relationship.
In the Season 4 premiere Pete pops the question after a morning of passion. Later the same day Violet announces to their friends that she and Pete are getting married... that following weekend. She asks Cooper to be her maid of honor, but his objective side meddles to such a degree that seeds of doubt are planted in Violet 's head and she proceeds to bolt from the ceremony. Pete follows her and without saying a word, he convinces her to take a leap of faith and the two finally get married. Violet later discovers that she is being sued by former patient Katie Kent and in the season four finale she gets her license suspended. Against Pete 's wishes, she decides to leave town on a book tour.
After Pete has a heart attack, Violet is nowhere to be found because she 's at the airport and inadvertently counsels a woman in an abusive relationship. She returns to the hospital after learning about Pete 's heart attack. During his recovery, he verbally abuses and berates Violet constantly, as she tries to get back into the practice and have her license reinstated. She soon tells Pete she will not be his punching bag. She also knows he 's struggling as it 's a sign and pattern. Violet begins to feel as though Pete hates her. When she begins work on a probationary period, Sheldon lets the past interfere but Pete forces him to rethink his issues and Sheldon apologizes. Violet realizes Pete is trying. Trying does n't work and both begin to feel that the marriage is n't working. Violet turns to Addison and the two become friends and companions much to the annoyance of Pete and Sam. While talking with Sam and Addison about their relationship, she has an epiphany about her marriage with Pete and after some discussion, the two decide to separate.
In the season premiére Violet is left wondering where Pete is as his court date has arrived and he 's not there. Throughout the episode Violet and the rest of the practice debate whether he has fallen into some trouble or he decided to make a run for it. The only clue available is a text message from Pete to Violet stating, "No matter what happens, know that I love you. I 'm out on a run ''. Speculation flies as Violet considers whether Pete meant a jog or a flight out of the country. In the last minutes of the episode it is revealed by Violet in a conversation with Cooper that police have informed her Pete had fallen off a hill while on a run and suffered a fatal heart attack. Because he was out of immediate sight, help could n't arrive in time and he died. Violet is in shock, stating she could hardly believe it was Pete and she did n't know how to break the news to their three - year - old son. As per Pete 's will, Violet throws a party rather than a funeral, having a difficult time dealing with people talking about how Pete helped them and getting high on pot in the bathroom. She tries to sing, but ends up breaking down, screaming over how he could leave them. In the final episode, after Addison 's wedding, she publishes her second book called "Private Practice '' which is about life and joy.
Robert Bianco for USA Today has praised Brenneman 's talent in the role of Violet, but has opined that she is "incredibly badly used ''. Variety 's Cynthia Littleton has noted that Brenneman as Violet is the most intriguing of the show 's supporting ensemble, both as an actor and a character.
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when will the next winter olympics be held in america | List of Olympic Games host cities - wikipedia
This is a list of host cities of the Olympic Games, both summer and winter, since the modern Olympics began in 1896. Since then, summer games have usually -- but not always -- celebrated a four - year period known as an Olympiad. There have been 28 Summer Olympic Games held in 23 cities, and 23 Winter Olympic Games held in 20 cities. In addition, three summer and two winter editions of the Games were scheduled to take place but later cancelled due to war: Berlin (summer) in 1916; Tokyo / Helsinki (summer) and Sapporo / Garmisch - Partenkirchen (winter) in 1940; and London (summer) and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy (winter) in 1944. The 1906 Summer Olympics were officially sanctioned and held in Athens. However, in 1949, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games. Four cities have been chosen by the IOC to host upcoming Olympic Games: Tokyo for the 2020 Summer Olympics, Beijing for the 2022 Winter Olympics, Paris for the 2024 Summer Olympics, and Los Angeles for the 2028 Summer Olympics.
In 2022, Beijing will become the only city that has held both the summer and the winter Olympic Games. Nine cities will have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens (1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics), Paris (1900, 1924 and 2024 Summer Olympics), London (1908, 1948 and 2012 Summer Olympics), St. Moritz (1928 and 1948 Winter Olympics), Lake Placid (1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics), Los Angeles (1932, 1984 and 2028 Summer Olympics), Innsbruck (1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics), Tokyo (1964 and 2020 Summer Olympics) and Beijing (2008 Summer Olympics and 2022 Winter Olympics). In addition, Stockholm hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics. London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics. Paris will become the second city to do this with the 2024 Summer Olympics, followed by Los Angeles as the third in 2028. The United States has hosted a total of eight Olympic Games, more than any other country, followed by France with five editions. Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom have each hosted three Games.
The Games have primarily been hosted in the continents of Europe (36 editions) and North America (12 editions); eight Games have been hosted in Asia and two have been hosted in Oceania. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro became South America 's first Olympic host city, while the African continent has yet to hold the Games. Other major geographic regions which have never hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia.
Host cities are selected by the IOC membership, usually seven years in advance. The selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may submit an application to become a host city. After 10 months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant city will become official candidates as based on the recommendation of a working group that reviews the applications. In a second stage, the candidate cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission, which then submits a final short list of cities to be considered for selection. The host city is then chosen by vote of the IOC session, a general meeting of IOC members.
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what is the origin of the phrase at sixes and sevens | At sixes and sevens - wikipedia
"At sixes and sevens '' is an English idiom used to describe a condition of confusion or disarray.
An ancient dispute between the Merchant Taylors and Skinners livery companies is the probable origin of the phrase. The two trade associations, both founded in the same year (1327), argued over sixth place in the order of precedence. In 1484, after more than a century and a half of bickering, the Lord Mayor of London Sir Robert Billesden ruled that at the feast of Corpus Christi, the companies would swap between sixth and seventh place and feast in each other 's halls. Nowadays, they alternate in precedence on an annual basis.
A similar phrase, "to set the world on six and seven '', is used by Geoffrey Chaucer in his Troilus and Criseyde. It dates from the mid-1380s and seems from its context to mean "to hazard the world '' or "to risk one 's life ''. William Shakespeare uses a similar phrase in Richard II, "But time will not permit: all is uneven, And every thing is left at six and seven ''.
The phrase is also used in Gilbert & Sullivan 's comic opera H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), where Captain Corcoran, the ship 's Commander, is confused as to what choices to make in his life, and exclaims in the opening song of Act II, "Fair moon, to thee I sing, bright regent of the heavens, say, why is everything either at sixes or at sevens? ''
The phrase took on additional meaning during the early 1960s, when debate over Britain 's position in Europe under Harold Macmillan centred on membership of the EEC ' Six ' or the EFTA ' Seven ' smaller independent states.
The phrase appears in a few songs, including "Do n't Cry for Me Argentina '' from the musical Evita, "Raoul and the Kings of Spain '' from Tears for Fears, and "Playing With Fire '' by Stereo MCs. The eleventh studio album from Strange Music front man Tech N9ne was entitled "All 6 's and 7 's ''. The song "Sixes and Sevens '' was co written and sung by Robert Plant. It also appears in the Rolling Stones ' song "Tumbling Dice ''. There is an album by Norwegian gothic metal band Sirenia called At Sixes and Sevens (including a song with the same name) where this phrase is used in several songs.
The phrase is also used in the 1978 movie The Wiz, when Miss One gives Dorothy the silver slippers and comments, "Oh, do n't be all sixes and sevens, honey '' to Dorothy as Dorothy is in a state of confusion after killing the Wicked Witch of the East. It is also found in the 1993 film The Remains of the Day. It is also mentioned in the 2002 film Goldmember by Mike Myers ' character Austin Powers to his dad, who at the time were speaking "English English '': "oh, the one who was all sixes and sevens? '' During the second episode of season five of the HBO series Six Feet Under, George uses the phrase to describe his wife 's attitude towards him.
We also come across the phrase in Sabina 's opening monologue from Thornton Wilder 's 1942 Pulitzer Prize winning play The Skin of Our Teeth: "The whole world 's at sixes and sevens, and why the house has n't fallen down about our ears long ago is a miracle to me. ''
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when did lion king come out on broadway | The Lion King (musical) - wikipedia
The Lion King is a musical based on the 1994 Disney animated film of the same name with music by Elton John and lyrics by Tim Rice along with the musical score created by Hans Zimmer with choral arrangements by Lebo M. Directed by Julie Taymor, the musical features actors in animal costumes as well as giant, hollow puppets. The show is produced by Disney Theatrical Productions.
The musical debuted July 8, 1997, in Minneapolis, Minnesota at the Orpheum Theatre, and was an instant success before premiering on Broadway at the New Amsterdam Theater on October 15, 1997, in previews with the official opening on November 13, 1997. On June 13, 2006, the Broadway production moved to the Minskoff Theatre to make way for the musical version of Mary Poppins, where it is still running after more than 6,700 performances. It is Broadway 's third longest - running show in history and the highest grossing Broadway production of all time, having grossed more than $1 billion.
The show debuted in the West End 's Lyceum Theatre on October 19, 1999, and is still running. The cast of the West End production were invited to perform at the Royal Variety Performance in 1999 and 2008, in the presence of senior members of the British Royal Family.
In September 2014, The Lion King became the top - earning title in box - office history for both stage productions and films, surpassing the record previously held by The Phantom of the Opera.
As the sun rises, Rafiki the mandrill calls the animals to Pride Rock. She greets King Mufasa and Queen Sarabi before presenting their cub to the gathered animals ("Circle of Life ''). Elsewhere, Mufasa 's brother, Scar, laments his lost chance at becoming King. Back at her baobab tree, Rafiki paints an image of the cub and asks the spirits to conjure the new prince 's name: Simba.
Time passes and Simba grows into a lively young cub ("Grasslands Chant ''). Mufasa shows Simba the Pride Lands from the top of Pride Rock and explains that everything exists in a delicate balance known as the Circle of Life. Mufasa warns Simba not to stray beyond the boundaries of the Pride Lands, pointing out a shadowy area in the distance. Zazu, a hornbill who acts as Mufasa 's advisor, arrives and delivers his daily report on the state of affairs in the King 's domain ("The Morning Report '', now cut from the Broadway production).
Simba goes to see his Uncle Scar. The scheming lion piques the cub 's curiosity by mentioning the elephant graveyard, where Simba is forbidden to go. Meanwhile, the lionesses go hunting ("The Lioness Hunt ''). Simba arrives and asks his best friend, a female cub named Nala, to come with him to the elephant graveyard. He lies to the lionesses about where they are going, and Sarafina (Nala 's mother) and Sarabi allow the cubs to go, escorted by Zazu. Simba and Nala formulate a plan and manage to lose Zazu, while Simba brags about his future position ("I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King '').
The cubs go to the graveyard and begin to explore. Zazu catches up, but they are confronted by three hyenas: Shenzi, Banzai and Ed. The hyenas intend to eat the trespassers and gloat about their find ("Chow Down ''). Mufasa rescues the cubs and frightens off the hyenas.
Mufasa is disappointed and angry at Simba 's reckless disobedience, and explains the difference between bravery and bravado. Mufasa tells Simba about the great kings of the past and how they watch over everything from the stars ("They Live in You ''). Mufasa says that he will always be there for his son. Later he discusses Simba 's behavior with Zazu, who reminds Mufasa that he had the same tendency to get into trouble at Simba 's age.
Back at the elephant graveyard, Scar tells the hyenas of his plan to kill Mufasa and Simba so that he can become king. He raises an army of hyenas, promising that they will never go hungry again if they support him ("Be Prepared ''). Scar takes Simba to a gorge and tells him to wait there. On Scar 's signal, the hyenas start a wildebeest stampede into the gorge ("The Stampede ''). Scar tells Mufasa that Simba is trapped in the gorge. Mufasa leaps into the stampede and manages to save his son, but as he tries to escape, Scar throws him off the cliff back into the stampede, killing him. Scar convinces Simba that his father 's death was his fault and tells him to run away, but as he leaves, Scar orders the hyenas to kill him. Simba escapes but the hyenas tell Scar that he is dead. Rafiki and the lionesses mourn the deaths ("Rafiki Mourns ''). Scar claims the throne and allows the hyenas into the Pride Lands ("Be Prepared (Reprise) ''). Rafiki returns to her tree and smears the drawing of Simba, while Sarabi and Nala quietly grieve.
Out in the desert, Simba collapses from heat exhaustion. Vultures begin to circle, but are scared away by Timon the meerkat and Pumbaa the warthog. Simba feels responsible for Mufasa 's death, but the duo take the cub to their jungle home and show him their carefree way of life and bug diet ("Hakuna Matata ''). Simba grows to adulthood in the jungle.
The chorus, dressed in colorful clothes with ornate bird puppets and kites, begin the Second Act ("One by One ''). As the song ends, however, the beautiful birds are replaced by vultures and gazelle skeletons. Under Scar 's rule, the Circle of Life is out of balance and a drought has hit the Pride Lands. Zazu, now a prisoner of Scar, listens to the king 's woes. The hyenas are complaining about the lack of food, but Scar is only concerned with himself and why he is not loved. He is haunted by visions of Mufasa and rapidly switches between delusional confidence and paranoid despair ("The Madness of King Scar ''). Nala arrives to confront Scar about the famine and Scar decides she will be his queen and give him cubs. Nala fiercely rebukes him and resolves to leave the Pride Lands to find help. Rafiki and the lionesses bless her for her journey ("Shadowland '').
Back in the jungle, Timon and Pumbaa want to sleep, but the restless Simba is unable to settle. Annoyed, Simba leaves them, but Timon and Pumbaa lose their courage and follow him. Simba leaps across a fast - moving river and challenges Timon to do the same. Timon falls in and is swept downstream. He grabs a branch over a waterfall and calls for Simba 's help, but Simba is paralyzed by a flashback of Mufasa 's death. Timon falls from the branch and Simba snaps out of the flashback, rescuing his friend. Simba is ashamed that Timon nearly died because of his recklessness.
The three friends settle to sleep and discuss the stars. Simba recalls Mufasa 's words, but his friends laugh at the notion of dead kings watching them. Simba leaves, expressing his loneliness and bitterly recalling Mufasa 's promise to be there for him ("Endless Night ''). Rafiki hears the song on the wind, joyfully realizes that Simba is alive, and draws a mane onto her painting of Simba.
In the jungle, Pumbaa is hunted and chased by a lioness. Simba confronts her and saves his friend, but recognizes the lioness as Nala. She is amazed to find Simba alive, knowing that he is the rightful king. Timon and Pumbaa are confused, but Simba asks them to leave him and Nala alone. Timon realizes what is happening and laments the end of Simba 's Hakuna Matata lifestyle ("Can You Feel the Love Tonight ''). Nala tells Simba about the devastated Pride Lands, but Simba still feels responsible for Mufasa 's death and refuses to return home.
On his own, Simba meets Rafiki, who explains that his father lives on ("He Lives in You ''). Mufasa 's spirit appears in the sky and tells Simba he is the one true king and must take his place in the Circle of Life. Reawakened, Simba finds his courage and heads for home. Meanwhile, Nala wakes Timon and Pumbaa to ask where Simba is, and Rafiki appears to tell them all the news. The three of them catch up with him in the Pride Lands, where he witnesses the ruin of his home. Timon and Pumbaa distract some hyenas by doing the Charleston, allowing Simba and Nala to reach Pride Rock.
Scar calls for Sarabi and demands to know why the lionesses are not hunting. Sarabi stands up to him about the lack of anything to hunt, angrily comparing him to Mufasa, and Scar strikes his sister - in - law, saying he 's ten times the king Mufasa was. Enraged, Simba reveals himself. Scar forces a confession of murder from Simba and corners him. Believing that he has won, Scar taunts Simba by admitting that he killed Mufasa. Furious, Simba recovers and forces Scar to reveal the truth to the lionesses ("Simba Confronts Scar ''). Simba 's friends fight the hyenas while Simba battles Scar to the top of Pride Rock. Scar begs for his life, blaming the hyenas for everything. Simba lets him leave out of mercy, but Scar attacks again. Simba blocks the attack and Scar falls from the cliff. The hyenas, who heard Scar 's betrayal and are still starving, tear him to shreds.
With the battle won, Simba 's friends come forward and acknowledge Simba as the rightful king. Simba ascends Pride Rock and roars out across the kingdom ("King of Pride Rock ''). The Pride Lands recover and the animals gather in celebration as Rafiki presents Simba and Nala 's newborn cub, continuing the Circle of Life ("Circle of Life (Reprise) '').
* Cut from the show as of June 27, 2010
The musical incorporates several changes and additions to the storyline as compared to the film. The mandrill Rafiki 's gender was changed to a female role because Taymor believed that there was generally no leading female character in the film. Rafiki was portrayed by Tsidii Le Loka in the original Broadway musical, and by Josette Bushell - Mingo in the original London production.
Several new scenes are present, including a conversation between Mufasa and Zazu about Mufasa 's parenting and a perilous scene in which Timon finds himself nearly drowning in a waterfall while Simba feels powerless to help him. A major narrative addition is the depiction of Nala 's departure in the scene "The Madness of King Scar '', where the mentally deteriorating villain tries to make Nala his mate. Nala refuses and later announces her intention to depart the Pride Lands and find help. She receives the blessings of the lionesses and Rafiki during the new song "Shadowland ''.
Like its predecessor, the Beauty and the Beast musical, the show adds more songs to its stage production, including "Morning Report '', sung by Zazu the hornbill and later added to the film for the Platinum Edition DVD release. "Shadowland ''. originally featured on the CD Rhythm of the Pride Lands with Zulu lyrics as "Lea Halelela '', was adapted for the musical with new English lyrics. It is sung by Nala, the lionesses, and Rafiki. "Endless Night '', also from Rhythm of the Pride Lands with Swahili lyrics as "Lala '', is sung by Simba while reflecting on Mufasa 's promise to always be there. "One by One '', from the Rhythm of the Pride Lands CD, was adapted as the rousing African - styled entre act sung by the chorus at the opening of the second act.
Many of the animals portrayed in the production are actors in costume using extra tools to move their costumes. For example, the giraffes are portrayed by actors walking on stilts. For principal characters such as Mufasa and Scar, the costumes feature mechanical headpieces that can be raised and lowered to foster the illusion of a cat "lunging '' at another. Other characters, such as the hyenas, Zazu, Timon, and Pumbaa, are portrayed by actors in life - sized puppets or costumes. The Timon character is described by Taymor as one of the hardest roles to master because the movement of the puppet 's head and arms puts a strain on the actor 's arms, back, and neck.
Composer Lebo M led the original Broadway chorus. The chorus members are usually visible in the production, rather than being hidden in the shadows as seen in some other musical shows.
A new section of the production, the Lioness Hunt, features a particularly complicated dance sequence for the actresses, and the dance is made even more difficult by the large headpieces worn during the scene.
During the show 's run in China, Chinese elements were included in the musical. One of the songs was adapted to a well - known Chinese pop song, "Laoshu ai dami '' or "Mice Love Rice ''. The cast even cracked jokes and attempted conversations with the audience in Chinese.
As of June 27, 2010, nine minutes of the Broadway version were cut, among them the entire "Morning Report '' musical number. The song was also removed from subsequent productions and cast recordings, such as the Spanish one.
There is currently one U.S. touring production. (At one time there were two US touring productions traveling simultaneously.) The tour version is very similar to the original Broadway production; however, certain scenic elements which rise out of the stage floor (such as Pride Rock, the stampede, and the grasslands) were converted to less costly configurations for the touring productions. The sun during the opening is reduced in size for the shorter - lasting tours. Stage sizes are also smaller, and the size of the pit orchestra is decreased.
A Las Vegas production opened at Mandalay Bay on May 15, 2009, with previews beginning May 5, 2009. The Las Vegas cast performed on the ninth season of the American dance competition Dancing With the Stars on September 23, 2009. Led by Buyi Zama, the cast performed Circle of Life. When this production closed, on December 30, 2011, it turned into the second longest run the show had in a same American city (only coming after Broadway), running longer than the 2000 -- 2003 Los Angeles Production.
A Los Angeles production began performances at the Pantages Theatre on September 29, 2000, with an official opening on October 19, 2000. The show closed on January 12, 2003, after 952 performances. The cast of this production performed a set of the show 's songs in The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on October 2, 2001. The cast was led by Fuschia Walker.
A Canadian production of the show was staged in Toronto and ran for nearly four years at the Princess of Wales Theatre. The show ran from 1999 to 2004. Degrassi star Raymond Ablack starred as Young Simba in the 2001 production.
The musical had a Mexican limited run (in English) between January 3 and January 27, 2008, in Mexico City, as part of the U.S. national tour.
In May 2014, it was confirmed a new production of the musical, this time in Spanish. The production opened on May 7, 2015, at the Teatro Telcel in Mexico City. Actor Carlos Rivera returned to the role of Simba, which he also took in Spain four years earlier. The lyrics of the songs of this production differ from the European Spanish one. South - African actress Shirley Hlahatse was chosen as Rafiki, marking the first time in years a completely new actress was elected for that role.
A Brazilian production was confirmed to debut in São Paulo in March 28, 2013. Auditions take place in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Salvador. The cast contain mainly Brazilian actors and seven South African actors. The Portuguese lyrics were translated by Brazilian singer Gilberto Gil.
Actress Phindile Mkhize, who had previously performed in many of the show 's productions, was selected as Rafiki for this production, leaving in October 2013 and being replaced by Ntsepa Ptjeng. The show closed its doors on December 14, 2014.
After the success of the Broadway show, the show opened in the United Kingdom in on October 19, 1999. The cast included Cornell John as Mufasa, Luke Youngblood as Young Simba, Dominique Moore as Young Nala, Martyn Ellis as Pumbaa, Simon Gregor as Timon, Rob Edwards as Scar, Paul J. Medford as Banzai and Josette Bushell - Mingo as Rafiki. As of October 2015, it has been playing at the Lyceum Theatre in London for 16 years. Taymor directed the British production of the show, with Melissa De Melo as the producer. The show also toured the UK from 2012 until March 2015.
The West End cast of the show performed twice at the traditional Royal Variety Performance: in 1999 (led by Josette Bushell - Mingo) and 2008 (led by Brown Lindiwe Mkhize). In both performances, the song Circle of Life was performed. The company also performed at the show Strictly Come Dancing special Strictly African Dancing, broadcast in 2005, led once again by Mkhize and performed the same song.
The German production has been playing in Hamburg at the Theater in Hafen since December 2001 and had its 5000th performance on January 14, 2014. Access to the theater is by ferry, where the boats are decorated in the colors of the musical and are named after characters in the musical (such as Nala and its sister ship Rafiki).
A Dutch production of the show was produced by Joop van den Ende Theaterproducties / Stage Entertainment and Disney Theatrical Group and played at the Circustheater in Scheveningen and ran from April 4, 2004, until August 27, 2006, replaced by another Disney musical, Tarzan. A revival of the show 's Dutch production began performances in the same Circustheater in October 2016.
The show 's French production debuted in Paris on September 22, 2007, in Stage Entertainment 's Théâtre Mogador. This production won several Moliére Awards and closed on July 25, 2010, after being watched by over a million people.
On October 20, 2011, the first Spanish production opened at Teatro Lope de Vega in Madrid, where it is still running after more than 2,300 performances.
In Basel, Switzerland, the musical was performed for the first time from March 12, 2015, until October 11, 2015.
Beginning in June 2007, The Lion King debuted its first - ever performance on the African continent in Johannesburg, South Africa. Its tenth anniversary was celebrated in the new Teatro Theatre at Monte Casino in Fourways. The Lion King was the first production to take place in the new theatre. The opening night in Johannesburg was celebrated with key persons involving the creation of the musical and American talk show host Oprah Winfrey who had recently opened an educational academy for girls in Johannesburg The show closed on February 17, 2008.
The show was translated into Japanese and staged by the Shiki Theatre Company. The Tokyo production began in 1998 and continues to the present day at the Shiki Theatre HARU. The production achieved its 10,000 th performance on July 15, 2015.
The show played at the Capitol Theatre in Sydney, Australia, from October 16, 2003, until June 26, 2005. The production then ran at the Regent Theatre in Melbourne from July 28, 2005, until June 4, 2006. The Lion King returned to Sydney 's Capitol Theatre on December 12, 2013.
The musical had a Korean production from October 28, 2006, to October 28, 2007, at the Charlotte Theater, southern Seoul.
In August 2008, a production opened in Taipei, Taiwan, closing on August 24, 2009.
The show had a limited run at Shanghai 's Grand Theatre from July to September 2006. This production was led by Buyi Zama and was performed in English, though a couple of Chinese elements were added to the story. In June 2014, the Walt Disney Company announced that The Lion King Musical will be returning to China, in a new production that will be staged at the 1,200 capacity Walt Disney Grand Theatre, in the Shanghai Disney Resort. This new production will be performed in Mandarin and led by Ntsepa Ptjeng.
On March 7, 2016 Lebo M confirmed through his social media that the show would have an international tour starting in 2018 and with initial productions taking place up to 2020. First confirmed stops are Manila, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and South Africa. All these countries have had productions so far, except the Philippines, where the show will run for two months. The tour will be performed in English and auditions will take place in 2017.
The original principal casts of all major productions.
Most of the show 's international productions had cast recordings which are available on CD, including:
Of all the show 's productions (counting the English ones), only the Brazilian and the Korean ones did n't have cast recordings released.
The Lion King: Original Broadway Cast Recording is a cast recording released on 1997 by The Walt Disney Company, a recording of the songs as heard in the stage musical. Most of the tracks were composed by African composer Lebo M. and focused primarily on the African influences of the film 's original music, with most songs being sung either partially or entirely in various African languages.
Rafiki 's chants in "Rafiki Mourns '' were written by Tsidii Le Loka, who originated the role on Broadway.
The original broadway show included:
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how many publix stores are there in the world | Walmart - Wikipedia
Wal - Mart Stores, Inc. (/ ˈwɔːlmɑːrt /), doing business as Walmart, is an American multinational retailing corporation that operates as a chain of hypermarkets, discount department stores, and grocery stores. Headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas, the company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. As of January 31, 2017, Walmart has 11,695 stores and clubs in 28 countries, under a total of 63 banners. The company operates under the name Walmart in the United States and Canada. It operates as Walmart de México y Centroamérica in Mexico and Central America, as Asda in the United Kingdom, as the Seiyu Group in Japan, and as Best Price in India. It has wholly owned operations in Argentina, Chile, Brazil, and Canada. It also owns and operates the Sam 's Club retail warehouses.
Walmart is the world 's largest company by revenue -- approximately $480 billion according to the Fortune Global 500 list in 2016 -- as well as the largest private employer in the world with 2.3 million employees. It is a family - owned business, as the company is controlled by the Walton family. Sam Walton 's heirs own over 50 percent of Walmart through their holding company, Walton Enterprises, and through their individual holdings. Walmart is also one of the world 's most valuable companies by market value, and is also the largest grocery retailer in the U.S. In 2016, 62.3 percent of Walmart 's US $ 478.614 billion sales came from its U.S. operations.
The company was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1972. By 1988, Walmart was the most profitable retailer in the U.S., and by October 1989, it had become the largest in terms of revenue. Geographically limited to the South and lower Midwest up to the mid-1980s, by the early - 1990s, the company 's presence spanned from coast to coast -- Sam 's Club opened in New Jersey in November 1989 and the first California outlet opened in Lancaster in July 1990. A Walmart in York, Pennsylvania opened in October 1990, bringing the main store to the Northeast.
Walmart 's investments outside North America have seen mixed results: its operations in the United Kingdom, South America, and China are highly successful, whereas ventures in Germany and South Korea have failed.
In 1945, businessman and former J. C. Penney employee, Sam Walton, purchased a branch of the Ben Franklin stores from the Butler Brothers. His primary focus was selling products at low prices to get higher - volume sales at a lower profit margin, portraying it as a crusade for the consumer. He experienced setbacks, because the lease price and branch purchase were unusually high, but he was able to find lower - cost suppliers than those used by other stores. He passed on the savings in the product pricing. Sales increased 45 percent in his first year of ownership to US $105,000 in revenue, which increased to US $140,000 the next year and US $175,000 the year after that. Within the fifth year, the store was generating US $250,000 in revenue. When the lease for the location expired, Walton was unable to reach an agreement for renewal, so he opened up a new store at 105 N. Main Street in Bentonville, naming it "Walton 's Five and Dime ''. That store is now the Walmart Museum.
On July 2, 1962, Walton opened the first Walmart Discount City store at 719 W. Walnut Street in Rogers, Arkansas. The building is now occupied by a hardware store and an antique mall, while the company 's "Store # 1 '' -- since relocated to a larger discount store and now expanded to a Supercenter -- is located several blocks west at 2110 W. Walnut Street. Within its first five years, the company expanded to 24 stores across Arkansas and reached US $12.6 million in sales. In 1968, it opened its first stores outside Arkansas, in Sikeston, Missouri and Claremore, Oklahoma.
The company was incorporated as Wal - Mart Stores, Inc. on October 31, 1969. In 1970, it opened its home office and first distribution center in Bentonville, Arkansas. It had 38 stores operating with 1,500 employees and sales of US $44.2 million. It began trading stock as a publicly held company on October 1, 1970, and was soon listed on the New York Stock Exchange. The first stock split occurred in May 1971 at a price of US $47. By this time, Walmart was operating in five states: Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Oklahoma; it entered Tennessee in 1973 and Kentucky and Mississippi in 1974. As it moved into Texas in 1975, there were 125 stores with 7,500 employees and total sales of US $340.3 million. Walmart opened its first Texas store in Mount Pleasant on November 11, 1975.
In the 1980s, Walmart continued to grow rapidly, and by its 25th anniversary in 1987, there were 1,198 stores with sales of US $15.9 billion and 200,000 associates. This year also marked the completion of the company 's satellite network, a US $24 million investment linking all operating units with the Bentonville office via two - way voice and data transmission and one - way video communication. At the time, it was the largest private satellite network, allowing the corporate office to track inventory and sales and to instantly communicate to stores. In 1988, Walton stepped down as CEO and was replaced by David Glass. Walton remained as Chairman of the Board.
In 1988, the first Wal - Mart Supercenter opened in Washington, Missouri. Thanks to its superstores, it surpassed Toys "R '' Us in toy sales in the late - 1990s.
While it was the No. 3 retailer in the U.S., Walmart was more profitable than rivals Kmart and Sears by the late 1980s. By 1990, it became the largest U.S. retailer by revenue.
Prior to the summer of 1990, Walmart had no presence on the West Coast or in the Northeast (except for a single Sam 's Club in New Jersey which opened in November 1989), but in July and October that year, it opened its first stores in California and Pennsylvania, respectively. By the mid-1990s, it was far and away the most powerful retailer in the U.S. and expanded into Mexico in 1991 and Canada in 1994. Walmart stores opened throughout the rest of the U.S., with Vermont being the last state to get a store in 1995.
The company also opened stores outside North America, entering South America in 1995 with stores in Argentina and Brazil; and Europe in July 1999, buying Asda in the United Kingdom for US $10 billion.
In 1998, Walmart introduced the Neighborhood Market concept with three stores in Arkansas. By 2005, estimates indicate that the company controlled about 20 percent of the retail grocery and consumables business.
In 2000, H. Lee Scott became Walmart 's President and CEO, as the company 's sales increased to US $165 billion. In 2002, it was listed for the first time as America 's largest corporation on the Fortune 500 list, with revenues of US $219.8 billion and profits of US $6.7 billion. It has remained there every year, except in 2006 and 2009.
In 2005, Walmart reported US $312.4 billion in sales, more than 6,200 facilities around the world -- including 3,800 stores in the United States and 2,800 elsewhere, employing more than 1.6 million associates. Its U.S. presence grew so rapidly that only small pockets of the country remained more than 60 miles (97 kilometres) from the nearest store.
As Walmart rapidly expanded into the world 's largest corporation, many critics worried about its effect on local communities, particularly small towns with many "mom and pop '' stores. There have been several studies on the economic impact of Walmart on small towns and local businesses, jobs, and taxpayers. In one, Kenneth Stone, a Professor of Economics at Iowa State University, found that some small towns can lose almost half of their retail trade within ten years of a Walmart store opening. However, in another study, he compared the changes to what small town shops had faced in the past -- including the development of the railroads, the advent of the Sears Roebuck catalog, as well as the arrival of shopping malls -- and concluded that shop owners who adapt to changes in the retail market can thrive after Walmart arrives. A later study in collaboration with Mississippi State University showed that there are "both positive and negative impacts on existing stores in the area where the new supercenter locates. ''
In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in September 2005, Walmart used its logistics network to organize a rapid response to the disaster, donating US $20 million in cash, 1,500 truckloads of merchandise, food for 100,000 meals, as well as the promise of a job for every one of its displaced workers. An independent study by Steven Horwitz of St. Lawrence University found that Walmart, The Home Depot, and Lowe 's made use of their local knowledge about supply chains, infrastructure, decision makers and other resources to provide emergency supplies and reopen stores well before FEMA began its response. While the company was overall lauded for its quick response -- amidst criticism of the Federal Emergency Management Agency -- several critics were nonetheless quick to point out that there still remained issues with the company 's labor relations.
In October 2005, Walmart announced several environmental measures to increase energy efficiency. The primary goals included spending US $500 million a year to increase fuel efficiency in Walmart 's truck fleet by 25 percent over three years and double it within ten, reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent in seven years, reduce energy use at stores by 30 percent, and cut solid waste from U.S. stores and Sam 's Clubs by 25 percent in three years. CEO Lee Scott said that Walmart 's goal was to be a "good steward for the environment '' and ultimately use only renewable energy sources and produce zero waste. The company also designed three new experimental stores with wind turbines, photovoltaic solar panels, biofuel - capable boilers, water - cooled refrigerators, and xeriscape gardens. Despite much criticism of its environmental record, Walmart took a few steps in what some viewed as a positive direction, which included becoming the biggest seller of organic milk and the biggest buyer of organic cotton in the world, as well as reducing packaging and energy costs. Walmart also spent nearly a year working with outside consultants to discover the company 's total environmental impact and find areas for improvement. Walmart has also recently created its own electric company in Texas, Texas Retail Energy, and plans to supply its stores with cheap power purchased at wholesale prices. Through this new venture, the company expects to save US $15 million annually and also to lay the groundwork and infrastructure to sell electricity to Texas consumers in the future.
In March 2006, Walmart sought to appeal to a more affluent demographic. The company launched a new Supercenter concept in Plano, Texas, intended to compete against stores seen as more upscale and appealing, such as Target. The new store has wood floors, wider aisles, a sushi bar, a coffee / sandwich shop with free Wi - Fi Internet access, and more expensive beers, wines, electronics, and other goods. The exterior has a hunter green background behind the Walmart letters, similar to Neighborhood Market by Walmarts, instead of the blue previously used at its supercenters.
On September 12, 2007, Walmart introduced new advertising with the slogan, "Save money. Live better. '', replacing "Always Low Prices, Always '', which it had used for the previous 19 years. Global Insight, which conducted the research that supported the ads, found that Walmart 's price level reduction resulted in savings for consumers of US $287 billion in 2006, which equated to US $957 per person or US $2,500 per household (up 7.3 percent from the 2004 savings estimate of US $2,329).
On June 30, 2008, Walmart removed the hyphen from its logo and replaced the star with a Spark symbol that resembles a sunburst, flower, or star. The new logo received mixed reviews from design critics, who questioned whether the new logo was as bold as those of competitors, such as the Target bullseye or as instantly recognizable as the previous company logo, which was used for 18 years. The new logo made its debut on the company 's website on July 1, 2008. Walmart 's U.S. locations were to update store logos in the fall of 2008, as part of an ongoing evolution of its brand. Walmart Canada started to adopt the logo for its stores in early 2009.
On March 20, 2009, Walmart announced that it was paying a combined US $933.6 million in bonuses to every full and part - time hourly worker. This was in addition to US $788.8 million in profit sharing, 401 (k) pension contributions, hundreds of millions of dollars in merchandise discounts, and contributions to the employees ' stock purchase plan. While the economy at large was in an ongoing recession, Walmart, the largest retailer in the U.S., reported solid financial figures for the most recent fiscal year (ending January 31, 2009), with US $401.2 billion in net sales, a gain of 7.2 percent from the prior year. Income from continuing operations increased 3 percent to US $13.3 billion, and earnings per share rose 6 percent to US $3.35.
On February 22, 2010, the company confirmed it was acquiring video streaming company Vudu, Inc. for an estimated US $100 million.
Walmart Cards
At this time Walmart is currently offering the two type of cards for the convenience of their regular shoppers. The first one is Walmart gift card that is the paramount option for those people who want to send a gift to their loved one. The second card is Walmart credit card. Walmart has further two types of credit cards for the regular shoppers the first one is Walmart credit card and the second one is Walmart master card.
These cards are one of the best things that are being offered from the Walmart to the regular customers which offer the huge discounts and extra services.
According to an August 2016 report by Bloomberg Businessweek, aggressive cost - cutting decisions that began in 2000 when Lee Scott took over as CEO of the company led to a significant increase in crime in stores across the United States. These included the removal of the store 's famed greeters, which are seen as a theft deterrent at exits, the replacement of many cashiers with self - checkout stations, and the addition of stores at a rate that exceeded the hiring of new employees, which led to a 19 percent increase in space per employee from a decade previous. While these decisions succeeded in increasing profits 23 percent in the decade that followed, it led to an increase in both theft and violent crime. During 2016, the year the report was published, more than 200 violent crimes, including attempted kidnappings and multiple stabbings, shootings, and murders, occurred at the 4,500 Walmarts in the U.S., or about one a day, with petty crimes committed on Walmart properties nationwide predicted to be in the hundreds of thousands by the end of that year. In 2015, under CEO Doug McMillon, Walmart began a company - wide campaign to reduce crime that includes spot - checking receipts at exits, stationing employees at self - checkout areas, eye - level security cameras in high - theft areas, use of data analytics to detect credit fraud, hiring off - duty police and private security officers, and reducing calls to police with a program by which first - time offenders caught stealing merchandise below a certain value can avoid arrest if they agree to go through a theft - prevention program. Police chiefs and their officers in various locations around the U.S., however, were quoted in the report stating that the problem was continuing unabated, and that the need for constant police presence at Walmarts was a drain on police resources, one that Walmart needed to address by doing more to combat crime at its stores.
Walmart 's operations are organized into four divisions: Walmart U.S., Walmart International, Sam 's Club and Global eCommerce. The company offers various retail formats throughout these divisions, including supercenters, supermarkets, hypermarkets, warehouse clubs, cash - and - carry stores, home improvement, specialty electronics, restaurants, apparel stores, drugstores, convenience stores, and digital retail.
Walmart U.S. is the company 's largest division, accounting for US $298.378 billion, or 62.3 percent of total sales, for fiscal 2016. It consists of three retail formats that have become commonplace in the United States: Supercenters, Discount Stores, Neighborhood Markets, and other small formats. The discount stores sell a variety of mostly non-grocery products, though emphasis has now shifted towards supercenters, which include more groceries. As of January 31, 2017, there are a total of 4,672 Walmart U.S. stores.
The president and CEO of Walmart U.S. is Greg Foran.
Walmart Supercenters, simply branded as "Walmart '', are hypermarkets with sizes varying from 69,000 to 260,000 square feet (6,400 to 24,200 square meters), but averaging about 187,000 square feet (17,400 square meters). These stock general merchandise and a full - service supermarket, including meat and poultry, baked goods, delicatessen, frozen foods, dairy products, garden produce, and fresh seafood. Many Walmart Supercenters also have a garden center, pet shop, pharmacy, Tire & Lube Express, optical center, one - hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, and numerous alcove shops, such as cellular phone stores, hair and nail salons, video rental stores, local bank branches (newer locations have Woodforest National Bank branches), and fast food outlets, those usually being Subway but sometimes Dunkin ' Donuts, McDonald 's, Wendy 's, Fazoli 's, Checker 's, Auntie Annes, Sonic, Burger King, Tim Hortons, or Blimpie. Many featured McDonald 's restaurants, but in 2007, Walmart announced it would stop opening McDonald 's restaurants at most of their newer stores. Most locations that opened up after the announcement had Subway as their restaurants, and some McDonald 's inside the stores were replaced with Subways. In some Canadian locations, Tim Hortons were opened. Certain locations also have fuel stations which sell gasoline distributed by Murphy USA (which spun off from Murphy Oil in 2013), Sunoco, Inc. ("Optima ''), the Tesoro Corporation ("Mirastar ''), USA Gasoline, and even now Walmart - branded gas stations.
The first Supercenter opened in Washington, Missouri, in 1988. A similar concept, Hypermart USA, had opened in Garland, Texas, a year earlier. All Hypermart USA stores were later closed or converted into Supercenters.
As of January 31, 2017, there were 3,522 Walmart Supercenters in 49 of the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Hawaii is the only state to not have a Supercenter location. The largest Supercenter in the United States, covering 260,000 square feet (24,000 square meters) on two floors, is located in Crossgates Commons in Albany, New York. In 2006, the busiest in the world was the one in Rapid City, South Dakota.
A typical supercenter sells approximately 120,000 items and this compares to the 35 million products sold in Walmart 's online store.
The "Supercenter '' portion of the name has since been phased out, with these stores now simply referred to as "Walmart '', since the company introduced the new Walmart logo in 2008. The Supercentre name is still used in Canada, where the company opened its 100th Canadian store in 2010, some of them former Sam 's Club locations.
Walmart Discount Stores, also branded as simply "Walmart '', are discount department stores with sizes varying from 30,000 to 206,000 square feet (2,800 to 19,100 square meters), with the average store covering about 104,000 square feet (9,700 square meters). They carry general merchandise and limited groceries. Some newer and remodeled discount stores have an expanded grocery department, similar to Target 's PFresh department. Many of these stores also feature a garden center, pharmacy, tire & Lube Express, optical center, one - hour photo processing lab, portrait studio, a bank branch, a cell phone store, and a fast food outlet, usually Subway or McDonald 's or Burger King. Some also have gasoline stations.
In 1990, Walmart opened its first Bud 's Discount City location in Bentonville. Bud 's operated as a closeout store, much like Big Lots. Many locations were opened to fulfill leases in shopping centers as Walmart stores left and moved into newly built Supercenters. All of the Bud 's Discount City stores closed or converted into Walmart Discount Stores by 1997.
As of January 31, 2017, there were 415 Walmart Discount Stores in 41 states and Puerto Rico. Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Carolina, South Dakota, Utah, District of Columbia, West Virginia, and Wyoming are the only states and territories where a discount store does not operate.
Walmart Neighborhood Market is Walmart 's chain of smaller grocery stores averaging about 42,000 square feet (3,900 square metres), about a fifth of the size of a Walmart Supercenter. The first Walmart Neighborhood Market opened in 1998, yet Walmart renewed its focus on the smaller grocery store format in the 2010s.
The stores focus on three of Walmart 's major sales categories: groceries, which account for about 55 percent of the company 's revenue; pharmacy; and, at some stores, fuel. For groceries and consumables, the stores sell fresh produce, deli and bakery items, prepared foods, meat, dairy, organic, general grocery and frozen foods, in addition to cleaning products and pet supplies. Some stores offer wine and beer sales and drive - through pharmacies. Some stores, such as one at Midtown Center in Bentonville, Arkansas, offer made - to - order pizza as well as tables and seating. Customers can also use Walmart 's site - to - store operation and pick up online orders at Walmart Neighborhood Market stores.
Products at Walmart Neighborhood Market stores carry the same prices as those at Walmart 's larger supercenters. A Moody 's analyst said the wider company 's pricing structure gives the chain of grocery stores a "competitive advantage '' over competitors Whole Foods, Kroger and Trader Joe 's.
Neighborhood Market stores expanded slowly at first as a way to fill gaps between Walmart Supercenters and Discount Stores in existing markets. In its first 12 years, the company opened about 180 Walmart Neighborhood Markets. By 2010, Walmart said it was ready speed up its expansion plans for the grocery stores. As of January 31, 2017, there were 699 Walmart Neighborhood Markets, each employing between 90 and 95 full - time and part - time workers.
Walmart opened "Supermercado de Walmart '' locations to appeal to Hispanic communities in the United States. The first one, a 39,000 square feet (3,600 square meters) store in the Spring Branch area of Houston, opened on April 29, 2009. The store was a conversion of an existing Walmart Neighborhood Market. The opening was Walmart 's first entry in the Hispanic grocery market in Houston. In 2009, another Supermercado de Walmart opened in Phoenix, Arizona. Both the two Supermercado de Walmart locations have closed in 2014. In 2009, Walmart opened "Mas Club '', a warehouse retail operation patterned after Sam 's Club. It closed its doors in 2014 with only one store.
Walmart Express was a chain of smaller discount stores, with a range of services, from groceries to check cashing and gasoline service. The concept was focused on small towns deemed not able to support a larger store, and large cities where space was at a premium. Walmart planned to build 15 to 20 Walmart Express stores, focusing on Arkansas, North Carolina and Chicago, by the end of its fiscal year in January 2012. As of September 8, 2014, Walmart re-branded all of its Express format stores to Neighborhood Markets in an effort to streamline its retail offer. It continued to open new Express stores under the Neighborhood Market name. As of January 31, 2017, there were 36 small - format stores in the United States. These include Amigo (19 locations), Walmart on Campus (14 locations), and Walmart To Go (3 locations), a chain of gas station / convenience stores. As of January 15, 2016, Walmart announced that it will be closing 269 stores globally, including all 102 U.S. Walmart Express stores, including those branded as Neighborhood Markets.
In September 2006, Walmart announced a pilot program to sell generic drugs at US $4 per prescription. The program was launched at stores in the Tampa, Florida, area, and by January 2007 had been expanded to all stores in Florida. While the average price of generics is US $29 per prescription, compared to US $102 for name - brand drugs, Walmart maintains that it is not selling at a loss, or providing them as an act of charity -- instead, they are using the same mechanisms of mass distribution that it uses to bring lower prices to other products. Many of Walmart 's low cost generics are imported from India, where they are made by drug makers that include Ranbaxy and Cipla.
On February 6, 2007, the company launched a "beta '' version of a movie download service, which sold about 3,000 films and television episodes from all major studios and television networks. The service was discontinued on December 21, 2007, due to low sales.
From 2008 through 2011, Walmart operated a pilot program in the small grocery store concept called Marketside in the metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona, area. The company plans to incorporate what it has learned from this concept into its Walmart Express stores.
In 2015, Walmart began testing a free grocery pickup service, allowing customers to select products online and choose their pickup time. At the store, a Walmart employee loads the groceries into the customer 's car. As of September 2015, the program has expanded to 13 U.S. cities, and the company expects more stores to begin offering this service.
In May 2016, Walmart announced a change to ShippingPass, its three - day shipping service, and that it will move from a three - day delivery to two - day delivery to remain competitive with Amazon. Walmart priced it at 49 dollars per year, compared to Amazon Prime 's 99 dollar per year price.
In June 2016, Walmart and Sam 's Club announced that they would begin testing a last - mile grocery delivery that used services including Uber, Lyft, and Deliv, to bring customers ' orders to their homes. Walmart customers would be able to shop using the company 's online grocery service at grocery.walmart.com, then request delivery at checkout for a small fee. The first tests were planned to go live in Denver and Phoenix.
As of January 31, 2017, Walmart 's international operations comprised 6,363 stores and 800,000 workers in 26 countries outside the United States. There are wholly owned operations in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, and the UK. With 2.2 million employees worldwide, the company is the largest private employer in the U.S. and Mexico, and one of the largest in Canada. In fiscal 2016, Walmart 's international division sales were US $123.408 billion, or 25.8 percent of total sales. International retail units range from 4,000 to 185,000 square feet (370 to 17,190 square metres), wholesale units range from 35,000 to 70,000 square feet (3,300 to 6,500 square metres) and other units (including drugstores and convenience stores) range up to 2,400 square feet (220 square metres).
As of January 31, 2017, there are a total of 4,097 locations in Latin America, which consists of locations in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua.
Walmart Argentina was founded in 1995 and, as of November 30, 2016, operates 107 stores under the banners Walmart Supercenter (32 locations), Changomas (51 locations), Changomas Express (10 locations), Mi Changomas (8 locations), and Walmart Supermercado (6 locations).
In 2004, Walmart bought the 118 stores in the Bompreço supermarket chain in northeastern Brazil. In late 2005, it took control of the Brazilian operations of Sonae Distribution Group through its new subsidiary, WMS Supermercados do Brasil, thus acquiring control of the Nacional and Mercadorama supermarket chains, the leaders in the Rio Grande do Sul and Paraná states, respectively. None of these stores were rebranded. As of January 2014, Walmart operated 61 Super-Bompreço stores, 39 Hiper - Bompreço stores. It also ran 57 Walmart Supercenters, 27 Sam 's Clubs, and 174 Todo Dia stores. With the acquisition of Bompreço and Sonae, by 2010, Walmart was the third largest supermarket chain in Brazil, behind Carrefour and Pão de Açúcar. Walmart Brasil, the operating company, has its head office in Barueri, São Paulo State, and regional offices in Curitiba, Paraná; Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul; Recife, Pernambuco; and Salvador, Bahia. As of January 31, 2017, Walmart Brasil operates 498 stores under the banners Walmart Supercenter (55 locations), Sam 's Club (27 locations), Todo Dia (150 locations), Supermercado Todo Dia (3 locations), Hypermarket (Bompreço) (38 locations), Supermarket (Bompreço) (59 locations), Mercadorama (Sonae) (13 locations), BIG (Sonae) (37 locations), Maxxi Atacado (Sonae) (44 locations), Nacional (Sonae) (55 locations), Walmart Posto (Gas Station) (14 locations), and Hiper Todo Dia (3 locations).
Walmart also owns 51 percent of the Central American Retail Holding Company (CARHCO), which as of January 31, 2017, consists of 220 stores in Guatemala (under the Paiz (25 locations), Walmart Supercenter (10 locations), Despensa Familiar (153 locations), and Maxi Dispensa (32 locations) banners), 90 stores in El Salvador (under the Despensa Familiar (60 locations), La Despensa de Don Juan (17 locations), Walmart Supercenter (4 locations), and Maxi Despensa (9 locations) banners), 95 stores in Honduras (including the Paiz (8 locations), Walmart Supercenter (3 locations), Dispensa Familiar (64 locations), and Maxi Despensa (20 locations) banners), 92 stores in Nicaragua (including the Pali (65 locations), La Unión (8 locations), Maxi Pali (18 locations), and Walmart Supercenter (1 location) banners), and 234 stores in Costa Rica (including the Maxi Pali (38 locations), Mas X Menos (34 locations), Walmart Supercenter (9 locations), and Pali (153 locations) banners).
In January 2009, the company acquired a controlling interest in the largest grocer in Chile, Distribución y Servicio D&S SA. and In 2010, the company was renamed Walmart Chile. As of January 31, 2017, Walmart Chile operates 363 stores under the banners Lider (83 locations), Lider Express (82 locations), Superbodega Acuenta (106 locations), Ekono (88 locations), and Central Mayorista (4 locations).
Walmart 's Mexico division, the largest outside the U.S., as of January 31, 2017, consists of 2,411 stores. Walmart in Mexico operates Walmart Supercenter (262 locations), Sam 's Club (160 locations), Bodega Aurrera (488 locations), Mi Bodega Aurrera (331 locations), Bodega Aurrera Express (942 locations), Superama (96 locations), Suburbia (117 locations), Medimart Farmacia de Walmart (10 locations), and Zona Suburbia (5 locations).
As of January 31, 2016, there are a total of 1,453 stores in Canada and Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA), which the latter consists of locations in the United Kingdom, South Africa, Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia.
Walmart has operated in Canada since it acquired 122 stores comprising the Woolco division of Woolworth Canada, Inc in 1994. As of January 31, 2017, it operates 410 locations (including 330 supercentres and 80 discount stores) and, as of June 2015, it employs 89,358 people, with a local home office in Mississauga, Ontario. Walmart Canada 's first three Supercentres (spelled as in Canadian English) opened in November 2006 in Hamilton, London, and Aurora, Ontario. The 100th Canadian Supercentre opened in July 2010, in Victoria, British Columbia.
In 2010, Walmart Canada Bank was introduced with the launch of the Walmart Rewards MasterCard.
Walmart 's UK subsidiary Asda (which retained its name after being acquired by Walmart) accounted for 42.7 percent of 2006 sales of Walmart 's international division. In contrast to the U.S. operations, Asda was originally and still remains primarily a grocery chain, but with a stronger focus on non-food items than most UK supermarket chains other than Tesco. As of January 31, 2017, Asda had 631 stores, including 147 from the 2010 acquisition of Netto UK. In addition to small suburban Asda Supermarkets, which has 206 locations, larger stores are branded Supercentres, which has 32 locations. Other banners include Asda Superstores (339 locations), Asda Living (33 locations), and Asda Petrol Fueling Station (21 locations). In July 2015, Asda updated its logo featuring the Walmart Asterisks behind the first ' A ' in the Logo.
On September 28, 2010, Walmart announced it would buy Massmart Holdings Ltd. of Johannesburg, South Africa in a deal worth over US $4 billion giving the company its first footprint in Africa. As of January 31, 2017, it has 373 stores in South Africa (under the banners Game Foodco (69 locations), CBW (47 locations), Game (50 locations), Builders Express (43 locations), Builders Warehouse (33 locations), Cambridge (37 locations), Dion Wired (24 locations), Rhino (20 locations), Makro (20 locations), Builders Trade Depot (15 locations), Jumbo (7 locations), and Builders Superstore (8 locations)), 11 stores in Botswana (under the banners CBW (7 locations), Game Foodco (2 locations), and Builders Warehouse (2 locations)), 1 store in Ghana (under the Game banner), 1 store in Kenya (under the Game Foodco banner), 3 stores in Lesotho (under the banners CBW (2 locations) and Game (1 location)), 2 stores in Malawi (under the Game banner), 5 stores in Mozambique (under the banners Builders Warehouse (2 locations), Game Foodco (2 locations), and CBW (1 location)), 4 stores in Namibia (under the banners Game Foodco (2 locations), Game (1 location), and CBW (1 location)), 5 stores in Nigeria (under the banners Game (4 locations) and Game Foodco (1 location), 1 store in Swaziland (under the CBW banner), 1 store in Tanzania (under the Game banner), 1 store in Uganda (under the Game banner), and 4 stores in Zambia (under the banners Game (3 locations) and Builders Warehouse (1 location)).
As of January 31, 2017, there are currently a total of 800 stores in three Asian countries: China, Japan, and India.
Walmart has joint ventures in China and several majority - owned subsidiaries. As of January 31, 2017, Walmart China (沃尔玛 Wò'ērmǎ) operates 439 stores under the Walmart Supercenter (402 locations), Sam 's Club (15 locations), Neighborhood Market (2 locations), Smart Choice (1 location), and Hypermarket (19 locations) banners. In Japan, Walmart owns 100 percent of Seiyu (西友 Seiyū) as of 2008. As of January 31, 2017, there are 341 stores under the Seiyu (Hypermarket) (94 locations), Seiyu (Supermarket) (237 locations), Seiyu (General Merchandise) (1 location), and Livin (9 locations) banners.
In February 2012, Walmart announced that the company raises its stake to 51 percent in Chinese online supermarket Yihaodian to tap rising consumer wealth and help the company offer more products. Walmart took full ownership in July 2015. In November 2006, the company announced a joint venture with Bharti Enterprises to operate in India. As foreign corporations were not allowed to enter the retail sector directly, Walmart operated through franchises and handled the wholesale end of the business. The partnership involves two joint ventures -- Bharti manages the front end, involving opening of retail outlets while Walmart takes care of the back end, such as cold chains and logistics. Walmart operates stores in India under the name Best Price Modern Wholesale. The first store opened in Amritsar on May 30, 2009. On September 14, 2012, the Government of India approved 51 percent FDI in multi-brand retails, subject to approval by individual states, effective September 20, 2012. Scott Price, Walmart 's president and CEO for Asia, told The Wall Street Journal that the company would be able to start opening Walmart stores in India within two years. Expansion into India faced some significant problems. In November 2012, Walmart admitted to spending US $25 million lobbying the Indian National Congress; -- lobbying is conventionally considered bribery in India. Walmart is conducting an internal investigation into potential violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. Bharti Walmart suspended a number of employees, rumored to include its CFO and legal team, to ensure "a complete and thorough investigation ''. As of January 31, 2017, there are 20 Best Price locations. In October 2013, Bharti and Walmart separated to pursue businesses independently.
In the mid-1990s, Walmart tried with a large financial investment to get a foothold in the German retail market. In 1997, Walmart took over the supermarket chain Wertkauf with its 21 stores for DEM750 million and in 1998, Walmart acquired 74 Interspar stores for DEM1. 3 billion.
The German market at this point was an oligopoly with high competition among companies which used a similar low price strategy as Walmart. As a result, Walmart 's low price strategy yielded no competitive advantage. Also, Walmart 's corporate culture was not viewed positively among employees and customers, particularly Walmart 's "statement of ethics '', which restricted relationships between employees and led to a public discussion in the media, resulting in a bad reputation among customers.
In July 2006, Walmart announced its withdrawal from Germany due to sustained losses. The stores were sold to the German company Metro during Walmart 's fiscal third quarter. Walmart did not disclose its losses from its German investment, but they were estimated to be around € 3 billion.
An April 2012 investigative report by The New York Times reported the allegations of a former executive of Walmart de Mexico that, in September 2005, the company had paid bribes via local fixers to officials throughout Mexico in exchange for construction permits, information, and other favors, which gave Walmart a substantial advantage over competitors. Walmart investigators found credible evidence that Mexican and American laws had been broken. Concerns were also raised that Walmart executives in the United States had "hushed up '' the allegations. A follow - up investigation by The New York Times, published December 17, 2012, revealed evidence that regulatory permission for siting, construction, and operation of nineteen stores had been obtained through bribery. There was evidence that a bribe of US $52,000 was paid to change a zoning map, which enabled the opening of a Walmart store a mile from a historical site in San Juan Teotihuacán in 2004. After the initial article was released, Walmart released a statement denying the allegations and describing its anti-corruption policy. While an official Walmart report states that it had found no evidence of corruption, the article alleges that previous internal reports had indeed turned up such evidence before the story became public. Forbes contributor Adam Hartung also commented that the bribery scandal was a reflection of Walmart 's "serious management and strategy troubles '', stating, "(s) candals are now commonplace... (e) ach scandal points out that Walmart 's strategy is harder to navigate and is running into big problems ''.
In early to mid 2012 there was a incident with CJ 's Seafood, a crawfish processing firm in Louisiana that was partnered with Walmart, that eventually gained media attention for the mistreatment of its 40 H - 2B visa workers from Mexico. These workers experienced harsh living conditions in tightly packed trailers outside of the work facility, physical threats, verbal abuse and were forced to work day - long shifts. Many of the workers were afraid to take action about the abuse due to the fact that the manager threatened the lives of their family members in the U.S. and Mexico if the abuse were to be reported. Eight of the workers confronted management at CJ 's Seafood about the mistreatment however the management denied the abuse allegations and the workers went on strike. The workers then took their stories to Walmart due to their partnership with CJ 's. While Walmart was investigating the situation, the worker began collecting signatures and eventually reached 150,000 supporters who agreed that Walmart should stand by the workers and take action. In June of 2012, the visa workers held a protest and day - long hunger strike outside of the apartment building where a Walmart board member resided. Following this protest, Walmart announced it 's final decision to no longer work with CJ 's Seafood. Less than a month later, the Department of Labor fined CJ 's Seafood "approximately $460,000 in back - pay, safety violations, wage and hour violations, civil damages and fines for abuses to the H - 2B program. The company has since shut down. ''
As of December 2012, internal investigations were ongoing into possible violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. Walmart has invested US $99 million on internal investigations, which expanded beyond Mexico to implicate operations in China, Brazil, and India. The case has added fuel to the debate as to whether foreign investment will result in increased prosperity, or if it merely allows local retail trade and economic policy to be taken over by "foreign financial and corporate interests ''.
Sam 's Club is a chain of warehouse clubs that sell groceries and general merchandise, often in bulk. They range from 71,000 to 168,000 square feet (6,600 to 15,600 square meters), with an average size of 134,000 square feet (12,400 square meters). Sam 's Clubs are membership warehouse clubs where most customers buy annual memberships. There are three kinds of memberships at Sam 's Club, each with their own benefits. Non-members can make purchases either by buying a one - day membership or paying a surcharge based on the price of the purchase. Some locations also sell gasoline. The first Sam 's Club opened in 1983 in Midwest City, Oklahoma under the name "Sam 's Wholesale Club ''.
Sam 's Club has found a niche market in recent years as a supplier to small businesses. All Sam 's Clubs are open early hours exclusively for business members and their old slogan was "We 're in Business for Small Business. '' Their slogan has been "Savings Made Simple '' since late 2009, as Sam 's Club attempts to attract a more diverse member base. In March 2009, the company announced that it plans to enter the electronic medical records business by offering a software package to physicians in small practices for US $25,000. Walmart is partnering with Dell and eClinicalWorks.com in this new venture.
Sam 's Club 's sales were US $56.828 billion, or 11.9 percent of total Walmart sales, during fiscal 2016. As of January 31, 2017, there were 660 Sam 's Clubs in 47 states and Puerto Rico. Oregon, Rhode Island (which that state 's only location closed in 2016), Vermont, and the District of Columbia are the only states and territories where a Sam 's Club does not operate. Walmart, through Walmart International, also operates 202 international Sam 's Clubs, including 160 in Mexico, 27 in Brazil, and 15 in China.
Based in San Francisco, California, Walmart 's Global eCommerce division provides online retailing for Walmart, Sam 's Club, ASDA, and all other international brands. There are several locations in the United States located in California and Oregon. They are San Bruno, Sunnyvale, Brisbane, and Portland. Locations outside of the United States include Shanghai (China), Leeds (United Kingdom), and Bangalore (India).
In February 2010, Walmart agreed to buy Vudu, a Silicon Valley start - up whose online movie service is being built into an increasing number of televisions and Blu - ray players. Terms of the acquisition were not disclosed, but a person briefed on the deal said the price for the company, which raised US $60 million in capital, was over US $100 million. It is the third most popular online movie service, with a market share of 5.3 percent.
About 40 percent of products sold in Walmart are private label store brands, which are produced for the company through contracts with manufacturers. Walmart began offering private label brands in 1991, with the launch of Sam 's Choice, a line of drinks produced by Cott Beverages for Walmart. Sam 's Choice quickly became popular and by 1993, was the third most popular beverage brand in the United States. Other Walmart brands include Great Value and Equate in the U.S. and Canada and Smart Price in Britain. A 2006 study talked of "the magnitude of mind - share Walmart appears to hold in the shoppers ' minds when it comes to the awareness of private label brands and retailers. ''
In 2010, the company teamed with Procter & Gamble to produce Secrets of the Mountain and The Jensen Project, two - hour family movies which featured the characters using Walmart and Procter & Gamble branded products. The Jensen Project also featured a preview of a product to be released in several months in Walmart stores. A third movie, A Walk in My Shoes, also aired in 2010 and a fourth is in production. Walmart 's director of brand marketing also serves as co-chair of the Association of National Advertisers 's Alliance for Family Entertainment.
Many of these purchases are to bulk up its online presence to compete against companies like Amazon.com.
On August 8, 2016, Walmart announced they would purchase Jet.com, a company founded in 2014 by Marc Lore, to start competing with amazon.com. The deal concluded on September 19 with Jet.com becoming a subsidiary that day. Jet.com has acquired its own share of online retailers such as Hayneedle.com in March 2016, Shoebuy.com in December 2016, and ModCloth.com in March 2017.
On February 15, 2017, Walmart acquired Moosejaw, an online active outdoor retailer, for approximately $51 million. Moosejaw brought with it more than 400 brands, including Patagonia, The North Face, Marmot, and Arc'teryx.
Walmart is headquartered in the Walmart Home Office complex in Bentonville, Arkansas. The company 's business model is based on selling a wide variety of general merchandise at low prices. Doug McMillon became Walmart 's CEO on February 1, 2014. McMillon began his Walmart career in warehouses while in high school. He has also worked as the head of Sam 's Club and Walmart International. The company refers to employees as "associates ''. All Walmart stores in the U.S. and Canada also have designated "greeters '' at the entrance, a practice pioneered by Sam Walton and later imitated by other retailers. Greeters are trained to help shoppers find what they want and answer their questions.
For many years, associates were identified in the store by their signature blue vest, but this practice was discontinued in June 2007 and replaced with khaki pants and polo shirts. The wardrobe change was part of a larger corporate overhaul to increase sales and rejuvenate the company 's stock price. In September 2014, the uniform was again updated to bring back a vest (paid for by the company) for store employees over the same polo 's and khaki or black pants paid for by the employee. The vest is navy blue for Walmart employees at Supercenters and discount stores, lime green for Walmart Neighborhood Market employees and yellow for self check out assosiate 's; door greeter 's and customer service manager 's. Both state "Proud Walmart Associate '' on the left breast and the "Spark '' logo covering the back. Reportedly one of the main reasons the vest was reintroduced was because some customers had trouble identifying employees. In 2016, self checkout associate 's, door greeter 's and customer service manager 's began wearing a yellow vest to be better seen by customers. By requiring employees to wear uniforms that are made up of standard "street wear '', Walmart is not required to purchase or reimbursement employees which is required in some states, as long as that clothing can be worn elsewhere. Businesses are only legally required to pay for branded shirts and pants or clothes that would be difficult to wear outside of work.
Unlike many other retailers, Walmart does not charge slotting fees to suppliers for their products to appear in the store. Instead, it focuses on selling more popular products and provides incentives for store managers to drop unpopular products.
On September 14, 2006, the company announced that it would phase out its layaway program, citing declining use and increased costs. Layaway ceased on November 19, 2006, and required merchandise pickup by December 8, 2006. Walmart now focuses on other payment options, such as increased use of six - and twelve - month, zero - interest financing. The layaway location in most stores is now used for Walmart 's Site - To - Store program, which was introduced in March 2007. This enables walmart.com customers to buy goods online with a free shipping option, and have goods shipped to the nearest store for pickup. Walmart continues to offer seasonal Layaway on select categories from late summer through early Christmas and year - round in their jewelry department.
On September 15, 2017, Walmart announced that it would build a new headquarters in Bentonville to replace it 's current 1971 building and consolidate operations that have spread out to 20 different buildings throughout Bentonville.
For the fiscal year ending January 31, 2015, Walmart reported net income of US $17 billion on US $485.7 billion of revenue. The company 's international operations accounted for US $197.7 billion, or 40.7 percent, of sales. Walmart is the world 's 18th largest public corporation, according to the Forbes Global 2000 list, and the largest public corporation when ranked by revenue.
Walmart is governed by a fifteen - member Board of Directors elected annually by shareholders. Gregory B. Penner, son - in - law of S. Robson Walton and the grandson - in - law of Sam Walton serves as Chairman of the Board. Doug McMillon serves as President and Chief Executive Officer. Members of the board include Aída Álvarez, Jim Breyer, M. Michele Burns, James Cash, Roger Corbett, Douglas Daft, David Glass, Marissa Mayer, Allen Questrom, Arne M. Sorenson, Jim Walton, S. Robson Walton, Christopher J. Williams, and Linda S. Wolf.
Notable former members of the board include Hillary Clinton (1985 -- 1992) and Tom Coughlin (2003 -- 2004), the latter having served as Vice Chairman. Clinton left the board before the 1992 U.S. Presidential Election, and Coughlin left in December 2005 after pleading guilty to wire fraud and tax evasion for stealing hundreds of thousands of dollars from Walmart. On August 11, 2006, he was sentenced to 27 months home confinement, five years of probation, and ordered to pay US $411,000 in restitution.
After Sam Walton 's death in 1992, Don Soderquist, Chief Operating Officer and Senior Vice Chairman, became known as the "Keeper of the Culture. ''
WAL - MART STORES, INC. is a joint - stock company registered with the SEC. As of March 2017 it has 3,292,377,090 outstanding shares. These are held mainly by the Walton family, a number of institutions and funds.
In North America, Walmart 's primary competitors include department stores like Aldi, Kmart, Kroger, Ingles, Publix, Target, Shopko, and Meijer, and Winn Dixie, Canada 's The Real Canadian Superstore and Giant Tiger, and Mexico 's Comercial Mexicana and Soriana. Competitors of Walmart 's Sam 's Club division are Costco and the smaller BJ 's Wholesale Club chain. Walmart 's move into the grocery business in the late 1990s also set it against major supermarket chains in both the United States and Canada. Some retail analysts see regional grocery store chain WinCo Foods as serious competition for Walmart. Several smaller retailers, primarily dollar stores, such as Family Dollar and Dollar General, have been able to find a small niche market and compete successfully against Walmart. In 2004, Walmart responded by testing its own dollar store concept, a subsection of some stores called "Pennies - n - Cents. ''
Walmart also had to face fierce competition in some foreign markets. For example, in Germany it had captured just 2 percent of the German food market following its entry into the market in 1997 and remained "a secondary player '' behind Aldi with 19 percent. Walmart continues to do well in the UK, where its Asda subsidiary is the second largest retailer.
In May 2006, after entering the South Korean market in 1998, Walmart sold all 16 of its South Korean outlets to Shinsegae, a local retailer, for US $882 million. Shinsegae re-branded the Walmarts as E-mart stores.
Walmart struggled to export its brand elsewhere as it rigidly tried to reproduce its model overseas. In China, Walmart hopes to succeed by adapting and doing things preferable to Chinese citizens. For example, it found that Chinese consumers preferred to select their own live fish and seafood; stores began displaying the meat uncovered and installed fish tanks, leading to higher sales.
Walmart customers cite low prices as the most important reason for shopping there. The average U.S. Walmart customer 's income is below the national average, and analysts estimated that more than one - fifth of them lack a bank account; twice the national rate. A 2006 Walmart report also indicated that Walmart customers are sensitive to higher utility costs and gas prices. A poll indicated that after the 2004 US Presidential Election, 76 percent of voters who shopped at Walmart once a week voted for George W. Bush while only 23 percent supported senator John Kerry. When measured against similar retailers in the U.S., frequent Walmart shoppers were rated the most politically conservative. Thus, as of 2014, the "majority (54 percent) (of) Americans who prefer shopping at Walmart report that they oppose same - sex marriage, while 40 percent are in favor of it. ''
Due to its prominence in the Bible Belt, Walmart is known for its "tradition of tailoring its service to churchgoing customers ''. Walmart only carries clean versions of hip - hop audio CDs and in cooperation with The Timothy Plan, places "plastic sheathes over suggestive women 's periodicals and banned ' lad mags ' such as Maxim '' magazine. In addition, Walmart also caters to its Christian customer base by selling Christian books and media, "such as VeggieTales videos and The Purpose - Driven Life '', which earns the company over US $1 billion annually.
In 2006, Walmart took steps to expand its U.S. customer base, announcing a modification in its U.S. stores from a "one - size - fits - all '' merchandising strategy to one designed to "reflect each of six demographic groups -- African - Americans, the affluent, empty - nesters, Hispanics, suburbanites, and rural residents. '' Around six months later, it unveiled a new slogan: "Saving people money so they can live better lives ''. This reflects the three main groups into which Walmart categorizes its 200 million customers: "brand aspirationals '' (people with low incomes who are obsessed with names like KitchenAid), "price - sensitive affluents '' (wealthier shoppers who love deals), and "value - price shoppers '' (people who like low prices and can not afford much more). Walmart has also made steps to appeal to more liberal customers, for example, by rejecting the American Family Association 's recommendations and carrying the DVD Brokeback Mountain, a love story between two gay cowboys in Wyoming.
Many Walmart technology projects are coded in the open and available through the Walmart Labs GitHub repository as Open Source software under the OSI approved Apache V2. 0 license. At the time of writing (November 2016), 141 public Github projects are listed.
During a migration of the walmart.com retail platform to Facebook React and Node. js, the Electrode project was created to power the e-commerce platform which serves 80 million visitors per month and 15 million items.
Electrode provides various developer enhancements and tools for the developer including Node. js configuration and feature management.
Alex Grigoryan of Walmart Labs released a statement on Medium.com October 3, 2016 explaining the details of the applications and the scale that they operate at Walmart.
As the largest retailer in the U.S., Walmart collects and analyzes a large amount of consumer data. The big data sets are mined for use in predictive analytics, which allow the company to optimize operations by predicting customer 's habits. Walmart 's datacenter is unofficially referred to as Area 71.
In April 2011, Walmart acquired Kosmix to develop software for analyzing real - time data streams. In August 2012, Walmart announced its Polaris search engine.
The amount of data gathered by Walmart has raised privacy concerns.
Sam Walton believed that the company 's contribution to society was the fact that it operated efficiently, thereby lowering the cost of living for customers, and, therefore, in that sense was a "powerful force for good '', despite his refusal to contribute cash to philanthropic causes. Having begun to feel that his wealth attracted people who wanted nothing more than a "handout '', he explained that while he believed his family had been fortunate and wished to use his wealth to aid worthy causes like education, they could not be expected to "solve every personal problem that comes to (their) attention ''. He explained later in his autobiography, "We feel very strongly that Wal - Mart really is not, and should not be, in the charity business, '' stating "any debit has to be passed along to somebody -- either shareholders or our customers. '' Since Sam Walton 's death in 1992, however, Walmart and the Walmart Foundation dramatically increased charitable giving. For example, in 2005, Walmart donated US $20 million in cash and merchandise for Hurricane Katrina relief. Today, Walmart 's charitable donations approach US $1 billion each year.
Kenneth Stone, Professor of Economics at Iowa State University, in a paper published in Farm Foundation in 1997, found that some small towns can lose almost half of their retail trade within ten years of a Walmart store opening. He compared the changes to previous competitors small town shops have faced in the past -- from the development of the railroads and the Sears Roebuck catalog to shopping malls. He concludes that small towns are more affected by "discount mass merchandiser stores '' than larger towns and that shop owners who adapt to the ever - changing retail market can "co-exist and even thrive in this type of environment. ''
One study found Walmart 's entry into a new market has a profound impact on its competition. When a Walmart opens in a new market, median sales drop 40 percent at similar high - volume stores, 17 percent at supermarkets and 6 percent at drugstores, according to a June 2009 study by researchers at several universities and led by the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College. A Loyola University Chicago study suggested that the impact a Walmart store has on a local business is correlated to its distance from that store. The leader of that study admits that this factor is stronger in smaller towns and does n't apply to more urban areas saying "It 'd be so tough to nail down what 's up with Wal - Mart ''. These findings are underscored by another study conducted in 2009 by the National Bureau of Economics that showed "large, negative effects '' for competing businesses within five to ten miles of the new opening big box retailer. This same study also found that the local retailers experience virtually no benefit. Walmart 's negative effects on local retailers may be partially explained by studies that find that local firms re-invest nearly 63 % more of profits in other local businesses compared to chain retailers, as found by the Maine Center of Economic Policy in 2011.
Walmart has been subject to criticism from various groups and individuals, including labor unions, community groups, grassroots organizations, religious organizations, environmental groups, and the company 's own customers and employees. They have protested against the company 's policies and business practices, including charges of racial and gender discrimination. Other areas of criticism include the company 's foreign product sourcing, treatment of suppliers, employee compensation and working conditions, environmental practices, the use of public subsidies, the company 's security policies, and slavery. Walmart denies doing anything wrong and maintains that low prices are the result of efficiency.
With over 2.2 million employees worldwide, Walmart has faced a torrent of lawsuits and issues with regards to its workforce. These issues involve low wages, poor working conditions, inadequate health care, as well as issues involving the company 's strong anti-union policies. In November 2013, the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) announced that it had found that in 13 U.S. states Wal - Mart had pressured employees not to engage in strikes on Black Friday, and had illegally disciplined workers who had engaged in strikes. Critics point to Walmart 's high turnover rate as evidence of an unhappy workforce, although other factors may be involved. Approximately 70 percent of its employees leave within the first year. Despite this turnover rate, the company is still able to affect unemployment rates. This was found in a study by Oklahoma State University which states, "Walmart is found to have substantially lowered the relative unemployment rates of blacks in those counties where it is present, but to have had only a limited impact on relative incomes after the influences of other socio - economic variables were taken into account. ''
Walmart is the largest private employer in the United States, employing almost five times as many people as IBM, the second largest employer. Walmart employs more African Americans than any other private employer in the United States.
On February 23, 2015, Walmart announced that it is bumping its minimum wage to US $10 an hour by February 2016.
In 2007, a gender discrimination lawsuit, Dukes v. Wal - Mart Stores, Inc., was filed against Walmart, alleging that female employees were discriminated against in matters regarding pay and promotions. A class action suit was sought, which would have been the nation 's largest in history, covering 1.5 million past and current employees. On June 20, 2011, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Wal - Mart 's favor, stating that the plaintiffs did not have enough in common to constitute a class. The court ruled unanimously that because of the variability of the plaintiffs ' circumstances, the class action could not proceed as presented, and furthermore, in a 5 -- 4 decision that it could not proceed as any kind of class action suit. Several plaintiffs, including the lead plaintiff, Betty Dukes, expressed their intent to file individual discrimination lawsuits separately.
According to a consultant hired by plaintiffs in a sex discrimination lawsuit, in 2001, Wal - Mart 's EEOC filings showed that female employees made up 65 percent of Wal - Mart 's hourly paid workforce, but only 33 percent of its management. Just 35 percent of its store managers were women, compared to 57 percent at similar retailers. Wal - Mart says comparisons with other retailers are unfair, because it classifies employees differently; if department managers were included in the totals, women would make up 60 percent of the managerial ranks. Others have criticized the lawsuit as without basis in the law and as an abuse of the class action mechanism. In 2007, Wal - Mart was named by the National Association for Female Executives as one of the top 35 companies for Executive Women.
Wal - Mart 's rating on the Human Rights Campaign 's Corporate Equality Index, a measure of how companies treat LGBT employees and customers, has increased greatly during the past decade. The company was praised for expanding its anti-discrimination policy protecting gay and lesbian employees, as well as for a new definition of "family '' that included same - sex partners. However, they have been criticized by the HRC in other areas, such as not renewing its membership in the National Gay and Lesbian Chamber of Commerce.
In January 2006, Wal - Mart announced that "diversity efforts include new groups of minority, female and gay employees that meet at Wal - Mart headquarters in Bentonville to advise the company on marketing and internal promotion. There are seven Business Resource Groups: women, African - Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans, Gays and Lesbians, and a disabled group. ''
In April 2016, Walmart announced that it plans to eliminate eggs from battery cages from its supply chain by 2025. The decision was particularly important because of Walmart 's large market share and influence on the rest of the industry. The move was praised by major animal welfare groups and heralded as an "end of an era '' by HSUS president Wayne Pacelle, but a poultry trade group representative expressed skepticism about the decision 's impact. Walmart 's cage - free eggs will not come from free range producers, but rather industrial - scale farms where the birds will be allotted between 1 and 1.5 square feet each, a stressful arrangement which can cause cannibalism. Unlike battery cages, the systems Walmart 's suppliers will use allow the hens to move around, but relative to battery cages they have higher hen mortality rates and present distinct environmental and worker health problems.
On November 28, 2016 Paola Gaviño in coordination with the animal protection NGOs, The Humane League and Mercy For Animals, launched a multinational campaign to raise awareness of Walmart 's failure to produce a policy to source 100 % cage - free eggs throughout Latin America. Walmart has not committed to phasing out battery cages in Latin America like it has committed to do so in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. The campaign argues that battery cages are unnecessarily cruel and also increase the risk of food safety issues, including an increased risk of Salmonella contamination.
On March 10, 2017 a Thunderclap campaign reached over one million people and protests have occurred in from Lynn, MA to Seattle, Washington; as well as Mexico City, where Walmart Mexico 's HQ is located. On March 30, 2017, activists traveled to Walmart 's headquarters in Mexico to deliver more than 125,000 petition signatures from campaign supporters.
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in experiments the double-blind technique is used to avoid | Blinded experiment - wikipedia
A blind or blinded - experiment is an experiment in which information about the test is masked (kept) from the participant, to reduce or eliminate bias, until after a trial outcome is known. It is understood that bias may be intentional or subconscious, thus no dishonesty is implied by blinding. If both tester and subject are blinded, the trial is called a double - blind experiment.
Blind testing is used wherever items are to be compared without influences from testers ' preferences or expectations, for example in clinical trials to evaluate the effectiveness of medicinal drugs and procedures without placebo effect, observer bias, or conscious deception; and comparative testing of commercial products to objectively assess user preferences without being influenced by branding and other properties not being tested.
Blinding can be imposed on researchers, technicians, or subjects. The opposite of a blind trial is an open trial. Blind experiments are an important tool of the scientific method, in many fields of research -- medicine, psychology and the social sciences, natural sciences such as physics and biology, applied sciences such as market research, and many others. In some disciplines, such as medicinal drug testing, blind experiments are considered essential.
In some cases, while blind experiments would be useful, they are impractical or unethical; an example is in the field of developmental psychology: although it would be informative to raise children under arbitrary experimental conditions, such as on a remote island with a fabricated enculturation, it is a violation of ethics and human rights.
The terms blind (adjective) or to blind (transitive verb) when used in this sense are figurative extensions of the literal idea of blindfolding someone. The terms masked or to mask may be used for the same concept; this is commonly the case in ophthalmology, where the word ' blind ' is often used in the literal sense.
Some argue that the use of the term "blind '' for academic review or experiments is offensive and prefer the alternate term "masked '' or "anonymous ''.
The French Academy of Sciences originated the first recorded blind experiments in 1784: the Academy set up a commission to investigate the claims of animal magnetism proposed by Franz Mesmer. Headed by Benjamin Franklin and Antoine Lavoisier, the commission carried out experiments asking mesmerists to identify objects that had previously been filled with "vital fluid '', including trees and flasks of water. The subjects were unable to do so. The commission went on to examine claims involving the curing of "mesmerized '' patients. These patients showed signs of improved health, but the commission attributed this to the fact that these patients believed they would get better -- the first scientific suggestion of the now well - known placebo effect.
In 1799 the British chemist Humphry Davy performed another early blind experiment. In studying the effects of nitrous oxide (laughing gas) on human physiology, Davy deliberately did not tell his subjects what concentration of the gas they were breathing, or whether they were breathing ordinary air.
Blind experiments went on to be used outside of purely scientific settings. In 1817, a committee of scientists and musicians compared a Stradivarius violin to one with a guitar - like design made by the naval engineer François Chanot. A well - known violinist played each instrument while the committee listened in the next room to avoid prejudice.
One of the first essays advocating a blinded approach to experiments in general came from Claude Bernard in the latter half of the 19th century, who recommended splitting any scientific experiment between the theorist who conceives the experiment and a naive (and preferably uneducated) observer who registers the results without foreknowledge of the theory or hypothesis being tested. This suggestion contrasted starkly with the prevalent Enlightenment - era attitude that scientific observation can only be objectively valid when undertaken by a well - educated, informed scientist.
Double - blind methods came into especial prominence in the mid-20th century.
Single - blind describes experiments where information that could introduce bias or otherwise skew the result is withheld from the participants, but the experimenter will be in full possession of the facts.
In a single - blind experiment, the individual subjects do not know whether they are so - called "test '' subjects or members of an "experimental control '' group. Single - blind experimental design is used where the experimenters either must know the full facts (for example, when comparing sham to real surgery) and so the experimenters can not themselves be blind, or where the experimenters will not introduce further bias and so the experimenters need not be blind. However, there is a risk that subjects are influenced by interaction with the researchers -- known as the experimenter 's bias. Single - blind trials are especially risky in psychology and social science research, where the experimenter has an expectation of what the outcome should be, and may consciously or subconsciously influence the behavior of the subject.
A classic example of a single - blind test is the Pepsi Challenge. A tester, often a marketing person, prepares two sets of cups of cola labeled "A '' and "B ''. One set of cups is filled with Pepsi, while the other is filled with Coca - Cola. The tester knows which soda is in which cup but is not supposed to reveal that information to the subjects. Volunteer subjects are encouraged to try the two cups of soda and polled for which ones they prefer. One of the problems with a single - blind test like this is that the tester can unintentionally give subconscious cues which influence the subjects. In addition, it is possible the tester could intentionally introduce bias by preparing the separate sodas differently (e.g., by putting more ice in one cup or by pushing one cup closer to the subject). If the tester is a marketing person employed by the company which is producing the challenge, there 's always the possibility of a conflict of interest where the marketing person is aware that future income will be based on the results of the test.
Double - blind describes an especially stringent way of conducting an experiment which attempts to eliminate subjective, unrecognized biases carried by an experiment 's subjects (usually human) and conductors. Double - blind studies were first used in 1907 by W.H.R. Rivers and H.N. Webber in the investigation of the effects of caffeine.
In most cases, double - blind experiments are regarded to achieve a higher standard of scientific rigor than single - blind or non-blind experiments.
In these double - blind experiments, neither the participants nor the researchers know which participants belong to the control group, nor the test group. Only after all data have been recorded (and, in some cases, analyzed) do the researchers learn which participants were which. Performing an experiment in double - blind fashion can greatly lessen the power of preconceived notions or physical cues (e.g., placebo effect, observer bias, experimenter 's bias) to distort the results (by making researchers or participants behave differently from in everyday life). Random assignment of test subjects to the experimental and control groups is a critical part of any double - blind research design. The key that identifies the subjects and which group they belonged to is kept by a third party, and is not revealed to the researchers until the study is over.
Double - blind methods can be applied to any experimental situation in which there is a possibility that the results will be affected by conscious or unconscious bias on the part of researchers, participants, or both. For example, in animal studies, both the carer of the animals and the assessor of the results have to be blinded; otherwise the carer might treat control subjects differently and alter the results.
Computer - controlled experiments are sometimes also erroneously referred to as double - blind experiments, since software may not cause the type of direct bias between researcher and subject. Development of surveys presented to subjects through computers shows that bias can easily be built into the process. Voting systems are also examples where bias can easily be constructed into an apparently simple machine based system. In analogy to the human researcher described above, the part of the software that provides interaction with the human is presented to the subject as the blinded researcher, while the part of the software that defines the key is the third party. An example is the ABX test, where the human subject has to identify an unknown stimulus X as being either A or B.
A triple - blind study is an extension of the double - blind design; the committee monitoring response variables is not told the identity of the groups. The committee is simply given data for groups A and B. A triple - blind study has the theoretical advantage of allowing the monitoring committee to evaluate the response variable results more objectively. This assumes that appraisal of efficacy and harm, as well as requests for special analyses, may be biased if group identity is known. However, in a trial where the monitoring committee has an ethical responsibility to ensure participant safety, such a design may be counterproductive since in this case monitoring is often guided by the constellation of trends and their directions. In addition, by the time many monitoring committees receive data, often any emergency situation has long passed.
Double - blinding is relatively easy to achieve in drug studies, by formulating the investigational drug and the control (either a placebo or an established drug) to have identical appearance (color, taste, etc.). Patients are randomly assigned to the control or experimental group and given random numbers by a study coordinator, who also encodes the drugs with matching random numbers. Neither the patients nor the researchers monitoring the outcome know which patient is receiving which treatment, until the study is over and the random code is revealed.
Effective blinding can be difficult to achieve where the treatment is notably effective (indeed, studies have been suspended in cases where the tested drug combinations were so effective that it was deemed unethical to continue withholding the findings from the control group, and the general population), or where the treatment is very distinctive in taste or has unusual side - effects that allow the researcher and / or the subject to guess which group they were assigned to. It is also difficult to use the double blind method to compare surgical and non-surgical interventions (although sham surgery, involving a simple incision, might be ethically permitted). A good clinical protocol will foresee these potential problems to ensure blinding is as effective as possible. It has also been argued that even in a double - blind experiment, general attitudes of the experimenter such as skepticism or enthusiasm towards the tested procedure can be subconsciously transferred to the test subjects.
Evidence - based medicine practitioners prefer blinded randomised controlled trials (RCTs), where that is a possible experimental design. These are high on the hierarchy of evidence; only a meta analysis of several well designed RCTs is considered more reliable.
Modern nuclear physics and particle physics experiments often involve large numbers of data analysts working together to extract quantitative data from complex datasets. In particular, the analysts want to report accurate systematic error estimates for all of their measurements; this is difficult or impossible if one of the errors is observer bias. To remove this bias, the experimenters devise blind analysis techniques, where the experimental result is hidden from the analysts until they 've agreed -- based on properties of the data set other than the final value -- that the analysis techniques are fixed.
One example of a blind analysis occurs in neutrino experiments, like the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, where the experimenters wish to report the total number N of neutrinos seen. The experimenters have preexisting expectations about what this number should be, and these expectations must not be allowed to bias the analysis. Therefore, the experimenters are allowed to see an unknown fraction f of the dataset. They use these data to understand the backgrounds, signal - detection efficiencies, detector resolutions, etc... However, since no one knows the "blinding fraction '' f, no one has preexisting expectations about the meaningless neutrino count N ' = N × f in the visible data; therefore, the analysis does not introduce any bias into the final number N which is reported. Another blinding scheme is used in B meson analyses in experiments like BaBar and CDF; here, the crucial experimental parameter is a correlation between certain particle energies and decay times -- which require an extremely complex and painstaking analysis -- and particle charge signs, which are fairly trivial to measure. Analysts are allowed to work with all the energy and decay data, but are forbidden from seeing the sign of the charge, and thus are unable to see the correlation (if any). At the end of the experiment, the correct charge signs are revealed; the analysis software is run once (with no subjective human intervention), and the resulting numbers are published. Searches for rare events, like electron neutrinos in MiniBooNE or proton decay in Super-Kamiokande, require a different class of blinding schemes.
The "hidden '' part of the experiment -- the fraction f for SNO, the charge - sign database for CDF -- is usually called the "blindness box ''. At the end of the analysis period, one is allowed to "unblind the data '' and "open the box ''.
In a police photo lineup, an officer shows a group of photos to a witness or crime victim and asks him or her to pick out the suspect. This is basically a single - blind test of the witness 's memory, and may be subject to subtle or overt influence by the officer. There is a growing movement in law enforcement to move to a double - blind procedure in which the officer who shows the photos to the witness does not know which photo is of the suspect.
In recruiting musicians to perform in orchestras and so on, blind auditions are now routinely done: the musicians perform behind a screen so that their physical appearance and gender can not prejudice the listener judging the performance.
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who played saxophone on shine on you crazy diamond | Shine on You Crazy Diamond - wikipedia
"Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' is a nine - part Pink Floyd composition written by David Gilmour, Roger Waters, and Rick Wright. It appeared on Pink Floyd 's 1975 concept album Wish You Were Here.
The song was conceived and written as a tribute and remembrance to their former band member Syd Barrett; the title of the song itself can also be seen as a reference to Barrett (Shine On You Crazy Diamond). The work was first performed on their 1974 French tour and recorded for their 1975 concept album Wish You Were Here. It was intended to be a side - long composition (like "Atom Heart Mother '' and "Echoes '') but was ultimately split into two sections and used to bookend the album, with new material composed that was more relevant to the album and to the situation in which the band found themselves.
Bassist Roger Waters commented, as the sessions were underway, that "at times the group was there only physically. Our bodies were there, but our minds and feelings somewhere else. '' Eventually an idea was raised to split the epic in two, Parts I -- V and Parts VI -- IX.
According to guitarist David Gilmour and drummer Nick Mason on the Wish You Were Here episode of In the Studio with Redbeard, Pink Floyd recorded a satisfactory take of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '', but because of a new mixing console which was installed at Abbey Road Studios, it needed to be re-recorded because excessive ' bleed ' from other instruments could be heard on the drum tracks, as explained by Gilmour:
We originally did the backing track over the course of several days, but we came to the conclusion that it just was n't good enough. So we did it again in one day flat and got it a lot better. Unfortunately nobody understood the desk properly and when we played it back we found that someone had switched the echo returns from monitors to tracks one and two. That affected the tom - toms and guitars and keyboards which were playing along at the time. There was no way of saving it, so we just had to do it yet again.
On part 3, a piano part seems to have been added "live '' to the final mix, making it absent from multitrack masters. That part was re-recorded at British Grove Studios by pianist Richard Wright during the multi-channel mix used for the album Immersion Edition and the SACD release.
Nick Mason said:
With the invention of 16 - track and 2 - inch tape there was the belief for quite a while that there would be something wrong with editing tape that big. Consequently whenever we played these pieces, they had to be played from beginning to end. Particularly for Roger (Waters) and myself being the rhythm section, which would be laid down first, this was (chuckling) a fairly tough business because the whole thing had to be sort of right.
One day during recording, Barrett (now heavyset, with a completely shaved head and eyebrows) wandered into the studio (although Mason has since stated that he is not entirely certain whether "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' was the particular work being recorded when Barrett was there). Because of his drastically changed appearance, the band did not recognize him for some time. When they eventually determined the withdrawn man in the corner was Barrett, Roger Waters allegedly became so distressed about his appearance he was reduced to tears. Someone asked to play the suite again for Barrett and he said a second playback was not needed when they had just heard it. When asked what he thought of the song, Barrett said it sounded a "bit old ''. He subsequently slipped away during celebrations for Gilmour 's wedding to Ginger Hasenbein, which took place later that day. Gilmour confirmed this story, although he could not recall which composition they were working on when Barrett showed up.
The episode is resumed by Wright as follows:
Roger was there, and he was sitting at the desk, and I came in and I saw this guy sitting behind him -- huge, bald, fat guy. I thought, "He looks a bit... strange... '' Anyway, so I sat down with Roger at the desk and we worked for about ten minutes, and this guy kept on getting up and brushing his teeth and then sitting -- doing really weird things, but keeping quiet. And I said to Roger, "Who is he? '' and Roger said "I do n't know. '' and I said "Well, I assumed he was a friend of yours, '' and he said "No, I do n't know who he is. '' Anyway, it took me a long time, and then suddenly I realised it was Syd, after maybe 45 minutes. He came in as we were doing the vocals for "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '', which was basically about Syd. He just, for some incredible reason picked the very day that we were doing a song which was about him. And we had n't seen him, I do n't think, for two years before. That 's what 's so incredibly... weird about this guy. And a bit disturbing, as well, I mean, particularly when you see a guy, that you do n't, you could n't recognize him. And then, for him to pick the very day we want to start putting vocals on, which is a song about him. Very strange.
As neither the original 1975 vinyl release nor the CD re-release actually delineate the various parts precisely, the make - up of the parts below is based on a comparison of the recorded timings with the identifications in the published sheet music. Without benefit of the publication, it is easy to mistake Parts I and II as Part I, Part III as Part II, and so on, with the extensive postlude of Part V (at 11: 10) as the beginning of the fifth section.
Part I (Wright, Waters, Gilmour; from 0: 00 to 3: 54) There are no lyrics in Part I. The instrumental begins with a fade - in of a G minor chord created with an EMS VCS 3, ARP Solina, a Hammond organ, and a wine glass harp (recycled from an earlier project known as Household Objects). This is followed by Wright 's Minimoog passages leading into a lengthy, bluesy guitar solo played by Gilmour on a Fender Stratocaster (neck pickup) using a heavily compressed sound and reverb. Part I ends with the synthesizer chord fading into the background. During the fade - out some very faint conversation in the studio can be heard on the left channel.
Part II (Gilmour, Waters, Wright; from 3: 54 to 6: 27) begins with a four - note theme (B ♭, F, G (below the B ♭), E) (known informally as "Syd 's theme '') repeated throughout much of the entire section. This theme leads the harmony to C major (in comparison to the use of C minor in Part I). Mason starts his drumming and Waters his bass playing after the fourth playing of the four - note theme, which is the point where the riffs get into a fixed tempo, in 6 / 8 time. The chord leads back to G minor (as from Part I), followed by E ♭ major and D major back to a coda from G minor. This part includes another solo by Gilmour.
Part III (Waters, Gilmour, Wright; from 6: 27 to 8: 42) begins with a Minimoog solo by Wright accompanied by a less complex variation of Mason 's drums from Part II. This part includes Gilmour 's third guitar solo, in the G natural minor scale, and ends with a fade into Part IV. When performed on the Animals tour, Gilmour added distortion to the guitar for this solo. This solo is often dropped in live performances while the rest of part III is still played -- notably on Delicate Sound of Thunder and Pulse.
Part IV (Gilmour, Wright, Waters; from 8: 42 to 11: 10) Waters sings his lyrics, with Gilmour, Wright and female backing vocalists Venetta Fields and Carlena Williams on harmonies.
Part V (Waters, Gilmour, Wright; from 11: 10 to 13: 32) Part IV is followed by two guitars repeating an arpeggio variation on the main theme for about a minute with the theme of Part II. A baritone saxophone overlays the sounds, played by Dick Parry. The saxophone changes from a baritone to a tenor saxophone, as a time signature switch from 6 / 8 to 12 / 8 creates the feeling that the tempo doubles up. The sax solo is accompanied by a Solina string synthesizer keyboard sound. A machine - like hum fades in with musique concrète and segues into "Welcome to the Machine ''.
Part VI (Wright, Waters, Gilmour; from 0: 00 to 4: 59) begins with a howling wind from the preceding song "Wish You Were Here ''. As the wind fades away, Gilmour comes in on the bass guitar. Waters adds another bass with a continuing riff pattern. Then Wright comes in playing a Solina String Ensemble Synthesizer and after a few measures, several rhythm guitar parts (Gilmour played the power chord rhythm part using his black Fender Stratocaster before switching to lap steel guitar for the solo in live performances from 1974 -- 77. Snowy White did the rhythm guitar parts on this track on the band 's 1977 "In the Flesh '' tour) and drums come in, as well as a Minimoog synthesizer to play the opening solo. At the two - minute mark, Wright 's Minimoog and Gilmour 's lap steel guitar play notes in unison before Gilmour does a lap steel guitar solo (the lap steel had open G tuning with the high D string tuned to E) with some counterpointing from Wright 's synthesizers. It lasts for about three minutes (four when played on the band 's "In the Flesh '' tour) and Gilmour played each section an octave higher than the previous one. The highest note he hit on the lap steel / slide solo was a B ♭ 6, followed by a reprise of the guitar solo from Part IV (which was played by White live on Pink Floyd 's 1977 tour so Gilmour could switch back to his Fender Stratocaster). The song then switches time signatures to 6 / 8 (found in Parts II -- V), giving the appearance of a slower tempo and reintroducing the vocals.
Part VII (Waters, Gilmour, Wright; from 4: 59 to 6: 09) contains the vocals, in a similar vein to Part IV though half the length, before segueing into Part VIII. Waters again sings the lead vocals with Gilmour, Wright, Venetta Fields and Carlena Williams providing backing vocals.
Part VIII (Gilmour, Wright, Waters; from 6: 09 to 9: 07) brings in Waters to play a second electric guitar for a high - noted sound riff while Gilmour plays the arpeggio riff that bridges Parts VII and VIII. A solid progression of funk in 4 / 4 plays for about two minutes before very slowly fading out as a single sustained keyboard note fades in around the nine - minute mark. Throughout this section, Wright 's keyboards dominate, with the use of a Minimoog synthesizer, and a Hohner Clavinet. Originally the section clocked in at 8 minutes before it was edited down to three minutes on the final version (the unedited Part 8 without the electric piano and Minimoog overdubs surfaced on a bootleg called The Extraction Tapes). When performed on the "In the Flesh '' tour in 1977, the section would be extended to between 5 and 10 minutes as it would feature guitar solos from Gilmour (which would vary from funky power chords to a proper solo as the Animals tour progressed) and Snowy White. In addition to their guitar solos, there was also occasional trading of leads from Gilmour and White instead of the keyboard sounds as heard on record.
Part IX (Wright, from 9: 07 to 12: 28) is played in 4 / 4 time. Gilmour described Part IX in an interview as "a slow 4 / 4 funeral march... the parting musical eulogy to Syd ''. Again, Wright 's keyboards dominate, with little guitar input from Gilmour. Mason 's drums play for much of this part, and the keyboards play for the final minute before fading out. On the fade - out, a short keyboard part of the melody of "See Emily Play '' (at 12: 12), one of Barrett 's signature Pink Floyd songs, can be heard. Part IX, and the album, ends in G major, a Picardy third. When performed early on the Animals tour, the part begins with the piano (as heard on record) then the synth solo is played (as on record) by Dick Parry with some slide guitar accompaniment by Snowy White would then change to half synthesizer / half harmony lead guitar solo for the remainder of European leg and first US leg. For the final US leg, after the piano began it was a bluesy guitar solo from Gilmour then harmony guitars from Gilmour and White (Gilmour playing the highest parts) and then ending like on record. This was the final solo writing credit Wright would receive in Pink Floyd during his lifetime, as well as his last writing credit of any kind until The Division Bell in 1994.
The song series was first performed as "Shine On '', during the band 's French tour in June 1974. It was introduced as "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' on the British tour in November 1974. The set was originally performed as one whole suite with some of the parts differing from the album versions, and samplings of Barrett 's solo song "Dark Globe '' during the opening of the performance. The version from the British tour was included on the 2011 Experience and Immersion editions of Wish You Were Here. The multi-part version of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' was first performed on the band 's 1975 North American tour with "Have a Cigar '' thrown into the middle of the piece. The 1975 versions were close to the final versions, except parts one and nine were still not refined yet. The band performed the whole nine - part "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' as part of the Wish You Were Here portion of their 1977 In the Flesh Tour, with extra musicians White on guitar and backing vocals and Parry on saxophones.
Parts I -- V became a staple of Floyd 's performances from 1987 -- 94. The track opened shows for most of the A Momentary Lapse of Reason tour of 1987 -- 89 and the tour closing performance at Knebworth in 1990 with Candy Dulfer on saxophone. The first eleven performances had "Echoes '' as the show opener before the band proceeded to play all of A Momentary Lapse of Reason in the rest of the first half in a slightly different sequence to the album. A condensed edition of the track (without the Gilmour solo in Part III) would then open the second half of the shows on the group 's 1994 The Division Bell tour (documented on Pulse) except on shows where all of The Dark Side of the Moon was performed when "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' opened the first half and in the last month and a half of the tour the band added part VII to Parts I -- V. A similar version was also played during David Gilmour 's Rattle That Lock Tour in 2015 with the according screen film on display.
Gilmour performed almost the whole suite (save part IX) at his 2001 and 2002 semi-unplugged concerts (documented on his 2002 David Gilmour in Concert DVD). "There was, '' he said, "a moment of thinking, ' Shall I attempt an acoustic guitar version of the long, synthesised opening? ' It came to me one day how I could do it, and it worked out not too badly. ''
Gilmour performed parts I -- II and IV -- V (in a new arrangement) on his 2006 On an Island solo tour. Part III was omitted and Parts I and II were simplified and more guitar - focused. Gilmour performed Parts I -- V on his Live in Gdańsk album on disc two and on the DVD in the four - disc edition of the album. The five - disc edition and the online downloads available in the three and four - disc editions include Parts I -- V recorded in Venice and Vienne in 2006. In many of his performances, solo and with Pink Floyd, Gilmour alters the vocal melody to avoid the higher notes that were originally sung by Waters.
Waters has also performed the epic on his 1999 and 2000 tours documented on his In the Flesh -- Live album and DVD which was a condensed parts I, II, IV, VI, VII, and IX. Part VI on these performances had a lap steel solo from Jon Carin then guitar solos from Doyle Bramhall II and White. Then on Waters ' 2002 tour, he played all nine parts like on record (although part VIII was shortened). An abridged version of parts I -- V was performed on Waters ' 2006 -- 07 The Dark Side of the Moon Live tour.
with:
Three different edited versions of the composition have appeared on compilation albums:
The version on this compilation album was cut significantly. Parts III, V, VI, VIII and IX were dropped completely. Parts IV and VII are linked by the guitar solo from earlier in Part IV. Lastly, the riff that links Parts VII and VIII is repeated several times as the song segues into the introductory radio passage from "Wish You Were Here ''.
The version on this compilation album was also cut, but less significantly. The guitar solo on Part III was dropped. Part VI was shortened. Parts VIII and IX were dropped completely. Linking Parts V and VI is the sound of wind. These are the same wind effects used to bridge "Wish You Were Here '' to Part VI of "Diamond '' on the original LP. Finally, the riff that links Parts VII and VIII is repeated several times as the song segues into the introductory passage of clocks of "Time ''.
This version was also cut. Parts VI -- IX were dropped completely. Part I was shortened. The guitar solo on Part III was dropped. The saxophone on Part V has an early fade - out. Finally, the machine - like hum that segues into "Welcome to the Machine '' in the original album was dropped, the song simply stops and "Brain Damage '' begins.
"Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' features on all the below releases:
The extended instrumental introduction (from the Wish You Were Here record) was used in the last scenes of Good Morning, Night, an Italian movie about the 1978 Aldo Moro kidnapping and assassination.
Jack Irons included a cover of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' on his first solo album, Attention Dimension (2004); it is 5: 12 in length.
Transatlantic has a cover of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond '' on a limited edition bonus disk with their album Bridge Across Forever (2001); it is 15: 27 in length.
Steve Lukather of Toto performed a cover of the song on the tribute album The Everlasting Songs.
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rick and morty connection to back to the future | Rick and Morty - Wikipedia
Rick and Morty is an American adult animated science - fiction sitcom created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon for Cartoon Network 's late - night programming block Adult Swim. The series follows the misadventures of cynical mad scientist Rick Sanchez and his fretful, easily influenced grandson Morty Smith, who split their time between domestic life and interdimensional adventures. Roiland voices the eponymous characters, with Chris Parnell, Spencer Grammer, and Sarah Chalke voicing the rest of the family. The series premiered on December 2, 2013.
The series originated from an animated short parody film of Back to the Future, The Real Animated Adventures of Doc and Mharti, created by Roiland for Channel 101, a short film festival co-founded by Harmon. When Adult Swim approached Harmon for television show ideas, he and Roiland decided to develop a program based on the short.
In January 2014, Adult Swim renewed Rick and Morty for a second season, which premiered on July 26, 2015. In August 2015, Adult Swim renewed the series for a third season, consisting of 10 episodes. The third season premiered unannounced on April 1, 2017; the rest of the series aired weekly from July. The show has received critical acclaim for its originality, creativity, and humor.
The show revolves around the adventures of the members of the Smith household, consisting of Rick Sanchez, an eccentric and alcoholic mad scientist, who eschews many ordinary conventions such as school, marriage and love; Morty Smith, Rick 's 14 - year - old grandson, a kind but easily distressed boy, whose naive but grounded moral compass plays counterpoint to Rick 's Machiavellian ego; Summer Smith, Morty 's 17 - year - old sister, a more conventional teenager who worries about improving her status among her peers and sometimes follows Rick and Morty on their adventures; Beth Smith, Rick 's daughter, a generally level - headed person and assertive force in the household, who is dissatisfied with her marriage and self - conscious about her professional role as a horse doctor; and Jerry Smith, Beth 's husband, a simple - minded and insecure person, who disapproves of Rick 's influence over his family.
The adventures of Rick and Morty take place throughout the multiverse, which consists of an infinite number of realities. The characters travel to other planets and dimensions using a portal or Rick 's flying car. According to Justin Roiland, the family lives outside of Seattle in the U.S. state of Washington.
Rick and Morty was created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon. The duo first met at Channel 101, a non-profit monthly short film festival in Los Angeles co-founded by Harmon. At Channel 101, participants submit a short film in the format of a pilot, and a live audience decides which pilots continue as a series. Roiland, then a producer on reality programming, began submitting content to the festival a year after its launch, in 2004. His pilots typically consisted of shock value -- "sick and twisted '' elements that received a confused reaction from the audience. Nevertheless, Harmon took a liking to his humor and the two began collaborating. In 2006, Roiland was fired from working on a television series he regarded as intensely creatively stifling, and funneled his creative energies into creating a webisode for Channel 101. The result was The Real Animated Adventures of Doc and Mharti, an animated short starring Doc Brown and Marty McFly, characters from the Back to the Future film trilogy. In the short, which Harmon would dub "a bastardization, a pornographic vandalization '', Doc Smith urges Mharti that the solution to all of his problems is to give him oral sex. The audience reacted to it wildly, and Roiland began creating more shorts involving the characters, which soon evolved beyond his original intentions and their obvious origin within the film from which it was culled. Harmon would later create and produce Community, an NBC sitcom, while Roiland would work primarily in voice acting for Disney 's Fish Hooks and Cartoon Network 's Adventure Time.
In 2012, Harmon was fired from Community. Adult Swim, searching for a more prime - time, "hit '' show, approached Harmon shortly afterward, who initially viewed the channel as unfit for his style. He also was unfamiliar with animation, and his process for creating television focuses more heavily on dialogue, characters, and story. Instead, he phoned Roiland to inquire if he had any ideas for an animated series. Roiland immediately brought up the idea of using the Doc and Mharti characters, renamed Rick and Morty. Roiland initially wanted the show 's run time to consist of one eleven - minute segment, but Adult Swim pushed for a half - hour program. Harmon felt the best way to extend the voices into a program would be to build a family around the characters, while Adult Swim development executive Nick Weidenfeld suggested that Rick be Morty 's grandfather. Having pitched multiple television programs that did not get off the ground, Roiland was initially very unreceptive to others attempting to give notes on his pitch. Prior to developing Rick and Morty, he had created three failed animated pilots for Fox, and he had begun to feel "burned out '' with developing television.
The first draft was completed in six hours on the Paramount Pictures lot in Dan Harmon 's unfurnished Community office. The duo had broken the story that day, sold the pilot, and then sat down to write. Roiland, while acknowledging a tendency for procrastination, encouraged Harmon to stay and write the entire first draft. "We were sitting on the floor, cross-legged with laptops and I was about to get up and go home and he said, ' Wait, if you go home, it might take us three months to write this thing. Stay here right now and we can write it in six hours. ' He just had a premonition about that, '' recalled Harmon. Adult Swim was initially unsure of Roiland doing both voices, partially due to the undeveloped nature of the character of Morty. Harmon wrote four short premises in which Morty took a more assertive role and sent it to Mike Lazzo. Adult Swim placed a tamer TV - 14 rating on the program, which initially was met with reluctance from the show 's staff. The network 's reason behind the rating was that it would soon begin broadcasting in prime - time, competing with major programs.
The main theme for Rick and Morty by Ryan Elder was originally used in a rejected Cartoon Network pilot Roiland made called "Dog World '', which was also referenced in the episode "Lawnmower Dog ''.
The general formula of Rick and Morty consists of the juxtaposition of two conflicting scenarios: an extremely selfish, alcoholic grandfather dragging his grandson across space for intergalactic and / or interdimensional adventures, intercut with domestic family drama. This has led Harmon to describe the series as a cross between Matt Groening 's two shows The Simpsons and Futurama, balancing family life with heavy science fiction. Roiland stated his and Harmon 's intentions for the series to lack traditional continuity, opting for discontinuous storylines "not bound by rules ''. In a similar interview session at the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con International, he described each episode as being "(its) own point of entry. ''
The first season writing staff consisted of Roiland, Harmon, Tom Kauffman, Ryan Ridley, Wade Randolph, and Eric Acosta, while writer 's assistant Mike McMahan was also given writing credit. Described as a "very, very tiny little writers ' room with a lot of heavy lifting from everybody, '' the show 's writing staff, like many Adult Swim productions, is not unionized with the Writers ' Guild of America. The writing staff first meets and discusses ideas, which evolve into a story. Discussions often include anecdotes from personal life as well as thoughts on the science fiction genre. After breaking the story -- which consists of developing its consistency and logical beginning, middle, and conclusion -- a writer is assigned to create an outline. Roiland and Harmon do a "pass '' on the outline, and from there the episode undergoes several more drafts. The final draft of the script is last approved by either of the co-creators. In producing the series ' first season, episodes were occasionally written out of order. For example, "Rick Potion # 9 '' was the second episode written for the series, but was instructed to be animated as the fifth, as it would make more sense within the series ' continuity. The series is inspired by British - style storytelling, as opposed to traditional American "family TV '' stories. Harmon noted that the writers room at the show 's studio bears a striking resemblance to the one used for Community. In comparing the two, he noted that the writing staff of Rick and Morty was significantly smaller, and more "rough and tumble verbally, '' commenting, "There 's a lot more Legos and Nerf guns. ''
Many episodes are structured with use of a story circle, a Harmon creation based largely on Joseph Campbell 's monomyth, or The Hero 's Journey. Its two - act structure places the act break at an odd location in the stages of the monomyth: after The Meeting with the Goddess, instead of Atonement with the Father. Harmon has stated that his inspiration behind much of the concept and humor for the series comes from various British television series, such as The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy and Doctor Who. He figures that the audience will only understand developments from Morty 's point of view, but stated "we do n't want to be the companions. We want to hang out with the Doctor, we idolize the Doctor, but we do n't think like him, and that 's really interesting, Rick is diseased, he 's mentally ill, he 's an absolute lunatic because he lives on this larger scale. ''
Dan Harmon has admitted that his perfectionism can some times be disruptive and cause writing schedule delays. For the most part, this was the reason why the third season of the show consisted of only ten episodes instead of fourteen, as was initially intended. In a September 2017 interview, Harmon said he is hoping they will be able to create more than ten episodes for the fourth season of the show.
Animation for the show is done using Toon Boom Harmony, post-production work is done in Adobe After Effects, and background art is done in Adobe Photoshop. Production of animation is handled by Bardel Entertainment in Canada.
Roiland 's cartooning style is heavily indebted to The Simpsons, a factor he acknowledged in a 2013 interview, while also comparing his style to that of Pendleton Ward (Adventure Time) and J.G. Quintel (Regular Show): "You 'll notice mouths are kind of similar and teeth are similar, but I think that 's also a stylistic thing that... all of us are kind of the same age, and we 're all inspired by The Simpsons and all these other shows we 're kind of subconsciously tapping into. '' John Kricfalusi 's The Ren & Stimpy Show was another strong influence for Rick and Morty, which is why, according to Roiland, the small "w - shaped mouths '' that the characters occasionally make is a reference to a similar expression that Ren frequently makes.
When recording dialogue, Roiland does a considerable amount of improvisation, in order to make the characters feel more natural.
There has been discussion among viewers about the philosophy of Rick and Morty. The show most frequently adopts an existentialist perspective, while Harmon has described Rick as an anarchist, who does n't like being told what to do. Other philosophies that have been referenced in the characters behavior and observations include: absurdism, nihilism and the work of Friedrich Nietzsche.
A frequently - cited example is a point Morty makes in "Rixty Minutes '', where he argues that Summer should n't run away from home in anger after learning of alternative realities where her parents were happier without her:
Nobody exists on purpose, nobody belongs anywhere, everybody 's gon na die. Come watch TV.
This statement heavily resembles a quote from French existentialist Jean - Paul Sartre:
Every existing thing is born without reason, prolongs itself out of weakness, and dies by chance.
The series was first announced during Adult Swim 's 2012 Upfront presentation. Adult Swim ordered 10 half - hour episodes (not including the pilot) to comprise the first season. Matt Roller, a writer for the series, confirmed via Twitter that the network renewed Rick and Morty for a second season, which premiered on July 26, 2015. In August 2015, Adult Swim renewed the series for a third season, which consists of 10 episodes. It premiered unannounced on April 1, 2017, with the rest of the season beginning on July 30, 2017.
Adult Swim has made all of the episodes available on iTunes, Google Play, Amazon, YouTube, and Vudu, as well as a 37 - minute interview between creators Harmon and Roiland at the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con International, and a panel at the 2015 ATX Television Festival. Episodes have also been made available to stream on the series ' official website with a cable provider login. The episode "Rixty Minutes '' was released early by the network via 109 15 - second videos on Instagram. Some of the episodes are available for free streaming on Adult Swim 's website; for the rest a U.S. cable subscription is required. Season one was made available for on - demand viewing on Hulu in June 2015. Season two is also available as of June 2016. Seasons 1 - 3 are available on Netflix in some countries.
The complete first season was released on DVD (Region 1) and Blu - ray on October 7, 2014. Before its release, Roiland had confirmed that it would contain uncensored audio tracks. The complete second season was released on DVD (Region 1) and Blu - ray on June 7, 2016.
Rick and Morty has received universal critical acclaim, holding a 97 % approval rating by critics on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes. Additionally, the first season of Rick and Morty holds a Metacritic score of 85 based on eight reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. David Weigand of San Francisco Chronicle described it as "offbeat and occasionally coarse... the take - away here is that it works ''. He praised the animation direction by James McDermott for being "fresh, colorful and as wacky as the script '', and states that the series possesses "shades of Futurama, South Park and even Beetlejuice '', ultimately opining that its humor felt "entirely original ''. Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times praised the series and stated that it was "Grandparenting at its unhinged finest. '' Todd Spangler of Variety gave the series a lukewarm review; while he found the series was passable, he contrasted it with other Adult Swim series as "often seems overly reliant on simply being frenetic at the expense of being witty '' and enjoyed it as "a welcome attempt to dream just a little bigger ''. David Sims of The A.V. Club gave the series an "A − ''. In reviewing the first two episodes, he complimented the animation for its "clean, simple style ''. He stated that while the series has "a dark, sick sensibility '', he praised its "effort to give each character a little bit of depth '', further applauding Roiland 's voice talent for the eponymous characters.
Informational notes
Citations
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el amor en tiempos de colera in english | Love in the Time of cholera - wikipedia
Love in the Time of Cholera (Spanish: El amor en los tiempos del cólera) is a novel by Colombian Nobel prize winning author Gabriel García Márquez. The novel was first published in Spanish in 1985. Alfred A. Knopf published an English translation in 1988, and an English - language movie adaptation was released in 2007.
The main characters of the novel are Florentino Ariza and Fermina Daza. Florentino and Fermina fall in love in their youth. A secret relationship blossoms between the two with the help of Fermina 's Aunt Escolástica. They exchange several love letters. However, once Fermina 's father, Lorenzo Daza, finds out about the two, he forces his daughter to stop seeing Florentino immediately. When she refuses, he and his daughter move in with his deceased wife 's family in another city. Regardless of the distance, Fermina and Florentino continue to communicate via telegraph. However, upon her return, Fermina realizes that her relationship with Florentino was nothing but a dream since they are practically strangers; she breaks off her engagement to Florentino and returns all his letters.
A young and accomplished national hero, Dr. Juvenal Urbino, meets Fermina and begins to court her. Despite her initial dislike of Urbino, Fermina gives in to her father 's persuasion and the security and wealth Urbino offers, and they wed. Urbino is a medical doctor devoted to science, modernity, and "order and progress ''. He is committed to the eradication of cholera and to the promotion of public works. He is a rational man whose life is organized precisely and who greatly values his importance and reputation in society. He is a herald of progress and modernization.
Even after Fermina 's engagement and marriage, Florentino swore to stay faithful and wait for her. However, his promiscuity gets the better of him. Even with all the women he is with, he makes sure that Fermina will never find out. Meanwhile, Fermina and Urbino grow old together, going through happy years and unhappy ones and experiencing all the reality of marriage. At an elderly age, Urbino attempts to get his pet parrot out of his mango tree, only to fall off the ladder he was standing on and die. After the funeral, Florentino proclaims his love for Fermina once again and tells her he has stayed faithful to her all these years. Hesitant at first because of the advances he made to the recently - widowed Fermina, she eventually gives him a second chance. They attempt a life together, having lived two lives separately for over five decades.
Urbino 's function in the novel is to contrast with Florentino and his archaic and boldly romantic love. Urbino proves in the end not to have been an entirely faithful husband, confessing one affair to Fermina many years into their marriage. Though the novel seems to suggest that Urbino 's love for Fermina was never as spiritually chaste as Florentino 's was, it also complicates Florentino 's devotion by cataloging his many trysts as well as a few potentially genuine loves. By the end of the book, Fermina comes to recognize Florentino 's wisdom and maturity, and their love is allowed to blossom during their old age.
The story occurs mainly in an unnamed port city somewhere near the Caribbean Sea and the Magdalena River. Given that Rafael Núñez is mentioned as the "author of the national anthem '', the country is likely Colombia. While the city remains unnamed throughout the novel, descriptions and names of places suggest it is based on Cartagena with the addition of the Magdalena River, which meets the sea at the nearby city of Barranquilla. The fictional city is divided into such sections as "The District of the Viceroys '' and "The Arcade of the Scribes. '' The novel takes place approximately during the half century between 1880 and 1930. The city 's "steamy and sleepy streets, rat - infested sewers, old slave quarter, decaying colonial architecture, and multifarious inhabitants '' are mentioned variously in the text and mingle amid the lives of the characters. Locations within the story include:
Some critics choose to consider Love in the Time of Cholera as a sentimental story about the enduring power of true love. Others criticize this opinion as being too simple. García Márquez himself said in an interview, "you have to be careful not to fall into my trap. ''
This is manifested by Ariza 's excessively romantic attitude toward life, and his gullibility in trying to retrieve the sunken treasure of a shipwreck. It is also made evident by the fact that society in the story believes that Fermina and Juvenal Urbino are perfectly happy in their marriage, while the reality of the situation is not so ideal. Critic Keith Booker compares Ariza 's position to that of Humbert Humbert in Vladimir Nabokov 's Lolita, saying that just as Humbert is able to charm the reader into sympathizing with his situation, even though he is a "pervert, a rapist, and a murderer, '' Ariza is able to garner the reader 's sympathy, even though the reader is reminded repeatedly of his more sinister exploits.
The novel examines romantic love in myriad forms, both "ideal '' and "depraved '', and continually forces the reader to question such ready - made characterizations by introducing elements antithetical to these facile judgments.
García Márquez 's main notion is that lovesickness is literally an illness, a disease comparable to cholera. Florentino suffers from this just as he might suffer from any malady. At one point, he conflates his physical pain with his amorous pain when he vomits after eating flowers in order to imbibe Fermina 's scent. In the final chapter, the Captain 's declaration of metaphorical plague is another manifestation of this.
The term cholera as it is used in Spanish, cólera, can also denote passion or human rage and ire in its feminine form. (The English adjective choleric has the same meaning.) Considering this meaning, the title is a pun: cholera as the disease, and cholera as passion, which raises the central question of the book: is love helped or hindered by extreme passion? The two men can be contrasted as the extremes of passion: one having too much, one too little; the central question of which is more conducive to love and happiness becomes the specific, personal choice that Fermina faces through her life. Florentino 's passionate pursuit of nearly countless women stands in contrast to Urbino 's clinical discussion of male anatomy on their wedding night. Urbino 's eradication of cholera in the town takes on the additional symbolic meaning of ridding Fermina 's life of rage, but also passion. It is this second meaning to the title that manifests itself in Florentino 's hatred for Urbino 's marriage to Fermina, as well as in the social strife and warfare that serves as a backdrop to the entire story.
Jeremiah Saint - Amour 's death inspires Urbino to meditate on his own death, and especially on the infirmities that precede it. It is necessary for Fermina and Florentino to transcend not only the difficulties of love, but also the societal opinion that love is a young person 's prerogative (not to mention the physical difficulties of love when one is older).
Stone Village Pictures bought the movie rights from the author for US $3 million, and Mike Newell was chosen to direct it, with Ronald Harwood writing the script. Filming started in Cartagena, Colombia, during September 2006.
The $50 million film, the first major foreign production filmed in the scenic walled city in twenty years, was released on November 16, 2007, by New Line Cinema. On his own initiative, García Márquez persuaded singer Shakira, who is from the nearby city of Barranquilla, to provide two songs for the film.
In the movie Serendipity, Sara asks Jonathan to write his name and phone number on a $5 bill, while she writes her name and number on the inside cover of a copy of Love in the Time of Cholera. If they are meant to be together, he will find the book and she will find the $5 bill, and they will find their way back to each other.
The book is referenced in the TV series How I Met Your Mother. It was Ted Mosby and Tracy McConnell 's (aka the Mother 's) favorite book.
In the film High Fidelity the character Rob Gordon mentions the novel: "Hey, I 'm not the smartest guy in the world, but I 'm certainly not the dumbest. I mean, I 've read books like The Unbearable Lightness of Being and Love in the Time of Cholera, and I think I 've understood them. They 're about girls, right? Just kidding. But I have to say my all - time favorite book is Johnny Cash 's autobiography Cash by Johnny Cash. ''
Also, in the film Playing It Cool, Topher Grace plays the character Scott. Scott is a writer and is deeply moved by the book so much that he often leaves copies of the book in public places for others to find and read. He leaves a note in the book for the assumed reader explaining how this book changed his life. Chris Evans the main character / narrator finally picks up the book to read. After reading the book, the narrator applies it to his own life. He says that there are people in our lives that are so important, they dwarf everything else.
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when did north melbourne last win a premiership | List of North Melbourne Football Club premiership results - wikipedia
This is a list of North Melbourne Football Club premiership results since the club 's inception in 1869.
The Challenge Final was scratched and North Melbourne were awarded the premiership after Richmond objected to the umpire chosen for the match and refused to play.
Note: Prior to the establishment of the U-19s comp in 1946, North Melbourne fielded a successful Colts side in a local fixture which was responsible for developing junior stars like Dally O'Brien, Les Foote, Don Condon, Kevin Dynon and Keith McKenzie
Note: The Champions of Australia series was discontinued after 1975. As a result, North Melbourne retains both the Winfield Cup as a permanent memento of the victory, and retains the perpetual Australia Cup.
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when has there been 3 hurricanes at once | List of Atlantic hurricane records - Wikipedia
Since the reliable record keeping of tropical cyclone data within the North Atlantic Ocean began in 1851, there have been 1,505 systems of at least tropical storm intensity and 879 of at least hurricane intensity. Though a majority of these tropical depressions have fallen within climatological averages, prevailing atmospheric conditions occasionally lead to anomalous tropical systems which at times reach extremes in statistical record - keeping including in duration and intensity. The scope of this list is limited to tropical cyclone records solely within the Atlantic Ocean and is subdivided by their reason for notability.
Climatologically speaking, approximately 97 percent of tropical cyclones that form in the North Atlantic develop between the dates of June 1 and November 30 -- dates which delimit the modern - day Atlantic hurricane season. Though the beginning of the annual hurricane season has historically remained the same, the official end of the hurricane season has shifted from its initial date of October 31. Regardless, on average once every few years a tropical cyclone develops outside the limits of the season; as of January 2016 there have been 68 tropical cyclones in the off - season, with the most recent being Tropical Storm Arlene in 2017. The first tropical cyclone of the 1938 Atlantic hurricane season, which formed on January 3, became the earliest forming tropical storm and hurricane after reanalysis concluded on the storm in December 2012. Hurricane Able in 1951 was initially thought to be the earliest forming major hurricane -- a tropical cyclone with winds exceeding 115 mph (185 km / h) -- however following post-storm analysis it was determined that Able only reached Category 1 strength which made Hurricane Alma of 1966 the new record holder; as it became a major hurricane on June 8. Though it developed within the bounds of the Atlantic hurricane season, Hurricane Audrey in 1957 was the earliest developing Category 4 hurricane on record after it reached the intensity on June 27. However, reanalysis from 1956 to 1960 by NOAA downgraded Audrey to a Category 3, making Hurricane Dennis of 2005 the earliest Category 4 on record on July 8, 2005. The earliest - forming Category 5 hurricane, Emily, reached the highest intensity on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale on July 17, 2005.
Though the official end of the Atlantic hurricane season occurs on November 30, the dates of October 31 and November 15 have also historically marked the official end date for the hurricane season. December, the only month of the year after the hurricane season, has featured the cyclogenesis of fourteen tropical cyclones. Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 was the latest tropical cyclone to attain tropical storm intensity as it did so on December 30. However, the second Hurricane Alice in 1954 was the latest forming tropical cyclone to attain hurricane intensity. Both Alice and Zeta were the only two storms to exist in two calendar years -- the former from 1954 to 1955 and the latter from 2005 to 2006. No storms have been recorded to exceed Category 1 hurricane intensity in December. In 1999, Hurricane Lenny reached Category 4 intensity on November 17 as it took an unprecedented west to east track across the Caribbean; its intensity made it the latest developing Category 4 hurricane, though this was well within the bounds of the hurricane season. Hurricane Hattie (October 27 - November 1, 1961) was initially thought to have been the latest forming Category 5 hurricane ever documented, though reanalysis indicated that a devastating hurricane in 1932 reached such an intensity at a later date. Consequently, this made the hurricane the latest developing tropical cyclone to reach all four Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale classifications past Category 1 intensity.
This list contains tropical cyclones that formed at or moved to an extraordinary latitude or longitude. This list may include storms that reach extreme north latitude, or very equatorial cyclones. It should be noted that before the satellite era, analysis of distant tropical cyclones was extremely difficult.
Generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storm 's maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure. In terms of wind speed, Allen from 1980 was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph (310 km / h). For many years, it was thought that Hurricane Camille also attained this intensity, but this conclusion was changed in 2014. The original measurements of Camille are suspect since wind speed instrumentation used at the time would likely be damaged by winds of such intensity. Nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes.
Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification. Hurricane Opal, the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar (hPa; 27.05 inHg), a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes. Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones. Presently, Hurricane Wilma is the strongest Atlantic hurricane ever recorded, after reaching an intensity of 882 mbar (hPa; 26.05 inHg) in October 2005; this also made Wilma the strongest tropical cyclone worldwide outside of the West Pacific, where seven tropical cyclones have been recorded to intensify to lower pressures. However, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had also held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar (hPa; 26.34 inHg), is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane and the strongest documented tropical cyclone prior to 1950. Since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land.
Hurricane Rita is the fourth strongest Atlantic hurricane in terms of barometric pressure and one of three tropical cyclones from 2005 on the list, with the others being Wilma and Katrina at first and seventh, respectively. However, with a barometric pressure of 895 mbar (hPa; 26.43 inHg), Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico.
In between Rita and Katrina is Hurricane Allen. Allen 's pressure was measured at 899 mbar. Hurricane Camille is the sixth strongest hurricane on record. Camille is the only storm to have been moved down the list due to post-storm analysis. Camille was originally recognized as the fifth strongest hurricane on record, but was dropped to the seventh strongest in 2014, with an estimated pressure at 905 mbars, tying it with Hurricanes Mitch, and Dean. Camille then was recategorized with a new pressure of 900 mbars. Currently, Mitch and Dean share intensities for the eighth strongest Atlantic hurricane at 905 mbar (hPa; 26.73 inHg). Hurricane Maria is in tenth place for most intense Atlantic tropical cyclone, with a pressure as low as 908 mbar (hPa; 26.81 inHg). In addition, the most intense Atlantic hurricane outside of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico is Hurricane Irma of 2017, with a pressure of 914 mbar (hPa; 27.0 inHg).
Many of the strongest recorded tropical cyclones weakened prior to their eventual landfall or demise. However, six of the storms remained intense enough at landfall to be considered some of the strongest landfalling hurricanes -- six of the ten hurricanes on the list constitute six of the most intense Atlantic landfalls in recorded history. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane made landfall at peak intensity, the most intense Atlantic hurricane landfall. Hurricane Camille made landfall in Waveland, Mississippi with a pressure of 900 mbar (hPa; 26.58 inHg), making it the second most intense Atlantic hurricane landfall. Though it weakened slightly before its eventual landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula, Hurricane Gilbert maintained a pressure of 900 mbar (hPa; 26.58 inHg) at landfall, making its landfall the second strongest, tied with Camille. Similarly, Hurricane Dean made landfall on the peninsula, though it did so at peak intensity and with a higher barometric pressure; its landfall marked the fourth strongest in Atlantic hurricane history. In 1924, a hurricane made landfall on the western tip of Cuba with a pressure of 910 mbar (hPa; 26.88 inHg), making it the fifth - strongest Atlantic hurricane landfall. Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico shortly after its peak intensity, with a pressure of 917 mbar (hPa; 27.08 inHg), making it the eighth - strongest Atlantic hurricane landfall. Despite being well past its peak intensity, Hurricane Katrina made landfall in Buras - Triumph, Louisiana with a pressure of 920 mbar (hPa; 27.17 inHg), thus making it the tenth - strongest landfall.
Intensity is measured solely by central pressure.
Below are the five largest hurricanes (by gale diameter) ever observed in the Atlantic basin.
Each year, there are twenty - one names on a predetermined A -- W list, followed by a list using the Greek alphabet. Having never reached "N '' until 1990, the busy 1995 season ran through the first ever use of the seven names available from O through T. The Greek list was not touched until 2005, running through six Greek names in one season.
A hurricane with a peak intensity of Category 3 or higher on the Saffir - Simpson Hurricane Scale is classified as major. The table on the right excludes seasons prior to 1965 due to lack of accurate data for the period. On average, there are 12.1 storms each year in the Atlantic Basin.
This bar chart shows the number of named storms and hurricanes per year from 1851 - 2017. Data is incomplete prior to the advent of satellite tracking in the mid-1960s.
Note: The damage from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma and Maria from the 2017 Atlantic Hurricane Season have not been fully assessed.
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where did little big town go to college | Little Big Town - wikipedia
Little Big Town is an American country music group. Founded in 1998, the group has comprised the same four members since its founding: Karen Fairchild, Kimberly Schlapman (formerly Kimberly Roads), Jimi Westbrook, and Phillip Sweet. Their musical style relies heavily on four - part vocal harmonies, with all four members alternating as lead vocalists; Westbrook and Sweet also play rhythm guitar.
After a recording deal with the Mercury Nashville Records label which produced no singles or albums, Little Big Town released its self - titled debut on Monument Records in 2002. It produced two minor country chart singles before the group left the label. By 2005, the group had been signed to Equity Music Group, an independent record label owned by Clint Black. Their second album, The Road to Here, was released that year, and received a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). A Place to Land, their third album, was released via Equity, then re-released via Capitol Nashville after Equity closed in 2008. Five more albums have followed for Capitol: The Reason Why (2010), Tornado (2012), Pain Killer (2014), Wanderlust (2016), and The Breaker (2017). All of their albums have accounted for 24 singles on Hot Country Songs and Country Airplay, including the No. 1 singles "Pontoon '', "Girl Crush '', and "Better Man '' along with the top 10 hits "Boondocks '', "Bring It On Home '', "Little White Church '', "Tornado '', and "Day Drinking ''.
In the mid-1990s, Karen Fairchild sang with the Christian vocal group Truth and was featured as a lead singer in a few of their songs. She also formed a duo called KarenLeigh with Leigh Cappillino (from the group Point of Grace). KarenLeigh produced the singles, "Save it For a Rainy Day '' and "This Love Has ''. In 1997, while attending Samford University in Alabama, she met Kimberly Roads. Eventually, they moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where they reunited and began singing together. Jimi Westbrook joined Roads and Fairchild in 1998, followed by Phillip Sweet.
Little Big Town 's first record deal was with Mercury Nashville Records, although the band was dropped from the label 's roster without releasing a single or album. In 2001, they sang backing vocals on Collin Raye 's album Ca n't Back Down, while Sweet and Roads co-wrote the song "Back Where I Belong '' on Sherrié Austin 's 2001 album Followin ' a Feelin '.
A second contract, this time with Monument Records Nashville, began in 2002. The band 's first album, Little Big Town, was released that year. It produced the singles "Do n't Waste My Time '' and "Everything Changes '', which peaked at 33 and 42 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. Westbrook 's father died in 2002, just after the group 's first album was released. Fairchild and Sweet both divorced their spouses shortly afterward, and the group exited Monument when the label 's Nashville branch was dissolved. The four members all took up day jobs to earn additional money, although they continued to tour as well.
In 2005, Little Big Town was signed to Equity Music Group, a label started and partially owned by country music singer Clint Black. Their third single, "Boondocks '', was released in May, peaking at No. 9 on the country charts in January 2006. It served as the first of four singles from the group 's second album, The Road to Here, which was released on October 4, 2005. "Bring It On Home '', the second single from the album, became Little Big Town 's first top 5 hit on Hot Country Songs. It was followed by "Good as Gone '' and "A Little More You '', both of which were top 20 hits. By the end of 2006, The Road to Here had been certified Platinum in the United States. Unlike their first album, the group 's members co-wrote the majority of the songs on The Road to Here along with Wayne Kirkpatrick, who also produced it. In 2007, the group sang backing vocals on John Mellencamp 's Freedom 's Road album.
Little Big Town released A Place to Land, their third studio album and second with Equity, on November 6, 2007. Its lead - off single, "I 'm with the Band '', peaked at number 32 on the country chart. On April 23, 2008, Little Big Town announced it was leaving Equity for Capitol Nashville. Shortly afterward, they charted with Sugarland and Jake Owen on a live cover of The Dream Academy 's "Life in a Northern Town ''. Taken from Sugarland 's 2007 tour, it reached number 28 on the country chart based on unsolicited airplay. In October 2008, Capitol re-released A Place to Land, which added four new songs, and the label promoted two further singles from the album, "Fine Line '' and "Good Lord Willing ''.
In the fall of 2008, Little Big Town opened up for Carrie Underwood on her Carnival Ride Tour. They began their first headlining tour in January 2009 in Jacksonville, Florida and continued through April.
Fairchild recorded a duet with Mellencamp on his 2008 album, Life, Death, Love and Freedom. The song, "A Ride Back Home '', was released as the album 's third single and was accompanied by a music video. Fairchild also duetted with Mellencamp on "My Sweet Love '' and appears in its music video.
Little Big Town was nominated for Vocal Group Of The Year for the fourth year in a row at the 2009 CMA Awards.
In March 2010, the group released a new single titled "Little White Church '', as the lead - off single to their fourth studio album and first completely new album on Capitol Nashville, The Reason Why, which was released on August 24, 2010. "Little White Church '' peaked at number 6 on the country chart. The album produced two additional singles in "Kiss Goodbye '' and the title track, but both failed to reach the top 40 of Hot Country Songs.
The album 's title track was released as a digital single on July 27, 2010, to begin an iTunes countdown to the album release on August 24, 2010. Three further digital singles -- "Kiss Goodbye '', "Why, Oh Why '', and "All the Way Down '' -- were released weekly leading up until the album release. Also, in promotion of The Reason Why, Little Big Town went on tour as an opening act for Sugarland on The Incredible Machine Tour, as well their own The Reason Why Tour.
Little Big Town 's fifth studio album, Tornado, was released on September 11, 2012. It was also their first album to be produced by Jay Joyce. "Pontoon '' was released as the album 's lead single on April 30, 2012, and became their first number one hit on Hot Country Songs in September 2012. It was their first single to receive a Platinum certification. The title track was released as the album 's second single on October 1, 2012. It reached number 2 on the Country Airplay chart in 2013. At the 55th Grammy Awards, "Pontoon '' won the Grammy Award for Best Country Duo / Group Performance. The album was certified gold by the RIAA in December 2012.
The band joined Rascal Flatts on their Changed Tour, along with Eli Young Band and Edens Edge, for dates spanning Summer 2012. They played at the C2C: Country to Country festival in London on March 16, 2013.
The album 's third single, "Your Side of the Bed '', was a number 27 hit.
The band sang background vocals on Ashley Monroe 's 2013 single, "You Got Me '', featured on her 2013 release, Like a Rose. Group member Karen Fairchild co-wrote the song with Monroe. It failed to chart.
The album 's fourth single, "Sober '', was a number 31 hit.
Little Big Town performed harmony vocals on David Nail 's 2014 album, I 'm a Fire, on the song "When They 're Gone (Lyle County) '', co-written by Brett Eldredge. They were also featured on Miranda Lambert 's 2014 album, Platinum, on "Smokin ' and Drinkin ' '', a song which the band was going to record themselves; it debuted on Billboard 's Country Airplay chart at number 38 after their performance at the CMA Awards in 2014.
The band began recording their sixth studio album, Pain Killer, in early 2014. The lead single, "Day Drinking '', was released digitally June 3, and was sent to country radio on June 9. It debuted on the Country Airplay chart at number 32, their highest - ever debut, and went on to peak at number 2 on Country Airplay. It hit number 1 on the Canada Country chart, becoming their second number 1 single and first as songwriters. Pain Killer 's track listing was announced on July 14, and the album was released on October 21.
On October 3, 2014, Reba McEntire invited the group to join the Grand Ole Opry. They accepted and were inducted by Vince Gill on October 17.
The second single from the album, "Girl Crush '', was released December 15, 2014. Some radio stations were reported to have pulled "Girl Crush '' from their playlists, in response to concerns from listeners who interpreted the song 's lyrics to be about lesbianism. In response, Fairchild said, "That 's just shocking to me, the close - mindedness of that, when that 's just not what the song was about... But what if it were? It 's just a greater issue of listening to a song for what it is. '' In addition, the label created a short commercial in which the band discusses the song and its actual meaning. Billboard consulted several radio program directors on its panel and found only one who detailed a specific complaint from a listener. The song became their second No. 1 on a Billboard chart in May 2015 and their highest showing on the Billboard Hot 100 after gaining exposure on "The Voice '' and the 50th Annual ACM Awards. The album 's third single and the title track, "Pain Killer '', released to country radio on August 24, 2015.
On September 9, 2015, the group was nominated for five CMA Awards: Vocal Group of the Year, Album of the Year for Pain Killer, Single of the Year for "Girl Crush '', Music Video of the Year for "Girl Crush '' and Musical Event of the Year for their collaboration on the Miranda Lambert single "Smokin ' and Drinkin ' ''. They tied Eric Church for most nominations that year. Additionally, the songwriters of "Girl Crush '' were recognized with a Song of the Year win.
For the 58th Annual Grammy Awards Pain Killer was nominated for Best Country Album, "Girl Crush '' was nominated for Best Country Duo / Group Performance, Song of the Year and Best Country Song. Little Big Town only received nominations for Best Country Album and Best Country Duo / Group Performance since they did not write on "Girl Crush ''.
The band will soon begin working on their first Christmas album.
On January 24, 2016, the band sang the National Anthem before the Arizona / Carolina NFC Championship game. On July 4 of that year, they performed with the Boston Pops at their annual Independence Day concert.
In February 2016, they appeared on "Take Me Down '', a track on Down to My Last Bad Habit, the fourteenth album by Vince Gill.
In March 2016, Little Big Town returned to the UK as part of the C2C: Country to Country tour, becoming one of four acts at the time (the others being Brantley Gilbert, Sam Hunt and Carrie Underwood) to perform at the festival twice. They headlined the launch party in 2015 where they announced the full line - up, revealing that they would be supporting Underwood along with Hunt and Maddie & Tae.
On May 24, 2016, the band announced their seventh studio album titled Wanderlust. The album contains eight tracks produced by Pharrell Williams and was released on June 10, 2016. Karen Fairchild describes the album as, "It 's not a country album '' "And it 's not like anything we 've ever done. It 's fun to be spontaneous and put it out there to the fans, because we want to, and not to overthink it, but just because it has brought us a lot of joy, and we think it will for them as well. So why not? We 're going with our gut and putting it out there. It 's just music, you know? '' Fairchild stated that they are also working on a country record with Jay Joyce. In July, they appeared on the 2000 -- 2005 episode of ABC 's Greatest Hits where they performed covers by Alicia Keys, Oasis and Sheryl Crow. They were also selected as one of 30 artists to perform on "Forever Country '', a mash - up track of "Take Me Home, Country Roads '', "On the Road Again '' and "I Will Always Love You '', which celebrates 50 years of the CMA Awards.
The band released "Better Man '', which was written by singer - songwriter Taylor Swift, on October 20, 2016, as the lead single to their upcoming eighth studio album, The Breaker, that was released on February 24, 2017. Initially masking the song 's writer, the band revealed that Swift wrote the song. The song 's music video, directed by Reid Long and Becky Fluke, was released November 1, 2016. The band would follow up with a new single "When Someone Stops Loving You, '' on February 17, 2017. The song was inspired by a story Sean Lynch detailed to the band during a tour stop in 2016.
The band announced that they would be the first act in history to have a residency at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville. Little Big Town announced a six - date UK tour supported by Seth Ennis beginning on September 28 and concluding in London on October 5 before revealing that Kacey Musgraves and Midland would support them on the American leg of The Breakers Tour beginning in February 2018. On October 5 during their show at the Royal Albert Hall, the band revealed that they would be headlining the 2018 C2C: Country to Country festival, making history as the first act to play the event three times.
Karen Fairchild and Jimi Westbrook married on May 31, 2006, although their marriage was not disclosed until two months later. The couple welcomed their first child, a son (Elijah Dylan Westbrook), on March 5, 2010, in Nashville.
Kimberly Roads married Stephen Schlapman on November 28, 2006, and gave birth to a daughter (Daisy Pearl Schlapman) on July 27, 2007. In January 2017, Schlapman announced that she and her husband adopted a baby girl (Dolly Grace Schlapman). They welcomed her on December 31, 2016. She now goes by her husband 's last name, Schlapman. Kimberly was previously married to Steven Roads, who died from a heart attack in 2005. He was also the band 's lawyer.
Phillip Sweet married Rebecca Arthur, a business owner and wardrobe stylist, on March 30, 2007. Arthur gave birth to a daughter (Penelopi Jane Sweet) on December 27, 2007, at Baptist Hospital in Nashville.
Little Big Town 's musical stylings are defined by four - part vocal harmonies. Unlike most vocal groups, Little Big Town does not feature a definitive lead vocalist. Instead, their songs are either led by any one of the four members, or by all four in varying combinations (such as on "Boondocks '' and "Life in a Northern Town '').
CMT Artists of the Year
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what are the tools of american foreign policy | Foreign policy of the United States - Wikipedia
The foreign policy of the United States is its interactions with foreign nations and how it sets standards of interaction for its organizations, corporations and system citizens of the United States.
The officially stated goals of the foreign policy of the United States, including all the Bureaus and Offices in the United States Department of State, as mentioned in the Foreign Policy Agenda of the Department of State, are "to build and sustain a more democratic, secure, and prosperous world for the benefit of the American people and the international community. '' In addition, the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs states as some of its jurisdictional goals: "export controls, including nonproliferation of nuclear technology and nuclear hardware; measures to foster commercial interaction with foreign nations and to safeguard American business abroad; international commodity agreements; international education; and protection of American citizens abroad and expatriation. '' U.S. foreign policy and foreign aid have been the subject of much debate, praise and criticism, both domestically and abroad.
Subject to the advice and consent role of the U.S. Senate, the President of the United States negotiates treaties with foreign nations, but treaties enter into force if ratified by two - thirds of the Senate. The President is also Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces, and as such has broad authority over the armed forces. Both the Secretary of State and ambassadors are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. The United States Secretary of State acts similarly to a foreign minister and under Executive leadership is the primary conductor of state - to - state diplomacy.
Congress is the only branch of government that has the authority to declare war. Furthermore, Congress writes the civilian and military budget, thus has vast power in military action and foreign aid. Congress also has power to regulate commerce with foreign nations.
The main trend regarding the history of U.S. foreign policy since the American Revolution is the shift from non-interventionism before and after World War I, to its growth as a world power and global hegemony during and since World War II and the end of the Cold War in the 20th century. Since the 19th century, U.S. foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from the realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations.
Foreign policy themes were expressed considerably in George Washington 's farewell address; these included among other things, observing good faith and justice towards all nations and cultivating peace and harmony with all, excluding both "inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others '', "steer (ing) clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world '', and advocating trade with all nations. These policies became the basis of the Federalist Party in the 1790s. But the rival Jeffersonians feared Britain and favored France in the 1790s, declaring the War of 1812 on Britain. After the 1778 alliance with France, the U.S. did not sign another permanent treaty until the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949. Over time, other themes, key goals, attitudes, or stances have been variously expressed by Presidential ' doctrines ', named for them. Initially these were uncommon events, but since WWII, these have been made by most presidents.
Jeffersonians vigorously opposed a large standing army and any navy until attacks against American shipping by Barbary corsairs spurred the country into developing a naval force projection capability, resulting in the First Barbary War in 1801.
Despite two wars with European Powers -- the War of 1812 and the 1898 Spanish -- American War -- American foreign policy was peaceful and marked by steady expansion of its foreign trade during the 19th century. The 1803 Louisiana Purchase doubled the nation 's geographical area; Spain ceded the territory of Florida in 1819; annexation brought in the independent Texas Republic in 1845; a war with Mexico in 1848 added California, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and New Mexico. The U.S. bought Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867, and it annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898. Victory over Spain in 1898 brought the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, as well as oversight of Cuba. The short experiment in imperialism ended by 1908, as the U.S. turned its attention to the Panama Canal and the stabilization of regions to its south, including Mexico.
The 20th century was marked by two world wars in which the United States, along with allied powers, defeated its enemies and increased its international reputation. President Wilson 's Fourteen Points was developed from his idealistic Wilsonianism program of spreading democracy and fighting militarism so as to end any wars. It became the basis of the German Armistice (really a surrender) and the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The resulting Treaty of Versailles, due to European allies ' punitive and territorial designs, showed insufficient conformity with these points and the U.S. signed separate treaties with each of its adversaries; due to Senate objections also, the U.S. never joined the League of Nations, which was established as a result of Wilson 's initiative. In the 1920s, the United States followed an independent course, and succeeded in a program of naval disarmament, and refunding the German economy. Operating outside the League it became a dominant player in diplomatic affairs. New York became the financial capital of the world, but the Wall Street Crash of 1929 hurled the Western industrialized world into the Great Depression. American trade policy relied on high tariffs under the Republicans, and reciprocal trade agreements under the Democrats, but in any case exports were at very low levels in the 1930s.
The United States adopted a non-interventionist foreign policy from 1932 to 1938, but then President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved toward strong support of the Allies in their wars against Germany and Japan. As a result of intense internal debate, the national policy was one of becoming the Arsenal of Democracy, that is financing and equipping the Allied armies without sending American combat soldiers. Roosevelt mentioned four fundamental freedoms, which ought to be enjoyed by people "everywhere in the world ''; these included the freedom of speech and religion, as well as freedom from want and fear. Roosevelt helped establish terms for a post-war world among potential allies at the Atlantic Conference; specific points were included to correct earlier failures, which became a step toward the United Nations. American policy was to threaten Japan, to force it out of China, and to prevent its attacking the Soviet Union. However, Japan reacted by an attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, and the United States was at war with Japan, Germany, and Italy. Instead of the loans given to allies in World War I, the United States provided Lend - Lease grants of $50,000,000,000. Working closely with Winston Churchill of Britain, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Roosevelt sent his forces into the Pacific against Japan, then into North Africa against Italy and Germany, and finally into Europe starting with France and Italy in 1944 against the Germans. The American economy roared forward, doubling industrial production, and building vast quantities of airplanes, ships, tanks, munitions, and, finally, the atomic bomb. Much of the American war effort went to strategic bombers, which flattened the cities of Japan and Germany.
After the war, the U.S. rose to become the dominant non-colonial economic power with broad influence in much of the world, with the key policies of the Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine. Almost immediately, however, the world witnessed division into broad two camps during the Cold War; one side was led by the U.S. and the other by the Soviet Union, but this situation also led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement. This period lasted until almost the end of the 20th century and is thought to be both an ideological and power struggle between the two superpowers. A policy of containment was adopted to limit Soviet expansion, and a series of proxy wars were fought with mixed results. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved into separate nations, and the Cold War formally ended as the United States gave separate diplomatic recognition to the Russian Federation and other former Soviet states.
In domestic politics, foreign policy is not usually a central issue. In 1945 -- 1970 the Democratic Party took a strong anti-Communist line and supported wars in Korea and Vietnam. Then the party split with a strong, "dovish '', pacifist element (typified by 1972 presidential candidate George McGovern). Many "hawks '', advocates for war, joined the Neoconservative movement and started supporting the Republicans -- especially Reagan -- based on foreign policy. Meanwhile, down to 1952 the Republican Party was split between an isolationist wing, based in the Midwest and led by Senator Robert A. Taft, and an internationalist wing based in the East and led by Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the 1952 nomination largely on foreign policy grounds. Since then the Republicans have been characterized by a hawkish and intense American nationalism, and strong opposition to Communism, and strong support for Israel.
In the 21st century, U.S. influence remains strong but, in relative terms, is declining in terms of economic output compared to rising nations such as China, India, Russia, and the newly consolidated European Union. Substantial problems remain, such as climate change, nuclear proliferation, and the specter of nuclear terrorism. Foreign policy analysts Hachigian and Sutphen in their book The Next American Century suggest all five powers have similar vested interests in stability and terrorism prevention and trade; if they can find common ground, then the next decades may be marked by peaceful growth and prosperity.
In 2017 diplomats from other countries developed new tactics to deal with President Donald Trump. The New York Times reported on the eve of his first foreign trip as president:
Trump has numerous aides giving advice on foreign policy. The chief diplomat was Secretary of State Rex Tillerson. His major foreign policy positions, which sometimes are at odds with Trump, include:
In the United States, there are three types of treaty - related law:
In contrast to most other nations, the United States considers the three types of agreements as distinct. Further, the United States incorporates treaty law into the body of U.S. federal law. As a result, Congress can modify or repeal treaties afterward. It can overrule an agreed - upon treaty obligation even if this is seen as a violation of the treaty under international law. Several U.S. court rulings confirmed this understanding, including Supreme Court decisions in Paquete Habana v. United States (1900), and Reid v. Covert (1957), as well as a lower court ruling n Garcia - Mir v. Meese (1986). Further, the Supreme Court has declared itself as having the power to rule a treaty as void by declaring it "unconstitutional '', although as of 2011, it has never exercised this power.
The State Department has taken the position that the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties represents established law. Generally, when the U.S. signs a treaty, it is binding. However, as a result of the Reid v. Covert decision, the U.S. adds a reservation to the text of every treaty that says, in effect, that the U.S. intends to abide by the treaty, but if the treaty is found to be in violation of the Constitution, then the U.S. legally ca n't abide by the treaty since the U.S. signature would be ultra vires.
The United States has ratified and participates in many other multilateral treaties, including arms control treaties (especially with the Soviet Union), human rights treaties, environmental protocols, and free trade agreements.
The United States is a founding member of the United Nations and most of its specialized agencies, notably including the World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund. The U.S. has at times has withheld payment of dues due to disagreements with the UN.
The United States is also member of:
After it captured the islands from Japan during World War II, the United States administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986 (1994 for Palau). The Northern Mariana Islands became a U.S. territory (part of the United States), while Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau became independent countries. Each has signed a Compact of Free Association that gives the United States exclusive military access in return for U.S. defense protection and conduct of military foreign affairs (except the declaration of war) and a few billion dollars of aid. These agreements also generally allow citizens of these countries to live and work in the United States with their spouses (and vice versa), and provide for largely free trade. The federal government also grants access to services from domestic agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency, National Weather Service, the United States Postal Service, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Communications Commission, and U.S. representation to the International Frequency Registration Board of the International Telecommunication Union.
The United States notably does not participate in various international agreements adhered to by almost all other industrialized countries, by almost all the countries of the Americas, or by almost all other countries in the world. With a large population and economy, on a practical level this can undermine the effect of certain agreements, or give other countries a precedent to cite for non-participation in various agreements.
In some cases the arguments against participation include that the United States should maximize its sovereignty and freedom of action, or that ratification would create a basis for lawsuits that would treat American citizens unfairly. In other cases, the debate became involved in domestic political issues, such as gun control, climate change, and the death penalty.
Examples include:
While America 's relationships with Europe have tended to be in terms of multilateral frameworks, such as NATO, America 's relations with Asia have tended to be based on a "hub and spoke '' model using a series of bilateral relationships where states coordinate with the United States and do not collaborate with each other. On May 30, 2009, at the Shangri - La Dialogue Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates urged the nations of Asia to build on this hub and spoke model as they established and grew multilateral institutions such as ASEAN, APEC and the ad hoc arrangements in the area. However, in 2011 Gates said that the United States must serve as the "indispensable nation, '' for building multilateral cooperation.
As of 2014, the U.S. currently produces about 66 % of the oil that it consumes. While its imports have exceeded domestic production since the early 1990s, new hydraulic fracturing techniques and discovery of shale oil deposits in Canada and the American Dakotas offer the potential for increased energy independence from oil exporting countries such as OPEC. Former U.S. President George W. Bush identified dependence on imported oil as an urgent "national security concern ''.
Two - thirds of the world 's proven oil reserves are estimated to be found in the Persian Gulf. Despite its distance, the Persian Gulf region was first proclaimed to be of national interest to the United States during World War II. Petroleum is of central importance to modern armies, and the United States -- as the world 's leading oil producer at that time -- supplied most of the oil for the Allied armies. Many U.S. strategists were concerned that the war would dangerously reduce the U.S. oil supply, and so they sought to establish good relations with Saudi Arabia, a kingdom with large oil reserves.
The Persian Gulf region continued to be regarded as an area of vital importance to the United States during the Cold War. Three Cold War United States Presidential doctrines -- the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, and the Nixon Doctrine -- played roles in the formulation of the Carter Doctrine, which stated that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its "national interests '' in the Persian Gulf region. Carter 's successor, President Ronald Reagan, extended the policy in October 1981 with what is sometimes called the "Reagan Corollary to the Carter Doctrine '', which proclaimed that the United States would intervene to protect Saudi Arabia, whose security was threatened after the outbreak of the Iran -- Iraq War. Some analysts have argued that the implementation of the Carter Doctrine and the Reagan Corollary also played a role in the outbreak of the 2003 Iraq War.
Almost all of Canada 's energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports: Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports.
In 2007 the U.S. was Sub-Saharan Africa 's largest single export market accounting for 28 % of exports (second in total to the EU at 31 %). 81 % of U.S. imports from this region were petroleum products.
Foreign assistance is a core component of the State Department 's international affairs budget, which is $49 billion in all for 2014. Aid is considered an essential instrument of U.S. foreign policy. There are four major categories of non-military foreign assistance: bilateral development aid, economic assistance supporting U.S. political and security goals, humanitarian aid, and multilateral economic contributions (for example, contributions to the World Bank and International Monetary Fund).
In absolute dollar terms, the United States government is the largest international aid donor ($23 billion in 2014). The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) manages the bulk of bilateral economic assistance; the Treasury Department handles most multilateral aid. In addition many private agencies, churches and philanthropies provide aid.
Although the United States is the largest donor in absolute dollar terms, it is actually ranked 19 out of 27 countries on the Commitment to Development Index. The CDI ranks the 27 richest donor countries on their policies that affect the developing world. In the aid component the United States is penalized for low net aid volume as a share of the economy, a large share of tied or partially tied aid, and a large share of aid given to less poor and relatively undemocratic governments.
Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting foreign aid much more than conservatives do.
As of 2016, the United States is actively conducting military operations against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Al - Qaeda under the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, including in areas of fighting in the Syrian Civil War and Yemeni Civil War. The Guantanamo Bay Naval Base holds what the federal government considers unlawful combatants from these ongoing activities, and has been a controversial issue in foreign relations, domestic politics, and Cuba -- United States relations. Other major U.S. military concerns include stability in Afghanistan and Iraq after the recent invasions of those countries, and Russian military activity in Ukraine.
The United States is a founding member of NATO, an alliance of 28 North American and European nations formed to defend Western Europe against the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Under the NATO charter, the United States is compelled to defend any NATO state that is attacked by a foreign power. The United States itself was the first country to invoke the mutual defense provisions of the alliance, in response to the September 11 attacks.
The United States also has mutual military defense treaties with:
The United States has responsibility for the defense of the three Compact of Free Association states: Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau.
In 1989, the United States also granted five nations the major non-NATO ally status (MNNA), and additions by later presidents have brought the list to 28 nations. Each such state has a unique relationship with the United States, involving various military and economic partnerships and alliances.
and lesser agreements with:
The U.S. participates in various military - related multi-lateral organizations, including:
The U.S. also operates hundreds of military bases around the world.
The United States has undertaken unilateral and multilateral military operations throughout its history (see Timeline of United States military operations). In the post-World War II era, the country has had permanent membership and veto power in the United Nations Security Council, allowing it to undertake any military action without formal Security Council opposition. With vast military expenditures, the United States is known as the sole remaining superpower after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The U.S. contributes a relatively small number of personnel for United Nations peacekeeping operations. It sometimes acts through NATO, as with the NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina, NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, and ISAF in Afghanistan, but often acts unilaterally or in ad - hoc coalitions as with the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
The United Nations Charter requires that military operations be either for self - defense or affirmatively approved by the Security Council. Though many of their operations have followed these rules, the United States and NATO have been accused of committing crimes against peace in international law, for example in the 1999 Yugoslavia and 2003 Iraq operations.
The U.S. provides military aid through many different channels. Counting the items that appear in the budget as ' Foreign Military Financing ' and ' Plan Colombia ', the U.S. spent approximately $4.5 billion in military aid in 2001, of which $2 billion went to Israel, $1.3 billion went to Egypt, and $1 billion went to Colombia. Since 9 / 11, Pakistan has received approximately $11.5 billion in direct military aid.
As of 2004, according to Fox News, the U.S. had more than 700 military bases in 130 different countries.
Estimated U.S. foreign military financing and aid by recipient for 2010:
According to a 2016 report by the Congressional Research Service, the U.S. topped the market in global weapon sales for 2015, with $40 billion sold. The largest buyers were Qatar, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Pakistan, Israel, the United Arab Emirates and Iraq.
The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was a proposal by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 to use ground and space - based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles, later dubbed "Star Wars ''. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). Though it was never fully developed or deployed, the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today.
In February 2007, the U.S. started formal negotiations with Poland and Czech Republic concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground - Based Midcourse Defense system (in April 2007, 57 % of Poles opposed the plan). According to press reports the government of the Czech Republic agreed (while 67 % Czechs disagree) to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland.
Russia threatened to place short - range nuclear missiles on the Russia 's border with NATO if the United States refuses to abandon plans to deploy 10 interceptor missiles and a radar in Poland and the Czech Republic. In April 2007, Putin warned of a new Cold War if the Americans deployed the shield in Central Europe. Putin also said that Russia is prepared to abandon its obligations under an Intermediate - Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987 with the United States.
On August 14, 2008, the United States and Poland announced a deal to implement the missile defense system in Polish territory, with a tracking system placed in the Czech Republic. "The fact that this was signed in a period of very difficult crisis in the relations between Russia and the United States over the situation in Georgia shows that, of course, the missile defense system will be deployed not against Iran but against the strategic potential of Russia '', Dmitry Rogozin, Russia 's NATO envoy, said.
Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, argue in Foreign Affairs that U.S. missile defenses are designed to secure Washington 's nuclear primacy and are chiefly directed at potential rivals, such as Russia and China. The authors note that Washington continues to eschew nuclear first strike and contend that deploying missile defenses "would be valuable primarily in an offensive context, not a defensive one; as an adjunct to a US First Strike capability, not as a stand - alone shield '':
If the United States launched a nuclear attack against Russia (or China), the targeted country would be left with only a tiny surviving arsenal, if any at all. At that point, even a relatively modest or inefficient missile defense system might well be enough to protect against any retaliatory strikes.
This analysis is corroborated by the Pentagon 's 1992 Defense Planning Guidance (DPG), prepared by then Secretary of Defense Richard Cheney and his deputies. The DPG declares that the United States should use its power to "prevent the reemergence of a new rival '' either on former Soviet territory or elsewhere. The authors of the Guidance determined that the United States had to "Field a missile defense system as a shield against accidental missile launches or limited missile strikes by ' international outlaws ' '' and also must "Find ways to integrate the ' new democracies ' of the former Soviet bloc into the U.S. - led system ''. The National Archive notes that Document 10 of the DPG includes wording about "disarming capabilities to destroy '' which is followed by several blacked out words. "This suggests that some of the heavily excised pages in the still - classified DPG drafts may include some discussion of preventive action against threatening nuclear and other WMD programs. ''
Finally, Robert David English, writing in Foreign Affairs, observes that in addition to the deployment U.S. missile defenses, the DPG 's second recommendation has also been proceeding on course. "Washington has pursued policies that have ignored Russian interests (and sometimes international law as well) in order to encircle Moscow with military alliances and trade blocs conducive to U.S. interests. ''
In United States history, critics have charged that presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Critics have also charged that the U.S. helped local militaries overthrow democratically elected governments in Iran, Guatemala, and in other instances. Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Until recently, scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive. '' Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, and another by Hermann and Kegley has found that military interventions have improved democracy in other countries.
Professor Paul W. Drake argued that the U.S. first attempted to export democracy in Latin America through intervention from 1912 to 1932. Drake argued that this was contradictory because international law defines intervention as "dictatorial interference in the affairs of another state for the purpose of altering the condition of things. '' The study suggested that efforts to promote democracy failed because democracy needs to develop out of internal conditions, and can not be forcibly imposed. There was disagreement about what constituted democracy; Drake suggested American leaders sometimes defined democracy in a narrow sense of a nation having elections; Drake suggested a broader understanding was needed. Further, there was disagreement about what constituted a "rebellion ''; Drake saw a pattern in which the U.S. State Department disapproved of any type of rebellion, even so - called "revolutions '', and in some instances rebellions against dictatorships. Historian Walter LaFeber stated, "The world 's leading revolutionary nation (the U.S.) in the eighteenth century became the leading protector of the status quo in the twentieth century. ''
Mesquita and Downs evaluated 35 U.S. interventions from 1945 to 2004 and concluded that in only one case, Colombia, did a "full fledged, stable democracy '' develop within ten years following the intervention. Samia Amin Pei argued that nation building in developed countries usually unravelled four to six years after American intervention ended. Pei, based on study of a database on worldwide democracies called Polity, agreed with Mesquita and Downs that U.S. intervention efforts usually do n't produce real democracies, and that most cases result in greater authoritarianism after ten years.
Professor Joshua Muravchik argued U.S. occupation was critical for Axis power democratization after World War II, but America 's failure to encourage democracy in the third world "prove... that U.S. military occupation is not a sufficient condition to make a country democratic. '' The success of democracy in former Axis countries such as Italy were seen as a result of high national per - capita income, although U.S. protection was seen as a key to stabilization and important for encouraging the transition to democracy. Steven Krasner agreed that there was a link between wealth and democracy; when per - capita incomes of $6,000 were achieved in a democracy, there was little chance of that country ever reverting to an autocracy, according to an analysis of his research in the Los Angeles Times.
Tures examined 228 cases of American intervention from 1973 to 2005, using Freedom House data. A plurality of interventions, 96, caused no change in the country 's democracy. In 69 instances, the country became less democratic after the intervention. In the remaining 63 cases, a country became more democratic. However this does not take into account the direction the country would have gone with no U.S. intervention.
Hermann and Kegley found that American military interventions designed to protect or promote democracy increased freedom in those countries. Peceny argued that the democracies created after military intervention are still closer to an autocracy than a democracy, quoting Przeworski "while some democracies are more democratic than others, unless offices are contested, no regime should be considered democratic. '' Therefore, Peceny concludes, it is difficult to know from the Hermann and Kegley study whether U.S. intervention has only produced less repressive autocratic governments or genuine democracies.
Peceny stated that the United States attempted to export democracy in 33 of its 93 20th - century military interventions. Peceny argued that proliberal policies after military intervention had a positive impact on democracy.
A global survey done by Pewglobal indicated that at (as of 2014) least 33 surveyed countries have a positive view (50 % or above) of the United States. With the top ten most positive countries being Philippines (92 %), Israel (84 %), South Korea (82 %), Kenya (80 %), El Salvador (80 %), Italy (78 %), Ghana (77 %), Vietnam (76 %), Bangladesh (76 %), and Tanzania (75 %). While 10 surveyed countries have the most negative view (Below 50 %) of the United States. With the countries being Egypt (10 %), Jordan (12 %), Pakistan (14 %), Turkey (19 %), Russia (23 %), Palestinian Territories (30 %), Greece (34 %), Argentina (36 %), Lebanon (41 %), Tunisia (42 %). Americans ' own view of the United States was viewed at 84 %. International opinion about the US has often changed with different executive administrations. For example in 2009, the French public favored the United States when President Barack Obama (75 % favorable) replaced President George W. Bush (42 %). After President Donald Trump took the helm in 2017, French public opinion about the US fell from 63 % to 46 %. These trends were also seen in other European countries.
United States foreign policy also includes covert actions to topple foreign governments that have been opposed to the United States. According to J. Dana Stuster, writing in Foreign Policy, there are seven "confirmed cases '' where the U.S. -- acting principally through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), but sometimes with the support of other parts of the U.S. government, including the Navy and State Department -- covertly assisted in the overthrow of a foreign government: Iran in 1953, Guatemala in 1954, Congo in 1960, the Dominican Republic in 1961, South Vietnam in 1963, Brazil in 1964, and Chile in 1973. Stuster states that this list excludes "U.S. - supported insurgencies and failed assassination attempts '' such as those directed against Cuba 's Fidel Castro, as well as instances where U.S. involvement has been alleged but not proven (such as Syria in 1949).
In 1953 the CIA, working with the British government, initiated Operation Ajax against the Prime Minister of Iran Mohammad Mossadegh who had attempted to nationalize Iran 's oil, threatening the interests of the Anglo - Persian Oil Company. This had the effect of restoring and strengthening the authoritarian monarchical reign of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1957, the CIA and Israeli Mossad aided the Iranian government in establishing its intelligence service, SAVAK, later blamed for the torture and execution of the regime 's opponents.
A year later, in Operation PBSUCCESS, the CIA assisted the local military in toppling the democratically elected left - wing government of Jacobo Árbenz in Guatemala and installing the military dictator Carlos Castillo Armas. The United Fruit Company lobbied for Árbenz overthrow as his land reforms jeopardized their land holdings in Guatemala, and painted these reforms as a communist threat. The coup triggered a decades long civil war which claimed the lives of an estimated 200,000 people (42,275 individual cases have been documented), mostly through 626 massacres against the Maya population perpetrated by the U.S. - backed Guatemalan military. An independent Historical Clarification Commission found that U.S. corporations and government officials "exercised pressure to maintain the country 's archaic and unjust socio - economic structure, '' and that the CIA backed illegal counterinsurgency operations.
During the massacre of at least 500,000 alleged communists in 1960s Indonesia, U.S. government officials encouraged and applauded the mass killings while providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military which helped facilitate them. This included the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta supplying Indonesian forces with lists of up to 5,000 names of suspected members of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), who were subsequently killed in the massacres. In 2001, the CIA attempted to prevent the publication of the State Department volume Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 -- 1968, which documents the U.S. role in providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military for the express purpose of the extirpation of the PKI. In July 2016, an international panel of judges ruled the killings constitute crimes against humanity, and that the US, along with other Western governments, were complicit in these crimes.
In 1970, the CIA worked with coup - plotters in Chile in the attempted kidnapping of General René Schneider, who was targeted for refusing to participate in a military coup upon the election of Salvador Allende. Schneider was shot in the botched attempt and died three days later. The CIA later paid the group $35,000 for the failed kidnapping.
According to one peer - reviewed study, the U.S. intervened in 81 foreign elections between 1946 and 2000, while the Soviet Union or Russia intervened in 36.
Since the 1970s, issues of human rights have become increasingly important in American foreign policy. Congress took the lead in the 1970s. Following the Vietnam War, the feeling that U.S. foreign policy had grown apart from traditional American values was seized upon by Senator Donald M. Fraser (D, MI), leading the Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, in criticizing Republican Foreign Policy under the Nixon administration. In the early 1970s, Congress concluded the Vietnam War and passed the War Powers Act. As "part of a growing assertiveness by Congress about many aspects of Foreign Policy, '' Human Rights concerns became a battleground between the Legislative and the Executive branches in the formulation of foreign policy. David Forsythe points to three specific, early examples of Congress interjecting its own thoughts on foreign policy:
These measures were repeatedly used by Congress, with varying success, to affect U.S. foreign policy towards the inclusion of Human Rights concerns. Specific examples include El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala and South Africa. The Executive (from Nixon to Reagan) argued that the Cold War required placing regional security in favor of U.S. interests over any behavioral concerns of national allies. Congress argued the opposite, in favor of distancing the United States from oppressive regimes. Nevertheless, according to historian Daniel Goldhagen, during the last two decades of the Cold War, the number of American client states practicing mass murder outnumbered those of the Soviet Union. John Henry Coatsworth, a historian of Latin America and the provost of Columbia University, suggests the number of repression victims in Latin America alone far surpassed that of the USSR and its East European satellites during the period 1960 to 1990. W. John Green contends that the United States was an "essential enabler '' of "Latin America 's political murder habit, bringing out and allowing to flourish some of the region 's worst tendencies. ''
On December 6, 2011, Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. He also criticized Russia 's law discriminating against gays, joining other western leaders in the boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Russia.
In June 2014, a Chilean court ruled that the United States played a key role in the murders of Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi, both American citizens, shortly after the 1973 Chilean coup d'état.
United States foreign policy is influenced by the efforts of the U.S. government to control imports of illicit drugs, including cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and cannabis. This is especially true in Latin America, a focus for the U.S. War on Drugs. Those efforts date back to at least 1880, when the U.S. and China completed an agreement that prohibited the shipment of opium between the two countries.
Over a century later, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act requires the President to identify the major drug transit or major illicit drug - producing countries. In September 2005, the following countries were identified: Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Laos, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Two of these, Burma and Venezuela are countries that the U.S. considers to have failed to adhere to their obligations under international counternarcotics agreements during the previous 12 months. Notably absent from the 2005 list were Afghanistan, the People 's Republic of China and Vietnam; Canada was also omitted in spite of evidence that criminal groups there are increasingly involved in the production of MDMA destined for the United States and that large - scale cross-border trafficking of Canadian - grown cannabis continues. The U.S. believes that the Netherlands are successfully countering the production and flow of MDMA to the U.S.
Critics from the left cite episodes that undercut leftist governments or showed support for Israel. Others cite human rights abuses and violations of international law. Critics have charged that the U.S. presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Critics also point to declassified records which indicate that the CIA under Allen Dulles and the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover aggressively recruited more than 1,000 Nazis, including those responsible for war crimes, to use as spies and informants against the Soviet Union in the Cold War.
The U.S. has faced criticism for backing right - wing dictators that systematically violated human rights, such as Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Alfredo Stroessner of Paraguay, Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala, Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina, Hissène Habré of Chad Yahya Khan of Pakistan and Suharto of Indonesia. Critics have also accused the United States of supporting Operation Condor, an international campaign of political assassination and state terror organized by right - wing military dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America.
Journalists and human rights organizations have been critical of US - led airstrikes and targeted killings by drones which have in some cases resulted in collateral damage of civilian populations. In early 2017, the U.S. faced criticism from some scholars, activists and media outlets for dropping 26,171 bombs on seven different countries throughout 2016: Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya, Yemen, Somalia and Pakistan.
Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Some scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive. '' Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, and another by Hermann and Kegley has found that military interventions have improved democracy in other countries. A 2013 global poll in 68 countries with 66,000 respondents by Win / Gallup found that the U.S. is perceived as the biggest threat to world peace.
Regarding support for certain anti-Communist dictatorships during the Cold War, a response is that they were seen as a necessary evil, with the alternatives even worse Communist or fundamentalist dictatorships. David Schmitz says this policy did not serve U.S. interests. Friendly tyrants resisted necessary reforms and destroyed the political center (though not in South Korea), while the ' realist ' policy of coddling dictators brought a backlash among foreign populations with long memories.
Many democracies have voluntary military ties with United States. See NATO, ANZUS, Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, Mutual Defense Treaty with South Korea, and Major non-NATO ally. Those nations with military alliances with the U.S. can spend less on the military since they can count on U.S. protection. This may give a false impression that the U.S. is less peaceful than those nations.
Research on the democratic peace theory has generally found that democracies, including the United States, have not made war on one another. There have been U.S. support for coups against some democracies, but for example Spencer R. Weart argues that part of the explanation was the perception, correct or not, that these states were turning into Communist dictatorships. Also important was the role of rarely transparent United States government agencies, who sometimes mislead or did not fully implement the decisions of elected civilian leaders.
Empirical studies (see democide) have found that democracies, including the United States, have killed much fewer civilians than dictatorships. Media may be biased against the U.S. regarding reporting human rights violations. Studies have found that The New York Times coverage of worldwide human rights violations predominantly focuses on the human rights violations in nations where there is clear U.S. involvement, while having relatively little coverage of the human rights violations in other nations. For example, the bloodiest war in recent time, involving eight nations and killing millions of civilians, was the Second Congo War, which was almost completely ignored by the media.
Niall Ferguson argues that the U.S. is incorrectly blamed for all the human rights violations in nations they have supported. He writes that it is generally agreed that Guatemala was the worst of the US - backed regimes during the Cold War. However, the U.S. can not credibly be blamed for all the 200,000 deaths during the long Guatemalan Civil War. The U.S. Intelligence Oversight Board writes that military aid was cut for long periods because of such violations, that the U.S. helped stop a coup in 1993, and that efforts were made to improve the conduct of the security services.
Today the U.S. states that democratic nations best support U.S. national interests. According to the U.S. State Department, "Democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health. '' According to former U.S. President Bill Clinton, "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies do n't attack each other. '' In one view mentioned by the U.S. State Department, democracy is also good for business. Countries that embrace political reforms are also more likely to pursue economic reforms that improve the productivity of businesses. Accordingly, since the mid-1980s, under President Ronald Reagan, there has been an increase in levels of foreign direct investment going to emerging market democracies relative to countries that have not undertaken political reforms. Leaked cables in 2010 suggested that the "dark shadow of terrorism still dominates the United States ' relations with the world ''.
The United States officially maintains that it supports democracy and human rights through several tools Examples of these tools are as follows:
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where is ashley on secret life of the american teenager | India Eisley - wikipedia
India Joy Eisley (born October 29, 1993) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Ashley Juergens in the ABC Family television series The Secret Life of the American Teenager, and her roles as Eve in 2012 film Underworld: Awakening, Sawa in the 2014 film Kite, and Audrina in the 2016 television film My Sweet Audrina.
Eisley was born in 1993, to musician David Glen Eisley and actress Olivia Hussey. Her grandfather was actor Anthony Eisley.
Eisley and her mother appeared together in the 2005 movie Headspace. After small roles in various independent films, Eisley gained a major role in 2008 in The Secret Life of the American Teenager. She played Ashley Juergens, younger sister of teen mother Amy Juergens.
Eisley starred as Sawa in the 2014 action film Kite, opposite Samuel L. Jackson. At the end of 2014 she filmed Social Suicide, a modern retelling of Romeo and Juliet, due for release in late 2015. In the beginning of 2015 she also filmed the dark fantasy film The Curse of Sleeping Beauty as Briar Rose. In 2016 Eisley starred in the titular role in the television film adaptation of the V.C. Andrews ' book My Sweet Audrina. The same year she was cast in the thriller film Behind the Glass opposite Jason Isaacs. In 2017 she starred in the Netflix original film Clinical.
Author Jessica Brody has expressed a desire for Eisley to portray her character Seraphina in the film adaptation of her novel Unremembered. Hollywood casting director Michelle Levy was first to recommend Eisley for the role.
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who is the author of wind in the willows | The Wind in the Willows - wikipedia
The Wind in the Willows is a children 's novel by Kenneth Grahame, first published in 1908. Alternately slow moving and fast - paced, it focuses on four anthropomorphised animals in a pastoral version of Edwardian England. The novel is notable for its mixture of mysticism, adventure, morality and camaraderie, and celebrated for its evocation of the nature of the Thames Valley.
In 1908, Grahame retired from his position as secretary of the Bank of England. He moved back to Berkshire, where he had lived as a child, and spent his time by the River Thames doing much as the animal characters in his book do -- as the book says, "simply messing about in boats '' -- and expanding the bedtime stories he had earlier told his son Alastair into a manuscript for the book.
The novel was in its 31st printing when playwright A.A. Milne adapted part of it for the stage as Toad of Toad Hall in 1929. Almost a century later, it was adapted again for the stage as a musical by Julian Fellowes. In 2003, The Wind in the Willows was listed at number 16 in the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
Kenneth Grahame was born on 8 March 1859 in Edinburgh. When he was 5, his mother died from puerperal fever, and his father, who had a drinking problem, gave the care of his four children over to their grandmother, who lived in Cookham Dean in Berkshire. There they lived in a spacious but dilapidated home, "The Mount '', in extensive grounds by the River Thames, and were introduced to the riverside and boating by their uncle, David Ingles, curate at Cookham Dean church. At Christmas 1865 the chimney of the house collapsed and the children moved to Fern Hill Cottage in Cranbourne, Berkshire. In 1866, their father tried to overcome his drinking problem and took the children back to live with him in Argyll, Scotland, but after a year they returned to their grandmother 's house in Cranbourne, where Kenneth lived until he entered St Edward 's School, Oxford in 1868. During his early years at St. Edwards the boys had freedom to explore the old city with its quaint shops, historic buildings, and cobbled streets, St Giles ' Fair, the idyllic upper reaches of the River Thames, and the nearby countryside.
Grahame married Elspeth Thomson in 1899; they had only one child, a boy named Alastair (whose nickname was "Mouse '') born blind in one eye and plagued by health problems throughout his life. When Alastair was about four years old, Grahame would tell him bedtime stories, some of which were about a toad, and when Kenneth holidayed alone he would write further tales of Toad, Mole, Ratty and Badger in letters to Alastair.
In 1908 Grahame took early retirement from his job at the Bank of England and moved with his wife and son to an old farmhouse in Blewbury, where he used the bedtime stories he had told Alastair as a basis for the manuscript of The Wind in the Willows.
With the arrival of spring and fine weather outside, the good - natured Mole loses patience with spring cleaning. He flees his underground home, emerging to take in the air and ends up at the river, which he has never seen before. Here he meets Rat (a water vole), who at this time of year spends all his days in, on and close by the river. Rat takes Mole for a ride in his rowing boat. They get along well and spend many more days boating, with Rat teaching Mole the ways of the river.
One summer day, Rat and Mole disembark near the grand Toad Hall and pay a visit to Toad. Toad is rich, jovial, friendly and kind - hearted, but aimless and conceited; he regularly becomes obsessed with current fads, only to abandon them abruptly. Having recently given up boating, Toad 's current craze is his horse - drawn caravan. He persuades the reluctant Rat and willing Mole to join him on a trip. Toad soon tires of the realities of camp life, and sleeps in the following day to avoid chores. Later that day, a passing motorcar scares the horse, causing the caravan to overturn into a ditch. Rat threatens to have the law on the car driver, while Mole calms the horse, but Toad 's craze for caravan travel is immediately replaced by an obsession with motorcars.
Mole wants to meet the respected but elusive Badger, who lives deep in the Wild Wood, but Rat -- knowing that Badger does not appreciate visits -- tells Mole to be patient and wait for Badger to pay them a visit himself. Nevertheless, on a snowy winter 's day, while the seasonally somnolent Rat dozes, Mole impulsively goes to the Wild Wood to explore, hoping to meet Badger. He gets lost in the woods, sees many "evil faces '' among the wood 's less - welcoming denizens, succumbs to fright and panic and hides, trying to stay warm, among the sheltering roots of a tree. Rat, finding Mole gone, guesses his mission from the direction of Mole 's tracks and, equipping himself with two pistols and a stout cudgel, goes in search, finding him as snow begins to fall in earnest. Attempting to find their way home, Rat and Mole quite literally stumble across Badger 's home -- Mole barks his shin on the boot scraper on Badger 's doorstep. Badger -- en route to bed in his dressing - gown and slippers -- nonetheless warmly welcomes Rat and Mole to his large and cozy underground home, providing them with hot food and dry clothes.
Badger learns from his visitors that Toad has crashed seven cars, has been in hospital three times, and has spent a fortune on fines. Though nothing can be done at the moment (it being winter), they resolve that when the time is right they will make a plan to protect Toad from himself; they are, after all, his friends, and are worried about his well - being.
With the arrival of summer, Badger visits Mole and Rat to take action over Toad 's self - destructive obsession. The three of them go to Toad Hall, and Badger tries talking Toad out of his behaviour, to no avail. They put Toad under house arrest, with themselves as the guards, until Toad changes his mind. Feigning illness, Toad bamboozles the Water Rat (who is on guard duty at the time) and escapes.
Badger and Mole are cross with Rat for his gullibility, but draw comfort because they need no longer waste their summer guarding Toad. However, Badger and Mole continue to live in Toad Hall in the hope that Toad may return. Meanwhile, Toad orders lunch at The Red Lion Inn, and then sees a motorcar pull into the courtyard. He steals the car, drives it recklessly and is caught by the police. He is sent to prison for 20 years.
In prison, Toad gains the sympathy of the gaoler 's daughter, who helps him to escape disguised as a washerwoman. Though free again, Toad is without money or possessions other than the clothes upon his back. He manages to board a railway engine manned by a sympathetic driver, which is then pursued by a special train loaded with policemen, detectives and prison warders. Toad jumps from the train and, still disguised as a washerwoman, comes across a horse - drawn barge. The barge 's female owner offers him a lift in exchange for Toad 's services as a washerwoman. After botching the wash, Toad gets into a fight with the barge - woman, who tosses him into the canal. In revenge, Toad makes off with the barge horse, which he then sells to a gypsy. Toad subsequently flags down a passing car, which happens to be the very one he stole earlier. The car owners, not recognising Toad in his disguise, permit him to drive their car. Once behind the wheel, he is repossessed by his former passion and drives furiously, declaring his true identity to the passengers who try to seize him. This leads to the car landing in a horse - pond, after which Toad flees once more. Pursued by police, he runs accidentally into a river, which carries him by sheer chance to the house of Rat.
Toad now hears from Rat that Toad Hall has been taken over by weasels and stoats from the Wild Wood, who have driven out Mole and Badger. Although upset at the loss of his house, Toad realises what good friends he has and how badly he has behaved. Badger then arrives and announces that he knows of a secret tunnel into Toad Hall through which the enemies may be attacked. Armed to the teeth, Badger, Rat, Mole and Toad enter via the tunnel and pounce upon the unsuspecting Wild Wooders who are holding a celebratory party. Having driven away the intruders, Toad holds a banquet to mark his return, during which (for a change) he behaves both quietly and humbly. He makes up for his earlier excesses by seeking out and compensating those he has wronged, and the four friends live out their lives happily ever after.
In addition to the main narrative, the book contains several independent short stories featuring Rat and Mole. These appear for the most part between the chapters chronicling Toad 's adventures, and are often omitted from abridgements and dramatisations. The chapter "Dulce Domum '' describes Mole 's return to his home, accompanied by Rat, in which, despite finding it in a terrible mess after his abortive spring clean, he rediscovers, with Rat 's help, a familiar comfort. "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn '' tells how Mole and Rat search for Otter 's missing son Portly, whom they find in the care of the god Pan. (Pan removes their memories of this meeting "lest the awful remembrance should remain and grow, and overshadow mirth and pleasure ''.) Finally, in "Wayfarers All '', Ratty shows a restless side to his character when he is sorely tempted to join a Sea Rat on his travelling adventures.
The book was originally published as plain text with a frontispiece illustrated by Graham Robertson, but many illustrated, comic and annotated versions have been published over the years. Notable illustrators include Paul Bransom (1913), Wyndham Payne (1927), Ernest H. Shepard (1931), Arthur Rackham (1940), Tasha Tudor (1966), Michael Hague (1980), Scott McKowen (2005), and Robert Ingpen (2007).
The most popular illustrations are probably by E.H. Shepard, originally published in 1931, and believed to be authorised as Grahame was pleased with the initial sketches, though he did not live to see the completed work.
The Wind in the Willows was the last work illustrated by Arthur Rackham. The book with his illustrations was issued posthumously in a limited edition by the Folio Society with 16 colour plates in 1940 in the US. It was not issued with the Rackham illustrations in the UK until 1950.
The Folio Society 2006 edition featured 85 illustrations, 35 in colour, by Charles van Sandwyk. A fancier centenary edition was produced two years later.
Michel Plessix created a Wind in the Willows watercolour comic album series, which helped to introduce the stories to France. They have been translated into English by Cinebook Ltd.
Patrick Benson re-illustrated the story in 1994 and HarperCollins published it in 1994 together with the William Horwood sequels The Willows in Winter, Toad Triumphant and The Willows and Beyond. It was published in the US in 1995 by St Martin 's Press.
Inga Moore 's abridged edition features text and illustrations paced so that a line of text, such as "oh my oh my '', also serves as a caption.
Barnes & Noble Classics featured an introduction by Gardner McFall in 2007. New York, ISBN 978 - 1 - 59308 - 265 - 9
Belknap Press, of Harvard University Press, published Seth Lerer 's annotated edition in 2009.
W.W. Norton published Annie Gauger and Brian Jacques 's annotated edition in 2009.
Jamie Hendry Productions published a special edition of the novel in 2015 and donated it to schools in Plymouth and Salford to celebrate the World Premiere of the musical version of The Wind in the Willows by Julian Fellowes, George Stiles and Anthony Drewe.
IDW Publishing published an illustrated edition of the novel in 2016. The hardcover novel features illustrations from Eisner Award - winning artist David Petersen, who is best known for creating and drawing the comic series Mouse Guard.
A number of publishers rejected the manuscript, and it was not until October 1908, after some campaigning by President Theodore Roosevelt, that the book was finally published by Methuen and Co. The critics, who were hoping for a third volume in the style of Graham 's earlier works; The Golden Age and Dream Days, generally gave negative reviews. The public loved it, however, and within a few years it sold in such numbers that many reprints were required. In 1909, Roosevelt wrote to Grahame to tell him that he had "read it and reread it, and have come to accept the characters as old friends ''.
In The Enchanted Places, Christopher Robin Milne wrote of The Wind in the Willows:
A book that we all greatly loved and admired and read aloud or alone, over and over and over: The Wind in the Willows. This book is, in a way, two separate books put into one. There are, on the one hand, those chapters concerned with the adventures of Toad; and on the other hand there are those chapters that explore human emotions -- the emotions of fear, nostalgia, awe, wanderlust. My mother was drawn to the second group, of which "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn '' was her favourite, read to me again and again with always, towards the end, the catch in the voice and the long pause to find her handkerchief and blow her nose. My father, on his side, was so captivated by the first group that he turned these chapters into the children 's play, Toad of Toad Hall. In this play one emotion only is allowed to creep in: nostalgia.
The BBC has broadcast a number of radio productions of the story.
Dramatisations include:
Abridged readings include:
Kenneth Williams also did a version of the book for radio.
In 2002 Paul Oakenfold produced a Trance Soundtrack for the story, aired on the Galaxy FM show Urban Soundtracks. These mixes blended classic stories with a mixture of dance and contemporary music.
In 1983 Dixon Scott published A Fresh Wind in the Willows, which not only predates Horwood 's sequels (see below) by several years but also includes some of the same incidents, including a climax in which Toad steals a Bleriot monoplane.
William Horwood created several sequels to The Wind in the Willows: The Willows in Winter, Toad Triumphant, The Willows and Beyond, and The Willows at Christmas.
Jacqueline Kelly 's sequel Return to the Willows was published in 2012.
Jan Needle 's Wild Wood was published in 1981 with illustrations by William Rushton (ISBN 0 - 233 - 97346 - X). It is a re-telling of the story of The Wind in the Willows from the point of view of the working - class inhabitants of the Wild Wood. For them, money is short and employment hard to find. They have a very different perspective on the wealthy, easy, careless lifestyle of Toad and his friends.
Mapledurham House in Oxfordshire was an inspiration for Toad Hall, although Hardwick House and Fawley Court also make this claim.
The village of Lerryn, Cornwall claims to be the setting for the book.
Simon Winchester suggested that the character of Ratty was based on Frederick Furnivall, a keen oarsman and acquaintance of Kenneth Grahame. However, Grahame himself said that this character was inspired by his good friend, the writer Sir Arthur Quiller - Couch. Grahame mentions this in a signed copy he gave to Quiller - Couch 's daughter, Foy Felicia.
The Scotsman and Oban Times suggested The Wind in the Willows was inspired by the Crinan Canal because Grahame spent some of his childhood in Ardrishaig.
There is a theory that the idea for the story arose when its author saw a water vole beside the River Pang in Berkshire, southern England. A 29 hectare extension to the nature reserve at Moor Copse, near Tidmarsh Berkshire, was acquired in January 2007 by the Berks, Bucks and Oxon Wildlife Trust.
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1 square foot is equal to how many foot | Square foot - wikipedia
The square foot (plural square feet; abbreviated sq ft, sf, ft) is an imperial unit and U.S. customary unit (non-SI, non-metric) of area, used mainly in the United States and partially in Bangladesh, Canada, Ghana, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore and the United Kingdom. It is defined as the area of a square with sides of 1 foot.
Although the pluralisation is regular in the noun form, when used as an adjective, the singular is preferred. So, a flat measuring 700 square feet could be described as a 700 square - foot flat. This corresponds to common linguistic usage of foot.
A symbol for square foot, square feet, and "per square foot '' commonly used in architecture, real estate and interior floor plans is a simple square with a vertical line bisecting it -- ⏍. It is also occasionally written as a square with a slash through it.
1 square foot is equivalent to:
1 acre is equivalent to 43,560 square feet.
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who holds the record for most points scored in a nba game | List of National Basketball Association single - game scoring leaders - wikipedia
This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have scored 60 or more points in a game.
This feat has been accomplished 67 times in NBA history. Twenty - three different players have scored 60 or more points in a game. Only four players have scored 60 or more points on more than one occasion: Wilt Chamberlain (32 times), Kobe Bryant (6 times), Michael Jordan (5 times), and Elgin Baylor (4 times).
Jordan (63) and Baylor (61) are the only players to score at least 60 points in a game during the playoffs, each accomplishing this once.
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the federal system of government in the united states was designed at the constitutional convention | Federalism in the United states - wikipedia
Federalism in the United States is the constitutional relationship between U.S. state governments and the Federal government of the United States. Since the founding of the country, and particularly with the end of the American Civil War, power shifted away from the states and towards the national government. The progression of federalism includes dual, state - centered, and new federalism.
Federalism was a political solution for the problems with the Articles of Confederation which gave little practical authority to the federal government. For example, the Articles allowed the Continental Congress the power to sign treaties and declare war, but it could not raise taxes to pay for an army and all major decisions required a unanimous vote.
The movement was greatly strengthened by the reaction to Shays ' Rebellion of 1786 -- 1787, which was an armed uprising of yeoman farmers in western Massachusetts. The rebellion was fueled by a poor economy that was created, in part, by the inability of the federal government to deal effectively with the debt from the American Revolutionary War. Moreover, the federal government had proven incapable of raising an army to quell the rebellion, so that Massachusetts had been forced to raise its own.
In 1787, fifty - five delegates met at a Constitutional convention in Philadelphia and generated ideas of a bicameral legislature (United States Congress), balanced representation of small and large states (Great Compromise), and checks and balances. James Madison stated in a long pre-convention memorandum to delegates that because "one could hardly expect the state legislatures to take enlightened views on national affairs '', stronger central government was necessary. This convention almost immediately dropped its original mandate and instead set about constructing a new Constitution of the United States. Once the convention concluded and released the Constitution for public consumption, the Federalist movement became focused on getting the Constitution ratified.
The most forceful defense of the new Constitution was The Federalist Papers, a compilation of 85 anonymous essays published in New York City to convince the people of the state to vote for ratification. These articles, written by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, with some contributed by John Jay, examined the benefits of the new, proposed Constitution, and analyzed the political theory and function behind the various articles of the Constitution. The Federalist Papers remain one of the most important sets of documents in American history and political science.
Those opposed to the new Constitution became known as the "Anti-Federalists ''. They generally were local rather than cosmopolitan in perspective, oriented to plantations and farms rather than commerce or finance, and wanted strong state governments and a weak national government. The Anti-Federalist critique soon centered on the absence of a bill of rights, which Federalists promised to provide.
Because George Washington lent his prestige to the Constitution and because of the ingenuity and organizational skills of its proponents, the Constitution was ratified by all the states. The outgoing Congress of the Confederation scheduled elections for the new government, and set March 4, 1789 as the date that the new government would take power. In 1789, Congress submitted twelve articles of amendment to the states. Ten of these articles, written by congressional committees, achieved passage on December 15, 1791 and became the United States Bill of Rights. The Tenth Amendment set the guidelines for federalism in the United States.
As soon as the first Federalist movement dissipated, a second one sprang up to take its place. This one was based on the policies of Alexander Hamilton and his allies for a stronger national government, a loose construction of the Constitution, and a mercantile (rather than agricultural) economy. As time progressed, the factions which adhered to these policies organized themselves into the nation 's first political party, the Federalist Party, and the movement 's focus and fortunes began to track those of the party it spawned.
While the Federalist movement of the 1780s and the Federalist Party were distinct entities, they were related in more than just a common name. The Democratic - Republican Party, the opposition to the Federalist Party, emphasized the fear that a strong national government was a threat to the liberties of the people. They stressed that the national debt created by the new government would bankrupt the country, and that federal bondholders were paid from taxes paid by honest farmers and workingmen. These themes resonated with the Anti-Federalists, the opposition to the Federalist movement of the 1780s. As Norman Risjord has documented for Virginia, of the supporters of the Constitution in 1788, 69 % joined the Federalist party, while nearly all (94 %) of the opponents joined the Republicans. 71 % of Thomas Jefferson 's supporters in Virginia were former anti-federalists who continued to fear centralized government, while only 29 % had been proponents of the Constitution a few years before. In short, nearly all of the opponents of the Federalist movement became opponents of the Federalist Party.
The movement reached its zenith with the election of an overtly Federalist President, John Adams. However, with the defeat of Adams in the election of 1800 and the death of Hamilton, the Federalist Party began a long decline from which it never recovered. What finally finished off the Federalist party was the Hartford Convention of 1814, in which five New England states gathered to discuss several constitutional amendments necessary to protect New England 's interests in regard to the blockade of their ports by the British during the War of 1812. The threat of secession was also proposed during these secret meetings. Three delegates were sent to Washington, DC to negotiate New England 's terms only to discover the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, ending the war with the British. The Federalists were then seen by many as traitors to the union.
The United States Supreme Court under Chief Justice John Marshall played an important role in defining the power of the federal and state governments during the early 19th century. As the U.S. Constitution does not specifically define many dividing lines between the layers of government, the Supreme Court settled the issue in New York. The question was answered particularly in the cases, McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden, which broadly expanded the power of the national government.
Despite Chief Justice Marshall 's strong push for the federal government, the court of his successor, Roger B. Taney (1835 -- 1864), decided cases that favored equally strong national and state governments. The basic philosophy during this time was that the U.S. Government ought to be limited to its enumerated powers and that all others belonged to the states. Both the sixteenth and the seventeenth amendment bolstered the power of the national government, and divided state and federal power.
Following the Taney court and the rise of Dual federalism, the division of labor between federal, state, and local governments was relatively unchanged for over a century. Political scientist Theodore J. Lowi summarized the system in place during those years in The End of the Republican Era
Nevertheless, the modern federal apparatus owes its origins to changes that occurred during the period between 1861 and 1933. While banks had long been incorporated and regulated by the states, the National Bank Acts of 1863 and 1864 saw Congress establish a network of national banks that had their reserve requirements set by officials in Washington. During World War I, a system of federal banks devoted to aiding farmers was established, and a network of federal banks designed to promote home ownership came into existence in the last year of Herbert Hoover 's administration. Congress used its power over interstate commerce to regulate the rates of interstate (and eventually intrastate) railroads and even regulated their stock issues and labor relations, going so far as to enact a law regulating pay rates for railroad workers on the eve of World War I. During the 1920s, Congress enacted laws bestowing collective bargaining rights on employees of interstate railroads and some observers dared to predict it would eventually bestow collective bargaining rights on persons working in all industries. Congress also used the commerce power to enact morals legislation, such as the Mann Act of 1907 barring the transfer of women across state lines for immoral purposes, even as the commerce power remained limited to interstate transportation -- it did not extend to what were viewed as intrastate activities such as manufacturing and mining.
As early as 1913, there was talk of regulating stock exchanges, and the Capital Issues Committee formed to control access to credit during World War I recommended federal regulation of all stock issues and exchanges shortly before it ceased operating in 1921. With the Morrill Land - Grant Acts Congress used land sale revenues to make grants to the states for colleges during the Civil War on the theory that land sale revenues could be devoted to subjects beyond those listed in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution. On several occasions during the 1880s, one house of Congress or the other passed bills providing land sale revenues to the states for the purpose of aiding primary schools. During the first years of twentieth century, the endeavors funded with federal grants multiplied, and Congress began using general revenues to fund them -- thus utilizing the general welfare clause 's broad spending power, even though it had been discredited for almost a century (Hamilton 's view that a broad spending power could be derived from the clause had been all but abandoned by 1840).
During Herbert Hoover 's administration, grants went to the states for the purpose of funding poor relief. The Supreme Court began applying the Bill of Rights to the states during the 1920s even though the Fourteenth Amendment had not been represented as subjecting the states to its provisions during the debates that preceded ratification of it. The 1920s also saw Washington expand its role in domestic law enforcement. Disaster relief for areas affected by floods or crop failures dated from 1874, and these appropriations began to multiply during the administration of Woodrow Wilson (1913 -- 21). By 1933, the precedents necessary for the federal government to exercise broad regulatory power over all economic activity and spend for any purpose it saw fit were almost all in place. Virtually all that remained was for the will to be mustered in Congress and for the Supreme Court to acquiesce.
Although Cooperative Federalism has roots in the civil war, the Great Depression marked an abrupt end to Dual Federalism and a dramatic shift to a strong national government. President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal policies reached into the lives of U.S. citizens like no other federal measure had. As the Supreme Court had rejected nearly all of Roosevelt 's economic proposals, the president proposed the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 to add more members. The expansion of the Court along with a Democrat - controlled Congress would tilt Court rulings in favor of Roosevelt 's policies. Lowi notes three Supreme Court cases that validated the shift in power:
The national government was forced to cooperate with all levels of government to implement the New Deal policies; local government earned an equal standing with the other layers, as the federal government relied on political machines at a city level to bypass state legislatures. The formerly distinct division of responsibilities between state and national government had been described as a "layer cake, '' but, with the lines of duty blurred, cooperative federalism was likened to a "marble cake '' or a "picket fence. '' In cooperative federalism, federal funds are distributed through grants in aid or categorical grants which gave the federal government more control over the use of the money.
Another movement calling itself "New Federalism '' appeared in the late 20th century and early 21st century. New Federalism, which is characterized by a gradual return of power to the states, was initiated by President Ronald Reagan (1981 -- 89) with his "devolution revolution '' in the early 1980s and lasted until 2001. Previously, the federal government had granted money to the states categorically, limiting the states to use this funding for specific programs. Reagan 's administration, however, introduced a practice of giving block grants, freeing state governments to spend the money at their own discretion.
New Federalism is sometimes called "states ' rights '', although its proponents usually eschew the latter term because of its associations with Jim Crow and segregation. Unlike the states ' rights movement of the mid-20th century which centered on the civil rights movement, the modern federalist movement is concerned far more with expansive interpretations of the Commerce Clause, as in the areas of medical marijuana (Gonzales v. Raich), partial - birth abortion (Gonzales v. Carhart), gun possession (United States v. Lopez), federal police powers (United States v. Morrison, which struck down portions of the Violence Against Women Act), or agriculture (Wickard v. Filburn).
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where does the dictator of north korea live | Residences of North Korean leaders - wikipedia
There are more than a dozen leader 's residences in North Korea, according to Kim Jong - il 's former bodyguard Lee Young - kuk. Many of the residences were identified on satellite images in the North Korea Uncovered project. Ryongsong Residence is the central residence of Kim Jong - un. All residences are kept secret by the North Korean government and few photographs exist.
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where did sheldon cooper go to college in the big bang theory | Sheldon Cooper - Wikipedia
Sheldon Lee Cooper, Ph. D., Sc. D., is a fictional character in the CBS television series The Big Bang Theory and Young Sheldon, portrayed by actor Jim Parsons in The Big Bang Theory and Iain Armitage in Young Sheldon. For his portrayal, Parsons has won four Primetime Emmy Awards, a Golden Globe Award, a TCA Award, and two Critics ' Choice Television Awards. The character 's childhood is the focus of Young Sheldon; the series is set in 1989 when 9 - year - old Sheldon has skipped ahead four grades, to start high school alongside his older brother.
Sheldon is a senior theoretical physicist at Caltech and shared an apartment with his colleague and best friend, Leonard Hofstadter (Johnny Galecki). However, Sheldon now lives across the hall with his fiancée Amy, in the former apartment of Leonard 's wife Penny. He is a former child prodigy with genius level IQ, but displays an almost total lack of social skills, a tenuous understanding of humor, and difficulty recognizing irony and sarcasm in other people, although he himself often employs them. He exhibits highly idiosyncratic behavior and a general lack of humility or empathy. He also lacks toleration. These characteristics provide the majority of the humor involving him, which has caused him to be described as the show 's breakout character. Despite speculation that Sheldon 's personality traits may be consistent with Asperger syndrome, obsessive -- compulsive personality disorder, and asexuality, co-creator Bill Prady has repeatedly stated that Sheldon 's character was neither conceived nor developed with regard to any of these traits.
The character of Sheldon Cooper was inspired by a computer programmer personally known to series co-creator Bill Prady. He is named in honor of actor / producer Sheldon Leonard and Nobel Prize Laureate Leon Cooper. Chuck Lorre originally intended Johnny Galecki to play the role, but Galecki thought he would be "better suited '' for the character of Leonard. Lorre said that when Jim Parsons auditioned for the role, he was "so startlingly good '' that he was asked to reaudition "to make sure he had n't gotten lucky ''. Sheldon is one of four characters to appear in every episode of the series, along with Leonard, Howard, and Raj.
Sheldon was raised in Galveston, Texas along with his elder brother (George Jr.) and fraternal twin sister (Missy) by his mother, Mary Cooper, an overtly devout Evangelical Christian; and George Cooper, an alcoholic who was never around. Sheldon once got his father fired when he told Mr. Hinckley, the store owner, that George was stealing from the cash register. (Sheldon was rewarded with a fudgsicle.) The only member of his family to have encouraged his work in science was his grandfather, whom he cherished and affectionately called "Pop - Pop '', and who died when Sheldon was five years old. Pop - Pop 's loss is what caused Sheldon to despise Christmas when his Christmas wish to bring Pop - Pop back did n't come true. Sheldon 's closest relative is his maternal grandmother who he affectionately calls "Meemaw '', and who in turn calls him "Moon Pie ''. His aunt also encouraged Sheldon by giving him medical equipment, "in case his work in physics failed, he 'd have a ' trade ' to fall back on ''.
Sheldon was interested in science from an early age, and was a child prodigy, although due to his behavioral quirks and his lack of humility about his superior intellect, he was bullied by classmates and neighbors. Sheldon entered college at the age of eleven, and at age fourteen he graduated from college summa cum laude. (To this day, the college he went to for undergraduate studies has yet to be revealed, but he feels it is superior to the others ' alma maters.) From then, he worked on his doctorate, was a visiting professor at the University of Heidelberg in Germany, was the youngest person at the time to receive the Stevenson Award, and has appeared on the cover of Journal of Physical Chemistry A. Sheldon is now a theoretical physicist doing research at Caltech.
Sheldon is often described as a stereotypical "geek ''. He is usually characterized as being extremely intelligent, detail - oriented, eccentric, and occasionally disturbing. Despite his intelligence, he often displays childlike qualities, such as being extremely stubborn and a lack of common sense. It is claimed by Bernadette that the reason Sheldon is sometimes unpleasant is because the part of his brain that tells him it is wrong to be nasty is "getting a wedgie from the rest of his brain '', although, in season 8 's "The Space Probe Disintegration '', Sheldon tearfully admits to Leonard that he is aware of his peculiarities and how his behavior comes across. The first four episodes of The Big Bang Theory portray Sheldon slightly inconsistently with respect to his later characterization: according to Prady, the character "began to evolve after episode five or so and became his own thing ''.
Sheldon possesses an eidetic memory and an IQ of 187, although he claims his IQ can not be accurately measured by normal tests. He originally claimed to have a master 's degree and two doctoral degrees, but this list has increased. Sheldon has an extensive general knowledge in many subjects including physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, cosmology, algebra, calculus, economics, computers, vexillology, engineering, history, geography, linguistics, football, trains, and in addition to being fluent in Klingon, has some knowledge of Finnish, Hindi and Mandarin. He also shows great talent in music, knowing how to play the piano, the bongos, the recorder, showing some skill in Tuvan throat singing and also having perfect pitch. Although his friends have similar intellects to him, his eccentricities, stubbornness, and lack of empathy often frustrate them. Sheldon occasionally uses slang (in a very unnatural fashion), and follows jokes with his catchphrase "Bazinga! '' which is now an officially registered trademark of Warner Bros. He is uncomfortable with human physical contact and has germophobia, which makes his exceptionally rare hugs extremely awkward and painful - looking. He also has hemophobia. Sheldon has difficulty coping when asked to keep a secret, when he is interrupted, or when he hears arguing. He is also a notary public and uses his knowledge in law and contracts usually for his own advantage and is always distressed when challenged in a legal aspect that he can not logically defend. In his mannerisms, Sheldon also shows symptoms associated with obsessive - compulsive personality disorder. Whenever approaching a person 's home, he must knock three times, then say the person 's name, and must repeat this at least three times (where "The first one is traditional, but two and three are for people to get their pants on ''), as a result of him walking in on his father with another woman when he was thirteen. Upon entering a person 's home, he must select the proper seat before sitting down. When it is suggested by Penny that he "just sit anywhere '', his response is "Oh, no, if only it were that simple! '' This extends to his inability to accept change. His rigidity in maintaining homeostasis often causes him frustration. Because of his rigidity and stubbornness, only his mother and Bernadette -- both possessing strong maternal instincts -- are able to control him.
Like his friends, Sheldon is fond of comic books (especially the DC Universe), costumes, video games, roleplaying games, tabletop games, collectible card games, and action figures. Sheldon has restraining orders from his heroes Leonard Nimoy, Carl Sagan, and Stan Lee, as well as television scientist Bill Nye. Sheldon often wears vintage T - shirts adorned with superhero logos. The boys use video games like bowling and archery for "exercise '' and use the traditional sport rules.
Sheldon has sometimes showed empathy, including lending money to Penny without expecting it back quickly (although that may just have been his logical Spock - like response to a problem to be solved; it was, after all, money he was not using and would not miss) and driving her to a hospital when her shoulder was dislocated. Sheldon admits he is overly fond of koalas munching on eucalyptus so much that he has a facial expression that he refers to as his koala face. He dislikes gifts, because the "social contract '' in his view creates either a debt or burden on the receiver of the gift which will not stop until one of the two involved in the "gift - relationship '' dies leaving the other either in debt or with an undue surplus. Sheldon also does not take drugs, not even legal ones such as caffeine, due to a promise to his mother, and is hypersensitive when he accidentally consumes them. It has been shown, however, that alcohol often causes Sheldon to loosen up significantly, although it will also cloud his judgment -- on occasion, after drinking alcoholic drinks (both deliberately and accidentally), he has done things that he would never do while sober, such as singing out loud, mooning an audience full of people, confronting Wil Wheaton and affectionately slapping Amy 's rear.
In response to criticism from his friends that he is mentally ill, Sheldon often retorts, "I 'm not crazy; my mother had me tested '' -- which his mother has confirmed to be true (once while wishing she had gone through with a follow - up examination).
Sheldon contrasts strongly with his family, who are neither scientists nor intellectuals. His father George died before the start of The Big Bang Theory, when Sheldon was 14, while his mother Mary is a devout born - again Christian and loving parent. Sheldon has two siblings: a twin sister, Missy, who is a tall, attractive brunette as an adult; and an older brother, George Jr., seen thus far only on Young Sheldon. Both Missy and George Jr. beat up Sheldon during their childhoods, and their mother describes them to be "dumb as soup ''. Sheldon is very fond of his maternal grandmother, whom he calls "Meemaw '' and who calls him "Moon Pie ''. He called his grandfather, who died when Sheldon was five, Pop Pop. Sheldon was also very close to his grandfather, stating once that his grandfather is the only relative he had who encouraged him to become involved in science.
Sheldon has a maternal uncle, Edward, who is called "Stumpy '' as the result of a time when he cleaned a wood chipper by hand. Sheldon had another uncle, named Carl Cooper, who was killed by a badger while cleaning a chimney and another uncle that may have done things to children that were legal in Oklahoma per "The Clean Room Infiltration ''.
Sheldon had an uncle, Roger and aunt, Ruth. In "The Engagement Reaction '', Sheldon mentions Ruth died in a hospital when she went to visit Roger, caught something and bit the dust a week later and the two of them now share a coffee can on Sheldon 's mother 's mantle.
Sheldon 's closest friends are Leonard Hofstadter, Howard Wolowitz, and Raj Koothrappali. Of the three, Sheldon is openly dismissive of Howard and constantly opines that a master 's degree in engineering demonstrates a lesser intellect than that of the others, who all possess science doctorates. Despite that, Sheldon has referred to Howard as a "treasured acquaintance '' and later his friend at various points. Sheldon considers Leonard his best friend, as they used to live together and can tolerate each other: in "The Space Probe Disintegration '', Sheldon admits to Leonard that he is aware of how difficult he can be, and tearfully expresses his gratitude for having Leonard in his life in spite of himself, causing Leonard to break down beside him. Prady stated that "the fact that, despite everything, Leonard considers Sheldon his best friend reminds us of Sheldon 's essential humanity ''. Sheldon can only handle having a limited number of friends in his life at a time, but later shows flexibility when he accepts Bernadette and Amy as part of the social group. In season 6, the guys ask if comic book store owner Stuart can be part of the group while Howard is in space.
Despite Penny 's neither being a scientist nor sharing many of the group 's interests, and having constant fights with Sheldon in the early episodes, they became close friends. While some fans support a romantic relationship between Sheldon and Penny, Lorre has stated his opposition to it by saying: "We 've stumbled into creating a character who has chosen a lifestyle for himself that is unique. And I do n't see any reason to modify it. ''
It has been speculated that Sheldon may be asexual or aromantic. Series co-creator Chuck Lorre said: "Part of what 's wonderful and unique about (Sheldon) is he has chosen not to play in the relationship game either way -- heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, any sexuality. '' This is referenced in "The Cooper - Nowitzki Theorem '', when Sheldon unknowingly attracts the attention of grad student Ramona Nowitzki, and Penny, seeing this, asks his friends what his "deal '' (i.e., sexual orientation) is, to which Leonard responds, "Honestly, we 've been operating under the assumption that he has no ' deal '. ''
In the season 3 finale, Howard and Raj blackmail Sheldon into meeting Amy Farrah Fowler, with whom they matched him on a dating website. After some obnoxious comments about the dating website, Sheldon finds that Amy agrees with him, and he grows fond of her when she says that "Any or all physical contact up to and including coitus is off the table ''. Their relationship continues in season 4, although Sheldon often points out that they are not in a romantic relationship. The two enjoy intellectual games they create, and Amy and Sheldon openly express the same type of intellectual superiority.
In season 5, when Leonard inadvertently implies that he and Amy may have had sex after a wedding reception that they both attended, Sheldon unexpectetdly reacts violently, karate - chopping Leonard 's neck while telling Leonard "She is not for you... not for you! '' Later, Sheldon formally asks Amy to be his girlfriend in "The Flaming Spittoon Acquisition ''. During their relationship, Amy begins a campaign to give Sheldon more attention to increase his feelings for her by embracing his interests. As they watch Howard being launched into space in its season finale, Amy is surprised when Sheldon takes her hand for emotional support.
During the first half of season 6, in "The Parking Spot Escalation '' and "The Fish Guts Displacement '', Sheldon is pushed further after seeing Amy partially exposed and taking care of her while she is ill respectively. In "The Cooper / Kripke Inversion '', after being directly asked by Penny if he would ever have sex with Amy, Sheldon admits to Penny and Leonard that a physical relationship with Amy is a possibility, and being touched is something he is working on. While upset about Kripke, Amy does give him a consoling hug that Sheldon seems to need, and want. Even so, Amy has offered other romantic physical contact, and was very uncomfortable when they had to cuddle. In "The Spoiler Alert Segmentation '', Leonard temporarily moves out and Amy proposes that she would be his perfect roommate and tries to move in, though Sheldon is uncomfortable with this change in their relationship. While playing Dungeons and Dragons during "The Love Spell Potential '', Sheldon 's and Amy 's characters are commanded to have sex within the game. A very upset Amy asks Sheldon if they are ever going to be intimate and he again admits that it is a possibility.
In season 7, Sheldon passionately kisses Amy on the lips for the first time. Initially to prove a point, he later prolonged it, implying he enjoyed the feeling. Later episodes showed him willingly kissing Amy, implying he has gotten more comfortable in such a position of physical intimacy.
The ultimate proof of Sheldon having feelings for Amy is given in the season 8 episode "The Prom Equivalency '', when he finally admits being in love with her: "I love you too. There 's no denying I have feelings for you that ca n't be explained in any other way. I briefly considered I had a brain parasite, but that seems even more far - fetched. The only conclusion was love. '' In the season 8 finale, "The Commitment Determination '', Sheldon and Amy get into a fight over their definition of "commitment ''. Sheldon feels his relationship with Amy is going fast on its own, but Amy argues he is taking things too slowly and does not properly bestow on her unlimited affection. By the episode 's end she has decided to take a break from their relationship while Sheldon is left numb from Amy 's revelation. He glumly turns to his Gollum figurine and asks it, "Well, Gollum, you 're an expert on rings, what do I do with this one? '', while simultaneously taking his grandmother 's ring, a family heirloom, out of this desk drawer.
In the season 9 premiere, Sheldon keeps pushing Amy to make up her mind about their relationship, but goes too far and insults her to her face and she angrily breaks up with him for good, thus officially ending their relationship. In "The Platonic Permutation '' Amy offers Sheldon to get back together with her after spending time together in an aquarium at Thanksgiving, but sadly learns that he simply just wants to be her friend, with him revealing to her that "I excel at many things, but getting over you was n't one of them ''. In "The Earworm Reverberation '', Sheldon ca n't get a song out his head, but after suddenly remembering the title and the lyrics, he realizes that the song was about Amy and that she changed his life for the better, which prompts him to go to her apartment to profess his love. He finds Amy on a date with Dave, who has a great adoration for Sheldon because of his intellect. Seeing how much they love each other, Dave gleefully urges Sheldon to kiss Amy, leading to their reunion. In the following episode, "The Opening Night Excitation '' Leonard, Howard and Raj go to see Star Wars: The Force Awakens without Sheldon as while he was initially reluctant, ultimately opted to celebrate Amy 's birthday with her instead. To make Amy 's birthday enjoyable and memorable, Sheldon seeks out Penny and Bernadette as he respects their opinions regarding all things socially appropriate. He reveals to them that he has narrowed things down to three options, the first being a chance to play the harp with the Los Angeles Philharmonic, the second being an all - expense paid trip to the Wisconsin Sheep and Wool Festival (though Amy would have to go alone because Sheldon 's ornithophobia is nothing compares to his ovinaphobia), and the third being the two of them engaging in coitus, at which point Penny squeezes and shatters the wine glass in her hand due to disbelief and / or shock. After Penny and Bernadette convince him that finally being intimate with her is the most beautiful gift that he could give to her, Sheldon and Amy have sex for the first time on the latter 's birthday.
In season 10, Sheldon and Amy move in together for a five - week experiment to test out their compatibility, and after its successful run, decide to move in together permanently. In its season finale, Sheldon unexpectedly proposes to Amy after being hit on by Ramona Nowitzki; the eleventh season premiere was basically a continuation of this, and Amy accepts his proposal.
He once idolized fictional prodigy Wesley Crusher from Star Trek: The Next Generation, portrayed by Wil Wheaton, until Wheaton did not show up at a convention attended by Sheldon in 1995. Sheldon had spent 15 hours on a bus travelling to the convention during which time he was forced to break his rule about urinating in a moving vehicle. After this moment Wil Wheaton became number six on Sheldon 's mortal enemy list (a list he started when he was 9 on a 51⁄4 - inch floppy disk). Wheaton was one of Sheldon 's mortal enemies, along with his coworkers Barry Kripke and Leslie Winkle. Later, Wheaton managed to patch things up with Sheldon, only to inadvertently pass the enemy list spot to Brent Spiner. Sheldon would later resume his enmity with Wheaton in season 11 's "The Proton Regeneration '' when they compete for the lead role in a reboot of Sheldon 's childhood favorite science TV show and Wheaton gets the part.
Jim Parsons ' portrayal of Sheldon has received widespread acclaim, and is often cited as the main reason for the program 's success by critics and fans alike. James Chamberlin of IGN wrote: "It 's hard to imagine what The Big Bang Theory would be if it were n't for Jim Parsons ' great portrayal of Sheldon Cooper ''. Matt Roush of TV Guide stated that "there 's a spark of divine inspiration in Jim Parsons ' uproarious Sheldon Cooper ''. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote that: "Parsons is doing something rare on network TV: making intellectualism admirable, even heroic ''.
On July 16, 2009, Jim Parsons was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. He was nominated again for the same award on July 8, 2010, and eventually won the award on August 29, 2010. On August 1, 2009, he won the TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Comedy, with the show itself winning the award for Outstanding Achievement in Comedy for season two. He was nominated again for the same award in 2010 and 2012. Parsons was also nominated for the People 's Choice Award for Favorite TV Comedy Actor and a Satellite Award for Best Actor -- Television Series Musical or Comedy in 2009, 2010, and 2012. On January 16, 2011, Parsons won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Television Series Musical or Comedy, presented by co-star Kaley Cuoco, for his work on seasons 3 and 4. On June 20, 2011, he won the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Series at the 1st Critics ' Choice Television Awards for his work on season 4, and was nominated again for the same award in 2012. On September 18, 2011, he won his second consecutive Primetime Emmy Award - Lead Actor in Comedy, and was nominated again for the same award on July 19, 2012. In 2013, Parsons was nominated once again for the Golden Globe and received his first nomination for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series. In 2013 & 2014, Jim was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award - Lead Actor in Comedy for the 5th and 6th time, respectively, both of which he won for his 3rd and 4th Primetime Emmy Awards - Lead Actor in a Comedy Series meaning that Parsons had won this award 4 times in the last 5 years, including back - to - back in 2010 / 2011and 2013 / 2014. No actor, in the history of this award has won back - to - back awards on two separate occasions, and his total of 4 awards puts Parsons in a four - way tie at the top with comedy legends Carroll O'Connor, Kelsey Grammer, and Michael J. Fox.
The asteroid 246247 Sheldoncooper was named after Sheldon. In 2012, a newly discovered species of bee was named Euglossa bazinga, after the character 's noted catch phrase, "Bazinga! ''
In March 2013, the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium named a black - and - white colobus after Sheldon. In 2015, a new echinocaridid phyllocaridan from the Lower Devonian of central - eastern Poland, was named Ptychocaris sheldoni after Sheldon.
Some viewers have asserted that Sheldon 's behavior is consistent with Asperger syndrome. The writers have stated that they did not use Asperger syndrome as a basis for the character, but instead thought of his actions as "Sheldony ''. Series co-creator Bill Prady stated: "We write the character as the character. A lot of people see various things in him and make the connections. Our feeling is that Sheldon 's mother never got a diagnosis, so we do n't have one ''. Prady also told Alan Sepinwall of the New Jersey Star - Ledger that while Sheldon shares traits with people with Asperger 's, he was uncomfortable labeling Sheldon as having Asperger 's.
In an interview, Jim Parsons noted the writers ' response, but added that, in his opinion, Sheldon "could n't display more traits '' of Asperger 's. Parsons, who plays Sheldon, has read John Elder Robison 's memoir Look Me in the Eye about his life with Asperger syndrome, and said that: "A majority of what I read in that book touched on aspects of Sheldon ''. He also stated that "the way (Sheldon 's) brain works, it 's so focused on the intellectual topics at hand that thinking he 's autistic is an easy leap for people watching the show to make ''.
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who was president of the united states in 1886 | 1886 in the United States - wikipedia
Events from the year 1886 in the United States.
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what are two signs that different species may have a common ancestor | Common descent - wikipedia
Common descent describes how, in evolutionary biology, a group of organisms share a most recent common ancestor. There is "massive '' evidence of common descent of all life on Earth from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA, by comparing the genomes of the three domains of life, archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotes.
Common ancestry between organisms of different species arises during speciation, in which new species are established from a single ancestral population. Organisms which share a more - recent common ancestor are more closely related. The most recent common ancestor of all currently living organisms is the last universal ancestor, which lived about 3.9 billion years ago. The two earliest evidences for life on Earth are graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion - year - old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion - year - old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. All currently living organisms on Earth share a common genetic heritage, though the suggestion of substantial horizontal gene transfer during early evolution has led to questions about the monophyly (single ancestry) of life. 6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian.
Universal common descent through an evolutionary process was first proposed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin in the concluding sentence of his 1859 book On the Origin of Species:
There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.
In the 1740s, the French mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis made the first known suggestion that all organisms had a common ancestor, and had diverged through random variation and natural selection. In Essai de cosmologie (1750), Maupertuis noted:
May we not say that, in the fortuitous combination of the productions of Nature, since only those creatures could survive in whose organizations a certain degree of adaptation was present, there is nothing extraordinary in the fact that such adaptation is actually found in all these species which now exist? Chance, one might say, turned out a vast number of individuals; a small proportion of these were organized in such a manner that the animals ' organs could satisfy their needs. A much greater number showed neither adaptation nor order; these last have all perished... Thus the species which we see today are but a small part of all those that a blind destiny has produced.
In 1790, the philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote in Kritik der Urteilskraft (Critique of Judgement) that the similarity of animal forms implies a common original type, and thus a common parent.
In 1794, Charles Darwin 's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, asked:
(W) ould it be too bold to imagine, that in the great length of time, since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind, would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm - blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which the great First Cause endued with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts attended with new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions, and associations; and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down those improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end?
Charles Darwin 's views about common descent, as expressed in On the Origin of Species, were that it was probable that there was only one progenitor for all life forms:
Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed.
All known forms of life are based on the same fundamental biochemical organization: genetic information encoded in DNA, transcribed into RNA, through the effect of protein - and RNA - enzymes, then translated into proteins by (highly similar) ribosomes, with ATP, NADPH and others as energy sources. Analysis of small sequence differences in widely shared substances such as cytochrome c further supports universal common descent. Some 23 proteins are found in all organisms, serving as enzymes carrying out core functions like DNA replication. The fact that only one such set of enzymes exists is convincing evidence of a single ancestry. 6,331 genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian.
The genetic code (the "translation table '' according to which DNA information is translated into amino acids, and hence proteins) is nearly identical for all known lifeforms, from bacteria and archaea to animals and plants. The universality of this code is generally regarded by biologists as definitive evidence in favor of universal common descent.
The way that codons (DNA triplets) are mapped to amino acids seems to be strongly optimised. Richard Egel argues that in particular the hydrophobic (non-polar) side - chains are well organised, suggesting that these enabled the earliest organisms to create peptides with water - repelling regions able to support the essential electron exchange (redox) reactions for energy transfer.
Similarities which have no adaptive relevance can not be explained by convergent evolution, and therefore they provide compelling support for universal common descent. Such evidence has come from two areas: amino acid sequences and DNA sequences. Proteins with the same three - dimensional structure need not have identical amino acid sequences; any irrelevant similarity between the sequences is evidence for common descent. In certain cases, there are several codons (DNA triplets) that code redundantly for the same amino acid. Since many species use the same codon at the same place to specify an amino acid that can be represented by more than one codon, that is evidence for their sharing a recent common ancestor. Had the amino acid sequences come from different ancestors, they would have been coded for by any of the redundant codons, and since the correct amino acids would already have been in place, natural selection would not have driven any change in the codons, however much time was available. Genetic drift could change the codons, but it would be extremely unlikely to make all the redundant codons in a whole sequence match exactly across multiple lineages. Similarly, shared nucleotide sequences, especially where these are apparently neutral such as the positioning of introns and pseudogenes, provide strong evidence of common ancestry.
Biologists often point to the universality of many aspects of cellular life as supportive evidence to the more compelling evidence listed above. These similarities include the energy carrier adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and the fact that all amino acids found in proteins are left - handed. It is, however, possible that these similarities resulted because of the laws of physics and chemistry - rather than through universal common descent - and therefore resulted in convergent evolution. In contrast, there is evidence for homology of the central subunits of Transmembrane ATPases throughout all living organisms, especially how the rotating elements are bound to the membrane. This supports the assumption of a LUCA as a cellular organism, although primordial membranes may have been semipermeable and evolved later to the membranes of modern bacteria, and on a second path to those of modern archaea also.
Another important piece of evidence is from detailed phylogenetic trees (i.e., "genealogic trees '' of species) mapping out the proposed divisions and common ancestors of all living species. In 2010, Douglas L. Theobald published a statistical analysis of available genetic data, mapping them to phylogenetic trees, that gave "strong quantitative support, by a formal test, for the unity of life. ''
Traditionally, these trees have been built using morphological methods, such as appearance, embryology, etc. Recently, it has been possible to construct these trees using molecular data, based on similarities and differences between genetic and protein sequences. All these methods produce essentially similar results, even though most genetic variation has no influence over external morphology. That phylogenetic trees based on different types of information agree with each other is strong evidence of a real underlying common descent.
Theobald noted that substantial horizontal gene transfer could have occurred during early evolution. Bacteria today remain capable of gene exchange between distantly - related lineages. This weakens the basic assumption of phylogenetic analysis, that similarity of genomes implies common ancestry, because sufficient gene exchange would allow lineages to share much of their genome whether or not they shared an ancestor (monophyly). This has led to questions about the single ancestry of life. However, biologists consider it very unlikely that completely unrelated proto - organisms could have exchanged genes, as their different coding mechanisms would have resulted only in garble rather than functioning systems. Later, however, many organisms all derived from a single ancestor could readily have shared genes that all worked in the same way, and it appears that they have.
If early organisms had been driven by the same environmental conditions to evolve similar biochemistry convergently, they might independently have acquired similar genetic sequences. Theobald 's "formal test '' was accordingly criticised by Takahiro Yonezawa and colleagues for not including consideration of convergence. They argued that Theobald 's test was insufficient to distinguish between the competing hypotheses. Theobald has defended his method against this claim, arguing that his tests distinguish between phylogenetic structure and mere sequence similarity. Therefore, Theobald argued, his results show that "real universally conserved proteins are homologous. ''
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the secret life of the american teenager ashley starts high school | The Secret Life of the American Teenager (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of The Secret Life of the American Teenager, an American television series created by Brenda Hampton, debuted on the ABC Family television network on Monday, June 22, 2009 at 8: 00PM. Season two regular cast members include Shailene Woodley, India Eisley, Daren Kagasoff, Francia Raisa, Kenny Baumann, Molly Ringwald, Mark Derwin, Megan Park, and Greg Finley II. Following the first season, Jorge Pallo and Luke Zimmerman were demoted to recurring guest stars. Jorge returned for a select number of episodes to wrap up his character 's storyline and eventually departed the series after its January return.
Following the success of its first season, ABC Family announced on January 31, 2009, plans to renew Secret Life, following the cancellation of its hit sci - fi TV show, Kyle XY. The official press release was released on February 9 with ABC Family ordering 24 episodes for season two. Season 2 began with 12 episodes broadcast starting June 22, 2009. Though marketed as the season finale, the mid season finale aired on September 7, 2009, with the second half of the season returning on January 4, 2010. The second 12 episodes finished their run on March 22, 2010.
The season premiere of Secret Life brought in the largest audience for the show so far, with a record breaking 4.68 million viewers. It brought in the second largest audience in adults 18 - 34 with 1.40 million viewers, behind season one 's mid-season finale. 2.10 million adults 18 - 49 watched "The Big One '' along with 1.60 million females between the ages 18 -- 34. The season premiere remains the number one scripted original premiere of Summer 2009 in Adults 18 - 34. Furthermore, the mid-season premiere became ABC Family 's most watched telecast of all time with viewers ages 12 -- 34 with more than three million viewers watching. The mid-season premiere also brought in the show 's second largest audience in total viewers, with more than 4.55 million people watching.
This season, Amy Juergens must deal with juggling motherhood and high school, while her family and friends experience relationship challenges of their own.
Though it came as a surprise, writers of The Secret Life were faced with a challenge when writing began for the second season. In January 2009, Molly Ringwald announced that she was expecting twins of her own. She told People Magazine that Brenda Hampton was working on writing her character 's pregnancy into the storyline of the show.
Kenny Baumann, the actor who plays Ben Boykewich, confirmed that someone would die in the second season of Secret Life. The character would be a "significant male character '' and the death would be a terrible tragedy. It was later revealed that John Schneider, who portrayed the role as Grace 's father, Marshall, left the show due to multiple shows and projects he has. Marshall was written out of the series in "The Big One ''.
Actor Brando Eaton was cast as Ashley 's new gay sidekick, Griffin, who has a recurring role in the season. Actress Rumer Willis, appeared in The Secret Life as Heather, a pregnant girl in the episode "Knocked Up Who 's There? ''. She interacted with Ben in a way that got Amy jealous. Actor Austin Stowell was cast as Lauren 's new boyfriend, Jesse, who has a recurring role in the season. Their relationship sparks the discussion of interracial dating, as Jesse believes that Lauren is not interested in having sex with him because of his race.
On Monday, June 22, 2009, Secret Life opened its second season with the largest audience so far, posting a series high in Total Viewers with 4.68 million viewers, and second - best numbers ever in Adults 18 - 34 with 1.4 million viewers, behind season one 's mid-season finale, Adults 18 - 49 with 2.1 million viewers and Viewers 11 - 34 with 2.9 million viewers. In June 2009, Secret Life ranked as cable 's No. 1 scripted telecast in Females 11 - 34, and the No. 1 scripted series telecast in Viewers 11 - 34 and Female Teens. Additionally, Secret Life stood as ad - supported cable 's No. 1 telecast this month in Female Teens. Impressively, the season debut became cable 's No. 1 scripted series premiere of the 2008 / 2009 season to date in Women 18 - 34, Women 18 - 49'and Viewers 11 - 34, and the No. 1 scripted original premiere of Summer 2009 so far in Adults 18 - 34.
Secret Life 's second season debut now stands as cable 's No. 1 scripted original series / season premiere this summer in Adults ages 18 -- 34 and across core female 18 - 34, 18 - 49 and 11 - 34 demos, ahead of such high - profile series as USA 's Royal Pains and Burn Notice and TNT 's The Closer.
Some critics praised the new developments of the show, saying they could be "interesting material to build on. '' Jean Bently of EW Popwatch says that now that the whole "teen going through a pregnancy '' plot has played out and the "frustrated young mother '' thing is going on, we have room to explore some other topics. She remained hopeful that the writers wo n't just turn these new problems into issues of the week, instead allowing time for the characters to grieve Marshall 's death, deal with Anne 's accidental pregnancy, and explore the more emotionally complex aspects of teenage sex.
With more than 4.55 million people watching the season two mid-season premiere, the episode became ABC Family 's most - watched telecast ever in key 12 - 34 and teen demos. The episode stands as the series ' 2nd-most - watched episode in viewers and is TV 's No. 1 telecast of the season in female teens, cable 's No. 1 telecast in females 12 - 34 and cable 's No. 1 scripted telecast in viewers 12 - 34. The season two mid-season premiere remains cable 's No. 1 scripted premiere of the 2009 / 10 season. It improved nearly one million total viewers over its season two mid-season finale, and was No. 1 in all target demos for the hour.
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who plays jason in the good wife season 7 | The Good Wife (season 7) - wikipedia
The seventh season of The Good Wife was ordered on May 11, 2015, by CBS. It premiered on October 4, 2015, on CBS and consisted of 22 episodes. A promotional advertisement for the series that aired during Super Bowl 50 announced that the seventh season would be its last.
The series focuses on Alicia Florrick (Margulies), whose husband Peter (Noth), the former Cook County, Illinois State 's Attorney, has been jailed following a notorious political corruption and sex scandal. After having spent the previous thirteen years as a stay - at - home mother, Alicia returns to the workforce as a litigator to provide for her two children.
The seventh season of The Good Wife received positive reviews. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 95 % certified fresh rating based on 21 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Reinvigorated storylines and an even stronger cast keep The Good Wife fresh in its seventh season - and away from the doldrums that overcome many long - running dramas. ''
However, like the latter part of season six where viewer ratings fell precipitously, the seventh season has received criticism for the "incredibly uneven (plotting), sucking so much of the vitality and urgency out of the show ''. Variety noted that in Season Seven that "there were notably more of subplots and segues that were, at best, time - fillers and at worst, eyeroll - inducing '' and said it "was obvious that it was time for the show to go ''. TV.com observed that "obituaries for the show were already burying it instead of praising it, pointing to where it all went wrong, or that it was n't even truly that great to begin with. An episode like "End '' solidified a lot of those arguments. Hell, it solidified a lot of my arguments about this season being a grab bag of ideas. '' Similar to how Kalinda Sharma was sidelined in Season Six which led to her departure, Season Seven main characters like Cary Agos and Diane Lockhart lacked compelling storylines to the point where they almost became irrelevant. With the departure of male lead Josh Charles (who played Will Gardner) in Season Five, the show 's "writers really struggled to rebuild that same type of long - term emotional storytelling. His departure left a gap that was never fully filled again ''.
The finale episode of The Good Wife: "End '' had a divided reaction among viewers and critics, with many praising a fitting ending to a complex character with others who argued of its ambiguity and absence of a conclusion - particularly with Alicia 's love life. The finale drew controversy in its last scene when Diane Lockhart slaps Alicia Florrick after betraying her in court to save Peter from jail. Alicia is then left alone in a hallway before walking away to a future of uncertainty regarding her relationship with Jason, her career and political life. Vanity Fair noting "As Breaking Bad famously tracked the evolution of Walter White "from Mr. Chips to Scarface, '' The Good Wife followed Alicia as she evolved into Peter. The Kings claim the show was "moving in the direction where there was n't much difference between who Alicia was and who her husband was. '' Is Alicia a villain or an anti-hero? It 's hard to quite see her that way after all the good she 's done for so many seasons. But the inclusion of Will Gardner in the finale momentarily humanizes Alicia while also highlighting the idea that Alicia 's transformation into Peter has been a longtime coming. '' and claiming that "The show 's incredible finale belongs to an earlier age of television. '' Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker said "it was an ending that commanded respect. '' The show garnered a huge backlash on social media and has been rated one of the lowest episodes of the series on IMDB. In anticipation of a divided audience, Robert and Michelle King penned a letter to the fans explaining their creative decisions.
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what short-term political change resulted from the french revolution | Influence of the French Revolution - wikipedia
The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history. In the short - term, France lost thousands of her countrymen in the form of émigrés, or emigrants who wished to escape political tensions and save their lives. A number of individuals settled in the neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Prussia), however quite a few also went to the United States. The displacement of these Frenchmen led to a spread of French culture, policies regulating immigration, and a safe haven for Royalists and other counterrevolutionaries to outlast the violence of the French Revolution. The long - term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarizing politics for more than a century. The closer other countries were, the greater and deeper was the French impact, bringing liberalism and the end of many feudal or traditional laws and practices. However, there was also a conservative counter-reaction that defeated Napoleon, reinstalled the Bourbon kings, and in some ways reversed the new reforms.
Most of the new nations created by the French were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Frederick Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:
Likewise in Switzerland the long - term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:
The greatest impact came of course in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government. Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized -- new names were given, ' left ' and ' right ' for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution.
The changes in France were enormous; some were widely accepted and others were bitterly contested into the late 20th century. Before the Revolution, the people had little power or voice. The kings had so thoroughly centralized the system that most nobles spent their time at Versailles, and played only a small direct role in their home districts. Thompson says that the kings had:
After the first year of revolution, this power had been stripped away. The king was a figurehead, the nobility had lost all their titles and most of their land, the Church lost its monasteries and farmlands, bishops, judges and magistrates were elected by the people, the army was almost helpless, with military power in the hands of the new revolutionary National Guard. The central elements of 1789 were the slogan "Liberté, égalité, fraternité '' and "The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen '', which Lefebvre calls "the incarnation of the Revolution as a whole. ''
The long - term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarizing politics for more than a century. Historian François Aulard writes:
Europe was wracked by two decades of war revolving around France 's efforts to spread its revolutionary ideals, and the opposition of reactionary royalty, led by Britain and Austria. War broke out in 1792 as Austria and Prussia invaded France, but were defeated at the Battle of Valmy (1792).
To escape political tensions and save their lives, a number of individuals, mostly men, emigrated from France. Many settled in neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Prussia), and quite a few went to the United States. The presence of these thousands of Frenchmen of varying socioeconomic backgrounds who had just fled a hotbed of revolutionary activity posed a problem for the nations that extended refuge to the migrants. The fear was that they brought with them a plot to disrupt the political order, which did lead to increased regulation and documentation of the influx of immigrants in neighboring countries. Still, most nations such as Britain remained magnanimous and welcomed the French.
In foreign affairs, the French Army at first was quite successful. It conquered Belgium and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Netherlands, and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and The French Army trapped in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris.
Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797 -- 99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria 's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon 's Cisalpine Republic was centered on Milan. Genoa the city became a republic while its hinterland became the Ligurian Republic. The Roman Republic was formed out of the papal holdings while the pope himself was sent to France. The Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months before the enemy forces of the Coalition recaptured it.
In 1805 he formed the Kingdom of Italy, with himself as king and his stepson as viceroy. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the Helvetic Republic. All these new countries where satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon 's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France. The new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:
Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy report, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French Revolution gave a great stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism. '' Nationalism was emphasized by historian Carlton J.H. Hayes as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was profound. Napoleon became such a heroic symbol of the nation that the glory was easily picked up by his nephew, who was overwhelmingly elected president (and later became Emperor Napoleon III). The influence was great in the hundreds of small German states and elsewhere, where it was either inspired by the French example or in reaction against it.
At the beginning of the Revolution, Britain supported the constitutional monarchy, up until they de-instated the king Louis XVI. Britain saw minority support for the French Revolution, but the majority, especially the elite, were strongly opposed. Britain led and funded the series of coalitions that fought France from 1793 to 1815, and then restored the Bourbons. Edmund Burke was the chief spokesman for the opposition.
In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by Protestant settlers to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the Society of United Irishmen involving Catholics and Protestants. It stimulated the demand for further reform throughout Ireland, especially in Ulster. The upshot was a revolt in 1798, led by Wolfe Tone, that was crushed by Britain. This revolt is seen as the foundation for modern Irish republicanism, which eventually led to the partition of Ireland and independence for 26 of its 32 counties.
German reaction to the Revolution swung from favorable at first to antagonistic. At first it brought liberal and democratic ideas, the end of guilds, of serfdom and of the Jewish ghetto. It brought economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reform. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. There were enemies as well, as the royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
By 1793, the execution of the French king and the onset of the Terror disillusioned the "Bildungsbürgertum '' (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion.
After Prussia was humiliated by Napoleon opinion swung against France and stimulated and shaped German nationalism.
France took direct control of the Rhineland 1794 -- 1814 and radically and permanently liberalized the government, society and economy.
The French swept away centuries worth of outmoded restrictions and introduced unprecedented levels of efficiency. The chaos and barriers in a land divided and subdivided among many different petty principalities gave way to a rational, simplified, centralized system controlled by Paris and run by Napoleon 's relatives. The most important impact came from the abolition of all feudal privileges and historic taxes, the introduction of legal reforms of the Napoleonic Code, and the reorganization of the judicial and local administrative systems. The economic integration of the Rhineland with France increased prosperity, especially in industrial production, while business accelerated with the new efficiency and lowered trade barriers. The Jews were liberated from the ghetto. One sour point was the hostility of the French officials toward the Roman Catholic Church, the choice of most of the residents. Much of South Germany felt a similar but more muted influence of the French Revolution, while in Prussia and areas to the east there was far less impact. The reforms were permanent. Decades later workers and peasants in the Rhineland often appealed to Jacobinism to oppose unpopular government programs, while the intelligentsia demanded the maintenance of the Napoleonic Code (which was stayed in effect for a century).
The French invaded Switzerland and turned it into an ally known as the "Helvetic Republic '' (1798 -- 1803). The interference with localism and traditional liberties was deeply resented, although some modernizing reforms took place. Resistance was strongest in the more traditional Catholic bastions, with armed uprisings breaking out in spring 1798 in the central part of Switzerland. Alois Von Reding, a powerful Swiss general, led an army of 10,000 men from the Cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden against the French. This resulted in the Swiss regaining control of Lucerne, however due to the sheer greatness in size of the French army, Von Reding 's movement was eventually suppressed. The French Army suppressed the uprisings but support for revolutionary ideals steadily declined, as the Swiss resented their loss of local democracy, the new taxes, the centralization, and the hostility to religion.
The instability of France resulted in the creation of two different revolutionary groups with different ideologies of revolt: The aristocrats, seeking the restoration of the Old Swiss Confederacy and a section of the population wanting a coup. Furthermore, Switzerland became a battleground between the armies of France, Austria and Russia. Ultimately, this instability, frequent coups within the government and the eventual Bourla - papey forced Napoleon to sign the Act of Medallion which led to the fall of the Helvetic Republic and the restoration of the Confederacy.
The long - term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:
French invaded the territory of modern - day Belgium and controlled it between 1794 -- 1814. The French imposed reforms and incorporated the territory into France. New rulers were sent in by Paris. Belgian men were drafted into the French wars and heavily taxed. Nearly everyone was Catholic, but the Church was repressed. Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions. Belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit.
Antwerp regained access to the sea and grew quickly as a major port and business center. France promoted commerce and capitalism, paving the way for the ascent of the bourgeoisie and the rapid growth of manufacturing and mining. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while the middle class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium 's leadership role after 1815 in the Industrial Revolution on the Continent.
France turned the Netherlands into a puppet state that had to pay large indemnities.
The Kingdom of Denmark adopted liberalizing reforms in line with those of the French Revolution, with no direct contact. Danes were aware of French ideas and agreed with them, as it moved from Danish absolutism to a liberal constitutional system between 1750 -- 1850. The change of government in 1784 was caused by a power vacuum created when King Christian VII took ill, and power shifted to the crown prince (who later became King Frederik VI) and reform - oriented landowners. In contrast to Old Regime France, agricultural reform was intensified in Denmark, serfdom was abolished and civil rights were extended to the peasants, the finances of the Danish state were healthy, and there were no external or internal crises. That is, reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. Much of the initiative came from well - organized liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century.
In Sweden, King Gustav III (reigned 1771 -- 92) was an enlightened despot, who weakened the nobility and promoted numerous major social reforms. He felt the Swedish monarchy could survive and flourish by achieving a coalition with the newly emerged middle classes against the nobility. He was close to King Louis XVI so he was disgusted with French radicalism. Nevertheless, he decided to promote additional antifeudal reforms to strengthen his hand among the middle classes. When the king was assassinated in 1792 his brother Charles became regent, but real power was with Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, who bitterly opposed the French Revolution and all its supporters. Under King Gustav IV Adolf, Sweden joined various coalitions against Napoleon, but was badly defeated and lost much of its territory, especially Finland and Pomerania. The king was overthrown by the army, which in 1810 decided to bring in one of Napoleon 's marshals, Bernadotte, as the heir apparent and army commander. He had a Jacobin background and was well - grounded in revolutionary principles, but put Sweden in the coalition that opposed Napoleon. Bernadotte served as a quite conservative king Charles XIV John of Sweden (1818 -- 44).
The French Revolution won widespread American support in its early phase, but when the king was executed it polarized American opinion and played a major role in shaping American politics. President George Washington declared neutrality in the European wars, but the polarization shaped the First Party System. In 1793, the first "Democratic societies '' were formed. They supported the French Revolution in the wake of the execution of the king. The word "democrat '' was proposed by French Ambassador Citizen Genet for the societies, which he was secretly subsidizing. The emerging Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton began to ridicule the supporters of Thomas Jefferson as "democrats ''. Genet now began mobilizing American voters using French money, for which he was expelled by President Washington.
After President Washington denounced the societies as unrepublican, they faded away. In 1793, as war broke out in Europe, the Jeffersonian Republican Party favored France and pointed to the 1778 treaty that was still in effect. Washington and his unanimous cabinet (including Jefferson) decided the treaty did not bind the U.S. to enter the war; instead Washington proclaimed neutrality. Under President Adams, a Federalist, an undeclared naval war took place with France in 1798 -- 99, called the "Quasi War ''. Jefferson became president in 1801, but was hostile to Napoleon as a dictator and emperor. Nevertheless, he did seize the opportunity to purchase Louisiana in 1803.
The broad similarities but different experiences between the French and American revolutions lead to a certain kinship between France and the United States, with both countries seeing themselves as pioneers of liberty and promoting republican ideals. This bond manifesting itself in such exchanges as the gift of the Statue of Liberty by France.
The call for modification of society was influenced by the revolution in France, and once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring. The Enlightenment ideals and the initiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire the Haitian Revolution, which evolved into the most successful and comprehensive slave rebellion. Just as the French were successful in transforming their society, so were the Haitians. On April 4, 1792, The French National Assembly granted freedom to slaves in Haiti and the revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an independent nation solely of freed peoples. The activities of the revolutions sparked change across the world. France 's transformation was most influential in Europe, and Haiti 's influence spanned across every location that continued to practice slavery. John E. Baur honors Haiti as home of the most influential Revolution in history.
As early as 1810, the term "liberal '' was coined in Spanish politics to indicate supporters of the French Revolution. This usage passed to Latin America and animated the independence movement against Spain. In the nineteenth century "Liberalism '' was the dominant element in Latin American political thought. French liberal ideas were especially influential in Mexico, particularly as seen through the writings of Alexis de Tocqueville, Benjamin Constant and Édouard René de Laboulaye. The Latin American political culture oscillated between two opposite poles: the traditional, as based on highly specific personal and family ties to kin groups, communities, and religious identity; and the modern, based on impersonal ideals of individualism, equality, legal rights, and secularism or anti-clericalism. The French Revolutionary model was the basis for the modern viewpoint, as explicated in Mexico in the writings of José María Luis Mora (1794 -- 1850).
In Mexico, modern liberalism was best expressed in the Liberal Party, the Constitution of 1857, the policies of Benito Juárez, and finally by Francisco I. Madero 's democratic movement leading to the Revolution of 1911.
The impact of the French Revolution on the Middle East came in terms of the political and military impact of Napoleon 's invasion; and in the eventual influence of revolutionary and liberal ideas and revolutionary movements or rebellions. In terms of Napoleon 's invasion in 1798, the response by Ottoman officials was highly negative. They warned that traditional religion would be overthrown. Long - standing Ottoman friendship with France ended. Sultan Selim III immediately realized how far behind his empire was, and started to modernize both his army and his governmental system. In Egypt itself, the ruling elite of Mamluks was permanently displaced, speeding the reforms. In intellectual terms, the immediate impact of the French Revolutionary ideas was nearly invisible, but there was a long - range influence on liberal ideas and the ideal of legal equality, as well as the notion of opposition to a tyrannical government. In this regard, the French Revolution brought such influential themes as constitutionalism, parliamentarianism, individual liberty, legal equality, and the sense of ethnic nationalism. These came to fruition about 1876.
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where did the cherry blossom trees in washington dc come from | National Cherry Blossom Festival - wikipedia
The National Cherry Blossom Festival is a spring celebration in Washington, D.C., commemorating the March 27, 1912, gift of Japanese cherry trees from Mayor Yukio Ozaki of Tokyo City to the city of Washington, D.C. Mayor Ozaki donated the trees to enhance the growing friendship between the United States and Japan and also celebrate the continued close relationship between the two nations. Large and colorful helium balloons, floats, marching bands from across the country, music and showmanship are parts of the Festival 's parade and other events.
The effort to bring cherry blossom trees to Washington, D.C., preceded the official planting by several decades. In 1885, Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore returned from her first trip to Japan and approached the U.S. Army Superintendent of the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds with the idea of planting cherry trees along the reclaimed waterfront of the Potomac River. Scidmore, who would go on to become the first female board member of the National Geographic Society, was rebuffed, though she would continue proposing the idea to every Superintendent for the next 24 years. Several cherry trees were brought to the region by individuals in this period, including one that was the location of a 1905 cherry blossom viewing and tea party hosted by Scidmore in northwest D.C. Among the guests was prominent botanist David Fairchild and his fiance Marian, the daughter of inventor Alexander Graham Bell.
In 1906, David Fairchild imported 1000 cherry trees from the Yokohama Nursery Company in Japan and planted them on his own property in Chevy Chase, Maryland. The Fairchilds were pleased with the results of their planting and in 1907 began promoting Japanese flowering cherry trees as an ideal tree to plant around avenues in the Washington area. On September 26, with the help of the Fairchilds ' friends, the Chevy Chase Land Company ordered 300 Oriental cherry trees for the Chevy Chase area. In 1908, Fairchild donated cherry saplings to every D.C. school to plant on its school grounds in observance of Arbor Day. At an Arbor Day speech that Eliza Scidmore attended, Fairchild proposed that the "Speedway '' (a now non-existing route around the D.C. Tidal Basin) be turned into a "Field of Cherries. ''
In 1909, Scidmore decided to raise the money to buy cherry trees and donate them to the District. As a matter largely of form, on April 5 she wrote a letter to First Lady Helen Herron Taft, wife of newly elected president Howard Taft, informing her of her plans. Two days later, the First Lady responded:
Thank you very much for your suggestion about the cherry trees. I have taken the matter up and am promised the trees, but I thought perhaps it would be best to make an avenue of them, extending down to the turn in the road, as the other part is still too rough to do any planting. Of course, they could not reflect in the water, but the effect would be very lovely of the long avenue. Let me know what you think about this.
By chance, Jokichi Takamine, the Japanese chemist who discovered adrenaline, was in Washington with Mr. Midzuno, the Japanese consul to New York City, on April 8. Informed of a plan to plant Japanese cherry trees along the Speedway, Takamine asked if Mrs. Taft would accept an additional 2000 trees, while Midzuno suggested that the trees be given in the name of Tokyo. Takamine and Midzuo subsequently met with the First Lady, who accepted the offer of 2000 trees.
On April 13, Spencer Cosby, Superintendent of the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds, purchased ninety cherry trees (Prunus serrulata) that were planted along the Potomac River from the Lincoln Memorial south toward East Potomac Park. It was subsequently discovered that the trees were of the cultivar Shirofugen, rather than the ordered Fugenzo. These trees had largely disappeared by the 21st century.
On August 30, 1909, the Embassy of Japan in Washington, D.C., informed the U.S. Department of State that the city of Tokyo intended to donate 2000 cherry trees to the United States to be planted along the Potomac. These trees arrived in Washington, D.C., on January 6, 1910. However, the inspection team from the Department of Agriculture (led by Flora Wambaugh Patterson) found that the trees were infested with insects and nematodes, concluding that the trees had to be destroyed to protect local growers. President Taft gave the order to burn the trees on January 28. Secretary of State Philander C. Knox wrote a letter expressing the regret of all involved to the Japanese Ambassador. Takamine responded to the news with another donation for more trees, 3020 in all, of a lineage taken from a famous group of trees along the Arakawa River in Tokyo and grafted onto stock from Itami, Hyogo Prefecture. On February 14, 1912, 3020 cherry trees of twelve cultivars were shipped on board the Awa Maru and arrived in D.C. via rail car from Seattle on March 26.
In a ceremony on March 27, 1912, First Lady Helen Herron Taft and Viscountess Chinda, wife of the Japanese ambassador, planted the first two of these trees on the north bank of the Tidal Basin in West Potomac Park. At the end of the ceremony, the First Lady presented Viscountess Chinda with a bouquet of ' American Beauty ' roses. These two trees still stand at the terminus of 17th Street Southwest, marked by a large plaque. By 1915, the United States government had responded with a gift of flowering dogwood trees to the people of Japan.
From 1913 to 1920, trees of the Somei - Yoshino variety, which comprised 1800 of the gift, were planted around the Tidal Basin. Trees of the other 11 cultivars, and the remaining Yoshinos, were planted in East Potomac Park. In 1927, a group of American school children re-enacted the initial planting. This event is recognized as the first D.C. cherry blossom festival. In 1934, the District of Columbia Commissioners sponsored a three - day celebration of the flowering cherry trees.
The first "Cherry Blossom Festival '' was held in late 1934 under joint sponsorship by numerous civic groups, becoming an annual event. The cherry trees had by this point become an established part of the nation 's capital. In 1938, plans to cut down trees to clear ground for the Jefferson Memorial prompted a group of women to chain themselves together at the site in protest. A compromise was reached where more trees would be planted along the south side of the Basin to frame the Memorial. A Cherry Blossom Pageant was begun in 1940.
On December 11, 1941, four trees were cut down. It is suspected that this was retaliation for the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan four days earlier, though this was never confirmed. In hopes of dissuading people from further attacks upon the trees during the war, they were referred to as "Oriental '' flowering cherry trees for the war 's duration. Suspended during World War II, the festival resumed in 1947 with the support of the Washington, D.C., Board of Trade and the D.C. Commissioners.
In 1948, the Cherry Blossom Princess and U.S. Cherry Blossom Queen program were started by the National Conference of State Societies. A Princess was selected from each state and federal territory, with a queen chosen to reign over the festival. In 1952, Japan requested help restoring the cherry tree grove at Adachi, Tokyo along the Arakawa River, which was the parent stock of the D.C. trees but had diminished during the war. In response, the National Park Service sent budwood back to Tokyo.
The Japanese ambassador gave a 300 - year - old stone lantern to the city of Washington to commemorate the signing of the 1854 Japan - US Treaty of Amity and Friendship by Commodore Matthew C. Perry. For a number of years, the lighting of this lantern formally opened the Festival. Three years later, the president of The Pearl Company started by Mikimoto Kōkichi donated the Mikimoto Pearl Crown. Containing more than five pounds of gold and 1,585 pearls, the crown is used at the coronation of the Festival Queen at the Grand Ball. The next year, the Mayor of Yokohama gifted a stone pagoda to the City to "symbolize the spirit of friendship between the United States of America manifested in the Treaty of Peace, Amity and Commerce signed at Yokohama on March 31, 1854. ''
The Japanese gave 3,800 more Yoshino trees in 1965, which were accepted by First Lady Lady Bird Johnson. These trees were grown in the United States and many were planted on the grounds of the Washington Monument. For the occasion, the First Lady and Ryuji Takeuchi, wife of the Japanese ambassador, reenacted the 1912 planting. In 1982, Japanese horticulturalists took cuttings from Yoshino trees in Washington, D.C., to replace cherry trees that had been destroyed in a flood in Japan. From 1986 to 1988, 676 cherry trees were planted using US $ 101,000 in private funds donated to the National Park Service to restore the trees to the number at the time of the original gift.
In 1994, the Festival was expanded to two weeks to accommodate the many activities that happen during the trees ' blooming. Two years later, the Potomac and Arakawa became sister rivers. Cuttings were taken from the documented 1912 trees in 1997 to be used in replacement plantings and thus preserve the genetic heritage of the grove. In 1999, fifty trees of the Usuzumi variety from Motosu, Gifu, were planted in West Potomac Park. According to legend, these trees were first planted by Emperor Keitai in the 6th century and were designated a National Treasure of Japan in 1922. From 2002 to 2006, 400 trees propagated from the surviving 1912 trees were planted to ensure the genetic heritage of the original donation is maintained.
The National Cherry Blossom Festival is coordinated by the National Cherry Blossom Festival, Inc., an umbrella organization consisting of representatives of business, civic, and governmental organizations. More than 700,000 people visit Washington each year to admire the blossoming cherry trees that herald the beginning of spring in the nation 's capital.
The three - week festival begins around the middle of March with a Family Day at the National Building Museum and an official opening ceremony in the Warner Theatre. An array of activities and cultural events takes place on the following days. The Blossom Kite Festival (formerly the Smithsonian Kite Festival) usually takes place during the festival 's first or second weekend. Every day there is a sushi / sake celebration, classes about cherry blossoms, and a bike tour of the Tidal Basin. Other events include art exhibits (photography, sculpture, animation), cultural performances, rakugo, kimono fashion shows, dance, singing, martial arts, merchant - sponsored events, and a rugby union tournament.
The next Saturday, a three - stage festival takes place on the Southwest Waterfront. When the festival ends, a fireworks show begins on the nearby Washington Channel. The next morning (Sunday), the Credit Union Cherry Blossom Ten Mile Run begins on the grounds of the Washington Monument. Later that Sunday, dignitaries gather at the Tidal Basin to participate in a ceremonial lighting of the 360 - year - old Japanese stone lantern.
During the morning of the festival 's last Saturday, the National Cherry Blossom Festival Parade travels along Constitution Avenue from 7th to 17th Streets, NW. For 16 years until 2015, the Sakura Matsuri - Japanese Street Festival (Japanese: さくら まつり), the largest Japanese Cultural Festival in the United States, took place throughout the day along 12th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, near the route of the parade. However, the 2016 Street Festival will take place at M Street SE and New Jersey Avenue SE, near the Department of Transportation exit of the Navy Yard - Ballpark Metro station in the distant Capitol Riverfront area. The Street Festival 's relocation became necessary when the Trump Organization, which will operate the Trump International Hotel in the Old Post Office Pavilion at 12th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW, negotiated a deal with the Government of the District of Columbia that requires a 20 feet (6 m) - wide lane on Pennsylvania Avenue to remain open to the hotel 's customers and valet parking service except during major events such as presidential inaugural parades, thus leaving insufficient space on the Avenue for the festival 's activities.
In 2009, the National Cherry Blossom Festival introduced an alternative event to its lineup, with the debut of Cherry Blast, an underground - ish mix of projected art, dance performances, live music, fashion and DJs that took place in an empty (but festively decorated) Anacostia warehouse. (Most of the crowd was shuttle - bussed in from Dupont Circle.) In 2010, Cherry Blast II -- the creation of artist Philippa P. Hughes of the Pink Line Project -- moved to a storage warehouse in Adams Morgan, but still featured an eclectic group of local artists and musicians. The 2016 Cherry Blast will take place at the Carnegie Library at Mount Vernon Square during the last Saturday evening of the festival.
Of the initial gift of 12 varieties of 3,020 trees, The Yoshino Cherry (70 % of total) and Kwanzan Cherry (12.6 % of total) now dominate.
The Yoshino produces single white blossoms that create an effect of white clouds around the Tidal Basin and north onto the grounds of the Washington Monument. Intermingled with the Yoshino are a small number of Akebono cherry trees, which bloom at the same time as the Yoshino and produce single, pale - pink blossoms.
The Kwanzan grows primarily in East Potomac Park and comes into bloom two weeks after the Yoshino. It produces clusters of clear pink double blossoms. East Potomac Park also has Fugenzo, which produces rosy pink double blossoms, and Shirofugen, which produces white double blossoms that age to pink.
Interspersed among all the trees are the Weeping Cherry, which produces a variety of single and double blossoms of colors ranging from dark pink to white about a week before the Yoshino. Other cultivars that can be found are the Autumn Cherry (semi-double, pink), Sargent Cherry (single, deep pink), Usuzumi (white - grey), and Takesimensis.
Coordinates: 38 ° 52 ′ 54 '' N 77 ° 2 ′ 6 '' W / 38.88167 ° N 77.03500 ° W / 38.88167; - 77.03500
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when did the green revolution begin in india | Green Revolution in India - Wikipedia
The Green Revolution in India refers to a period of time when agriculture in India changed to an industrial system due to the adoption of modern methods and technology such as high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, tractors, pump sets, etc. Green revolution was started by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan. The key leadership role played by the Indian agricultural scientist Vehla Swaminathan Banda together with many others including GS Kalkat, earned him the popularly used title ' Father of Green Revolution of India '. The Green Revolution allowed developing countries, like India, to try to overcome poor agricultural productivity. Within India, this started in the early 1960s and led to an increase in food grain production, especially in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh during the early phase. The main development was higher - yielding varieties of wheat, for developing rust resistant strains of wheat.
The main development was higher - yielding varieties of wheat, for developing rust resistant strains of wheat. The introduction of high - yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds and the increased quality of fertilizers and irrigation technique led to the increase in production to make the country self - sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India. The methods adopted included the use of high - yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds with modern farming methods.
The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self - sufficiency of India. Along with high - yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilised the idea of agricultural revolution. Due to the rise in use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, there was a negative effect on the soil and the land (e.g., land degradation).
Famines in India were very frequent during the period 1940s to 1970s. Due to faulty distribution of food, and because farmers did not receive the true value for their labour, the majority of the population did not get enough food. Malnutrition and starvation was a huge problem.
Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get finance and credit at economical rates from the government and banks and hence, fell as easy prey to the money lenders. They took loans from zamindars, who charged high rates of interests and also exploited the farmers later on to work in their fields to repay the loans (farm labourers). Proper financing was not given during the Green Revolution period, which created a lot of problems and sufferings to the farmers of India. Government also helped those under loans.
Due to traditional agricultural practices, low productivity, and a growing population, often food grains were imported -- draining scarce foreign reserves. It was thought that with the increased production due to the Green Revolution, the government could maintain buffer stock and India could achieve self - sufficiency and self - reliability.
Agriculture was basically for subsistence and, therefore, less agricultural product was offered for sale in the market. Hence, the need was felt to encourage the farmers to increase their production and offer a greater portion of their products for sale in the market. The new methods in agriculture increased the yield of rice and wheat, which reduced India 's dependence on food imports.
A main criticism of the effects of the green revolution is the cost for many small farmers using HYV seeds, with their associated demands of increased irrigation systems and pesticides. A case study is found in India, where farmers are buying Monsanto BT cotton seeds -- sold on the idea that these seeds produced ' natural insecticides '. In reality, they need to still pay for expensive pesticides and irrigation systems, which might lead to increased borrowing to finance the change from traditional seed varieties. Many farmers have difficulty in paying for the expensive technologies, especially if they have a bad harvest.
Indian environmentalist Vandana Shiva notes that this is the "second Green Revolution ''. The first Green Revolution, she suggests, was mostly publicly funded (by the Indian Government). This new Green Revolution, she says, is driven by private (and foreign) interest -- notably MNCs like Monsanto. Ultimately, this is leading to foreign ownership over most of India 's farmland.
Excessive and inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides has polluted waterway, killed beneficial insects and wild life. It has caused over-use of soil and rapidly depleted its nutrients. The rampant irrigation practices have led to eventually soil degradation. Groundwater practices have fallen dramatically. Further, heavy dependence on few major crops has led to loss of biodiversity of farmers. These problems were aggravated due to absence of training to use modern technology and vast illiteracy leading to excessive use of chemicals. (1)
Green revolution spread only in irrigated and high - potential rain fed areas. The villages or regions without the access of sufficient water were left out that widened the regional disparities between adopters and non-adopters. Since, the HYV seeds technically can be applied only in land with assured water supply and availability of other inputs like chemicals, fertilizers etc. The application of the new technology in the dry - land areas is simply ruled out.
The states like Punjab, Haryana, Western UP etc. having good irrigation and other infrastructure facilities were able to derive the benefits of green revolution and achieve faster economic development while other states have recorded slow growth in agriculture production.
The new agriculture strategy involving use of HYV seeds was initially limited to wheat, maize and bajra. The other major crop i.e. rice responded much later. The progress of developing and application of HYV seeds in other crops especially commercial crops like oilseeds, jute etc. has been very slow. In fact, in certain period a decline in the output of commercial crops is witnessed because of diversion of area under commercial crop to food crop production. The basic factor for non-spread of green revolution to many crops was that in the early 1960s the severe shortage in food grains existed and imports were resorted to overcame the shortage. Government initiated green revolution to increase food grain productivity and non-food grain crops were not covered. The substantial rise in one or two food grain crop can not make big difference in the total agricultural production. Thus new technology contributed insignificantly in raising the overall agricultural production due to limited crop coverage. So it is important that the revolutionary efforts should be made in all major rops.
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setting and time period of the adventures of tom sawyer | The Adventures of Tom Sawyer - wikipedia
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain is an 1876 novel about a young boy growing up along the Mississippi River. It is set in the fictional town of St. Petersburg, inspired by Hannibal, Missouri, where Twain lived.
Tom Sawyer lives with his Aunt Polly and his half - brother Sid. He skips school to swim and is made to whitewash the fence the next day as punishment. He cleverly persuades his friends to trade him small treasures for the privilege of doing his work.
Tom falls in love with Becky Thatcher, a new girl in town, and persuades her to get "engaged '' by kissing him. But their romance collapses when she learns Tom has been "engaged '' previously to Amy Lawrence. Shortly after Becky shuns him, he accompanies Huckleberry Finn to the graveyard at night, where they witness a trio of body snatchers, Dr. Robinson, Muff Potter, and Injun Joe, getting into a fight in which Robinson is murdered by Injun Joe.
Joe pins the murder on Muff Potter, but the boys know he is innocent. At Potters trial, Tom speaks out and Joe escapes through a window before he can be apprehended. Henceforth the boys live in constant fear of Joe 's revenge on them for incriminating him.
Bored by school, Tom, his best friend Joe Harper and Huck run away to an island in the Mississippi called Jackson 's Island. While enjoying their new - found freedom, they become aware that the community is sounding the river for their bodies. Tom sneaks back home one night to observe the commotion. After a brief moment of remorse at his loved ones ' suffering, he is struck by the idea of appearing at his own funeral. The trio later carry out this scheme by making a sensational sudden appearance in the church in the middle of their joint funeral service.
Back in school, Tom gets himself back in Becky 's favor after he nobly accepts the blame and punishment for a book she has ripped.
Summer arrives, and Tom and Huck go hunting for buried treasure in a haunted house. After venturing upstairs they hear a noise below. Peering through holes in the floor, they see Injun Joe disguised as a deaf - mute Spaniard; Injun Joe and his companion plan to bury some stolen treasure of their own. From their hiding spot, Tom and Huck wriggle with delight at the prospect of digging it up. By chance the villains discover an even greater gold hoard buried in the hearth and carry it all off to a better secret hiding place. The boys are determined to find where it has gone. One night Huck spots them and follows them. He overhears their plans to attack the wealthy Widow Douglas. By running to fetch help, Huck prevents the crime and becomes an anonymous hero.
In the meantime, Tom goes on a picnic to McDougal 's Cave with Becky and their classmates. Tom and Becky get separated from the others and wander lost in the extensive cave complex for the next few days. Becky gets extremely dehydrated and starved, so Tom 's search for a way out gets even more desperate. He accidentally encounters Injun Joe in the caves one day, but he is not seen by his nemesis. Eventually, he finds a way out, and they are joyfully welcomed back by their community. As a preventive measure, Judge Thatcher, Becky 's father, has McDougal 's Cave sealed off with an iron door, but this traps Injun Joe inside. When Tom hears of the sealing several days later he directs a posse to the cave, they find Injun Joe 's corpse just inside the sealed entrance, starved to death.
A week later, having deduced from Injun Joe 's presence at McDougal 's Cave that the villain must have hidden the stolen gold inside, Tom takes Huck to the cave and they find the box of gold, the proceeds of which are invested for them. The Widow Douglas adopts Huck, but he finds the restrictions of a civilized home life painful. He attempts to escape back to his vagrant life. Tom tricks him into thinking that he can later join Tom 's new scheme of starting a robber band if he returns to the widow. Reluctantly, Huck agrees and goes back to her.
Tom Sawyer, the story 's title character, also appears in two other uncompleted sequels: Huck and Tom Among the Indians and Tom Sawyer 's Conspiracy. He is also a character in Twain 's unfinished Schoolhouse Hill.
Tom Sawyer: A Ballet in Three Acts premiered on October 14, 2011, at the Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts in Kansas City, Missouri. The score was by composer Maury Yeston, with choreography by William Whitener, artistic director of the Kansas City Ballet. A review in The New York Times observed: "It 's quite likely that this is the first all - new, entirely American three - act ballet: it is based on an American literary classic, has an original score by an American composer and was given its premiere by an American choreographer and company... Both the score and the choreography are energetic, robust, warm, deliberately naïve (both ornery and innocent), in ways right for Twain. ''
On November 30, 2011, to celebrate Twain 's 176th birthday, the Google Doodle was a scene from The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
According to an October 2012 article published in Smithsonian magazine, Twain named his fictional character after a San Francisco fireman whom he met in June 1863. The real Tom Sawyer was a local hero, famous for rescuing 90 passengers after a shipwreck. The two remained friendly during Twain 's three - year stay in San Francisco, often drinking and gambling together.
Canadian rock band Rush published a song in 1981, which is inspired by the book.
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institute of cost and work accountant of india | Institute of Cost Accountants of India - wikipedia
The Institute of Cost Accountants of India (ICAI), previously known as the Institute of Cost & Works Accountants of India (ICWAI), is a premier statutory professional accountancy body in India with the objects of promoting, regulating and developing the profession of Cost Accountancy. It is the only licensing cum regulating body of Cost & Management Accountancy profession in India. It recommends the Cost Accounting Standards to be followed by companies in India to which statutory maintenance of cost records applicable. ICAI is solely responsible for setting the auditing and assurance standards for statutory Cost Audit to be followed in the Audit of Cost statements in India. It also issues other technical guidelines on several aspects like Internal Audit, Management Accounting etc. to be followed by practising Cost Accountants while discharging their services. It works closely with the industries, various departments of Government of India, State governments in India and other Regulating Authorities in India e.g. Reserve Bank of India, Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority, Securities and Exchange Board of India etc. on several aspects of performance, cost optimisation and reporting.
The ICAI is a Founder Member of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), Confederation of Asian and Pacific Accountants (CAPA) and South Asian Federation of Accountants (SAFA). ICAI is a member of the National Foundation of Corporate Governance (NFCG). The headquarters of ICAI is situated in Kolkata, and operates through its four regional councils located at Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi and Mumbai, 94 chapters in India and 78 chapters abroad.
The Institute of Cost Accountants of India (ICAI) was first formed as a registered limited company in the year 1944 (14.6. 1944) as per the provisions of the then companies Act, 1913 with the initial objective of promoting, regulating and developing the profession of Cost Accountancy. Post Independence, the institute got statutory recognition when the Parliament of India enacted "The Cost and Works Accountants Act '' (Act No. 23rd of 1959), a special act, on May 28, 1959 to accord statutory recognition to ICAI (then ICWAI) as an autonomous professional Institute with the objectives of promoting, regulating, and developing the profession of Cost and Management Accountancy.
The CWA Amendment bill, 2011 was passed by both the Houses of Indian Parliament viz. Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha on December 12, 2011 and assented by the Honorable President of India on January 12, 2012. The changes were published in the Official Gazette of India on January 13, 2011.
This is the primary qualification of the ICAI and following completion of up to three levels (Foundation, Intermediate and Final) examinations and three years of practical training in areas like Management Accounting, Cost Accounting, Financial Accounting, Taxation, Audits, Corporate Laws etc. enables an individual to become a Cost & Management Accountant.
A student has to pass three levels of examination and complete three years of practical training to be eligible to apply for Associate membership of the Institute.
The members of the Institute of Cost Accountants of India carry the designation ACMA (Associate Cost and Management Accountant) and FCMA (Fellow Cost and Management Accountant), as applicable based on their type of membership of the institute.
A person who has passed the Final Examination of the Institute and has obtained for a period of not less than three years of practical experience in the field of Cost & Management Accountancy and other related areas can apply for Associate Membership. The practical experience as above may be acquired prior to or after passing the Final Examination or partly before and partly after passing the said examination. The applicant has to produce evidence to the satisfaction of the Council
According to Sec 2 (b) of CWA Act 1959, "Cost Accountant '' means a person who is a member of the Institute. Sec 5 (1) provides that the members of the Institute shall be divided into two classes designated respectively as Associates and Fellows.
This is the basic membership of the institute. Application for Associate Membership should be made in prescribed Form ' M2 ' available at the Headquarters of the Institute in Kolkata and the offices of Regional Councils and Chapters. The application should be accompanied with prescribed fees mentioned in the Form ' M - 2 ', experience certificate (s) duly attested by the employer (s) in original and photocopy of certificates of date of birth and highest academic qualification of the applicant. The experience can also be certified by the employer (s) in Form ' M - 2 '.
However, for general convenience, institute has established online membership application mechanism. After admission to membership, members are entitled to use the letter "ACMA '' after his name to indicate that he or she is an Associate Member of the ICAI.
An Associate Member who has been in continuous practice in India for at least five years or a member who has been an Associate for a continuous period of not less than five years and who possesses such qualifications and experience as the Council may prescribe apply for Fellow Membership of ICAI.
Any person whose name is entered in the Register as a fellow of the Institute and so long as his name remains so entered, shall be entitled to use the letters "FCMA '' after his name to indicate that he is a Fellow of the ICAI.
The Council of the Institute has mandated that the members of the Institute should use "CMA '' as the prefix before their names to signify that he / she is a professional "Cost & Management Accountant ''.
In line with the recommendations of the International Federation of Accountants and feeling the need to have compulsory and continued training of the members of the Institute, the institute has made training mandatory for all members to ensure constant updating of knowledge and skills of members. The institute has also framed certain guidelines covering the requirement of eligible training, awarding and recording of credit hours as well as features for considering programmes eligible to award credit hours. The objective of Continuing Education Programme is to assist the members in widening their knowledge base and in improving their skills to be at the cutting edge of technology by providing training and expertise in critical areas.
The Institute of Cost Accountants of India (ICAI), recognizing the need for structured approach to the measurement of cost in manufacture or service sector and to provide guidance to the user organizations, government bodies, regulators, research agencies and academic institutions to achieve uniformity and consistency in classification, measurement and assignment of cost to product and services, has constituted Cost Accounting Standards Board (CASB) in the year 2001 with the objective of formulating the Cost Accounting Standards (CASs).
The structure of Cost Accounting Standard consists of Introduction, Objectives of issuing standards, Scope of standard, Definitions and explanations of the terms used in the standard, Principles of Measurement, Assignment of Cost, Presentation and Disclosure.
The CASB has primarily identified 39 areas / items on which CASs are to be developed.
On visit to India during the month of May, 2010, the then President of IFAC, Mr. Robert Bunting praised the role of ICAI by saying that "In cost accounting standards, perhaps India is the global leader. Its role is limited to select sectors and is closely linked to public accounting in most countries. We are discussing about the possibilities to make this system acceptable in more regions. ''
The Council of the ICAI at its 251th Meeting held on 12 -- 13 February 2009 and 258th Meeting held on 14 December 2009 decided on Mandatory application of Cost Accounting Standards (CASs). The CASs shall be mandatory with effect from period commencing on or after 1 April 2010 for being applied for the preparation and certification of General Purpose Cost Accounting Statements. So far ever 22 Cost Accounting Standards and 4 Management Accounting Guidelines have been issued by the Institute. The effective date of the standards are also mentioned in respective standards.
List of CASs issued by ICAI till date
CAS - 1 (Final) on Classification of Cost
CAS - 2 (Final, Revised 2012) on Capacity Determination
CAS - 3 (Final, Revised 2011) on Overheads
CAS - 4 (Final) on Cost of Production for Captive Consumption
CAS - 5 (Final) on Average (equalized) Cost of Transportation
CAS - 6 (Final) on Material Cost
CAS - 7 (Final) on Employee Cost
CAS - 8 (Final) on Cost of Utilities
CAS - 9 (Final) on Packing Material Cost
CAS - 10 (Final) on Direct Expenses
CAS - 11 (Final) on Administrative Overheads
CAS - 12 (Final) on Repairs And Maintenance Cost
CAS - 13 (Final) on Cost of Service Cost Centre
CAS - 14 (Final) on Pollution Control Cost
CAS - 15 (Final) on Selling & Distribution Overhead
CAS - 16 (Final) on Depreciation & Amortisation
CAS - 17 (Final) on Interest and Financing Charges
CAS - 18 (Final) on Research & Development Expenses
CAS - 19 (Final) on Joint Costs
CAS - 20 (Final) on Royalty and Technical Know - How Fee
CAS - 21 (Final) on Quality Control
CAS - 22 (Final) on Manufacturing Cost
CAS - 23 (Final) on Overburden Removal Cost
CAS - 24 (Final) on Treatment of Revenue in Cost Statements
Besides issuing standards, ICAI is also issuing Guidance Notes to each important standards in more detail and with practical examples for better understanding & proper implementation of each standard to achieve the right objectives set out in each standard.
MAG - 1 on Implementing Benchmarking
MAG - 2 on Valuations Management a Tool of Management Accountant
MAG - 3 on Implementing Corporate Environmental Strategies
MAG - 4 on Tools and Techniques of Environmental Accounting for Business
With the introduction of "The Companies (Cost Audit Report) Rules, 2011 '' by Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA), Govt. of India, the scope & application of Statutory Cost Audit (u / s 233B of the Companies Act, 1956) has been widened manifold. The said rule also introduces a new concept named as ' Performance Appraisal Report ' (PAR) which needs to be submitted by the Statutory Cost Auditor to the company along with the Cost Audit Report. This PAR is only meant for the company & it is not required to submit the same to the MCA like the Cost Audit Report.
In this changed context, the institute, addressing the needs of separate standards of auditing & assurance of cost records, has constituted the Cost Audit and Assurance Standards Board (CAASB) entrusting the responsibility to formulate standards and develop guidance notes in the areas of auditing, assurance, related services and quality control keeping in mind the special sophisticated structure & objectives of Statutory Cost Audit.
The sub-section (3) of section 148 of the Companies Act, 2013 gave the statutory mandate for separate auditing standards for audit of cost records as distinct from auditing standards applicable for audit of financial records. It stipulates that the auditor conducting the cost audit shall comply with the cost auditing standards which are issued by the ICAI, with the approval of the Government of India.
Till date, the CAASB has issued four standards:
CAAS - 101 on Planning an Audit of Cost Statements
CAAS - 102 on Cost Audit Documentation
CAAS - 103 on Overall Objectives of the Independent Cost Auditor and the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing
CAAS - 104 on Knowledge of Business, its Processes and the Business Environment
The Institute of Cost Accountants of India (ICAI) has entered into a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the leading Professional Accounting Bodies to enable Mutual Recognition and co-operation among the Institutes to develop the Profession of Management Accountancy for the benefit of their members in the pursuit of excellence in education and training and continuing professional development in Cost & Management Accountancy.
Some of the Management accounting bodies Worldwide besides the Institute of Cost Accountants of India (ICAI - CMA):
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what is sql server compact edition database file | SQL Server Compact - wikipedia
Microsoft SQL Server Compact (SQL CE) is a compact relational database produced by Microsoft for applications that run on mobile devices and desktops. Prior to the introduction of the desktop platform, it was known as SQL Server for Windows CE and SQL Server Mobile Edition.
It includes both 32 - bit and 64 - bit native support. SQL CE targets occasionally connected applications and applications with an embedded database. It is free to download and redistribute. An ODBC driver for SQL CE does not exist, nor is one planned. Native applications may use SQL CE via OLE DB.
The latest, and last, release is the SQL Server Compact 4.0. As of February 2013 SQL Server Compact Edition had been deprecated; no new versions or updates are planned, although Microsoft will continue to support until July 2021.
SQL Server Compact shares a common API with the other Microsoft SQL Server editions. It also includes ADO.NET providers for data access using ADO.NET APIs, and built - in synchronization capabilities, as well as support for LINQ and Entity Framework. Future releases will unify the synchronization capabilities with Microsoft Synchronization Services. Unlike other editions of Microsoft SQL Server, SQL CE runs in - process with the application which is hosting it. It has a disk footprint of less than 2 MB and a memory footprint of approximately 5 MB. SQL CE is optimized for an architecture where all applications share the same memory pool. Windows Store apps for Windows 8 can not use SQL Server Compact edition, or any other edition of SQL Server.
Versions
SQL CE databases can support ACID - compliance, but do not meet the durability requirement by default because AutoFlush buffers changes in memory (including enlisted ambient transactions and explicit SQL CE transactions that do not override the Commit () call with an CommitMode. Immediate value). Therefore, committed transaction changes can be lost. To meet the durability requirement the commit call on the transaction must specify the immediate flag. Like Microsoft SQL Server, SQL CE supports transactions, referential integrity constraints, locking as well as multiple connections to the database store. However, nested transactions are not supported, even though parallel transactions (on different tables) are. The current release does not support stored procedures or native XML data type either. It uses a subset of T - SQL for querying and due to lack of XML support, XQuery is not supported either. Queries are processed by an optimizing query processor. SQL CE databases also support indexing, as well as support remote data replication (local caching of data in remote databases) and merge replication (bidirectional synchronization with master databases).
SQL CE databases can be created and managed from Microsoft Visual Studio and some older versions of SQL Server Management Studio as well.
SQL CE databases reside in a single. sdf file, which can be up to 4 GB in size. The. sdf file can be encrypted with 128 - bit encryption for data security. SQL CE runtime mediates concurrent multi-user access to the. sdf file. The. sdf file can simply be copied to the destination system for deployment, or be deployed through ClickOnce. SQL CE runtime has support for DataDirectories. Applications using an SQL CE database need not specify the entire path to an. sdf file in the ADO.NET connection string, rather it can be specified as DataDirectory \ < database_name >. sdf, defining the data directory (where the. sdf database file resides) being defined in the assembly manifest for the application.
SQL Server Management Studio 2005 can read and modify CE 3.0 and 3.1 database files (with the latest service pack), but SQL Server Management Studio 2008 (or later) is required to read version 3.5 files. Microsoft Visual Studio Express 2008 SP1 can create, modify, and query CE 3.5 SP1 database files. SQL Server Management Studio can not read CE 4.0 files. Visual Studio 2010 SP1 can handle CE 4.0 database files.
The. sdf ("Sqlce Database File '') naming convention is optional, and any extension can be used.
Setting a password for the database file is optional. The database can be compressed and repaired with the option of the compacted / repaired database to be placed into a new database file.
In February 2013, Microsoft announced that SQL Server Compact Edition had been deprecated.
Although no new versions or updates are planned, Microsoft will continue to support SQL Compact through their standard lifecycle support policy. This support will end in July 2021.
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where is the 2017 us open golf championship being played | 2017 U.S. Open (golf) - wikipedia
The 2017 U.S. Open Championship was the 117th U.S. Open, held June 15 -- 18, 2017 at Erin Hills in Erin, Wisconsin, northwest of Milwaukee. The event was won by Brooks Koepka, who claimed his first major after finishing with a final score of 16 under par. This score matched the lowest score ever attained at the tournament, a record set in 2011 by Rory McIlroy.
This was the first U.S. Open in Wisconsin, but marked the fifth occasion in which the state hosted a major, following four earlier iterations of the PGA Championship. It was played in 1933 at Blue Mound in Wauwatosa, and at Whistling Straits near Kohler in 2004, 2010, and 2015.
The purse for the tournament totaled $12 million. Koepka won $2.16 million; this was the first major where the winner 's share exceeded $2 million.
This was the first U.S. Open at Erin Hills, which opened in 2006 and hosted the U.S. Amateur in 2011. It was also the first U.S. Open since 1992 whose course played to a par of 72.
It marked the first time in which the tournament was hosted in Wisconsin, and continued a long tradition of golf in the state, which hosted the U.S. Women 's Open twice (in 1998, which was played at Blackwolf Run in Kohler, as well as in 2012). It was furthermore home to the U.S. Senior Open at Whistling Straits in 2007. The PGA Tour formerly stopped in the state regularly with the Greater Milwaukee Open (1968 -- 2009), preceded by the Milwaukee Open Invitational (1955 -- 1961).
About half the field consisted of players who were exempt from qualifying for the U.S. Open. Each player is classified according to the first category in which he qualified, and other categories are shown in parentheses.
Ángel Cabrera, Lucas Glover, Dustin Johnson (12, 13, 14, 15), Martin Kaymer (14, 15), Graeme McDowell, Rory McIlroy (6, 7, 13, 14, 15), Justin Rose (11, 14, 15), Webb Simpson, Jordan Spieth (5, 13, 14, 15)
Brad Dalke (a)
Scott Gregory (a)
Maverick McNealy (a)
Sergio García (12, 14, 15), Adam Scott (13, 14, 15), Bubba Watson (13, 14, 15), Danny Willett (14, 15)
Ernie Els, Zach Johnson (12), Henrik Stenson (14, 15)
Jason Day (8, 12, 13, 14, 15), Jason Dufner (12, 13, 15), Jimmy Walker (13, 14, 15)
Rickie Fowler (14, 15), Kim Si - woo (13, 14, 15)
Alexander Norén (14, 15)
Gene Sauers
Jim Furyk, Branden Grace (14, 15), Shane Lowry, Kevin Na (13), Scott Piercy (14), Daniel Summerhays
Daniel Berger (14, 15), Paul Casey (14, 15), Roberto Castro, Kevin Chappell (14, 15), Emiliano Grillo (14, 15), J.B. Holmes (14, 15), Kevin Kisner (14, 15), Russell Knox (14, 15), Matt Kuchar (14, 15), Hideki Matsuyama (14, 15), William McGirt (14, 15), Sean O'Hair, Patrick Reed (14, 15), Charl Schwartzel (14, 15), Brandt Snedeker (14, 15), Justin Thomas (14, 15), Jhonattan Vegas, Gary Woodland (14, 15)
An Byeong - hun (15), Wesley Bryan (15), Rafael Cabrera - Bello (15), Ross Fisher (15), Matthew Fitzpatrick (15), Tommy Fleetwood (15), Bill Haas (15), Adam Hadwin (15), Brian Harman (15), Tyrrell Hatton (15), Russell Henley (15), Charley Hoffman (15), Billy Horschel (15), Yuta Ikeda (15), Brooks Koepka (15), Marc Leishman (15), Francesco Molinari (15), Louis Oosthuizen (15), Pat Perez (15), Thomas Pieters (15), Jon Rahm (15), Brendan Steele (15), Hideto Tanihara (15), Wang Jeung - hun, Lee Westwood (15), Bernd Wiesberger (15)
Chris Wood
None
The remaining contestants earned their places through sectional qualifiers.
Alternates who gained entry:
(a) denotes amateur
Thursday, June 15, 2017
Rickie Fowler tied the U.S. Open record for lowest first round score in relation to par, shooting a bogey - free round of 65 (− 7) for a one - shot lead over Paul Casey and Xander Schauffele. The course played easily, yielding 44 under - par rounds. Despite this, many of the pre-tournament favorites faltered. Jordan Spieth played solidly, but stumbled late for an opening 73 (+ 1). World number one Dustin Johnson was derailed by a double bogey on the par - 5 14th, shooting a 3 - over 75. Jon Rahm, Rory McIlroy, and Jason Day were even worse, shooting 76 (+ 4), 78 (+ 6), and 79 (+ 7), respectively. Meanwhile, Canadian Adam Hadwin tied a U.S. Open record with six straight birdies, en route to shooting four under par. This was the first major in which neither Phil Mickelson or Tiger Woods competed, in 23 years. The scoring average was 73.385 (+ 1.385).
Friday, June 16, 2017
Four players finished atop the leadership after the second round for the first time since 1974. Paul Casey was four - over on his round before recording five straight birdies from holes 17 - 3 to shoot 71 (− 1). Brooks Koepka made four birdies on his front - nine to get to nine - under but fell back with two bogeys on the back - nine. They were joined at the top of the leaderboard by Tommy Fleetwood and Brian Harman, who each shot 70 (− 2). First round leader Rickie Fowler also got as low as nine - under before three straight bogeys saw him fall a shot behind the leaders. Hideki Matsuyama and Chez Reavie had the low round of the day with a 65 (− 7); combined with Fowler 's opening round, it is the first time in U.S. Open history that three players shot a round of 65 in the same tournament. Forty - two players were under - par after 36 holes, a new tournament record. The scoring average was 73.225 (+ 1.225).
For the first time since the introduction of the Official World Golf Ranking in 1986, the top three ranked players (Dustin Johnson, Rory McIlroy, and Jason Day) all missed the cut in a major championship.
Amateurs: Champ (− 5), Scheffler (− 1), Andersen (+ 2), McNealy (+ 3), Smalley (+ 3), Gregory (+ 4), Niemann (+ 5), Crawford (+ 6), Dalke (+ 6), Hagestad (+ 8), Theegala (+ 8), Harvey (+ 10), Oda (+ 10), Lee (+ 20)
Saturday, June 17, 2017
Overnight rains and calm conditions during the day led to numerous low scores. Brian Harman birdied three holes on the back - nine to post a score of 67 (− 5) and take a one - shot lead over Tommy Fleetwood, Brooks Koepka, and Justin Thomas. Thomas began the round in a tie for 24th before a historic round put him into contention. An eagle on the 18th gave Thomas a score of 63 (− 9), tying the major championship record. At nine - under, he set the U.S. Open record for lowest score in relation to par, breaking the mark set by Johnny Miller in 1973. Fleetwood held possession of the lead before a bogey at the par - 5 18th saw him finish a shot behind Harman, while Koepka birdied the last to also get to within a stroke. Rickie Fowler recovered from a bogey at the 13th with three straight birdies on holes 14 - 16 and was two back. Paul Casey began the round tied for the lead but shot a three - over 75 and dropped to 17th.
Five golfers were at 10 - under - par or better entering the final round. Before this year, only six golfers had ever reached double digits under par at any point in a U.S. Open. The scoring average was 72.036 (+ 0.036).
Amateurs: Champ (− 4), Scheffler (− 2)
Sunday, June 18, 2017
Brooks Koepka tied the U.S. Open scoring record and won his first career major championship by four strokes over Brian Harman and Hideki Matsuyama. Beginning the round a shot out of the lead, Koepka quickly erased the deficit with birdies on his first two holes. After saving par with an eight - foot putt on the 13th, he then recorded three straight birdies on his way to a round of 67 (− 5). His total of 16 - under par tied the tournament scoring record set by Rory McIlroy in 2011. Harman entered the round with the lead but fell into a tie for second with three bogeys on the back - nine. Matsuyama shot the low round of the day with 66 (− 6) and jumped into a tie with Harman. After establishing a new tournament scoring record in the third round, Justin Thomas bogeyed three of his first five holes and finished three - over on the round to drop to a tie for ninth. Tommy Fleetwood also began the round a shot behind but three bogeys on the front - nine dropped him from contention. Thirty - one players finished the tournament under par, breaking the U.S. Open record set in 1990.
Amateurs: Scheffler (− 1), Champ (E)
Final round
Coordinates: 43 ° 14 ′ 42 '' N 88 ° 23 ′ 42 '' W / 43.245 ° N 88.395 ° W / 43.245; - 88.395
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industrial development in india during five year plan | Five - Year plans of India - Wikipedia
From 1947 to 2017, the Indian economy was premised on the concept of planning. This was carried through the Five - Year Plans, developed, executed, and monitored by the Planning Commission (1951 - 2014) and the NITI Aayog (2015 - 2017). With the prime minister as the ex-officio chairman, the commission has a nominated deputy chairman, who holds the rank of a cabinet Minister. Montek Singh Ahluwalia is the last deputy chairman of the commission (resigned on 26 May 2014). The Twelfth Plan completed its term in March 2017. Prior to the Fourth Plan, the allocation of state resources was based on schematic patterns rather than a transparent and objective mechanism, which led to the adoption of the Gadgil formula in 1969. Revised versions of the formula have been used since then to determine the allocation of central assistance for state plans. The new government led by Narendra Modi, elected in 2014, has announced the dissolution of the Planning Commission, and its replacement by a think tank called the NITI Aayog (an acronym for National Institution for Transforming India).
Five - Year Plans (FYPs) are centralized and integrated national economic programs. Joseph Stalin implemented the first Five Year Plan in the Soviet Union in 1928. Most communist states and several capitalist countries subsequently have adopted them. China and India both continue to use FYPs, although China renamed its Eleventh FYP, from 2006 to 2010, a guideline (guihua), rather than a plan (jihua), to signify the central government 's more hands - off approach to development. India launched its First FYP in 1951, immediately after independence under socialist influence of first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
The First Five - Year Plan was one of the most important because it had a great role in the launching of Indian development after Independence. Thus, it strongly supported agriculture production and it also launched the industrialization of the country (but less than the Second Plan, which focused on heavy industries). It built a particular system of mixed economy, with a great role for the public sector (with an emerging welfare state), as well as a growing private sector (represented by some personalities as those who published the Bombay Plan).
The first Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru presented the First Five - Year Plan to the Parliament of India and needed urgent attention. The First Five - year Plan was launched in 1951 which mainly focused in development of the primary sector. The First Five - Year Plan was based on the Harrod -- Domar model with few modifications.
The total planned budget of Rs. 2069 crore (2378 crore later) was allocated to seven broad areas: irrigation and energy (27.2 %), agriculture and community development (17.4 %), transport and communications (24 %), industry (8.4 %), social services (16.6 %), rehabilitation of landless farmers (4.1 %), and for other sectors and services (2.5 %). The most important feature of this phase was active role of state in all economic sectors. Such a role was justified at that time because immediately after independence, India was facing basic problems -- deficiency of capital and low capacity to save.
The target growth rate was 2.1 % annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth; the achieved growth rate was 3.6 % the net domestic product went up by 15 %. The monsoon was good and there were relatively high crop yields, boosting exchange reserves and the per capita income, which increased by 8 %. National income increased more than the per capita income due to rapid population growth. Many irrigation projects were initiated during this period, including the Bhakra, Hirakud, Mettur Dam and Damodar Valley dams. The World Health Organization (WHO), with the Indian government, addressed children 's health and reduced infant mortality, indirectly contributing to population growth.
At the end of the plan period in 1956, five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were started as major technical institutions. The University Grants Commission (UGC) was set up to take care of funding and take measures to strengthen the higher education in the country. Contracts were signed to start five steel plants, which came into existence in the middle of the Second Five - Year Plan. The plan was quasi successful for the government.
The Second Plan was particularly in the development of the public sector and "rapid Industrialisation ''. The plan followed the Mahalanobis model, an economic development model developed by the Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953. The plan attempted to determine the optimal allocation of investment between productive sectors in order to maximise long - run economic growth. It used the prevalent state of art techniques of operations research and optimization as well as the novel applications of statistical models developed at the Indian Statistical Institute. The plan assumed a closed economy in which the main trading activity would be centred on importing capital goods.
Hydroelectric power projects and five steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, and Rourkela were established with the help of Russia, Britain (the U.K) and West Germany respectively. Coal production was increased. More railway lines were added in the north east.
The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and Atomic Energy Commission of India was established as research institutes. In 1957 a talent search and scholarship program was begun to find talented young students to train for work in nuclear power.
The total amount allocated under the Second Five - Year Plan in India was Rs. 48 billion. This amount was allocated among various sectors: power and irrigation, social services, communications and transport, and miscellaneous.
"The target growth rate was 4.5 % and the actual growth rate was 4.27 %. ''
The Third Five - year Plan, stressed agriculture and improvement in the production of wheat, but the brief Sino - Indian War of 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus towards the defence industry and the Indian Army. In 1965 -- 1966, India fought a War with Pakistan. There was also a severe drought in 1965. The war led to inflation and the priority was shifted to price stabilisation. The construction of dams continued. Many cement and fertilizer plants were also built. Punjab began producing an abundance of wheat.
Many primary schools were started in rural areas. In an effort to bring democracy to the grass - root level, Panchayat elections were started and the states were given more development responsibilities.
State electricity boards and state secondary education boards were formed. States were made responsible for secondary and higher education. State road transportation corporations were formed and local road building became a state responsibility.
The target growth rate was 5.6 %, but the actual growth rate was 2.4 %.
Due to miserable failure of the Third Plan the government was forced to declare "plan holidays '' (from 1966 -- 67, 1967 -- 68, and 1968 -- 69). Three annual plans were drawn during this intervening period. During 1966 -- 67 there was again the problem of drought. Equal priority was given to agriculture, its allied activities, and industrial sector. The government of India declared "Devaluation of Rupee '' to increase the exports of the country. The main reasons for plan holidays were the war, lack of resources, and increase in inflation.
At this time Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister. The Indira Gandhi government nationalised 14 major Indian banks and the Green Revolution in India advanced agriculture. In addition, the situation in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) was becoming dire as the Indo - Pakistan War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War took funds earmarked for industrial development. India also performed the Smiling Buddha underground nuclear test (Pokhran - 1) in Rajasthan on May 18, 1974, partially in response to the United States deployment of the Seventh Fleet in the Bay of Bengal. The fleet had been deployed to warn India against attacking West Pakistan and extending the war.
The target growth rate was 5.6 %, but the actual growth rate was 3.3 %.
The Fifth Five - Year Plan laid stress on employment, poverty alleviation (Garibi Hatao), and justice. The plan also focused on self - reliance in agricultural production and defence. In 1978 the newly elected Morarji Desai government rejected the plan. The Electricity Supply Act was amended in 1975, which enabled the central government to enter into power generation and transmission.
The Indian national highway system was introduced and many roads were widened to accommodate the increasing traffic. Tourism also expanded. The twenty - point programme was launched in 1975. It was followed from 1974 to 1979.
The Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) was introduced in the first year of the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974 -- 78). The objective of the programme is to provide certain basic minimum needs and thereby improve the living standards of the people.
The target growth rate was 4.4 % and the actual growth rate was 4.8 %.
The Janata Party government rejected the Fifth Five - Year Plan and introduced a new Sixth Five - Year Plan (1978 -- 1980). This plan was again rejected by the Indian National Congress government in 1980 and a new Sixth Plan was made. The Rolling Plan consisted of three kinds of plans that were proposed. The First Plan was for the present year which comprised the annual budget and the Second was a plan for a fixed number of years, which may be 3, 4 or 5 years. Plan number two kept changing as per the requirements of the Indian economy. The Third Plan was a perspective plan for long terms i.e. for 10, 15 or 20 years. Hence there was no fixation of dates for the commencement and termination of the plan in the rolling plans. The main advantage of the rolling plans was that they were flexible and were able to overcome the rigidity of fixed five - year plans by mending targets, the object of the exercise, projections and allocations as per the changing conditions in the country 's economy. The main disadvantage of this plan was that if the targets were revised each year, it became difficult to achieve the targets laid down in the five - year period and it turned out to be a complex plan. Also, the frequent revisions resulted in the lack of stability in the economy.
The Sixth Five - Year Plan marked the beginning of economic liberalisation. Price controls were eliminated and ration shops were closed. This led to an increase in food prices and an increase in the cost of living. This was the end of Nehruvian socialism. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development was established for development of rural areas on 12 July 1982 by recommendation of the Shivaraman Committee. Family planning was also expanded in order to prevent overpopulation. In contrast to China 's strict and binding one - child policy, Indian policy did not rely on the threat of force. More prosperous areas of India adopted family planning more rapidly than less prosperous areas, which continued to have a high birth rate.
The Sixth Five - Year Plan was a great success to the Indian economy. The target growth rate was 5.2 % and the actual growth rate was 5.4 %. The only Five - Year Plan which was done twice.
The Seventh Five - Year Plan was led by the Congress Party with Rajiv Gandhi as the prime minister. The plan laid stress on improving the productivity level of industries by upgrading of technology.
The main objectives of the Seventh Five - Year Plan were to establish growth in areas of increasing economic productivity, production of food grains, and generating employment through "Social Justice ''.
As an outcome of the Sixth Five - Year Plan, there had been steady growth in agriculture, controls on the rate of inflation, and favourable balance of payments which had provided a strong base for the Seventh Five - Year Plan to build on the need for further economic growth. The Seventh Plan had strived towards socialism and energy production at large. The thrust areas of the Seventh Five - Year Plan were: social justice, removal of oppression of the weak, using modern technology, agricultural development, anti-poverty programmes, full supply of food, clothing, and shelter, increasing productivity of small - and large - scale farmers, and making India an independent economy.
Based on a 15 - year period of striving towards steady growth, the Seventh Plan was focused on achieving the prerequisites of self - sustaining growth by the year 2000. The plan expected the labour force to grow by 39 million people and employment was expected to grow at the rate of 4 % per year.
Some of the expected outcomes of the Seventh Five - Year Plan India are given below:
Under the Seventh Five - Year Plan, India strove to bring about a self - sustained economy in the country with valuable contributions from voluntary agencies and the general populace.
The target growth rate was 5.0 % and the actual growth rate was 6.01 %. and the growth rate of per capita income was 3.7 %.
The Eighth Plan could not take off in 1990 due to the fast changing political situation at the centre and the years 1990 -- 91 and 1991 -- 92 were treated as Annual Plans. The Eighth Plan was finally formulated for the period 1992 -- 1997.
1989 -- 91 was a period of economic instability in India and hence no five - year plan was implemented. Between 1990 and 1992, there were only Annual Plans. In 1991, India faced a crisis in foreign exchange (forex) reserves, left with reserves of only about US $ 1 billion. Thus, under pressure, the country took the risk of reforming the socialist economy. P.V. Narasimha Rao was the tenth Prime Minister of the Republic of India and head of Congress Party, and led one of the most important administrations in India 's modern history, overseeing a major economic transformation and several incidents affecting national security. At that time Dr. Manmohan Singh (later Prime Minister of India) launched India 's free market reforms that brought the nearly bankrupt nation back from the edge. It was the beginning of liberalization, privatisation and globalization (LPG) in India.
Modernization of industries was a major highlight of the Eighth Plan. Under this plan, the gradual opening of the Indian economy was undertaken to correct the burgeoning deficit and foreign debt. Meanwhile, India became a member of the World Trade Organization on 1 January 1995. The major objectives included, controlling population growth, poverty reduction, employment generation, strengthening the infrastructure, institutional building, tourism management, human resource development, involvement of Panchayati rajs, Nagar Palikas, NGOs, decentralisation and people 's participation.
Energy was given priority with 26.6 % of the outlay.
The target growth rate was 5.6 % and the actual growth rate was 6.8 %.
To achieve the target of an average of 5.6 % per annum, investment of 23.2 % of the gross domestic product was required. The incremental capital ratio is 4.1. The saving for investment was to come from domestic sources and foreign sources, with the rate of domestic saving at 21.6 % of gross domestic production and of foreign saving at 1.6 % of gross domestic production.
The Ninth Five - Year Plan came after 50 years of Indian Independence. Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the Prime Minister of India during the Ninth Five - Year Plan. The Ninth Five - Year Plan tried primarily to use the latent and unexplored economic potential of the country to promote economic and social growth. It offered strong support to the social spheres of the country in an effort to achieve the complete elimination of poverty. The satisfactory implementation of the Eighth Five - Year Plan also ensured the states ' ability to proceed on the path of faster development. The Ninth Five - Year Plan also saw joint efforts from the public and the private sectors in ensuring economic development of the country. In addition, the Ninth Five - Year Plan saw contributions towards development from the general public as well as governmental agencies in both the rural and urban areas of the country. New implementation measures in the form of Special Action Plans (SAPs) were evolved during the Ninth Five - Year Plan to fulfill targets within the stipulated time with adequate resources. The SAPs covered the areas of social infrastructure, agriculture, information technology and Water policy.
Budget
The Ninth Five - Year Plan had a total public sector plan outlay of ₹ 859,200 crore (US $130 billion). The Ninth Five - Year Plan also saw a hike of 48 % in terms of plan expenditure and 33 % in terms of the plan outlay in comparison to that of the Eighth Five - Year Plan. In the total outlay, the share of the center was approximately 57 % while it was 43 % for the states and the union territories.
The Ninth Five - Year Plan focused on the relationship between the rapid economic growth and the quality of life for the people of the country. The prime focus of this plan was to increase growth in the country with an emphasis on social justice and equity. The Ninth Five - Year Plan placed considerable importance on combining growth oriented policies with the mission of achieving the desired objective of improving policies which would work towards the improvement of the poor in the country. The Ninth Five - Year Plan also aimed at correcting the historical inequalities which were still prevalent in the society.
Objectives
The main objective of the Ninth Five - Year Plan was to correct historical inequalities and increase the economic growth in the country. Other aspects which constituted the Ninth Five - Year Plan were:
Strategies
Performance
The Ninth Five - Year Plan looks through the past weaknesses in order to frame the new measures for the overall socio - economic development of the country. However, for a well - planned economy of any country, there should be a combined participation of the governmental agencies along with the general population of that nation. A combined effort of public, private, and all levels of government is essential for ensuring the growth of India 's economy.
The target growth was 7.1 % and the actual growth was 6.8 %.
The main objectives of the Tenth Five - Year Plan:
Out of total plan outlay, ₹ 921,291 crore (US $130 billion) (57.9 %) was for central government and ₹ 691,009 crore (US $100 billion) (42.1 %) was for states and union territories.
The Twelfth Five - Year Plan of the Government of India has been decided to achieve a growth rate of 8.2 % but the National Development Council (NDC) on 27 December 2012 approved a growth rate of 8 % for the Twelfth Five - Year Plan.
With the deteriorating global situation, the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission Montek Singh Ahluwalia has said that achieving an average growth rate of 9 percent in the next five years is not possible. The Final growth target has been set at 8 % by the endorsement of the plan at the National Development Council meeting held in New Delhi.
"It is not possible to think of an average of 9 % (in the 12th plan). I think somewhere between 8 and 8.5 percent is feasible, '' Ahluwalia said on the sidelines of a conference of State Planning Boards and departments. The approached paper for the 12th Plan, approved last year, talked about an annual average growth rate of 9 %.
"When I say feasible... that will require major effort. If you do n't do that, there is no God given right to grow at 8 percent. I think given that the world economy deteriorated very sharply over the last year... the growth rate in the first year of the 12th Plan (2012 -- 13) is 6.5 to 7 percent. ''
He also indicated that soon he should share his views with other members of the Commission to choose a final number (economic growth target) to put before the country 's NDC for its approval.
The government intends to reduce poverty by 10 % during the 12th Five - Year Plan. Ahluwalia said, "We aim to reduce poverty estimates by 9 % annually on a sustainable basis during the Plan period ''. Earlier, addressing a conference of State Planning Boards and Planning departments, he said the rate of decline in poverty doubled during the 11th Plan. The commission had said, while using the Tendulkar poverty line, the rate of reduction in the five years between 2004 -- 05 and 2009 -- 10, was about 1.5 % points each year, which was twice that when compared to the period between 1993 -- 95 to 2004 -- 05. The plan aims towards the betterment of the infrastructural projects of the nation avoiding all types of bottlenecks. The document presented by the planning commission is aimed to attract private investments of up to US $1 trillion in the infrastructural growth in the 12th five - year plan, which will also ensure a reduction in the subsidy burden of the government to 1.5 percent from 2 percent of the GDP (gross domestic product). The UID (Unique Identification Number) will act as a platform for cash transfer of the subsidies in the plan.
The objectives of the Twelfth Five - Year Plan were:
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who drives the 99 car in nascar in 2018 | 2018 Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series - wikipedia
The 2018 Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series is the 70th season of professional stock car racing in the United States, and the 47th modern - era Cup series season. The season began at Daytona International Speedway with the Advance Auto Parts Clash, the Can - Am Duel qualifying races and the 60th running of the Daytona 500. The regular season will end with the Brickyard 400 on September 9, 2018. The playoffs will end with the Ford EcoBoost 400 at Homestead - Miami Speedway on November 18, 2018. Martin Truex Jr. is the defending champion, having won his first in the series.
It is the fourth season of the current 10 - year television contract with Fox Sports and NBC Sports and the third of a five - year race sanctioning agreement with all tracks. It is slated to be the final season in which Ford fields the Fusion, replacing it with the Ford Mustang in 2019.
During its annual media tour in November 2017, NASCAR announced that constraints would be imposed on crew rosters in its three national series. Crew members are divided into "Organizational '', "Road Crew '', and "Pit Crew '' roles; in the Cup Series, a single team may only have a roster of 3 - 4 organizational crew members (depending on the number of cars they field), 12 road crew members, and 5 pit crew members (reduced from 6, as implemented in 2011). Crew members must be assigned a jersey number and a letter corresponding to their position, which must be worn on their crew uniforms. Staff may be shared between a team 's individual cars, even if they are not explicitly listed on their roster. NASCAR 's executive vice president and chief racing development officer Steve O'Donnell stated that these changes were intended to improve safety, as well as improve its focus on teamwork.
In February 2018, it was announced that the vehicle damage policy introduced in 2017 had been modified, following analysis of the rule 's effects in 2017, and to account for the reduction in pit crew members. The length of the repair window has been extended to six minutes, and the penalty for having too many crew members repairing the car was reduced from disqualification to a two - lap penalty. Additionally, the length of the first session in qualifying on intermediate - and short - tracks has been reduced from 20 to 15 minutes.
On May 16, 2018, NASCAR announced that teams no longer need to start the race on the tires used in qualifying, due to teams that fail to pass the inspection before qualifying getting an advantage.
The final schedule -- comprising 36 races, as well as exhibition races, which are the Advance Auto Parts Clash, Can - Am Duel qualifying duel races for the Daytona 500 and the All - Star Race -- was released on May 23, 2017. Key changes from 2017 include:
Crown Jewel races in bold
In 2015, NASCAR and 23 Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series tracks agreed on a five - year contract that guarantees each track would continue to host races through 2020. Despite the agreement, Speedway Motorsports decided to transfer one of its Cup Series races at New Hampshire Motor Speedway to Las Vegas Motor Speedway to form a race weekend involving each of the three national series in the fall. On July 27, 2016, Daytona International Speedway announced that the 60th running of the Daytona 500 would be moved one week earlier to be held on February 18, 2018.
Several changes were announced with the release of the final schedule. The Big Machine Vodka 400 at the Brickyard at Indianapolis Motor Speedway moved to September to become the final race of the regular season, while the Federated Auto Parts 400 at Richmond Raceway moved to the second race in the Round of 16. The new date that Las Vegas Motor Speedway acquired from New Hampshire Motor Speedway was moved to the first race of the playoffs to replace Chicagoland Speedway, which became race 17 of the regular season. Dover International Speedway 's spring race, the AAA 400 Drive for Autism, was moved one month early to precede Kansas Speedway and Charlotte Motor Speedway. The track 's fall race, the Dover 400, was moved one week later to become the first race of the Round of 12. Also, Charlotte Motor Speedway 's Bank of America 500 moves one week earlier and will utilize the track 's road course layout instead of its quad - oval; with the scheduled distance changing from 500 miles to 400 kilometers, the race will now be known as the Bank of America Roval 400. With an additional off - week in the schedule for 2018, the Father 's Day off - week that Fox added for the U.S. Open will be restored, with the third off - week being after the Bristol August race.
Speedweeks 2018
Daytona Speedweeks started with the Advance Auto Parts Clash. Austin Dillon drew the pole as Chase Elliott and Brad Keselowski led the majority of the race. Jamie McMurray crashed and Ricky Stenhouse Jr. received a penalty. Keselowski led the last half to win over Joey Logano as Jimmie Johnson crashed after contact with Kyle Larson with Chase Elliott, Kasey Kahne, Kyle Busch, and Martin Truex Jr. also getting involved.
In Daytona 500 qualifying, Alex Bowman won the pole while Denny Hamlin qualified second. Bowman won the pole for his first race since taking over the # 88 car from Dale Earnhardt Jr. full - time. This was the fourth consecutive Daytona 500 pole won by Hendrick Motorsports.
In the Can - Am Duels on Thursday, Bowman was on pole for race one. In the early laps, Jimmie Johnson lost a tire and crashed along with Aric Almirola. Ricky Stenhouse Jr. was moving around the entire race, but got into both William Byron and David Gilliland, taking them out. Joey Logano led the majority of laps, but was passed for the lead by Ryan Blaney as Brad Keselowski crashed with Jamie McMurray, sending the race into overtime. In overtime, Blaney held off Joey Logano and Darrell Wallace Jr. to win the first Duel. In the second Duel, Hamlin was on pole. Early in the race, Erik Jones spun and collected Kyle Larson and Matt DiBenedetto. Hamlin and Chase Elliott led most of the race. Eliott led the most laps to win his second straight Duel race over Kevin Harvick.
Round 1: Daytona 500
Alex Bowman started on pole. Early on, Kyle Busch had a tire go down and had to pit. Later, Busch had another tire down and got into the wall and collected Jamie McMurray and D.J. Kennington. In the closing laps of stage one, Erik Jones spun and collected Kyle Larson, Jimmie Johnson, Daniel Suarez, William Byron, and Ty Dillon as Kurt Busch won stage one. In stage two, Byron got into the wall after having a tire go down. Brad Keselowski got into Chase Elliott and collected others including David Ragan, Kevin Harvick, Kasey Kahne, and Danica Patrick, who finished 35th in her final NASCAR race. Ryan Blaney won stage two over Joey Logano. In the final stage, Blaney continued to lead. In the closing laps, Byron again had a tire go down and spun. With two laps to go, Kurt Busch got turned around and collected Blaney, Matt DiBenedetto, Brendan Gaughan, and others, sending the race to overtime. In overtime, Aric Almirola was leading at the white flag, and tried to block Austin Dillon, but the block was late and Almirola ended up in the wall. Austin Dillon held off Darrell Wallace Jr. for his second career win and winning the Daytona 500 in the # 3 20 years after Dale Earnhardt won his only 500 in 1998.
Round 2: Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500
Kyle Busch led the field to the green flag after an hour delay from rain. Ryan Newman jumped out to an early lead, but Busch was able to reclaim the lead. After the end - of - stage caution, Newman had a tire go down and hit the wall. Kevin Harvick led and won the first stage. In the second stage, Harvick, Kurt Busch, and Brad Keselowski all led as Keselowski won stage two after a spin by Jimmie Johnson. In the final stage, Harvick continued to dominate as Denny Hamlin and Joey Logano tried to win on a different strategy as the rest of the field. Late in the final stage, Trevor Bayne had an engine failure as Darrell Wallace Jr. plowed into Ricky Stenhouse Jr. trying to avoid the smoke. Harvick continued to lead and won over Keselowski for his first win at Atlanta since 2001.
Round 3: Pennzoil 400
Ryan Blaney started on pole. Kevin Harvick took the lead at the beginning and dominated and won the first two caution free stages. In the final stage, Jamie McMurray got into the wall after a flat tire. Kurt Busch got loose and crashed along with Chase Elliott. Harvick led over 200 laps and held off a hard charging Kyle Busch for his second straight win and second at Las Vegas.
Round 4: TicketGuardian 500
Martin Truex Jr. started on pole. Kyle Larson shot out to the lead early and led most of the first stage. Kyle Busch took the lead and won the first stage. Early in the second stage, Larson spun on the apron. Chris Buescher had a tire go down and got into the wall. Kurt Busch stayed out and won the second stage. Denny Hamlin took the lead as Paul Menard had a tire go down and got into the wall. Kyle Busch regained the lead until green flag pit stops. Brad Keselowski stayed out to stretch it out until the end, but had to pit. Kevin Harvick was able to pass Chase Elliott during the green flag cycle to take the lead from Ryan Newman and hold off Kyle Busch for his third consecutive win and ninth at Phoenix.
Round 5: Auto Club 400
Martin Truex Jr. started on pole for the second straight week. Early, Kevin Harvick got into the wall and spun through the grass after contact with Kyle Larson, ending his chances for a fourth straight win. Truex was able to win the first stage and win the second stage after Trevor Bayne got into the wall. David Ragan brought out the final caution as Truex was able to beat out Kyle Busch on pit stops and pulled away from Larson to sweep all three stages to win.
Round 6: STP 500
Martin Truex Jr. started on pole for the third straight week as qualifying was cancelled due to rain and snow. The race was postponed from Sunday to Monday due to snow. Denny Hamlin won the first stage after a Competition Caution and Ryan Blaney won the second stage. Jamie McMurray spun after contact with Austin Dillon. Clint Bowyer took the lead from Blaney and dominated the remainder of the race, leading 215 laps. McMurray, Trevor Bayne, and Harrison Rhodes all had tires go down, but there was no caution. Bowyer held off Kyle Busch for his first win since 2012 and the fourth out of six races for Stewart - Haas Racing.
Round 7: O'Reilly Auto Parts 500
Kurt Busch started on pole after qualifying was cancelled just after the first round due to rain. As soon as the race began, Alex Bowman spun and collected Aric Almirola, Austin Dillon, and Paul Menard. At the end of the first stage, Martin Truex Jr. had a tire go down and got into the wall as Kevin Harvick scored the stage win as it ended under caution. In the second stage, Kyle Larson had a tire go down and he got into the wall. Kyle Busch was able to win the second stage. Early in the final stage, Denny Hamlin spun and collected David Ragan, Brad Keselowski, and Jimmie Johnson. Menard and Ryan Newman both got into the wall. Kyle Busch and Harvick, both with older tires, were able to stay out front and Busch was able to hold Harvick off for his first win of the year and third at Texas.
Round 8: Food City 500
Kyle Busch started on pole. Michael McDowell spun on the third lap and collected others including Chase Elliott and Martin Truex Jr. The race was stopped three different times due to rain and a wreck by Trevor Bayne. Ryan Blaney led most of the first half of the race, but was caught up in an accident while leading, ending his race. Brad Keselowski won the first stage. After another red flag due to rain, the remainder of the race was postponed to Monday. After a small delay due to rain, the race continued. Keselowski would win the second stage after taking back the lead. Kyle Larson took back the lead and continued leading until spun after making contact with Ryan Newman. Kyle Busch got the lead when the caution was displayed for rain, but it was a brief yellow. On the final restart, Larson got back in the lead, but Kyle Busch passed Larson for the lead with six laps to go and Busch pulled away to his second straight win and seventh at Bristol.
Round 9: Toyota Owners 400
Martin Truex Jr. won the pole. Joey Logano dominated the early part of the race, winning both stages. Kurt Busch and Clint Bowyer took turned swapping the lead. Truex regained the lead and lead a race high of 121 laps. Ryan Blaney and Ricky Stenhouse Jr. got together and spun. Jamie McMurray got into the wall and made contact with Ryan Newman, who blew up. David Ragan had a tire go down and got into the wall. Stenhouse spun again to send the race into overtime. On the restart, Kyle Busch held off Chase Elliott for his third straight win and fifth at Richmond.
Round 10: GEICO 500
Kevin Harvick started the race from the pole. Brad Keselowski won the first stage of the race. In the second stage, Erik Jones caused a multicar wreck that collected Jamie McMurray, Kyle Larson, Martin Truex Jr., and Trevor Bayne. Paul Menard won the second stage of the race. Numerous drivers experienced speeding penalties on pit road including Denny Hamlin, who was caught speeding on pit road multiple times. Late in the race, Jimmie Johnson got loose in front of teammate William Byron and caused a 14 - car accident that also collected Keselowski, Menard, Clint Bowyer, Michael McDowell, Ryan Blaney, Darrell Wallace Jr., and A.J. Allmendinger. Joey Logano led in the closing laps of the race and went to score his first win of the season, ending a 36 race winless streak.
Round 11: AAA 400 Drive for Autism
Kyle Larson started on pole. Michael McDowell spun and Derrike Cope crashed early as Kevin Harvick won both stages. Kyle Busch went to the garage after suffering a broken driveshaft. Clint Bowyer was leading when the race was halted by a red flag due to rain. After the delay, Kevin Harvick passed Bowyer for the lead and pulled away for his second win at Dover and his fourth win of the season.
Round 12: KC Masterpiece 400
Kevin Harvick started on pole. Harvick led early, but Ryan Blaney took the lead and won the first stage. Kyle Larson came from the rear of the field to dominate the race, winning the second stage. Alex Bowman and Daniel Suarez got together and both got into the wall. Larson and Blaney got into each other, putting Blaney in the wall. On the restart, William Byron had a tire go down caused a wreck featuring Clint Bowyer, Ryan Newman, Ty Dillon, Jamie McMurray, Chris Buescher, and Matt Kenseth, competing in his first race of the year, bringing out the red flag. On the restart, Martin Truex Jr. pulled away from the field, but Kevin Harvick was able run down Truex to take the lead for his second consecutive win and his fifth of the season.
Exhibition: Monster Energy NASCAR All - Star Race
First, it was the Monster Energy Open. Aric Almirola started on pole due to qualifying being rained out. Almirola led early, but Alex Bowman took the lead and won the first stage to transfer. In the second stage, Paul Menard got into the wall. Chase Elliott had the lead, but Daniel Suárez took the lead and won the second stage to transfer. Darrell Wallace Jr. led in the final stage, but Elliott got back into the lead. Alimrola and Erik Jones got into each other as A.J. Allmendinger took the lead and held off Eliott to win his second Open to transfer. Chase Eliott won the fan vote to transfer for the third straight year.
Matt Kenseth won the pole for the race. Kurt Busch spun early as Kevin Harvick won the first stage and Kyle Busch won the second stage. In the third stage, Kasey Kahne got into the wall. Martin Truex Jr. got into Clint Bowyer and they crashed with Kurt Busch, Kyle Busch, and Brad Keselowski. Harvick got by Daniel Suárez to win the third stage. In the final 10 laps, Harvick was out front as Kyle Larson spun after contact with Joey Logano. In a two lap shootout, Kevin Harvick held off Daniel Suárez for his second All - Star Race win and the $1 million.
Round 13: Coca - Cola 600
Kyle Busch started on pole. Defending winner Austin Dillon got in the wall after having a tire go down early. Kevin Harvick got into the wall, taking him out of the race, as Busch won the first stage. William Byron had a tire go down and got into the wall. Jimmie Johnson spun after contact with Denny Hamlin and also sent Joey Logano spinning. Busch won the second stage. In the third stage, Gray Gaulding crashed and Chris Buescher spun. Kyle Larson spun and Ryan Blaney blew an engine and caught fire. Busch won the third stage. Kyle Busch continued to dominate and won his fourth race of the season and with the win, he became the first in history to win a race at every racetrack in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series that he competed at.
Round 14: Pocono 400
Defending race winner Ryan Blaney started on pole. Blaney led early until he had a problem and had to pit. Martin Truex, Jr. got the lead and won the first stage. Kevin Harvick got to the lead and dominated to win a caution free stage two. In the final stage, Matt DiBenedetto had brake issues and it caused a tire to catch fire as Kasey Kahne and Darrell Wallace, Jr. both had transmission issues. Derrike Cope spun after contact with Kyle Larson and Denny Hamlin spun and crashed into the wall after contact with Alex Bowman. On the restart, Erik Jones spun after contact with Joey Logano. On the restart, Martin Truex, Jr. pulled away from Larson, Harvick, and Kyle Busch to pick up his second win of the season and second at Pocono.
Round 15: FireKeepers Casino 400
Kurt Busch started on pole. The race started over two hours late due to rain. Austin Dillon and Ricky Stenhouse, Jr. spun after making contact with each other just as the competition caution came out. David Ragan got into the wall after contact with Darrell Wallace, Jr. Matt Kenseth spun at the end of the stage as Ryan Blaney, who had taken the lead from Kurt Busch, won the first stage. Daniel Suárez spun after contact with Paul Menard. Kyle Larson, who won the last three Michigan races, spun into the grass, ending his changes of a fourth straight win. Kevin Harvick won the second stage over his teammates. Clint Bowyer had taken the lead from Harvick as Ricky Stenhouse Jr. spun as rain was reported around the track. The race was called giving Bowyer his second win of the season.
Round 16: Toyota / Save Mart 350
Kyle Larson started on pole. Erik Jones had problems early as Martin Truex, Jr. led most of the first stage, but pitted allowing A.J. Allmendinger to win the stage. On the restart, Allmendinger blew an engine while Jamie McMurray went to the garage with low oil pressure. Denny Hamlin won the second stage by staying out while others pitted. Ryan Blaney had to make several stops to fix damage. Kevin Harvick had the lead late until he decided to pit in case of a late caution. Truex stayed out during green flag pit stops and won his third win of the season and second at Sonoma with a ten second lead over Harvick.
Round 17: Overton 's 400
Paul Menard started the race on pole. Clint Bowyer led early in the race before getting two speeding penalties on pit road. Aric Almirola won Stage 1 and led the most laps the race, but had to pit under green for a loose wheel. Kevin Harvick won Stage 2 of the race. Harvick would continue to lead until losing it to Kyle Busch during a round of pit stops under caution. Kyle Busch continued to lead in the closing laps as Kyle Larson was catching him. Larson caught up to Kyle Busch on the final lap and the two made contact twice, with Kyle Busch holding on to win the race with Larson finishing second.
Round 18: Coke Zero Sugar 400
Chase Elliott started on pole. Ricky Stenhouse Jr. dominated by winning both stages. In the second stage, Paul Menard got turned and into the grass. Brad Keselowski got turned around and collected Kurt Busch, Joey Logano, Ryan Blaney, Denny Hamlin, Elliott, and others. Kyle Busch got turned into William Byron and also involved Jamie McMurray. In the final stage, Kyle Larson got turned into Stenhouse. Jimmie Johnson was leading until he received a penalty on pit road. Stenhouse had a tire go down and spun, ending his chance of back - to - back wins. On the restart, Aric Almirola lost a wheel and crashed along with Michael McDowell and Johnson. In overtime, Kevin Harvick took the lead from Kasey Kahne, but Clint Bowyer spun and collected Harvick, Brendan Gaughan, and others. On the second restart of overtime, Erik Jones drove past Martin Truex Jr. to score his first career win and became the seventh different winner of the season.
Round 19: Quaker State 400
Martin Truex Jr. started on pole. Truex dominated by leading the most laps and winning both stages. Alex Bowman had a tire go down and got into the wall and J.J. Yeley lost an engine. Teammates Jamie McMurray and Kyle Larson suffered mechanical problems. Truex pulled away from a charging Ryan Blaney for his fourth win of the season and second straight at Kentucky.
Round 20: Foxwoods Resort Casino 301
Kurt Busch started on pole. The start of the race was delayed due to rain. Busch dominated the majority of the race. A.J. Allmendinger got into the wall, ending his day. Martin Truex, Jr. took the lead after the Competition Caution and won the first stage. Chase Elliott took the lead from Truex to win the second stage. Clint Bowyer got into the wall and went to the garage. Kyle Busch had the lead late, but Kevin Harvick moved Busch to take the lead and get his sixth win of the season and third at New Hampshire.
Round 21: Gander Outdoors 400
Kevin Harvick originally won the pole. Thirteen cars including Harvick failed post-qualifying inspection, disallowing their times and forcing them to start in the back, thus Daniel Suarez won the pole. Chase Elliott won the first stage while Harvick won the second stage. A few had tire problems including Kurt Busch, Joey Logano, and Brad Keselowski. Keselowski got into the wall, sending him to the garage. Darrell Wallace, Jr. lost his brakes and hit the wall hard at a high rate of speed, resulting in a red flag. On the restart, Aric Almirola spun after contact with Matt DiBenedetto, sending the race to overtime. Kyle Busch pulled away to hold off Daniel Suarez for his sixth win of the season and second at Pocono.
Round 22: Go Bowling at The Glen
Denny Hamlin started on pole. Aric Almirola got into the wall early and Joey Logano spun and went to the garage. Martin Truex Jr. won the first stage. Chase Elliott dominated the second half of the race and won the second stage. Ryan Newman spun and Jimmie Johnson spun after contact with A.J. Allmendinger. Martin Truex Jr. caught Elliott, but ran out of fuel which allowed Chase Elliott to get his first career win and the 250th win for Hendrick Motorsports.
Round 23: Consumers Energy 400
Denny Hamlin started on pole for the second straight week. Erik Jones spun early and William Byron spun and got into the wall along with Martin Truex Jr. Kevin Harvick dominated and won both stages. Jones spun again and Ty Dillon ran over a battery and got into the wall and caught fire. Harvick took the lead from Jamie McMurray and held off Brad Keselowski for his seventh win of the season.
(key) Bold -- Pole position awarded by time. Italics -- Pole position set by final practice results or owner 's points. * -- Most laps led. -- Stage 1 winner. -- Stage 2 winner. -- Stage 3 winner.
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what age can you leave school in usa | School - leaving age - wikipedia
The school leaving age is the minimum age a person is legally allowed to cease attendance at an institute of compulsory secondary education. Most countries have their school leaving age set the same as their minimum full - time employment age, thus allowing smooth transition from education into employment, whilst a few have it set just below the age at which a person is allowed to be employed.
In contrast, there are numerous countries that have several years between their school leaving age and their legal minimum employment age, thus in some cases preventing any such transition for several years. Countries which have their employment age set below the school leaving age of 5 years old but (mostly developing countries), risk giving children the opportunity to leave their education early to earn money for their families.
Some countries have different leaving or employment ages, but in certain countries like China and Japan, the average age at which people graduate is 15, depending upon part - time or full - time learning or employment. The table below states the school leaving ages in countries across the world and their respective minimum employment age, showing a comparison of how many countries have synchronised these ages. All information is taken from the Right to Education Project 's table unless otherwise indicated.
Legend
For further information http://www.moe.gov.lk/sinhala/images/publications/Education_First_SL/Education_First_SL.pdf
Also, all children between those ages, even if they 're refugees or new, have to attend school. Not attending school with - out proper reason for example; sickness or a doctors visit, is illegal and is seen as wagging which is seen as fraud and punishable by law. Until the age of 12 children can not be punished by law, but as soon as your child or you turn 12 years of age or older, you can be held responsible for wagging. Punishments can be done as a fine, temporary jail time or a community service job done under supervision. Fines can be up to € 3 900 00. These punishments can be given to the student and / or his or her legal parent or guardian.
The minimum ages from 2009 will be the following: Northern Territory - 15; ACT - 15; South Australia - 17; Queensland - 17; Students must remain in school until they turn 16 years of age or complete Year 10, which ever comes first. From there they must be "learning or earning '' which means they must be employed at least 25 hours a week, or be in full time education or be in a combination of both part time employment and part time education which adds up to at least 25 hours a week until they turn 17 or complete Year 12 or equivalent, which ever comes first. Victoria - 17; Western Australia - 15; NSW - 17 (if they want to not do their HSC they need to be working at least 25 hours per week or at TAFE studying until they turn 17); Tasmania - 17.
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who had the infinity stones in the comics | Infinity Gems - wikipedia
The Infinity Gems, originally referred to as Soul Gems and currently referred to as Infinity Stones, are six immensely powerful fictional gems appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Whoever holds all six Gems and uses them in concert gains omnipotence and omniscience. The six primary Gems are the Mind Gem, the Soul Gem, the Space Gem, the Power Gem, the Time Gem and the Reality Gem, and in later storylines, crossovers and other media, a seventh Infinity Gem (Ego or Rhythm) is sometimes added. The Gems play a prominent role in the first three phases of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, where they are known as the Infinity Stones.
The Soul Gems first appear in The Power of Warlock. All six appear together for the first time in the second "Thanos War '' storyline in Avengers and Marvel Two - In - One annuals. Thanos harnesses their latent energies to power a giant gem to extinguish every star in the universe.
In the third volume of the Silver Surfer title, the Surfer refers to the gems as "Soul Gems '' for the first time. They are gathered by the Elders of the Universe, who intend to use their combined power to drain Galactus of his lifeforce and then recreate the universe with themselves as the oldest beings in it (Galactus was the last survivor of the Universe that existed prior to the birth of the current Marvel Universe). This plot is thwarted by the Silver Surfer, and several Elders and the gems are lost in a black hole; Galactus consumes some of the other Elders. In a follow - up story, Galactus is poisoned by the Elders he consumed. Silver Surfer, Mr. Fantastic, and the Invisible Woman journey through the black hole to recover the gems. Invisible Woman becomes possessed by the sentient Soul Gem, awakening her evil Malice persona. She is later subdued, and the gems are used to remove the Elders from Galactus ' body. The Elders later reclaim the gems.
In the limited series The Thanos Quest Thanos refers to the entire set as "Infinity Gems '' for the first time. Thanos systematically subdues the Elders one by one to gather all six gems. Once in his control, he sets the gems into a gold glove (the left gauntlet of his customary attire) which he refers to as the Infinity Gauntlet. Thanos explains the origin of the gems to the Runner, one of the Elders of the Universe: the set are the remains of a once nigh omnipotent but lonely being. Unable to endure eternity alone, the being committed suicide, although a fraction of its essence remained and became the Infinity Gems.
Thanos becomes nearly omnipotent, and challenges the Silver Surfer and Drax the Destroyer, handling the heroes with ease. He reclaims his ship Sanctuary II from its current captain, his granddaughter Nebula. He burns her nearly to death, but uses the Gems to keep her suspended between life and death in immortal agony; he claims this is a "work of art '', "a monument to the insanity of Life and Death denied ''. Mephisto joins Thanos as an adviser. The Silver Surfer travels to Earth to warn Earth 's superheroes of the threat of Thanos and the Gems, setting the stage for The Infinity Gauntlet limited series.
In The Infinity Gauntlet, Thanos uses the Gauntlet to erase half the population of the universe, completing the quest that had led him to find the Gems and assemble the Gauntlet. This fulfilled a pledge to his love, Death, to repair a "cosmic imbalance '' caused by the presence of more sentient beings alive than had ever died in all of history; Death believed that this imbalance would lead to starvation, pestilence, and misery across the cosmos. Thanos decimates Earth 's heroes in combat when they retaliate, and then battles the pantheon of cosmic entities when they attempt to strip him of the Gauntlet; he defeats them all and turns them to stone. He uses the Gems to supplant Eternity, gaining Eternity 's ethereal form and forsaking his physical body. This leaves the Gauntlet vulnerable, and Nebula removes it from Thanos ' body, ending his control over the Gems (according to Adam Warlock, Thanos subconsciously felt unworthy of the power of the Gauntlet, causing him to lose control of it). Nebula 's attempts to wield the Gauntlet fail due to her inexperience and lack of willpower, and she is left debilitated after restoring the universe to a state before Thanos used the Gauntlet. She is defeated in a battle with Earth 's heroes, and Adam Warlock emerges as the new possessor of the Gauntlet. Warlock insists that he will not be a threat like Thanos, but the heroes do not trust him and he sends them away before they can attack. He is called to judgement in a suit brought by Eternity before the Living Tribunal, who finds Warlock unworthy of the power of the Gems due to his emotional instability. The Tribunal reasons with Adam, revealing that a fight to retain the Gauntlet would devastate the universe. Warlock uses the Gauntlet to perceive the flow of time, and sees his inevitable course of action is to distribute the Gems to a group of trusted guardians and companions. The Tribunal accepts this decision, to the dismay of Eternity.
In the series Warlock and the Infinity Watch the Gems are distributed by Adam Warlock to a group he dubs "the Infinity Watch ''. He places himself as the leader and guardian of the Soul Gem. He names Gamora guardian of the Time Gem, Pip the Troll guardian of the Space Gem, Drax the Destroyer guardian of the Power Gem, Moondragon guardian of the Mind Gem, and an unknown member (later revealed to be Thanos himself) guardian of the Reality Gem. During the course of the series, several enemies attempt to steal the Gems. In an early encounter, Warlock 's old nemesis from Counter-Earth, the creature called the Man Beast, abducts several members of the Watch and uses the combined Mind, Power, Space and Time Gems to create a monstrous energy humanoid called "the Infinity Thrall ''. Both are eventually defeated by Adam Warlock. The Living Tribunal is once again called for judgement, and declares that the Infinity Gems will no longer be able to act in unison.
This decree is overturned -- courtesy of the machinations of Warlock 's evil alter ego from an alternate future, the Magus -- in the Infinity War limited series. The Magus gained physical form when Warlock used the Gauntlet to cast out his "Good '' and "Evil '' sides in an attempt to make decisions based on pure logic. The Magus unites the Gems and plans universal conquest, but Warlock tricks him by substituting a fake Reality Gem. Eternity later announces that the six Gems will never again be used in unison. The Gems are featured in the Infinity Crusade limited series, where Warlock 's feminine "Good '' side attempts to rid the universe of Evil by eliminating free will, and, ultimately, rewriting the universe such that it has no sentient life to commit Evil.
Following the cancellation of the Infinity Watch series, the one - shot title Rune / Silver Surfer depicts the Gems being stolen by the extradimensional vampire Rune and dispersed throughout the Ultraverse. The Asgardian god Loki enters the Ultraverse and collects the Gems, also discovering the existence of a seventh Gem, "Ego ''. Loki learns that the lonely omnipotent suicide whose essence became the Gems was the gestalt being known as Nemesis. The Ego Gem, possessing the Avenger Sersi, merges with the other Gems to reform Nemesis and battles the Avengers and Ultraforce before being dissipated once again.
In the mainstream Marvel Universe, Galactus collects all six Infinity Gems in the Thanos ongoing series, intent on ending his need to consume planets. He is seen taking the Gems off a vampiric skeleton that he retrieves through an interdimensional portal. Galactus ' plan fails, and instead allows a deadly inter-dimensional parasite, named Hunger, access into the Earth - 616 universe. This parasite had been mentally influencing Galactus ' actions all along. Thanos advises that the Gems can be used to wish Hunger away. After the threat is averted, the Gems are scattered again with the exception of the Soul Gem, which Thanos retains for its customary custodian, Adam Warlock.
The Gems are featured in the JLA / Avengers limited series. The Infinity Gauntlet is found by DC Comics villain Darkseid when it arrives on Apokolips. He discards it upon discovering that the Gems do not work in the DC Universe. The Flash is able to retrieve it.
Titania gains possession of the Power Gem in the She - Hulk ongoing series. Subsequently, all six Gems are featured in the New Avengers: Illuminati limited series and become the possessions of the superhuman group the Illuminati. Reed Richards attempts to will the Gems out of existence to prevent further misuse, but the Watcher Uatu reveals that the Gems must exist as part of the cosmic balance. The Gems are separated and each is placed in the care of an Illuminati member, who vows never to use it or reveal its location.
The Gems are reunited in the Lockjaw and the Pet Avengers limited series. The pets of various heroes find the Gems and are forced to use them to battle Thanos. Lockjaw, pet of the Inhumans, gives the Gems to Reed Richards.
The Gems were part of the ongoing Avengers series during the Heroic Age. Although the Hood managed to collect the Gems of Power and Reality in time to defeat the Red Hulk, his subsequent attempts to acquire the others resulted in the Red Hulk stealing the Power Gem from him and Thor beating him to the Space Gem. He was able to acquire the Mind and Time Gems. He subsequently used the Gems to travel to the Soul Gem in the astral plane. The Hood is delayed by an illusionary Thanos that Doctor Strange had created, allowing the Avengers to catch up with him. After the battle, the Gems ended up with Iron Man. After sending the Hood back to jail, Iron Man appears to wish the Gems out of existence. It was revealed that the Gems were actually returned to the Illuminati, who all vowed to hide them more securely than before. In an attempt to stop another universe from collapsing into their own, the Illuminati decides to reassemble the Infinity Gauntlet. Captain America uses the Infinity Gauntlet to push the other universe back, but because Eternity declared that the Gems can not be used in unison the Gems shatter, except for the Time Gem which vanishes. To prevent Captain America stopping the Illuminati from destroying universes during the Incursion crisis, Doctor Strange wipes his memory.
After the murder of Uatu, Captain America is exposed to Uatu 's eye which restores his memory. Afterwards, Captain America and some of the Avengers are transported into future realities with the previously vanished Time Gem as a result of the Time Gem being destroyed throughout time. As a result of the incursions the multiverse is combined into a single Battleworld. Doctor Strange gathers Infinity Gems from various realms into a new Infinity Gauntlet, which he leaves hidden until the surviving heroes of Earth - 616 return. The Gauntlet is subsequently claimed by T'Challa, who uses it to keep the Beyonder - enhanced Doom occupied until Mister Fantastic can disrupt his power source.
In Marvel Legacy # 1, a Frost Giant working for Loki steals the Space Gem from a S.H.I.E.L.D storage facility, but is intercepted and defeated by Wolverine.
Each Gem is shaped like a small oval. Each Gem is named after, and represents, a different characteristic of existence, and possessing any single Gem grants the user the ability to command whatever aspect of existence the Gem represents. The Gems are indestructible but not immutable. On two occasions, one or more of the Gems have appeared in the form of deep pink spheres that are several feet in diameter. On other occasions, the Gems have appeared in their small oval shape but with different coloring (i.e. the Soul Gem being red colored when worn by the Gardener). In the Ultraverse, after merging into their original form of Nemesis, the Gems were again separated after a battle with Ultraforce and the Avengers.
The six Infinity Gems include:
Additional Gems have appeared in crossover media and alternate universes outside the Marvel Universe.
The Reed Richards of Earth - 616, in an attempt to "solve everything '', meets with a council of alternate universe Reeds. Three of them wear Infinity Gauntlets, which only work in concert with their respective universes.
During the "Incursion '' storyline, the Avengers travel to a parallel Earth where a pastiche on the Justice League have replaced this Earth 's Avengers who all died in a previous cataclysm. Here the Gems are all square planes which are assembled into the "Wishing Cube '', a composite of the concepts of the Infinity Gems and the Cosmic Cube.
After various alternate universes were combined into Battleworld, Doctor Strange gathered Infinity Gems from other universes into a new Infinity Gauntlet that he ensured would work in the area where Doom had built his palace, although he left it hidden until he had access to someone he could trust to use it; after his death, it was claimed by T'Challa, who used it against the Beyonder - enhanced Doom in the final battle, although T'Challa freely admitted once the battle was over that he never expected to be anything more than a distraction as Reed targeted Doom 's power source.
A separate section of ' Battleworld ' known as New Xandar has also a gauntlet fought over by multiple factions; until the majority of the stones, except the Reality Stone, were taken by Thanos. Thanos eventually is able to track the missing stone, but the stone had already been found by Anwen Bakian. When Thanos confronted her to get the aforementioned stone, Anwen suspiciously gave Thanos the stone without a fight. However the completed Infinity Gauntlet started acting odd, since Anwen had n't given Thanos the Reality Stone, instead she used the gem to create a rock which when used along with the remaining stones was capable of corrupting Thanos with some form of black matter and ultimately turned him to dust. Anwen named the stone the "Death Stone. ''
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, an Infinity Gauntlet is seen in Project Pegasus. The Mind Gem (stolen by Hydra) is used by Modi (Thor 's son) to control both Director Flumm and Cassie Lang, but are stopped by the Ultimates. The Power Gem is later revealed to be in the possession of former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sayuri Kyota, while a second Infinity Gauntlet is recovered from an A.I.M. base by Thor and Susan Storm. Kang the Conqueror later allies himself with the Hulk, Reed Richards and Quicksilver as part of a plan to steal the two Gauntlets, which results in the destruction of the Triskelion. Quicksilver recovers two additional Gems allowing the villains to teleport away. Richards is later able to recover another of the Gems, which is found lodged in Tony Stark 's brain. He informs Stark that the Infinity Gems are needed to save the world from a coming cataclysm that will destroy the entire universe. After brainwashing Johnny Storm and forcing him to travel to the Earth 's core, the Dark Ultimates are able to recover the final gem, but are defeated by the Ultimates. The gems then shatter, rendering the Gauntlets useless.
In a reality where Doctor Doom retained the power of the Beyonder, he acquired the Infinity Gems from the Elders of the Universe and used them to defeat the Celestials in a 407 - year - long war before finally forsaking his power.
In an alternate reality where the original Fantastic Four died, a new Fantastic Four -- consisting of Spider - Man, Hulk, Wolverine and Ghost Rider -- was formed. With Iron Man replacing Ghost Rider, they were the only heroes available to fight Thanos when he initially assembled the Infinity Gauntlet. Despite Iron Man 's use of Negative Zone -- enhanced Celestial armor, Thanos still easily defeated the team until Wolverine tricked Thanos into erasing Mephisto from existence before cutting off Thanos 's left arm, and therefore the Infinity Gauntlet. With Thanos powerless, Spider - Man used the gauntlet to undo the events of Thanos 's godhood.
In the Contest of Champions miniseries, an alternate version of Tony Stark uses the Reality Gem to win the superhero civil war and affect the outcome of a presidential election. When he tries to use the Gem on Battleworld, he is killed by the Maestro, who says the Gems do not work in any universe other than their own.
The Infinity Gauntlet has appeared in the television shows The Super Hero Squad Show and Avengers Assemble.
The Infinity Stones are significant in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, playing important roles in several films. Director James Gunn created the backstory for the Stones in the film Guardians of the Galaxy, where the Collector explains they are six singularities that existed before the Big Bang, that were compressed into the Stones after the universe began. In order of introduction, they are:
A right - handed gauntlet appears in the film Thor, where it is stored in Odin 's vault; this gauntlet was later revealed to be a fake in Thor: Ragnarok. In the mid-credits scene of Avengers: Age of Ultron, Thanos is seen wearing a left - handed gauntlet.
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what two offensive formations evolve in american football in the 1960s | List of formations in American football - wikipedia
The following is a list of common and historically significant formations in American football. In football, the formation describes how the players in a team are positioned on the field. Many variations are possible on both sides of the ball, depending on the strategy being employed. On offense, the formation must include at least seven players on the line of scrimmage and a center to start the play by snapping the ball. There are no restrictions on the arrangement of defensive players.
This list is not exhaustive; there are hundreds of different ways to organize a team 's players while still remaining within the "7 on the line 4 in the backfield '' convention. Still, this list of formations covers enough of the basics that almost every formation can be considered a variant of the ones listed below.
The T formation is the precursor to most modern formations in that it places the quarterback directly under center (in contrast to its main competitor of its day, the single wing, which had the quarterback receiving the ball on the fly).
It consists of three running backs lined up in a row about five yards behind the quarterback, forming the shape of a T. It may feature two tight ends (known as the Power T) or one tight end and a wide receiver (in this case known as a split end). When legendary coach George Halas ' Chicago Bears used the T - formation to defeat the Washington Redskins by a score of 73 -- 0 in the 1940 NFL championship game, it marked the end of the single wing at nearly all levels of play, as teams, over the course of the 1940s, moved to formations with the quarterback "under center '' like the T. George Halas is credited with perfecting the T formation.
One variation of the T Formation would be where all the running backs would be closer than usual, being at fullback depth rather than halfback depth. Another variation of the "balanced T '' formation is the so - called "unbalanced T '' formation. In this configuration the line of scrimmage has an end and tackle left of center, while to the right of the center are two guards a tackle and an end. This creates a line that is weighted toward the right of the center. With the backfield lining up in the conventional T formation behind the center (quarterback, two halfbacks and fullback), the resulting configuration is "unbalanced '' due the asymmetry of the placement of the linemen. The "split T '' spreads the offensive line out over almost twice as much ground compared to the conventional T formation. This causes the defensive line to also spread out, creating gaps the offense can exploit.
This is one of the most common formations used at all levels of football. It consists of two backs lined up behind the quarterback, with the back closest to the quarterback being called the fullback and the back behind the fullback called the running back, tailback, or I - back. The two backs line up either in a line (hence the name of the formation since it looks like a letter I) or with the fullback "offset '' to either side. The fourth back is most commonly employed as an extra wide receiver. Here are three diagrams of I - Formation, strong side right (that is, with the tight end lining up to the right, typical for a right - handed quarterback). Notice that the 4th back required by the rules is the set - back wide receiver at the right (called the flanker).
Two other I formation variations include the Maryland I and the Power I. These formations lack a flanker, and use the maximum 3 running backs rather than the standard 2. They are used primarily as running formations. These may employ either tight ends or split ends (wide receivers) or one of each. The Maryland I was developed by Maryland head coach Tom Nugent. More recently, Utah has utilized this formation with quarterback Brian Johnson.
Also known as the "ace '' or "singleback '' formation, the single set back formation consists of one running back lined up about five yards behind the quarterback. The basic singleback set does not employ a fullback. The other players that are not on the line of scrimmage can either act as tight ends or wide receivers. This formation is normally used for a pass play, but can also be good for running, as defenders must move at least one player out of the middle of the field (the "box '', between the tackles on the offensive line) to cover the additional wide receiver or tight end. Since an extra wide receiver is lined up in the space between the tackle or tight end and the outside wide receiver, he is called the slot receiver.
A variation of the ace is known as the spread formation. It utilizes four wide receivers and no tight ends. In the NFL, this formation was the basis of the run and shoot offense that was popular in the 1980s with teams such as the Detroit Lions and the Houston Oilers but has since fallen out of favor as a primary offensive philosophy.
It is often used as a pass formation, because of the extra wide receivers. It also makes an effective run formation, because it "spreads the field '' and forces the defense to respect the pass, thus taking players out of the box. Certain college programs, such as the University of Hawaii and Texas Tech still use it as their primary formation. Brigham Young University also uses the spread offense, although they tend to employ their tight ends more frequently than Hawaii and Texas Tech. Minnesota and TCU are also starting to employ the spread offense.
Joe Gibbs, twice head coach of the Washington Redskins, devised an ace variation that used a setback, or "flexed '' tight end known as an H - back. In this formation, the normal tight - end is almost exclusively a blocker, while the H - back is primarily a pass receiver. This formation is often referred to as a "two tight end '' set. Some teams (like the Indianapolis Colts under Tony Dungy) use this formation with both tight ends on the line and use two flankers. Many other teams in the NFL, even those that do not use this as a primary formation, still run some plays using a variant of this formation.
Also called the "split backs '' or "three - end formation '', this is similar to the I - formation and has the same variations. The difference is that the two backs are split behind the quarterback instead of being lined up behind him.
Clark Shaughnessy designed the formation from the T Formation in 1949 after acquiring halfback Elroy "Crazy Legs '' Hirsch. Shaughnessy thought he would make a great receiver but already had two great receivers in Tom Fears and Bob Shaw. Schaughnessy moved Hirsch to the flanker position behind the right end. Thus started what was known as the three - end formation.
This formation is most often associated with Bill Walsh 's San Francisco 49ers teams of the 1980s and his West Coast Offense. It was also the favored formation of the pass - happy BYU Cougars under the tenure of legendary coach LaVell Edwards. A modern example of the "pro-set '' can be seen in the Florida State University offense, which favors a Split Backs formation. The Seattle Seahawks under Mike Holmgren also favored this type of formation with the tight end usually being replaced with a third wide receiver.
This archaic formation was popular for most of the first 50 years of modern American football, but it is rare today, except as a novelty. There are many variations of the single wing with really the only common threads being that, first, rather than lining up "under center '', the quarterback (actually called a tailback back in the day) is lined up a few yards behind with RBs generally on one side of him. Second, one of the running backs is stationed outside the end, as a wingback (hence the alternate longer name, "single wingback formation ''). It contained two tight ends, and 4 backs. The quarterback in this formation (called at the time a "single - wing tailback ''), like today 's shotgun QB, received the snap on the fly. The other 3 backs lined up on the same side of the QB in various arrangements. Also, the formation often featured an unbalanced line where the center (that is, the player who snapped the ball) was not strictly in the center of the line, but close to the weakside. The formation was originally designed as a brute - force running formation, since it had 7 players to one side of the center and only 2 on the other.
The most famous variation on the single wing offense would be Knute Rockne 's "Notre Dame Box '' that he ran with the Four Horsemen. The Notre Dame Box differed from the traditional single - wing in that the line was balanced and the halfback who normally played the "wing '' in the single - wing was brought in more tightly, with the option of shifting out to the wing. These two changes made the backs ' formation resemble a square (hence the "box '') and made the formation less predictable, allowing offenses to run more easily to the "weak '' side. Rockne 's innovations with this formation involved using complicated backfield shifts and motion to confuse defenses, and adapting it as a passing formation. Teams would often adopt the Notre Dame Box if they lacked a true "triple threat '' tailback, necessary for effective single - wing use.
Another variation of the single wing was the A formation.
The single wing has recently had a renaissance of sorts with high schools; since it is so rare, its sheer novelty can make it successful.
The wildcat is primarily a running formation in which an athletic player (usually a running back or a receiver who runs well) takes the place of the team 's usual quarterback in a shotgun formation while the quarterback lines up wide as a flanker or is replaced by another player. The ball is snapped to the runner, who usually has the option of either running the ball himself or handing it to another running back lined up in the backfield. The wildcat gives the runner a good look at the defense before the snap, allowing him to choose the best running lane. It also allows for ten offensive players to block, unlike in a conventional running play, in which the quarterback is usually not involved after delivering the ball to a running back.
The wildcat formation is similar to run - oriented formations used during the early days of football, but it had not been seen in the NFL for many years until the Miami Dolphins employed it during the 2008 season with running backs Ricky Williams and Ronnie Brown. The formation was successful, so many NFL and college teams began to incorporate it into their playbooks, often giving it team - specific names such as the "Wildhog '' used by the Arkansas Razorbacks, among many other variations. Some attribute the modern origins of the "Wildcat '' to Bill Snyder 's Kansas State (whose sports teams are known as the "Wildcats '') offense of the late ' 90s and early 2000s, which featured a lot of zone read runs by the quarterback. Others attribute the origins to Hugh Wyatt, a Double Wing coach (See Double Wing discussion below).
Though the wildcat concept was successful for a time, its effectiveness decreased as defensive coordinators prepared their teams for the change of pace play. The player receiving the snap is usually not a good passer, so defenses can bring linebackers and defensive backs closer to the line of scrimmage to clog potential running lanes. As such, its use has declined since 2009, particularly in the NFL.
The double wing, as a formation, is widely acknowledged to have been invented by Glenn "Pop '' Warner in 1912. It then was an important formation up to the T formation era. For example, Dutch Meyer at TCU, with quarterback Sammy Baugh, won a college national championship in 1935 with a largely double wing offense.
As a modern offensive system it is widely regarded as the invention of Don Markham, which revolved around the off - tackle power play, power sweep and trap. Markham ran very few plays, but blocked them according to defensive fronts and tendencies. A noticeable difference from the other teams lined up in the double - wing formation was the lack of line splits across the front. The Double Wing is combination of the I, which Markham initially ran the offense from in his earlier days, and the Wing - T 30 Series (Power Series). It is often referred to as the "bastard child of the I and the Wing - T ''. Breaking numerous state records everywhere Markham coached (and even setting the national high school scoring record) the "Markham Rule '' was put into place to keep his team from winning by too many points. He is currently the offensive coordinator at Hillcrest High School in the state of Idaho.
With Markham 's success came many converts to his offense and many variations of the offense over the years. Perhaps the most well - known of Markham 's converts is Hugh Wyatt, who brought more Wing - T to the offense and a greater ability to market the offense. Jerry Valloton also marketed the offense well when he wrote the first book on the offense. Since that time, Tim Murphy, Steve Calande, Jack Greggory, Robert McAdams, and several other coaches have further developed the offense and coaching materials thereof. Their materials may be seen on their respective websites.
The Double Wing is widely used at the youth level, becoming more popular at the high school level and has been used at the college level by Don Markham at American Sports University.
The short punt is an older formation popular when scoring was harder and a good punt was an offensive weapon. In times when punting on second and third down was fairly common, teams would line up in the short punt formation and offer the dual threat of punt or pass. Harper 's Weekly in 1915 calls it "the most valuable formation known to football. ''
The formation differs in two significant ways from the single wing. It is generally a balanced formation, and there are backs on both sides of the tailback, offering better pass protection. As a result, it was considered a much better passing formation than running, as the premiere running formation was the single wing. That said, it was regarded as a good formation for trap plays.
The formation was used extensively by Fielding Yost 's Michigan Wolverines in their early history, and was the base formation for the Benny Friedman led New York Giants in 1931. In the 1956 NFL Championship, the Chicago Bears shifted into a short punt formation in the third quarter, after falling way behind.
The modern descendant of the Single Wing. The quarterback lines up about five yards behind the center, in order to allow a better view of the defense and more time to get a pass off. The shotgun can distribute its 3 other backs and 2 ends any number of ways, but most commonly employs one running back, lined up next to the QB, one tight end and three wide receivers. This formation is most commonly used for passing, but the quarterback can also hand off to a running back or run himself. Many college teams use variations of the shotgun as their primary formation, as do a few professional teams, such as the New England Patriots and Indianapolis Colts. Because it is generally more difficult to establish a rushing attack using only the shotgun, most NFL teams save the shotgun for obvious passing situations such as 3rd and long or when they are losing and must try to score quickly.
The Shotgun 's invention is credited to Red Hickey, coach of the San Francisco 49ers in 1960. Historically, it was used to great success as a primary formation in the NFL by the Tom Landry - led Dallas Cowboys teams of the 1970s and the 1990s Buffalo Bills teams under Marv Levy, who used a variation known as the K - gun that relied on quarterback Jim Kelly. The shotgun offense became a staple of many college football offenses beginning in the 1990s.
This offense was originated with Chris Ault at the University of Nevada, Reno. It is essentially a shotgun variation, with the quarterback lined up closer than in standard shotgun (normally 3 to 4 yards behind center), and a running back lined up behind, rather than next to, the QB (normally at 3 to 4 yards behind quarterback).
The Pistol formation adds the dimension of a running game with the halfback being in a singleback position. This has disrupted the timing of some defenses with the way the quarterback hands the ball off to the halfback. This also allows the smaller halfbacks to hide behind the offensive line, causing opposing linebackers and pass - rushing defensive linemen to play more conservatively. The Pistol can also feature the option play. With this offense, the quarterback has the ability to get a better look past the offensive line and at the defense. Pistol formations have gained some popularity in NCAA football, and in fact, variants of this offense were used by the 2007 and 2009 BCS National Champions, LSU and Alabama, respectively.
In 2008, Kansas City Chiefs offensive coordinator Chan Gailey began using the Pistol prominently in their offense, and are the first NFL team to do so. He brought the philosophy with him to the Buffalo Bills in 2010. The San Francisco 49ers added the Pistol to their offense in 2012 after former Nevada quarterback Colin Kaepernick became the team 's starter.
Os Doenges of Oklahoma City University is credited with inventing the offensive V formation, nicknamed "Three dots and a dash '' (Morse code for the letter "v ''). His Oklahoma City program presented the new offensive formation to great fanfare before losing to the Southwestern Moundbuilders by a score of 7 -- 0.
The wishbone is a 1960s variation of the T - formation. It consists of three running backs: a fullback lined up directly behind the quarterback, and the two halfbacks split behind the fullback. It can be run with two tight ends, one tight end and one wide receiver, or two wide receivers. Most offensive systems that employ the wishbone use it as their primary formation, and most run the ball much more often than they pass. The wishbone is a common formation for the triple option offense in which the quarterback decides after the snap whether to hand the ball to the fullback for a run up the middle, pitch the ball to a running back on the outside, or keep the ball and run it himself.
The wishbone was developed in the 1960s by Emory Bellard, offensive coordinator at the University of Texas under head coach Darrell Royal. The offense was an immediate success, and Texas won the national championship in 1969 running a wishbone / option system. It was subsequently adopted by many other college programs in the 1970s, including Alabama and Oklahoma, who also won national titles with variations of the offense. However, as with any hugely successful formation or philosophy, as teams learned how to defend against it, it became much less successful.
Today, the wishbone / option offense is still used by some high school and smaller college teams, but it is much less common in major college football, where teams tend to employ more pass - oriented attacks. The United States Air Force Academy (aka Air Force), the United States Naval Academy (Navy) and Georgia Tech are among the few NCAA FBS teams that commonly use the wishbone and its variations. Ironically, because it is now rare in the college game, its effectiveness has increased, as defenses are no longer accustomed to defending against it.
The wishbone has very rarely been used in professional football, as it was developed after passing quarterbacks became the norm. NFL quarterbacks are not necessarily good runners, and are in any case too valuable to the offense to risk injury by regularly running with the football. During the strike season of 1987, the San Francisco 49ers used the wishbone successfully against the New York Giants to win 41 - 21. Coach Bill Walsh used the wishbone because of his replacement quarterback 's familiarity with a similar formation in college.
The flexbone formation is a variation of the wishbone formation. In this formation, one back (the fullback) lines up behind the quarterback. Both ends are often split wide as wide receivers, though some variations include one or two tight ends. The two remaining backs, called wingbacks or slotbacks, line up behind the line of scrimmage just outside the tackles. Usually, one of the wingbacks will go in motion behind the quarterback before the snap, potentially giving him another option to pitch to.
Like the wishbone, the flexbone formation is commonly used to run the triple option. However, the flexbone is considered more "flex '' - ible than the wishbone because, since the wingbacks line up on the line of scrimmage, more run / pass options and variations are possible.
A formation similar to the Flexbone, though much older, is known as the "Delaware Wing - T '' was created by longtime University of Delaware coach and NCAA Rules Committee chairman David M. Nelson, and perfected by his successor Tubby Raymond. It has become a very popular offense with high schools and small colleges. It was designed at the time to be a mix between the single wing and T - formation. It took the motion and run - strength of the single wing, and the QB - under - center from the T. In this variation, there is only one wing back, with the other back lined up next to the fullback on the opposite side from the wing back. However, the Wing Back may also line up diagonally from the Tight End. He may be used as an extra blocker or a receiver. He may come in motion for running plays.
The Wing T has its roots in what Otto D. Unruh called the "T - Wing '' formation and is known to have called the play as early as 1938 with the Bethel Threshers.
Also known simply as "Five - wide '', a reference to the five wide receivers. In the empty backfield formation, all of the backs play near the line of scrimmage to act as extra wide receivers or tight ends. This is almost exclusively a passing formation used to spread the field, often to open up short inside routes or screen routes. It can also be run with one or two wing backs like the flexbone formation allowing a running game and the ability to run the option. The quarterback can line up either under center or in the shotgun. This formation is becoming more popular in the NFL and college football, with recent successes at Texas Tech University and by the New England Patriots in their record - setting 2007 season.
Also called "jumbo '', "heavy '', "full house '' and other similar names. As the name implies, this formation is used exclusively in short - yardage situations, and especially near the goal line. This formation typically has no wide receivers, and often employs 3 tight ends and 2 running backs, or alternately 2 tight ends and 3 running backs. Often, a tight end or full back position is occupied by a player who normally plays offensive line or defensive line positions to act as extra blockers. The Chicago Bears of the mid-1980s famously used defensive tackle William "The Refrigerator '' Perry as a full back in this formation. In most cases, it is exclusively a running formation, designed to score by brute force. Some teams have successfully used this formation to pass out of, most famously the New England Patriots, who have used linebacker Mike Vrabel as a tight end to catch touchdown passes in both Super Bowl XXXVIII and Super Bowl XXXIX
A special offensive formation is used at the end of a game, when a team has a lead and simply needs to run out the clock to win the game. The "kneel '' or "victory '' formation was developed in the 1978 NFL season after The Miracle at the Meadowlands, a botched final play in a game between the New York Giants and the Philadelphia Eagles that resulted in a fumble and a pivotal last - second score. This formation is intended for one purpose: to allow the quarterback to safely down the ball without losing control, preventing the defense from recovering and advancing the ball to the end zone. The formation features several stop - gaps in the event the quarterback does lose the ball: a seven - man line, the quarterback, two upbacks (running backs) immediately behind him, one at each side in the event he fumbles, and a fast player (usually a wide receiver or cornerback) several yards back as a last resort in case the defense recovers and is able to advance the ball.
Both the Giants and Eagles developed similar formations of this design. The Eagles named their version the "Herman Edwards '' play after their cornerback who scored the winning touchdown on the above fateful play.
The Emory and Henry formation is an unusual American football formation that dates to the 1950s, where Emory & Henry College 's football team used it. Instead of grouping all five ineligible players together, the Emory and Henry groups them, along with the two ends and two slotbacks, in three three - person groups: the center and the guards in the middle of the field, and an end, a tackle and a slotback near each sideline. In general, the formation is rare due to its inherent limitations: the tackles can not receive forward passes or advance downfield despite their positioning (they can, however, receive lateral passes and participate in end - around plays), and it puts the tackles out of ideal blocking position, subjecting the quarterback to the defense 's pass rush and effectively rendering the tackles of little use. The formation can also be combined with other formations that feature a single running back and a quarterback in the backfield.
The formation has seen limited usage in recent years, mainly as a trick play that attempts to confuse the defense and get the ball to a receiver on the outside before the defenders can properly line up. It has been used most often by former Florida and South Carolina coach Steve Spurrier, who coined the commonly used name for the formation when he mentioned that he 'd once seen Emory and Henry College run it. The New England Patriots used a variation of the Emory & Henry, placing a (legally declared) eligible - numbered receiver in the ineligible tackle position (similar to the A-11); the confusion this caused prompted the league to impose a rule change prohibiting that twist beginning in 2015.
A tackle - spread formation was included in the video game Madden NFL 18 under the name "Gun Monster; '' it proved to be a problem for the game 's artificial intelligence, which could not discern eligible receivers from ineligible ones.
The A-11 offense combines the Emory and Henry with the wildcat, in that either of the two backs in the backfield can receive the snap and act as quarterback. In its earliest, now illegal, incarnation, it also used a loophole in the high school rulebook that allowed players wearing any uniform number to play at either an ineligible or eligible position, further increasing defensive confusion and allowing for more flexibility among players changing positions between plays.
There are no rules regarding the formation of defensive players or their movement before the snap of the ball, so the deployment and tactics of defensive players are bound only by the imagination of the play designer and the line of scrimmage. Below are some of the most popular defensive formation through the history of football.
This base defense consists of four defensive linemen, three linebackers, and four defensive backs (two safeties, two corners). Against two - receiver offensive sets, this formation is effective against the run and the pass. In the original 4 -- 3, defensive tackles would line up opposite the offensive guards, and defensive ends on the outside shoulders of the offensive tackles. On passing downs, the Mike (middle linebacker) is often responsible to cover any running backs, the Sam (strong - side linebacker) covers the Tight End, and the Will (weak - side linebacker) either covers a back or blitzes in an attempt to sack the quarterback. Though first used as a base defense by the New York Giants in 1956, plenty of teams experimented with it during the 1950s, and thus there are multiple claimed inventors of this defense. There are several different variations of the 4 -- 3 defense such as the 4 - 3 under defense, 4 - 3 over defense, 4 - 3 umbrella defense, 4 - 3 swim defense, and 4 - 3 slide defense.
To counter Brown 's attack, Owen installed a 6 - 1 - 4 defense, with his ends, Jim Duncan and Ray Poole, "flexing, '' or dropping back as linebackers. It was the forerunner of the modern 4 - 3
The original 6 - 1 was invented by Steve Owen in 1950 as a counter to the powerful passing attack of Paul Brown 's Cleveland Browns. It was called the "Umbrella '' defense because of the four defensive backs, whose crescent alignment resembled an opened umbrella, and the tactic of allowing the defensive ends to fall back into pass coverage, converting the defense, in Owen 's language, from a 6 - 1 - 4 into a 4 - 1 - 6. If offenses grew wise to the drop back, the ends could pass rush instead. Using this new defense, the Giants defeated the Browns twice in 1950 during the regular season.
Paul Brown was such a meticulous coach that if you gave him something he 'd never seen before, he became flustered.
It saw use during the 1950s in Owen 's hands, but never became a significant base defense. It was functionally replaced by the more versatile 4 - 3.
This is the base defense of some teams. It consists of three defensive linemen, four linebackers, and four defensive backs (two safeties, two corners). The advantage is that while 4 players still usually rush the line, the quarterback can be less sure of which of the 4 linebackers will join the 3 linemen. This formation sacrifices some size (of linemen) for speed (of linebackers), but coaches choosing to utilize this formation as their base defense typically choose larger players in the front 7 to make up for the shortage of size. In this formation, the single tackle usually lines up directly over the "nose '' of the ball, and is often called the "nose guard '' or "nose tackle ''. In this formation, the linemen often line up directly in front of the offensive line, while the linebackers "shoot the gaps ''. There is also a variation of this defense called the 3 - 4 under defense. This defense is a one gap version of the 3 -- 4 defense.
In this variation of the 3 -- 4, known also as the "3 -- 4 eagle '', the nose guard is removed from play and in his place is an extra linebacker, who lines up on the line where the nose guard would be, sometimes slightly behind where the nose guard would be. It allows defenses more flexibility in man to man coverages and zone blitzes. It was created by Los Angeles Rams defensive coordinator Fritz Shurmur, and evolved from Buddy Ryan 's 46 defense. Shurmur created the defense in part to take advantage of the pass rush abilities of Kevin Greene, a defensive end sized linebacker. The "eagle '' in the formation 's name comes from the late 1940s - early 1950s Philadelphia Eagles coached by Greasy Neale.
The original Eagle defense was a 5 -- 2 arrangement, with five defensive linemen and two linebackers. In Neale 's defense, as in Shurmur 's variation, the nose tackle could also drop into pass coverage, thus Shurmur 's use of the Eagle defense name.
The 4 -- 4 defense consists of four defensive linemen, four linebackers, and three defensive backs (one safety, two corners). It puts "eight men in the box '' to stop the run, but it sacrifices deep coverage against the pass, especially if the opponent 's receivers are better athletes than the cornerbacks. The formation is popular in high school football as well as smaller collegiate teams. If the opposite team is a good passing team, outside linebackers are usually called on to defend slotbacks.
Defense is based on two standard formations, the 6 - 2 - 3, and the 5 - 3 - 3. All else is "variations. ''
The 5 - 3 defense consists of five defensive linemen, three linebackers, and three defensive backs (one safety, two corners). It appeared in the early thirties as a response to the improving passing offenses of the time, particularly the T formation. It grew in importance as the 1940s progressed, as it was more effective versus the T than the other standard defense of the time, the 6 - 2. By 1950, five man lines were standard in the NFL, either the 5 - 3 or the 5 - 2 Eagle. As late as the early 1950s, the Cleveland Browns were using a 5 - 3 as their base defense.
The 6 - 2 defense consists of six defensive linemen, two linebackers, and three defensive backs (one safety, two corners). This was the primary defense in football, at all levels, during the single wing era (the 1930s), combining enough passing defense to handle the passing attacks of the day along with the ability to handle the power running games of the times. As the T formation grew popular in the 1940s, this formation was replaced in the NFL with the 5 - 3 and the 5 - 2 defenses.
In colleges, this defensive front has remained viable for a much longer period of time, because colleges, historically, have run a lot more than the NFL. Three common six man fronts seen in this more modern era are the tight six (linebackers over offensive ends, four linemen between linebackers), the wide tackle 6 (linebackers over offensive tackles, two linemen between linebackers) and the split 6 (linebackers over guard - center gap, all linemen outside linebackers).
38 refers to the positions of the defensive players on the line of scrimmage. Two "3 '' techniques (DT, lined up outside of the guards) and two "8 '' techniques (DE, lined up outside of end man on line of scrimmage). The DT 's are the only down lineman. Two standup players (Monster and Rover) are in "5 '' techniques. Two Linebackers are 3 yards off the ball behind the DT 's. A combination of the 4 -- 4, 6 -- 2, and the 46, it is designed to stop the run and to confuse offenses. 3 players in the secondary all cover deep thirds. The confusing element is either the "5 '' techniques or the "8 '' techniques can rush or drop into the flats. The LB 's have hook zones. Each player on the line has a two gap responsibility.
This formation was invented by Buddy Ryan, defensive coordinator of the Chicago Bears during the 1980s. Instead of having four linemen and six linebackers (as the name may suggest), it is actually a 4 -- 4 set using 4 -- 3 personnel. This was accomplished by moving a safety up into the "box '' instead of a fourth linebacker. The ' 46 ' refers not to any lineman / linebacker orientation but was the jersey number of hard hitting strong safety Doug Plank, the player Buddy Ryan first used in this role at Chicago. The other feature of the 46 was the placement of both "outside '' linebackers on the same side of the formation, with the defensive line shifted the opposite way with the weak defensive end about 1 to 2 yards outside the weak offensive tackle. This defense was the philosophical equivalent of the "Notre Dame Box '' offense devised by Knute Rockne in the 1930s, in that it used an unbalanced field and complex pre-snap motion to confuse the opposing offense. Chicago rode this defense into a 15 -- 1 season in 1985, culminating in a 46 -- 10 win over New England in Super Bowl XX.
The 5 -- 2 defense consists of five defensive linemen, two linebackers, and four defensive backs (two corners, two safeties). Historically, this was the first major defense with 4 defensive backs, and was used to combat the passing attacks of the time. A later evolution of the original 5 - 2 is the Oklahoma 5 - 2, which ultimately became the professional 3 - 4 when the defensive ends of the original 5 - 2 were substituted over time for the outside linebackers of the 3 - 4. The differences between the Oklahoma 5 - 2 and the 3 - 4 are largely semantics.
Seven - man line defenses use seven down linemen on the line of scrimmage. The most common seven - man line defenses were the 7 - 2 - 2 defense and the 7 - 1 - 2 - 1 defense. They were most common before the forward pass became prevalent, but were still common prior to the inception of the platoon system. They are still sometimes used in goal - line situations.
While the original Nickel defense utilized 5 defensive backs in conjunction with a 4 - man rush, and but 2 linebackers, modern definition calls any formation that utilizes 5 defensive backs (from nickel = 5 cent piece) a Nickel defense. The Nickel defense originated as an innovation of Philadelphia Eagles defensive coach Jerry Williams in 1960 as a measure to defend star tight end Mike Ditka of the Chicago Bears. The Nickel coverage scheme is often used when the offense is using an additional wide receiver as it matches an extra cornerback against the extra receiver. The extra corner is often called a nickelback. Some variations use an extra strong safety instead of an extra cornerback. Strong safeties are often the more physical of the safeties, often resembling linebackers, so a Nickel with the extra safety can be more effective against the run than one with an extra corner. The Nickel formation comes in several varieties:
There are a couple paths to the 4 - 2 - 5. One is by removing a linebacker from the standard 4 -- 3 to add the extra defensive back. The second is by converting the ends of a wide tackle six to safeties (the defensive ends of a wide tackle six already have pass defense responsibilities). A variation is the 2 -- 4 -- 5, which is primarily run by teams that run the 3 -- 4 defense. They replace a defensive tackle with a corner.
The 3 -- 3 -- 5 removes a lineman to the nickelback.
The 33 stack uses an extra strong safety, and "stacks '' linebackers and safeties directly behind the defensive linemen.
The 3 -- 5 -- 3 refers to a defense that has three down linemen (the "3 '' level), three linebackers and two corners (the "5 '' level), one free safety and 2 strong safeties (the "3 '' level). This is similar to a 33 stack, but with players more spread. Also called the "umbrella '' defense or "3 - deep ''. In this set, the third safety would be referred to as a "weak safety '' (WS) and allows two position safeties at the mid-level with a third safety deep. It is because of this that the secondary safety in a football defense is called a free safety rather than a weak safety
Any defense consisting of six defensive backs. The sixth defensive back is known as the dimeback and this defense is also used in passing situations (particularly when the offense is using four wide receivers). As the extra defensive back in the nickel formation is called the nickel, two nickels gives you a dime, hence the name of the formation.
Defense consisting of seven (quarter) or eight (half dollar) defensive backs. The seventh defensive back is often an extra safety, and this defense is used in extreme passing situations (such as to defend against a Hail Mary pass). It is occasionally referred to as the prevent defense because of its use in preventing desperation plays. The cornerbacks and safeties in a prevent defense usually make a point of defending the goal line at the expense of receivers in the middle of the field.
The quarter formations are run from a 3 -- 1 -- 7 or a 4 -- 0 -- 7 in most instances; the New England Patriots have used an 0 -- 4 -- 7 in some instances with no down linemen. Half dollar defenses are almost always run from a 3 -- 0 -- 8 formation. The eighth defensive back in this case is usually a wide receiver from the offense. The wide receiver can capitalize on interception opportunities in the expected high - risk offensive play.
Unlike other formations, the extra safety is not referred to as a quarterback or halfback (except in Canadian football), to avoid confusion with the offensive positions of the same names, but rather simply as a defensive back or a safety.
Formations with many defensive backs positioned far from the line of scrimmage are susceptible to running plays and short passes. However, since the defense is typically used only in the last few seconds of a game when the defensive team need only keep the offense from scoring a touchdown, giving up a few yards in the middle of the field is inconsequential.
More extreme defensive formations have been used when a coach feels that his team is at a particular disadvantage due to the opponent 's offensive tactics or poor personnel match - ups.
For example, in 2007, New York Jets head coach Eric Mangini employed a scheme against Tom Brady and the New England Patriots that utilized only 1 defensive lineman and 6 linebackers. Prior to the snap, only the lone lineman assumed a three - point stance near the offensive center while the 6 linebackers "roved '' up and down the line of scrimmage, attempting to confuse the quarterback as to whether they would rush the passer, drop into coverage, or play the run. This defense (combined with poor weather conditions) did slow the Patriot 's passing game, but proved ineffective against the run, and the Patriots won the game.
Punting formations use a five - man offensive line, three "upbacks '' (sometimes also referred to as "personal protectors '') approximately 3 yards behind the line to act as an additional line of defense, two wide receivers known as "gunners '' either to stop the punt returner or to down the ball, and the punter, 15 yards behind the line of scrimmage to receive the long snap. (If the punting team is deep in its own territory, the 15 - yard distance would have to be shortened by up to 5 yards to keep the punter in front of the end line.) The number of upbacks and gunners can vary, and either position can be replaced by a tight end in a "max protect '' situation.
Most field goals feature nine offensive linemen (seven on the line, both ends in the tight end position, with two extra slightly off the line of scrimmage), a place holder who kneels 7 yards behind the line of scrimmage, and a kicker.
Kickoff formations are usually in a straight line, with ten players (nine if a placeholder is used on the kickoff) lined up across the field several yards behind the ball. Many leagues require that at least four players be on each side of the kicker at the time of a kick; prior to this, an onside kick formation often had all ten of the other players on one side of the kicker. In 2011, the NFL instituted a rule requiring players other than the kicker to line up no more than 5 yards from the ball before the kick. The latter rule was instituted to prevent players from generating the speed expected from a 15 - yard runup before the kick, thus potentially reducing the speed and impact of collisions down the field.
Kick return formations vary; in most situations, an association football - like formation is used, with eleven players staggered throughout the field including two (rarely, one) kick returners back to field deep kicks, two more twenty yards ahead of them to field squib kicks, two more at about midfield mainly to assist in blocking, and five players located the minimum ten yards from the kicking line. In obvious onside kick formations, more players are moved to the front of the formation, usually top wide receivers and other players who are good at recovering and catching loose balls; this formation is known as the "hands team ''. A kick returner will usually remain back in the event of an unexpected deep kick in this situation.
To defend punts, the defensive line usually uses a man - on - man system with seven defensive linemen, two cornerbacks, a linebacker and a kick returner. They may choose to attempt to block the punt, or drop back to block for the receiver.
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describe the spot welding process using a gmaw welder | Gas metal arc welding - wikipedia
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a welding process in which an electric arc forms between a consumable wire electrode and the workpiece metal (s), which heats the workpiece metal (s), causing them to melt and join.
Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding gun, which shields the process from contaminants in the air. The process can be semi-automatic or automatic. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be used. There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called globular, short - circuiting, spray, and pulsed - spray, each of which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations.
Originally developed for welding aluminium and other non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon applied to steels because it provided faster welding time compared to other welding processes. The cost of inert gas limited its use in steels until several years later, when the use of semi-inert gases such as carbon dioxide became common. Further developments during the 1950s and 1960s gave the process more versatility and as a result, it became a highly used industrial process. Today, GMAW is the most common industrial welding process, preferred for its versatility, speed and the relative ease of adapting the process to robotic automation. Unlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas, such as shielded metal arc welding, it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of moving air. A related process, flux cored arc welding, often does not use a shielding gas, but instead employs an electrode wire that is hollow and filled with flux.
The principles of gas metal arc welding began to be understood in the early 19th century, after Humphry Davy discovered the short pulsed electric arcs in 1800. Vasily Petrov independently produced the continuous electric arc in 1802 (followed by Davy after 1808). It was not until the 1880s that the technology became developed with the aim of industrial usage. At first, carbon electrodes were used in carbon arc welding. By 1890, metal electrodes had been invented by Nikolay Slavyanov and C.L. Coffin. In 1920, an early predecessor of GMAW was invented by P.O. Nobel of General Electric. It used a bare electrode wire and direct current, and used arc voltage to regulate the feed rate. It did not use a shielding gas to protect the weld, as developments in welding atmospheres did not take place until later that decade. In 1926 another forerunner of GMAW was released, but it was not suitable for practical use.
In 1948, GMAW was developed by the Battelle Memorial Institute. It used a smaller diameter electrode and a constant voltage power source developed by H.E. Kennedy. It offered a high deposition rate, but the high cost of inert gases limited its use to non-ferrous materials and prevented cost savings. In 1953, the use of carbon dioxide as a welding atmosphere was developed, and it quickly gained popularity in GMAW, since it made welding steel more economical. In 1958 and 1959, the short - arc variation of GMAW was released, which increased welding versatility and made the welding of thin materials possible while relying on smaller electrode wires and more advanced power supplies. It quickly became the most popular GMAW variation.
The spray - arc transfer variation was developed in the early 1960s, when experimenters added small amounts of oxygen to inert gases. More recently, pulsed current has been applied, giving rise to a new method called the pulsed spray - arc variation.
GMAW is one of the most popular welding methods, especially in industrial environments. It is used extensively by the sheet metal industry and, by extension, the automobile industry. There, the method is often used for arc spot welding, thereby replacing riveting or resistance spot welding. It is also popular for automated welding, in which robots handle the workpieces and the welding gun to speed up the manufacturing process. GMAW can be difficult to perform well outdoors, since drafts can dissipate the shielding gas and allow contaminants into the weld; flux cored arc welding is better suited for outdoor use such as in construction. Likewise, GMAW 's use of a shielding gas does not lend itself to underwater welding, which is more commonly performed via shielded metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, or gas tungsten arc welding.
To perform gas metal arc welding, the basic necessary equipment is a welding gun, a wire feed unit, a welding power supply, a welding electrode wire, and a shielding gas supply.
The typical GMAW welding gun has a number of key parts -- a control switch, a contact tip, a power cable, a gas nozzle, an electrode conduit and liner, and a gas hose. The control switch, or trigger, when pressed by the operator, initiates the wire feed, electric power, and the shielding gas flow, causing an electric arc to be struck. The contact tip, normally made of copper and sometimes chemically treated to reduce spatter, is connected to the welding power source through the power cable and transmits the electrical energy to the electrode while directing it to the weld area. It must be firmly secured and properly sized, since it must allow the electrode to pass while maintaining electrical contact. On the way to the contact tip, the wire is protected and guided by the electrode conduit and liner, which help prevent buckling and maintain an uninterrupted wire feed. The gas nozzle directs the shielding gas evenly into the welding zone. Inconsistent flow may not adequately protect the weld area. Larger nozzles provide greater shielding gas flow, which is useful for high current welding operations that develop a larger molten weld pool. A gas hose from the tanks of shielding gas supplies the gas to the nozzle. Sometimes, a water hose is also built into the welding gun, cooling the gun in high heat operations.
The wire feed unit supplies the electrode to the work, driving it through the conduit and on to the contact tip. Most models provide the wire at a constant feed rate, but more advanced machines can vary the feed rate in response to the arc length and voltage. Some wire feeders can reach feed rates as high as 30.5 m / min (1200 in / min), but feed rates for semiautomatic GMAW typically range from 2 to 10 m / min (75 -- 400 in / min).
The most common electrode holder is a semiautomatic air - cooled holder. Compressed air circulates through it to maintain moderate temperatures. It is used with lower current levels for welding lap or butt joints. The second most common type of electrode holder is semiautomatic water - cooled, where the only difference is that water takes the place of air. It uses higher current levels for welding T or corner joints. The third typical holder type is a water cooled automatic electrode holder -- which is typically used with automated equipment.
Most applications of gas metal arc welding use a constant voltage power supply. As a result, any change in arc length (which is directly related to voltage) results in a large change in heat input and current. A shorter arc length causes a much greater heat input, which makes the wire electrode melt more quickly and thereby restore the original arc length. This helps operators keep the arc length consistent even when manually welding with hand - held welding guns. To achieve a similar effect, sometimes a constant current power source is used in combination with an arc voltage - controlled wire feed unit. In this case, a change in arc length makes the wire feed rate adjust to maintain a relatively constant arc length. In rare circumstances, a constant current power source and a constant wire feed rate unit might be coupled, especially for the welding of metals with high thermal conductivities, such as aluminum. This grants the operator additional control over the heat input into the weld, but requires significant skill to perform successfully.
Alternating current is rarely used with GMAW; instead, direct current is employed and the electrode is generally positively charged. Since the anode tends to have a greater heat concentration, this results in faster melting of the feed wire, which increases weld penetration and welding speed. The polarity can be reversed only when special emissive - coated electrode wires are used, but since these are not popular, a negatively charged electrode is rarely employed.
Electrode selection is based primarily on the composition of the metal being welded, the process variation being used, joint design and the material surface conditions. Electrode selection greatly influences the mechanical properties of the weld and is a key factor of weld quality. In general the finished weld metal should have mechanical properties similar to those of the base material with no defects such as discontinuities, entrained contaminants or porosity within the weld. To achieve these goals a wide variety of electrodes exist. All commercially available electrodes contain deoxidizing metals such as silicon, manganese, titanium and aluminum in small percentages to help prevent oxygen porosity. Some contain denitriding metals such as titanium and zirconium to avoid nitrogen porosity. Depending on the process variation and base material being welded the diameters of the electrodes used in GMAW typically range from 0.7 to 2.4 mm (0.028 -- 0.095 in) but can be as large as 4 mm (0.16 in). The smallest electrodes, generally up to 1.14 mm (0.045 in) are associated with the short - circuiting metal transfer process, while the most common spray - transfer process mode electrodes are usually at least 0.9 mm (0.035 in).
Shielding gases are necessary for gas metal arc welding to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, which can cause fusion defects, porosity, and weld metal embrittlement if they come in contact with the electrode, the arc, or the welding metal. This problem is common to all arc welding processes; for example, in the older Shielded - Metal Arc Welding process (SMAW), the electrode is coated with a solid flux which evolves a protective cloud of carbon dioxide when melted by the arc. In GMAW, however, the electrode wire does not have a flux coating, and a separate shielding gas is employed to protect the weld. This eliminates slag, the hard residue from the flux that builds up after welding and must be chipped off to reveal the completed weld.
The choice of a shielding gas depends on several factors, most importantly the type of material being welded and the process variation being used. Pure inert gases such as argon and helium are only used for nonferrous welding; with steel they do not provide adequate weld penetration (argon) or cause an erratic arc and encourage spatter (with helium). Pure carbon dioxide, on the other hand, allows for deep penetration welds but encourages oxide formation, which adversely affects the mechanical properties of the weld. lts low cost makes it an attractive choice, but because of the reactivity of the arc plasma, spatter is unavoidable and welding thin materials is difficult. As a result, argon and carbon dioxide are frequently mixed in a 75 % / 25 % to 90 % / 10 % mixture. Generally, in short circuit GMAW, higher carbon dioxide content increases the weld heat and energy when all other weld parameters (volts, current, electrode type and diameter) are held the same. As the carbon dioxide content increases over 20 %, spray transfer GMAW becomes increasingly problematic, especially with smaller electrode diameters.
Argon is also commonly mixed with other gases, oxygen, helium, hydrogen and nitrogen. The addition of up to 5 % oxygen (like the higher concentrations of carbon dioxide mentioned above) can be helpful in welding stainless steel, however, in most applications carbon dioxide is preferred. Increased oxygen makes the shielding gas oxidize the electrode, which can lead to porosity in the deposit if the electrode does not contain sufficient deoxidizers. Excessive oxygen, especially when used in application for which it is not prescribed, can lead to brittleness in the heat affected zone. Argon - helium mixtures are extremely inert, and can be used on nonferrous materials. A helium concentration of 50 -- 75 % raises the required voltage and increases the heat in the arc, due to helium 's higher ionization temperature. Hydrogen is sometimes added to argon in small concentrations (up to about 5 %) for welding nickel and thick stainless steel workpieces. In higher concentrations (up to 25 % hydrogen), it may be used for welding conductive materials such as copper. However, it should not be used on steel, aluminum or magnesium because it can cause porosity and hydrogen embrittlement.
Shielding gas mixtures of three or more gases are also available. Mixtures of argon, carbon dioxide and oxygen are marketed for welding steels. Other mixtures add a small amount of helium to argon - oxygen combinations, these mixtures are claimed to allow higher arc voltages and welding speed. Helium also sometimes serves as the base gas, with small amounts of argon and carbon dioxide added. However, because it is less dense than air, helium is less effective at shielding the weld than argon -- which is denser than air. It also can lead to arc stability and penetration issues, and increased spatter, due to its much more energetic arc plasma. Helium is also substantially more expensive than other shielding gases. Other specialized and often proprietary gas mixtures claim even greater benefits for specific applications.
The desirable rate of shielding - gas flow depends primarily on weld geometry, speed, current, the type of gas, and the metal transfer mode. Welding flat surfaces requires higher flow than welding grooved materials, since gas disperses more quickly. Faster welding speeds, in general, mean that more gas must be supplied to provide adequate coverage. Additionally, higher current requires greater flow, and generally, more helium is required to provide adequate coverage than if argon is used. Perhaps most importantly, the four primary variations of GMAW have differing shielding gas flow requirements -- for the small weld pools of the short circuiting and pulsed spray modes, about 10 L / min (20 ft3 / h) is generally suitable, whereas for globular transfer, around 15 L / min (30 ft3 / h) is preferred. The spray transfer variation normally requires more shielding - gas flow because of its higher heat input and thus larger weld pool. Typical gas - flow amounts are approximately 20 -- 25 L / min (40 -- 50 ft3 / h).
Flux - cored, self - shielding or gasless wire - fed welding had been developed for simplicity and portability. This avoids the gas system of conventional GMAW and uses a cored wire containing a solid flux. This flux vaporises during welding and produces a plume of shielding gas. Although described as a ' flux ', this compound has little activity and acts mostly as an inert shield. The wire is of slightly larger diameter than for a comparable gas - shielded weld, to allow room for the flux. The smallest available is 0.8 mm diameter, compared to 0.6 mm for solid wire. The shield vapor is slightly active, rather than inert, so the process is always MAGS but not MIG (inert gas shield). This limits the process to steel and not aluminium.
Vaporising the additional flux requires greater heat in the wire, so these gasless machines operate as DCEP, rather than the DCEN usually used for GMAW to give deeper penetration. DCEP, or DC Electrode Positive, makes the welding wire into the positively - charged anode, which is the hotter side of the arc. Provided that it is switchable from DCEN to DCEP, a gas - shielded wire - feed machine may also be used for flux - cored wire.
Flux - cored wire is considered to have some advantages for outdoor welding on - site, as the shielding gas plume is less likely to be blown away in a wind than shield gas from a conventional nozzle. A slight drawback is that, like SMAW (stick) welding, there may be some flux deposited over the weld bead, requiring more of a cleaning process between passes.
Flux - cored welding machines are most popular at the hobbyist level, as the machines are slightly simpler but mainly because they avoid the cost of providing shield gas, either through a rented cylinder or with the high cost of disposable cylinders.
GMAW has also been used as a low - cost method to 3 - D print metal objects. Various open source 3 - D printers have been developed to use GMAW. Such components fabricated from aluminum compete with more traditionally manufactured components on mechanical strength. By forming a bad weld on the first layer, GMAW 3 - D printed parts can be removed from the substrate with a hammer.
For most of its applications gas metal arc welding is a fairly simple welding process to learn requiring no more than a week or two to master basic welding technique. Even when welding is performed by well - trained operators weld quality can fluctuate since it depends on a number of external factors. All GMAW is dangerous, though perhaps less so than some other welding methods, such as shielded metal arc welding.
The basic technique for GMAW is quite simple, since the electrode is fed automatically through the torch (head of tip). By contrast, in gas tungsten arc welding, the welder must handle a welding torch in one hand and a separate filler wire in the other, and in shielded metal arc welding, the operator must frequently chip off slag and change welding electrodes. GMAW requires only that the operator guide the welding gun with proper position and orientation along the area being welded. Keeping a consistent contact tip - to - work distance (the stick out distance) is important, because a long stickout distance can cause the electrode to overheat and also wastes shielding gas. Stickout distance varies for different GMAW weld processes and applications. The orientation of the gun is also important -- it should be held so as to bisect the angle between the workpieces; that is, at 45 degrees for a fillet weld and 90 degrees for welding a flat surface. The travel angle, or lead angle, is the angle of the torch with respect to the direction of travel, and it should generally remain approximately vertical. However, the desirable angle changes somewhat depending on the type of shielding gas used -- with pure inert gases, the bottom of the torch is often slightly in front of the upper section, while the opposite is true when the welding atmosphere is carbon dioxide.
Two of the most prevalent quality problems in GMAW are dross and porosity. If not controlled, they can lead to weaker, less ductile welds. Dross is an especially common problem in aluminium GMAW welds, normally coming from particles of aluminium oxide or aluminum nitride present in the electrode or base materials. Electrodes and workpieces must be brushed with a wire brush or chemically treated to remove oxides on the surface. Any oxygen in contact with the weld pool, whether from the atmosphere or the shielding gas, causes dross as well. As a result, sufficient flow of inert shielding gases is necessary, and welding in moving air should be avoided.
In GMAW the primary cause of porosity is gas entrapment in the weld pool, which occurs when the metal solidifies before the gas escapes. The gas can come from impurities in the shielding gas or on the workpiece, as well as from an excessively long or violent arc. Generally, the amount of gas entrapped is directly related to the cooling rate of the weld pool. Because of its higher thermal conductivity, aluminum welds are especially susceptible to greater cooling rates and thus additional porosity. To reduce it, the workpiece and electrode should be clean, the welding speed diminished and the current set high enough to provide sufficient heat input and stable metal transfer but low enough that the arc remains steady. Preheating can also help reduce the cooling rate in some cases by reducing the temperature gradient between the weld area and the base material.
Gas metal arc welding can be dangerous if proper precautions are not taken. Since GMAW employs an electric arc, welders wear protective clothing, including heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets, to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames. In addition, the brightness of the electric arc is a source of the condition known as arc eye, an inflammation of the cornea caused by ultraviolet light and, in prolonged exposure, possible burning of the retina in the eye. Conventional welding helmets contain dark face plates to prevent this exposure. Newer helmet designs feature a liquid crystal - type face plate that self - darkens upon exposure to high amounts of UV light. Transparent welding curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, are often used to shield nearby workers and bystanders from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.
Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. GMAW produces smoke containing particles of various types of oxides, and the size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, carbon dioxide and ozone gases can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate. Furthermore, because the use of compressed gases in GMAW pose an explosion and fire risk, some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.
The three transfer modes in GMAW are globular, short - circuiting, and spray. There are a few recognized variations of these three transfer modes including modified short - circuiting and pulsed - spray.
GMAW with globular metal transfer is considered the least desirable of the three major GMAW variations, because of its tendency to produce high heat, a poor weld surface, and spatter. The method was originally developed as a cost efficient way to weld steel using GMAW, because this variation uses carbon dioxide, a less expensive shielding gas than argon. Adding to its economic advantage was its high deposition rate, allowing welding speeds of up to 110 mm / s (250 in / min). As the weld is made, a ball of molten metal from the electrode tends to build up on the end of the electrode, often in irregular shapes with a larger diameter than the electrode itself. When the droplet finally detaches either by gravity or short circuiting, it falls to the workpiece, leaving an uneven surface and often causing spatter. As a result of the large molten droplet, the process is generally limited to flat and horizontal welding positions, requires thicker workpieces, and results in a larger weld pool.
Further developments in welding steel with GMAW led to a variation known as short - circuit transfer (SCT) or short - arc GMAW, in which the current is lower than for the globular method. As a result of the lower current, the heat input for the short - arc variation is considerably reduced, making it possible to weld thinner materials while decreasing the amount of distortion and residual stress in the weld area. As in globular welding, molten droplets form on the tip of the electrode, but instead of dropping to the weld pool, they bridge the gap between the electrode and the weld pool as a result of the lower wire feed rate. This causes a short circuit and extinguishes the arc, but it is quickly reignited after the surface tension of the weld pool pulls the molten metal bead off the electrode tip. This process is repeated about 100 times per second, making the arc appear constant to the human eye. This type of metal transfer provides better weld quality and less spatter than the globular variation, and allows for welding in all positions, albeit with slower deposition of weld material. Setting the weld process parameters (volts, amps and wire feed rate) within a relatively narrow band is critical to maintaining a stable arc: generally between 100 and 200 amperes at 17 to 22 volts for most applications. Also, using short - arc transfer can result in lack of fusion and insufficient penetration when welding thicker materials, due to the lower arc energy and rapidly freezing weld pool. Like the globular variation, it can only be used on ferrous metals.
For thin materials, Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) is used by reducing the current when a short circuit is registered, producing many drops per second. CMT can be used for aluminum.
Spray transfer GMAW was the first metal transfer method used in GMAW, and well - suited to welding aluminium and stainless steel while employing an inert shielding gas. In this GMAW process, the weld electrode metal is rapidly passed along the stable electric arc from the electrode to the workpiece, essentially eliminating spatter and resulting in a high - quality weld finish. As the current and voltage increases beyond the range of short circuit transfer the weld electrode metal transfer transitions from larger globules through small droplets to a vaporized stream at the highest energies. Since this vaporized spray transfer variation of the GMAW weld process requires higher voltage and current than short circuit transfer, and as a result of the higher heat input and larger weld pool area (for a given weld electrode diameter), it is generally used only on workpieces of thicknesses above about 6.4 mm (0.25 in).
Also, because of the large weld pool, it is often limited to flat and horizontal welding positions and sometimes also used for vertical - down welds. It is generally not practical for root pass welds. When a smaller electrode is used in conjunction with lower heat input, its versatility increases. The maximum deposition rate for spray arc GMAW is relatively high -- about 60 mm / s (150 in / min).
A variation of the spray transfer mode, pulse - spray is based on the principles of spray transfer but uses a pulsing current to melt the filler wire and allow one small molten droplet to fall with each pulse. The pulses allow the average current to be lower, decreasing the overall heat input and thereby decreasing the size of the weld pool and heat - affected zone while making it possible to weld thin workpieces. The pulse provides a stable arc and no spatter, since no short - circuiting takes place. This also makes the process suitable for nearly all metals, and thicker electrode wire can be used as well. The smaller weld pool gives the variation greater versatility, making it possible to weld in all positions. In comparison with short arc GMAW, this method has a somewhat slower maximum speed (85 mm / s or 200 in / min) and the process also requires that the shielding gas be primarily argon with a low carbon dioxide concentration. Additionally, it requires a special power source capable of providing current pulses with a frequency between 30 and 400 pulses per second. However, the method has gained popularity, since it requires lower heat input and can be used to weld thin workpieces, as well as nonferrous materials.
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what is the origin of the name harrison | Harrison (name) - wikipedia
Harrison is a common patronymic surname of English origin. It may also be spelled Harrisson, Harryson or Harrysson. Harrison means "son of Harry ''. Early records suggest that the surnames Harrison and Harris were used interchangeably by some families. Harrison is the 42nd most common surname in England and 123rd most common in the United States. The surname was first recorded in 1355, in London, England.
It is also a masculine given name derived from the surname, of fairly recent origin.
Notable people with the surname Harrison include:
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who is victoria on y and r married to in real life | Amelia Heinle - wikipedia
Amelia Heinle Luckinbill (née Amelia March Heinle, formerly Weatherly; born March 17, 1973) is an American actress best known for her roles in American soap operas.
Amelia March Heinle was born in Phoenix, Arizona, and has four younger siblings. She grew up in Arizona and moved to New Jersey with her family when she was 15 years old.
From 1993 to 1995 she played the role of Stephanie "Steffi '' Brewster on the soap opera Loving. She also played the character for two months in that show 's short - lived spin off The City from November 1995 until January 1996. In 1994 she was nominated for a Soap Opera Digest Award for "Outstanding Female Newcomer ''.
Through the 1990s she appeared in many made for TV movies, as well as a role in the 1999 Steven Soderbergh film, The Limey, as Peter Fonda 's girlfriend. She appeared in the music video for "I Will Buy You a New Life '' by Everclear.
In 2001 she returned to the world of daytime television, this time in the role of Mia Saunders on All My Children, the heretofore unknown half - sister of Liza Colby (Marcy Walker). Although she started as a front - burner character, her romantic pairing with Jake Martin (J. Eddie Peck) did n't work out because of the actor 's exit from the show, and so Mia was limited to being a background character. In 2004, Heinle opted not to renew her contract with All My Children and left the show.
On March 21, 2005, Heinle joined the cast of the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless, as Victoria Newman, replacing the popular Heather Tom in the role. She won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2014 and again in 2015 for the role.
In April 2009 Heinle appeared in season 4, episode 20, of Ghost Whisperer, entitled "Stage Fright '', with husband Thad Luckinbill and fellow daytime drama actress Lesli Kay.
In February 1995, she married her Loving co-star and on - screen love interest, Michael Weatherly, who played the role of "Cooper Alden ''. On January 10, 1996, Heinle gave birth to her first child, a son. She and Weatherly divorced in 1997.
In March 2007 she married her Young and the Restless co-star, Thad Luckinbill, who portrayed her onscreen ex-husband, J.T. Hellstrom, until 2010. The couple welcomed their first child together, a son, on November 2, 2007. They welcomed their second child, a daughter, on December 17, 2009. On March 1, 2017, Luckinbill filed for divorce from Heinle, citing "irreconcilable differences ''.
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how high does your iq need to be to get into mensa | Mensa International - wikipedia
Mensa is the largest and oldest high IQ society in the world. It is a non-profit organization open to people who score at the 98th percentile or higher on a standardized, supervised IQ or other approved intelligence test. Mensa formally comprises national groups and the umbrella organization Mensa International, with a registered office in Caythorpe, Lincolnshire, England (which is separate from the British Mensa office in Wolverhampton). The word mensa (/ ˈmɛnsə /; Latin: (ˈmensa)) means "table '' in Latin, as is symbolized in the organization 's logo, and was chosen to demonstrate the round - table nature of the organization; the coming together of equals.
Roland Berrill, an Australian barrister, and Dr. Lancelot Ware, a British scientist and lawyer, founded Mensa at Lincoln College, in Oxford, England, in 1946. They had the idea of forming a society for very intelligent people, the only qualification for membership being a high IQ. It was to be non-political and free from all other social distinctions (racial, religious, etc.).
American Mensa was the second major branch of Mensa. Its success has been linked to the efforts of its early and longstanding organizer, Margot Seitelman.
Berrill and Ware were both disappointed with the resulting society. Berrill had intended Mensa as "an aristocracy of the intellect '', and was unhappy that a majority of Mensans came from humble homes, while Ware said: "I do get disappointed that so many members spend so much time solving puzzles. ''
Mensa 's requirement for membership is a score at or above the 98th percentile on certain standardised IQ or other approved intelligence tests, such as the Stanford -- Binet Intelligence Scales. The minimum accepted score on the Stanford -- Binet is 132, while for the Cattell it is 148. Most IQ tests are designed to yield a mean score of 100 with a standard deviation of 15; the 98th - percentile score under these conditions is 131, assuming a normal distribution.
Most national groups test using well established IQ test batteries, but American Mensa has developed its own application exam. This exam is proctored by American Mensa and does not provide a score comparable to scores on other tests; it serves only to qualify a person for membership. In some national groups, a person may take a Mensa - offered test only once, although one may later submit an application with results from a different qualifying test. The Mensa test is also available in developing countries like India, Pakistan, Brazil etc. and societies in developing countries have been growing at rapid pace.
Mensa 's constitution lists three purposes: "to identify and to foster human intelligence for the benefit of humanity; to encourage research into the nature, characteristics, and uses of intelligence; and to provide a stimulating intellectual and social environment for its members ''.
To these ends, the organization is involved with programs for gifted children, literacy, and scholarships, and it holds numerous gatherings including an annual summit.
Mensa International consists of around 134,000 members, in 100 countries, in 51 national groups. Individuals who live in a country with a national group join the national group, while those living in countries without a recognized chapter may join Mensa International directly.
The largest national groups are:
Larger national groups are further subdivided into local groups. For example, American Mensa has 134 local groups, with the largest having over 2,000 members and the smallest having fewer than 100.
Members may form Special Interest Groups (SIGs) at international, national, and local levels; these SIGs represent a wide variety of interests, both commonplace and obscure, ranging from motorcycle clubs to entrepreneurial co-operations. Some SIGs are associated with various geographic groups, whereas others act independently of official hierarchy. There are also electronic SIGs (eSIGs), which operate primarily as e-mail lists, where members may or may not meet each other in person.
The Mensa Foundation, a separate charitable U.S. corporation, edits and publishes its own Mensa Research Journal, in which both Mensans and non-Mensans are published on various topics surrounding the concept and measure of intelligence. The national groups also issue periodicals, such as Mensa Bulletin, the monthly publication of American Mensa, and Mensa Magazine, the monthly publication of British Mensa.
Mensa has many events for members, from the local to the international level. Several countries hold a large event called the Annual Gathering (AG). It is held in a different city every year, with speakers, dances, leadership workshops, children 's events, games, and other activities. The American and Canadian AGs are usually held during the American Independence Day (4 July) or Canada Day (1 July) weekends respectively.
Smaller gatherings called Regional Gatherings (RGs), which are held in various cities, attract members from large areas. The largest in the United States is held in the Chicago area around Halloween, notably featuring a costume party for which many members create pun - based costumes.
In 2006, the Mensa World Gathering was held from 8 -- 13 August in Orlando, Florida to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the founding of Mensa. An estimated 2,500 attendees from over 30 countries gathered for this celebration. The International Board of Directors had a formal meeting there.
In 2010, a joint American - Canadian Annual Gathering was held in Dearborn, Michigan, to mark the 50th anniversary of Mensa in North America, one of several times the US and Canada AGs have been combined. Other multinational gatherings are the European Mensas Annual Gathering (EMAG) and the Asian Mensa Gathering (AMG).
Since 1990, American Mensa has sponsored the annual Mensa Mind Games competition, at which the Mensa Select award is given to five board games that are "original, challenging, and well designed ''.
Individual local groups and their members host smaller events for members and their guests. Lunch or dinner events, lectures, tours, theatre outings, and games nights are all common.
In Europe since 2009 international meetings have been held under the name (EMAG) (European Mensa Annual Gathering), starting in Cologn in 2009. Next editions were in Utrecht (2010), Prague (2011), Paris (2012), Stockholm (2013), Bratislava (2014), Zürich (2015), Berlin (2016), Barcelona (2017) and Belgrade (2018).
In Asia there is an Asian Mensa Gathering (AMG) with rotating countries hosting the event.
All Mensa groups publish members - only newsletters or magazines, which include articles and columns written by members, and information about upcoming Mensa events. Examples include the American Mensa Bulletin, the British Mensa magazine, Serbian MozaIQ, the Australian TableAus, the Mexican El Mensajero, and the French Contacts. Some local or regional groups have their own newsletter, such as those in the United States, UK, Germany, and France.
Mensa International publishes a Mensa World Journal, which "contains views and information about Mensa around the world ''. This journal is generally included in each national magazine.
Mensa also publishes the Mensa Research Journal, which "highlights scholarly articles and recent research related to intelligence ''. Unlike most Mensa publications, this journal is available to non-members.
All national and local groups welcome children; many offer activities, resources, and newsletters specifically geared toward gifted children and their parents. Both American Mensa 's youngest member (Christina Brown) and British Mensa 's youngest member (Adam Kirby) joined at the age of two. The current youngest member of Mensa is Adam Kirby, from Mitcham, London, UK who was invited to join at the age of two years and four months and gained full membership at the age of two years five months. He scored 141 on the Stanford - Binet IQ test. Elise Tan - Roberts of the UK is the youngest person ever to join Mensa, having gained full membership at the age of two years and four months.
American Mensa 's oldest member is 102, and British Mensa had a member aged 103.
According to American Mensa 's website (as of 2013), 38 percent of its members are baby boomers between the ages of 51 and 68, 31 percent are Gen - Xers or Millennials between the ages of 27 and 48, and more than 2,600 members are under the age of 18. There are more than 1,800 families in the United States with two or more Mensa members. In addition, the American Mensa general membership is "66 percent male, 34 percent female ''. The aggregate of local and national leadership is distributed equally between the sexes.
Some researchers have noted that there is a much higher incidence of Asperger 's syndrome among Mensa members than the average incidence. Writing in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, Ivor Schraibman noted that "I used to be a member of Mensa but left after realizing that 90 % of the members were incapable of maintaining their end of a conversation and had difficulty in expressing any personal warmth; the only emotion I ever encountered was naked aggression. ''
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when was the last time hurricane hit ireland | Hurricane Debbie (1961) - Wikipedia
Hurricane Debbie is the most powerful cyclone on record to strike Ireland in September, and possibly the only tropical cyclone on record to ever strike Britain and Ireland while still tropical. The fourth named storm of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season, Debbie originated from a well - defined tropical disturbance that was first identified in late August over Central Africa. Tracking generally westward, the system moved off the coast of Senegal on September 5 into the Atlantic Ocean. By this time, it was estimated to have become a tropical storm, but forecasters did not issue advisories on the system until two days later. Late on September 6, Debbie passed through the southern Cape Verde Islands as a strong tropical storm or minimal hurricane, resulting in a plane crash that killed 60 people in the islands. Once clear of the islands, data on the storm became sparse, and the status of Debbie was uncertain over the following several days as it tracked west - northwestward and later northward. It was not until a commercial airliner intercepted the storm on September 10 that its location became certain. The following day, Debbie intensified and reached its peak intensity as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale, with maximum winds of 120 mph (195 km / h).
Maintaining its peak intensity for over a day, the hurricane gradually slowed its forward motion and weakened. By September 13, Debbie 's motion became influenced by the Westerlies, causing the system to accelerate east - northeastward. The system passed over the western Azores as a minimal hurricane on September 15. At this point, there is uncertainty as to the structure of Debbie, whether it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone or maintained its identity as a tropical system. Regardless of which took place, the system deepened as it neared Ireland, skirting the coast of Western Ireland on September 16. Shortly thereafter, the system was confirmed to have become extratropical as it continued towards the northeast. The remnants of the storm later turned eastward, striking Norway and Russia, before dissipating on September 19.
Striking Ireland as a powerful storm, Debbie brought record winds to much of the island, with a peak gust of 114 mph (183 km / h) measured just offshore. These winds caused widespread damage and disruption, downing tens of thousands of trees and power lines. Countless structures sustained varying degrees of damage, with many smaller buildings destroyed. Agriculture experienced extensive losses to barley, corn and wheat crops. Throughout Ireland, Debbie killed 18 people (12 in the Republic of Ireland and six in Northern Ireland). It caused US $ 40 -- 50 million in damage in the Republic and at least £ 1.5 million (US $4 million) in Northern Ireland. The storm also battered parts of Great Britain with winds in excess of 100 mph (160 km / h).
During late August and into early September 1961, an unusual series of low - level disturbances developed over Central and West Africa and into the eastern Atlantic Ocean. One of these systems, that probably formed over Central Africa at the end of August, became increasingly organized as it moved over Nigeria on September 1. As the disturbance travelled steadily westward, its mid-level circulation became well defined, and the accompanying low - level centre gradually followed suit. An upper - level anticyclone accompanied the storm during this entire period, providing a favorable upper - air regime for strengthening. According to a post-storm study in 1962, all the necessary environmental ingredients were available to the disturbance while it was over land; the only factor inhibiting earlier development was a lack of access to the warm waters. Around 1200 UTC on September 5, the low emerged off the coast of Senegal as a strong tropical depression or tropical storm. By this time, the system had a central pressure below 1006 mbar (hPa; 29.71 inHg), and sustained winds of 35 mph (55 km / h) were reported in Bissau, Guinea - Bissau. As the system neared Cape Verde, it continued to intensify and by the evening of September 6, reports from the nearby Danish tanker Charlotte Maersk indicated that the system was already at or near hurricane intensity.
Late on September 6, Debbie passed over the southern Cape Verde Islands as a strong tropical storm or low - end hurricane. Continuing on a west - northwest path, mainly in response to a large area of high pressure over the eastern Atlantic, the system continued to intensify. Sea surface temperatures in the region averaged 80 ° F (27 ° C), supportive of tropical development. At 1913 UTC on September 7, a picture from TIROS - 3 showed that an eye had already developed and banding features covered an area more than 300 mi (480 km) from the centre. Debbie was not classified operationally as a tropical storm until 2200 UTC on September 7, at which time the centre was estimated to be about 550 mi (890 km) west - southwest of Sal Island. Over the following three days, virtually no data was available on the hurricane and no reliable estimates on its intensity could be made. During this time, the storm was estimated to have taken a more north - westerly course over the open ocean. It was not until a KLM flight encountered the storm on September 10 that an accurate positioning of the hurricane could be made.
After maintaining a nearly steady course for three days, Hurricane Debbie turned northward and slowed as it neared a break in the ridge previously steering it west - northwestward. During the evening of September 11, a United States Navy Aircraft reconnaissance mission into the storm found sustained winds of 110 -- 120 mph (175 -- 195 km / h) and a central pressure of 976 mbar (hPa; 28.82 inHg), reaching its peak intensity as a modern - day Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale with winds of 120 mph (195 km / h). After maintaining its windspeeds for over 24 hours, the system weakened and turned sharply towards the east - northeast in response to the upper - level westerlies. By the afternoon of September 13, Debbie was again a Category 1 storm as it quickly accelerated towards the Azores. Early on September 15, the storm passed over the easternmost Azores with winds estimated at 80 mph (130 km / h) before turning more northeasterly. Once past the Azores, there is an uncertainty over the structural changes that took place with Debbie. According to the United States Weather Bureau 's preliminary report, the system acquired characteristics of an extratropical cyclone on September 15, though remained a strong system. This conflicts with the best track supplied by the Bureau and the National Hurricane Center 's hurricane database maintains the system as a tropical cyclone until the afternoon of September 16.
The system moved towards Ireland and began to deepen. Debbie eventually brushed the coast of Western Ireland near Achill Island during the morning of September 16 with sustained winds of 80 mph (130 km / h). Around this time, a pressure of 961.4 hPa (28.39 inHg) was measured as it passed near Belmullet. If the system maintained tropical characteristics at this time, it would have been the first such storm on record to strike Ireland. Shortly after striking Ireland, the system was confirmed to have transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it re-emerged into the northeast Atlantic Ocean. While passing between Ireland and Scotland, the system continued to deepen, achieving an estimated central pressure of 950 hPa (28.05 inHg). According to a study by Hickey and Connolly - Johnston, this ranked Debbie as the most intense post-hurricane from 1960 to 2012 to move through the Britain and Ireland. After clearing the United Kingdom, the hurricane 's remnants turned more easterly, later impacting Norway and Russia before dissipating on September 19.
As early as September 13, residents were made aware that a storm might strike parts of Ireland with hurricane - force winds. Two days later, forecasters believed the storm would take a more southerly course towards France. This forecast was later withdrawn as the storm failed to turn eastward. Consequently, gale warnings were issued for much of western Ireland on the morning of September 16, hours before the brunt of the storm arrived. Fearing building collapses, officials in County Galway closed markets for the duration of the storm.
A powerful tropical or extratropical cyclone, on September 16 Hurricane Debbie became one of the most intense storms on record to strike Ireland. The storm brought hurricane - force winds to a large part of the country, with wind gusts peaking at 114 mph (183 km / h) off the coast of Arranmore. At several locations, all - time wind gusts and ten - minute sustained wind records were broken. Sustained winds at Malin Head stayed at or above 62 mph (100 km / h) for approximately six hours. Debbie was the strongest storm, in terms of atmospheric pressure, to strike Belmullet during the month of September, with a pressure of 961.4 mbar (hPa; 28.39 inHg) measured in Belmullet. Rainfall from the storm was relatively minor, with rainfall rates peaking at 0.35 in (9 mm) per hour at the Valentia Observatory. Though limited, the rain did cause some lakes in the west to flood.
The greatest damage occurred in a swath stretching from Kerry to Limerick as well as the counties of Sligo and Donegal. In these areas, the hurricane 's powerful winds damaged or destroyed many buildings and downed trees and power lines. In the hardest hit areas, communication was not restored for over four days. Many roads were blocked by debris for up to two days. Crops and trees were badly damaged. Approximately two percent of the trees in the forestry industry were snapped or uprooted, with some areas losing up to twenty - four percent. In general, corn and wheat crops fared better than expected, with only 25 -- 30 percent being lost; however, some farmers reported barley losses greater than 50 percent. Downed trees from the storm wreaked havoc, leaving considerable damage and loss of life behind. All told, Hurricane Debbie was responsible for 12 deaths in the Republic of Ireland. Four people were killed in County Cavan -- a widow, her two daughters and granddaughter -- after a tree fell on their car. Five deaths resulted from fallen trees and three others were from building collapses. At least 50 people were injured, few of which were serious. A study in 2012 estimated that damage from the storm was at least US $40 -- 50 million across Ireland.
Newspapers reported that the city of Galway "resembled a bombed area, '' referring to the scale of damage caused by the winds. In nearby Ballygar, two barns were destroyed, one of which had debris strewn over a wide area. Hurricane - force winds battered Tuam for several hours, leaving most buildings damaged. Nearly every structure in Connemara was damaged and many homes lost their roofs. At Cork Airport, windows at the control tower were blown out and a construction crane was knocked over. Residents in Loughrea dubbed Saturday, September 16, 1961 as "The Day Of The Big Wind '' in light of the extensive damage. Damage in Roscommon was "impossible to calculate, '' as all power and communication around the town was lost. In Limerick, 15 people were injured. Across County Cavan, thousands of trees were snapped or uprooted, leaving many towns temporarily cut off as roads were blocked and communications lost. Many structures sustained damage, which ranged from broken slate roofing to flattened barns. Most towns across the county were left without power and telephone service. Residents described the storm as "the worst in living memory. ''
Along the coast, rough seas spurred by the winds damaged docks and flooded some coastal regions. Offshore, waves reached heights of 45 ft (14 m) near Arranmore. Dozens of ships were torn from their moorings and run aground at various ports, some of which were found 200 yd (180 m) inland. In Salthill, three marinas were damaged with forty vessels damaged or sunk. Between 11: 00 a.m. and 1: 00 p.m. local time, onshore winds from the storm caused the River Shannon to flow backwards and rise 4 ft (1.2 m). Hundreds of acres of land, including potato and cabbage plots, were left several feet underwater. Many roads were submerged, making travel impossible in the area. The combination of strong winds and sea spray from the storm caused extensive defoliation of vegetation up to 10 mi (16 km) inland. Spray from the River Foyle reportedly travelled 100 yd (91 m).
In the wake of the storm, more than 1,000 Electricity Supply Board (ESB) personnel were deployed to restore power. In some areas, locals worked together to provide others with fresh food after electricity was lost. Fire brigades were sent on patrol to quell any looting. In Galway, ESB repair crews worked through labor and supply shortages to restore power and telephone service despite recent strikes in the company. By September 23, officials in the city appealed to the Government for funding to deal with the aftermath of the hurricane. Uncertainty over whether some of the cost could be footed by landowners themselves resulted in disagreement over how much aid to request. Due to the severity of damage to the electrical grid, there were numerous requests made to the ESB to build underground power cables, especially in Galway.
Exceptionally strong winds from the storm buffeted parts of Northern Ireland, with gusts of 106 mph (171 km / h) and 104 mph (167 km / h) measured in Ballykelly and Tiree respectively. The winds downed tens of thousands of trees and more than 1,000 telephone lines across the region. In the Baronscourt Forest in County Tyrone, 30,000 trees were blown down. Countless roads across Northern Ireland were blocked by debris and major rail lines had to suspend service. There was severe damage in the city of Derry where a newly built school was destroyed. Losses in the city alone amounted to £ 500,000 (US $1.4 million). In Lagan Valley, a brick community hall was destroyed. An estimated 200 homes and two churches in Strabane were damaged. The town 's labour exchange building was severely damaged as well. In a local cemetery, many tombstones were uprooted from concrete foundations and destroyed. A newly built fire station in Clogher collapsed after its roof was blown off. Several people were injured in Belfast after a glass ceiling collapsed in a bus station and a piece of corrugated roofing blew in from a nearby building.
Six people were killed in Northern Ireland, mostly due to fallen trees: two in County Fermanagh and one each in Cookstown, Dungannon, Omagh, and elsewhere in Tyrone. The cereal crop in Northern Ireland suffered greatly due to Debbie, with half of the yield being lost. Losses from the crop were estimated at £ 1 million (US $2.8 million). In the wake of the storm, military ambulances from the Royal Army Medical Corps were dispatched to parts of West Tyrone. Power repair crews were dispatched for nearly a week repairing downed wires across Northern Ireland. Many public authorities paid tribute to the workers for their tireless work. After passing through Ireland, the storm brought strong winds and heavy rain to parts of Scotland and Wales, resulting in some damage and flooding in the region. On the coast of Lancashire and the Isle of Man, sand storms were reported, with significant sand deposits found inland.
Unsettled weather in the Cape Verde Islands brought about by Tropical Storm Debbie was blamed for a plane crash on September 6 that killed 60 people. Strong winds were also reported from the Bay of Biscay to locations in northern Norway.
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name of all the states with their capital | List of capitals in the United States - wikipedia
Washington, D.C. has been the federal capital city of the United States since 1819. Each U.S. state has its own capital city, as do many of its insular areas. Historically, most states have not changed their capital city since becoming a state, but the capital cities of their respective preceding colonies, territories, kingdoms, and republics typically changed multiple times. There have also been other governments within the current borders of the United States with their own capitals, such as the Republic of Texas, Native American nations, and other unrecognized governments.
The dates listed in the following table indicate the year in which the city started to continuously serve as the state 's sole capital. Most states have changed their capital city at least once. In the case of the thirteen original states, "statehood '' in the table refers to date of ratification of the United States Constitution.
An insular area is a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation 's federal district. Those insular areas with territorial capitals are listed below.
Prior to becoming a territory of the United States in 1898, Hawaii was an independent country. Five sites served as its capital:
Before joining the United States under the Texas Annexation in 1845, Texas was an independent nation known as the Republic of Texas. Seven cities served as its capital:
Some Native American tribes, in particular the Five Civilized Tribes, organized their states with constitutions and capitals in Western style. Others, like the Iroquois, had long - standing, pre-Columbian traditions of a ' capitol ' longhouse where wampum and council fires were maintained with special status. Since they did business with the U.S. Federal Government, these capitals can be seen as officially recognized in some sense.
New Echota, now near Calhoun, Georgia was founded in 1825, realizing the dream and plans of Cherokee Chief Major Ridge. Major Ridge chose the site because of its centrality in the historic Cherokee Nation which spanned parts of Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Alabama, and because it was near the confluence of the Conasauga and Coosawattee rivers. The town 's layout was partly inspired by Ridge 's many visits to Washington D.C. and to Baltimore, but also invoked traditional themes of the Southeastern ceremonial complex. Complete with the Council House, Supreme Court, Cherokee syllabary printing press, and the houses of several of the Nation 's constitutional officers, New Echota served as the capital until 1832 when the state of Georgia outlawed Native American assembly in an attempt to undermine the Nation. Thousands of Cherokee would gather in New Echota for the annual National Councils, camping along the nearby rivers and holding long stomp dances in the park - like woods that were typical of many Southeastern Native American settlements.
The Cherokee National council grounds were moved to Red Clay, Tennessee on the Georgia state line in order to evade the Georgia state militia. The log cabins, limestone springs and park - like woods of Red Clay served as the capital until the Cherokee Nation was removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) on the Trail of Tears.
Tahlequah, in present - day Oklahoma, served as the capital of the original Cherokee Nation after Removal. After the Civil War, a turbulent period for the Nation which was involved in its own civil war resulting from pervasive anger and disagreements over removal from Georgia, the Cherokee Nation built a new National Capitol in Tahlequah out of brick. The building served as the capitol until 1907, when the Dawes Act finally dissolved the Cherokee Nation and Tahlequah became the county seat of Cherokee County, Oklahoma. The Cherokee National government was re-established in 1938 and Tahlequah remains the capital of the modern Cherokee Nation; it is also the capital of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians.
Approximately four to eight hundred Cherokees escaped removal because they lived on a separated tract, purchased later with the help of Confederate Colonel William Holland Thomas, along the Oconaluftee river deep in the Smoky Mountains of North Carolina. Some Cherokees fleeing the Federal Army sent for the "round up, '' fled to the remote settlements separated from the rest of the Cherokee Territory in Georgia and North Carolina in order to remain in their homeland. In the 20th century, their descendants organized as the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians; its capital is at Cherokee, North Carolina, in the tribally - controlled Qualla Boundary.
After Removal from their Alabama - Georgia homeland, the Creek national government met near Hot Springs which was then part of their new territory as prescribed in the Treaty of Cusseta. However, the Union forced the Creeks to cede over three million acres (half of their land) of what is now Arkansas, after some Creeks fought with the Confederacy in the American Civil War.
Served as the National capital after the American Civil War. It was probably named after Ocmulgee, on the Ocmulgee river in Macon, a principle Coosa and later Creek town built with mounds and functioning as part of the Southeastern ceremonial complex. However, there were other traditional Creek "mother - towns '' before removal. The Ocmulgee mounds were ceded illegally in 1821 with the Treaty of Indian Springs.
The Iroquois Confederacy or Haudenosaunee, which means "People of the Longhouse, '' was an alliance between the Five and later Six - Nations of Iroquoian language and culture of upstate New York. These include the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk, and, after 1722, the Tuscarora Nations. Since the Confederacy 's formation around 1450, the Onondaga Nation has held privilege of hosting the Iroquois Grand Council and the status of Keepers of the Fire and the Wampum -- which they still do at the official Longhouse on the Onondaga Reservation. Now spread over reservations in New York and Ontario, the Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee preserve this arrangement to this day in what they claim to be the "world 's oldest representative democracy. ''
The Seneca Nation republic was founded in 1848 and has two capitals that rotate responsibilities every two years. Jimerson Town was founded in the 1960s following the formation of the Allegheny Reservoir. The Senecas also have an administrative longhouse in Steamburg but do not consider that location to be a capital.
Window Rock (Navajo: Tségháhoodzání), Arizona, is a small city that serves as the seat of government and capital of the Navajo Nation (1936 -- present), the largest territory of a sovereign Native American nation in North America. It lies within the boundaries of the St. Michaels Chapter, adjacent to the Arizona and New Mexico state line. Window Rock hosts the Navajo Nation governmental campus which contains the Navajo Nation Council, Navajo Nation Supreme Court, the offices of the Navajo Nation President and Vice President, and many Navajo government buildings.
There have been a handful of nations within the current borders of the United States which were never officially recognized as legally independent sovereign entities; however, these nations did have de facto control over their respective regions during their existence.
Before joining the United States as the fourteenth state, Vermont was an independent republic known as the Vermont Republic. Two cities served as the capital of the Republic:
The current capital of the State of Vermont is Montpelier.
The State of Franklin was an autonomous, secessionist United States territory created, not long after the end of the American Revolution, from territory that later was ceded by North Carolina to the federal government. Franklin 's territory later became part of the state of Tennessee. Franklin was never officially admitted into the Union of the United States and existed for only four years.
The State of Muskogee was a short - lived Native American state in Florida. It consisted of several tribes of Creeks and Seminoles. It existed from 1799 to 1803. It had one capital:
The Republic of West Florida was a short - lived republic involving the area known today as Louisiana 's Florida Parishes -- at the time the westernmost portion of Spanish West Florida. The area was soon seized by the United States under President James Madison and incorporated into the Territory of Orleans. None of the Republic of West Florida was within the boundaries of modern Florida.
The Republic of Indian Stream was an unrecognized independent nation within the present state of New Hampshire.
Before being annexed by the United States in 1848 (following the Mexican -- American War), a small portion of north - central California declared itself the California Republic, in an act of independence from Mexico, in 1846 (see Bear Flag Revolt). The republic only existed a month before it disbanded itself, to join the advancing American army and therefore became part of the United States.
The very short - lived California Republic was never recognized by the United States, Mexico or any other nation. There was one de facto capital of the California Republic:
The Confederate States of America (C.S.A.) had two capitals during its existence. The first capital was established February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, Alabama, and remained there until it was moved to Richmond, Virginia, on May 29, 1861, after Virginia seceded on May 23.
The individual state capitals remained the same in the Confederacy as they had been in the Union (U.S.A.), although as the advancing Union Army used those cities for military districts, some of the Confederate governments were relocated or moved out of state, traveling along with secessionist armies.
Most of the original Thirteen Colonies had their capitals occupied or attacked by the British during the American Revolutionary War. State governments operated where and as they could. The City of New York was occupied by British troops from 1776 to 1783. A similar situation occurred during the War of 1812, during the American Civil War in many Confederate states, and during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 -- 1692 in New Mexico.
Twenty - two state capitals have been a capital longer than their state has been a state, since they served as the capital of a predecessor territory, colony, or republic. Boston, Massachusetts, has been a capital city since 1630; it is the oldest continuously - running capital in the United States. Santa Fe, New Mexico, is the oldest capital city, having become capital in 1610 and interrupted only by the aforementioned Pueblo Revolt. An even older Spanish city, St. Augustine, Florida, served as a colonial capital from 1565 until about 1820, more than 250 years.
The table below includes the following information:
^ (a) Even though the urbanized area of Carson City is about 15 miles (24 km) from the California border, the larger Consolidated Municipality of Carson City does form part of the Nevada state border. Similarly, the City and Borough of Juneau extends eastward to British Columbia, although the urbanized area of Juneau is about 35 miles (56 km) from the Canada -- US border. ^ (b) Congress was forced to move from Philadelphia due to a riot of angry soldiers. See: Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 ^ (c) President James Madison fled to the home of Caleb Bentley in Brookeville, Maryland following the burning of Washington on August 24 -- 25, 1814. As such, the town claims to have been the "U.S. Capital for a Day '' despite the fact that Congress never met there. See: "A Brief History ''. Town of Brookeville, Maryland. 2006. Archived from the original on 2008 - 12 - 07. Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 07. ^ (d) Due to flooding in Sacramento, San Francisco served as a temporary capital from January 24, 1862 to May 15, 1862. See "California 's State Capitols 1850 -- present '' (PDF)... ^ (e) The District of Columbia was formed February 27, 1801, with the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801. The city of Washington was founded in 1791 and construction of the new capital began while it was still part of Maryland. President John Adams moved to the White House on November 1, 1800 and the 6th United States Congress held its first session in Washington on November 17, 1800.
Whereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings.
And, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants.
Be it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the Native Americans and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final "s '' silent, the "a '' in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of "a '' in "man '' and the sounding of the terminal "s '' is an innovation to be discouraged.
Citizens of the State of Kansas often pronounce the Arkansas River / ɑːr ˈkænzəs / in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.
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when did victoria became the capital of bc | Victoria, British Columbia - Wikipedia
Nickname (s): "The Garden City ''
Victoria, the capital city of the Canadian province of British Columbia, is on the southern tip of Vancouver Island off Canada 's Pacific coast. The city has a population of 85,792, while the metropolitan area of Greater Victoria has a population of 367,770, making it the 15th most populous Canadian metropolitan area. The City of Victoria is the 7th most densely populated city in Canada with 4,405.8 people per square kilometre, which is a greater population density than Toronto, Ontario.
Victoria is the southernmost major city in Western Canada, and is about 100 kilometres (60 miles) from British Columbia 's largest city of Vancouver on the mainland. The city is about 100 km (60 mi) from Seattle by airplane, ferry, or the Victoria Clipper passenger - only ferry which operates daily, year round between Seattle and Victoria, and 40 kilometres (25 miles) from Port Angeles, Washington, by ferry Coho across the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
Named after Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and, at the time, British North America, Victoria is one of the oldest cities in the Pacific Northwest, with British settlement beginning in 1843. The city has retained a large number of its historic buildings, in particular its two most famous landmarks, Parliament Buildings (finished in 1897 and home of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia) and the Empress hotel (opened in 1908). The city 's Chinatown is the second oldest in North America after San Francisco 's. The region 's Coast Salish First Nations peoples established communities in the area long before non-native settlement, possibly several thousand years earlier, which had large populations at the time of European exploration.
Known as "The Garden City '', Victoria is an attractive city and a popular tourism destination with a thriving technology sector that has risen to be its largest revenue - generating private industry. Victoria is in the top twenty of world cities for quality - of - life, according to Numbeo. The city has a large non-local student population, who come to attend the University of Victoria, Camosun College, Royal Roads University, the Victoria College of Art, the Canadian College of Performing Arts, and high school programs run by the region 's three school districts. Victoria is very popular with boaters with its beautiful and rugged shorelines and beaches. Victoria is also popular with retirees, who come to enjoy the temperate and usually snow - free climate of the area as well as the usually relaxed pace of the city.
Prior to the arrival of European navigators in the late 1700s, the Victoria area was home to several communities of Coast Salish peoples, including the Songhees. The Spanish and British took up the exploration of the northwest coast, beginning with the visits of Juan Pérez in 1774, and of James Cook in 1778. Although the Victoria area of the Strait of Juan de Fuca was not penetrated until 1790, Spanish sailors visited Esquimalt Harbour (just west of Victoria proper) in 1790, 1791, and 1792.
In 1841 James Douglas was charged with the duty of setting up a trading post on the southern tip of Vancouver Island, upon the recommendation by George Simpson a new more northerly post be built in case Fort Vancouver fell into American hands (see Oregon boundary dispute). Douglas founded Fort Victoria on the site of present - day Victoria in anticipation of the outcome of the Oregon Treaty in 1846, extending the British North America / United States border along the 49th parallel from the Rockies to the Strait of Georgia.
Erected in 1843 as a Hudson 's Bay Company trading post on a site originally called Camosun (the native word was "camosack '', meaning "rush of water '') known briefly as "Fort Albert '', the settlement was renamed Fort Victoria in November 1843, in honour of Queen Victoria. The Songhees established a village across the harbour from the fort. The Songhees ' village was later moved north of Esquimalt. The crown colony was established in 1849. Between the years 1850 - 1854 a series of treaty agreements known as the Douglas Treaties were made with indigenous communities to purchase certain plots of land in exchange for goods. These agreements contributed to a town being laid out on the site and made the capital of the colony, though controversy has followed about the ethical negotiation and upholding of rights by the colonial government. The superintendent of the fort, Chief Factor James Douglas was made the second governor of the Vancouver Island Colony (Richard Blanshard was first governor, Arthur Edward Kennedy was third and last governor), and would be the leading figure in the early development of the city until his retirement in 1864.
When news of the discovery of gold on the British Columbia mainland reached San Francisco in 1858, Victoria became the port, supply base, and outfitting centre for miners on their way to the Fraser Canyon gold fields, mushrooming from a population of 300 to over 5000 within a few days. Victoria was incorporated as a city in 1862. In 1865, the North Pacific home of the Royal Navy was established in Esquimalt and today is Canada 's Pacific coast naval base. In 1866 when the island was politically united with the mainland, Victoria was designated the capital of the new united colony instead of New Westminster -- an unpopular move on the Mainland -- and became the provincial capital when British Columbia joined the Canadian Confederation in 1871.
In the latter half of the 19th century, the Port of Victoria became one of North America 's largest importers of opium, serving the opium trade from Hong Kong and distribution into North America. Opium trade was legal and unregulated until 1865, then the legislature issued licences and levied duties on its import and sale. The opium trade was banned in 1908.
In 1886, with the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway terminus on Burrard Inlet, Victoria 's position as the commercial centre of British Columbia was irrevocably lost to the city of Vancouver, British Columbia. The city subsequently began cultivating an image of genteel civility within its natural setting, aided by the impressions of visitors such as Rudyard Kipling, the opening of the popular Butchart Gardens in 1904 and the construction of the Empress Hotel by the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1908. Robert Dunsmuir, a leading industrialist whose interests included coal mines and a railway on Vancouver Island, constructed Craigdarroch Castle in the Rockland area, near the official residence of the province 's Lieutenant Governor. His son James Dunsmuir became Premier and subsequently Lieutenant Governor of the province and built his own grand residence at Hatley Park (used for several decades as Royal Roads Military College, now civilian Royal Roads University) in the present City of Colwood.
A real - estate and development boom ended just before World War I, leaving Victoria with a large stock of Edwardian public, commercial and residential buildings that have greatly contributed to the city 's character. With the economic crash and a surplus of single men, Victoria became a target - rich environment for recruiting. Two militia infantry battalions, the 88th Victoria Fusiliers and the 50th Gordon Highlanders, formed in the immediate pre-war period. Victoria was the home of Sir Arthur Currie. He had been a high - school teacher and real - estate agent prior to the war and was the Commanding Officer of the Gordon Highlanders in the summer of 1914. Before the end of the war he would command the Canadian Corps. A number of municipalities surrounding Victoria were incorporated during this period, including the Township of Esquimalt, the District of Oak Bay, and several municipalities on the Saanich Peninsula.
Since World War II the Victoria area has seen relatively steady growth, becoming home to two major universities. Since the 1980s the western suburbs have been incorporated as new municipalities, such as Colwood and Langford, which are known collectively as the Western Communities.
Greater Victoria periodically experiences calls for the amalgamation of the thirteen municipal governments within the Capital Regional District. The opponents of amalgamation state that separate governance affords residents a greater deal of local autonomy. The proponents of amalgamation argue it would reduce duplication of services, while allowing for more efficient use of resources and the ability to better handle broad, regional issues and long - term planning.
The landscape of Victoria was formed by water in various forms. Pleistocene glaciation put the area under a thick ice cover, the weight of which depressed the land below present sea level. These glaciers also deposited stony sandy loam till. As they retreated, their melt water left thick deposits of sand and gravel. Marine clay settled on what would later become dry land. Post-glacial rebound exposed the present - day terrain to air, raising beach and mud deposits well above sea level. The resulting soils are highly variable in texture, and abrupt textural changes are common. In general, clays are most likely to be encountered in the northern part of town and in depressions. The southern part has coarse - textured subsoils and loamy topsoils. Sandy loams and loamy sands are common in the eastern part adjoining Oak Bay. Victoria 's soils are relatively unleached and less acidic than soils elsewhere on the British Columbia Coast. Their thick dark topsoils denoted a high level of fertility which made them valuable for farming until urbanization.
Victoria has a mild warm summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb) with mild, rainy winters and cool, dry and sunny summers. Other climate classification systems, such as Trewartha, place it in the Oceanic zone (Do). Although Victoria is farther north than such "winter '' cities as Ottawa, Quebec City, and Minneapolis, westerly winds and Pacific Ocean currents keep Victoria 's winter temperatures substantially higher, with an average January temperature of 5.0 ° C (41 ° F) compared to Ottawa, the nation 's capital, with − 10.2 ° C (14 ° F).
At the Victoria Gonzales weather station, daily temperatures rise above 30 ° C (86 ° F) on average less than one day per year and fall below 0 ° C (32 ° F) on average only ten nights per year. Victoria has recorded completely freeze - free winter seasons four times (in 1925 / 26, 1939 / 40, 1999 / 2000, and 2002 / 03). 1999 is the only calendar year on record without a single occurrence of frost. During this time the city went 718 days without freezing, starting on 23 December 1998 and ending 10 December 2000. The second longest frost - free period was a 686 - day stretch covering 1925 and 1926, marking the first and last time the city has gone the entire season without dropping below 1 ° C (34 ° F).
During the winter, the average daily high and low temperatures are 8 and 4 ° C (46.4 and 39.2 ° F), respectively. The summer months are also relatively mild, with an average high temperature of 20 ° C (68 ° F) and low of 11 ° C (51.8 ° F), although inland areas often experience warmer daytime highs. The highest temperature ever recorded at Victoria Gonzales was 36.0 ° C (96.8 ° F) on 11 July 2007, however the University of Victoria reached 37.6 ° C (99.7 ° F) on 29 July 2009. The coldest temperature on record is − 15.6 ° C (4 ° F) on 29 December 1968. The average annual temperature varies from a high of 11.4 ° C (52.5 ° F) that was set in 2004 to a low of 8.6 ° C (47.5 ° F) set in 1916.
Due to the rain shadow effect of the nearby Olympic Mountains, Victoria is the driest location on the British Columbia coast and one of the driest in the region. Average precipitation amounts in the Greater Victoria area range from 608 mm (23.9 in) at the Gonzales observatory in the City of Victoria to 1,124 mm (44.3 in) in nearby Langford. The Victoria Airport, 25 km (16 mi) north of the city, receives about 45 % more precipitation than the city proper. Regional average precipitation amounts range from as low as 406 mm (16.0 in) on the north shore of the Olympic Peninsula to 3,505 mm (138.0 in) in Port Renfrew just 80 km (50 mi) away on the more exposed southwest coast of Vancouver Island. Vancouver measures 1,589 mm (63 in) annually and Seattle is at 952 mm (37.5 in).
One feature of Victoria 's climate is it has distinct dry and rainy seasons. Nearly two - thirds of the annual precipitation falls during the four wettest months, November to February. Precipitation in December, the wettest month (109 mm or 4.3 in) is nearly eight times as high as in July, the driest month (14 mm or 0.55 in). Victoria experiences the driest summers in Canada (outside of the extreme northern reaches of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut).
Victoria averages just 26 cm (10.2 in) of snow annually, about half that of Vancouver. Roughly one third of winters see virtually no snow, with less than 5 cm (1.97 in) falling during the entire season. When snow does fall, it rarely lasts long on the ground. Victoria averages just two or three days per year with at least 5 cm (1.97 in) of snow on the ground. Every few decades Victoria receives very large snowfalls including the record breaking 100 cm (39.4 in) of snow that fell in December 1996. That amount places Victoria 3rd for biggest snowfall among major cities in Canada.
With 2,193 hours of bright sunshine annually during the last available measurement period, Victoria was the second sunniest city in British Columbia after Cranbrook. In July 2013, Victoria received 432.8 hours of bright sunshine, which is the most sunshine ever recorded in any month in British Columbia history.
Victoria 's equable climate has also added to its reputation as the "City of Gardens ''. The city takes pride in the many flowers that bloom during the winter and early spring, including crocuses, daffodils, early - blooming rhododendrons, cherry and plum trees. Every February there is an annual "flower count '' in what for the rest of the country and most of the province is still the dead of winter.
Due to its mild climate, Victoria and its surrounding area (southeastern Vancouver Island, Gulf Islands, and parts of the Lower Mainland and Sunshine Coast) are also home to many rare, native plants found nowhere else in Canada, including Quercus garryana (Garry oak), Arctostaphylos columbiana (hairy manzanita), and Canada 's only broad - leaf evergreen tree, Arbutus menziesii (Pacific madrone). Many of these species exist here, at the northern end of their range, and are found as far south as southern California and parts of Mexico.
Non-native plants grown in Victoria include the cold - hardy palm Trachycarpus fortunei, which can be found in gardens and public areas of Victoria. One of these Trachycarpus palms stands in front of City Hall.
The following is a list of neighbourhoods in the City of Victoria, as defined by the city planning department. For a list of neighbourhoods in other area municipalities, see Greater Victoria, or the individual entries for those municipalities.
Informal neighbourhoods include:
The population of Victoria was 80,017 in 2011. The Victoria Census Metropolitan Area, comprising thirteen municipalities informally referred to as Greater Victoria, has a population of 344,615 and is the largest urban area on Vancouver Island. By population, Greater Victoria is the 15th largest metropolitan area in Canada. The Capital Regional District, which includes additional rural areas, has a total population of 345,164.
Victoria is known for its disproportionately large retiree population. Some 6.4 percent of the population of Victoria and its surrounding area are more than 80 years of age -- the highest proportion for any of Canada 's metropolitan areas. The city also boasts the country 's third - highest concentration of people 65 and older (17.8 per cent), behind only Peterborough, Ontario, and Kelowna, British Columbia. Retirees throughout Canada are drawn to Victoria 's mild climate, beautiful scenery, year - round golf season, and generally easy - going pace of life. A historically popular cliché referring to the city was it is for "the newly wed and nearly dead ''.
Note: These categories are those used by Statistics Canada.
The city 's chief industries are technology, food products, tourism, education, federal and provincial government administration and services. Other nearby employers include the Canadian Forces (the Township of Esquimalt is the home of the Pacific headquarters of the Royal Canadian Navy), and the University of Victoria (in the municipalities of Oak Bay and Saanich) and Camosun College (which have over 33,000 faculty, staff and students combined). Other sectors of the Greater Victoria area economy include: investment and banking, online book publishing, various public and private schools, food products manufacturing, light aircraft manufacturing, technology products, various high tech firms in pharmaceuticals and computers, engineering, architecture and telecommunications.
There are three major shopping malls in the City of Victoria, including the Bay Centre, Hillside Shopping Centre, and Mayfair Shopping Centre. Mayfair, one of the first major shopping centres in Victoria, first opened as an outdoor strip mall on 16 October 1963 with 27 stores. It was built on the site of a former brickyard in the Maywood district, a then - semi-rural area in the northern part of Victoria. Woodward 's was Mayfair 's original department store anchor upon the mall 's opening.
Mayfair was enclosed and renovated into an indoor mall in 1974. The mall underwent three later expansions in 1984 (with the addition of Consumers Distributing), 1985 (expansion of the mall food court) and a major expansion in 1990 that saw the addition of more retail space. The Bay (now Hudson 's Bay) replaced Woodward 's as Mayfair 's department store anchor in 1993 following Hudson 's Bay Company 's acquisition of the Woodward 's chain. Mayfair now offers 117 stores and services including Hudson 's Bay and Toys "R '' Us. It has 454,213 square feet (42,197.8 m) of retail space and it also provides customers with rooftop parking.
Advanced technology is Victoria 's largest revenue producing private industry with $3.15 billion in annual revenues generated by more than 880 tech companies that have over 15,000 direct employees. The annual economic impact of the sector is estimated at more than $4.03 billion per year. With three post secondary institutions, eight federal research labs, and Canada 's Pacific Navy Base, Victoria has many of the elements required for a strong technology sector. Victoria has Canada 's highest household internet usage and is ranked as "Canada 's Smartest City '' by Macleans Magazine.
Victoria is a major tourism destination with over 3.5 million overnight visitors per year who add more than a billion dollars to the local economy. As well, an additional 500,000 daytime visitors arrive via cruise ships which dock at Ogden Point near the city 's Inner Harbour. Many whale watching tour companies operate from this harbour due to the whales often present near its coast. The city is also close to Canadian Forces Base Esquimalt, the Canadian Navy 's primary Pacific Ocean naval base.
Downtown Victoria also serves as Greater Victoria 's regional downtown, where many night clubs, theatres, restaurants and pubs are clustered, and where many regional public events occur. Canada Day fireworks displays, Symphony Splash, and many other music festivals and cultural events draw tens of thousands of Greater Victorians and visitors to the downtown core. The Rifflandia and Electronic Music Festival are other music events that draw crowds to the downtown core.
The city and metro region has hosted high - profile sports events including the 1994 Commonwealth Games, the 2009 Scotties Tournament of Hearts, the 2005 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship tournament, and 2006 Skate Canada. Victoria co-hosted the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup at Royal Athletic Park, and is the venue for the Bastion Square Grand Prix Criterium road cycling race. The city is also a destination for conventions, meetings, and conferences, including a 2007 North Atlantic Treaty Organization military chief of staff meeting held at the Hotel Grand Pacific. Every year, the Swiftsure International Yacht Race attracts boaters from around the world to participate in the boat race in the waters off of Vancouver Island, and the Victoria Dragon Boat Festival brings over 90 teams from around North America. The Tall Ships Festival brings sailing ships to the city harbour. Victoria also hosts the start of the Vic - Maui Yacht Race, the longest offshore sailboat race on the West Coast.
The Port of Victoria consists of three parts, the Outer Harbour, used by deep sea vessels, the Inner and Upper Harbours, used by coastal and industrial traffic. It is protected by a breakwater with a deep and wide opening. The port is a working harbour, tourist attraction and cruise destination. Esquimalt Harbour is also a well - protected harbour with a large graving dock and shipbuilding and repair facilities.
In January 2005, a volunteer study by the Victoria Cool Aid Society found the homeless population to be approximately 700 individuals. This was the first homeless count in the city. In 2006, a Times - Colonist news article estimated the homeless population to have increased by 30 % in just a few weeks due to the anticipated tourism boom of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. In early 2008, an anti-homelessness programme based on a successful Italian programme was introduced to Victoria. As of February 2013, no residents live there yet.
Despite Victoria 's reputation as a tourist destination, pervasive homelessness and panhandling are serious problems in the downtown area as is "open - air '' drug use.
The homeless survey conducted by the Victoria Cool - Aid Society found 50 % of the homeless population identify themselves as being of First Nations origin, and the majority of people living on the streets do not receive income assistance from the government.
The Victoria Symphony, led by Tania Miller, performs at the Royal Theatre and the Farquhar Auditorium of the University of Victoria from September to May. Every BC Day weekend, the Symphony mounts Symphony Splash, an outdoor event that includes a performance by the orchestra sitting on a barge in Victoria 's Inner Harbour. Streets in the local area are closed, as each year approximately 40,000 people attend a variety of concerts and events throughout the day. The event culminates with the Symphony 's evening concert, with Tchaikovsky 's 1812 Overture as the grand finale, complete with cannon fire from Royal Canadian Sea Cadet Gunners from HMCS QUADRA, a pealing carillon and a fireworks display to honour BC Day. Pacific Opera Victoria, Victoria Operatic Society, Victoria Philharmonic Choir, Canadian Pacific Ballet and Ballet Victoria stage two or three productions each year at the Macpherson or Royal Theatres.
The Bastion Theatre, a professional dramatic company, functioned in Victoria through the 1970s and 1980s and performed high quality dramatic productions but ultimately declared bankruptcy in 1988. Reborn as The New Bastion Theatre in 1990 the company struggled for two more years before closing operations in 1992. The Belfry Theatre started in 1974 as the Springridge Cultural Centre in 1974. The venue was renamed the Belfry Theatre in 1976 as the company began producing its own shows. The Belfry 's mandate is to produce contemporary plays with an emphasis on new Canadian plays. Other regional theatre venues include: Phoenix Theatre student theatre at the University of Victoria, Kaleidoscope Theatre and Intrepid Theatre, producers of the Victoria Fringe Theatre Festival and The Uno Festival of Solo Performance.
The only Canadian Forces Primary Reserve brass / reed band on Vancouver Island is in Victoria. The 5th (British Columbia) Field Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery Band traces its roots back to 1864, making it the oldest, continually operational military band west of Thunder Bay, Ontario. Its mandate is to support the island 's military community by performing at military dinners, parades and ceremonies, and other events. The band performs weekly in August at Fort Rodd Hill National Historic Site where the Regiment started manning the guns of the fort in 1896, and also performs every year at the Cameron Bandshell at Beacon Hill Park.
The annual multi-day Rifflandia Music Festival is one of Canada 's largest modern, rock and pop music festivals.
A number of well - known musicians and bands are from Victoria, including Nelly Furtado, David Foster, The Moffatts, Frog Eyes, Johnny Vallis, Jets Overhead, Bryce Soderberg, Swollen Members, Armchair Cynics, Nomeansno, The New Colors, Wolf Parade, The Racoons, Dayglo Abortions and Hot Hot Heat.
Due to the proximity to Vancouver and a 6 % distance location tax credit, Victoria is used as a filming location for many films, television series, and television movies. Some of these films include X2, X-Men: The Last Stand, In the Land of Women, White Chicks, Scary Movie, Final Destination, Excess Baggage and Bird on a Wire. Television series such as Smallville, The Dead Zone and Poltergeist: The Legacy were also filmed there. Canadian director Atom Egoyan was raised in Victoria. Actors Cameron Bright (Ultraviolet, X-Men: The Last Stand, Thank You for Smoking, New Moon) and Ryan Robbins (Stargate Atlantis, Battlestar Galactica, Sanctuary) were born in Victoria. Actor Cory Monteith from the television series Glee was raised in Victoria. Actor, artist, and athlete Duncan Regehr of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine was raised in the region.
Nobel laureate Alice Munro lived in Victoria during the years when she published her first story collections and co-founded Munro 's Books. Victoria resident Stanley Evans has written a series of mysteries featuring a Coast Salish character, Silas Seaweed, who works as an investigator with the Victoria Police Department. Other Victoria writers include Kit Pearson, Esi Edugyan, Robert Wiersema, W.D. Valgardson, Elizabeth Louisa Moresby, Madeline Sonik, Jack Hodgins, Dave Duncan, Bill Gaston, David Gurr, Ken Steacy, Sheryl McFarlane, Carol Shields and Patrick Lane. Gayleen Froese 's 2005 novel Touch is set in Victoria.
Beacon Hill Park is the central city 's main urban green space. Its area of 75 hectares (190 acres) adjacent to Victoria 's southern shore includes numerous playing fields, manicured gardens, exotic species of plants and animals such as wild peacocks, a petting zoo, and views of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Olympic Mountains in Washington across it. The sport of cricket has been played in Beacon Hill Park since the mid-19th century. Each summer, the City of Victoria presents dozens of concerts at the Cameron Band Shell in Beacon Hill Park.
The extensive system of parks in Victoria also includes a few areas of natural Garry oak meadow habitat, an increasingly scarce ecosystem that once dominated the region.
In the heart of downtown are the British Columbia Parliament Buildings, The Empress Hotel, Victoria Police Department Station Museum, the gothic Christ Church Cathedral, and the Royal British Columbia Museum / IMAX National Geographic Theatre, with large exhibits on local Aboriginal peoples, natural history, and modern history, along with travelling international exhibits. In addition, the heart of downtown also has the Emily Carr House, Victoria Bug Zoo, and Market Square. The oldest (and most intact) Chinatown in Canada is within downtown. The Art Gallery of Greater Victoria is close to downtown in the Rockland neighbourhood several city blocks from Craigdarroch Castle built by industrialist Robert Dunsmuir and Government House, the official residence of the Lieutenant - Governor of British Columbia.
Numerous other buildings of historic importance or interest are also in central Victoria, including: the 1845 St. Ann 's Schoolhouse; the 1852 Helmcken House built for Victoria 's first doctor; the 1863 Congregation Emanu - El, the oldest synagogue in continuous use in Canada; the 1865 Angela College built as Victoria 's first Anglican Collegiate School for Girls, now housing retired nuns of the Sisters of St. Ann; the 1871 St. Ann 's Academy built as a Catholic school; the 1874 Church of Our Lord, built to house a breakaway congregation from the Anglican Christ Church cathedral; the 1890 St. Andrew 's Presbyterian Church; the 1890 Metropolitan Methodist Church (now the Victoria Conservatory of Music), which is publicly open for faculty, student, and guest performances, also acts as Camosun College Music Department; the 1892 St. Andrew 's Cathedral; and the 1925 Crystal Gardens, originally a saltwater swimming pool, restored as a conservatory and most recently a tourist attraction called the B.C. Experience, which closed down in 2006.
CFB Esquimalt navy base, in the adjacent municipality of Esquimalt, has a base museum dedicated to naval and military history, in the Naden part of the base. (2)
North of the city on the Saanich Peninsula are the marine biology Shaw Ocean Discovery Centre, Butchart Gardens, one of the biggest tourist and local resident attractions on Vancouver Island, as well as the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, part of the National Research Council of Canada, Victoria Butterfly Gardens and Centre of the Universe planetarium.
Notable museums located just outside of Victoria include the Maritime Museum of British Columbia, and the British Columbia Aviation Museum on the north edge of the Victoria International Airport. There are also numerous National Historic Sites in close proximity to Victoria, such as the Fisgard Lighthouse, Craigflower Manor and Schoolhouse, Hatley Castle and Hatley Park and Fort Rodd Hill, which is a coastal artillery fort built in the late 1890s west of the city in Colwood. Also west of the city is Western Speedway, a 640 - metre (⁄ mi) oval vehicular race track and the largest in Western Canada.
Victoria 's climate, location and variety of facilities make it ideal for many recreational activities including rock climbing, hiking, kayaking, golf, water sports, informal team sports and jogging.
Victoria is also known as the Cycling Capital of Canada, with hundreds of kilometres of bicycle paths, bike lanes and bike routes in the city, including the Galloping Goose Regional Trail. There are mountain biking trails at Mount Work Regional Park, and Victoria is quickly becoming a bike tourism destination. Cycling advocacy groups including Greater Victoria Cycling Coalition (GVCC) and the Bike To Work Society have worked to improve Victoria 's cycling infrastructure and facilities, and to make cycling a viable transportation alternative, attracting 5 % of commuters in 2005.
Greater Victoria also has a rich motorsports history, and is home to a 4 / 10ths mile oval race track called Western Speedway. Opened in 1954, Western Speedway is the oldest speedway in western Canada, and features stock car racing, drag racing, demolition derbies and other events. Western Speedway is also home to the Victoria Auto Racing Hall of Fame and Museum.
The Greater Victoria area also serves as a headquarters for Rugby Canada, based out of Westhills Stadium in Langford, as well as a headquarters for Rowing Canada, based out of Victoria City Rowing Club at Elk Lake in Saanich. The Greater Victoria Sports Hall of Fame is at the Save - on - Foods Memorial Centre, and features numerous displays and information on the sporting history of the city.
The major sporting and entertainment complex, for Victoria and Vancouver Island Region, is the Save - On - Foods Memorial Centre arena. It replaced the former Victoria Memorial Arena, which was constructed by efforts of World War II veterans as a monument to fallen comrades. World War I, World War II, Korean War, and other conflict veterans are also commemorated. Fallen Canadian soldiers in past, present, and future wars and / or United Nations, NATO missions are noted, or will be noted by the main lobby monument at the Save - On - Foods Memorial Centre. The arena was the home of the ECHL (formerly known as the East Coast Hockey League) team, Victoria Salmon Kings, owned by RG Properties Limited, a real estate development firm that built the Victoria Save On Foods Memorial Centre, and Prospera Place Arena in Kelowna. The arena is the home of the Victoria Royals Western Hockey League (WHL) team that replaced the Victoria Salmon Kings (ECHL).
Victoria has also been a destination for numerous high - profile international sporting events. It hosted the 1994 Commonwealth Games and the 2005 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship. The 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup was co-hosted by Victoria along with five other Canadian cities; (Burnaby, Toronto, Edmonton, Ottawa, Montreal). Victoria was also the first city location of the cross Canada 2010 Winter Olympics torch relay that occurred before the start of the 2010 Winter Olympics. Victoria will co-host the 2019 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships along with Vancouver, British Columbia.
The city has also been home to numerous high - profile sports teams in its history. The Victoria Cougars are perhaps the most famous sports franchise the city has known, winning the Stanley Cup as members of the PCHA in 1925. Today a Junior ' B ' team of that name plays in the Vancouver Island Junior Hockey League. From 1971 until 1994 there was also a team called the Victoria Cougars in the Western Hockey League, before they moved to Prince George to become the Prince George Cougars. The Victoria Salmon Kings played in the ECHL from 2004 to 2011, and were a minor league affiliate of the Vancouver Canucks. In baseball, Victoria was also once home of the Victoria Athletics of the Western International League, a Class ' A ' minor league baseball affiliate of the New York Yankees.
Victoria has been home to many accomplished athletes that have participated in professional sports or the Olympics. Notable professional athletes include Steve Nash, twice Most Valuable Player in the National Basketball Association, who grew up in Victoria and played youth basketball at St. Michael 's University School and Mount Douglas Secondary School. Furthermore, there are several current NHL hockey players from Greater Victoria, including brothers Jamie Benn and Jordie Benn of the Dallas Stars and Montreal Canadiens, respectively; Tyson Barrie of the Colorado Avalanche, and Matt Irwin of the Nashville Predators. Michael Saunders, current outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies was born in Victoria and still lives there during the off season. Nick Pivetta was born in Victoria and is currently a pitcher in the Philadelphia Phillies organization who debuted this year as of 2017. Professional racing cyclist and 2012 Giro d'Italia winner, Ryder Hesjedal was born in Victoria and still calls the city home. Victoria has also been home to numerous Olympic Games athletes, including, but not limited to, multi-time medalists such as Silken Laumann, Ryan Cochrane, and Simon Whitfield.
Sports teams presently operating in Victoria include:
Notable defunct teams that operated in Victoria include:
The Jordan River Diversion Dam is Vancouver Island 's main hydroelectric power station. It was built in 1911.
The city 's water is supplied by the Capital Regional District 's Water Services Department from its Sooke Lake Reservoir. The lake is connected to a treatment plant at Japan Gulch by the 8.8 km (5.5 mi) Kapoor Tunnel. The lake water is very soft and requires no filtering. It is treated with chlorine, ammonia and ultraviolet light to control micro-organisms. Until the tunnel was completed in 1967, water flowed from the lake through the circuitous, leaky and much smaller 44 km (27 mi) Sooke Flowline.
The Hartland landfill is the waste disposal site for Greater Victoria area. Since 1985, it has been run by the Capital Regional District environmental services. It is on top of a hill, between Victoria and Sidney, at the end of Hartland Avenue. 48 ° 32 ′ 17 '' N 123 ° 27 ′ 48 '' W / 48.538148 ° N 123.463368 ° W / 48.538148; - 123.463368 There is a recycling centre, a sewer solid waste collection, hazardous waste collection, and an electricity generating station. This generating station now creates 1.6 megawatts of electricity, enough for 1,600 homes. The site has won international environmental awards. The CRD conducts public tours of the facility. It is predicted to be full by 2045.
Victoria discharges 81.7 megalitres (2,890,000 cubic feet) per day of screened wastewater that has undergone preliminary treatment into the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The wastewater treatment facilities at Clover Pt. and Macaulay Pt. serve seven municipalities composing the core area of the CRD. At these two facilities, wastewater is screened to exclude objects larger than 6 mm (0.24 in) then pumped through diffusers at the end of deep marine outfalls. The CRD is building an upgrade of its wastewater treatment infrastructure to full tertiary level.
The Saanich Peninsula wastewater treatment plant serves North Saanich, Central Saanich and the Town of Sidney as well as the Victoria International Airport, the Institute of Ocean Sciences and the Tseycum and Pauquachin First Nations communities. This is a secondary level treatment plant which produces Class A biosolids.
The Victoria International Airport has non-stop flights to and from Toronto, San Francisco, Seattle and many cities throughout Western Canada. Multiple scheduled helicopter and seaplane flights are available daily from Victoria 's Inner Harbour to Vancouver International Airport, Vancouver Harbour, and Seattle.
Direct flights between Victoria and the San Francisco Bay Area (San Francisco, Oakland, Silicon Valley) began service on 5 June 2008. Trips will be 2 hours instead of the usual 6 hours because there will be no stop overs in Seattle, as with other flights. The service will be operated by United Airlines, using Bombardier CRJ - 200 aircraft. The same newspaper article also mentions the Victoria Airport Authority 's plans for further capacity expansions at the Victoria International Airport. These are expected to offer extended economic benefits to the region, especially the Tourism and High Tech industries. West Jet started a direct flight service to Las Vegas, Nevada, three times per week, on 9 September 2008 (Victoria Times Colonist, 29 May 2008).
Victoria is also home to the world 's largest all - seaplane airline, Harbour Air. Harbour air offers flights during daylight hours at least every 30 minutes between Victoria 's inner harbour and Vancouver 's downtown terminal or YVR south terminal. Harbour Air also operate scenic tour flights over the Victoria harbour and gulf islanSports eams presentds area.
Due to Victoria 's mild year round weather with mostly rainy winters, commuting by bicycle is practical year - round compared to other Canadian cities. For this reason, the Greater Victoria area had the highest rate of bicycle commuting to work of any census metropolitan area in Canada in the 2011 and 2016 census. Greater Victoria also has an expanding system designed to facilitate bicycles and electrically assisted bicycles via bike lanes on many roads as well as separated multi-use paths for bicycles and pedestrians known as the Galloping Goose Regional Trail, Lochside Regional Trail and the E&N rail trail. These multi-use trails are designed exclusively for foot traffic and cyclists and pass through many communities in the Greater Victoria area, beginning at the downtown core and extending into areas such as Langford and Central and North Saanich.
Bike to Work Week Victoria is a bi-annual event held in communities throughout greater Victoria, British Columbia. It is organized by the Greater Victoria Bike to Work Society with a Spring bike to work week scheduled in late May every year and a Fall bike to work week scheduled in October. The purpose of the event is to encourage bicycle commuting. Bike to Work Week began in 1995 in Victoria and has expanded to include other communities in BC through their local bicycle advocacy groups all supported by the Bike to Work BC Society. In 2008, the Bike to Work BC Society was formed as a legal entity to run the event in other communities around BC. Since its inception ridership in the yearly event has steadily increased, and in 2017 over 7000 people participated in Greater Victoria. Bike to Work Week is first a marketing initiative and secondarily a cycling event that aims to attract new daily riders to commuting by bicycle. The behaviour change (public health) model, relying on research conducted by both the provincial and federal governments that identified barriers to cycling and reasons for choosing cycling, was applied as a way to accomplish the goal of recruiting employees to bicycle to work.
Victoria is building a protected bike lane network. The first lane opened in Spring 2017 on Pandora Avenue, between Store Street and Cook Street in the downtown core. The protected lane makes for an easy cycling connection for commuters across the new (April 2018) Johnson Street bridge, to the Galloping Goose Trail and E&N rail trail. The second protected bike lane in the network opened on Fort Street May 27, 2018. The next two roads in the downtown area bike network have been approved by city council for Humboldt and Wharf streets with construction planned to start October 2018.
Victoria is served by several ferries with the Lower Mainland, Gulf Islands and the United States. BC Ferries provides service between Swartz Bay, up the Saanich peninsula from Victoria, to Tsawwassen on the Lower Mainland for cars, bus, trucks, pedestrians and cyclists. The Coho ferry operates as a car and pedestrian / cyclist ferry between the inner harbour of Victoria and Port Angeles, Washington. The Victoria Clipper is a passenger - only (no vehicles) ferry which operates daily, year - round between downtown Seattle and the inner harbour of Victoria. The Washington State Ferries runs a ferry for cars, pedestrians and cyclists between Friday Harbour, Orcas Island and Anacortes in Washington State from the port at Sidney, up the Saanich peninsula from Victoria.
Local public transportation is run by the Victoria Regional Transit System, which is part of BC Transit. Since 2000, double - decker buses have been introduced to the fleet, and have become an icon for the city. Rider fare payments can be made in cash, monthly bus passes, disability yearly passes, day - passes purchased from the driver or tickets purchased from a store. As of April 1, 2016 bus drivers do not provide transfers as proof of payment. Transfers were a source of disagreement and delay on the bus, due to improper transfer use, and disagreements over expired transfers or transfers used for return trips. Instead, a day - pass was added that can be purchased from the bus driver for $5, or two bus tickets (purchased from a retailer) for the equivalent of $4.50. To improve bus reliability and reduce delays, a bike and bus priority lane was opened in 2014 during peak traffic periods with fines for motorists operating in the bus / bike lane who are not turning in the same block. The dedicated bike and bus lane on Douglas street is being expanded from Downtown to near Uptown and may be changed to be restricted to only buses and bikes 24 / 7 rather than just during peak traffic periods depending on direction of travel. Most buses operating in the Greater Victoria area have a bike rack installed at the front of the bus that can accommodate two bicycles.
Passenger rail service previously operated by Via Rail provided a single daily return trip along between Victoria -- Courtenay, along the eastern coast of Vancouver Island, to the cities of Nanaimo, Courtenay, and points between. The service was discontinued along this line indefinitely on 19 March 2011, due to needed track replacement work. Prior to further inspection of the track, service along the segment between Nanaimo and Victoria was originally planned to resume on 8 April, but lack of funding has prevented any of the work from taking place and it is unclear when or if the service will resume.
Local roadways, although showing signs of increasing congestion due to increasing population, are relatively easy to travel via a variety of means. However, roads in Victoria are not based on a grid system as in Vancouver or Edmonton, and even most major streets do not follow a straight line from beginning to end as they wind around hills, parks, coastlines, and historic neighbourhoods, often changing names two or three times. There is little distinction between "streets '' and "avenues '' in Victoria as there is in other cities such as Vancouver or Edmonton where "streets '' run north - south and "avenues '' run east - west, and Victorians are unlikely to use the terms "north '', "south '', "east '', or "west '' when giving directions.
The compact size of the city lends itself readily to smaller, fuel efficient alternatives to full size passenger cars, such as scooters, as areas with significantly steep hills, such as one would find in San Francisco, are very few. Victoria is also in the process of making the use of such methods of transportation more desirable (in a push towards a more "green '', eco-friendly environment), by offering incentives to use such modes of transport, such as parking spaces in the downtown core specifically designed for vehicles "3 m (9 ft 10 in) or less '' in wheelbase size, thus fostering the desirability for ownership of vehicles such as Smart Cars, motorcycles and small displacement scooters. Generally speaking, one can expect to reach most destinations within Greater Victoria within a time span of 20 -- 30 minutes, perhaps approximately 60 minutes, dependent on traffic conditions, road construction or other reasons for blockage, where you are coming from, going to, and mode of transport. Travel time is longer during rush hour times due to large volume of traffic entering the downtown core in the morning and departing at evening rush hour.
Victoria also serves as the western terminus (Mile Zero) for Canada 's Trans - Canada Highway, the longest national highway in the world. The Mile Zero is in the city 's southern part at the corner of Douglas Street and Dallas Road, where there is a small sign to mark the spot and a statue to honour Terry Fox.
Within the Greater Victoria area, private cars, SUVs, and light trucks together make up the majority of trips. However, the city boasts an excellent public transit system using a fleet of modern buses, and is beginning to plan for a rapid transit link to the suburban / rural western communities of Langford, Colwood, Metchosin and Sooke.
Coach bus service between downtown Victoria and downtown Vancouver or the Vancouver International Airport that includes the ferry fare is called the BC Ferries Connector run by Wilson 's Transportation Limited. The coach bus travels on the ferry to Vancouver with separate trips for the bus to downtown and a bus to the Vancouver International Airport (YVR). Average travel time between the two cities is under 4 hours with an hour and half of that time spent on the ferry crossing.
Bus service from Victoria to points up island is run by Island Link Bus or Tofino Bus. Both bus services depart from the Victoria bus terminal at 700 Douglas Street, behind the Fairmont Empress Hotel and offer trips to destinations further up island and the west coast of the island.
The city of Victoria lies entirely within the Greater Victoria School District. There is one public high school within the city boundaries, Victoria High School, founded in 1876, making it the oldest High School in North America north of Portland, Oregon and west of Winnipeg, Manitoba. Most of the elementary schools in Victoria now offer the popular French immersion programmes in addition to programmes in English. The educational needs of the Francophone community in Victoria are served by École Victor - Brodeur in the adjacent municipality of Esquimalt. In addition, within the city proper there are several smaller schools serving segments of the community such as the Chinese School in Chinatown and Christ Church Cathedral School. The senior campus of Glenlyon - Norfolk School is in the Oak Bay neighbourhood.
The Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie - Britannique, operates one Francophone school in the Victoria area: école Victor - Brodeur in Esquimalt. It is a M - 12 primary and secondary school.
Victoria is served by three public post secondary educational institutions outside the city in the Greater Victoria area: University of Victoria (UVic), Camosun College, and Royal Roads University (RRU). The University of Victoria is on the Saanich, Oak Bay border. Camosun College has two campuses, both of which are in Saanich. Royal Roads University is in Colwood.
Lester B. Pearson College of the Pacific is an international school, in Metchosin, a municipality to the west of Victoria. There are also several private vocational and English (ESL) training schools available for people who want to learn the English language or upgrade new job market skills. Sprott Shaw College is a private career training institution that has had a campus in Victoria since 1913.
Victoria is the only Canadian provincial capital without a local CBC Television station, owned - and - operated or affiliate, although it does host a small CBC Radio station in the 700 block of Kings Road. The region is considered to be a part of the Vancouver television market, receiving most stations that broadcast from across the Strait of Georgia, including the CBC, CTV, City and Global affiliates. The two television stations based in Victoria are CHEK - DT (an independent station) and CIVI - DT (a CTV Two affiliate).
Victoria has four Sister Cities:
Coordinates: 48 ° 25 ′ 19 '' N 123 ° 21 ′ 54 '' W / 48.422 ° N 123.365 ° W / 48.422; - 123.365 (Victoria)
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first australian recording artist to win a pop music grammy | List of Australian Grammy Award Winners - wikipedia
This list details Australian musicians, performers, producers and composers that have been successful in winning a Grammy Award. Many on the list have also been inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association ARIA Hall of Fame.
A Grammy Award (originally called Gramophone Award) -- or Grammy -- is an accolade by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to recognise outstanding achievement in the music industry. The first Grammy Awards ceremony was held on 4 May 1959, and it was set up to honour musical accomplishments by performers for the year 1958.
Australian musicians and performers have produced a wide variety of popular music which has been commercially successful on the international scene. However, success at the Grammy Awards has been quite rare for Australian musicians. The first Australian to win a Grammy was Joan Sutherland in 1961. The most successful Australians are The Bee Gees, Olivia Newton - John and Keith Urban who have won 4 Grammy Awards each.
Record of the Year is awarded to the performer and the production team of a single song.
Album of the Year is awarded to the performer and the production team of a full album.
Song of the Year is awarded to the composer (s) of the song.
Best New Artist is awarded to a promising breakthrough performer who releases, during the Eligibility Year, the first recording that establishes the public identity of that artist (which is not necessarily their first proper release).
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when was the last time easter was on april 22 | List of dates for Easter - wikipedia
This is a list of dates for Easter. The Easter dates also affect when Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Maundy Thursday, the Ascension of the Lord and Pentecost occur. Easter may occur on different dates in the Gregorian Calendar and the Julian Calendar. The accompanying table provides both sets of dates, for recent decades and forthcoming years -- see the computus article for more details on the calculation.
In 1818 the Paschal Full Moon fell on Saturday, March 21 (the equinox). Therefore, the following day, March 22, was Easter. It will not fall as early again until 2285, a span of 467 years. The next earliest Easter between 1818 and 2285 (March 23) occurred in 1845, 1856, 1913 and 2008, and will occur again in 2160 -- a 11, 57, 95 and 152 - year gap, respectively.
The earliest dates for Easter in the Eastern Orthodox Church between 1875 and 2099 are April 4, 1915 and April 4, 2010 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to March 22 in the Julian Calendar.
In 1943 Easter fell on Sunday, April 25. The ecclesiastical full moon did not occur until Saturday, March 20; because it came before the vernal equinox, the paschal full moon did not happen until Sunday, April 18. Consequently, Easter was the following Sunday (April 25). Easter will not fall as late again until 2038 -- a span of 95 years. The second latest date for Easter, April 24, occurred in 2011. The latter occurred in 1859 and will not happen again until 2095 -- 152 and 84 years, respectively. However between years 5121 and 6482, Easter will be no later than April 24.
The latest dates for Orthodox Easter between 1875 and 2099 are May 8, 1983, and May 8, 2078 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to April 25 in the Julian Calendar. Orthodox Easter has never fallen on Gregorian May 7 yet; it will happen in 2051 unless these churches change to another calendar.
Despite using calendars that are apart by 13 days, Easter 2014 fell on the same date. According to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, the first Paschal Full Moon after the Spring Equinox (March 20) fell on Monday, April 14, 2014. The following Sunday, April 20, was, therefore, Easter Day.
According to the Orthodox (Julian) calendar (which is 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar), the Spring Equinox also falls on March 21. However, in the Gregorian Calendar, this is April 3. The first Orthodox Full Moon after the Equinox falls on (Julian) Tuesday, April 2, 2014 (Gregorian April 15). The following Sunday, (Julian) April 7, is, therefore, Easter Day (Gregorian April 20).
Both calendars (Gregorian and Julian) calculate Easter as falling on dates between March 22 and April 25 on their calendars. However, because of the 13 - day difference, any member of an Orthodox church would observe that the Western Easter falls between March 10 and April 12 on the Julian calendar. Conversely, any member of a Western church would observe that Orthodox Easter falls between April 4 and May 8 on the Gregorian calendar.
Beginning March 14, 2100 (February 29, 2100, in the Julian Calendar), the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars will increase to 14 days.
In Hungary, the United Kingdom except Scotland, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Germany, Switzerland and New Zealand, Easter comprises two public holidays, Good Friday and Easter Monday, making a four - day weekend. The moveable date of Easter sometimes brings it into conflict with other, fixed, public holidays.
Easter is not a federal holiday in the United States. In North Carolina, however, it was a public holiday from 1935 to 1987.
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why is it not possible in the philippines to have nuclear energy | Nuclear power in the Philippines - wikipedia
Nuclear power was considered as a solution to the 1973 oil crisis, in which the Philippines was affected. The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant was built in the early 1980s but never went into operation because it sits on a tectonic fault and volcano. The Fukushima nuclear disaster gave pause to efforts to revive the plant.
Under a regime of martial law, Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos in July 1973 announced the decision to build a nuclear power plant. This was in response to the 1973 oil crisis, as the Middle East oil embargo had put a heavy strain on the Philippine economy, and Marcos believed nuclear power to be the solution to meeting the country 's energy demands and decreasing dependence on imported oil.
Construction on the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant began in 1976. Following the 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States, construction on the BNPP was stopped, and a subsequent safety inquiry into the plant revealed over 4,000 defects. Among the issues raised was that it was built near major faults and close to the then dormant Pinatubo volcano.
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the purge of the communist party in the soviet union began with | Purges of the Communist party of the Soviet Union - wikipedia
Purges of the Communist Party in the Union (Russian: "Чистка партийных рядов '', chistka partiinix ryadov, "cleansing of the party ranks '') were a key ritual in which periodic reviews of members of the Communist Party were conducted to get rid of the "undesirables. ''
According to Sheila Fitzpatrick, in her book Everyday Stalinism, such purges were conducted especially during the cultural revolution, "bringing excitement into the workday bureaucratic routine ''. Such reviews would start with a short autobiography from the reviewed person and then interrogation of him or her by the purge commission as well as by the attending audience.
Although the term "purge '' is mostly associated with Stalinism, the first major purge of the party ranks was performed by Bolsheviks as early as 1921. About 220,000 members were purged or left the party in 1921. The purge was justified by the necessity to get rid of the members who joined the party simply to be on the winning side. The major criteria were social origins (members of working classes were normally accepted without question) and contributions to the revolutionary cause.
The first purge of the Joseph Stalin era took place in 1929 -- 1930 in accordance with a resolution of the XVI Party Conference. Purges became deadly under Stalin. More than 10 percent of the party members were purged. At the same time, a significant number of new members, industrial workers, joined the Party. Additionally, Stalin ordered "Case Spring '' the repression and / or execution of the officers of the Red Army who had served previously in the Russian Imperial Army, civilians who had been sympathetic to the White movement, or other subversives rounded up by the OGPU. Over 3,000 people were estimated to be executed and tens of thousands lost their positions and privileges.
The next systematic party purge in the Soviet Union was declared by Stalin in December 1932 to be performed during 1933. During this period, new memberships were suspended. A joint resolution of the Party Central Committee and Central Revision Committee specified the criteria for purging and called for setting up special Purge Commissions, to which every communist had to report. Furthermore, this purge concerned members of the Central Committee, Central Revision Committee, which previously were immune to purges, because they were elected at Party Congresses. In particular, Nikolai Bukharin, Alexei Ivanovich Rykov, and Mikhail Tomsky had to try hard to defend themselves during this purge. At this time, of 1.9 million members, about 18 percent were purged.
Sergey Kirov, leader of the Leningrad Communist party, was executed in 1934. One third of the Communist party was executed or put into the labor camps under Stalin 's orders.
In itself, the term was innocent enough: between 1921 and 1933 in the Soviet Union, for example, some 800,000 people were purged or left the party, but suffered no worse fate. But from 1934 onwards, during the Great Purge, the connotations of the term changed, because being expelled from the party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment or execution.
Following Stalin 's death in 1953, purges as systematic campaigns of expulsion from the party stopped, and loss of the party membership meant only loss of possible nomenklatura privileges.
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when do you check the ball in basketball | Streetball - wikipedia
Streetball or street basketball is a variation of basketball typically played on outdoor courts, featuring significantly less formal structure and enforcement of the game 's rules. As such, its format is more conducive to allowing players to publicly showcase their own individual skills. Streetball is often regarded as another element of the Hip Hop culture. Streetball may also refer to other urban sports played on asphalt. It is particularly big in New York City.
Some places and cities in the United States have organized streetball programs, operated similarly to midnight basketball programs. Many cities also host their own weekend - long streetball tournaments, with Hoop - It - Up and the Houston Rockets ' Blacktop Battle being two of the most popular. Since the mid-2000s, streetball has seen an increase in media exposure through television shows such as ESPN 's "Street basketball '' and "City Slam '', as well as traveling exhibitions such as the AND1 Mixtape Tour, YPA, and Ball4Real.
Streetball rules vary widely from court to court.
Players typically divide into teams (choose sides) by alternating choices.
Typically when a player calls ball that means that team have current possession of the ball and they can stop grabbing for it. Then they continue the game from the spot where "ball '' was called.
No referees are employed, so almost invariably a "call your own foul '' rule is in effect, and a player who believes he has been fouled, simply needs to call out "Foul! '', and play will be stopped, with the ball awarded to the fouled player 's team (free throws are not awarded in streetball).
A common misconception is that saying "And 1 '' is synonymous with calling "foul. '' It is not. The phrase is commonly employed as a form of trash talk. For example, when a player knows they are going to make a shot and they think they are getting fouled as they are shooting will say "And 1 '', to let their defender know, "you ca n't stop me, even though you have fouled me. '' In reality, and as the rules that follow indicate, there is no such thing as a traditional "And 1 '' in Streetball.
When a player throws the ball up in the air and catches it somewhere else, it will be considered a travel.
Because the duration of the game is dictated by score and players can not foul - out in streetball, teams often employ intentional fouls as a last resort on defense.
If defensive players had to concern themselves with fouling the offensive player hard enough so that there was no chance they could make a shot, it would certainly lead to unnecessary injury and probably several additional arguments on the court. It goes without saying that calling fouls in streetball is disfavored. The etiquette of what rightly constitutes a foul, as well as the permissible amount of protestation against such a call, are the products of individual groups, and of the seriousness of a particular game.
FIBA recently had to add the ' check clock ' rule into play in their streetball tournaments due to some players taking excruciatingly long amounts of time to check the ball, interrupting the flow of play. This ' check clock ' means that when the defending player has been checked the ball, he has to return it within 5 seconds.
A common feature of street basketball is the pick up game. To participate in most streetball games around the world, one simply goes to an outdoor court where people are playing, indicates a wish to participate, and from all the players who were at the court before one has played, one will get to pick their team out of the players available and play a game. Generally, the team captains alternate their choices, but different courts have differing rules in regards to player selection. Many games play up to 7, 11, 13, 15, or 21 points with baskets counting for 2 and 3 points.
Players often play ' win by 2 ' which, as in tennis, means that the team has to win by a margin of at least 2 points. Sometimes a local "dead end '' limit applies; for instance a game may be played to 7, win by 2, with a 9 - point dead end, (referred to as "7 by 2 's, 9 straight '') which would mean scores of 7 - 3, 8 - 6, or 9 - 8 would all be final, while with scores of 7 - 6 or 8 - 7, play would continue. The most common streetball game is 3 on 3 played half court, though 5 on 5 full court can be found. Another common variation to the rules is the "skunk '' rule. This merely means that if a player reaches a certain point without the other player scoring, the game is over. The skunk rule limit can vary, but is often used at the score 7 to 0.
Sometimes in a half - court game, a "winner 's ball '' or "make it, take it '' rule is used. This means that if a team scores, it gets the ball again on offense; one team could end up never getting the ball on offense if the other team scores on every possession. Full court basketball is not played with these rules, but, in most instances, the winning team gets to choose which basketball and usually which direction (which basket) they get to use. Also, if the ball goes out of bounds players must check up.
Another possible streetball feature is having an MC call the game. The MC is on the court during the game and is often very close to the players (but makes an effort to not interfere with the game) and uses a microphone to provide game commentary for the fans.
If the player loses the match of a 1v1, the losing player is given a second chance to shoot a shot at the three point line. This either results with the match continuing or if the match is close enough resulting in a tie.
A popular variation of street basketball is 21, also known as Hustle, American, St. Mary 's, a V or Varsity, Roughhouse, 33, 50 or Crunch, or "New York. '' 21 is played most often with 3 - 5 players on a half court, typically when not enough players have arrived at the playground to "run 3 's '' (play 3 - on - 3). However it is possible to play "21 '' with only two players, or more than 5.
Further, in some forms, players can freely enter the game after it has begun, starting at zero points or being "spotted '' the same number as the player with the lowest score. "21 '' is an "every player for himself '' game, with highly variable rules. The rules of "21 '' are usually agreed by the players at the beginning of the game.
The typical rules of "21 '' are:
Common additional rules include:
"21 '' is considered a very challenging game, especially because the offensive player must possibly go up against several defenders at the same time. For this reason, it is exceedingly difficult to "drive to the hole '' and make lay - ups in "21. '' Therefore, and also because of the emphasis on free - throws, "21 '' is very much a shooter 's game, and because a successful shot means you keep the ball, it is possible for there to be come - backs when a player recovers from a large deficit by not missing any shots (this can also result in failure when they miss their final free - throw at 20 points and revert to 13 or 15 etc.).
"21 '' is popular because it allows an odd number of people to play, unlike regular basketball or other variants.
Another less common streetball variant, often referred to as "King of the Court '', or "Boston '', results in essentially a one - on - one (or sometimes two - on - two) tournament between any number of players. Each match is played following normal one - on - one rules, including violations (such as fouls and out - of - bounds) to just one point. The winner remains on the court and gets to take the ball out while the loser returns to the end of the line of players waiting to step on the court. The first player to win a set number of matches (usually 7 or 11) wins the game.
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determination of liquid limit plastic limit and plasticity index | Atterberg limits - wikipedia
The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of a fine - grained soil: its shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.
Depending on its water content, a soil may appear in one of four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state, the consistency and behavior of a soil is different and consequently so are its engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the soil 's behavior. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and to distinguish between different types of silts and clays.
These limits were created by Albert Atterberg, a Swedish agriculturist. They were later refined by Arthur Casagrande.
Distinctions in soil are used in assessing the soils that are to have structures built on them. Soils when wet retain water, and some expand in volume. The amount of expansion is related to the ability of the soil to take in water and its structural make - up (the type of atoms present). These tests are mainly used on clayey or silty soils since these are the soils that expand and shrink due to moisture content. Clays and silts react with the water and thus change sizes and have varying shear strengths. Thus these tests are used widely in the preliminary stages of designing any structure to ensure that the soil will have the correct amount of shear strength and not too much change in volume as it expands and shrinks with different moisture contents.
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM International D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid and plastic limits.
The plastic limit (PL) is determined by rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous surface. The procedure is defined in ASTM Standard D 4318. If the soil is at a moisture content where its behavior is plastic, this thread will retain its shape down to a very narrow diameter. The sample can then be remolded and the test repeated. As the moisture content falls due to evaporation, the thread will begin to break apart at larger diameters.
The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content where the thread breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm (about 1 / 8 inch). A soil is considered non-plastic if a thread can not be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture possible.
The liquid limit (LL) is conceptually defined as the water content at which the behavior of a clayey soil changes from plastic to liquid. However, the transition from plastic to liquid behavior is gradual over a range of water contents, and the shear strength of the soil is not actually zero at the liquid limit. The precise definition of the liquid limit is based on standard test procedures described below.
The original liquid limit test of Atterberg 's involved mixing a pat of clay in a round - bottomed porcelain bowl of 10 -- 12 cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat of clay with a spatula, and the bowl was then struck many times against the palm of one hand. Casagrande subsequently standardized the apparatus and the procedures to make the measurement more repeatable. Soil is placed into the metal cup portion of the device and a groove is made down its center with a standardized tool of 2 millimetres (0.079 in) width. The cup is repeatedly dropped 10 mm onto a hard rubber base at a rate of 120 blows per minute, during which the groove closes up gradually as a result of the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close is recorded. The moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close over a distance of 12.7 millimetres (0.50 in) is defined as the liquid limit. The test is normally run at several moisture contents, and the moisture content which requires 25 blows to close the groove is interpolated from the test results. The liquid limit test is defined by ASTM standard test method D 4318. The test method also allows running the test at one moisture content where 20 to 30 blows are required to close the groove; then a correction factor is applied to obtain the liquid limit from the moisture content.
Another method for measuring the liquid limit is the fall cone test, also called the cone penetrometer test. It is based on the measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardized cone of specific mass. Although the Casagrande test is widely used across North America, the fall cone test is much more prevalent in Europe due to being less dependent on the operator in determining the Liquid Limit.
The values of these limits are used in a number of ways. There is also a close relationship between the limits and properties of a soil such as compressibility, permeability, and strength. This is thought to be very useful because as limit determination is relatively simple, it is more difficult to determine these other properties. Thus the Atterberg limits are not only used to identify the soil 's classification, but it allows for the use of empirical correlations for some other engineering properties.
The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size of the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL - PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay, those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0 (non-plastic) tend to have little or no silt or clay.
Soil descriptions based on PI:
The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content, plastic limit, and liquid limit: LI = (W - PL) / (LL - PL) where W is the natural water content.
The consistency index (CI) indicates the consistency (firmness) of a soil. It is calculated as CI = (LL - W) / (LL - PL), where W is the existing water content. Soil at the liquid limit will have a consistency index of 0, while soil at the plastic limit will have a consistency index of 1.
The activity (A) of a soil is the PI divided by the percent of clay - sized particles (less than 2 μm) present. Different types of clays have different specific surface areas which controls how much wetting is required to move a soil from one phase to another such as across the liquid limit or the plastic limit. From the activity, one can predict the dominant clay type present in a soil sample. High activity signifies large volume change when wetted and large shrinkage when dried. Soils with high activity are very reactive chemically.
Normally the activity of clay is between 0.75 and 1.25, and in this range clay is called normal. It is assumed that the plasticity index is approximately equal to the clay fraction (A = 1). When A is less than 0.75, it is considered inactive. When it is greater than 1.25, it is considered active.
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list of the 10 commandments in the bible | Ten Commandments - wikipedia
The Ten Commandments (Hebrew: עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדִּבְּרוֹת , Aseret ha'Dibrot), also known as the Decalogue, are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship, which play a fundamental role in Judaism and Christianity. The commandments include instructions to worship only God, to honour one 's parents, and to keep the sabbath, as well as prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy, murder, adultery, theft, dishonesty, and coveting. Different religious groups follow different traditions for interpreting and numbering them.
The Ten Commandments appear twice in the Hebrew Bible, in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. Modern scholarship has found likely influences in Hittite and Mesopotamian laws and treaties, but is divided over exactly when the Ten Commandments were written and who wrote them.
In biblical Hebrew, the Ten Commandments are called עשרת הדברים (transliterated aseret ha - d'varîm) and in Rabbinical Hebrew עשרת הדברות (transliterated aseret ha - dibrot), both translatable as "the ten words '', "the ten sayings '', or "the ten matters ''. The Tyndale and Coverdale English translations used "ten verses ''. The Geneva Bible used "tenne commandements '', which was followed by the Bishops ' Bible and the Authorized Version (the "King James '' version) as "ten commandments ''. Most major English versions use "commandments. ''
The English name "Decalogue '' is derived from Greek δεκάλογος, dekalogos, the latter meaning and referring to the Greek translation (in accusative) δέκα λόγους, deka logous, "ten words '', found in the Septuagint (or LXX) at Exodus 34: 28 and Deuteronomy 5: 6.
The stone tablets, as opposed to the commandments inscribed on them, are called לוחות הברית , Lukhot HaBrit, meaning "the tablets of the covenant ''.
Different religious traditions divide the seventeen verses of Exodus 20: 1 -- 17 and their parallels at Deuteronomy 5: 4 -- 21 into ten "commandments '' or "sayings '' in different ways, shown in the table below. Some suggest that the number ten is a choice to aid memorization rather than a matter of theology.
Traditions:
The biblical narrative of the revelation at Sinai begins in Exodus 19 after the arrival of the children of Israel at Mount Sinai (also called Horeb). On the morning of the third day of their encampment, "there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud '', and the people assembled at the base of the mount. After "the LORD came down upon mount Sinai '', Moses went up briefly and returned and prepared the people, and then in Exodus 20 "God spoke '' to all the people the words of the covenant, that is, the "ten commandments '' as it is written. Modern biblical scholarship differs as to whether Exodus 19 - 20 describes the people of Israel as having directly heard all or some of the decalogue, or whether the laws are only passed to them through Moses.
The people were afraid to hear more and moved "afar off '', and Moses responded with "Fear not. '' Nevertheless, he drew near the "thick darkness '' where "the presence of the Lord '' was to hear the additional statutes and "judgments '', all which he "wrote '' in the "book of the covenant '' which he read to the people the next morning, and they agreed to be obedient and do all that the LORD had said. Moses escorted a select group consisting of Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and "seventy of the elders of Israel '' to a location on the mount where they worshipped "afar off '' and they "saw the God of Israel '' above a "paved work '' like clear sapphire stone.
And the LORD said unto Moses, Come up to me into the mount, and be there: and I will give thee tablets of stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written; that thou mayest teach them. And Moses rose up, and his minister Joshua: and Moses went up into the mount of God.
The mount was covered by the cloud for six days, and on the seventh day Moses went into the midst of the cloud and was "in the mount forty days and forty nights. '' And Moses said, "the LORD delivered unto me two tablets of stone written with the finger of God; and on them was written according to all the words, which the LORD spake with you in the mount out of the midst of the fire in the day of the assembly. '' Before the full forty days expired, the children of Israel collectively decided that something had happened to Moses, and compelled Aaron to fashion a golden calf, and he "built an altar before it '' and the people "worshipped '' the calf.
After the full forty days, Moses and Joshua came down from the mountain with the tablets of stone: "And it came to pass, as soon as he came nigh unto the camp, that he saw the calf, and the dancing: and Moses ' anger waxed hot, and he cast the tablets out of his hands, and brake them beneath the mount. '' After the events in chapters 32 and 33, the LORD told Moses, "Hew thee two tablets of stone like unto the first: and I will write upon these tablets the words that were in the first tablets, which thou brakest. '' "And he wrote on the tablets, according to the first writing, the ten commandments, which the LORD spake unto you in the mount out of the midst of the fire in the day of the assembly: and the LORD gave them unto me. ''
According to Jewish tradition, Exodus 20: 1 -- 17 constitutes God 's first recitation and inscription of the ten commandments on the two tablets, which Moses broke in anger with his rebellious nation, and were later rewritten on replacement stones and placed in the ark of the covenant; and Deuteronomy 5: 4 -- 25 consists of God 's re-telling of the Ten Commandments to the younger generation who were to enter the Promised Land. The passages in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 contain more than ten imperative statements, totalling 14 or 15 in all.
The Ten Commandments concern matters of fundamental importance in Judaism and Christianity: the greatest obligation (to worship only God), the greatest injury to a person (murder), the greatest injury to family bonds (adultery), the greatest injury to commerce and law (bearing false witness), the greatest inter-generational obligation (honour to parents), the greatest obligation to community (truthfulness), the greatest injury to moveable property (theft).
The Ten Commandments are written with room for varying interpretation, reflecting their role as a summary of fundamental principles. They are not as explicit or detailed as rules or many other biblical laws and commandments, because they provide guiding principles that apply universally, across changing circumstances. They do not specify punishments for their violation. Their precise import must be worked out in each separate situation.
The Bible indicates the special status of the Ten Commandments among all other Torah laws in several ways:
The Ten Commandments form the basis of Jewish law, stating God 's universal and timeless standard of right and wrong -- unlike the rest of the 613 commandments in the Torah, which include, for example, various duties and ceremonies such as the kashrut dietary laws, and now unobservable rituals to be performed by priests in the Holy Temple. Jewish tradition considers the Ten Commandments the theological basis for the rest of the commandments; a number of works, starting with Rabbi Saadia Gaon, have made groupings of the commandments according to their links with the Ten Commandments.
A conservative rabbi, Louis Ginzberg, stated in his book Legends of the Jews, that Ten Commandments are virtually entwined, that the breaking of one leads to the breaking of another. Echoing an earlier rabbinic comment found in the commentary of Rashi to the Songs of Songs (4: 5) Ginzberg explained - there is also a great bond of union between the first five commandments and the last five. The first commandment: "I am the Lord, thy God, '' corresponds to the sixth: "Thou shalt not kill, '' for the murderer slays the image of God. The second: "Thou shalt have no strange gods before me, '' corresponds to the seventh: "Thou shalt not commit adultery, '' for conjugal faithlessness is as grave a sin as idolatry, which is faithlessness to God. The third commandment: "Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord in vain, '' corresponds to the eighth: "Thou shalt not steal, '' for stealing result in false oath in God 's name. The fourth: "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy, '' corresponds to the ninth: "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor, '' for he who bears false witness against his neighbor commits as grave a sin as if he had borne false witness against God, saying that He had not created the world in six days and rested on the seventh day (the holy Sabbath). The fifth commandment: "Honor thy father and thy mother, '' corresponds to the tenth: "Covet not thy neighbor 's wife, '' for one who indulges this lust produces children who will not honor their true father, but will consider a stranger their father.
The traditional Rabbinical Jewish belief is that the observance of these commandments and the other mitzvot are required solely of the Jewish people and that the laws incumbent on humanity in general are outlined in the seven Noahide laws, several of which overlap with the Ten Commandments. In the era of the Sanhedrin transgressing any one of six of the Ten Commandments theoretically carried the death penalty, the exceptions being the First Commandment, honouring your father and mother, saying God 's name in vain, and coveting, though this was rarely enforced due to a large number of stringent evidentiary requirements imposed by the oral law.
The arrangement of the commandments on the two tablets is interpreted in different ways in the classical Jewish tradition. Rabbi Hanina ben Gamaliel says that each tablet contained five commandments, "but the Sages say ten on one tablet and ten on the other '', that is, that the tablets were duplicates. This can be compared to diplomatic treaties of the ancient Near East, in which a copy was made for each party.
According to the Talmud, the compendium of traditional Rabbinic Jewish law, tradition, and interpretation, one interpretation of the biblical verse "the tablets were written on both their sides '', is that the carving went through the full thickness of the tablets, yet was miraculously legible from both sides.
The Mishna records that during the period of the Second Temple, the Ten Commandments were recited daily, before the reading of the Shema Yisrael (as preserved, for example, in the Nash Papyrus, a Hebrew manuscript fragment from 150 -- 100 BCE found in Egypt, containing a version of the ten commandments and the beginning of the Shema); but that this practice was abolished in the synagogues so as not to give ammunition to heretics who claimed that they were the only important part of Jewish law, or to dispute a claim by early Christians that only the Ten Commandments were handed down at Mount Sinai rather than the whole Torah.
In later centuries rabbis continued to omit the Ten Commandments from daily liturgy in order to prevent a confusion among Jews that they are only bound by the Ten Commandments, and not also by many other biblical and Talmudic laws, such as the requirement to observe holy days other than the sabbath.
Today, the Ten Commandments are heard in the synagogue three times a year: as they come up during the readings of Exodus and Deuteronomy, and during the festival of Shavuot. The Exodus version is read in parashat Yitro around late January -- February, and on the festival of Shavuot, and the Deuteronomy version in parashat Va'etchanan in August -- September. In some traditions, worshipers rise for the reading of the Ten Commandments to highlight their special significance though many rabbis, including Maimonides, have opposed this custom since one may come to think that the Ten Commandments are more important than the rest of the Mitzvot.
In printed Chumashim, as well as in those in manuscript form, the Ten Commandments carry two sets of cantillation marks. The ta'am ' elyon (upper accentuation), which makes each Commandment into a separate verse, is used for public Torah reading, while the ta'am tachton (lower accentuation), which divides the text into verses of more even length, is used for private reading or study. The verse numbering in Jewish Bibles follows the ta'am tachton. In Jewish Bibles the references to the Ten Commandments are therefore Exodus 20: 2 -- 14 and Deuteronomy 5: 6 -- 18.
The Samaritan Pentateuch varies in the Ten Commandments passages, both in that the Samaritan Deuteronomical version of the passage is much closer to that in Exodus, and in that Samaritans count as nine commandments what others count as ten. The Samaritan tenth commandment is on the sanctity of Mount Gerizim.
The text of the Samaritan tenth commandment follows:
And it shall come to pass when the Lord thy God will bring thee into the land of the Canaanites whither thou goest to take possession of it, thou shalt erect unto thee large stones, and thou shalt cover them with lime, and thou shalt write upon the stones all the words of this Law, and it shall come to pass when ye cross the Jordan, ye shall erect these stones which I command thee upon Mount Gerizim, and thou shalt build there an altar unto the Lord thy God, an altar of stones, and thou shalt not lift upon them iron, of perfect stones shalt thou build thine altar, and thou shalt bring upon it burnt offerings to the Lord thy God, and thou shalt sacrifice peace offerings, and thou shalt eat there and rejoice before the Lord thy God. That mountain is on the other side of the Jordan at the end of the road towards the going down of the sun in the land of the Canaanites who dwell in the Arabah facing Gilgal close by Elon Moreh facing Shechem.
Most traditions of Christianity hold that the Ten Commandments have divine authority and continue to be valid, though they have different interpretations and uses of them. The Apostolic Constitutions, which implore believers to "always remember the ten commands of God, '' reveal the importance of the Decalogue in the early Church. Through most of Christian history the decalogue was considered a summary of God 's law and standard of behaviour, central to Christian life, piety, and worship.
During his Sermon on the Mount, Jesus explicitly referenced the prohibitions against murder and adultery. In Matthew 19: 16 - 19 Jesus repeated five of the Ten Commandments, followed by that commandment called "the second '' (Matthew 22: 34 - 40) after the first and great commandment.
And, behold, one came and said unto him, Good Master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life? And he said unto him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one, that is, God: but if thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments. He saith unto him, Which? Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.
In his Epistle to the Romans, Paul the Apostle also mentioned five of the Ten Commandments and associated them with the neighbourly love commandment.
Romans 13: 8 Owe no man any thing, but to love one another: for he that loveth another hath fulfilled the law. 9 For this, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not kill, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Thou shalt not covet; and if there be any other commandment, it is briefly comprehended in this saying, namely, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. 10 Love worketh no ill to his neighbour: therefore love is the fulfilling of the law.
In Roman Catholicism, Jesus freed Christians from the rest of Jewish religious law, but not from their obligation to keep the Ten Commandments. It has been said that they are to the moral order what the creation story is to the natural order.
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church -- the official exposition of the Catholic Church 's Christian beliefs -- the Commandments are considered essential for spiritual good health and growth, and serve as the basis for social justice. Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers. In the New Testament, Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further, demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and Pharisees. Summarized by Jesus into two "great commandments '' that teach the love of God and love of neighbour, they instruct individuals on their relationships with both.
The Eastern Orthodox Church holds its moral truths to be chiefly contained in the Ten Commandments. A confession begins with the Confessor reciting the Ten Commandments and asking the penitent which of them he has broken.
After rejecting the Roman Catholic moral theology, giving more importance to biblical law and the gospel, early Protestant theologians continued to take the Ten Commandments as the starting point of Christian moral life. Different versions of Christianity have varied in how they have translated the bare principles into the specifics that make up a full Christian ethic.
The Lutheran division of the commandments follows the one established by St. Augustine, following the then current synagogue scribal division. The first three commandments govern the relationship between God and humans, the fourth through eighth govern public relationships between people, and the last two govern private thoughts. See Luther 's Small Catechism and Large Catechism.
The Articles of the Church of England, Revised and altered by the Assembly of Divines, at Westminster, in the year 1643 state that "no Christian man whatsoever is free from the obedience of the commandments which are called moral. By the moral law, we understand all the Ten Commandments taken in their full extent. '' The Westminster Confession, held by Presbyterian Churches, holds that the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments "does forever bind all, as well justified persons as others, to the obedience thereof ''.
The moral law contained in the Ten Commandments, according to the founder of the Methodist movement John Wesley, was instituted from the beginning of the world and is written on the hearts of all people. As with the Reformed view, Wesley held that the moral law, which is contained in the Ten Commandments, stands today:
Every part of this law must remain in force upon all mankind in all ages, as not depending either on time or place, nor on any other circumstances liable to change; but on the nature of God and the nature of man, and their unchangeable relation to each other '' (Wesley 's Sermons, Vol. I, Sermon 25).
In keeping with Wesleyan covenant theology, "while the ceremonial law was abolished in Christ and the whole Mosaic dispensation itself was concluded upon the appearance of Christ, the moral law remains a vital component of the covenant of grace, having Christ as its perfecting end. '' As such, in Methodism, an "important aspect of the pursuit of sanctification is the careful following '' of the Ten Commandments.
The Ten Commandments are a summary of the requirements of a works covenant (called the "Old Covenant ''), given on Mount Sinai to the nascent nation of Israel. The Old Covenant came to an end at the cross and is therefore not in effect. They do reflect the eternal character of God, and serve as a paragon of morality.
According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS) doctrine, Jesus completed rather than rejected the Mosaic Law. The Ten Commandments are considered eternal gospel principles necessary for exaltation. They appear in the Book of Mosiah 12: 34 -- 36, 13: 15 -- 16, 13: 21 -- 24 and Doctrine and Covenants. According to the Book of Mosiah, a prophet named Abinadi taught the Ten Commandments in the court of King Noah and was martyred for his righteousness. Abinadi knew the Ten Commandments from the brass plates.
In an October 2010 address, LDS president and prophet Thomas S. Monson taught "The Ten Commandments are just that -- commandments. They are not suggestions. ''
All Abrahamic religions observe a weekly day of rest, often called the Sabbath, although the actual day of the week ranges from Friday in Islam, Saturday in Judaism (both reckoned from dusk to dusk), and Sunday, from midnight to midnight, in Christianity. Sabbath in Christianity is a day of rest from work, often dedicated to religious observance, derived from the Biblical Sabbath. Non-Sabbatarianism is the principle of Christian liberty from being bound to physical sabbath observance. Most dictionaries provide both first - day and seventh - day definitions for "sabbath '' and "Sabbatarian '', among other related uses.
Observing the Sabbath on Sunday, the day of resurrection, gradually became the dominant Christian practice from the Jewish - Roman wars onward. The Church 's general repudiation of Jewish practices during this period is apparent in the Council of Laodicea (4th century AD) where Canons 37 -- 38 state: "It is not lawful to receive portions sent from the feasts of Jews or heretics, nor to feast together with them '' and "It is not lawful to receive unleavened bread from the Jews, nor to be partakers of their impiety ''. Canon 29 of the Laodicean council specifically refers to the sabbath: "Christians must not judaize by resting on the (Jewish) Sabbath, but must work on that day, rather honouring the Lord 's Day; and, if they can, resting then as Christians. But if any shall be found to be judaizers, let them be anathema from Christ. ''
Multiple translations exist of the fifth / sixth commandment; the Hebrew words לא תרצח (lo tirtzach) are variously translated as "thou shalt not kill '' or "thou shalt not murder ''.
The imperative is against unlawful killing resulting in bloodguilt. The Hebrew Bible contains numerous prohibitions against unlawful killing, but does not prohibit killing in the context of warfare (1Kings 2: 5 -- 6), capital punishment (Leviticus 20: 9 -- 16) and self - defence (Exodus 22: 2 -- 3), which are considered justified. The New Testament is in agreement that murder is a grave moral evil, and references the Old Testament view of bloodguilt.
Some academic theologians, including German Old Testament scholar Albrecht Alt: Das Verbot des Diebstahls im Dekalog (1953), suggest that the commandment translated as "thou shalt not steal '' was originally intended against stealing people -- against abductions and slavery, in agreement with the Talmudic interpretation of the statement as "thou shalt not kidnap '' (Sanhedrin 86a).
Idolatry is forbidden in all Abrahamic religions. In Judaism there is a prohibition against worshipping an idol or a representation of God, but there is no restriction on art or simple depictions. Islam has a stronger prohibition, banning representations of God, and in some cases of Muhammad, humans and, in some interpretations, any living creature.
In Gospel of Barnabas, Jesus stated that idolatry is the greatest sin as it divests a man fully of faith, and hence of God. In his time, Idolatry is not only worshipping statues of wood or stone; but also statues of flesh. All which a man loves, for which he leaves everything else but that, is his god, thus the glutton and drunkard has for his idol his own flesh, the fornicator has for his idol the harlot and the greedy has for his idol silver and gold, and so the same for every other sinner.
In Christianity 's earliest centuries, some Christians had informally adorned their homes and places of worship with images of Christ and the saints, which others thought inappropriate. No church council had ruled on whether such practices constituted idolatry. The controversy reached crisis level in the 8th century, during the period of iconoclasm: the smashing of icons.
In 726 Emperor Leo III ordered all images removed from all churches; in 730 a council forbade veneration of images, citing the Second Commandment; in 787 the Seventh Ecumenical Council reversed the preceding rulings, condemning iconoclasm and sanctioning the veneration of images; in 815 Leo V called yet another council, which reinstated iconoclasm; in 843 Empress Theodora again reinstated veneration of icons. This mostly settled the matter until the Protestant Reformation, when John Calvin declared that the ruling of the Seventh Ecumenical Council "emanated from Satan ''. Protestant iconoclasts at this time destroyed statues, pictures, stained glass, and artistic masterpieces.
The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Theodora 's restoration of the icons every year on the First Sunday of Great Lent. Eastern Orthodox tradition teaches that while images of God, the Father, remain prohibited, depictions of Jesus as the incarnation of God as a visible human are permissible. To emphasize the theological importance of the incarnation, the Orthodox Church encourages the use of icons in church and private devotions, but prefers a two - dimensional depiction as a reminder of this theological aspect. Icons depict the spiritual dimension of their subject rather than attempting a naturalistic portrayal. In modern use (usually as a result of Roman Catholic influence), more naturalistic images and images of the Father, however, also appear occasionally in Orthodox churches, but statues, i.e. three - dimensional depictions, continue to be banned.
Originally this commandment forbade male Israelites from having sexual intercourse with the wife of another Israelite; the prohibition did not extend to their own slaves. Sexual intercourse between an Israelite man, married or not, and a woman who was neither married nor betrothed was not considered adultery. This concept of adultery stems from the economic aspect of Israelite marriage whereby the husband has an exclusive right to his wife, whereas the wife, as the husband 's possession, did not have an exclusive right to her husband.
Louis Ginzberg argued that the tenth commandment (Covet not thy neighbor 's wife) is directed against a sin which may lead to a trespassing of all Ten Commandments.
Critical scholarship is divided over its interpretation of the ten commandment texts.
Julius Wellhausen 's influential hypothesis regarding the formation of the Pentateuch suggests that Exodus 20 - 23 and 34 "might be regarded as the document which formed the starting point of the religious history of Israel. '' Deuteronomy 5 then reflects King Josiah 's attempt to link the document produced by his court to the older Mosaic tradition.
In a 2002 analysis of the history of this position, Bernard M. Levinson argued that this reconstruction assumes a Christian perspective, and dates back to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's polemic against Judaism, which asserted that religions evolve from the more ritualistic to the more ethical. Goethe thus argued that the Ten Commandments revealed to Moses at Mt. Sinai would have emphasized rituals, and that the "ethical '' Decalogue Christians recite in their own churches was composed at a later date, when Israelite prophets had begun to prophesy the coming of the messiah, Jesus Christ. Levinson points out that there is no evidence, internal to the Hebrew Bible or in external sources, to support this conjecture. He concludes that its vogue among later critical historians represents the persistence of the idea that the supersession of Judaism by Christianity is part of a longer history of progress from the ritualistic to the ethical.
By the 1930s, historians who accepted the basic premises of multiple authorship had come to reject the idea of an orderly evolution of Israelite religion. Critics instead began to suppose that law and ritual could be of equal importance, while taking different form, at different times. This means that there is no longer any a priori reason to believe that Exodus 20: 2 -- 17 and Exodus 34: 10 -- 28 were composed during different stages of Israelite history. For example, critical historian John Bright also dates the Jahwist texts to the tenth century BCE, but believes that they express a theology that "had already been normalized in the period of the Judges '' (i.e., of the tribal alliance). He concurs about the importance of the decalogue as "a central feature in the covenant that brought together Israel into being as a people '' but views the parallels between Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5, along with other evidence, as reason to believe that it is relatively close to its original form and Mosaic in origin.
According to John Bright, however, there is an important distinction between the Decalogue and the "book of the covenant '' (Exodus 21 - 23 and 34: 10 -- 24). The Decalogue, he argues, was modelled on the suzerainty treaties of the Hittites (and other Mesopotamian Empires), that is, represents the relationship between God and Israel as a relationship between king and vassal, and enacts that bond.
"The prologue of the Hittite treaty reminds his vassals of his benevolent acts... (compare with Exodus 20: 2 "I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery ''). The Hittite treaty also stipulated the obligations imposed by the ruler on his vassals, which included a prohibition of relations with peoples outside the empire, or enmity between those within. '' (Exodus 20: 3: "You shall have no other gods before Me ''). Viewed as a treaty rather than a law code, its purpose is not so much to regulate human affairs as to define the scope of the king 's power.
Julius Morgenstern argued that Exodus 34 is distinct from the Jahwist document, identifying it with king Asa 's reforms in 899 BCE. Bright, however, believes that like the Decalogue this text has its origins in the time of the tribal alliance. The book of the covenant, he notes, bears a greater similarity to Mesopotamian law codes (e.g. the Code of Hammurabi which was inscribed on a stone stele). He argues that the function of this "book '' is to move from the realm of treaty to the realm of law: "The Book of the Covenant (Ex., chs. 21 to 23; cf. ch. 34), which is no official state law, but a description of normative Israelite judicial procedure in the days of the Judges, is the best example of this process. '' According to Bright, then, this body of law too predates the monarchy.
Hilton J. Blik writes that the phrasing in the Decalogue 's instructions suggests that it was conceived in a mainly polytheistic milieu, evident especially in the formulation of the henotheistic "no - other - gods - before - me '' commandment.
If the Ten Commandments are based on Hittite forms, it would date them to somewhere between the 14th - 12th century BCE. Archaeologists Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman argue that "the astonishing composition came together... in the seventh century BCE ''. Critical scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann (1960) dates the oral form of the covenant to the time of Josiah. An even later date (after 586 BCE) is suggested by David H. Aaron.
Some proponents of the Documentary hypothesis have argued that the biblical text in Exodus 34: 28 identifies a different list as the ten commandments, that of Exodus 34: 11 -- 27. Since this passage does not prohibit murder, adultery, theft, etc., but instead deals with the proper worship of Yahweh, some scholars call it the "Ritual Decalogue '', and disambiguate the ten commandments of traditional understanding as the "Ethical Decalogue ''.
According to these scholars the Bible includes multiple versions of events. On the basis of many points of analysis including linguistic it is shown as a patchwork of sources sometimes with bridging comments by the editor (Redactor) but otherwise left intact from the original, frequently side by side.
Richard Elliott Friedman argues that the Ten Commandments at Exodus 20: 1 -- 17 "does not appear to belong to any of the major sources. It is likely to be an independent document, which was inserted here by the Redactor. '' In his view, the Covenant Code follows that version of the Ten Commandments in the northern Israel E narrative. In the J narrative in Exodus 34 the editor of the combined story known as the Redactor (or RJE), adds in an explanation that these are a replacement for the earlier tablets which were shattered. "In the combined JE text, it would be awkward to picture God just commanding Moses to make some tablets, as if there were no history to this matter, so RJE adds the explanation that these are a replacement for the earlier tablets that were shattered. ''
He writes that Exodus 34: 14 -- 26 is the J text of the Ten Commandments: "The first two commandments and the sabbath commandment have parallels in the other versions of the Ten Commandments. (Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5).... The other seven commandments here are completely different. '' He suggests that differences in the J and E versions of the Ten Commandments story are a result of power struggles in the priesthood. The writer has Moses smash the tablets "because this raised doubts about the Judah 's central religious shrine ''.
According to Kaufmann, the Decalogue and the book of the covenant represent two ways of manifesting God 's presence in Israel: the Ten Commandments taking the archaic and material form of stone tablets kept in the ark of the covenant, while the book of the covenant took oral form to be recited to the people.
Quranic reference to the ten commandments can be found in chapter 2 verses 83 and 84 "And (recall) when We took the covenant from the Children of Israel, (enjoining upon them), "Do not worship except Allah (1); and to parents do good (2) and to relatives (3), orphans (4), and the needy (5). And speak to people good words (6) and establish prayer (7) and give Zakat (8). '' Then you turned away, except a few of you, and you were refusing. ''
"And (recall) when We took your covenant, (saying), "Do not shed each other 's blood (9) or evict one another from your homes (10). '' Then you acknowledged (this) while you were witnessing ''
European Protestants replaced some visual art in their churches with plaques of the Ten Commandments after the Reformation. In England, such "Decalogue boards '' also represented the English monarch 's emphasis on rule of royal law within the churches. The United States Constitution forbids establishment of religion by law; however images of Moses holding the tablets of the Decalogue, along other religious figures including Solomon, Confucius, and Mohamed holding the Qur'an, are sculpted on the north and south friezes of the pediment of the Supreme Court building in Washington. Images of the Ten Commandments have long been contested symbols for the relationship of religion to national law.
In the 1950s and 1960s the Fraternal Order of Eagles placed possibly thousands of Ten Commandments displays in courthouses and school rooms, including many stone monuments on courthouse property. Because displaying the commandments can reflect a sectarian position if they are numbered (see above), the Eagles developed an ecumenical version that omitted the numbers, as on the monument at the Texas capitol (shown here). Hundreds of monuments were also placed by director Cecil B. DeMille as a publicity stunt to promote his 1956 film The Ten Commandments. Placing the plaques and monuments to the Ten Commandments in and around government buildings was another expression of mid-twentieth century U.S. civil religion, along with adding the phrase "under God '' to the Pledge of Allegiance.
By the beginning of the twenty - first century in the U.S., however, Decalogue monuments and plaques in government spaces had become a legal battleground between religious as well as political liberals and conservatives. Organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and Americans United for Separation of Church and State launched lawsuits challenging the posting of the ten commandments in public buildings. The ACLU has been supported by a number of religious groups (such as the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), and the American Jewish Congress), both because they do not want government to be issuing religious doctrine and because they feel strongly that the commandments are inherently religious. Many commentators see this issue as part of a wider culture war between liberal and conservative elements in American society. In response to the perceived attacks on traditional society, other legal organizations, such as the Liberty Counsel, have risen to advocate the conservative interpretation. Many Christian conservatives have taken the banning of officially sanctioned prayer from public schools by the U.S. Supreme Court as a threat to the expression of religion in public life. In response, they have successfully lobbied many state and local governments to display the ten commandments in public buildings.
Those who oppose the posting of the ten commandments on public property argue that it violates the establishment clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. In contrast, groups like the Fraternal Order of Eagles who support the public display of the ten commandments claim that the commandments are not necessarily religious but represent the moral and legal foundation of society, and are appropriate to be displayed as a historical source of present - day legal codes. Also, some argue like Judge Roy Moore that prohibiting the public practice of religion is a violation of the first amendment 's guarantee of freedom of religion.
U.S. courts have often ruled against displays of the Ten Commandments on government property. They conclude that the ten commandments are derived from Judeo - Christian religions, to the exclusion of others: the statement "Thou shalt have no other gods before me '' excludes non-monotheistic religions like Hinduism, for example. Whether the Constitution prohibits the posting of the commandments or not, there are additional political and civil rights issues regarding the posting of what is construed as religious doctrine. Excluding religions that have not accepted the ten commandments creates the appearance of impropriety. The courts have been more accepting, however, of displays that place the Ten Commandments in a broader historical context of the development of law.
One result of these legal cases has been that proponents of displaying the Ten Commandments have sometimes surrounded them with other historical texts to portray them as historical, rather than religious. Another result has been that other religious organizations have tried to put monuments to their laws on public lands. For example, an organization called Summum has won court cases against municipalities in Utah for refusing to allow the group to erect a monument of Summum aphorisms next to the ten commandments. The cases were won on the grounds that Summum 's right to freedom of speech was denied and the governments had engaged in discrimination. Instead of allowing Summum to erect its monument, the local governments chose to remove their ten commandments.
Two famous films of this name were directed by Cecil B. DeMille: a silent movie released in 1923 starring Theodore Roberts as Moses and a colour VistaVision version of 1956, starring Charlton Heston as Moses.
Both Dekalog, a 1989 Polish film series directed by Krzysztof Kieślowski, and The Ten, a 2007 American film, use the ten commandments as a structure for 10 smaller stories.
The receipt of the Ten Commandments by Moses was satirized in Mel Brooks 's movie History of the World Part I (1981), which shows Moses (played by Brooks, in a similar costume to Charlton Heston 's Moses in the 1956 film), receiving three tablets containing fifteen commandments, but before he can present them to his people, he stumbles and drops one of the tablets, shattering it. He then presents the remaining tablets, proclaiming Ten Commandments.
In The Prince of Egypt, a 1998 animated film that depicted the early life of Moses (voiced by Val Kilmer), the ending depicts him with the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai, accompanied by a reprise of Deliver Us.
The story of Moses and the Ten Commandments is discussed in the Danish stageplay Biblen (2008).
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who conducted the orchestra at the opening festivities of the carnegie hall in 1891 | Carnegie Hall - wikipedia
Carnegie Hall (/ ˈkɑːrnɪɡi /, also frequently / kɑːrˈneɪɡi / or / kɑːrˈnɛɡi /) is a concert venue in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, United States, located at 881 Seventh Avenue, occupying the east side of Seventh Avenue between West 56th Street and West 57th Street, two blocks south of Central Park.
Designed by architect William Burnet Tuthill and built by philanthropist Andrew Carnegie in 1891, it is one of the most prestigious venues in the world for both classical music and popular music. Carnegie Hall has its own artistic programming, development, and marketing departments, and presents about 250 performances each season. It is also rented out to performing groups. The hall has not had a resident company since 1962, when the New York Philharmonic moved to Lincoln Center 's Philharmonic Hall (renamed Avery Fisher Hall in 1973 and David Geffen Hall in 2015).
Carnegie Hall has 3,671 seats, divided among its three auditoriums.
Carnegie Hall contains three distinct, separate performance spaces.
The Isaac Stern Auditorium seats 2,804 on five levels and was named after violinist Isaac Stern in 1997 to recognize his efforts to save the hall from demolition in the 1960s. The hall is enormously high, and visitors to the top balcony must climb 137 steps. All but the top level can be reached by elevator.
The main hall was home to the performances of the New York Philharmonic from 1892 until 1962. Known as the most prestigious concert stage in the U.S., almost all of the leading classical music, and more recently, popular music, performers since 1891 have performed there. After years of heavy wear and tear, the hall was extensively renovated in 1986 (see below).
The Ronald O. Perelman Stage is 42 feet deep. The five levels of seating in the Stern Auditorium begin with the Parquet level, which has twenty - five full rows of thirty - eight seats and four partial rows at stage level, for a total of 1,021 seats. The First Tier and Second Tier consist of sixty - five boxes; the First Tier has 264 seats at eight seats per box and the Second Tier seats 238, with boxes ranging from six to eight seats each. Second from the top is the Dress Circle, seating 444 in six rows; the first two rows form an almost - complete semicircle. At the top, the balcony seats 837. Although seats with obstructed views exist throughout the auditorium, only the Dress Circle level has structural columns.
Zankel Hall, which seats 599, is named after Judy and Arthur Zankel. Originally called simply Recital Hall, this was the first auditorium to open to the public in April 1891. Following renovations made in 1896, it was renamed Carnegie Lyceum. It was leased to the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in 1898, converted into a cinema, which opened as the Carnegie Hall Cinema in May 1961 with the film White Nights by Luchino Visconti and was reclaimed for use as an auditorium in 1997. The completely reconstructed Zankel Hall is flexible in design and can be reconfigured in several different arrangements to suit the needs of the performers. It opened in September 2003.
The 599 seats in Zankel Hall are arranged in two levels. The Parterre level seats a total of 463 and the Mezzanine level seats 136. Each level has a number of seats which are situated along the side walls, perpendicular to the stage. These seats are designated as boxes; there are 54 seats in six boxes on the Parterre level and 48 seats in four boxes on the Mezzanine level. The boxes on the Parterre level are raised above the level of the stage. Zankel Hall is accessible and its stage is 44 feet wide and 25 feet deep -- the stage occupies approximately one fifth of the performance space.
The Joan and Sanford I. Weill Recital Hall seats 268 and is named after Sanford I. Weill, a former chairman of the board, and his wife Joan. This auditorium, in use since the hall opened in 1891, was originally called Chamber Music Hall (later Carnegie Chamber Music Hall); the name was changed to Carnegie Recital Hall in the late 1940s, and finally became Joan and Sanford I. Weill Recital Hall in 1986.
The Weill Recital Hall is the smallest of the three performance spaces, with a total of 268 seats. The Orchestra level contains fourteen rows of fourteen seats, a total of 196, and the Balcony level contains 72 seats in five rows.
The building also contains the Carnegie Hall Archives, established in 1986, and the Rose Museum, which opened in 1991. Until 2009 studios above the Hall contained working spaces for artists in the performing and graphic arts including music, drama, dance, as well as architects, playwrights, literary agents, photographers and painters. The spaces were unusual in being purpose - designed for artistic work, with very high ceilings, skylights and large windows for natural light. In 2007 the Carnegie Hall Corporation announced plans to evict the 33 remaining studio residents, some of whom had been in the building since the 1950s, including celebrity portrait photographer Editta Sherman and fashion photographer Bill Cunningham. The organization 's research showed that Andrew Carnegie had always considered the spaces as a source of income to support the hall and its activities. The space has been re-purposed for music education and corporate offices.
Carnegie Hall is one of the last large buildings in New York built entirely of masonry, without a steel frame; however, when several flights of studio spaces were added to the building near the turn of the 20th century, a steel framework was erected around segments of the building. The exterior is rendered in narrow Roman bricks of a mellow ochre hue, with details in terracotta and brownstone. The foyer avoids typical 19th century Baroque theatrical style with the Florentine Renaissance manner of Filippo Brunelleschi 's Pazzi Chapel: white plaster and gray stone form a harmonious system of round - headed arched openings and Corinthian pilasters that support an unbroken cornice, with round - headed lunettes above it, under a vaulted ceiling. The famous white and gold auditorium interior is similarly restrained. The firm of Adler and Sullivan of Chicago, noted for the acoustics of their theaters, were hired as consultant architects though their contributions are not known.
Carnegie Hall is named after Andrew Carnegie, who funded its construction. It was intended as a venue for the Oratorio Society of New York and the New York Symphony Society, on whose boards Carnegie served. Construction began in 1890, and was carried out by Isaac A. Hopper and Company. Although the building was in use from April 1891, the official opening night was May 5, with a concert conducted by maestro Walter Damrosch and great Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Originally known simply as "Music Hall '' (the words "Music Hall founded by Andrew Carnegie '' still appear on the façade above the marquee), the hall was renamed Carnegie Hall in 1893 after board members of the Music Hall Company of New York (the hall 's original governing body) persuaded Carnegie to allow the use of his name. Several alterations were made to the building between 1893 and 1896, including the addition of two towers of artists ' studios, and alterations to the smaller auditorium on the building 's lower level.
The hall was owned by the Carnegie family until 1925, when Carnegie 's widow sold it to a real estate developer, Robert E. Simon. When Simon died in 1935, his son, Robert E. Simon, Jr., became owner. By the mid-1950s, changes in the music business prompted Simon to offer Carnegie Hall for sale to the New York Philharmonic, which booked a majority of the hall 's concert dates each year. The orchestra declined, since it planned to move to Lincoln Center, then in the early stages of planning. At the time, it was widely believed that New York City could not support two major concert venues. Facing the loss of the hall 's primary tenant, Simon was forced to offer the building for sale. A deal with a commercial developer fell through, and by 1960, with the New York Philharmonic on the move to Lincoln Center, the building was slated for demolition to make way for a commercial skyscraper. Under pressure from a group led by violinist Isaac Stern and many of the artist residents, special legislation was passed that allowed the City of New York to buy the site from Simon for $5 million (which he would use to establish Reston, VA), and in May 1960 the nonprofit Carnegie Hall Corporation was created to run the venue. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962.
Most of the greatest performers of classical music since the time Carnegie Hall was built have performed in the Main Hall, and its lobbies are adorned with signed portraits and memorabilia. The NBC Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Arturo Toscanini, frequently recorded in the Main Hall for RCA Victor. On November 14, 1943, the 25 - year old Leonard Bernstein had his major conducting debut when he had to substitute for a suddenly ill Bruno Walter in a concert that was broadcast by CBS, making him instantly famous. In the fall of 1950, the orchestra 's weekly broadcast concerts were moved there until the orchestra disbanded in 1954. Several of the concerts were televised by NBC, preserved on kinescopes, and have been released on home video.
Many legendary jazz and popular music performers have also given memorable performances at Carnegie Hall including Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Glenn Miller, Billie Holiday, the Dave Brubeck Quartet, Violetta Villas, Judy Garland, Harry Belafonte, Charles Aznavour, Ike & Tina Turner, Paul Robeson, Nina Simone, Shirley Bassey, James Gang and Stevie Ray Vaughan, all of whom made celebrated live recordings of their concerts there.
The hall has also been the site of many famous lectures, including the Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture by Booker T. Washington, and the last public lecture by Mark Twain, both in 1906.
Sissieretta Jones became the first African - American to sing at the Music Hall (renamed Carnegie Hall the following year), June 15, 1892. The Benny Goodman Orchestra gave a sold - out swing and jazz concert January 16, 1938. The bill also featured, among other guest performers, Count Basie and members of Duke Ellington 's orchestra.
Rock and roll music first came to Carnegie Hall when Bill Haley & His Comets appeared in a variety benefit concert on May 6, 1955. Rock acts were not regularly booked at the Hall however, until February 12, 1964, when The Beatles performed two shows during their historic first trip to the United States. Promoter Sid Bernstein convinced Carnegie officials that allowing a Beatles concert at the venue "would further international understanding '' between the United States and Great Britain. "Led Zeppelin became the first hard rock act to play Carnegie Hall since the Rolling Stones tore the place up some five years ago. '' Two concerts were performed October 17, 1969. Since then numerous rock, blues, jazz and country performers have appeared at the hall every season. Jethro Tull released the tapes recorded on its presentation in a 1970 Benefit concert, in the 2010 re-release of the Stand Up album. Ike & Tina Turner performed a concert April 1, 1971, which resulted in their album What You Hear is What You Get. The Beach Boys played concerts in 1971 and 1972, and two songs from the show appeared on their Endless Harmony Soundtrack. Chicago recorded its 4 - LP box set Chicago at Carnegie Hall in 1971.
The building was extensively renovated in 1986 and 2003, by James Polshek, who became better known through his post-modern planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History. Polshek and his firm, Polshek Partnership, were involved since 1978 in four phases of the Hall 's renovation and expansion including the creation of a Master Plan in 1980; the actual renovation of the main hall, the Stern Auditorium, and the creation of the Weill Recital Hall and Kaplan Rehearsal Space, all in 1986; the creation of the Rose Museum, East Room and Club Room (later renamed Rohatyn Room and Shorin Club Room, respectively), all in 1991; and, most recently, the creation of Zankel Hall in 2003.
The renovation was not without controversy. Following completion of work on the main auditorium in 1986, there were complaints that the famous acoustics of the hall had been diminished. Although officials involved in the renovation denied that there was any change, complaints persisted for the next nine years. In 1995, the cause of the problem was discovered to be a slab of concrete under the stage. The slab was subsequently removed.
In 1987 -- 1989, a 60 - floor office tower, named Carnegie Hall Tower, designed by César Pelli & Associates, was completed next to the hall on the same block. New backstage space and banquet spaces, contained within the tower, connect with the main Carnegie Hall building.
In June 2003, tentative plans were made for the Philharmonic to return to Carnegie Hall beginning in 2006, and for the orchestra to merge its business operations with those of the venue. However, the two groups abandoned these plans later in 2003.
In 2014, Carnegie Hall opened its Judith and Burton Resnick Education Wing, which houses 24 music rooms, one of which is large enough to hold an orchestra or a chorus. The $230 million project was funded with gifts from Joan and Sanford I. Weill and the Weill Family Fund, Judith and Burton Resnick, Lily Safra and other donors, as well as $52.2 million from the city, $11 million from the state and $56.5 million from bonds issued through the Trust for Cultural Resources of the City of New York.
The 2015 -- 2016 Season celebrates a 125th Anniversary and the launch of an unprecedented commissioning project of at least 125 new works with ' Fifty for the Future '' coming from Kronos (25 by female composers and 25 by male composers.)
Since July 2005, the Executive and Artistic Director of Carnegie Hall is Sir Clive Gillinson, formerly managing director of the London Symphony Orchestra.
Unexpectedly, for most concert - goers, it emerged in 1986 that Carnegie Hall had never consistently maintained an archive. Without a central repository, a significant portion of Carnegie Hall 's documented history had been dispersed. In preparation for the celebration of Carnegie Hall 's centennial in 1991, the management established the Carnegie Hall Archives.
Rumor is that a pedestrian on Fifty - seventh Street, Manhattan, stopped Jascha Heifetz and inquired, "Could you tell me how to get to Carnegie Hall? '' "Yes, '' said Heifetz. "Practice! ''
This old joke has become part of the folklore of the hall, but its origins remain a mystery. According to The New York Times, the main player in the story has been described at various times as either an unnamed man, violinist Jascha Heifetz or the pianist Arthur Rubinstein. On its webpage, Carnegie Hall quotes the wife of violinist Mischa Elman as having perhaps the best story of its origin: "One day, after a rehearsal that had n't pleased Elman, the couple was leaving Carnegie Hall by the backstage entrance when they were approached by two tourists looking for the hall 's entrance. Seeing his violin case, they asked, ' How do you get to Carnegie Hall? ' Without looking up and continuing on his way, Elman simply replied, ' Practice. ' ''
The hall 's operating budget for the 2008 -- 2009 season was $84 million. For 2007 -- 2008, operating costs exceeded revenues from operations by $40.2 million. With funding from donors, investment income and government grants, the hall ended that season with $1.9 million more in total revenues than total costs.
Several other concert halls also bear the Carnegie name.
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who is buried at hebron in the bible | Cave of the Patriarchs - wikipedia
The Cave of the Patriarchs, also called the Cave of Machpelah (Hebrew: מערת המכפלה, Me'arat ha - Makhpela (help info), trans. "cave of the double tombs '') and known by Muslims as the Sanctuary of Abraham or the Ibrahimi Mosque (Arabic: الحرم الإبراهيمي , al - Haram al - Ibrahimi (help info)), is a series of subterranean chambers located in the heart of the old city of Hebron (Al - Khalil) in the Hebron Hills. According to tradition that has been associated with the Holy Books Torah, Bible and Quran, the cave and adjoining field were purchased by Abraham as a burial plot.
The site of the Cave of the Patriarchs is located beneath a Saladin - era mosque, which had been converted from a large rectangular Herodian - era Judean structure.
Dating back over 2,000 years, the monumental Herodian compound is believed to be the oldest continuously used intact prayer structure in the world, and is the oldest major building in the world that still fulfills its original function. The Hebrew name of the complex reflects the very old tradition of the double tombs of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, Jacob and Leah, considered the Patriarchs and Matriarchs of the Jewish people. The only Jewish matriarch missing is Rachel, biblically described as buried at Rachel 's Tomb near Bethlehem. The Arabic name of the complex reflects the prominence given to Abraham, revered by Muslims as a Quranic prophet and patriarch through Ishmael. Outside biblical and Quranic sources there are a number of legends and traditions associated with the cave. In Acts 7: 16 of the Christian Bible the cave of the Patriarchs is located in Shechem (Latin: Neapolis; Arabic: Nablus).
According to the Book of Genesis 23: 1 -- 20, Sarah, the wife of Abraham, "died in Kiryat - arba; the same is Hebron in the land of Canaan ''. Abraham the Hebrew (Avraham Ha - Ivri) was tending to business elsewhere when she died, at the age of 127 years, and he "came to mourn for Sarah, and to weep for her. '' (Genesis 23: 2) After a while, he stood up and spoke to the "sons of Heth '' and requested they give him a possession as a "burying place '', and they offered him his "choice '' of their sepulchres. And then in verse 7 he again "stood up '' to speak to them. Abraham then requested that Ephron the Hittite, the son of Zohar, give him the cave of Machpelah, in the end of his field, "for as much money as it is worth ''. (verse 9) After Ephron confirmed that he would give the cave, in verse 11, Abraham further requested that he give him the field for money, in verse 13. Ephron agreed and named a price.
Genesis 23: 16 ¶ And Abraham hearkened unto Ephron; and Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, which he had named in the audience of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, current money with the merchant. (17) And the field of Ephron, which was in Machpelah, which was before Mamre, the field, and the cave which was therein, and all the trees that were in the field, that were in all the borders round about, were made sure (18) Unto Abraham for a possession in the presence of the children of Heth, before all that went in at the gate of his city.
The burial of Sarah is the first account of a burial in the Bible, and this is the first commercial transaction mentioned. The next burial in the cave of Machpelah is that of Abraham, who lived "an hundred threescore and fifteen years '' -- 100 years unto the birth of Isaac, and threescore (60) more years unto the births of Esau and Jacob, with whom he spent his last 15 years. The title deed to the cave was part of the property of Abraham that passed to his son Isaac in Genesis 25: 5 -- 6.
Genesis 25: 9 And his sons Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah, in the field of Ephron the son of Zohar the Hittite, which is before Mamre; (10) The field which Abraham purchased of the sons of Heth: there was Abraham buried, and Sarah his wife.
Isaac was 180 years old when he died, and his sons Esau and Jacob buried him. (Genesis 35: 28 -- 29) As noted above, Isaac was 60 when they were born, so they were 120 years old here, which is 10 years before Jacob, at the age of 130, stood before Pharaoh in Genesis 47: 9. Jacob died later at the age of 147 years. (Genesis 47: 28) There is no mention of how or when Isaac 's wife Rebecca died, but she is included in the list of those that had been buried in Machpelah in Jacob 's final words to the children of Israel:
Genesis 49: 29 And he charged them, and said unto them, I am to be gathered unto my people: bury me with my fathers in the cave that is in the field of Ephron the Hittite, (30) In the cave that is in the field of Machpelah, which is before Mamre, in the land of Canaan, which Abraham bought with the field of Ephron the Hittite for a possession of a buryingplace. (31) There they buried Abraham and Sarah his wife; there they buried Isaac and Rebekah his wife; and there I buried Leah. (32) The purchase of the field and of the cave that is therein was from the children of Heth. (33) And when Jacob had made an end of commanding his sons, he gathered up his feet into the bed, and yielded up the ghost, and was gathered unto his people.
In the final chapter of Genesis, Joseph had his physicians embalm his father, before they removed him from Egypt to be buried in the cave of the field of Machpelah. (Genesis 50: 1 -- 14) When Joseph died in the last verse, he was also embalmed. He was buried much later in Shechem (Joshua 24: 32) after the children of Israel came into the promised land.
In Acts 7: 16, Stephen claims that the cave of the Patriarchs is located in Shechem.
To commemorate the site for his Jewish subjects, Herod the Great built a large, rectangular enclosure over the caves, the only fully surviving Herodian structure from the period of Hellenistic Judaism. Herod 's building, with 6 - foot - thick stone walls made from stones that were at least 3 feet (0.91 m) tall and sometimes reach a length of 24 feet (7.3 m), did not have a roof. Archæologists are not certain where the original entrance to the enclosure was located, or even if there was one.
Until the era of the Byzantine Empire, the interior of the enclosure remained exposed to the sky. Under Byzantine rule, a simple basilica was constructed at the southeastern end and the enclosure was roofed everywhere except at the centre. The Piacenza Pilgrim (c. 570) noted in his pilgrimage account that Jews and Christians shared possession of the site.
In 614, the Sasanid Persians conquered the area and destroyed the castle, leaving only ruins; but in 637, the area came under the control of the Arab Muslims and the building was reconstructed as a roofed mosque.
During the 10th century, an entrance was pierced through the north - eastern wall, some way above the external ground level, and steps from the north and from the east were built up to it (one set of steps for entering, the other for leaving). A building known as the qal'ah (قلعة i.e. castle) was also constructed near the middle of the southwestern side. Its purpose is unknown but one historic account claims that it marked the spot where Joseph was buried (see Joseph 's tomb), the area having been excavated by a Muslim caliph, under the influence of a local tradition regarding Joseph 's tomb. Some archaeologists believe that the original entrance to Herod 's structure was in the location of the qal'ah and that the northeastern entrance was created so that the kalah could be built by the former entrance.
In 1100, after the area was captured by the Crusaders, the enclosure once again became a church and Muslims were no longer permitted to enter. During this period, the area was given a new gabled roof, clerestory windows and vaulting.
In the year 1113 during the reign of Baldwin II of Jerusalem, according to Ali of Herat (writing in 1173), a certain part over the cave of Abraham had given way, and "a number of Franks had made their entrance therein ''. And they discovered "(the bodies) of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob '', "their shrouds having fallen to pieces, lying propped up against a wall... Then the King, after providing new shrouds, caused the place to be closed once more ''. Similar information is given in Ibn al Athir 's Chronicle under the year 1119; "In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham, and those of his two sons Isaac and Jacob... Many people saw the Patriarch. Their limbs had nowise been disturbed, and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of silver. '' The Damascene nobleman and historian Ibn al - Qalanisi in his chronicle also alludes at this time to the discovery of relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery that excited eager curiosity among all three communities in the southern Levant, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.
Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote, "On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (17 October), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything. ''
In 1170, Benjamin of Tudela visited the city, which he called by its Frankish name, St. Abram de Bron. He reported:
In 1188 Saladin conquered the area, reconverting the enclosure to a mosque but allowing Christians to continue worshipping there. Saladin also added a minaret at each corner -- two of which still survive -- and the minbar. Samuel ben Samson visited the cave in 1210; he says that the visitor must descend by twenty - four steps in a passageway so narrow that the rock touches him on either hand.
Between 1318 and 1320, the Mamluk, the governor of Gaza, a province that included Hebron, Sanjar al - Jawli ordered the construction of the Amir Jawli Mosque within the Haram enclosure to enlarge the prayer space and accommodate worshipers. In the late 14th century, under the Mamluks, two additional entrances were pierced into the western end of the south western side and the kalah was extended upwards to the level of the rest of the enclosure. A cenotaph in memory of Joseph was created in the upper level of the kalah so that visitors to the enclosure would not need to leave and travel round the outside just to pay respects. The Mamluks also built the northwestern staircase and the six cenotaphs (for Isaac, Rebecca, Jacob, Leah, Abraham, and Sarah, respectively), distributed evenly throughout the enclosure. The Mamluks forbade Jews from entering the site, allowing them only as close as the fifth step on a staircase at the southeast, but after some time this was increased to the seventh step.
During the Ottoman period, the dilapidated state of the patriarchs ' tombs was restored to a semblance of sumptuous dignity. Ali Bey, one of the few foreigners to gain access, reported in 1807 that,
' all the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered with rich carpets of green silk, magnificently embroidered with gold; those of the wives are red, embroidered in like manner. The sultans of Constantinople furnish these carpets, which are renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over the other, upon the sepulchre of Abraham. '
After the Six - Day War in 1967, in which Israel gained control of Hebron, the first Jew who entered the Cave of Machpelah for about 700 years, was the Chief Rabbi of the Israel Defense Forces, Major general Rabbi Shlomo Goren. "About 700 years ago, the Muslim Mamelukes conquered Hebron, declared the structure a mosque and forbade entry to Jews, who were not allowed past the seventh step on a staircase outside the building. '' Following the 1929 Hebron massacre, this restricted access was even more restricted by British Mandate authorities. After Israeli statehood in 1948 and the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank, no Jews were allowed anywhere in the territory. Following the Israeli occupation of Hebron in the Six - Day War, the area came under Jewish authority for the first time in 2,000 years and the 700 - year - long restriction limiting Jews to the seventh step outside was lifted. Jews immediately began re-settling in the city after the Six - Day War. The first subsequent Jewish wedding ceremony took place on August 7, 1968.
In 1968, a special arrangement was made to accommodate Jewish services on the Jewish New Year and Day of Atonement. This led to a hand - grenade being thrown on the stairway leading to the tomb on October 9; 47 Israelis were injured, 8 seriously. On November 4, a large explosion went off near the gate to the compound and 6 people, Jews and Arabs, were wounded. On Yom Kippur eve, October 3, 1976, an Arab mob destroyed several Torah scrolls and prayer books at the tomb. In May 1980, an attack on Jewish worshippers returning from prayers at the tomb left 6 dead and 17 wounded.
Tensions would later increase as the Israeli government signed the Oslo Accords in September 1993, which gave limited autonomy to the PLO in the West Bank city of Jericho and the Gaza Strip. The city of Hebron and the rest of the major Palestinian population centers in the West Bank were not included in the initial agreement. The Cave of the Patriarchs massacre committed by Baruch Goldstein, an Israeli - American settler in February 1994, left 29 Palestinian Muslims dead and scores injured. The resulting riots resulted in a further 35 deaths.
The increased sensitivity of the site meant that in 1996 the Wye River Accords, part of the Arab - Israeli peace process, included a temporary status agreement for the site restricting access for both Jews and Muslims. As part of this agreement, the waqf (Islamic charitable trust) controls 81 % of the building. This includes the whole of the southeastern section, which lies above the only known entrance to the caves and possibly over the entirety of the caves themselves. In consequence, Jews are not permitted to visit the Cenotaphs of Isaac or Rebecca, which lie entirely within the southeastern section, except for 10 days a year that hold special significance in Judaism. One of these days is the Shabbat Chayei Sarah, when the Torah portion concerning the death of Sarah and the purchase by Abraham of the land in which the caves are situated, is read.
The Israeli authorities do not allow Jewish religious authorities the right to maintain the site and allow only the waqf to do so. Tourists are permitted to enter the site. Security at the site has increased since the Intifada; the Israel Defense Forces surround the site with soldiers and control access to the shrines. Israeli forces also subject locals to checkpoints and bar all non-Jews from stepping foot on some of the main roads to the complex and ban Palestinian vehicles from many of the roads in the area.
On February 21, 2010, Israel announced that it would include the site in a national heritage site protection and rehabilitation plan. The announcement sparked protests from the UN, Arab governments and the United States. A subsequent UNESCO vote in October aimed to affirm that the "al - Haram al - Ibrahimi / Tomb of the Patriarchs in al - Khalil / Hebron '' was "an integral part of the occupied Palestinian Territories. ''
Israeli authorities have placed restrictions on calling the faithful to prayer by the muezzin of the Ibrahimi mosque. The order was enforced 61 times in October 2014, and 52 times in December of that year. This was following numerous complaints by the Jewish residents who claim that the calls violate legal decibel limits. In December 2009 Israeli authorities banned Jewish music played at the cave following similar complaints from the Arab residents.
On 6 November 2015, 2 Israelis were shot and injured in a Palestinian shooting attack at the site.
The rectangular stone enclosure lies on a northwest - southeast axis, and is divided into two sections by a wall running between the northwestern three fifths, and the southeastern two fifths. The northwestern section is roofed on three sides, the central area and north eastern side being open to the sky; the southeastern section is fully roofed, the roof being supported by four columns evenly distributed through the section. Nearly the entire building itself was built by King Herod and it remains the only Herodian building surviving today virtually intact.
In the northwestern section are four cenotaphs, each housed in a separate octagonal room, those dedicated to Jacob and Leah being on the northwest, and those to Abraham and Sarah on the southeast. A corridor runs between the cenotaphs on the northwest, and another between those on the southeast. A third corridor runs the length of the southwestern side, through which access to the cenotaphs, and to the southeastern section, can be gained. An entrance to the enclosure exists on the southwestern side, entering this third corridor; a mosque outside this entrance must be passed through to gain access.
At the center of the northeastern side, there is another entrance, which enters the roofed area on the southeastern side of the northwestern section and through which access can also be gained to the southeastern (fully roofed) section. This entrance is approached on the outside by a corridor which leads from a long staircase running most of the length of the northwestern side. The southeastern section, which functions primarily as a mosque, contains two cenotaphs, symmetrically placed, near the center, dedicated to Isaac and Rebecca. Between them, in the southeastern wall, is a mihrab. The cenotaphs have a distinctive red and white horizontal striped pattern to their stonework but are usually covered by decorative cloth.
Under the present arrangements, Jews are restricted to entering by the southwestern side, and limited to the southwestern corridor and the corridors that run between the cenotaphs, while Muslims may enter only by the northeastern side but are allowed free rein of the remainder of the enclosure.
The caves under the enclosure are not themselves generally accessible; the waqf have historically prevented access to the actual tombs out of respect for the dead. Only two entrances are known to exist, the most visible of which is located to the immediate southeast of Abraham 's cenotaph on the inside of the southeastern section. This entrance is a narrow shaft covered by a decorative grate, which itself is covered by an elaborate dome. The other entrance is located to the southeast, near the mihrab, and is sealed by a large stone, and usually covered by prayer mats; this is very close to the location of the seventh step on the outside of the enclosure, beyond which the Mamelukes forbade Jews from approaching.
When the enclosure was controlled by crusaders, access was occasionally possible. One account, by Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela dating from 1163 CE, states that after passing through an iron door, and descending, the caves would be encountered. According to Benjamin of Tudela, there was a sequence of three caves, the first two of which were empty; in the third cave were six tombs, arranged to be opposite to one another.
These caves had been rediscovered only in 1119 CE by a monk named Arnoul, after an unnamed monk at prayer "noticed a draught '' in the area near the present location of the mihrab and, with other "brethren '', removed the flagstones and found a room lined with Herodian masonry. Arnoul, still searching for the source of the draught, hammered on the cave walls until he heard a hollow sound, pulled down the masonry in that area, and discovered a narrow passage. The narrow passage, which subsequently became known as the serdab (Arabic for passage), was similarly lined with masonry, but partly blocked up. Having unblocked the passage, Arnoul discovered a large round room with plastered walls. In the floor of the room, he found a square stone slightly different from the others and, upon removing it, found the first of the caves. The caves were filled with dust. After removing the dust, Arnoul found bones; believing the bones to be those of the biblical Patriarchs, Arnoul washed them in wine and stacked them neatly. Arnoul carved inscriptions on the cave walls describing whose bones he believed them to be.
This passage to the caves was sealed at some time after Saladin had recaptured the area, though the roof of the circular room was pierced, and a decorative grate was placed over it. In 1967, after the Six - Day War, the area fell into the hands of the Israel Defense Forces, and Moshe Dayan, the Defence Minister, who was an amateur archaeologist, attempted to regain access to the tombs. Ignorant of the serdab entrance, Dayan concentrated his attention on the shaft visible below the decorative grate and had the idea of sending someone thin enough to fit through the shaft and down into the chamber below. Dayan eventually found a slim 12 - year - old girl named Michal to assist and sent her into the chamber with a camera.
Michal explored the round chamber, but failed to find the square stone in the floor that led to the caves. Michal did, however, explore the passage and find steps leading up to the surface, though the exit was blocked by a large stone (this is the entrance near the mihrab). According to the report of her findings, which Michal gave to Dayan after having been lifted back through the shaft, there are 16 steps leading down into the passage, which is 1 cubit wide, 17.37 metres (57.0 ft) and 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) high. In the round chamber, which is 12 metres (39 ft) below the entrance to the shaft, there are three stone slabs, the middle of which contains a partial inscription of Sura 2, verse 255, from the Quran, the famous Ayatul Kursi, Verse of the Throne.
In 1981 Seev Jevin, the former director of the Israel Antiquities Authority, entered the passage after a group of Jewish settlers from Hebron had entered the chamber via the entrance near the mihrab and discovered the square stone in the round chamber that concealed the cave entrance. The reports state that after entering the first cave, which seemed to Jevin to be empty, he found a passage leading to a second oval chamber, smaller than the first, which contained shards of pottery and a wine jug.
According to Jewish traditions found in the Hebrew Bible which are also accepted by Muslims, entombed within the Cave of the Patriarchs are the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as well as three matriarchs, Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah.
In Judaism, the Tomb of the Patriarchs is the second most sacred site in the world, after the Temple Mount. The Book of Genesis relates that Abraham specifically purchased the land as a burial plot from Ephron the Hittite, making it one of two purchases by Abraham of real estate in the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land. According to Genesis, three biblical couples are buried there:
Jacob 's other wife, Rachel, was buried "in the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem. '' (Genesis 35: 19 -- 20)
There is a Jewish tradition, that besides the three biblical couples mentioned above, that Adam and Eve were buried there also, (Zohar, Ruth 96), supported by the simple wording of Gen. 23: 2, which refers to "Kiryat Arba... Hevron. '' Arba means four. Rashi to Gen. 23: 2 lists the four couples chronologically, starting with Adam and Eve.
Another Jewish tradition tells that when Jacob was brought to be buried in the cave, Esau prevented the burial claiming he had the right to be buried in the cave; after some negotiation Naphtali was sent to Egypt to retrieve the document stating Esau sold his part in the cave to Jacob. As this was going on Hushim, the son of Dan who was hard of hearing, did not understand what was going on, and why his grandfather was not being buried, so he asked for an explanation; after being given one he became angry and said: "Is my grandfather to lie there in contempt until Naphtali returns from the land of Egypt? '' He then took a club and killed Esau, and Esau 's head rolled into the cave. This means that the head of Esau is also buried in the cave. Some Jewish sources record the selling of Esau 's right to be buried in the cave -- according to a commentary on the "Book of Exodus '', Jacob gave all his possessions to acquire a tomb in the Cave of the Patriarchs. He put a large pile of gold and silver before Esau and asked, "My brother, do you prefer your portion of this cave, or all this gold and silver? '' Esau 's selling to Jacob his right to be buried in the Cave of the Patriarchs is also recorded in Sefer HaYashar.
An early Jewish text, the Genesis Rabba, states that this site is one of three that enemies of Judaism can not taunt the Jews by saying "you have stolen them, '' as it was purchased "for its full price '' by Abraham.
According to the Midrash, the Patriarchs were buried in the cave because the cave is the threshold to the Garden of Eden. The Patriarchs are said not to be dead but "sleeping ''. They rise to beg mercy for their children throughout the generations. According to the Zohar, this tomb is the gateway through which souls enter into Gan Eden, heaven.
There are Hebrew prayers of supplication for marriage on the walls of the Sarah cenotaph.
The enclosure is known to Muslims as the Ibrahimi Mosque, as Abraham is a revered prophet of Islam who, according to the Quran, built a sacred house or sanctuary - the exact location is not known. After the conquest of the city by Umar, this holy place was "simply taken over from the Jewish tradition '' by the new rulers; the Herodian enclosure was converted into a mosque and placed under the control of a waqf. The waqf continues to maintain most of the site, though the Israeli military controls access to the site.
According to some Islamic sources it is also the tomb of Joseph. Though the Bible has Joseph buried in Shechem (the present - day Palestinian city of Nablus), Jewish aggadic tradition conserved the idea that he wished to be interred at Hebron, and the Islamic version may reflect this. The Jewish apocryphal book, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, also states that this is the burial place of Jacob 's twelve sons.
The book of Acts 7: 15 - 16, in the New Testament, relates a tradition that Jacob and his sons were buried in Shechem. According to New Testament commentator Albert Barnes, this belief was supported by fourth - century theologian and historian Jerome. The book of Joshua 24: 32 relates the burial site of Joseph in similar terms.
Note: East Jerusalem is under de facto Israeli control, though claimed by Palestinians
Caves of Palestine * Caves by country
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how to elect rajya sabha member in india in hindi | Rajya Sabha - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 37 ′ 0 '' N 77 ° 12 ′ 30 '' E / 28.61667 ° N 77.20833 ° E / 28.61667; 77.20833
245
Government coalition (87) National Democratic Alliance (87)
Opposition Parties (158) United Progressive Alliance (57)
Janata Parivar Parties (6)
Unaligned Parties (82)
Others (13)
The Rajya Sabha or Council of States is the upper house of the Parliament of India. Membership of Rajya Sabha is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of 250 members, and current laws have provision for 245 members. Most of the members of the House are indirectly elected by state and territorial legislatures using single transferable votes, while the President can appoint 12 members for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services. Members sit for staggered six - year terms, with one third of the members retiring every two years.
The Rajya Sabha meets in continuous sessions, and unlike the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament, is not subject to dissolution. However, the Rajya Sabha, like the Lok Sabha can be prorogued by the President. The Rajya Sabha has equal footing in all areas of legislation with Lok Sabha, except in the area of supply, where the Lok Sabha has overriding powers. In the case of conflicting legislation, a joint sitting of the two houses can be held. However, since the Lok Sabha has twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha, the former would normally hold the greater power. Joint sittings of the Houses of Parliament of India are rare, and in the history of the Republic, only three such joint - sessions have been held; the latest one for the passage of the 2002 Prevention of Terrorism Act.
The Vice President of India (currently, Venkaiah Naidu) is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, who presides over its sessions. The Deputy Chairman, who is elected from amongst the house 's members, takes care of the day - to - day matters of the house in the absence of the Chairman. The Rajya Sabha held its first sitting on 13 May 1952. The salary and other benefits for a member of Rajya Sabha are same as for a member of Lok Sabha.
Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislatures rather than directly through the electorate by single transferable vote method.
Article 84 of the Constitution lays down the qualifications for membership of Parliament. A member of the Rajya Sabha must:
In addition, twelve members are nominated by the President of India having special knowledge in various areas like arts and science. However, they are not entitled to vote in Presidential elections as per Article 55 of the Constitution.
The Constitution of India places some restrictions on Rajya Sabha which makes Lok Sabha more powerful in certain areas in comparison.
The definition of a money bill is given in article 110 of constitution of India. A money bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha by a minister and only on recommendation of President of India. When the Lok Sabha passes a money bill then the Lok Sabha sends money bill to the Rajya Sabha council of states for 14 days during which it can make recommendations. Even if Rajya Sabha fails to return the money bill in 14 days to the Lok Sabha, that bill is deemed to have passed by both the Houses. Also, if the Lok Sabha rejects any (or all) of the amendments proposed by the Rajya Sabha, the bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses of Parliament of India in the form the Lok Sabha finally passes it. This is because the Lok Sabha has largest number of representatives of peoples of India and so the Lok Sabha lower house also called house of the peoples is more powerful in comparison with Rajya Sabha council of states upper house. Hence, Rajya Sabha can only give recommendations for a money bill but Rajya Sabha can not amend a money bill this is to ensure that Rajya Sabha must not add any non money matters in money bill. Lok Sabha can reject all the recommendations of Rajya Sabha or can accept some or all of the recommendations. Decisions of the speaker of the Lok Sabha are final. There is no joint sitting of both the houses with respect to money bills, because all final decisions are taken by the Lok Sabha.
Article 108 provides for a joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament in certain cases. A joint sitting can be convened by the President of India when one house has either rejected a bill passed by the other house, has not taken any action on a bill transmitted to it by the other house for six months, or has disagreed to the amendments proposed by the Lok Sabha on a bill passed by it. Considering that the numerical strength of Lok Sabha is more than twice that of Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha tends to have a greater influence in a joint sitting of Parliament. A joint session is chaired by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. Also, because the joint session is convened by the President on advice of the government, which already has a majority in Lok Sabha, the joint session is usually convened to get bills passed through a Rajya Sabha in which the government has a minority.
Joint sessions of Parliament are a rarity, and have been convened three times in last 71 years, for the purpose of passage of a specific legislative act, the latest time being in 2002:
Unlike the Lok Sabha, a member of the Rajya Sabha can not bring to the house a no - confidence motion against the government.
In Indian federal structure, Rajya Sabha is a representative of the States in the Union legislature (Hence the name, Council of States). Hence, Rajya Sabha is granted powers that protect the rights of States against the Union.
The Constitution empowers Parliament of India to make laws on the matters reserved for States (States List). However, this can only be done if Rajya Sabha first passes a resolution by two - thirds special majority granting such a power to the Union Parliament. The union government can not make a law on a matter reserved for states without any authorisation from Rajya Sabha.
Rajya Sabha, by a two - thirds super majority can pass a resolution empowering the Government of India to create more All - India Services common to both Union and States, including a judicial service.
Seats are allotted in proportion to the population of people of each state or union territory in such a manner that smaller states have slight advantage over more populous states. As the members are elected by the state legislature, smaller Union Territories which are not States and do not have legislatures can not have representation in Rajya Sabha. Hence, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli do not send any representatives to Rajya Sabha. 12 members are nominated by the President.
As per the Fourth Schedule to the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950, the Rajya Sabha was to consist of 216 members of which 12 members were to be nominated by the President and the remaining 204 elected to represent the States. The present strength, however, is 245 members of whom 233 are representatives of the states and union territories and 12 are nominated by the President. The twelve nominated members of the Rajya Sabha are persons who are eminent in particular fields, and are well known contributors in the particular field. A few examples of such nominated persons are cricketing icon Sachin Tendulkar, former RBI Governor Bimal Jalan and famous lyricist and poet Javed Akhtar. As of March 2014, each state or union territory specified in the first column of the following table, there shall be allotted the number of seats specified in the second column thereof opposite to that State or that union territory, as the case may be:
Rajya Sabha Secretariat (As of 15 July 2018):
Besides the Chairman (Vice-President of India) and the Deputy Chairman, there is also a position called Leader of the House. This is a cabinet minister -- the prime minister if he is a member of the House, or another nominated minister. The Leader has a seat next to the Chairman, in the front row.
Besides the Leader of the House, who is leading the majority, there is also a Leader of the Opposition (LOP) -- leading the opposition parties. The function was only recognized in the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act 1977. This is commonly the leader of the largest non-government party, and is recognized as such by the Chairman.
The following people have been the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha:
The Secretariat of Rajya Sabha was set up pursuant to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows: - 98. Secretariat of Parliament -- Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament.
The Rajya Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Chairman. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following:
(i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) possible to Members of Rajya Sabha; (iv) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees; (v) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications; (vi) recruitment of manpower in the Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; and (vii) preparing and publishing a record of the day - to - day proceedings of the Rajya Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Rajya Sabha and its Committees.
In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Chairman, Rajya Sabha is assisted by the Secretary - General, who holds the rank equivalent (16) to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary - General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat. Present secretary - general is Desh Deepak Sharma, IAS.
Rajya Sabha Television (RSTV) is a 24 - hour a day, seven day a week parliamentary TV channel fully owned and operated by the Rajya Sabha. The channel is aimed at providing in - depth coverage and analysis of parliamentary affairs especially the functioning of and developments related to Rajya Sabha. During sessions of Parliament, apart from telecasting live coverage of the proceedings of Rajya Sabha, RSTV presents incisive analysis of the proceedings of the House as well as other day - to - day parliamentary events and developments.
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what is the meaning of mergers and acquisitions | Mergers and acquisitions - wikipedia
Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) are transactions in which the ownership of companies, other business organizations, or their operating units are transferred or consolidated with other entities. As an aspect of strategic management, M&A can allow enterprises to grow or downsize, and change the nature of their business or competitive position.
From a legal point of view, a merger is a legal consolidation of two entities into one entity, whereas an acquisition occurs when one entity takes ownership of another entity 's stock, equity interests or assets. From a commercial and economic point of view, both types of transactions generally result in the consolidation of assets and liabilities under one entity, and the distinction between a "merger '' and an "acquisition '' is less clear. A transaction legally structured as an acquisition may have the effect of placing one party 's business under the indirect ownership of the other party 's shareholders, while a transaction legally structured as a merger may give each party 's shareholders partial ownership and control of the combined enterprise. A deal may be euphemistically called a merger of equals if both CEOs agree that joining together is in the best interest of both of their companies, while when the deal is unfriendly (that is, when the management of the target company opposes the deal) it may be regarded as an "acquisition ''.
An acquisition / takeover is the purchase of one business or company by another company or other business entity. Specific acquisition targets can be identified through myriad avenues including market research, trade expos, sent up from internal business units, or supply chain analysis. Such purchase may be of 100 %, or nearly 100 %, of the assets or ownership equity of the acquired entity. Consolidation / amalgamation occurs when two companies combine to form a new enterprise altogether, and neither of the previous companies remains independently. Acquisitions are divided into "private '' and "public '' acquisitions, depending on whether the acquiree or merging company (also termed a target) is or is not listed on a public stock market. Some public companies rely on acquisitions as an important value creation strategy. An additional dimension or categorization consists of whether an acquisition is friendly or hostile.
Achieving acquisition success has proven to be very difficult, while various studies have shown that 50 % of acquisitions were unsuccessful. "Serial acquirers '' appear to be more successful with M&A than companies who make an acquisition only occasionally (see Douma & Schreuder, 2013, chapter 13). The new forms of buy out created since the crisis are based on serial type acquisitions known as an ECO Buyout which is a co-community ownership buy out and the new generation buy outs of the MIBO (Management Involved or Management & Institution Buy Out) and MEIBO (Management & Employee Involved Buy Out).
Whether a purchase is perceived as being a "friendly '' one or "hostile '' depends significantly on how the proposed acquisition is communicated to and perceived by the target company 's board of directors, employees and shareholders. It is normal for M&A deal communications to take place in a so - called "confidentiality bubble '' wherein the flow of information is restricted pursuant to confidentiality agreements. In the case of a friendly transaction, the companies cooperate in negotiations; in the case of a hostile deal, the board and / or management of the target is unwilling to be bought or the target 's board has no prior knowledge of the offer. Hostile acquisitions can, and often do, ultimately become "friendly '', as the acquiror secures endorsement of the transaction from the board of the acquiree company. This usually requires an improvement in the terms of the offer and / or through negotiation.
"Acquisition '' usually refers to a purchase of a smaller firm by a larger one. Sometimes, however, a smaller firm will acquire management control of a larger and / or longer - established company and retain the name of the latter for the post-acquisition combined entity. This is known as a reverse takeover. Another type of acquisition is the reverse merger, a form of transaction that enables a private company to be publicly listed in a relatively short time frame. A reverse merger occurs when a privately held company (often one that has strong prospects and is eager to raise financing) buys a publicly listed shell company, usually one with no business and limited assets.
The combined evidence suggests that the shareholders of acquired firms realize significant positive "abnormal returns '' while shareholders of the acquiring company are most likely to experience a negative wealth effect. The overall net effect of M&A transactions appears to be positive: almost all studies report positive returns for the investors in the combined buyer and target firms. This implies that M&A creates economic value, presumably by transferring assets to management teams that operate them more efficiently (see Douma & Schreuder, 2013, chapter 13).
There are also a variety of structures used in securing control over the assets of a company, which have different tax and regulatory implications:
The terms "demerger '', "spin - off '' and "spin - out '' are sometimes used to indicate a situation where one company splits into two, generating a second company which may or may not become separately listed on a stock exchange.
As per knowledge - based views, firms can generate greater values through the retention of knowledge - based resources which they generate and integrate. Extracting technological benefits during and after acquisition is ever challenging issue because of organizational differences. Based on the content analysis of seven interviews authors concluded five following components for their grounded model of acquisition:
An increase in acquisitions in the global business environment requires enterprises to evaluate the key stake holders of acquisition very carefully before implementation. It is imperative for the acquirer to understand this relationship and apply it to its advantage. Employee retention is possible only when resources are exchanged and managed without affecting their independence.
Corporate acquisitions can be characterized for legal purposes as either "asset purchases '' in which the seller sells business assets to the buyer, or "equity purchases '' in which the buyer purchases equity interests in a target company from one or more selling shareholders. Asset purchases are common in technology transactions where the buyer is most interested in particular intellectual property rights but does not want to acquire liabilities or other contractual relationships. An asset purchase structure may also be used when the buyer wishes to buy a particular division or unit of a company which is not a separate legal entity. There are numerous challenges particular to this type of transaction, including isolating the specific assets and liabilities that pertain to the unit, determining whether the unit utilizes services from other units of the selling company, transferring employees, transferring permits and licenses, and ensuring that the seller does not compete with the buyer in the same business area in the future.
Structuring the sale of a financially distressed company is uniquely difficult due to the treatment of non-compete covenants, consulting agreements, and business goodwill in such transactions.
Mergers, asset purchases and equity purchases are each taxed differently, and the most beneficial structure for tax purposes is highly situation - dependent. One hybrid form often employed for tax purposes is a triangular merger, where the target company merges with a shell company wholly owned by the buyer, thus becoming a subsidiary of the buyer. In a "forward triangular merger '', the buyer causes the target company to merge into the subsidiary; a "reverse triangular merger '' is similar except that the subsidiary merges into the target company. Under the U.S. Internal Revenue Code, a forward triangular merger is taxed as if the target company sold its assets to the shell company and then liquidated, whereas a reverse triangular merger is taxed as if the target company 's shareholders sold their stock in the target company to the buyer.
The documentation of an M&A transaction often begins with a letter of intent. The letter of intent generally does not bind the parties to commit to a transaction, but may bind the parties to confidentiality and exclusivity obligations so that the transaction can be considered through a due diligence process involving lawyers, accountants, tax advisors, and other professionals, as well as business people from both sides.
After due diligence is complete, the parties may proceed to draw up a definitive agreement, known as a "merger agreement '', "share purchase agreement '' or "asset purchase agreement '' depending on the structure of the transaction. Such contracts are typically 80 to 100 pages long and focus on five key types of terms:
Post-closing, adjustments may still occur to certain provisions of the purchase agreement, including the purchase price. These adjustments are subject to enforceability issues in certain situations. Alternatively, certain transactions use the ' locked box ' approach where the purchase price is fixed at signing and based on seller 's equity value at a pre-signing date and an interest charge.
The five most common ways to value a business are
Professionals who value businesses generally do not use just one of these methods but a combination of some of them, as well as possibly others that are not mentioned above, in order to obtain a more accurate value. The information in the balance sheet or income statement is obtained by one of three accounting measures: a Notice to Reader, a Review Engagement or an Audit.
Accurate business valuation is one of the most important aspects of M&A as valuations like these will have a major effect on the price that a business will be sold for. Most often this information is expressed in a Letter of Opinion of Value (LOV) when the business is being valuated for interest 's sake. There are other, more detailed ways of expressing the value of a business. While these reports generally get more detailed and expensive as the size of a company increases, this is not always the case as there are many complicated industries which require more attention to detail, regardless of size.
Objectively evaluating the historical and prospective performance of a business is a challenge faced by many. Generally, parties rely on independent third parties to conduct due diligence studies or business assessments. To yield the most value from a business assessment, objectives should be clearly defined and the right resources should be chosen to conduct the assessment in the available timeframe.
As synergy plays a large role in the valuation of acquisitions, it is paramount to get the value of synergies right. Synergies are different from the "sales price '' valuation of the firm, as they will accrue to the buyer. Hence, the analysis should be done from the acquiring firm 's point of view. Synergy - creating investments are started by the choice of the acquirer, and therefore they are not obligatory, making them essentially real options. To include this real options aspect into analysis of acquisition targets is one interesting issue that has been studied lately.
Mergers are generally differentiated from acquisitions partly by the way in which they are financed and partly by the relative size of the companies. Various methods of financing an M&A deal exist:
Payment by cash. Such transactions are usually termed acquisitions rather than mergers because the shareholders of the target company are removed from the picture and the target comes under the (indirect) control of the bidder 's shareholders.
Payment in the form of the acquiring company 's stock, issued to the shareholders of the acquired company at a given ratio proportional to the valuation of the latter. They receive stock in the company that is purchasing the smaller subsidiary.
There are some elements to think about when choosing the form of payment. When submitting an offer, the acquiring firm should consider other potential bidders and think strategically. The form of payment might be decisive for the seller. With pure cash deals, there is no doubt on the real value of the bid (without considering an eventual earnout). The contingency of the share payment is indeed removed. Thus, a cash offer preempts competitors better than securities. Taxes are a second element to consider and should be evaluated with the counsel of competent tax and accounting advisers. Third, with a share deal the buyer 's capital structure might be affected and the control of the buyer modified. If the issuance of shares is necessary, shareholders of the acquiring company might prevent such capital increase at the general meeting of shareholders. The risk is removed with a cash transaction. Then, the balance sheet of the buyer will be modified and the decision maker should take into account the effects on the reported financial results. For example, in a pure cash deal (financed from the company 's current account), liquidity ratios might decrease. On the other hand, in a pure stock for stock transaction (financed from the issuance of new shares), the company might show lower profitability ratios (e.g. ROA). However, economic dilution must prevail towards accounting dilution when making the choice. The form of payment and financing options are tightly linked. If the buyer pays cash, there are three main financing options:
If the buyer pays with stock, the financing possibilities are:
In general, stock will create financial flexibility. Transaction costs must also be considered but tend to affect the payment decision more for larger transactions. Finally, paying cash or with shares is a way to signal value to the other party, e.g.: buyers tend to offer stock when they believe their shares are overvalued and cash when undervalued.
Parties should also consider their accounting treatment of M&A transaction costs and ensure they comply with Department of Treasury regulations, including the applicability of the "end of the day '' and "next day '' rules.
M&A advice is provided by full - service investment banks - who often advise and handle the biggest deals in the world (called bulge bracket) - and specialist M&A firms, who provide M&A only advisory, generally to mid-market, select industries and SBEs.
Highly focused and specialized M&A advice investment banks are called boutique investment banks.
The dominant rationale used to explain M&A activity is that acquiring firms seek improved financial performance or reduce risk. The following motives are considered to improve financial performance or reduce risk:
Megadeals -- deals of at least one $1 billion in size -- tend to fall into four discrete categories: consolidation, capabilities extension, technology - driven market transformation, and going private.
However, on average and across the most commonly studied variables, acquiring firms ' financial performance does not positively change as a function of their acquisition activity. Therefore, additional motives for merger and acquisition that may not add shareholder value include:
The M&A process itself is a multifaceted which depends upon the type of merging companies.
The M&A process results in the restructuring of a business ' purpose, corporate governance and brand identity.
An arm 's length merger is a merger:
'' The two elements are complementary and not substitutes. The first element is important because the directors have the capability to act as effective and active bargaining agents, which disaggregated stockholders do not. But, because bargaining agents are not always effective or faithful, the second element is critical, because it gives the minority stockholders the opportunity to reject their agents ' work. Therefore, when a merger with a controlling stockholder was: 1) negotiated and approved by a special committee of independent directors; and 2) conditioned on an affirmative vote of a majority of the minority stockholders, the business judgment standard of review should presumptively apply, and any plaintiff ought to have to plead particularized facts that, if true, support an inference that, despite the facially fair process, the merger was tainted because of fiduciary wrongdoing. ''
A Strategic merger usually refers to long term strategic holding of target (Acquired) firm. This type of M&A process aims at creating synergies in the long run by increased market share, broad customer base, and corporate strength of business. A strategic acquirer may also be willing to pay a premium offer to target firm in the outlook of the synergy value created after M&A process.
The term "acqui - hire '' is used to refer to acquisitions where the acquiring company seeks to obtain the target company 's talent, rather than their products (which are often discontinued as part of the acquisition so the team can focus on projects for their new employer). In recent years, these types of acquisitions have become common in the technology industry, where major web companies such as Facebook, Twitter, and Yahoo! have frequently used talent acquisitions to add expertise in particular areas to their workforces.
Merger of equals is often a combination of companies of a similar size. Since 1990, there have been more than 625 M&A transactions announced as mergers of equals with a total value of USD 2,164.4 bil. Some of the largest mergers of equals took place during the dot.com bubble of the late 1990s and in the year 2000: AOL and Time Warner (USD 164 bil.), SmithKline Beecham and Glaxo Wellcome (USD 75 bil.), Citicorp and Travelers Group (USD 72 bil.). More recent examples this type of combinations are DuPont and Dow Chemical (USD 62 bil.) and Praxair and Linde (USD 35 bil.).
An analysis of 1,600 companies across industries revealed the rewards for M&A activity were greater for consumer products companies than the average company. For the period 2000 - 2010, consumer products companies turned in an average annual TSR of 7.4 %, while the average for all companies was 4.8 %.
Given that the cost of replacing an executive can run over 100 % of his or her annual salary, any investment of time and energy in re-recruitment will likely pay for itself many times over if it helps a business retain just a handful of key players that would have otherwise left.
Organizations should move rapidly to re-recruit key managers. It 's much easier to succeed with a team of quality players that one selects deliberately rather than try to win a game with those who randomly show up to play.
Mergers and acquisitions often create brand problems, beginning with what to call the company after the transaction and going down into detail about what to do about overlapping and competing product brands. Decisions about what brand equity to write off are not inconsequential. And, given the ability for the right brand choices to drive preference and earn a price premium, the future success of a merger or acquisition depends on making wise brand choices. Brand decision - makers essentially can choose from four different approaches to dealing with naming issues, each with specific pros and cons:
The factors influencing brand decisions in a merger or acquisition transaction can range from political to tactical. Ego can drive choice just as well as rational factors such as brand value and costs involved with changing brands.
Beyond the bigger issue of what to call the company after the transaction comes the ongoing detailed choices about what divisional, product and service brands to keep. The detailed decisions about the brand portfolio are covered under the topic brand architecture.
Most histories of M&A begin in the late 19th century United States. However, mergers coincide historically with the existence of companies. In 1708, for example, the East India Company merged with an erstwhile competitor to restore its monopoly over the Indian trade. In 1784, the Italian Monte dei Paschi and Monte Pio banks were united as the Monti Reuniti. In 1821, the Hudson 's Bay Company merged with the rival North West Company.
The Great Merger Movement was a predominantly U.S. business phenomenon that happened from 1895 to 1905. During this time, small firms with little market share consolidated with similar firms to form large, powerful institutions that dominated their markets. It is estimated that more than 1,800 of these firms disappeared into consolidations, many of which acquired substantial shares of the markets in which they operated. The vehicle used were so - called trusts. In 1900 the value of firms acquired in mergers was 20 % of GDP. In 1990 the value was only 3 % and from 1998 to 2000 it was around 10 -- 11 % of GDP. Companies such as DuPont, US Steel, and General Electric that merged during the Great Merger Movement were able to keep their dominance in their respective sectors through 1929, and in some cases today, due to growing technological advances of their products, patents, and brand recognition by their customers. There were also other companies that held the greatest market share in 1905 but at the same time did not have the competitive advantages of the companies like DuPont and General Electric. These companies such as International Paper and American Chicle saw their market share decrease significantly by 1929 as smaller competitors joined forces with each other and provided much more competition. The companies that merged were mass producers of homogeneous goods that could exploit the efficiencies of large volume production. In addition, many of these mergers were capital - intensive. Due to high fixed costs, when demand fell, these newly merged companies had an incentive to maintain output and reduce prices. However more often than not mergers were "quick mergers ''. These "quick mergers '' involved mergers of companies with unrelated technology and different management. As a result, the efficiency gains associated with mergers were not present. The new and bigger company would actually face higher costs than competitors because of these technological and managerial differences. Thus, the mergers were not done to see large efficiency gains, they were in fact done because that was the trend at the time. Companies which had specific fine products, like fine writing paper, earned their profits on high margin rather than volume and took no part in the Great Merger Movement.
One of the major short run factors that sparked the Great Merger Movement was the desire to keep prices high. However, high prices attracted the entry of new firms into the industry.
A major catalyst behind the Great Merger Movement was the Panic of 1893, which led to a major decline in demand for many homogeneous goods. For producers of homogeneous goods, when demand falls, these producers have more of an incentive to maintain output and cut prices, in order to spread out the high fixed costs these producers faced (i.e. lowering cost per unit) and the desire to exploit efficiencies of maximum volume production. However, during the Panic of 1893, the fall in demand led to a steep fall in prices.
Another economic model proposed by Naomi R. Lamoreaux for explaining the steep price falls is to view the involved firms acting as monopolies in their respective markets. As quasi-monopolists, firms set quantity where marginal cost equals marginal revenue and price where this quantity intersects demand. When the Panic of 1893 hit, demand fell and along with demand, the firm 's marginal revenue fell as well. Given high fixed costs, the new price was below average total cost, resulting in a loss. However, also being in a high fixed costs industry, these costs can be spread out through greater production (i.e. Higher quantity produced). To return to the quasi-monopoly model, in order for a firm to earn profit, firms would steal part of another firm 's market share by dropping their price slightly and producing to the point where higher quantity and lower price exceeded their average total cost. As other firms joined this practice, prices began falling everywhere and a price war ensued.
One strategy to keep prices high and to maintain profitability was for producers of the same good to collude with each other and form associations, also known as cartels. These cartels were thus able to raise prices right away, sometimes more than doubling prices. However, these prices set by cartels provided only a short - term solution because cartel members would cheat on each other by setting a lower price than the price set by the cartel. Also, the high price set by the cartel would encourage new firms to enter the industry and offer competitive pricing, causing prices to fall once again. As a result, these cartels did not succeed in maintaining high prices for a period of more than a few years. The most viable solution to this problem was for firms to merge, through horizontal integration, with other top firms in the market in order to control a large market share and thus successfully set a higher price.
In the long run, due to desire to keep costs low, it was advantageous for firms to merge and reduce their transportation costs thus producing and transporting from one location rather than various sites of different companies as in the past. Low transport costs, coupled with economies of scale also increased firm size by two - to fourfold during the second half of the nineteenth century. In addition, technological changes prior to the merger movement within companies increased the efficient size of plants with capital intensive assembly lines allowing for economies of scale. Thus improved technology and transportation were forerunners to the Great Merger Movement. In part due to competitors as mentioned above, and in part due to the government, however, many of these initially successful mergers were eventually dismantled. The U.S. government passed the Sherman Act in 1890, setting rules against price fixing and monopolies. Starting in the 1890s with such cases as Addyston Pipe and Steel Company v. United States, the courts attacked large companies for strategizing with others or within their own companies to maximize profits. Price fixing with competitors created a greater incentive for companies to unite and merge under one name so that they were not competitors anymore and technically not price fixing.
The economic history has been divided into Merger Waves based on the merger activities in the business world as:
During the third merger wave (1965 -- 1989), corporate marriages involved more diverse companies. Acquirers more frequently bought into different industries. Sometimes this was done to smooth out cyclical bumps, to diversify, the hope being that it would hedge an investment portfolio.
Starting in the fifth merger wave (1992 -- 1998) and continuing today, companies are more likely to acquire in the same business, or close to it, firms that complement and strengthen an acquirer 's capacity to serve customers.
In recent decades however, cross-sector convergence has become more common. For example, retail companies are buying tech or e-commerce firms to acquire new markets and revenue streams. It has been reported that convergence will remain a key trend in M&A activity through 2015 and onward.
Buyers are n't necessarily hungry for the target companies ' hard assets. Some are more interested in acquiring thoughts, methodologies, people and relationships. Paul Graham recognized this in his 2005 essay "Hiring is Obsolete '', in which he theorizes that the free market is better at identifying talent, and that traditional hiring practices do not follow the principles of free market because they depend a lot upon credentials and university degrees. Graham was probably the first to identify the trend in which large companies such as Google, Yahoo! or Microsoft were choosing to acquire startups instead of hiring new recruits, a process known as acqui - hiring.
Many companies are being bought for their patents, licenses, market share, name brand, research staff, methods, customer base, or culture. Soft capital, like this, is very perishable, fragile, and fluid. Integrating it usually takes more finesse and expertise than integrating machinery, real estate, inventory and other tangibles.
The top ten largest deals in M&A history cumulate to a total value of 1,118,963 mil. USD. (1.118 tril. USD).
In a study conducted in 2000 by Lehman Brothers, it was found that, on average, large M&A deals cause the domestic currency of the target corporation to appreciate by 1 % relative to the acquirer 's local currency. Until 2018, around 280.472 cross-border deals have been conducted, which cumulates to a total value of almost 24,069 bil. USD.
The rise of globalization has exponentially increased the necessity for agencies such as the Mergers and Acquisitions International Clearing (MAIC), trust accounts and securities clearing services for Like - Kind Exchanges for cross-border M&A. On a global basis, the value of cross-border mergers and acquisitions rose seven-fold during the 1990s. In 1997 alone, there were over 2,333 cross-border transactions, worth a total of approximately $298 billion. The vast literature on empirical studies over value creation in cross-border M&A is not conclusive, but points to higher returns in cross-border M&As compared to domestic ones when the acquirer firm has the capability to exploit resources and knowledge of the target 's firm and of handling challenges. In China, for example, securing regulatory approval can be complex due to an extensive group of various stakeholders at each level of government. In the United Kingdom, acquirers may face pension regulators with significant powers, in addition to an overall M&A environment that is generally more seller - friendly than the U.S. Nonetheless, the current surge in global cross-border M&A has been called the "New Era of Global Economic Discovery ''.
In little more than a decade, M&A deals in China increased by a factor of 20, from 69 in 2000 to more than 1,300 in 2013.
In 2014, Europe registered its highest levels of M&A deal activity since the financial crisis. Driven by U.S. and Asian acquirers, inbound M&A, at $320.6 billion, reached record highs by both deal value and deal count since 2001. Approximately 23 percent of the 416 M&A deals announced in the U.S. M&A market in 2014 involved non-U.S. acquirers.
For 2016, market uncertainties, including Brexit and the potential reform from a U.S. Presidential election, contributed to cross-border M&A activity lagging roughly 20 % behind 2015 activity.
In 2017, the controverse trend which started in 2015, decreasing total value but rising total number of cross border deals, kept going. Compared on a year on year basis (2016 - 2017), the total number of cross border deals decreased by - 4.2 %, while cumulated value increased by 0.6 %.
Even mergers of companies with headquarters in the same country can often be considered international in scale and require MAIC custodial services. For example, when Boeing acquired McDonnell Douglas, the two American companies had to integrate operations in dozens of countries around the world (1997). This is just as true for other apparently "single - country '' mergers, such as the 29 billion - dollar merger of Swiss drug makers Sandoz and Ciba - Geigy (now Novartis).
M&A practice in emerging countries differs from more mature economies, although transaction management and valuation tools (e.g. DCF, comparables) share a common basic methodology. In China, India or Brazil for example, differences affect the formation of asset price and on the structuring of deals. Profitability expectations (e.g. shorter time horizon, no terminal value due to low visibility) and risk represented by a discount rate must both be properly adjusted. In a M&A perspective, differences between emerging and more mature economies include: i) a less developed system of property rights, ii) less reliable financial information, iii) cultural differences in negotiations, and iv) a higher degree of competition for the best targets.
If not properly dealt with, these factors will likely have adverse consequences on return - on - investment (ROI) and create difficulties in day - to - day business operations. It is advisable that M&A tools designed for mature economies are not directly used in emerging markets without some adjustment. M&A teams need time to adapt and understand the key operating differences between their home environment and their new market.
Despite the goal of performance improvement, results from mergers and acquisitions (M&A) are often disappointing compared with results predicted or expected. Numerous empirical studies show high failure rates of M&A deals. Studies are mostly focused on individual determinants. A book by Thomas Straub (2007) "Reasons for frequent failure in Mergers and Acquisitions '' develops a comprehensive research framework that bridges different perspectives and promotes an understanding of factors underlying M&A performance in business research and scholarship. The study should help managers in the decision making process. The first important step towards this objective is the development of a common frame of reference that spans conflicting theoretical assumptions from different perspectives. On this basis, a comprehensive framework is proposed with which to understand the origins of M&A performance better and address the problem of fragmentation by integrating the most important competing perspectives in respect of studies on M&A. Furthermore, according to the existing literature, relevant determinants of firm performance are derived from each dimension of the model. For the dimension strategic management, the six strategic variables: market similarity, market complementarities, production operation similarity, production operation complementarities, market power, and purchasing power were identified as having an important effect on M&A performance. For the dimension organizational behavior, the variables acquisition experience, relative size, and cultural differences were found to be important. Finally, relevant determinants of M&A performance from the financial field were acquisition premium, bidding process, and due diligence. Three different ways in order to best measure post M&A performance are recognized: synergy realization, absolute performance, and finally relative performance.
Employee turnover contributes to M&A failures. The turnover in target companies is double the turnover experienced in non-merged firms for the ten years after the merger.
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when do you have to have a cdl license | Commercial driver 's license - wikipedia
A commercial driver 's license is a driver 's license required to operate large or heavy vehicles.
In the United States, the Commercial Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1986 established minimum requirements that must be met when a state issues a CDL. It specifies the following types of license:
This includes, but is not limited to, tow trucks, tractor trailers, and buses.
Driving commercial motor vehicles (CMVs), which are primarily tractor - trailers (or Longer Combination Vehicles (LCVs)), requires advanced skills and knowledge above and beyond those required to drive a car or other light weight vehicle. Before implementation of the commercial driver 's license (CDL) Program in 1986, licensing requirements for driving larger vehicles and buses varied from state to state.
Many drivers were operating motor vehicles that they may not have been trained or qualified to drive. This lack of training resulted in a large number of preventable traffic deaths and accidents.
1986 when the Act became law, all drivers have been required to have a CDL in order to drive a Commercial Motor Vehicle. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has developed testing standards for licensing drivers. U.S. states are able to issue CDLs only after a written and practical test have been given by the State or approved testing facility.
A driver needs a CDL if the vehicle meets one of the following definitions of a Commercial Motor Vehicle (CMV):
Class A: Any combination of vehicles which has a gross combination weight rating or gross combination weight of 11,794 kilograms or more (26,001 pounds or more) whichever is greater, inclusive of a towed unit (s) with a gross vehicle weight rating or gross vehicle weight of more than 4,536 kilograms (10,000 pounds) whichever is greater.
Class B: Any single vehicle which has a gross vehicle weight rating or gross vehicle weight of 11,794 or more kilograms (26,001 pounds or more), or any such vehicle towing a vehicle with a gross vehicle weight rating or gross vehicle weight that does not exceed 4,536 kilograms (10,000 pounds).
Class C: Any single vehicle, or combination of vehicles, that does not meet the definition of Class A or Class B, but is either designed to transport 16 or more passengers, including the driver, or is transporting material that has been designated as hazardous under 49 U.S.C. 5103 and is required to be placarded under subpart F of 49 CFR Part 172 or is transporting any quantity of a material listed as a select agent or toxin in 42 CFR Part 73.
A state may also require a driver to have a CDL to operate certain other vehicles legally. A driver licensed in New Jersey must have a CDL to drive legally a bus, limousine, or van that is used for hire, and designed to transport 8 to 15 passengers. A driver licensed in New York must have a CDL to legally transport passengers in school buses and other vehicles listed in Article 19 - A of the state 's Vehicle and Traffic Law. Drivers licensed in California must have a CDL if their primary employment is driving, whether or not they actually drive a commercial vehicle. California defines a commercial vehicle as one that transports for hire either people or products. In addition, possession of a CDL in California changes the threshold for a Driving Under the Influence citation from 0.08 % to 0.04 % Blood Alcohol Content.
Prospective licensees should verify CDL requirements by referencing their state specific CDL Manual.
The minimum age to apply for a CDL is usually 21, as required by the United States Department of Transportation, although some states allow drivers who are 18 to 20 to apply for a CDL that is valid only within the driver 's state of residence. A single state CDL only restricts driving of CMVs within the holder 's state (not non-commercial vehicles), and automatically converts to a 50 state CDL at the age of 21.
Additional testing is required to obtain any of the following endorsements on the CDL. These can only be obtained after a CDL has been issued to the driver:
T, P, S, N, H and X are Federal endorsements. Any other endorsements have been promulgated at the State level. i.e. New York DMV requires a "W '' endorsement to legally operate a tow truck in New York.
Depending on your State, the education requirements vary. Some states (Ohio) for example requires 160 hours or classroom and on the road training. Training may be obtained by completing a qualified CDL training program through a truck driving school. These training programs specialize in teaching potential truck drivers the necessary skills and knowledge to properly and safely operate a truck, including map reading, trip planning, and compliance with U.S. Department of Transportation laws, as well as backing, turning, hooking a trailer, and road driving. The overall purpose of these training schools is to help truckers - to - be pass the CDL knowledge and skills tests as well as advanced driving techniques such as skid avoidance and recovery and other emergency actions for situations such as a break away trailer and hydroplaning. These classes usually go well beyond the training the typical non-commercial driver receives, such as the drivers education provided in high school. There are a number of licensed CDL training schools around the United States and many trucking companies operate their own schools as well.
Although each state may add additional restrictions, there are national requirements are as follows. A prospective driver must pass a written test on highway safety and a test about different parts of a truck with a minimum of 30 questions on the test. To pass this knowledge test, student drivers must answer at least 80 percent of the questions correctly. To pass the driving skills test the student driver must successfully perform a set of required driving maneuvers. The driving skill test must be taken in a vehicle that the driver operates or expects to operate. For certain endorsements, such as Air Brakes, the driving skills test must be taken in a vehicle equipped with such equipment. You will also need to show you do in fact show the characteristics of an aware and fully operative driver. This does not exclude certain disabilities, however, you must meet standard requirements, required by the safety operators.
Employers, training facilities, States, governmental departments, and private institutions may be permitted to administer knowledge and driving test for the State. The test must be the same as those given by the State issuing the CDL and the instructors must meet the same professional certification as State instructors.
States are required to conduct an inspection of any testing facility and evaluates the programs by taking an actual test as if they were testing driver at least once a year, or by taking a sample of drivers tested by the third party and then comparing pass / fail rates.
In addition, the State 's agreement with the third party testing centers must allow the FMCSA and the State to conduct random examinations, inspections, and audits without notice.
In 2014, the law regarding drivers in pursuit of a CDL was modified and requires a DOT medical examiner to authorize a person with a medical issue to be able to drive. Prior to the change, a private doctor was able to authorize a driver to obtain a CDL. Most CMV drivers must prove they are healthy enough to safely drive a truck. A valid medical certificate must be filled out by a medical professional listed on the National Registry of Certified Medical Examiners at the conclusion of an extensive physical exam, with a copy provided to the state Bureau (or Department) of Motor Vehicles compliance unit. Some examples of an impairment which disqualifies a driver include the inability to grasp a steering wheel or operate foot pedals, insulin use, certain cardiac and respiratory problems, markedly elevated blood pressure, epilepsy, some severe psychiatric disorders, certain color blindness, poor corrected vision in either eye (worse than 20 / 40), bilateral hearing loss, active alcoholism, and other conditions which significantly increase the risk of a medical emergency behind the wheel. See Physical qualifications for drivers page of the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration.
Not all medical providers are able to test and complete the medical certification form.
A CDL must contain the following information:
(a) (1) The prominent statement that the license is a "commercial driver 's license '' or "CDL, '' except as specified in § 383.153 (b);
(a) (2) The full name, signature, and mailing address of the person to whom such license is issued;
(a) (3) Physical and other information to identify and describe such person including date of birth (month, day, and year), sex, and height;
(a) (4) Color photograph of the driver;
(a) (5) The driver 's State license number;
(a) (6) The name of the State which issued the license;
(a) (7) The date of issuance and the date of expiration of the license;
(a) (8) The group or groups of commercial motor vehicle (s) that the driver is authorized to operate, indicated as follows:
(a) (8) (i) A for Combination Vehicle;
(a) (8) (ii) B for Heavy Straight Vehicle; and
(a) (8) (iii) C for Small Vehicle.
(a) (9) The endorsement (s) for which the driver has qualified, if any, indicated as follows:
(a) (9) (i) T for double / triple trailers;
(a) (9) (ii) P for passenger;
(a) (9) (iii) N for tank vehicle;
(a) (9) (iv) H for hazardous materials (which includes most all fireworks);
(a) (9) (v) X for a combination of the tank vehicle and hazardous materials endorsements;
(a) (9) (vi) S for school bus; and
(a) (9) (vii) At the discretion of the State, additional codes for additional groupings of endorsements, as long as each such discretionary code is fully explained on the front or back of the CDL document.
(b) If the CDL is a nonresident CDL, it shall contain the prominent statement that the license is a "nonresident commercial driver 's license '' or "nonresident CDL. '' The word "nonresident '' must be conspicuously and unmistakably displayed, but may be noncontiguous with the words "Commercial Driver 's License '' or "CDL. ''
(c) If the State has issued the applicant an air brake restriction as specified in § 383.95, that restriction must be indicated on the license.
The Commercial Driver 's License Information System (CDLIS) and the National Driver Register (NDR) exchange information on traffic convictions and driver disqualifications of commercial drivers. States have to use both CDLIS and NDR to check a driver 's record before a CDL can be issued. To gain permission to access to the CDLIS and NDR databases one should visit the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) Technical Support Web site for instructions on how this information is accessed and who can access it. Trucking companies can use a commercial service that has clearance for providing this information as a means of screening prospective employees.
An employer is also subject to a penalty of up to US $10,000, if they knowingly permit a driver to operate a CMV without a valid CDL.
States can reduce certain lifetime disqualifications to a minimum disqualification period of 10 years if the driver completes a driver rehabilitation program approved by the State. Not all states do this: it is available in Idaho and New York State but not California or New Jersey.
If a CDL holder is disqualified from operating a CMV they can not be issued a "conditional '' or "hardship '' CDL, but can continue to drive non-commercial vehicles.
Any convictions are reported to the driver 's home State and Federal Highway Administration and these convictions are treated the same as convictions for violations that are committed in the home State.
The Commercial Drivers License Program collects and stores all convictions a driver receives and transmits this data to the home State so that any disqualification or suspension can be applied.
The FHWA has established 0.04 % as the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) level at or above which a CMV driver is deemed to be driving under the influence of alcohol and subject to lose his / her CDL. Additionally, an operator of a CMV that is found to have ' any detectable amount of BAC above 0.0 % ' will be put out of service for a minimum of 24 hours.
A driver must report any driving conviction within 30 days, except parking, to their employer regardless of the nature of the violation.
Employers must be notified if a driver 's license is suspended, revoked, or canceled. The notification must be made by the end of the next business day following receipt of the notice of the suspension, revocation, cancellation, lost privilege or disqualification.
Employers can not under any circumstances use a driver who has more than one license or whose license is suspended, revoked or canceled, or is disqualified from driving. Violation of this requirement may result in civil or criminal penalties.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics and additional publications identified a future need for over 90,000 truck drivers in the United States for the next 10 years. In order to improve upon the shortage, full scholarships are being awarded to military veterans at CDL - A schools and truck driving companies.
In the United Kingdom the PCV Licence (PCV stands for Passenger Carrying Vehicle) enables the holder to drive buses and / or minibuses, subject to what kind of Practical Driving Test the licence holder passes.
Further information on obtaining a PCV Licence can be found at the PCV Licence Training website
All places in Australia have a mostly similar driver licence system, although some things can change in each state or territory (e.g. what classes of license are available).
GVM is the maximum recommended weight a vehicle can be when loaded. A ' Class C ' Licence allows the holder to drive cars, utilities, vans, some light trucks, car - based motor tricycles, tractors and implements such as graders. You can also drive vehicles that seat up to 12 adults, including the driver.
The medical standards for drivers of commercial vehicles are set by the National Transport Commission and AUSTROADS, and are set out in ' Assessing Fitness to Drive ' (available from the AUSTROADS website).
For those applying for heavy vehicle licence classes MR (Medium Rigid), HR (Heavy Rigid), HC (Heavy Combination) or MC (Multi Combination), it is strongly recommended that the applicant ensures they meet the medical requirements before commencing any training or tests for a heavy vehicle licence.
The driver of a vehicle carrying paying passengers (such as a school bus or tourist coach) requires an appropriate driver licence and a ' Public Passenger Vehicle Driver Authority ' which is issued by the Ministry of Transport.
In New Zealand, driver licensing is controlled by the NZ Transport Agency. There are six classes of motor - vehicle licence and nine licence endorsements. Class 1 governs vehicles with a GLW (gross laden weight) or GCW (gross combined weight) of less than 6,000 kg, and Class 6 governs motorcycles. Classes 2 -- 5 govern heavy vehicles.
A Class 2 licence allows the holder to drive:
Class 3 allows the holder to drive:
Class 4 allows the holder to drive:
Class 5 allows the holder to drive:
Before getting a Class 2 licence, a driver must be at least 18 years of age and have held an unrestricted Class 1 licence for at least six months. Gaining a Class 5 is not dependent on holding a Class 3. Once a driver has a Class 2 they can progress straight through to Class 4 and Class 5. Each progression (2 to 3, 2 to 4, or 4 to 5) requires having held an unrestricted licence of the preceding class for at least six months. For drivers aged 25 or over the minimum period for holding the unrestricted time is reduced to three months, or waived entirely on completion of an approved course of instruction.
Additional endorsements on an NZ driver 's licence govern provision of special commercial services. The endorsements are:
The F, R, T and W endorsements are for operating special types of vehicle on the road. Where the holder also has a heavy vehicle (Class 2 or Class 4) licence, they are permitted to drive heavy special vehicles. Otherwise the limits for Class 1 (6,000 kg) apply.
Being granted an I, O, P and / or V endorsement requires that the applicant passes a "fit and proper person '' check, to screen for people with criminal convictions or serious driving infringements. These endorsements are issued for one or five years, at the option of the applicant at the time of purchase.
In Hong Kong, Transport Department is responsible for issuing driver licences. Private light bus (class 4), public light bus (class 5), taxi (class 6), private bus (class 9), public bus (class 10), franchised public bus (class 17), medium goods vehicle (class 18), heavy goods vehicle (class 19), articulated vehicle (class 20) and special purpose vehicle (class 21) are vehicles requiring commercial driving licences., whereas private car (class 1), light goods vehicle (class 2), motorcycle (class 3), and motor tricycle (class 22) are considered non-commercial vehicles.
To apply for a commercial driving licence, a driver must: - be of age 21 or above; - have obtained a private car or light goods vehicle full driving licence for at least 3 years (2 years if converted from probationary licence) immediately before the application; - be a Hong Kong permanent resident or not subject to any condition of stay other than a limit of stay; - have not been convicted of some serious driving offences specified in law within 5 years before the application; and take a driving test of the class of vehicle the driver is going to apply.
In Hong Kong, driving licences are issued separately for each class of vehicle and printed on the licence, although passing a driving test of a heavier vehicle automatically gives the driver the right to apply for corresponding lighter vehicles:
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where does the last name flora come from | Flora (given name) - wikipedia
Flora is a feminine given name. Notable people with the name include:
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what is the speech about i have a dream | I Have a Dream - wikipedia
"I Have a Dream '' is a public speech delivered by American civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963, in which he calls for an end to racism in the United States and called for civil and economic rights. Delivered to over 250,000 civil rights supporters from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the speech was a defining moment of the civil rights movement.
Beginning with a reference to the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed millions of slaves in 1863, King observes that: "one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free ''. Toward the end of the speech, King departed from his prepared text for a partly improvised peroration on the theme "I have a dream '', prompted by Mahalia Jackson 's cry: "Tell them about the dream, Martin! '' In this part of the speech, which most excited the listeners and has now become its most famous, King described his dreams of freedom and equality arising from a land of slavery and hatred. Jon Meacham writes that, "With a single phrase, Martin Luther King Jr. joined Jefferson and Lincoln in the ranks of men who 've shaped modern America ''. The speech was ranked the top American speech of the 20th century in a 1999 poll of scholars of public address.
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom was partly intended to demonstrate mass support for the civil rights legislation proposed by President Kennedy in June. Martin Luther King and other leaders therefore agreed to keep their speeches calm, also, to avoid provoking the civil disobedience which had become the hallmark of the Civil Rights Movement. King originally designed his speech as a homage to Abraham Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address, timed to correspond with the centennial of the Emancipation Proclamation.
King had been preaching about dreams since 1960, when he gave a speech to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) called "The Negro and the American Dream ''. This speech discusses the gap between the American dream and reality, saying that overt white supremacists have violated the dream, and that "our federal government has also scarred the dream through its apathy and hypocrisy, its betrayal of the cause of justice ''. King suggests that "It may well be that the Negro is God 's instrument to save the soul of America. '' In 1961, he spoke of the Civil Rights Movement and student activists ' "dream '' of equality -- "the American Dream... a dream as yet unfulfilled '' -- in several national speeches and statements, and took "the dream '' as the centerpiece for these speeches.
On November 27, 1962, King gave a speech at Booker T. Washington High School in Rocky Mount, North Carolina. That speech was longer than the version which he would eventually deliver from the Lincoln Memorial. And while parts of the text had been moved around, large portions were identical, including the "I have a dream '' refrain. After being rediscovered, the restored and digitized recording of the 1962 speech was presented to the public by the English department of North Carolina State University.
Martin Luther King had also delivered a "dream '' speech in Detroit, in June 1963, when he marched on Woodward Avenue with Walter Reuther and the Reverend C.L. Franklin, and had rehearsed other parts.
The March on Washington Speech, known as "I Have a Dream Speech '', has been shown to have had several versions, written at several different times. It has no single version draft, but is an amalgamation of several drafts, and was originally called "Normalcy, Never Again ''. Little of this, and another "Normalcy Speech '', ended up in the final draft. A draft of "Normalcy, Never Again '' is housed in the Morehouse College Martin Luther King Jr. Collection of the Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center and Morehouse College. The focus on "I have a dream '' comes through the speech 's delivery. Toward the end of its delivery, noted African American gospel singer Mahalia Jackson shouted to King from the crowd, "Tell them about the dream, Martin. '' King departed from his prepared remarks and started "preaching '' improvisationally, punctuating his points with "I have a dream. ''
The speech was drafted with the assistance of Stanley Levison and Clarence Benjamin Jones in Riverdale, New York City. Jones has said that "the logistical preparations for the march were so burdensome that the speech was not a priority for us '' and that, "on the evening of Tuesday, Aug. 27, (12 hours before the march) Martin still did n't know what he was going to say ''.
Leading up to the speech 's rendition at the Great March on Washington, King had delivered its "I have a dream '' refrains in his speech before 25,000 people in Detroit 's Cobo Hall immediately after the 125,000 - strong Great Walk to Freedom in Detroit, June 23, 1963. After the Washington, D.C. March, a recording of King 's Cobo Hall speech was released by Detroit 's Gordy Records as an LP entitled "The Great March To Freedom ''.
Widely hailed as a masterpiece of rhetoric, King 's speech invokes pivotal documents in American history, including the Declaration of Independence, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the United States Constitution. Early in his speech, King alludes to Abraham Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address by saying "Five score years ago... '' In reference to the abolition of slavery articulated in the Emancipation Proclamation, King says: "It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. '' Anaphora (i.e., the repetition of a phrase at the beginning of sentences) is employed throughout the speech. Early in his speech, King urges his audience to seize the moment; "Now is the time '' is repeated three times in the sixth paragraph. The most widely cited example of anaphora is found in the often quoted phrase "I have a dream '', which is repeated eight times as King paints a picture of an integrated and unified America for his audience. Other occasions include "One hundred years later '', "We can never be satisfied '', "With this faith '', "Let freedom ring '', and "free at last ''. King was the sixteenth out of eighteen people to speak that day, according to the official program.
Among the most quoted lines of the speech include "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character. I have a dream today! ''
According to U.S. Representative John Lewis, who also spoke that day as the president of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, "Dr. King had the power, the ability, and the capacity to transform those steps on the Lincoln Memorial into a monumental area that will forever be recognized. By speaking the way he did, he educated, he inspired, he informed not just the people there, but people throughout America and unborn generations. ''
The ideas in the speech reflect King 's social experiences of ethnocentric abuse, the mistreatment and exploitation of blacks. The speech draws upon appeals to America 's myths as a nation founded to provide freedom and justice to all people, and then reinforces and transcends those secular mythologies by placing them within a spiritual context by arguing that racial justice is also in accord with God 's will. Thus, the rhetoric of the speech provides redemption to America for its racial sins. King describes the promises made by America as a "promissory note '' on which America has defaulted. He says that "America has given the Negro people a bad check '', but that "we 've come to cash this check '' by marching in Washington, D.C.
King 's speech used words and ideas from his own speeches and other texts. For years, he had spoken about dreams, quoted from Samuel Francis Smith 's popular patriotic hymn "America '' ("My Country, ' Tis of Thee ''), and of course referred extensively to the Bible. The idea of constitutional rights as an "unfulfilled promise '' was suggested by Clarence Jones.
The final passage from King 's speech closely resembles Archibald Carey Jr. 's address to the 1952 Republican National Convention: both speeches end with a recitation of the first verse of "America '', and the speeches share the name of one of several mountains from which both exhort "let freedom ring ''.
King also is said to have used portions of Prathia Hall 's speech at the site of a burned - down African American church in Terrell County, Georgia, in September 1962, in which she used the repeated phrase "I have a dream ''. The church burned down after it was used for voter registration meetings.
The speech also alludes to Psalm 30: 5 in the second stanza of the speech. Additionally, King quotes from Isaiah 40: 4 -- 5 ("I have a dream that every valley shall be exalted... '') and Amos 5: 24 ("But let justice roll down like water... ''). He also alludes to the opening lines of Shakespeare 's Richard III ("Now is the winter of our discontent / Made glorious summer... '') when he remarks that "this sweltering summer of the Negro 's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn... ''
The "I Have a Dream '' speech can be dissected by using three rhetorical lenses: voice merging, prophetic voice, and dynamic spectacle. Voice merging is the combining of one 's own voice with religious predecessors. Prophetic voice is using rhetoric to speak for a population. A dynamic spectacle has origins from the Aristotelian definition as "a weak hybrid form of drama, a theatrical concoction that relied upon external factors (shock, sensation, and passionate release) such as televised rituals of conflict and social control. ''
Voice merging is a common technique used amongst African American preachers. It combines the voices of previous preachers and excerpts from scriptures along with their own unique thoughts to create a unique voice. King uses voice merging in his peroration when he references the secular hymn "America. ''
The rhetoric of King 's speech can be compared to the rhetoric of Old Testament prophets. During King 's speech, he speaks with urgency and crisis giving him a prophetic voice. The prophetic voice must "restore a sense of duty and virtue amidst the decay of venality. '' An evident example is when King declares that, "now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God 's children. ''
Why King 's speech was powerful is debated, but essentially, it came at a point of many factors combining at a key cultural turning point. Executive speechwriter Anthony Trendl writes, "The right man delivered the right words to the right people in the right place at the right time. ''
"Given the context of drama and tension in which it was situated '', King 's speech can be classified as a dynamic spectacle. A dynamic spectacle is dependent on the situation in which it is used. It can be considered a dynamic spectacle because it happened at the correct time and place: during the Civil Rights Movement and the March on Washington.
The speech was lauded in the days after the event, and was widely considered the high point of the March by contemporary observers. James Reston, writing for The New York Times, said that "Dr. King touched all the themes of the day, only better than anybody else. He was full of the symbolism of Lincoln and Gandhi, and the cadences of the Bible. He was both militant and sad, and he sent the crowd away feeling that the long journey had been worthwhile. '' Reston also noted that the event "was better covered by television and the press than any event here since President Kennedy 's inauguration '', and opined that "it will be a long time before (Washington) forgets the melodious and melancholy voice of the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. crying out his dreams to the multitude. '' An article in The Boston Globe by Mary McGrory reported that King 's speech "caught the mood '' and "moved the crowd '' of the day "as no other '' speaker in the event. Marquis Childs of The Washington Post wrote that King 's speech "rose above mere oratory ''. An article in the Los Angeles Times commented that the "matchless eloquence '' displayed by King -- "a supreme orator '' of "a type so rare as almost to be forgotten in our age '' -- put to shame the advocates of segregation by inspiring the "conscience of America '' with the justice of the civil - rights cause.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which viewed King and his allies for racial justice as subversive, also noticed the speech. This provoked the organization to expand their COINTELPRO operation against the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and to target King specifically as a major enemy of the United States. Two days after King delivered "I Have a Dream '', Agent William C. Sullivan, the head of COINTELPRO, wrote a memo about King 's growing influence:
In the light of King 's powerful demagogic speech yesterday he stands head and shoulders above all other Negro leaders put together when it comes to influencing great masses of Negroes. We must mark him now, if we have not done so before, as the most dangerous Negro of the future in this Nation from the standpoint of communism, the Negro and national security.
The speech was a success for the Kennedy administration and for the liberal civil rights coalition that had planned it. It was considered a "triumph of managed protest '', and not one arrest relating to the demonstration occurred. Kennedy had watched King 's speech on television and been very impressed. Afterwards, March leaders accepted an invitation to the White House to meet with President Kennedy. Kennedy felt the March bolstered the chances for his civil rights bill.
Meanwhile, some of the more radical Black leaders who were present condemned the speech (along with the rest of the march) as too compromising. Malcolm X later wrote in his autobiography: "Who ever heard of angry revolutionaries swinging their bare feet together with their oppressor in lily pad pools, with gospels and guitars and ' I have a dream ' speeches? ''
The March on Washington put pressure on the Kennedy administration to advance its civil rights legislation in Congress. The diaries of Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., published posthumously in 2007, suggest that President Kennedy was concerned that if the march failed to attract large numbers of demonstrators, it might undermine his civil rights efforts.
In the wake of the speech and march, King was named Man of the Year by TIME magazine for 1963, and in 1964, he was the youngest person ever awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The full speech did not appear in writing until August 1983, some 15 years after King 's death, when a transcript was published in The Washington Post.
In 1990, the Australian alternative comedy rock band Doug Anthony All Stars released an album called Icon. One song from Icon, "Shang - a-lang '', sampled the end of the speech.
In 1992, the band Moodswings, incorporated excerpts from Martin Luther King, Jr. 's "I Have a Dream '' speech in their song "Spiritual High, Part III. on the album Moodfood ''.
In 2002, the Library of Congress honored the speech by adding it to the United States National Recording Registry. In 2003, the National Park Service dedicated an inscribed marble pedestal to commemorate the location of King 's speech at the Lincoln Memorial.
The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial was dedicated in 2011. The centerpiece for the memorial is based on a line from King 's "I Have A Dream '' speech: "Out of a mountain of despair, a stone of hope. '' A 30 feet (9.1 m) - high relief of King named the "Stone of Hope '' stands past two other pieces of granite that symbolize the "mountain of despair. ''
In August 2012, the Dutch DJ and producer Bakermat released the single "One Day '', which consists of an integrated sample of the speech. The re-release in 2014 became a hit in several European countries.
On August 26, 2013, UK 's BBC Radio 4 broadcast "God 's Trombone '', in which Gary Younge looked behind the scenes of the speech and explored "what made it both timely and timeless ''.
On August 28, 2013, thousands gathered on the mall in Washington D.C. where King made his historic speech to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the occasion. In attendance were former U.S. Presidents Bill Clinton and Jimmy Carter, and incumbent President Barack Obama, who addressed the crowd and spoke on the significance of the event. Many of King 's family were in attendance.
On October 11, 2015, The Atlanta Journal - Constitution published an exclusive report about Stone Mountain officials considering installation of a new "Freedom Bell '' honoring King and citing the speech 's reference to the mountain "Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. '' Design details and a timeline for its installation remain to be determined. The article mentioned inspiration for the proposed monument came from a bell - ringing ceremony held in 2013 in celebration of the 50th anniversary of King 's speech.
On April 20, 2016, Treasury Secretary Jacob Lew announced that the U.S. $5 bill, which has featured the Lincoln Memorial on its back, would undergo a redesign prior to 2020. Lew said that a portrait of Lincoln would remain on the front of the bill, but the back would be redesigned to depict various historical events that have occurred at the memorial, including an image from King 's speech.
In October 2016 Science Friday in a segment on its crowd sourced update to the Voyager Golden Record included the speech.
Because King 's speech was broadcast to a large radio and television audience, there was controversy about its copyright status. If the performance of the speech constituted "general publication '', it would have entered the public domain due to King 's failure to register the speech with the Register of Copyrights. However, if the performance only constituted "limited publication '', King retained common law copyright. This led to a lawsuit, Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc., which established that the King estate does hold copyright over the speech and had standing to sue; the parties then settled. Unlicensed use of the speech or a part of it can still be lawful in some circumstances, especially in jurisdictions under doctrines such as fair use or fair dealing. Under the applicable copyright laws, the speech will remain under copyright in the United States until 70 years after King 's death, therefore until 2038.
As King waved goodbye to the audience, he handed George Raveling the original typewritten "I Have a Dream '' speech. Raveling, an All - American Villanova Wildcats college basketball player, had volunteered as a security guard for the event and was on the podium with King at that moment. In 2013, Raveling still had custody of the original copy, for which he had been offered $3,000,000, but he has said he does not intend to sell it.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 21.48 '' N 77 ° 3 ′ 0.40 '' W / 38.8893000 ° N 77.0501111 ° W / 38.8893000; - 77.0501111
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when did the consumer rights act come into force | Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and consumer Protection Act - Wikipedia
The Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Pub. L. 111 -- 203, H.R. 4173, commonly referred to as Dodd -- Frank) was signed into federal law by President Barack Obama on July 21, 2010. Passed as a response to the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008, it brought the most significant changes to financial regulation in the United States since the regulatory reform that followed the Great Depression. It made changes in the American financial regulatory environment that affected all federal financial regulatory agencies and almost every part of the nation 's financial services industry.
The law was initially proposed by the Obama administration in June 2009, when the White House sent a series of proposed bills to Congress. A version of the legislation was introduced in the House in July 2009. On December 2, 2009, revised versions were introduced in the House of Representatives by the then Financial Services Committee Chairman Barney Frank, and in the Senate Banking Committee by former Chairman Chris Dodd. Due to Dodd and Frank 's involvement with the bill, the conference committee that reported on June 25, 2010, voted to name the bill after them.
Studies have found Dodd - Frank has improved financial stability and consumer protection, although there is evidence it may have had a negative impact on small banks.
On June 8, 2017, the Republican - led, Donald Trump - presidency, House passed the Financial CHOICE Act, which if enacted, would roll back many of the provisions of Dodd -- Frank. In June 2017, the Senate was crafting its own reform bill.
The financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 led to widespread calls for changes in the regulatory system. In June 2009, President Obama introduced a proposal for a "sweeping overhaul of the United States financial regulatory system, a transformation on a scale not seen since the reforms that followed the Great Depression ''.
As the finalized bill emerged from conference, President Obama said that it included 90 percent of the reforms he had proposed. Major components of Obama 's original proposal, listed by the order in which they appear in the "A New Foundation '' outline, include:
At President Obama 's request, Congress later added the Volcker Rule to this proposal in January 2010.
The bills that came after Obama 's proposal were largely consistent with the proposal, but contained some additional provisions and differences in implementation.
The Volcker Rule was not included in Obama 's initial June 2009 proposal, but Obama proposed the rule later in January 2010, after the House bill had passed. The rule, which prohibits depository banks from proprietary trading (similar to the prohibition of combined investment and commercial banking in the Glass -- Steagall Act), was passed only in the Senate bill, and the conference committee enacted the rule in a weakened form, Section 619 of the bill, that allowed banks to invest up to 3 % of their Tier 1 capital in private equity and hedge funds as well as trade for hedging purposes.
The initial version of the bill passed the House largely along party lines in December by a vote of 223 -- 202, and passed the Senate with amendments in May 2010 with a vote of 59 -- 39 again largely along party lines. The bill then moved to conference committee, where the Senate bill was used as the base text although a few House provisions were included in the bill 's base text.
One provision on which the White House did not take a position and remained in the final bill allows the SEC to rule on "proxy access '' -- meaning that qualifying shareholders, including groups, can modify the corporate proxy statement sent to shareholders to include their own director nominees, with the rules set by the SEC. This rule was unsuccessfully challenged in conference committee by Chris Dodd, who -- under pressure from the White House -- submitted an amendment limiting that access and ability to nominate directors only to single shareholders who have over 5 % of the company and have held the stock for at least two years.
The "Durbin amendment '' is a provision in the final bill aimed at reducing debit card interchange fees for merchants and increasing competition in payment processing. The provision was not in the House bill; it began as an amendment to the Senate bill from Dick Durbin and led to lobbying against it.
The New York Times published a comparison of the two bills prior to their reconciliation. On June 25, 2010, conferees finished reconciling the House and Senate versions of the bills and four days later filed a conference report. The conference committee changed the name of the Act from the "Restoring American Financial Stability Act of 2010 ''. The House passed the conference report, 237 -- 192 on June 30, 2010. On July 15, the Senate passed the Act, 60 -- 39. President Obama signed the bill into law on July 21, 2010.
On June 9, 2017, The Financial Choice Act, legislation that would "undo significant parts '' of Dodd - Frank, passed the House 233 -- 186.
The Act is categorized into sixteen titles and, by one law firm 's count, it requires that regulators create 243 rules, conduct 67 studies, and issue 22 periodic reports.
The stated aim of the legislation is:
To promote the financial stability of the United States by improving accountability and transparency in the financial system, to end "too big to fail '', to protect the American taxpayer by ending bailouts, to protect consumers from abusive financial services practices, and for other purposes.
The Act changes the existing regulatory structure, by creating a number of new agencies (while merging and removing others) in an effort to streamline the regulatory process, increasing oversight of specific institutions regarded as a systemic risk, amending the Federal Reserve Act, promoting transparency, and additional changes. The Act 's intentions are to provide rigorous standards and supervision to protect the economy and American consumers, investors and businesses; end taxpayer - funded bailouts of financial institutions; provide for an advanced warning system on the stability of the economy; create new rules on executive compensation and corporate governance; and eliminate certain loopholes that led to the 2008 economic recession. The new agencies are either granted explicit power over a particular aspect of financial regulation, or that power is transferred from an existing agency. All of the new agencies, and some existing ones that are not currently required to do so, are also compelled to report to Congress on an annual (or biannual) basis, to present the results of current plans and explain future goals. Important new agencies created include the Financial Stability Oversight Council, the Office of Financial Research, and the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection.
Of the existing agencies, changes are proposed, ranging from new powers to the transfer of powers in an effort to enhance the regulatory system. The institutions affected by these changes include most of the regulatory agencies currently involved in monitoring the financial system (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), Federal Reserve (the "Fed ''), the Securities Investor Protection Corporation (SIPC), etc.), and the final elimination of the Office of Thrift Supervision (further described in Title III -- Transfer of Powers to the Comptroller, the FDIC, and the FED).
As a practical matter, prior to the passage of Dodd -- Frank, investment advisers were not required to register with the SEC if the investment adviser had fewer than 15 clients during the previous 12 months and did not hold itself out generally to the public as an investment adviser. The act eliminates that exemption, thereby rendering numerous additional investment advisers, hedge funds, and private equity firms subject to new registration requirements.
Certain non-bank financial institutions and their subsidiaries will be supervised by the Fed in the same manner and to the same extent as if they were a bank holding company.
To the extent that the Act affects all federal financial regulatory agencies, eliminating one (the Office of Thrift Supervision) and creating two (Financial Stability Oversight Council and the Office of Financial Research) in addition to several consumer protection agencies, including the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, this legislation in many ways represents a change in the way America 's financial markets will operate in the future. Few provisions of the Act became effective when the bill was signed. Only over the next 18 months as various regulatory agencies write rules that implement various sections of the Act, will the full importance and significance of the Act be known.
Title I, or the "Financial Stability Act of 2010 '', outlines two new agencies tasked with monitoring systemic risk and researching the state of the economy and clarifies the comprehensive supervision of bank holding companies by the Federal Reserve.
Title I creates the Financial Stability Oversight Council (FSOC) and the Office of Financial Research (OFR) in the Treasury Department, which are designed to work closely together. The Council is formed of 10 voting members, 9 of whom are federal regulators, and 5 non-voting supporting members, to encourage interagency collaboration and knowledge transfer. The Treasury Secretary is Chair of the Council, and the Head of the Financial Research Office is a Presidential appointment with Senate confirmation.
Title I introduced the ability to impose stricter regulations on certain institutions by classifying them as SIFI (systemically important financial institution); according to Paul Krugman, this has led institutions to reduce risk - taking in order to avoid such classification.
Under section 165d, certain institutions have to prepare resolution plans (so called "living wills ''), the first round of which was rejected by the Federal Reserve in 2014. The process can be seen as a way to regulate and reduce shadow banking activities by banking institutions.
The Financial Stability Oversight Council is tasked with identifying threats to the financial stability of the United States, promoting market discipline, and responding to emerging risks to the stability of the United States financial system. At a minimum, it must meet quarterly.
The Council is required to report to Congress on the state of the financial system, and may direct the Office of Financial Research to conduct research. Notable powers include:
The Office of Financial Research is designed to support the Financial Stability Oversight Council through data collection and research. The Director has subpoena power and may require from any financial institution (bank or non-bank) any data needed to carry out the functions of the office. The Office can also issue guidelines to standardizing the way data is reported, constituent agencies have three years to implement data standardization guidelines.
It is intended to be self - funded through the Financial Research Fund within 2 years of enactment, with the Federal Reserve providing funding in the initial interim period.
In many ways, the Office of Financial Research is to be operated without the constraints of the Civil Service system. For example, it does not need to follow federal pay scale guidelines (see above), and it is mandated that the office have workforce development plans that are designed to ensure that it can attract and retain technical talent, which it is required to report about Congressional committees for its first 5 years.
Prior to Dodd -- Frank, federal laws to handle the liquidation and receivership of federally regulated banks existed for supervised banks, insured depository institutions and securities companies by the FDIC or Securities Investor Protection Corporation (SIPC). Dodd -- Frank expanded these types of laws to potentially handle insurance companies and non-bank financial companies, and changed these types of liquidation laws in certain ways. Once it is determined that a financial company satisfied the criteria for liquidation, if the financial company 's board of directors does not agree, provisions are made for judicial appeal. Depending on the type of financial institution, different regulatory organizations may jointly or independently, by 2 / 3 vote, determine whether a receiver should be appointed for a financial company:
Provided that the Secretary of Treasury, in consultation with the President may also made a determination to appoint a receiver for a financial company. And the Government Accountability Office (GAO) shall review and report to Congress about the Secretary 's decision.
When a financial institution is placed into receivership under these provisions, within 24 hours the Secretary shall report to Congress, and within 60 days there shall be a report to the general public. The report on the recommendation to place a financial company into receivership shall contain various details on the state of the company, the impact of its default on the company, and the proposed action.
Unless otherwise stated, the FDIC is the liquidator for financial institutions who are not members of SIPC or banking members of the FDIC or insurance companies. In taking action under this title, the FDIC shall comply with various requirements:
To the extent that the Act expanded the scope of financial firms that may be liquidated by the federal government, beyond the existing authorities of the FDIC and SIPC, there needed to be an additional source of funds, independent of the FDIC 's Deposit Insurance Fund, to be used in case of a non-bank or non-security financial company 's liquidation. The Orderly Liquidation Fund is to be an FDIC - managed fund, to be used by the FDIC in the event of a covered financial company 's liquidation that is not covered by FDIC or SIPC.
Initially, the Fund is to be capitalized over a period no shorter than five years, but no longer than ten; however, in the event the FDIC must make use of the Fund before it is fully capitalized, the Secretary of the Treasury and the FDIC are permitted to extend the period as determined necessary. The method of capitalization is by collecting risk - based assessment fees on any "eligible financial company '' -- which is defined as "(...) any bank holding company with total consolidated assets equal to or greater than $50 billion and any nonbank financial company supervised by the Board of Governors ''. The severity of the assessment fees can be adjusted on an as - needed basis (depending on economic conditions and other similar factors) and the relative size and value of a firm is to play a role in determining the fees to be assessed. The eligibility of a financial company to be subject to the fees is periodically reevaluated; or, in other words, a company that does not qualify for fees in the present, will be subject to the fees in the future if they cross the 50 billion line, or become subject to Federal Reserve scrutiny.
To the extent that a covered financial company has a negative net worth and its liquidation creates an obligation to the FDIC as its liquidator, the FDIC shall charge one or more risk - based assessment such that the obligation will be paid off within 60 months (5 years) of the issuance of the obligation. The assessments will be charged to any bank holding company with consolidated assets greater than $50 billion and any nonbank financial company supervised by the Federal Reserve. Under certain conditions, the assessment may be extended to regulated banks and other financial institutions.
Assessments will be implemented according to a matrix that the Financial Stability Oversight Council recommends to the FDIC. The matrix shall take into account:
When liquidating a financial company under this title (as opposed to FDIC or SIPD) there is a maximum limit of the Government 's liquidation obligation, i.e., the Government 's obligation can not exceed:
In the event that the Fund and other sources of capital are insufficient, the FDIC is authorized to buy and sell securities on behalf of the company (or companies) in receivership to raise additional capital. Taxpayers shall bear no losses from liquidating any financial company under this title and any losses shall be the responsibility of the financial sector, recovered through assessments:
Established inside the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware, the Panel is tasked with evaluating the conclusion of the Secretary of the Treasury that a company is in (or in danger of) default. The Panel consists of three bankruptcy judges drawn from the District of Delaware, all of whom are appointed by the Chief Judge of the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware. In his appointments, the Chief Judge is instructed to weigh the financial expertise of the candidates. If the Panel concurs with the Secretary, the company in question is permitted to be placed into receivership; if they do not concur, the Secretary has an opportunity to amend and refile his or her petition. In the event that a Panel decision is appealed, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit has jurisdiction; in the event of further appeal, a writ of certiorari may be filed with the United States Supreme Court. In all appellate events, the scope of review is limited to whether the decision of the Secretary that a company is in (or in danger of) default is supported by substantial evidence.
Title III, or the "Enhancing Financial Institution Safety and Soundness Act of 2010 '', is intended to streamline banking regulation and reduce competition and overlaps between different regulators by abolishing the Office of Thrift Supervision and transferring its power over the appropriate holding companies to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, state savings associations to the FDIC, and other thrifts to the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency. The thrift charter is to remain, although weakened. Additional changes include:
Title IV, or the "Private Fund Investment Advisers Registration Act of 2010 '', requires certain previously exempt investment advisers to register as investment advisers under the Investment Advisers Act of 1940. Most notably, it requires many hedge fund managers and private equity fund managers to register as advisers for the first time. In addition, it increases the reporting requirements of investment advisors, and limits the ability of these advisors to exclude information in reporting to the various federal government agencies.
Subtitle A, also called the "Federal Insurance Office Act of 2010 '', establishes within the Department of the Treasury the Federal Insurance Office, which is tasked with:
The Office is headed by a director who is appointed for a career - reserved term by the Secretary of the Treasury.
In general, the Insurance Office may require any insurer company to submit such data as may be reasonably required in carrying out the functions of the Office.
A state insurance measure shall be preempted if, and only to the extent that the Director determines that the measure results in a less favorable treatment of a non-US insurer whose parent corporation is located in a country with an agreement or treaty with the United States.
Subtitle B, also called the "Nonadmitted and Reinsurance Reform Act of 2010 '' applies to nonadmitted insurance and reinsurance. With regard to nonadmitted insurance, the Act provides that the placement of nonadmitted insurance only will be subject to the statutory and regulatory requirements of the insured 's home state, and that no state, other than the insured 's home state, may require a surplus lines broker to be licensed in order to sell, solicit, or negotiate nonadmitted insurance with respect to the insured. The Act also provides that no state, other than the insured 's home state, may require any premium tax payment for nonadmitted insurance. However, states may enter into a compact or otherwise establish procedures to allocate among the states the premium taxes paid to an insured 's home state. A state may not collect any fees relating to licensing of an individual or entity as a surplus lines broker in the state unless the state has in effect by July 21, 2012 laws or regulations that provide for participation by the state in the NAIC 's national insurance producer database, or any other equivalent uniform national database, for the licensure of surplus lines brokers and the renewal of these licenses.
Title VI, or the "Bank and Savings Association Holding Company and Depository Institution Regulatory Improvements Act of 2010 '', introduces the so - called "Volcker Rule '' after former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Paul Volcker by amending the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956. With the aim of reducing the amount of speculative investments on large firms ' balance sheets, it limits banking entities to owning no more in a hedge fund or private equity fund than 3 % of the total ownership interest. The total of all of the banking entity 's interests in hedge funds or private equity funds can not exceed 3 % of the Tier 1 capital of the banking entity. Furthermore, no bank that has a direct or indirect relationship with a hedge fund or private equity fund, "may enter into a transaction with the fund, or with any other hedge fund or private equity fund that is controlled by such fund '' without disclosing the full extent of the relationship to the regulating entity, and assuring that there is no conflict of interest. "Banking entity '' includes an insured depository institution, any company controlling an insured depository institution and such a company 's affiliates and subsidiaries, and must comply with the Act within two years of its passing, although it may apply for time extensions. In response to the Volcker Rule and in anticipation of its ultimate impact, a number of commercial banks and investment banks operating as bank holding companies have already begun to downsize or dispose of their proprietary trading desks.
The rule distinguishes transactions by banking entities from transactions by nonbank financial companies supervised by the Federal Reserve Board. The rule states that in general, "an insured depository institution may not purchase an asset from, or sell an asset to, an executive officer, director, or principal shareholder of the insured depository institution, or any related interest of such person... unless -- the transaction is on market terms; and if the transaction represents more than 10 percent of the capital stock and surplus of the insured depository institution, the transaction has been approved in advance by a majority of the members of the board of directors of the insured depository institution who do not have an interest in the transaction. '' Providing for the regulation of capital, the Volcker Rule says that regulators are required to impose upon institutions capital requirements that are "countercyclical, so that the amount of capital required to be maintained by a company increases in times of economic expansion and decreases in times of economic contraction '', to ensure the safety and soundness of the organization. The rule also provides that an insured state bank may engage in a derivative transaction only if the law with respect to lending limits of the state in which the insured state bank is chartered takes into consideration credit exposure to derivative transactions. The title provides for a three - year moratorium on approval of FDIC deposit insurance received after November 23, 2009, for an industrial bank, a credit card bank, or a trust bank that is directly or indirectly owned or controlled by a commercial firm.
In accordance with section 1075 of the law, payment card networks must allow merchants to establish a minimum dollar amount for customers using payment cards, as long as the minimum is no higher than ten dollars.
The Volcker Rule was first publicly endorsed by President Obama on January 21, 2010. The final version of the Act prepared by the conference committee included a strengthened Volcker rule by including language by Senators Jeff Merkley, D - Oregon, and Carl Levin, D - Michigan, that covers a greater range of proprietary trading than originally proposed by the administration, with the notable exceptions of trading in U.S. government securities and bonds issued by government - backed entities, and the rule also bans conflict of interest trading. The rule seeks to ensure that banking organizations are both well capitalized and well managed. The proposed draft form of the Volcker Rule was presented by regulators for public comment on October 11, 2011, with the rule due to go into effect on July 21, 2012.
Title VII, also called the Wall Street Transparency and Accountability Act of 2010, concerns regulation of over the counter swaps markets. Included in this section are the credit default swaps and credit derivative that were the subject of several bank failures c. 2007. Financial instruments have the meanings given the terms in section 1a of the Commodity Exchange Act (7 U.S.C. § 1a). On a broader level, the Act requires that various derivatives known as swaps, which are traded over the counter be cleared through exchanges or clearinghouses.
The Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) both regulate derivatives known as swaps under the Act, but the SEC has authority over "security - based swaps ''. The Act repeals exemption from regulation for security - based swaps under the Gramm -- Leach -- Bliley Act The regulators are required to consult with each other before implementing any rule - making or issuing orders regarding several different types of security swaps. The CFTC and SEC, in consultation with the Federal Reserve are charged with further defining swap related terms that appear in Commodity Exchange Act (7 U.S.C. § 1a (47) (A) (v)) and section 3 (a) (78) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (15 U.S.C. § 78c (a) (78)).
The title provides that, "Except as provided otherwise, no Federal assistance may be provided to any swaps entity with respect to any swap, security - based swap, or other activity of the swaps entity. '' An "Interagency Group '' is constituted to handle the oversight of existing and prospective carbon markets to ensure an efficient, secure, and transparent carbon market, including oversight of spot markets and derivative markets.
Title VIII, called the "Payment, Clearing, and Settlement Supervision Act of 2010 '', aims to mitigate systemic risk within and promote stability in the financial system by tasking the Federal Reserve to create uniform standards for the management of risks by systemically important financial organizations and institutions by providing the Fed with an "enhanced role in the supervision of risk management standards for systemically important financial market utilities; strengthening the liquidity of systemically important financial market utilities; and providing the Board of Governors an enhanced role in the supervision of risk management standards for systemically important payment, clearing, and settlement activities by financial institutions. ''
Title IX, sections 901 to 991, known as the "Investor Protections and Improvements to the Regulation of Securities '', revises the powers and structure of the Securities and Exchange Commission, credit rating organizations, and the relationships between customers and broker - dealers or investment advisers. This title calls for various studies and reports from the SEC and Government Accountability Office (GAO). This title contains ten subtitles, A through J.
Subtitle A contains provisions:
Subtitle A provides authority for the SEC to impose regulations requiring "fiduciary duty '' by broker - dealers to their customers. Although the Act does not create such a duty immediately, the Act authorizes the SEC to establish such a standard and requires that the SEC study the standards of care that broker - dealers and investment advisers apply to their customers and report to Congress on the results within 6 months. Under the law, commission and limited product range would not violate the duty and broker - dealers would not have a continuing duty after the investment advice is given.
Subtitle B gives the SEC further powers of enforcement. This includes a "whistleblower bounty program '' which is partially based upon the successful "qui tam '' provisions of the 1986 Amendments to the False Claims Act and an IRS whistleblower reward program Congress created in 2006. The SEC program rewards individuals who provide information that leads to an SEC enforcement action in which more than $1 million in sanctions is ordered. Whistleblower rewards range from 10 to 30 % of the recovery. The law also provides job protection for SEC whistleblowers and promises confidentiality for them.
Section 921I controversially limited FOIA 's applicability to the SEC, a change that was partially repealed a few months later. Previously, the SEC used a narrower existing exemption for trade secrets when refusing Freedom of Information Requests.
Recognizing credit ratings issued by credit rating agencies, including nationally recognized statistical rating organizations (NRSROs), are matters of national public interest, that credit rating agencies are critical "gatekeepers '' in the debt market central to capital formation, investor confidence, and the efficient performance of the United States economy, Congress expanded regulation of credit rating agencies.
Subtitle C cites findings of conflicts of interest and inaccuracies during the recent financial crisis contributed significantly to the mismanagement of risks by financial institutions and investors, which in turn adversely impacted the health of the United States economy as factors necessitating increased accountability and transparency by credit rating agencies.
Subtitle C mandates the creation by the SEC of an Office of Credit Ratings (OCR) to provide oversight over NRSROs and enhanced regulation of such entities.
Enhanced regulations of nationally recognized statistical rating organizations (NRSROs) include:
Subtitle C grants authority to the Commission to temporarily suspend or permanently revoke the registration of an NRSRO with respect to a particular class or subclass of securities if after notice and hearing the NRSRO lacks the resources to produce credit ratings with integrity. Additional key provisions of the Act are:
In addition, Subtitle C requires the SEC to conduct a study on strengthening NRSRO independence and recommends the SEC utilize its rulemaking authority to establish guidelines to prevent improper conflicts of interest arising from the performance of services unrelated to the issuance of credit ratings such as consulting, advisory, and other services. The Act requires the Comptroller General of the United States to conduct a study on alternative business models for compensating NRSROs
In Subtitle D, the term "Asset - Backed Security '' is defined as a fixed - income or other security collateralized by any type of self - liquidating financial asset, such as a loan, lease, mortgage, that allows the owner of the Asset - Backed Security to receive payments that depend on the cash flow of the (ex.) loan. For regulation purposes, Asset - Backed Securities are described as including (but not limited to):
The law required credit risk retention regulations (where 5 % of the risk was retained) within nine months of enactment,. Proposals had been highly criticized due to restrictive definitions on ' qualified residential mortgages ' with restrictive down - payment and debt - to - income requirements. In the August 2013 proposal, the 20 % down - payment requirement was dropped. In October 2014, six federal agencies (Fed, OCC, FDIC, SEC, FHFA, and HUD) finalized their joint asset - backed securities rule.
Regulations for assets that are:
Specifically, securitizers are:
The regulations are to prescribe several asset classes with separate rules for securitizers, including but not limited to, residential mortgages, commercial mortgages, commercial loans, and auto loans. The SEC and the federal banking agencies may jointly issue exemptions, exceptions, and adjustments to the rules issues provided that they:
Additionally, the following institutions and programs are exempt:
The SEC may classify issuers and prescribe requirements appropriate for each class of issuers of asset - backed securities. The SEC shall also adopt regulations requiring each issuer of an asset - backed security to disclose, for each tranche or class of security, information that will help identify each asset backing that security. Within six months of enactment, the SEC shall issue regulations prescribing representations and warranties in the marketing of asset - backed securities:
The SEC shall also prescribe a Due Diligence analysis / review of the assets underlying the security, and a disclosure of that analysis.
Within one year of enactment, the SEC must issue rules that direct the national securities exchanges and associations to prohibit the listing of any security of an issuer that is not in compliance with the requirements of the compensation sections. At least once every 3 years, a public corporation is required to submit to a shareholder vote the approval of executive compensation. And once every six years there should be a submitted to shareholder vote whether the required approval of executive compensation should be more often that once every three years. Shareholders may disapprove any Golden Parachute compensation to executives via a non-binding vote. Shareholders must be informed of the relationship between executive compensation actually paid and the financial performance of the issuer, taking into account any change in the value of the shares of stock and dividends of the issuer and any distributions as well as:
The company shall also disclose to shareholders whether any employee or member of the board of directors is permitted to purchase financial instruments that are designed to hedge or offset any decrease in the market value of equity securities that are part of a compensation package. Members of the Board of Director 's Compensation Committee shall be an independent member of the board of directors, a compensation consultant or legal counsel, as provided by rules issued by the SEC. Federal regulators, within 9 months of enactment of this legislation, shall proscribe regulations that a covered company shall disclose to the appropriate Federal regulator, all incentive - based compensation arrangements with sufficient information such that the regulator may determine:
Within Subtitle F are various managerial changes intended to increase the efficiency of the agency will be implemented, including reports on internal controls, a triennial report on personnel management by the head of the GAO (the Comptroller General of the United States), a hotline for employees to report problems in the agency, a report by the GAO on the oversight of National Securities Associations, and a report by a consultant on reform of the SEC. Under Subtitle J of the title, the SEC will be funded through "match funding '', which will in effect mean that its budget will be funded through filing fees.
Subtitle G provides that the SEC may issue rules and regulations that include a requirement that permit a shareholder to use a company 's proxy solicitation materials for the purpose of nominating individuals to membership on the board of directors. The company is also required to inform investors the reason why the same person is to serve as chairman of the board of directors and chief executive officer, or why different individuals are to serve as chairman of the board of directors and chief executive officer.
This provision of the statute creates a guarantee of trust that correlates a municipal advisor (who provide advice to state and local governments regarding investments) with any municipal bodies that provides services. Also it alters the make - up of the Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board ("MSRB '') and mandates that the Comptroller General conducts studies relating to municipal disclosure and municipal markets. The new MSRB will be composed of fifteen individuals, have the authority to regulate municipal advisors, and be permitted to charge fees regarding trade information. Also, it is mandated that the Comptroller General makes several recommendations, which must be submitted to Congress within at most 24 months of enactment of the Act.
Subtitle I is concerned with the establishment of a Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (or PCAOB). The PCAOB has the authority to establish oversight of certified public accounting firms. The Subtitle I provision allows the SEC to authorize necessary rules with respect to securities for borrowing. The SEC shall, as deemed appropriate, exercise transparency within this sector of the financial industry. A council of Inspectors General On Financial Oversight, consisting of several members of federal agencies (such as the United States Department of the Treasury, the FDIC, and the Federal Housing Finance Agency) will be established. The council will more easily allow the sharing of data with inspectors general (which includes members by proxy or in person from the SEC and CFTC) with a focus on dealings that may be applicable to the general financial sector at large with focus on the improvement of financial oversight.
Subtitle J provides adjustments to Section 31 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 regarding the "Recovery Cost of Annual Appropriation '', the "Registration of Fees '' and the "Authorization of Appropriations '' provisions of the Act.
Title X, or the "Consumer Financial Protection Act of 2010 '', establishes the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection. The new Bureau regulates consumer financial products and services in compliance with federal law. The Bureau is headed by a director who is appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, for a term of five years. The Bureau is subject to financial audit by the GAO, and must report to the Senate Banking Committee and the House Financial Services Committee bi-annually. The Financial Stability Oversight Council may issue a "stay '' to the Bureau with an appealable 2 / 3 vote. The Bureau is not placed within the Fed, but it operates independently. The Fed is prohibited from interfering with matters before the Director, directing any employee of the Bureau, modifying the functions and responsibilities of the Bureau or impeding an order of the Bureau. The Bureau is separated into six divisions:
Within the Bureau, a new Consumer Advisory Board assists the Bureau and informs it of emerging market trends. This Board is appointed by the Director of the Bureau, with at least six members recommended by regional Fed Presidents. Elizabeth Warren was the first appointee of the President as an adviser to get the Bureau running. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau can be found on the web.
The Bureau was formally established when Dodd -- Frank was enacted, on July 21, 2010. After a one - year "stand up '' period, the Bureau obtained enforcement authority and began most activities on July 21, 2011.
The Durbin Amendment targeting interchange fees is also in Title X, under Subtitle G, section 1075.
A new position is created on the Board of Governors, the "Vice Chairman for Supervision '', to advise the Board in several areas and:
Additionally, the GAO is now required to perform several different audits of the Fed:
The Fed is required to establish prudent standards for the institutions they supervise that include:
The Fed may establish additional standards that include, but are not limited to:
The Fed may require supervised companies to "maintain a minimum amount of contingent capital that is convertible to equity in times of financial stress ''.
Title XI requires companies supervised by the Fed to periodically provide additional plans and reports, including: ''
The title requires that in determining capital requirements for regulated organizations, off - balance - sheet activities shall be taken into consideration, being those things that create an accounting liability such as, but not limited to: ''
Title XII, known as the "Improving Access to Mainstream Financial Institutions Act of 2010 '', provides incentives that encourage low - and medium - income people to participate in the financial systems. Organizations that are eligible to provide these incentives are 501 (c) (3) and IRC § 501 (a) tax exempt organizations, federally insured depository institutions, community development financial institutions, State, local or tribal governments. Multi-year programs for grants, cooperative agreements, etc. are also available.
Title XIII, or the "Pay It Back Act '', amends the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 to limit the Troubled Asset Relief Program, by reducing the funds available by $225 billion (from $700 billion to $475 billion) and further mandating that unused funds can not be used for any new programs.
Amendments to the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 and other sections of the federal code to specify that any proceeds from the sale of securities purchased to help stabilize the financial system shall be:
The same conditions apply for any funds not used by the state under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 by December 31, 2012, provided that the President may waive these requirements if it is determined to be in the best interest of the nation.
Title XIV, or the "Mortgage Reform and Anti-Predatory Lending Act '', whose subtitles A, B, C, and E are designated as Enumerated Consumer Law, which will be administered by the new Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection. The section focuses on standardizing data collection for underwriting and imposes obligations on mortgage originators to only lend to borrowers who are likely to repay their loans.
A "Residential Mortgage Originator '' is defined as any person who either receives compensation for or represents to the public that they will take a residential loan application, assist a consumer in obtaining a loan, or negotiate terms for a loan. A residential Mortgage Originator is not a person who provides financing to an individual for the purchase of 3 or less properties in a year, or a licensed real estate broker / associate. All Mortgage Originators are to include on all loan documents any unique identifier of the mortgage originator provided by the Registry described in the Secure and Fair Enforcement for Mortgage Licensing Act of 2008
For any residential mortgage loan, no mortgage originator may receive compensation that varies based on the term of the loan, other than the principal amount. In general, the mortgage originator can only receive payment from the consumer, except as provided in rules that may be established by the Board. Additionally, the mortgage originator must verify the consumer 's ability to pay. A violation of the "ability to repay '' standard, or a mortgage that has excessive fees or abusive terms, may be raised as a foreclosure defense by a borrower against a lender without regard to any statute of limitations. The Act bans the payment of yield spread premiums or other originator compensation that is based on the interest rate or other terms of the loans.
In effect, this section of the Act establishes national underwriting standards for residential loans. It is not the intent of this section to establish rules or regulations that would require a loan to be made that would not be regarded as acceptable or prudential by the appropriate regulator of the financial institution. However, the loan originator shall make a reasonable and good faith effort based on verified and documented information that "at the time the loan is consummated, the consumer has a reasonable ability to repay the loan, according to the terms, and all applicable taxes, insurance (including mortgage guarantee insurance), and other assessments ''. Also included in these calculations should be any payments for a second mortgage or other subordinate loans. Income verification is mandated for residential mortgages. Certain loan provisions, including prepayment penalties on some loans, and mandatory arbitration on all residential loans, are prohibited.
This section also defined a "Qualified Mortgage '' as any residential mortgage loan that the regular periodic payments for the loan does not increase the principal balance or allow the consumer to defer repayment of principal (with some exceptions), and has points and fees being less than 3 % of the loan amount. The Qualified Mortgage terms are important to the extent that the loan terms plus an "Ability to Pay '' presumption create a safe harbor situation concerning certain technical provisions related to foreclosure.
A "High - Cost Mortgage '' as well as a reverse mortgage are sometimes referred to as "certain home mortgage transactions '' in the Fed 's Regulation Z (the regulation used to implement various sections of the Truth in Lending Act) High - Cost Mortgage is redefined as a "consumer credit transaction that is secured by the consumer 's principal dwelling '' (excluding reverse mortgages that are covered in separate sections), which include:
New provisions for calculating adjustable rates as well as definitions for points and fees are also included.
When receiving a High - Cost mortgage, the consumer must obtain pre-loan counseling from a certified counselor. The Act also stipulates there are additional "Requirements to Existing Residential Mortgages ''. The changes to existing contracts are:
Subtitle D, known as the Expand and Preserve Home Ownership Through Counseling Act, creates a new Office of Housing Counseling, within the department of Housing and Urban Development. The director reports to the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. The Director shall have primary responsibility within the Department for consumer oriented homeownership and rental housing counseling. To advise the Director, the Secretary shall appoint an advisory committee of not more than 12 individuals, equally representing mortgage and real estate industries, and including consumers and housing counseling agencies. Council members are appointed to 3 - year terms. This department will coordinate media efforts to educate the general public in home ownership and home finance topics.
The Secretary of Housing and Urban Development is authorized to provide grants to HUD - approved housing counseling agencies and state Housing Finance Agencies to provide education assistance to various groups in home ownership. The Secretary is also instructed, in consultation with other federal agencies responsible for financial and banking regulation, to establish a database to track foreclosures and defaults on mortgage loans for 1 through 4 unit residential properties.
Subtitle E concerns jumbo rules concerning escrow and settlement procedures for people who are in trouble repaying their mortgages, and also makes amendments to the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act of 1974. In general, in connection with a residential mortgage there should be an established escrow or impound account for the payment of taxes, hazard insurance, and (if applicable) flood insurance, mortgage insurance, ground rents, and any other required periodic payments. Lender shall disclose to borrower at least three business days before closing the specifics of the amount required to be in the escrow account and the subsequent uses of the funds. If an escrow, impound, or trust account is not established, or the consumer chooses to close the account, the servicer shall provide a timely and clearly written disclosure to the consumer that advises the consumer of the responsibilities of the consumer and implications for the consumer in the absence of any such account. The amendments to the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act of 1974 (or RESPA) change how a Mortgage servicer (those who administer loans held by Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, etc.) should interact with consumers.
A creditor may not extend credit for a higher - risk mortgage to a consumer without first obtaining a written appraisal of the property with the following components:
A "certified or licensed appraiser '' is defined as someone who:
The Fed, Comptroller of the Currency, FDIC, National Credit Union Administration Board, Federal Housing Finance Agency and Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection (created in this law) shall jointly prescribe regulations.
The use of Automated Valuation Models to be used to estimate collateral value for mortgage lending purposes.
Automated valuation models shall adhere to quality control standards designed to,
The Fed, the Comptroller of the Currency, the FDIC, the National Credit Union Administration Board, the Federal Housing Finance Agency, and the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, in consultation with the staff of the Appraisal Subcommittee and the Appraisal Standards Board of The Appraisal Foundation, shall promulgate regulations to implement the quality control standards required under this section that devises Automated Valuation Models.
Residential and 1 - to - 4 unit single family residential real estate are enforced by: Federal Trade Commission, the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, and a state attorney general. Commercial enforcement is by the Financial regulatory agency that supervised the financial institution originating the loan.
Broker Price Opinions may not be used as the primary basis to determine the value of a consumer 's principal dwelling; but valuation generated by an automated valuation model is not considered a Broker Price Opinion.
The standard settlement form (commonly known as the HUD 1) may include, in the case of an appraisal coordinated by an appraisal management company, a clear disclosure of:
Within one year, the Government Accountability Office shall conduct a study on the effectiveness and impact of various appraisal methods, valuation models and distribution channels, and on the home valuation code of conduct and the appraisal subcommittee.
The Secretary of Housing and Urban Development is charged with developing a program to ensure protection of current and future tenants and at - risk multifamily (5 or more units) properties. The Secretary may coordinate the program development with the Secretary of the Treasury, the FDIC, the Fed, the Federal Housing Finance Agency, and any other federal government agency deemed appropriate. The criteria may include:
Previously the Treasury Department has created the Home Affordable Modification Program, set up to help eligible home owners with loan modifications on their home mortgage debt. This section requires every mortgage servicer participating in the program and denies a re-modification request to provide the borrower with any data used in a net present value (NPV) analysis. The Secretary of the Treasury is also directed to establish a Web - based site that explains NPV calculations.
The secretary of the Treasury is instructed to develop a Web - based site to explain the Home Affordable Modification Program and associated programs, that also provides an evaluation of the impact of the program on home loan modifications.
The following sections have been added to the Act:
The US Executive Director at the International Monetary Fund is instructed to evaluate any loan to a country if
Requires the SEC to report on mine safety by gathering information on violations of health or safety standards, citations and orders issued to mine operators, number of flagrant violations, value of fines, number of mining - related fatalities, etc., to determine whether there is a pattern of violations.
The Securities Exchange Act of 1934 is amended to require disclosure of payments relating to the acquisition of licenses for exploration, production, etc., where "payment '' includes fees, production entitlements, bonuses, and other material benefits. The act states in SEC. 1504 (3) that these documents will be made available online to the public.
The Comptroller General is commissioned to assess the relative independence, effectiveness, and expertise of presidentially appointed inspectors general and inspectors general of federal entities.
The FDIC is instructed to conduct a study to evaluate:
A Section 1256 Contract refers to a section of the IRC § 1256 that described tax treatment for any regulated futures contract, foreign currency contract or non-equity option. To calculate capital gains or losses, these trades have traditionally been marked to market on the last business day of the year. A "section 1256 contract '' shall not include:
Senator Chris Dodd, who co-proposed the legislation, has classified the legislation as "sweeping, bold, comprehensive, (and) long overdue ''. In regards to the Fed and what he regarded as their failure to protect consumers, Dodd voiced his opinion that "(...) I really want the Federal Reserve to get back to its core enterprises (...) We saw over the last number of years when they took on consumer protection responsibilities and the regulation of bank holding companies, it was an abysmal failure. So the idea that we 're going to go back and expand those roles and functions at the expense of the vitality of the core functions that they 're designed to perform is going in the wrong way. '' However, Dodd pointed out that the transfer of powers from the Fed to other agencies should not be construed as criticism of Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke, but rather that "(i) t 's about putting together an architecture that works ''.
With regards to the lack of bipartisan input on the legislation, Dodd alleged that had he put together a "(...) bipartisan compromise, I think you make a huge mistake by doing that. You 're given very few moments in history to make this kind of a difference, and we 're trying to do that. '' Put another way, Dodd construed the lack of Republican amendments as a sign "(...) that the bill is a strong one ''.
Richard Shelby, the top - ranking Republican on the Senate Banking Committee and the one who proposed the changes to the Fed governance, voiced his reasons for why he felt the changes needed to be made: "It 's an obvious conflict of interest (...) It 's basically a case where the banks are choosing or having a big voice in choosing their regulator. It 's unheard of. '' Democratic Senator Jack Reed agreed, saying "The whole governance and operation of the Federal Reserve has to be reviewed and should be reviewed. I do n't think we can just assume, you know, business as usual. ''
Barney Frank, who proposed his own legislative package of financial reforms in the House, did not comment on the Stability Act directly, but rather indicated that he was pleased that reform efforts were happening at all -- "Obviously the bills are n't going to be identical, but it confirms that we are moving in the same direction and reaffirms my confidence that we are going to be able to get an appropriate, effective reform package passed very soon. ''
During a Senate Republican press conference on April 21, 2010, Richard Shelby reported that he and Dodd were meeting "every day '', and were attempting to forge a bipartisan bill. Shelby also expressed his optimism that a "good bill '' will be reached, and that "we 're closer than ever ''. Saxby Chambliss echoed Shelby 's sentiments, saying "I feel exactly as Senator Shelby does about the Banking Committee negotiations. '', but voiced his concern about maintaining an active derivatives market and not driving financial firms overseas. Kay Bailey Hutchison indicated her desire to see state banks have access to the Fed, while Orrin Hatch had concerns over transparency, and the lack of Fannie and Freddy reform.
Ed Yingling, president of the American Bankers Association, regarded the reforms as haphazard and dangerous, saying "To some degree, it looks like they 're just blowing up everything for the sake of change (...) (i) f this were to happen, the regulatory system would be in chaos for years. You have to look at the real - world impact of this. ''
The Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association (SIFMA) -- the "top Wall Street lobby '' -- has expressed support for the law, and has urged Congress not to change or repeal it in order to prevent a stronger law from passing.
A survey by RIMES of senior investment banking figures in the US and UK showed that 86 % expect that Dodd -- Frank will significantly increase the cost of their data operations.
Continental European scholars have also discussed the necessity of far - reaching banking reforms in light of the current crisis of confidence, recommending the adoption of binding regulations that would go further than Dodd -- Frank -- notably in France where SFAF and World Pensions Council (WPC) banking experts have argued that, beyond national legislations, such rules should be adopted and implemented within the broader context of separation of powers in European Union law. This perspective has gained ground after the unraveling of the Libor scandal in July 2012, with mainstream opinion leaders such as the Financial Times editorialists calling for the adoption of an EU - wide "Glass Steagall II ''.
An editorial in the Wall Street Journal speculated that the law would make it more expensive for startups to raise capital and create new jobs; other opinion pieces suggest that such an impact would be due to a reduction in fraud or other misconduct.
The Dodd -- Frank Act has several provisions that call upon the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to implement several new rules and regulations that will affect corporate governance issues surrounding public corporations in the United States. Many of the provisions put in place by Dodd -- Frank require the SEC to implement new regulations, but intentionally do not give specifics as to when regulations should be adopted or exactly what the regulations should be. This will allow the SEC to implement new regulations over several years and make adjustments as it analyzes the environment. Public companies will have to work to adopt new policies in order to adapt to the changing regulatory environment they will face over the coming years.
Section 951 of Dodd -- Frank deals with executive compensation. The provisions require the SEC to implement rules that require proxy statements for shareholder meetings to include a vote for shareholders to approve executive compensation by voting on "say on pay '' and "golden parachutes. '' SEC regulations require that at least once every three years shareholders have a non-binding say - on - pay vote on executive compensation. While shareholder are required to have a say - on - pay vote at least every three years, they can also elect to vote annually, every two years, or every third year. The regulations also require that shareholders have a vote at least every six years to decide how often they would like to have say - on - pay votes. In addition, companies are required to disclose any golden parachute compensation that may be paid out to executives in the case of a merger, acquisition, or sale of major assets. Proxy statements must also give shareholders the chance to cast a non-binding vote to approve golden parachute policies. Although these votes are non-binding and do not take precedence over the decisions of the board, failure to give the results of votes due consideration can cause negative shareholder reactions. Regulations covering these requirements were implemented in January 2011 and took effect in April 2011.
Section 952 of Dodd -- Frank deals with independent compensation committees as well as their advisors and legal teams. These provisions require the SEC to make national stock exchanges set standards for the compensation committees of publicly traded companies listed on these exchanges. Under these standards national stock exchanges are prohibited from listing public companies that do not have an independent compensation committee. To insure that compensation committees remain independent, the SEC is required to identify any areas that may create a potential conflict of interest and work to define exactly what requirements must be met for the committee to be considered independent. Some of the areas examined for conflicts of interest include other services provided by advisors, personal relationships between advisors and shareholders, advisor fees as a percentage of their company 's revenue, and advisors ' stock holdings. These provisions also cover advisors and legal teams serving compensation committees by requiring proxy statements to disclose any compensation consultants and include a review of each to ensure no conflicts of interest exist. Compensation committees are fully responsible for selecting advisors and determining their compensation. Final regulations covering issues surrounding compensation committees were implemented in June 2012 by the SEC and took effect in July 2012. Under these regulations the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) and NASDAQ also added their own rules regarding the retention of committee advisors. These regulations were approved by the SEC in 2013 and took full effect in early 2014.
Section 953 of Dodd -- Frank deals with pay for performance policies to determine executive compensation. Provisions from this section require the SEC to make regulations regarding the disclosure of executive compensation as well as regulations on how executive compensation is determined. New regulations require that compensation paid to executives be directly linked to financial performance including consideration of any changes in the value of the company 's stock price or value of dividends paid out. The compensation of executives and the financial performance justifying it are both required to be disclosed. In addition, regulations require that CEO compensation be disclosed alongside the median employee compensation excluding CEO compensation, along with ratios comparing levels of compensation between the two. Regulations regarding pay for performance were proposed by the SEC in September 2013 and were adopted in August 2015.
Section 954 of Dodd -- Frank deals with clawback of compensation policies, which work to ensure that executives do not profit from inaccurate financial reporting. These provisions require the SEC to create regulations that must be adopted by national stock exchanges, which in turn require publicly traded companies who wish to be listed on the exchange to have clawback policies. These policies require executives to return inappropriately awarded compensation, as set forth in section 953 regarding pay for performance, in the case of an accounting restatement due to noncompliance with reporting requirements. If an accounting restatement is made then the company must recover any compensation paid to current or former executives associated with the company the three years prior to the restatement. The SEC proposed regulations dealing with clawback of compensation in July 2015.
Section 955 of Dodd -- Frank deals with employees ' and directors ' hedging practices. These provisions stipulate that the SEC must implement rules requiring public companies to disclose in proxy statements whether or not employees and directors of the company are permitted to hold a short position on any equity shares of the company. This applies to both employees and directors who are compensated with company stock as well as those who are simply owners of company stock. The SEC proposed rules regarding hedging in February 2015.
Section 957 deals with broker voting and relates to section 951 dealing with executive compensation. While section 951 requires say on pay and golden parachute votes from shareholders, section 957 requires national exchanges to prohibit brokers from voting on executive compensation. In addition, the provisions in this section prevent brokers from voting on any major corporate governance issue as determined by the SEC including the election of board members. This gives shareholders more influence on important issues since brokers tend to vote shares in favor of executives. Brokers may only vote shares if they are directly instructed to do so by shareholders associated with the shares. The SEC approved the listing rules set forth by the NYSE and NASDAQ regarding provisions from section 957 in September 2010.
Additional provisions set forth by Dodd -- Frank in section 972 require public companies to disclose in proxy statements reasons for why the current CEO and chairman of the board hold their positions. The same rule applies to new appointments for CEO or chairman of the board. Public companies must find reasons supporting their decisions to retain an existing chairman of the board or CEO or reasons for selecting new ones to keep shareholders informed.
Provisions from Dodd -- Frank found in section 922 also address whistle blower protection. Under new regulations any whistle blowers who voluntarily expose inappropriate behavior in public corporations can be rewarded with substantial compensation and will have their jobs protected. Regulations entitle whistle blowers to between ten and thirty percent of any monetary sanctions put on the corporation above one million dollars. These provisions also enact anti-retaliation rules that entitle whistle blowers the right to have a jury trial if they feel they have been wrongfully terminated as a result of whistle blowing. If the jury finds that whistle blowers have been wrongfully terminated, then they must be reinstated to their positions and receive compensation for any back - pay and legal fees. This rule also applies to any private subsidiaries of public corporations. The SEC put these regulations in place in May 2011.
Section 971 of Dodd -- Frank deals with proxy access and shareholders ' ability to nominate candidates for director positions in public companies. Provisions in the section allow shareholders to use proxy materials to contact and form groups with other shareholders in order to nominate new potential directors. In the past, activist investors had to pay to have materials prepared and mailed to other investors in order to solicit their help on issues. Any shareholder group that has held at least three percent of voting shares for a period of at least three years is entitled to make director nominations. However, shareholder groups may not nominate more than twenty five percent of a company 's board and may always nominate at least one member even if that one nomination would represent over twenty five percent of the board. If multiple shareholder groups make nominations then the nominations from groups with the most voting power will be considered first with additional nominations being considered up to the twenty five percent cap.
On July 12, 2012, the Competitive Enterprise Institute joined the State National Bank of Big Spring, Texas, and the 60 Plus Association as plaintiffs in a lawsuit filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, challenging the constitutionality of provisions of Dodd -- Frank. The complaint asked the court to invalidate the law, arguing that it gives the federal government unprecedented, unchecked power. The lawsuit was amended on September 20, 2012, to include the states of Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Michigan as plaintiffs. The states asked the court to review the constitutionality of the Orderly Liquidation Authority established under Title II of Dodd -- Frank.
In February 2013 Kansas Attorney General Derek Schmidt announced that Kansas along with Alabama, Georgia, Ohio, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Michigan, Montana, South Carolina, Texas and West Virginia would join the lawsuit. The second amended complaint included those new states as plaintiffs.
On August 1, 2013, U.S. District Judge Ellen Segal Huvelle dismissed the lawsuit for lack of standing. In July 2015, the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit affirmed in part and reversed in part, holding that the bank, but not the states that later joined the lawsuit, had standing to challenge the law, and returned the case to Huvelle for further proceedings.
On April 21, 2010, the CBO released a cost - estimate of enacting the legislation. In its introduction, the CBO briefly discussed the legislation and then went on to generally state that it is unable to assess the cost of financial crises under current law, and added that estimating the cost of similar crises under this legislation (or other proposed ideas) is equally (and inherently) difficult: "(...) CBO has not determined whether the estimated costs under the Act would be smaller or larger than the costs of alternative approaches to addressing future financial crises and the risks they pose to the economy as a whole. ''
In terms of the impact on the federal budget, the CBO estimates that deficits would reduce between 2011 -- 2020, but in part due to the risk - based assessment fees levied to initially capitalize the Orderly Liquidation Fund; after which, the majority of revenue for the fund would be drawn primarily from interest payments. Due to this, the CBO projects that eventually the money being paid into the Fund (in the form of fees) would be exceeded by the expenses of the Fund itself. Additionally, the CBO points out that the reclassification of collected fees by various government agencies has the effect of boosting revenue.
The cost estimate also raises questions about the time - frame of capitalizing the Fund -- their estimate took the projected value of fees collected for the Fund (and interest collected on the Fund) weighed against the expected expense of having to deal with corporate default (s) until 2020. Their conclusion was it would take longer than 10 years to fully capitalize the Fund (at which point they estimated it would be approximately 45 billion), although no specifics beyond that were expressed.
The projection was a $5 billion or more deficit increase in at least one of the ten - year periods starting in 2021.
Associated Press reported that in response to the costs that the legislation places on banks, some banks have ended the practice of giving their customers free checking. Small banks have been forced to end some businesses such as mortgages and car loans in response to the new regulations. The size of regulatory compliance teams has grown. The Heritage Foundation, calling attention to the new ability of borrowers to sue lenders for misjudging their ability to repay a loan, predicted that smaller lenders would be forced to exit the mortgage market due to increased risk. One study has shown that smaller banks have been hurt by the regulations of the Dodd -- Frank Act. Community banks ' share of the US banking assets and lending market fell from over 40 % in 1994 to around 20 % today, although this is a misleading at best but highly likely inaccurate number considering the Dodd - Frank was implemented 16 years later than 1994. These experts believe that regulatory barriers fall most heavily on small banks, even though legislators intended to target large financial institutions.
Complying with the statute seems to have resulted in job shifting or job creation in the business of fulfilling reporting requirements, while making it more difficult to fire employees who report criminal violations. Opponents of the Dodd -- Frank Law believe that it will affect job creation, in a sense that because of stricter regulation unemployment will increase significantly. However, the Office of Management and Budget attempts to "monetize '' benefits versus costs to prove the contrary. The result is a positive relationship where benefits exceed costs: "During a 10 - year period OMB reviewed 106 major regulations for which cost and benefit data were available (...) $136 billion to $651 billion in annual benefits versus $44 billion to $62 billion in annual costs '' (Shapiro and Irons, 2011, p. 8).
According to Federal Reserve Chairwoman Janet Yellen in August 2017, "The balance of research suggests that the core reforms we have put in place have substantially boosted resilience without unduly limiting credit availability or economic growth. ''
Some experts have argued that Dodd -- Frank does not protect consumers adequately and does not end too big to fail.
Law professor and bankruptcy expert David Skeel concluded that the law has two major themes: "government partnership with the largest Wall Street banks and financial institutions '' and "a system of ad hoc interventions by regulators that are divorced from basic rule - of - law constraints ''. While he states that "the overall pattern of the legislation is disturbing '', he also concludes that some are clearly helpful, such as the derivatives exchanges and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.
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where does canal du midi start and finish | Canal du Midi - wikipedia
The Canal du Midi (Occitan: Canal de las Doas Mars, meaning canal of the two seas) is a 240 km (150 mi) long canal in Southern France (French: le Midi). Originally named the Canal royal en Languedoc (Royal Canal in Languedoc) and renamed by French revolutionaries to Canal du Midi in 1789, the canal was at the time considered one of the greatest construction works of the 17th century.
The canal connects the Garonne to the Étang de Thau on the Mediterranean and along with the 193 km (120 mi) long Canal de Garonne forms the Canal des Deux Mers, joining the Atlantic to the Mediterranean. The canal runs from the city of Toulouse down to the Étang de Thau near the Mediterranean.
Strictly speaking, "Canal du Midi '' refers to the portion initially constructed from Toulouse to the Mediterranean -- the Deux - Mers canal project aimed to link together several sections of navigable waterways to join the Mediterranean and the Atlantic: first the Canal du Midi, then the Garonne which was more or less navigable between Toulouse and Bordeaux, then the Garonne Lateral Canal built later, and finally the Gironde estuary after Bordeaux.
Jean - Baptiste Colbert authorized the start of work by royal edict in October, 1666, with the aim of developing the wheat trade, under the supervision of Pierre - Paul Riquet, and construction lasted from 1666 to 1681, during the reign of Louis XIV. The Canal du Midi is one of the oldest canals of Europe still in operation (the prototype being the Briare Canal). The challenges in these works are closely related to the challenges of inland water transport today. The key challenge, raised by Pierre - Paul Riquet, was to convey water from the Montagne Noire (Black Mountains) to the Seuil de Naurouze, the highest point of the canal.
The Canal du Midi was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996.
The Canal du Midi is located in the south of France, in the departments of Hérault, Aude, and Haute - Garonne. Its course runs for 240 kilometres between Marseillan, at a place called Les Onglous, where the canal opens into the étang de Thau near Sète and Toulouse at Port de l'Embouchure.
The Canal du Midi is a summit level canal, climbing from Toulouse on the Atlantic side over a distance of 52 km to the Seuil de Naurouze or summit level, where the feeder canal enters. The total rise is 57.18 m, and the summit level is at an altitude of 189.43 m. This difference in level down to the sea is covered over the remaining distance of 188 km from Naurouze to Les Onglous on the Étang de Thau.
The design canal depth is 2 m with a minimum of 1.80 m. The draft allowed is 1.50 m although regular users advise that even with 1.40 m boats will occasionally touch the bottom because of silt deposits in many places. The width on the surface is 20 m on average with variations between 16 m and 20 m. Finally, the width of the canal bed is 10 m.
This longitudinal profile of the Canal du Midi shows it rising from Toulouse (1) to the Seuil de Naurouze (2), then dropping down to Castelnaudary (3), Carcassonne (4) and Trèbes (5). The canal continues to Béziers after the passing through the Fonserannes Locks (6), then Agde (7), to finish at Sète on the étang de Thau (8).
The longest canal pound is 53.87 kilometres between Argens Lock and the Fonserannes Locks, while the shortest Canal pound is 105 m between the two Fresquel locks.
For historical reasons, the Canal du Midi has a unique legal status, which was codified in 1956 in the Public Code of waterways and inland navigation, then in the General code of the property of public persons. Under Article L. 2111 - 11 of the Code, the public domain of the canal is determined by reference to the fief once granted to Pierre - Paul Riquet and limits were set by the official report drawn up in 1772. The staff quarters and warehouses as well as the Lampy reservoir were also added. Articles L. 2124 - 20 to L. 2124 - 25 set out the rules relating to the maintenance of the canal which is generally the responsibility of the public entity that owns it, with participation of communes and, in some cases, waterside residents.
Under the Act of 27 November 1897, the State of France owns the Canal du Midi and its management is delegated to the public body Voies Navigables de France, attached to the Ministry of Transport.
The building of a canal was an old idea. Numerous and sometimes utopian projects were devised to build a canal between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Leaders such as Augustus, Nero, Charlemagne, François I, Charles IX and Henry IV have dreamed of it as it is a true political and economic issue. King François I brought Leonardo da Vinci to France in 1516 and commissioned a survey of a route from the Garonne at Toulouse to the Aude at Carcassonne.
Indeed, the construction of such a structure would save vessels (of trade but also the king 's galleys) and goods from sailing around the Iberian Peninsula which could take a month to complete. At that time shipping was fraught with dangers such as piracy and the Barbary pirates.
The most realistic projects were presented to the King in the 16th century. A first draft was presented by Nicolas Bachelier in 1539 to the Estates of Languedoc then a second in 1598 by Pierre Reneau and finally a third project was proposed by Bernard Aribat de Béziers in 1617. These projects were abandoned because they did not give enough thought to the water supply for the canal and provided a system of diversion of water from Pyrénées rivers too complex or impossible to implement. In 1650 another engineer also proposed to divert water from the Ariège to Cintegabelle to bring a non-navigable canal to Pech - David near Toulouse. Again, the question arose of how to carry water to the Seuil de Naurouze at a greater height than that of Toulouse.
The projects were not launched for fear of losing too much money and conviction of the human impossibility to dig such a canal. The major problem was how to supply the summit sections with enough water.
Nevertheless, Pierre - Paul Riquet, a wealthy collector of salt tax in Languedoc proposed a more convincing project than his predecessors. When Louis XIV received his proposal through the Archbishop of Toulouse (Charles - François Anglure of Bourlemont) in 1662 he saw the opportunity to deprive Spain of part of its resources, and the opportunity to mark his reign with an imperishable work.
Je l'ay fait, et ledit seigneur en compagnie de Monsieur l'évesque de Saint - papoul et de plusieurs autres personnes de condition a esté visiter toutes choses qui s'estant trouvées comme je les avois dites, ledit seigneur archevesque m'a chargé d'en dresser une rellation et de vous l'envoyer, elle est icy incluse mais en assez mauvais ordre, car, n'entendant ni grec ni latin et à peyne sachant parler françois, il ne m'est possible que je m'explique sans bégayer; aussi ce que j'entreprens est par ordre et pour obéyr et non pas de mon mouvement propre. Touttesfoix Monseigneur s'il vous plaic de vous donner la peine de lire ma rellation vous jugerés qu'il est vray que ce canal est faisable, qu'il est à la vérité difficille à cauze du coust mais que regardant le bien qui doibt en arriver l'on doibt fere peu de concidération de la despence. Le feu roy henry quatriesme ayeul de notre Monarque désira passionnement de fere cet ouvrage, feu Monsieur le Cardinal de Joyeuse avoit commansé d'y fere travailler et feu Monsieur le Cardinal de Richelieu en souhaitoit l'achèvement, l'histoire de France, le recueil des œuvres dudit Cardinal de Joyeuse et plusieurs autres éscrits justiffient cette vérité; mais jusques à ce jour l'on n'avoit pas pansé aux rivières propres à servir ni sceu trouver de routtes aizées pour ce canal, car celles qu'on s'estoit alors imaginées estoient avec des obstacles insurmontables de rétrogradation de rivières et de machines pour élever les eaux. Aussi je crois que ces difficultés ont tousjours cauzés le dégoût et recullé l'exécution de l'ouvrage mais aujourd'huy Monseigneur, qu'on trouve de routtes aizées et de rivières quy peuvent estre facillement destournées de leur anciens lits et conduites dans ce nouveau canal par pente naturelle et de leur propre inclination, touttes difficultés cesent, excepté celle de trouver un fond pour servir aux frais du travail. Vous avez pour cela mille moyens Monseigneur, et je vous en présente encore deux dans un mien memoire cy - joint afin de vous porter plus de considérer que la facilité et l'assurance de cette nouvelle navigation fera que les destroits de Gilbratar cessera d'estre un passage absolument nécessaire, que les revenus du Roy d'Espaigne à Cadix en seroit diminués et que ceux de notre Roy augmanteront d'aultant sur les fermes des entrées et sorties des marchandises en ce royaume, oultre les droicts qui se prendront sur ledit canal qui monteront à des sommes immenses, et que les subjects de sa Majesté en general proffiteront de mille nouveaux commerces et tireront de grands avantages de cette navigation, que sy j'aprans que ce dessein vous doibve plaire je vous l'envoyeré avec le nombre des ecluses qu'il conviendra fere et un calcul exact des toises dudit canal, soit en longueur soit en largeur. ''
Compared to canals, managing rivers is difficult but only one canal is required between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Unlike a river it is easier to manage the flow of a canal to ensure a constant flow of traffic throughout the year.
The Canal du Midi is a Summit level canal because it must pass over a height between two valleys. Indeed, the construction of this canal required passage through the Seuil de Naurouze or the Seuil de Graissens.
Thirty years passed from the start of planning to the commencement of work: a similar project was also studied by a committee of which Riquet 's father was a member.
In 1660, Riquet found the solution to the main problem: the water supply to the summit point to feed both sides of the canal. His idea was to get water flowing from the Black Mountain. His important knowledge of the hydrography of the Black Mountain and Sor allowed him to imagine an ingenious irrigation system. He was inspired by the French engineer Adam de Craponne who had implemented the same system for the Craponne Canal.
For this he planned to recover the mountain waters in dams and reservoirs and then forward them to the Seuil de Naurouze through channels crossing the Seuil de Graissens. The water from the Sor passing near Revel was the main supply envisaged by Riquet. Other rivers from the Black Mountain were also part of the system such as the Alzeau, the Laudot, the Rieutort, the Bernassonne, and the Lampy. Indeed, Black Mountain is a region with twice the rainfall of the plain of Lauragais with 1400 millimetres per year at around 500 to 600m above sea level. To store the river water he planned to create three basins: the Reservoir of Lampy - Vieux, a hexagonal harbour basin at Naurouze, and the Bassin de Saint - Ferréol with a large earth dam across the mouth of the valley of the Laudot stream.
In 1664, during the study of the project, the Estates of Languedoc asked Riquet to put into practice his idea experimentally. He then built a test channel diverting water from the Sor to the Seuil de Naurouze. It was the Rigole de la plaine which he completed in 1665 and used to prove that it is possible to bring water to the highest points of the course of the canal. This was the event that reassured the Committee of Experts that the king had set up on site to inspect the choices and plans prepared by Riquet. From that moment Louis XIV knew that the canal was technically feasible.
Riquet studied in depth the supply of water to the canal at the seuil de Naurouze. His study appeared rigorous and included a pilot phase with the construction of the Rigole de la plaine to substantiate his claim. The project still remained unclear in many respects especially the route of the canal. This route was not final and was not precise as it would be today for a highway project or high - speed railway. Only the directions of the route were known and plotted on a map. Changes in the route could be made by the Contractor depending on the difficulties he encountered on the ground.
On the Atlantic side, he proposed several layouts: one to pass by Castres and Revel through the seuil de Graissens and Agout. In fact this river was already under development for navigation. Another route would pass by the Girou river and avoid Toulouse as in the preceding route. On the Mediterranean side the route was not set. He would use the Fresquel until the Aude but the arrival on the coast was first intended to be at Narbonne then at Sète.
In 1663 Riquet conducted field studies to finally fix the path on the Atlantic side by the seuil de Naurouze along the valley of the Hers - Vif to Toulouse downstream of the Garonne. The navigable part of the river is downstream of Bazacle which was a ford in the centre of Toulouse, blocking navigation. The canal could not consider not going through the economic heart of the region so therefore the final route was via Castres and the Girou.
Pierre - Paul Riquet had no technical training and learnt on the job. He regularly practised experiments and field observations. His technique remained highly empirical because at that time applied science and hydraulic techniques through laws or concepts had not been mastered. Even so, Riquet had a scientific approach as he systematically took measurements of flow and made calculations of volumes. In addition, to overcome his technical shortcomings, he was surrounded by many technicians such as Hector Boutheroüe, François Andreossy surveyor and cartographer, and Pierre Campmas an expert in water flows.
He also set up experiments using the Rigole de la plaine which allowed him to prove that it was possible to bring the water up to the seuil de Naurouze from the river Sor in the Black Mountain. He also built on his property in Bonrepos a model of the canal with locks, tunnels, and épanchoirs (spillways) reproducing the slopes and feeding all with water.
The economic situation of the country was quite difficult at the time. When Colbert became minister he believed that domestic and international trade was not in favour of the Kingdom of France. The Dutch could take better advantage of trade and economic activity in the country. The prices of Grain dropped a lot and wine production fell in 1660. This crisis caused depreciation of land values and small farms were going bankrupt. In addition, the region of Languedoc experienced religious conflict during the Fronde. It was difficult to implement a policy in this area and in particular to introduce taxes such as the salt tax.
Colbert then saw Pierre - Paul Riquet and his project as a way to pursue a policy of economic expansion in the service of absolutism in Languedoc. In fact, Riquet proposed himself to implement the salt tax and to build the Canal du Midi. Thus, the construction of the canal would permit the creation of a direct passage between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic without passing through the Strait of Gibraltar controlled by the Spaniards, the aim being to destroy the Spanish trade and establish a commercial flow through Languedoc. The Languedoc region had many resources such as wheat, wine from Minervois, woollen cloth, silk, and salt which producers were struggling to export due to lack of trade. By passing through the Canal du Midi, Colbert hoped to distribute goods in the different regions of le Midi to strengthen royal power and open up Toulouse and its region.
Despite a project that seemed precarious, Colbert authorized commencement of work by a royal edict in October 1666 after the approval of a committee of experts that looked at the route of the canal for several months. The project benefited significantly from the appointment of an engineer for fortifications and hydraulics - Louis Nicolas de Clerville - who used his influence with Colbert to start the project. The decree specified the authorization of the construction of the canal, its issuing of invitations to tender, and its awarding to the designer, Pierre - Paul Riquet, and his descendants. It also gave rights of expropriation to Riquet and describes the possibility of creating mills, warehouses and housing for the operation of the canal. The project formed a tax - exempt "fief '' whose owner had the rights of fishing and hunting. Finally, it describes the operating procedures including the introduction of tolls, traffic organization, and ownership of vessels. The king decided to cede the ownership and operation of the facility in a particular order to overcome the potential drawbacks of a work so great. This system ensured the continued maintenance and operation of the canal even if the state 's finances are at their lowest.
The work was launched in two phases each called an "enterprise ''. The first enterprise of connecting Toulouse to Trèbes was estimated at 3.6 million livres. The finances of the State, however, were not very sound and the Estates of Languedoc were not willing to fund such a project for fear that their funds would be used for unexpected expenses. So, in exchange for the ownership and operation of the canal, Pierre - Paul Riquet proposed to finance part of the works from his own funds. The rest was to be paid by the State in exchange for profits that Riquet earned from the salt tax. The second enterprise of works between Trèbes and the étang de Thau in December 1668 cost 5.832 million livres plus a million more livres for the resumption of work on the port of Sète.
Ultimately, while the initial budget was six million livres, all the work together would cost between 17 and 18 million livres of the time, 40 % was advanced by the King, 40 % by the province, and 20 % by Riquet himself, who became the owner. His descendants continued to pay two million livres for over 50 years.
At the age of 63, Riquet started his great enterprise, sending his personal engineer, François Andreossy, and a local water expert, Pierre Roux, to the Montagne Noire to work on the water supply. This supply system successfully fed the canal with water where it crossed the continental divide, replacing water that drained toward the two seas. The system was a masterpiece of both hydraulic and structural engineering, and served as an early ratification of Riquet 's vision. It was also a major part of the massive undertaking.
Work began on the first "enterprise '' on 1 January 1667 with the construction of the trough of the Rigole de la plaine then continued on 15 April 1667 with the laying of the first stone of the Lac de Saint - Ferréol. Originally Riquet wanted to build a dozen reservoirs but the Commissioner General of fortifications, Louis Nicolas de Clerville, asked him to replace them with a single reservoir. This was a great novelty at the time -- no reservoir - lake of this magnitude had ever been built before.
Some of Clerville 's men with experience in military engineering came, to build the huge dam for the single reservoir, the Bassin de St. Ferréol, on the river Laudot. The Laudot is a tributary of the Tarn in the Montagne Noire some 20 km (12 mi) from the summit of the proposed canal at Seuil de Naurouze. This massive dam, 700 metres (2,300 ft) long, 30 metres (98 ft) above the riverbed and 120 metres (390 ft) thick at its base was the largest work of civil engineering in Europe and only the second major dam to be built in Europe, after one in Alicante in Spain. It was connected to the Canal du Midi by a contoured channel over 25 km long, 3.7 m (12 ft) wide with a base width of 1.5 m (4.9 ft). It was eventually equipped with 14 locks in order to bring building materials for the canal down from the mountains and to create a new port for the mountain town of Revel.
In November 1667 an official ceremony laid the foundation stone of the Garonne lock in Toulouse in the presence of representatives of the Parliament of Toulouse, the Capitouls (sheriffs), and the Archbishop of Toulouse, Charles - François d'Anglure de Bourlemont. A first filling of water was made between the seuil de Naurouze and Toulouse during the winter of 1671 - 1672 and the first boat traffic could begin. In 1673 the section from Naurouze to Trèbes was completed marking the end of the first "enterprise ''.
From 1671 the second enterprise began linking Trèbes to the Mediterranean Sea and to build the port of Sète (then called Cette, the location was chosen and the port constructed by Clerville). This part of the canal posed problems at the junction between the étang de Thau and Trèbes because the canal must cross the course of the Hérault and the Libron. To work around the problem, Riquet set up a system of valves and chambers for Libron and a round lock with three doors for the étang de Thau and the Hérault. The round lock at Agde could switch between a reach of the Canal du Midi and the Hérault. This part of the canal was also a problem at the level of the seuil of Ensérune and the descent to Beziers in the valley of the Orb. Riquet solved these problems on the one hand by digging the Malpas Tunnel and secondly by building at Fonserannes a row of eight lock chambers to the Orb. The Malpas Tunnel was the first canal passage ever built through a tunnel. The Canal du Midi passes through a 173 - metre (568 ft) tunnel through a hill at the Oppidum d'Ensérune.
In 1681 work on the canal ended at Béziers. However, in October 1680, Riquet died during construction. He did not see the end of the project. It was the king 's engineer, La Feuille, who took over.
His sons inherited the canal, but the family 's investments were not recovered and debts not fully paid until over 100 years later. The canal was well managed and run as a paternalistic enterprise until the revolution.
The canal was built on a grand scale, with oval shaped locks 30.5 m (100 ft) long, 6 m (20 ft) wide at the gates and 11 m (36 ft) wide in the middle. This design was intended to resist the collapse of the walls that happened early in the project. The oval locks used the strength of the arch against the inward pressure of the surrounding soil that had destabilized the early locks with straight walls. Such arches had been used by the Romans for retaining walls in Gaul, so this technique was not new, but its application to locks was revolutionary and was imitated in early American canals.
Many of the structures were designed with neoclassical elements to further echo the king 's ambitions to make France a New Rome. The Canal du Midi as a grand piece of infrastructural engineering in itself was promoted as worthy of Rome and the political dreams behind it were clarified with plaques in Latin, and walls built with Roman features.
In May 1681 the channel was thoroughly inspected by order of the king to check the work and the water - tightness of the canal. It was then officially opened to navigation on 15 May 1682. At the inauguration of the canal at Toulouse on 15 May the King 's steward and the president of the Estates of Languedoc travelled first on the canal followed by many other boats carrying particularly wheat. After the maiden voyage the canal was drained as the work was not complete; it would not be reopened until December 1682. The canal was opened to traffic in May 1683 and stopped receiving public works in March 1685.
For fifteen years nearly 12,000 workers worked on the construction of the canal. Riquet hired men and women between 20 and 50 years old whom he organized in sections forming workshops led by a controller - general. This rationalization of work permitted the optimisation of tasks and allowed several projects to be performed at the same time. All of the work was manual and the digging of the canal was with shovels and pickaxes. The workforce was made up of farmers and local workers whose number varied from one period to another during the year. Pierre - Paul Riquet appealed to the military to compensate for this fluctuation. He also set up monthly payments of workers for their loyalty. He also offered accommodation for two deniers per day.
The women labourers were surprisingly important to the canal 's engineering. Many came from former Roman bath colonies in the Pyrenees, where elements of classical hydraulics had been maintained as a living tradition. They were employed at first to move earth to the dam at Saint Ferréol, but their supervisors, who were struggling to design the channels from the dam to the canal, recognized their expertise. Engineering in this period was mainly focused on fortress construction, and hydraulics was concerned mostly with mining and problems of drainage. Building a navigational canal across the continent was well beyond the formal knowledge of the military engineers expected to supervise it, but the peasant women who were carriers of classical hydraulic methods added to the repertoire of available techniques. They not only perfected the water supply system for the canal but also threaded the waterway through the mountains near Béziers, using few locks, and built the eight - lock staircase at Fonserannes.
The financial and social conditions of employment of the workers were very favourable and unusual for the time. To retain his workforce, Riquet paid his workers well enough. More importantly, he gave benefits never before seen such as non-working rain days, Sundays and public holidays, and finally paid sick leave. The employment contract was individual and is done by free recruitment. Pay was, at the beginning, 20 sols (1 livre) per day, double the agricultural wage. Discontent from farm owners, however, forced Riquet to reduce pay to 15, then 12 sols per day. In 1668 he established the monthly payment of 10 livres.
Many trades were found on the work sites of the canal in addition to the seasonal workers who were most often farmers. The masons and stonecutters were responsible for the construction of structures such as bridges, locks, and spillways. The blacksmiths and levellers were responsible for the maintenance of the tools and equipment. Carters and carriers, the Farriers and owners of sawmills were also requisitioned for the works.
Workers were organized into sections controlled by captains and sergeants. Finally, Pierre - Paul Riquet was surrounded by aides as well as auditor - generals and inspector - generals of the canal.
The workers ' tools were very limited: picks, hoes and shovels to dig, baskets and stretchers to transport materials. They were provided to workers who must maintain them themselves. Gunpowder was used to blast the rocks.
In 1681 the first inspection took place "dry ''. The king appointed a commission composed of Henri d'Aguessau, steward of Languedoc, Mr de la Feuille, Father Mourgues a Jesuit professor of rhetoric and mathematics at the University of Toulouse, two sons and two in - laws of Pierre - Paul Riquet, as well as Messrs. Andréossy, Gilade, and Contigny. This commission embarked for Beziers on 2 May 1681 and went up the canal back to Toulouse over six days. The filling with water had been done showing a measure of the progress of checks to Castelnaudary (the section Toulouse - Castelnaudary had water since 1672).
The inauguration itself took place just after the first inspection. The same people re-embarked at Toulouse on 15 May 1681 on a flagship boat followed by dozens of other boats. The Cardinal de Bonzi, Archbishop of Narbonne and President - born of the Estates of Languedoc joined the procession which arrived at Castelnaudary on 17 May. A great religious ceremony took place on 18 May at the Church of Saint - Roch followed by a procession to the canal to bless the work, the convoy, and the people present.
The convoy resumed its progress on 20 May with stops in the evening at Villepinte, on the 21st at Penautier, the 22nd at Puicheric, and the 23rd at Roubia. On 24 May it was the passage through the Malpas Tunnel then crossing the locks of Fonsérannes. The cardinal and the bishops went down to Beziers on the same day.
In 1686, Vauban was made responsible for inspecting the channel which he quickly found was in a dilapidated state. He then ordered Antoine Niquet, the engineer of fortifications for Languedoc, to carry out new work at the Black Mountain level to drill the Cammazes Tunnel to extend the Rigole de la montagne and strengthen the Bassin de Saint - Ferréol. In his haste, Riquet had underestimated the number of rivers that in case of flood would silt up and swell the canal. The barrage of Saint - Ferréol was too small and its supply system was inefficient.
He also built many masonry structures to isolate the many rivers that flow into the canal and spillways to regulate the water level. He built 49 culverts and aqueducts, including the Cesse aqueduct, the Orbiel aqueduct and the Pechlaurier culvert. Finally, he reinforced a lot of works and dams originally built by Riquet. This series of works, which lasted until 1694, greatly improved the supply and management of water. Antoine Niquet was responsible for monitoring the canal until 1726.
The Canal du Midi still had shortcomings because it did not pass through Carcassonne nor Narbonne and did not join the Rhône. In addition, to reach Bordeaux, it was necessary to take the Garonne which has variable flow rates and violent floods. The Canal de Jonction or ' junction canal ', built in 1776, gave access to Narbonne via the Canal de la Robine de Narbonne. The same year the Canal de Brienne allowed the bypass of Bazacle - the ford on the Garonne in Toulouse which blocked the river. The connection between the étang de Thau and the Rhone was also completed in 1808. In 1810 a diversion canal allowed Carcassonne to be connected. Finally in 1857 the Canal latéral à la Garonne was opened between Toulouse and Castets - en - Dorthe, completing the link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea that Riquet had dreamt of.
Once used to transport goods and people, the Canal du Midi is now mainly used by boaters and other tourists.
Channel management was ensured primarily by the descendants of Riquet. This was through the elder son Jean - Mathias who took control of the fief until 1714, then Victor - Pierre - François until 1760, then Victor - Maurice, and finally Jean - Gabriel. The Riquet family quickly put up a pyramidal organisation structure with a "Director - General of the Canal '' who governs a board of directors responsible for specific geographic areas of the channel. Seven zones were defined in the west and the east: Toulouse, Naurouze, Castelnaudary, Trèbes Le Somail, Beziers, and Agde. Each Director is responsible for maintenance of his zone and is supported by a receiver and a controller. Hundreds of lock - keepers are responsible for the locks. This organization facilitates the control and hiring of employees.
In Toulouse a group of three people form a steering committee: the director general of works, the Receiver General who sets the fees, and the Comptroller General in charge of accounting. Canal management ensures the supply of money to pay for various works and staff hired for the canal. In the 1770s a tax report showed an income of 640,000 livres, half of which went to maintenance and salaries, and half the profits and funds were exceptional works. In 1785 this benefit increased to 950,000 livres which was a very large sum for the time.
The maintenance of the canal was a real problem for the descendants of Riquet. Despite many precautions, the canal silts up with silt from the water supply. In addition it fills with the branches and leaves of trees. Every winter, a period of closure allows the cleaning of the canal. It is necessary to re-dig the canal bed every year for two months. These works are expensive and two months is not always sufficient. Another problem is the invasion of the canal by weeds in the levels and spillways. There is no way to eradicate this scourge. In 1820 dredging was set up to pull up the weeds and the mud layer.
Finally, rain, frost, and drought forces managers to keep an eye all along the canal to repair leaks and cracks that might open. Today, the channel is subject to the same constraints and managers must perform the same work. They are now mechanized. Approximately 350 employees are made available to the Waterways of France manager by the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy to maintain the canal.
Since its commissioning, the canal has been used to transport passengers and goods.
Initially the canal appears to have been mainly used by small sailing barges with easily lowered masts, bow - hauled by gangs of men. By the middle of the 18th century, horse towing had largely taken over and steam tugs came in 1834 to cross the Étang. By 1838 273 vessels were regularly working the canal and passenger and packet boats for mail continued a brisk trade until the coming of the railways in 1857.
A "malle - poste '' postal service was set up on boats along the canal. As for the Stagecoach for the mail, the boats were pulled by horses on towpaths. This type of transport was considered revolutionary thanks to its regularity, comfort, safety, and speed that were an improvement over the road. In addition the canal could be travelled throughout the year. The journey takes four days from Toulouse to Sète.
This time was reduced to 32 hours in 1855 which corresponds to a speed of 11 km / h thanks to frequent replacement of horses (every 10 km) pulling boats. In addition rather than cross multiple locks travellers were transferred from one vessel to another which saved time and saved water used for the opening of the locks. Finally the journeys also took place at night to save even more time.
In 1684, travel from Toulouse to Agde cost 1 livre and a half. The rate was set per league with the rates displayed on a sign. Thus, a bourgeois paid 3 sols per league while a valet or a sailor paid one and a half sols per league. Payment offices were located along the route. Each office indicated the rate and provided the distances between each office.
The Canal relied on wheat and wine traffic in Languedoc which was its main purpose. This commercial traffic had the effect of enriching the descendants of Riquet very quickly. The wheat, wine, and alcohol could be exported from Lauragais to Toulouse, Bordeaux, and Marseille. The canal had the effect of broadening the sales area of the producers of Languedoc. In the 1730s commerce thrived and greatly improved agricultural businesses. The canal also allowed the import to Languedoc of products from other regions such as Marseille soap, rice, starch, dried fish, and spices and dyes. However, it was never the grand international route envisaged by the kings of France as its traffic was limited to local and national trade.
Freight rates depend on the cargo. Thus in the 17th century the transportation of wheat cost 12 deniers per quintal and that of oats 6 deniers per quintal.
At its opening the channel was used by a majority of boats for transport of goods. These vessels were twenty metres long and were hauled by horses or men. The tonnage of vessels increased over the centuries, from 60 tonnes at the beginning to 120 tonnes at the start of the 19th century. Of the proper Canal Barges and were called "owned barge '' or "canal barge '' also plied the route. In 1778 there were about 250 barges. In 1914, there were 126 "owned boats '', 70 rented boats, 300 horses, and 75 mules. In the year 1930 motor barges had completely replaced animal traction. They relaunched in part the merchant traffic on the canal but commercial and merchant inland water shipping finally disappeared around the late 1980s. The year 1856 was a record year for merchant activity with more than 110 million tonnes - kilometres of cargo and nearly 100,000 passengers carried.
For 250 years, horses have pulled many boats such as fast barges or long commercial boats. A horse can tow up to 120 times its weight when the load is on the water. Animal traction was then a strategic element in the operation of a canal.
The mail - barges or "post vehicles '' which transported passengers were boats many metres long with a simple shelter on the deck. These boats evolved to become faster and more luxurious with lounges and very large since the most largest could reach 30m long. Services inside these vessels also evolved with the first class in private salons and second class in a common room. During the heyday of the canal some boats included first class lounges where dinner was served.
Curiously, the canal did not really serve its purpose. The economic and political context hindered the economic development that had been expected. After two hundred years of operation, the canal began to suffer from competition from rail and road. It reached its peak in the middle of the 19th century. In 1858 Napoleon III signed a decree entrusting the canal for a period of 40 years to the Chemins de fer du Midi railway company, the owner of the Bordeaux - Narbonne railway line. This act had the effect of amplifying the decline in boat traffic on the canal. The company primarily promoted the railway and placed higher freight rates on commercial traffic in the canal. The Canal du Midi had the highest rates of any of France 's waterway. In addition the railway became smoother and faster than the waterway especially as the Canal du Midi suffered from its limited tonnage.
The period before 1859 corresponded to the canal operating without competition while from 1859 the installation of railways in the south of France began. The effect of rail competition is clearly visible in the table with the halving of freight traffic between 1856 and 1879. The traffic then continued to decline gradually. As for the railway, the Bordeaux -- Sète railway carried almost 200 million tonne - kilometres in 1860. Management of the canal was taken over by the State in 1898 who made successive investments to maintain its competitiveness. The state removed taxes and tolls which had the effect of reviving traffic on the canal to which reached 80 million tonne - kilometres in 1909.
The government tried to revive the renovation of the canal by enacting a legal program to lift the channel to the standards of the Freycinet gauge. The canals of northern France were already at this level and had traffic well above the Canal du Midi. However, the law remained unimplemented due to lack of funds.
At the end of the First World War traffic was completely disorganized. In 1920 freight traffic recovered rapidly with the arrival of motorised barges. The HPLM company (Le Havre - Paris - Lyon - Marseille) operated 30 boats on the Canal du Midi. The Second World War saw a slowdown in traffic due to the shortage of oil but recovery was rapid after the conflict and the traffic reached 110 million tkm. However, the canal suffered from a size too small for later barges with high tonnage. Rail became more and more competitive and road transport also became a second competitor. The Canal du Midi became the third means of transport. Freight traffic ceased in the 1970s. In 1980 there were only two barges (the Bacchus, a wine carrier and the Espérance, a grain carrier) carrying regular traffic between Toulouse and Sète: they definitively ceased their activities in 1989 following the cessation of navigation pronounced by the Prefect of the Region due to drought. In 1991 operation of the canal was assigned to the administration of Voies navigables de France who remain managers today.
From the end of the 20th century the canal has offered many activities. It can again play its original role of allowing the transit of boats between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Canal du Midi is now used primarily by tourists, recreation, and housing.
It attracts more and more river tourism, sailing on chartered boats, restaurant - boats, or hotel barges such as the Anjodi. This tourism has grown from the 1960s under the leadership of the British then exploded in the 1980s. The canal was featured prominently in the BBC television series Rick Stein 's French Odyssey (2005), further publicising the canal to a British audience. Busier than the Seine it alone accounts for one fifth of French river tourism and 80 % of passengers are foreigners -- mainly Germans, Swiss and British. There are approximately 10,000 boat passages per year through the Fonséranes locks, the peak attendance being at the Argens lock with 11,000 boats carrying an average of five passengers. The canal employs directly about 1,900 people. The annual economic impact due to the activity of the canal is about 122 million euros.
Its navigation is open from the third Saturday in March to the first week of November. Outside this period, navigation can be authorized for individuals who have requested it. The winter period is called the "period of unemployment '' and allows the completion of all maintenance work.
The Canal du Midi also allows other sports, mainly in urban areas, such as rowing, canoeing, fishing, cycling, roller - skating, and hiking along the banks. A paved stretch of 50 km from Toulouse to Avignonet - Lauragais and another 12 km between Béziers and Portiragnes are particularly suited to cycling and rollerblading. It is possible to cycle the entire Canal des Deux Mers from Sète to Bordeaux. In addition many barges have been converted to family housing, theatres, exhibition spaces, and restaurants.
During the dry season the canal serves as a reservoir for agriculture. Nearly 700 irrigation pumps are installed along the canal. This is one of the fundamental roles of the canal and one of the reasons for its maintenance by the State since the end of commercial traffic. The canal can irrigate up to 40,000 hectares of agricultural land.
The Rigole de la plaine carries water from the Sor tapped from an offtake at Pont Crouzet for irrigation before emptying into the Canal du Midi. In addition individual samples are collected from the water on the area between Revel and the seuil de Naurouze. In 1980 the Lac de la Ganguise was built near Castelnaudary providing a water reserve of 22 million m3. In 2005 the dam was raised to reach a capacity of 44 million cubic metres. Near the old basin of Naurouze the Naurouze pumping station helps to regulate the water in the Canal du Midi and the lake. An underground pipe, the gallery of Mandore, provides the Naurouze with additional water from the Rigole de la plaine to Lake Ganguise. Conversely, during the dry season, Lake Ganguise can supply the Canal du Midi if the water supply of the Rigole de la plaine is not enough.
The canal has also provided a supply of drinking water through the water treatment plants at Picotalen (Picotalen I and Picotalen II) since 1973. They are part of the installations installed by the Institution for Interdepartmental Hydraulic Planning of Black Mountain (IIAHMN) since its inception in 1948 to meet the water needs of Lauragais. The plant supplies water from the Cammazes channel to nearly 185 communes.
While the canal was once seen as a tool of production, trade, and commerce it is now considered to be architectural and technical heritage as evidenced by the refusal of the mayor of Toulouse, Pierre Baudis, to allow space on the Canal du Midi to be used for an urban expressway. However, it has not been downgraded and remains open for navigation. On 7 December 1996 the channel and a buffer zone of 2,000 km2 were included in the list of World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. In the same year, it was classified under French law as a Grand Site of France. This classification was extended to the canals of the plain and the mountain in 1996 and 2001. It caused a very rapid increase in tourist numbers.
Nevertheless, maintenance has not been carried out completely because many players are involved: three regions, six departments, and local collective authorities. None wish to bear the cost of restoration and do not always dare to launch development programs. Platanus (Plane Trees) is a particular source of problems because their roots destroy the banks and the paved cycle paths and their leaves invade the canal. In addition they are weakened by disease (canker of Platanus). The canal is a heavy heritage to maintain and enhance as the manager of French canals, Voies navigables de France (VNF), specializes in the management and maintenance of French canals in a market and commercial economy and not in the tourism market where the Canal du Midi is located. In addition maintenance costs are higher than in a traditional network because of the age of the canal. Also the operation of the channel generates low levels of earnings. VNF must try to establish local partnerships to develop and maintain the canal since its budget does not allow it to provide the care and supervision of 360 km of canals.
The classification as a World Heritage Site creates an additional level of oversight by the State who must ensure that any changes along the canal and its structures are compatible with the strategic issues of UNESCO. However, a report of the General Inspectorate of Architecture and Heritage in 2003 showed that the channel was in very poor condition with many works and infrastructure devaluing its surroundings and suffering from significant housing pressure evidenced by uncontrolled construction, poorly designed facilities that misrepresent the site, and the construction of marinas in the ports on the canal. Nevertheless, to respect the uniformity of the canal development and support efforts for improvement, the Canal du Midi remains under the management of VNF under the tutelage of the State who want to create a monitoring mission like the Loire and Mont - Saint - Michel.
The Canal du Midi is 240 km long with a total of 328 structures including 63 locks, 126 bridges, 55 aqueducts, 7 aqueducts, 6 dams, 1 spillway, and 1 tunnel.
It takes 90 million cubic metres of water to feed the canal for one year. To do this, Riquet set up a complex system of water supply to the canal. The idea was to capture the waters of the Black Mountain located several tens of kilometres away and bring it to the Seuil de Naurouze, the highest point of the future canal, through channels.
These channels, called "Rigole de la montagne '' (Channel of the Mountain) and "Rigole de la plaine '' (Channel of the Plain) connected the upper three reservoirs (Lampy, Cammazes, and Saint - Ferréol) at the seuil de Naurouze. The Rigole de la Montagne measured 24.269 km long and has 22 structures between the outlet at Alzeau and the falls of Cammazes. The Rigole de la Plaine measured 38.121 km long at 21.45 m altitude and included 68 structures between the Crouzet bridge and the seuil de Naurouze.
Initially, two reservoirs fed the highest point of the canal at the seuil de Naurouze: the Bassin de Saint - Ferréol had a capacity of 6.3 million cubic metres and was built between 1667 and 1672. The other reservoir was much smaller - the Bassin de Lampy. Called "Lampy - Vieux '', it was quickly replaced by the "Lampy - Neuf '' with a capacity of 1,672,000 cubic metres built over a hundred years later between 1777 and 1782.
The Bassin de Saint - Ferréol was and remains the main water reservoir for the canal with a surface of 67 hectares. It receives the waters of the Black Mountain via the Channel of the Mountain which is itself supplied by the basin of Lampy. The lake waters are retained by a dam 786m long and 149m wide consisting of three parallel walls. The channel surrounds the basin and can evacuate any excess water. A museum is located near the outlets and has displays on the history of the construction of the Lake.
Originally the engineer planned and built a third reservoir, the Naurouze, but it was abandoned in 1680 due to its excessive silting. Pierre - Paul Riquet had dreamed of the construction of a new city around this basin that never saw the day. A floodway was quickly dug to drain the Naurouze basin from the south.
Other reservoirs were also built at Carcassonne to supply the lower part of the canal to the Mediterranean. So the waters of the Fresquel, the Cesse, and the Orbiel augmented those of the canal. On the other hand, the waters of the Orb at Beziers provided additional flow to part of the canal. In 1957 the Cammazes dam with a capacity of 20 million cubic metres of water was filled on the Sor which completed and finalized the supply network. This lake provides drinking water to more than 200 communes in the region. Of the 20 million cubic metres, 4 million are reserved for feeding the Canal du Midi.
The first locks built on the Toulouse plain by Pierre - Paul Riquet were experimental and were not satisfactory. They consisted of rectangular lock with wooden stilts as foundations for the side walls. This form did not properly restrain the lateral material when the lock was empty. They then collapsed on themselves. He redefined the shape of his locks to rounded side walls, thicker, and more resistant to the lateral pressure of the earth. The dimensions of the locks were then large enough for the time. Because of these rounded forms, the architecture of the locks in the Canal du Midi is called Baroque style.
The locks were built in stone and sealed with lime. They are closed by two double leaf doors. The doors, originally timber with the fewest possible metal parts, are subject to severe moisture stress and pressure. They had a "vantelle '' (valve) controlled by a rack and pinion that allowed the draining of water from the lock chamber.
The nominal size of the locks built by Pierre - Paul Riquet was 29.2 m long, 5.8 m wide at the door, 11m wide in the centre of the lock and an average of 2.5 m in height. In the 20th century many locks were changed and therefore no longer have the original features.
At the town of Béziers there is a staircase of eight locks at Fonsérannes to bring it to the river Orb. The locks had to be cut from solid rock, and descended a hillside whose gradient varied. All the locks had to contain the same volume of water, but could not have precisely the same shape. Nonetheless, they were built successfully without need of repair. This amazing piece of engineering was subcontracted out to two illiterate brothers, the Medhailes, and was built by a workforce composed mainly of women.
Some of the locks on the canal are architectural gems. For instance the Agde Round Lock has three doors: two doors provide access to each side of the channel and the third provides access to the Hérault going to the Mediterranean. This system allows triple access while protecting the canal from river flooding. Similarly, the canal has several multiple locks -- i.e. with multiple locks attached to one another. This system saves doors and foundations in areas where the slope is greatest. The best known of these locks is Fonserannes Lock which has eight chambers.
Today most of the locks are electrified which replaced the manual opening of the sluices and lock gates.
Several ports were built at regular intervals along the route of the canal in order to load and unload goods and also to provide stopping - places for travellers. Toulouse has two ports: the port de l'Embouchure is located at the junction of the Canal du Midi, the Canal de Brienne, and the Lateral canal of the Garonne while Port Saint - Sauveur is located in the centre of town near the Hall of Grains. There were two other ports in Toulouse but they were destroyed for urban development. So the Port des Minimes and the Port Saint - Etienne were replaced by towpaths.
Castelnaudary has a port of 7 hectares called Grand Basin built between 1666 and 1671. It served as a stopover halfway between Toulouse and Sète. Cybelle island in the middle of the basin was used to protect the barges from the wind. Carcassonne is today a major tourist stop on the canal and has a port built in 1810 at the time when the city was connected to the canal. The port of Trèbes is a major port which has numerous moorings for boats. There are also the ports of Homps which was one of the most important on the canal and Le Somail which was a popular place for rest and recreation. Finally, just before its arrival at the Mediterranean Sea, the canal has two ports: the port of Agde where there is the old hotel of the "Administration of the Canal '', and the port of Onglous at Marseillan which is the last port before Sète and its royal canal giving access to the sea.
Newer ports were built such as Ramonville - Saint - Agne, called Port - Sud, which has many residential barges and is set directly overlooking the harbour, and Port - Lauragais located near Avignonet - Lauragais on a service area of the A61 autoroute.
Related article: Aqueducts on the Canal du Midi
Several Aqueducts were built along the route of the Canal du Midi. They allow the canal to cross rivers that could disrupt the water flow in the canal. In fact the rivers flowing into the canal cause an overflow of water during flooding and fill the canal with silt. Some aqueducts date from the time of Pierre - Paul Riquet, but most were built after the completion of the canal in particular due to improvements recommended by Vauban. The canal has the following aqueducts (in order from Agde to Toulouse):
Pierre - Paul Riquet and the engineers who followed him over three centuries built many other structures on the Canal du Midi, of which the most important are listed here:
The canal is a long ribbon of water stretching through the landscape and attracts many animal species. Several species of fish such as bream breed in the canal, and others reproduce in its feeding rivers and spend part of their life in the canal. Molluscs such as anadontes -- a kind of freshwater mussel, and corbicules -- a kind of freshwater clam occur in the canal. Invasive Coypu (River rat or nutria) and Muskrats introduced from the Americas burrow into the banks, which they damage. Finally, many animals and birds come to drink water from the canal.
The canal is also a very vegetated place. In the beginning Pierre - Paul Riquet planted trees to stabilize the banks of the canal especially where it overlooked the surrounding lands. The willow was widely used for its rapid growth. The engineer also planted irises on the side of the canal to reduce subsidence of its banks. In the 18th century the trees planted along the canal become a source of income. So mulberries were planted for rearing silkworms. Then, with the end of the silk culture in 1772, the mulberry trees were replaced by the poplar from Italy which was the most productive wood. Structures and lock - keepers ' houses were decorated with fruit trees. At the Revolution plantations around the canal had approximately 60,000 trees when there were only 45,000 at the beginning. It was under the First Empire that Plane trees began to be planted to replace the cut trees, which are today the dominant variety along the canal.
However, for several years, plane trees have been infected with canker stain, a disease caused by a microscopic fungus called Ceratocystis platani. The first outbreaks were detected in 2006 with the number of infected plane trees reaching 83 in 2008 and 153 in 2009. Selective tree - felling campaigns have been conducted to try to stop the spread but with no effect. In addition there is no effective treatment against the disease. In 2011, 211 places and 1,338 diseased trees have been identified. In 15 to 20 years all 42,000 plane trees of the Canal du Midi will have to be felled and replaced mainly by other species (ash, lime), after initial experiments with a variety of plane - tree resisting the parasite.
The Canal du Midi was one of the great achievements of the late 17th century. Riquet understood the hydraulic system of the Black Mountain and had controlled it to serve the Canal du Midi. King Louis XIV, who was the sponsor, also left it as a mark of his commitment to grandeur.
The canal was also magnified by the Encyclopedia or Reasoned Dictionary of Science, Arts, and Crafts by Diderot and D'Alembert in 1765 who highlighted its value and greatness. They compare it to Roman constructions. Another encyclopedia writer, Joseph Jerome Lefrancois Lalande lauded the architectural and hydraulic achievement in his work The navigation canals and especially the Canal de Languedoc in 1778. Similarly, Bernard Forest de Bélidor congratulated the designer in Hydraulic Architecture. The canal became an example in Europe as throughout the Age of Enlightenment it was the only canal of this size in Europe.
Finally the American Thomas Jefferson, politician, architect, and future president of the United States, came to study the Canal du Midi in 1787. As the United States Ambassador to France he envisaged the construction of a similar work to link the Potomac River to Lake Erie.
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who joined the colonial side after the turning point battle | Battles of Saratoga - wikipedia
Freeman 's Farm:
Bemis Heights:
United States
Great Britain
Horatio Gates Benedict Arnold Benjamin Lincoln Enoch Poor Ebenezer Learned Daniel Morgan
John Burgoyne Simon Fraser †
The Battles of Saratoga (September 19 and October 7, 1777) marked the climax of the Saratoga campaign, giving a decisive victory to the Americans over the British in the American Revolutionary War. British General John Burgoyne led a large invasion army southward from Canada in the Champlain Valley, hoping to meet a similar British force marching northward from New York City and another British force marching eastward from Lake Ontario; the southern and western forces never arrived, and Burgoyne was surrounded by American forces in upstate New York. He fought two small battles to break out which took place 18 days apart on the same ground, 9 miles (14 km) south of Saratoga, New York. They both failed.
Burgoyne found himself trapped by superior American forces with no relief in sight, so he retreated to Saratoga (now Schuylerville) and surrendered his entire army there on October 17. His surrender, says historian Edmund Morgan, "was a great turning point of the war because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory. ''
Burgoyne 's strategy to divide New England from the southern colonies had started well but slowed due to logistical problems. He won a small tactical victory over General Horatio Gates and the Continental Army in the September 19 Battle of Freeman 's Farm at the cost of significant casualties. His gains were erased when he again attacked the Americans in the October 7 Battle of Bemis Heights and the Americans captured a portion of the British defenses. Burgoyne was therefore compelled to retreat, and his army was surrounded by the much larger American force at Saratoga, forcing him to surrender on October 17. News of Burgoyne 's surrender was instrumental in formally bringing France into the war as an American ally, although it had previously given supplies, ammunition, and guns, notably the de Valliere cannon which played an important role in Saratoga. This battle also resulted in Spain joining France in the war against Britain.
The battle on September 19 began when Burgoyne moved some of his troops in an attempt to flank the entrenched American position on Bemis Heights. Benedict Arnold anticipated the maneuver and placed significant forces in his way. Burgoyne did gain control of Freeman 's Farm, but it came at the cost of significant casualties. Skirmishing continued in the days following the battle, while Burgoyne waited in the hope that reinforcements would arrive from New York City. Patriot militia forces continued to arrive, meanwhile, swelling the size of the American army. Disputes within the American camp led Gates to strip Arnold of his command.
British General Sir Henry Clinton moved up from New York City and attempted to divert American attention by capturing two forts in the Hudson River highlands on October 6, but his efforts were too late to help Burgoyne. Burgoyne attacked Bemis Heights again on October 7 after it became apparent that he would not receive relieving aid in time. This battle culminated in heavy fighting marked by Arnold 's spirited rallying of the American troops. Burgoyne 's forces were thrown back to the positions that they held before the September 19 battle and the Americans captured a portion of the entrenched British defenses.
The American Revolutionary War was approaching the two - year point, and the British changed their plans. They decided to split the Thirteen Colonies and isolate New England from what they believed to be the more Loyalist middle and southern colonies. The British command devised a plan to divide the colonies with a three - way pincer movement in 1777. The western pincer under the command of Barry St. Leger was to progress from Ontario through western New York, following the Mohawk River, and the southern pincer was to progress up the Hudson River valley from New York City. The northern pincer was to proceed southward from Montreal, and the three forces were to meet in the vicinity of Albany, New York, severing New England from the other colonies.
British General John Burgoyne moved south from the province of Quebec in June 1777 to gain control of the upper Hudson River valley. His campaign had become bogged down in difficulties following a victory at Fort Ticonderoga. Elements of the army had reached the upper Hudson as early as the end of July, but logistical and supply difficulties delayed the main army at Fort Edward. One attempt to alleviate these difficulties failed when nearly 1,000 men were killed or captured at the August 16 Battle of Bennington. Furthermore, news reached Burgoyne on August 28 that St. Leger 's expedition down the Mohawk River valley had turned back after the failed Siege of Fort Stanwix.
General William Howe had taken his army from New York City by sea on a campaign to capture Philadelphia instead of moving north to meet Burgoyne. Most of Burgoyne 's Indian support had fled following the loss at Bennington, and his situation was becoming difficult. He needed to reach defensible winter quarters, requiring either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany, and he decided to advance. He then deliberately cut communications to the north so that he would not need to maintain a chain of heavily fortified outposts between his position and Ticonderoga, and he decided to cross the Hudson River while he was in a relatively strong position. He ordered Baron Riedesel, who commanded the rear of the army, to abandon outposts from Skenesboro south, and then had the army cross the Hudson just north of Saratoga between September 13 and 15.
The Continental Army had been in a slow retreat since Burgoyne 's capture of Ticonderoga early in July, under the command of Major General Philip Schuyler, and was encamped south of Stillwater, New York. On August 19, Major General Horatio Gates assumed command from Schuyler, whose political fortunes had fallen over the loss of Ticonderoga and the ensuing retreat. Gates and Schuyler were from very different backgrounds and did not get along with each other; they had previously argued over command issues in the army 's Northern Department. The army was growing in size because of increased militia turnout following calls by state governors, the success at Bennington, and widespread outrage over the slaying of Jane McCrea, the fiancée of a Loyalist in Burgoyne 's army by Indians under Burgoyne 's command.
General George Washington 's strategic decisions also improved the situation for Gates ' army. Washington was most concerned about the movements of General Howe. He was aware that Burgoyne was also moving, and he took some risks in July. He sent aid north in the form of Major General Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive field commander, and Major General Benjamin Lincoln, a Massachusetts man noted for his influence with the New England militia. He ordered 750 men from Israel Putnam 's forces defending the New York highlands to join Gates ' army in August, before he was certain that Howe had indeed sailed south. He also sent some of the best forces from his own army: Colonel Daniel Morgan and the newly formed Provisional Rifle Corps, which comprised about 500 specially selected riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, chosen for their sharpshooting ability. This unit came to be known as Morgan 's Riflemen.
On September 7, Gates ordered his army to march north. A site was selected for its defensive potential that was known as Bemis Heights, just north of Stillwater and about 10 miles (16 km) south of Saratoga; the army spent about a week constructing defensive works designed by Polish engineer Tadeusz Kościuszko. The heights had a clear view of the area and commanded the only road to Albany, where it passed through a defile between the heights and the Hudson River. To the west of the heights lay more heavily forested bluffs that would present a significant challenge to any heavily equipped army.
Moving cautiously, since the departure of his Native American support had deprived him of reliable reports on the American position, Burgoyne advanced to the south after crossing the Hudson. On September 18 the vanguard of his army had reached a position just north of Saratoga, about 4 miles (6.4 km) from the American defensive line, and skirmishes occurred between American scouting parties and the leading elements of his army.
The American camp had become a bed of festering intrigue ever since Arnold 's return from Fort Stanwix. While he and Gates had previously been on reasonably good terms in spite of their prickly egos, Arnold managed to turn Gates against him by taking on officers friendly to Schuyler as staff, dragging him into the ongoing feud between the two. These conditions had not yet reached a boil on September 19, but the day 's events contributed to the situation. Gates had assigned the left wing of the defenses to Arnold, and assumed command himself of the right, which was nominally assigned to General Lincoln, whom Gates had detached in August with some troops to harass the British positions behind Burgoyne 's army.
Both Burgoyne and Arnold understood the importance of the American left, and the need to control the heights there. After the morning fog lifted around 10 am, Burgoyne ordered the army to advance in three columns. Baron Riedesel led the left column, consisting of the German troops and the 47th Foot, on the river road, bringing the main artillery and guarding supplies and the boats on the river. General James Inglis Hamilton commanded the center column, consisting of the 9th, 20th, 21st, and 62nd regiments, which would attack the heights, and General Simon Fraser led the right wing with the 24th Regiment and the light infantry and grenadier companies, to turn the American left flank by negotiating the heavily wooded high ground north and west of Bemis Heights.
Arnold also realized such a flanking maneuver was likely, and petitioned Gates for permission to move his forces from the heights to meet potential movements, where the American skill at woodlands combat would be at an advantage. Gates, whose preferred strategy was to sit and wait for the expected frontal assault, grudgingly permitted a reconnaissance in force consisting of Daniel Morgan 's men and Henry Dearborn 's light infantry. When Morgan 's men reached an open field northwest of Bemis Heights belonging to Loyalist John Freeman, they spotted British advance troops in the field. Fraser 's column was slightly delayed and had not yet reached the field, while Hamilton 's column had also made its way across a ravine and was approaching the field from the east through dense forest and difficult terrain. Riedesel 's force, while it was on the road, was delayed by obstacles thrown down by the Americans. The sound of gunfire to the west prompted Riedesel to send some of his artillery down a track in that direction. The troops Morgan 's men saw were an advance company from Hamilton 's column.
Morgan placed marksmen at strategic positions, who then picked off virtually every officer in the advance company. Morgan and his men then charged, unaware that they were headed directly for Burgoyne 's main army. While they succeeded in driving back the advance company, Fraser 's leading edge arrived just in time to attack Morgan 's left, scattering his men back into the woods. James Wilkinson, who had ridden forward to observe the fire, returned to the American camp for reinforcements. As the British company fell back toward the main column, the leading edge of that column opened fire, killing a number of their own men.
There was then a lull in the fighting around 1: 00 pm as Hamilton 's men began to form up on the north side of the field, and American reinforcements began to arrive from the south. Learning that Morgan was in trouble, Gates ordered out two more regiments (1st and 3rd New Hampshire) to support him, with additional regiments (2nd New York, 4th New York, the 1st Canadian, and Connecticut militia) from the brigade of Enoch Poor to follow. Burgoyne arrayed Hamilton 's men with the 21st on the right, the 20th on the left, and the 62nd in the center, with the 9th held in reserve.
The battle then went through phases alternating between intense fighting and breaks in the action. Morgan 's men had regrouped in the woods, and picked off officers and artillerymen. They were so effective at reducing the latter that the Americans several times gained brief control of British field pieces, only to lose them in the next British charge. At one point it was believed that Burgoyne himself had been taken down by a sharpshooter; it was instead one of Burgoyne 's aides, riding a richly dressed horse, who was the victim. The center of the British line was very nearly broken at one point, and only the intervention of General Phillips, leading the 20th, made it possible for the 62nd to reform. In Roger Lamb 's memoir, (a British soldier present at the battle), he wrote ' ' In this battle an unusual number of officers fell, as our army abounded with young men of respectability at this time, who after several years of general peace anterior to the American revolution, were attracted to the profession of arms. Three sulbalterns (officers) of the 20th regiment on this occasion, the oldest of whom did not exceed the age of seventeen years, were buried together ' '
The final stroke of the battle belonged to the British. Around 3 pm, Riedesel sent a messenger to Burgoyne for instructions. He returned two hours later with orders to guard the baggage train, but also to send as many men as he could spare toward the American right flank. In a calculated risk, Riedesel left 500 men to guard the vital supply train and marched off toward the action with the rest of his column. Two of his companies advanced on the double and opened vicious fire on the American right, and Fraser 's force threatened to turn the American left flank. In response to the latter threat, Arnold requested more forces, and Gates allowed him to dispatch Ebenezer Learned 's brigade (2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts). (If Arnold had been on the field, these forces might have instead faced the larger danger posed by Riedesel 's force.) Fortunately for the American right, darkness set in, bringing an end to the battle. The Americans retreated back to their defenses, leaving the British on the field.
Burgoyne had gained the field of battle, but suffered nearly 600 casualties. Most of these were to Hamilton 's center column, where the 62nd was reduced to the size of a single company, and three quarters of the artillerymen were killed or wounded. American losses were nearly 300 killed and seriously wounded.
It has been widely recounted in histories of this battle that General Arnold was on the field, directing some of the action. However, John Luzader, a former park historian at the Saratoga National Historical Park, carefully documents the evolution of this story and believes it is without foundation in contemporary materials, and that Arnold remained at Gates ' headquarters, receiving news and dispatching orders through messengers. Arnold biographer James Kirby Martin, however, disagrees with Luzader, arguing that Arnold played a more active role at Freeman 's Farm by directing patriot troops into position and possibly leading some charges before being ordered back to headquarters by Gates.
Burgoyne 's council discussed whether to attack the next day, and a decision was reached to delay further action at least one day, to September 21. The army moved to consolidate the position closer to the American line while some men collected their dead. The attack on the 21st was called off when Burgoyne received a letter dated September 12 from Henry Clinton, who was commanding the British garrison in New York City. Clinton suggested that he could "make a push at (Fort) Montgomery in about ten days. '' (Fort Montgomery was an American post on the Hudson River, in the New York Highlands south of West Point). If Clinton left New York on September 22, "about ten days '' after he wrote the letter, he still could not hope to arrive in the vicinity of Saratoga before the end of the month. Burgoyne, running low on men and food, was still in a very difficult position, but he decided to wait in the hope that Clinton would arrive to save his army. Burgoyne wrote to Clinton on September 23, requesting some sort of assistance or diversion to draw Gates ' army away. Clinton sailed from New York on October 3, and captured Forts Montgomery and Clinton on October 6. The furthest north any of his troops reached was Clermont, where they raided the estate of the prominent Patriot Livingston family on October 16.
Unknown to either side at Saratoga, General Lincoln and Colonel John Brown had staged an attack against the British position at Fort Ticonderoga. Lincoln had collected 2,000 men at Bennington by early September. Brown and a detachment of 500 men captured poorly defended positions between Ticonderoga and Lake George, and then spent several days ineffectually bombarding the fort. These men, and some of the prisoners they freed along the way, were back in the American camp by September 29.
In the American camp, the mutual resentment between Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold finally exploded into open hostility. Gates quickly reported the action of September 19 to the Congress and Governor George Clinton of New York, but he failed to mention Arnold at all. The field commanders and men universally credited Arnold for their success. Almost all the troops involved were from Arnold 's command and Arnold was the one directing the battle while Gates sat in his tent. Arnold protested, and the dispute escalated into a shouting match that ended with Gates relieving Arnold of his command and giving it to Benjamin Lincoln. Arnold asked for a transfer to Washington 's command, which Gates granted, but instead of leaving he remained in his tent. There is no documentary evidence for a commonly recounted anecdote that a petition signed by line officers convinced Arnold to stay in camp.
During this period there were almost daily clashes between pickets and patrols of the two armies. Morgan 's sharpshooters, familiar with the strategy and tactics of woodland warfare, constantly harassed British patrols on the western flank.
As September passed into October it became clear that Clinton was not coming to help Burgoyne, who put the army on short rations on October 3. The next day, Burgoyne called a war council in which several options were discussed, but no conclusive decisions were made. When the council resumed the next day, Riedesel proposed retreat, in which he was supported by Fraser. Burgoyne refused to consider it, insisting that retreat would be disgraceful. They finally agreed to conduct an assault on the American left flank with two thousand men, more than one - third of the army, on October 7. The army he was attacking, however, had grown in the interval. In addition to the return of Lincoln 's detachment, militiamen and supplies continued to pour into the American camp, including critical increases in ammunition, which had been severely depleted in the first battle. The army Burgoyne faced on October 7 was more than 12,000 men strong and was led by a man who knew how much trouble Burgoyne was in. Gates had received consistent intelligence from the stream of deserters leaving the British lines and had also intercepted Clinton 's response to Burgoyne 's plea for help.
While Burgoyne 's troop strength was nominally higher, he likely had only about 5,000 effective, battle - ready troops on October 7, as losses from the earlier battles in the campaign and desertions following the September 19 battle had reduced his forces. General Riedesel advised that the army retreat. Burgoyne decided to reconnoiter the American left flank to see if an attack was possible. As an escort, the generals took Fraser 's Advanced Corps, with light troops and the 24th Foot on the right and the combined British grenadiers on the left, and a force drawn from all the German regiments in the army in the center. There were eight British cannon under Major Williams and two Hesse - Hanau cannon under Captain Pausch. Leaving their camp between 10 and 11 am, they advanced about three - quarters of a mile (1 km) to Barber 's wheat field on a rise above Mill Brook, where they stopped to observe the American position. While the field afforded some room for artillery to work, the flanks were dangerously close to the surrounding woods.
Gates, following the removal of Arnold from the field command, assumed command of the American left and gave the right to General Lincoln. When American scouts brought news of Burgoyne 's movement to Gates, he ordered Morgan 's riflemen out to the far left, with Poor 's men (1st, 2nd, and 3rd New Hampshire on the left; the 2nd and 4th New York Regiments) on the right, and Learned 's (1st New York, 1st Canadian, 2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts Regiments, plus militia companies) in the center. A force of 1,200 New York militia under Brigadier General Abraham Ten Broeck was held in reserve behind Learned 's line. In all, more than 8,000 Americans took the field that day, including about 1,400 men from Lincoln 's command that were deployed when the action became particularly fierce.
The opening fire came between 2 and 2: 30 pm from the British grenadiers. Poor 's men held their fire, and the terrain made the British shooting largely ineffective. When Major Acland led the British grenadiers in a bayonet charge, the Americans finally began shooting at close range. Acland fell, shot in both legs, and many of the grenadiers also went down. Their column was a total rout, and Poor 's men advanced to take Acland and Williams prisoner and capture their artillery. On the American left, things were also not going well for the British. Morgan 's men swept aside the Canadians and Native Americans to engage Fraser 's regulars. Although slightly outnumbered, Morgan managed to break up several British attempts to move west. While General Fraser was mortally wounded in this phase of the battle, a frequently told story claiming it to be the work of Timothy Murphy, one of Morgan 's men, appears to be a 19th - century fabrication. The fall of Fraser and the arrival of Ten Broeck 's large militia brigade (which roughly equaled the entire British reconnaissance force in size), broke the British will, and they began a disorganized retreat toward their entrenchments. Burgoyne was also very nearly killed by one of Morgan 's marksmen; three shots hit his horse, hat, and waistcoat.
The first phase of the battle lasted about one hour and cost Burgoyne nearly 400 men, including the capture of most of the grenadiers ' command, and six of the ten field pieces brought to the action.
At this point, the Americans were joined by an unexpected participant. General Arnold, who was "betraying great agitation and wrath '' in the American camp, and may have been drinking, rode out to join the action. Gates immediately sent Major Armstrong after him with orders to return; Armstrong did not catch up with Arnold until the action was effectively over. (A letter, written by a witness to proceedings in the camp, suggests that Arnold did in fact have authorization from Gates to engage in this action.)
The defenses on the right side of the British camp were anchored by two redoubts. The outermost one was defended by about 300 men under the command of the Hessian Heinrich von Breymann, while the other was under the command of Lord Balcarres. A small contingent of Canadians occupied the ground between these two fortifications. Most of the retreating force headed for Balcarres ' position, as Breymann 's was slightly north and further away from the early action.
Arnold led the American chase, and then led Poor 's men in an attack on the Balcarres redoubt. Balcarres had set up his defenses well, and the redoubt was held, in action so fierce that Burgoyne afterwards wrote, "A more determined perseverance than they showed... is not in any officer 's experience ''. Seeing that the advance was checked, and that Learned was preparing to attack the Breymann redoubt, Arnold moved toward that action, recklessly riding between the lines and remarkably emerging unhurt. He led the charge of Learned 's men through the gap between the redoubts, which exposed the rear of Breymann 's position, where Morgan 's men had circled around from the far side. In furious battle, the redoubt was taken and Breymann was killed. Arnold 's horse was hit in one of the final volleys, and Arnold 's leg was broken by both shot and the falling horse. Major Armstrong finally caught up with Arnold to officially order him back to headquarters; he was carried back in a litter.
The capture of Breymann 's redoubt exposed the British camp, but darkness was setting in. An attempt by some Germans to retake the redoubt ended in capture as darkness fell and an unreliable guide led them to the American line.
Burgoyne 's failed campaign, as may be seen by the titles of some of the books that cover it in detail, marked a major turning point in the war. After the battle, he withdrew his men 10 -- 15 miles north, near present - day Schuylerville, New York. General Burgoyne returned to England and was never given another commanding position in the British Army.
Burgoyne lost 1,000 men in the two battles, leaving him outnumbered by roughly 3 to 1; American losses came to about 500 killed and wounded. Burgoyne had also lost several of his most effective leaders, his attempts to capture the American position had failed, and his forward line was now breached. That night he lit fires at his remaining forward positions and withdrew under the cover of darkness. On the morning of October 8, he was back in the fortified positions he had held on September 16. By October 13 he was surrounded at Saratoga, and on October 17 he surrendered his army. The remnants of his expedition retreated from Ticonderoga back to Quebec.
The British learned that the Americans would fight bravely and effectively. Said one British officer:
The courage and obstinacy with which the Americans fought were the astonishment of everyone, and we now became fully convinced that they are not that contemptible enemy we had hitherto imagined them, incapable of standing a regular engagement and that they would only fight behind strong and powerful works.
In recognition of his contribution to the battles at Saratoga, General Arnold had his seniority restored (he had lost it after being passed over for promotion earlier in 1777). His leg wound left Arnold bedridden for five months. Later, while still unfit for field service but serving as military governor of Philadelphia, Arnold entered into treasonous correspondence with the British. He received command of the fort at West Point and plotted to hand it over to the British, only to flee into the British lines when the capture of his contact John Andre led to the exposure of the plot. Arnold went on to serve under William Phillips, the commander of Burgoyne 's right wing, in a 1781 expedition into Virginia.
Although he left the direction of the battle to subordinates, General Gates received a great deal of credit as the commanding general for the greatest American victory of the war to date. He may have conspired with others to replace George Washington as the commander - in - chief. Instead, he received the command of the main American army in the South. He led it to a disastrous defeat at the 1780 Battle of Camden, where he was at the forefront of a panicked retreat. Gates never commanded troops in the field again.
In response to Burgoyne 's surrender, Congress declared December 18, 1777, as a national day "for solemn Thanksgiving and praise ''; it was the nation 's first official observance of a holiday with that name.
Once news of Burgoyne 's surrender reached France, King Louis XVI decided to enter into negotiations with the Americans that resulted in a formal Franco - American alliance and French entry into the war. This moved the conflict onto a global stage. As a consequence, Britain was forced to divert resources used to fight the war in North America to theaters in the West Indies and Europe, and rely on what turned out to be the chimera of Loyalist support in its North American operations. Being defeated by the British in the French and Indian War more than a decade earlier, France found an opportunity of revenge by aiding the colonists throughout the Revolutionary War. Prior to the Battle of Saratoga, France did n't fully aid the colonists. However, after the Battles of Saratoga were conclusively won by the colonists, France realized that the Americans had the hope of winning the war, and began fully aiding the colonists by sending soldiers, donations, loans, military arms, and supplies.
The battlefield and the site of Burgoyne 's surrender have been preserved, and are now administered by the National Park Service as the Saratoga National Historical Park, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The park preserves a number of the buildings in the area and contains a variety of monuments. The Saratoga Monument obelisk has four niches, three of which hold statues of American commanders: Gates and Schuyler and of Colonel Daniel Morgan. The fourth niche, where Arnold 's statue would go, is empty. A more dramatic memorial to Arnold 's heroism, that does not name him, is the Boot Monument. Donated by Civil War General John Watts de Peyster, it shows a boot with spurs and the stars of a major general. It stands at the spot where Arnold was shot on October 7 charging Breymann 's redoubt and is dedicated to "the most brilliant soldier of the Continental Army ''.
Six Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn, 102nd Inf, 125th QM Co, 181st Inf, 182nd Inf and 192nd MP Bn) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Saratoga. There are now only thirty units in the U.S. Army with lineages that go back to the colonial era.
There are a number of ships named after the battles including USS Saratoga (1842), USS Saratoga (CV - 3), and USS Saratoga (CV - 60)
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what are the two flaps under my tongue | Fimbriated fold of tongue - Wikipedia
The fimbriated fold of tongue, also plica fimbriata is a slight fold of the mucous membrane on the underside of the tongue which runs laterally on either side of the frenulum. The free edge of the fimbriated fold occasionally exhibits a series of fringe - like processes. (Fimbria is Latin for fringe).
Some people have small (< 1 cm) horn - like triangular flaps of "skin '' (mucosa) under their tongue. They are on each side of the frenulum (the piece of tissue connecting the bottom of the tongue to the inside of the mouth) under the tongue and run parallel next to the two distinct veins. They typically appear in pairs and may even be up to 4 or more sets, but for even those who have them only two closer to the tip are distinctly visible while the others are very minor or just small bumps. These are the "fringe - like processes '' part of the "fimbriated fold ''.
They are normal residual tissue not completely reabsorbed by the body during the development and growth of the tongue.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1125 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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who plays sansa stark on game of thrones | Sophie Turner - wikipedia
Sophie Turner (born 21 February 1996) is an English actress. Turner made her professional acting debut as Sansa Stark on the HBO fantasy television series Game of Thrones (2011 -- present), which brought her international recognition.
Turner starred in the television film The Thirteenth Tale (2013) and she made her feature film debut in Another Me (2013). She starred in the action comedy Barely Lethal (2015) and portrays a young Jean Grey / Phoenix in the X-Men film series.
Turner was born in Northampton, England on 21 February 1996, the daughter of Sally, a nursery school teacher, and Andrew, who works for a pallet distribution company. She moved to Chesterton, Warwickshire when she was two years old. She attended the independent Warwick Prep School until she was eleven, and later attended the independent and fee - paying The King 's High School for Girls. Turner has been a member of the theatre company Playbox Theatre Company since she was three years old. She has two older brothers. Her twin died before birth.
In an interview with The Telegraph, she stated that she grew up in a large Edwardian house, near Leamington Spa: "My childhood was pretty fun. We had pigsties, barns and a paddock, and used to muck around in the mud. '' Turner adopted Zunni, the Northern Inuit dog that played her on - screen pet dire wolf, after the first series of Game of Thrones. Turner had a tutor on the set of Game of Thrones until the age of 16. She achieved five GCSE A-grades and four Bs. "I got a B in drama, '' she says, sighing.
Since 2011, Turner has portrayed Sansa Stark, a young noblewoman, in the HBO fantasy drama series Game of Thrones from age 15. Sansa is her first television role. Turner 's drama teacher encouraged her to audition for the part, and she dyed her blonde hair auburn for the role, though in Season 7 she began wearing wigs. In 2012, she was nominated for the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series -- Supporting Young Actress for her performance as Sansa, alongside her on - screen sister, Maisie Williams. To date, Turner has appeared in all seven broadcast seasons.
In 2013, she had her first big screen role as the lead character in the independent thriller film Another Me, based on the novel of the same name by Catherine MacPhail. She starred as Adeline March in the 2013 television film The Thirteenth Tale. In 2013, she was cast in the comedy film Barely Lethal, alongside Hailee Steinfeld, which was released on 29 May 2015 in a limited release and through video on demand. Turner also narrated the audiobook version of the Lev Grossman short story The Girl in the Mirror, which was included in the short fiction anthology Dangerous Women, and was edited by George R.R. Martin. Turner played mutant Jean Grey in X-Men: Apocalypse, which was released in May 2016 to mixed critical success. That same month, it was reported that she would appear in a segment of the anthology film Berlin, I Love You, itself the fourth instalment of the Cities of Love franchise.
In February 2017, she announced that she would reprise her role as Jean Grey in the new film X-Men: Dark Phoenix, which will take place in the early ' 90s and follow the events of X-Men: Apocalypse, as a part of the X-Men franchise. In the same interview she stated that production on the film will begin soon. In March 2017, she announced that she had become patron of Women for Women, an organisation which supports female war survivors. In August 2017, in an interview with Porter, Turner said that she believed her social media following was responsible for her successful casting in an unnamed project rather than her abilities as an actress. She said in the interview "it was between me and another girl who is a far better actress than I am, far better, but I had the followers, so I got the job. ''
Turner was first spotted with Joe Jonas in late November 2016. In October 2017, Turner announced her engagement to Jonas on Instagram.
In March 2017, she announced her involvement in the association Women for Women helping women survivors
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who scored the most goals in football career | List of men 's footballers with 500 or more goals - wikipedia
In top - level football, 28 players have scored 500 or more goals over the course of their career. According to research by the Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation. Only those who were active in the highest level football for all or most of their careers are considered. The ranking below takes into account goals scored in official matches played with national teams at all age levels and clubs in all divisions.
Unverified data is excluded from players ' data; goal and match totals may be higher. Players in bold are currently active; data is accurate as of the 30 October 2018.
Source: Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation
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what countrys drive on the left side of the road | List of countries with left - hand traffic - wikipedia
This is a list of 78 countries and territories with left - hand traffic.
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what country has a white flag with blue cross | Flags of Europe - wikipedia
This is a list of international, national and subnational flags used in Europe.
Stripes of red and white have been a collective emblem of Austria for over 800 years, and their first usage on the flag occurred in 1191. According to long established legend, the red and white flag was designed to resemble the bloodstained white coat worn by the Duke of Austria during a fierce battle.
The flag of Azerbaijan is the national ensign of Azerbaijan. It consists of three equal horizontal bands colored blue, red, and green, with a white crescent and an eight - pointed star are centered in the red band. The blue band refers to Turkic heritage, the red is for progress and Europeanisation and the green refers to Islam.
Black, gold and red are symbolic of the country 's coat of arms. The three striped vertical layout was inspired by the French Tricolour. Black and gold were chosen, being the colours of the Duchy of Brabant where the Belgian Revolution started. Red was added as a symbol of the blood spilled during the uprising.
The island is depicted in a copper shade representative of its name; the name Cyprus has roots in the Sumerian word for copper (zubar) from the large deposits of copper found on the island. The crossed green olive branches symbolise the hope for peace between the Turks and the Greeks. It was designed by İsmet Güney, a Turkish Cypriot painter.
Known as the Dannebrog ("Danish Cloth ''), this blood - red flag with an off - centred white cross (a "Scandinavian Cross '') became a model for other regional flags.
Blue represents loyalty, and the country 's beautiful blue skies, seas and lakes; black is symbolic of past oppression and the fertile soil; and white represents virtue, winter snows, and Estonia 's long struggle for freedom and independence.
The off - centred blue cross is based on the Scandinavian Cross, widely used on Scandinavian national flags. The blue colour is symbolic of blue skies, and the thousands of lakes in Finland. The white represents the winter snows.
The tricolore consists of three vertical bands of equal width, displaying the country 's national colours: blue, white, and red. The blue band is positioned nearest the flag - staff, the white in the middle, and the red on the outside. Red, white and blue have come to represent liberty, equality and fraternity -- the ideals of the French Revolution. Blue and red are also the time - honoured colours of Paris, while white is the colour of the Royal House of Bourbon.
The tricolour flag was designed in 1832, and the black, red, and gold colours were taken from the uniforms of German soldiers during the Napoleonic Wars (Out of the blackness (black) of servitude through bloody (red) battles to the golden (gold) light of freedom.) or taken from the coat of arms of Holy Roman Empire.
Features a white cross and a combination of nine, five blue (sky & sea) and four white (sea foam & clouds), horizontal stripes. The shade of blue has varied over the years, and darker blue (shown) is now commonly used. The cross is symbolic of the vision of Constantine i.e. a white cross in a blue sky. The alternating white and blue stripes represent the nine syllables of the phrase "Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος '' ("Freedom or Death ''), a popular motto of the struggle for independence of the Greek people.
The tricolour design is modelled after that of the flag of France. The colors are derived from the historical Hungarian coat of arms. Red is said to symbolise strength, white faithfulness, and green hope.
Modeled after the French tricolour, the colours of the Irish tricolour symbolises two communities. Green represents the Roman Catholic nationalist tradition. Orange represents the Protestant unionist community. White symbolises peace between both.
The design is adopted from a 13th - century chronicle where "red divided by white '' is said to be a Latvian flag. To differ from Austrian flag, the proportion 2: 1: 2 and "Latvian red '' color has been adopted.
Yellow is symbolic of the country 's wheat fields, green symbolic of the forests, and red symbolises patriotism. Collectively the colours represent hope for the future, freedom from oppression, and the courage of the Lithuanian people.
The flag uses a combination of red, white, and blue that date to the 13th century, and the Grand Duke 's coat of arms.
The flag uses the traditional red and white colours which pre-date those of the Knights of Malta and which Government emulate the arms of the former Universitas of Mdina. The George Cross (upper left), outlined in red, was added to the flag in the 1940s, as King George VI of the United Kingdom presented it to islanders for outstanding gallantry during World War II.
At one time this tricolour flag was orange, white, and blue, as those were the livery colours of William of Orange, a Dutch prince. In the 17th century, red replaced the orange as a flag colour, because the orange dye used on the flag was unstable, and turned red after exposure to the sun. It is the oldest tricolour flag still in national use and has influenced both the French (1794) and Russian flag (1693), both of these flags have in turn influenced many other European and African flags.
The colours red and white have long been associated with Poland and its coat of arms, at least since 3 May 1791.
The design is that of a rectangular bi-colour (2: 3 ratio) with a field vertically divided into two stripes of different width -- a green stripe on the hoist, and a larger red stripe on the fly. The minor version of the national coat of arms (armillary sphere and Portuguese shield) is entered over the boundary between the colours at equal distance from the upper and lower edges. The field colours, especially the green, originally represented a radical republican - inspired change that broke the bond with the former religious monarchical flag. In the ensuing decades, these colours were popularly propagandised as representing the hope of the nation (green) and the blood (red) of those who died defending it, as a means to endow them with a more patriotic and dignified, therefore less political, sentiment.
A vertical tricolour of bands of blue, yellow, and red of equal width and overall proportions of 2: 3 (height - width). It could be inspired by the French flag.
Red, white, and blue are traditional Pan-Slavic colours. The entered Slovakian arms features a dominant white cross atop a blue symbolic reference to the European country 's mountains.
Red, white, and blue are taken from the Carniolan coat of arms. The flag without the coat of arms was in use from 1848 to 1945. The Slovenian coat of arms features three gold stars, symbolizing the Counts of Celje. The mountains shown in white are representative of the Alps, and Mount Triglav, Slovenia 's national symbol, in particular; the wavy blue lines across the bottom indicate Slovenia 's access to the sea.
1981 --
The red and golden - yellow colours were used after that day with mere changes on the coat of arms (with the exception of the Spanish Second Republic) and are the original colours found within the coat of arms of the medieval kingdoms of Castile, Aragon and Navarre, first united by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile.
The off - centred yellow cross (The Scandinavian Cross) is taken from the Danish flag. The yellow and blue colours are taken from the national coat of arms.
The ' Union Jack ' merges the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England), edged in white, superimposed on the diagonal red cross of Saint Patrick (patron saint of Ireland), which are superimposed on the saltire of Saint Andrew (patron saint of Scotland). The flag of Wales, the other country of the United Kingdom, is not graphically represented.
Many states have separate civil and state versions of their flags; the state flags (listed) include the state arms, while the civil versions do n't. See Flags of German states.
Regional Law n. 1 of July 21, 1971
The flag is rectangular in form and is characterised by the presence of the Trinacria (triskelion) in the centre. It features a softened image of the winged - head of Medusa and three ears of wheat (replacing snakeheads) representing the island 's fertility. The three bent legs represent the island 's three capes or points, while in mythology it is said to represent good luck and prosperity. The background of the flag is divided by a diagonal from left to right, and is coloured gold (lower left) and red - orange (upper right). The colours represent the cities of Palermo and Corleone, respectively, the first two to found a confederation against the Angevin rule.
The white fleur - de-lys (lily) is a pun. It commemorates Cornelis Lely, designer of the original polders, essential to the province.
1983 --
Media related to Flags of Europe at Wikimedia Commons
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who teaches a bird to make a nest | Bird nest - wikipedia
A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young. Although the term popularly refers to a specific structure made by the bird itself -- such as the grassy cup nest of the American robin or Eurasian blackbird, or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the Montezuma oropendola or the village weaver -- that is too restrictive a definition. For some species, a nest is simply a shallow depression made in sand; for others, it is the knot - hole left by a broken branch, a burrow dug into the ground, a chamber drilled into a tree, an enormous rotting pile of vegetation and earth, a shelf made of dried saliva or a mud dome with an entrance tunnel. The smallest bird nests are those of some hummingbirds, tiny cups which can be a mere 2 cm (0.79 in) across and 2 -- 3 cm (0.79 -- 1.18 in) high. At the other extreme, some nest mounds built by the dusky scrubfowl measure more than 11 m (36 ft) in diameter and stand nearly 5 m (16 ft) tall.
Not all bird species build nests. Some species lay their eggs directly on the ground or rocky ledges, while brood parasites lay theirs in the nests of other birds, letting unwitting "foster parents '' do all the work of rearing the young. Although nests are primarily used for breeding, they may also be reused in the non-breeding season for roosting and some species build special dormitory nests or roost nests (or winter - nest) that are used only for roosting. Most birds build a new nest each year, though some refurbish their old nests. The large eyries (or aeries) of some eagles are platform nests that have been used and refurbished for several years.
In most species, the female does most or all of the nest construction, though the male often helps. In some polygynous species, however, the male does most or all of the nest building. The nest may also form a part of the courtship display such as in weaver birds. The ability to choose and maintain good nest sites and build high quality nests may be selected for by females in these species. In some species the young from previous broods may also act as helpers for the adults.
Not every bird species builds or uses a nest. Some auks, for instance -- including common murre, thick - billed murre and razorbill -- lay their eggs directly onto the narrow rocky ledges they use as breeding sites. The eggs of these species are dramatically pointed at one end, so that they roll in a circle when disturbed. This is critical for the survival of the developing eggs, as there are no nests to keep them from rolling off the side of the cliff. Presumably because of the vulnerability of their unprotected eggs, parent birds of these auk species rarely leave them unattended. Nest location and architecture is strongly influenced by local topography and other abiotic factors.
King penguins and emperor penguins also do not build nests; instead, they tuck their eggs and chicks between their feet and folds of skin on their lower bellies. They are thus able to move about while incubating, though in practice only the emperor penguin regularly does so. Emperor penguins breed during the harshest months of the Antarctic winter, and their mobility allows them to form huge huddled masses which help them to withstand the extremely high winds and low temperatures of the season. Without the ability to share body heat (temperatures in the centre of tight groups can be as much as 10C above the ambient air temperature), the penguins would expend far more energy trying to stay warm, and breeding attempts would probably fail.
Some crevice - nesting species, including ashy storm - petrel, pigeon guillemot, Eurasian eagle - owl and Hume 's tawny owl, lay their eggs in the relative shelter of a crevice in the rocks or a gap between boulders, but provide no additional nest material. Potoos lay their single egg directly atop a broken stump, or into a shallow depression on a branch -- typically where an upward - pointing branch died and fell off, leaving a small scar or knot - hole. Brood parasites, such as the New World cowbirds, the honeyguides, and many of the Old World and Australasian cuckoos, lay their eggs in the active nests of other species.
The simplest nest construction is the scrape, which is merely a shallow depression in soil or vegetation. This nest type, which typically has a rim deep enough to keep the eggs from rolling away, is sometimes lined with bits of vegetation, small stones, shell fragments or feathers. These materials may help to camouflage the eggs or may provide some level of insulation; they may also help to keep the eggs in place, and prevent them from sinking into muddy or sandy soil if the nest is accidentally flooded. Ostriches, most tinamous, many ducks, most shorebirds, most terns, some falcons, pheasants, quail, partridges, bustards and sandgrouse are among the species that build scrape nests.
Eggs and young in scrape nests, and the adults that brood them, are more exposed to predators and the elements than those in more sheltered nests; they are on the ground and typically in the open, with little to hide them. The eggs of most ground - nesting birds (including those that use scrape nests) are cryptically coloured to help camouflage them when the adult is not covering them; the actual colour generally corresponds to the substrate on which they are laid. Brooding adults also tend to be well camouflaged, and may be difficult to flush from the nest. Most ground - nesting species have well - developed distraction displays, which are used to draw (or drive) potential predators from the area around the nest. Most species with this type of nest have precocial young, which quickly leave the nest upon hatching.
In cool climates (such as in the high Arctic or at high elevations), the depth of a scrape nest can be critical to both the survival of developing eggs and the fitness of the parent bird incubating them. The scrape must be deep enough that eggs are protected from the convective cooling caused by cold winds, but shallow enough that they and the parent bird are not too exposed to the cooling influences of ground temperatures, particularly where the permafrost layer rises to mere centimeters below the nest. Studies have shown that an egg within a scrape nest loses heat 9 % more slowly than an egg placed on the ground beside the nest; in such a nest lined with natural vegetation, heat loss is reduced by an additional 25 %. The insulating factor of nest lining is apparently so critical to egg survival that some species, including Kentish plovers, will restore experimentally altered levels of insulation to their pre-adjustment levels (adding or subtracting material as necessary) within 24 hours.
In warm climates, such as deserts and salt flats, heat rather than cold can kill the developing embryos. In such places, scrapes are shallower and tend to be lined with non-vegetative material (including shells, feathers, sticks and soil), which allows convective cooling to occur as air moves over the eggs. Some species, such as the lesser nighthawk and the red - tailed tropicbird, help reduce the nest 's temperature by placing it in partial or full shade. Others, including some shorebirds, cast shade with their bodies as they stand over their eggs. Some shorebirds also soak their breast feathers with water and then sit on the eggs, providing moisture to enable evaporative cooling. Parent birds keep from overheating themselves by gular panting while they are incubating, frequently exchanging incubation duties, and standing in water when they are not incubating.
The technique used to construct a scrape nest varies slightly depending on the species. Beach - nesting terns, for instance, fashion their nests by rocking their bodies on the sand in the place they have chosen to site their nest, while skimmers build their scrapes with their feet, kicking sand backwards while resting on their bellies and turning slowly in circles. The ostrich also scratches out its scrape with its feet, though it stands while doing so. Many tinamous lay their eggs on a shallow mat of dead leaves they have collected and placed under bushes or between the root buttresses of trees, and kagus lay theirs on a pile of dead leaves against a log, tree trunk or vegetation. Marbled godwits stomp a grassy area flat with their feet, then lay their eggs, while other grass - nesting waders bend vegetation over their nests so as to avoid detection from above. Many female ducks, particularly in the northern latitudes, line their shallow scrape nests with down feathers plucked from their own breasts, as well as with small amounts of vegetation. Among scrape - nesting birds, the three - banded courser and Egyptian plover are unique in their habit of partially burying their eggs in the sand of their scrapes.
Burying eggs as a form of incubation reaches its zenith with the Australasian megapodes. Several megapode species construct enormous mound nests made of soil, branches, sticks, twigs and leaves, and lay their eggs within the rotting mass. The heat generated by these mounds, which are in effect giant compost heaps, warms and incubates the eggs. The nest heat results from the respiration of thermophilic fungi and other microorganisms. The size of some of these mounds can be truly staggering; several of the largest -- which contain more than 100 cubic metres (130 cu yd) of material, and probably weigh more than 50 tons (45,000 kg) -- were initially thought to be Aboriginal middens.
In most mound - building species, males do most or all of the nest construction and maintenance. Using his strong legs and feet, the male scrapes together material from the area around his chosen nest site, gradually building a conical or bell - shaped pile. This process can take five to seven hours a day for more than a month. While mounds are typically reused for multiple breeding seasons, new material must be added each year in order to generate the appropriate amount of heat. A female will begin to lay eggs in the nest only when the mound 's temperature has reached an optimal level.
Both the temperature and the moisture content of the mound are critical to the survival and development of the eggs, so both are carefully regulated for the entire length of the breeding season (which may last for as long as eight months), principally by the male. Ornithologists believe that megapodes may use sensitive areas in their mouths to assess mound temperatures; each day during the breeding season, the male digs a pit into his mound and sticks his head in. If the mound 's core temperature is a bit low, he adds fresh moist material to the mound, and stirs it in; if it is too high, he opens the top of the mound to allow some of the excess heat to escape. This regular monitoring also keeps the mound 's material from becoming compacted, which would inhibit oxygen diffusion to the eggs and make it more difficult for the chicks to emerge after hatching. The malleefowl, which lives in more open forest than do other megapodes, uses the sun to help warm its nest as well -- opening the mound at midday during the cool spring and autumn months to expose the plentiful sand incorporated into the nest to the sun 's warming rays, then using that warm sand to insulate the eggs during the cold nights. During hot summer months, the malleefowl opens its nest mound only in the cool early morning hours, allowing excess heat to escape before recovering the mound completely. One recent study showed that the sex ratio of Australian brushturkey hatchlings correlated strongly with mound temperatures; females hatched from eggs incubated at higher mean temperatures.
Flamingos make a different type of mound nest. Using their beaks to pull material towards them, they fashion a cone - shaped pile of mud between 15 -- 46 cm (6 -- 18 in) tall, with a small depression in the top to house their single egg. The height of the nest varies with the substrate upon which it is built; those on clay sites are taller on average than those on dry or sandy sites. The height of the nest and the circular, often water - filled trench which surrounds it (the result of the removal of material for the nest) help to protect the egg from fluctuating water levels and excessive heat at ground level. In East Africa, for example, temperatures at the top of the nest mound average some 20 ° C (40 ° F) cooler than those of the surrounding ground.
The base of the horned coot 's enormous nest is a mound built of stones, gathered one at a time by the pair, using their beaks. These stones, which may weigh as much as 450 g (about a pound) each, are dropped into the shallow water of a lake, making a cone - shaped pile which can measure as much as 4 m (43 sq ft) at the bottom and 1 m (11 sq ft) at the top, and 0.6 m (2.0 ft) in height. The total combined weight of the mound 's stones may approach 1.5 tons (1,400 kg). Once the mound has been completed, a sizable platform of aquatic vegetation is constructed on top. The entire structure is typically reused for many years.
Soil plays a different role in the burrow nest; here, the eggs and young -- and in most cases the incubating parent bird -- are sheltered under the earth. Most burrow - nesting birds excavate their own burrows, but some use those excavated by other species and are known as secondary nesters; burrowing owls, for example, sometimes use the burrows of prairie dogs, ground squirrels, badgers or tortoises, China 's endemic white - browed tits use the holes of ground - nesting rodents and common kingfishers occasionally nest in rabbit burrows. Burrow nests are particularly common among seabirds at high latitudes, as they provide protection against both cold temperatures and predators. Puffins, shearwaters, some megapodes, motmots, todies, most kingfishers, the crab plover, miners and leaftossers are among the species which use burrow nests.
Most burrow nesting species dig a horizontal tunnel into a vertical (or nearly vertical) dirt cliff, with a chamber at the tunnel 's end to house the eggs. The length of the tunnel varies depending on the substrate and the species; sand martins make relatively short tunnels ranging from 50 -- 90 cm (20 -- 35 in), for example, while those of the burrowing parakeet can extend for more than three meters (nearly 10 ft). Some species, including the ground - nesting puffbirds, prefer flat or gently sloping land, digging their entrance tunnels into the ground at an angle. In a more extreme example, the D'Arnaud's barbet digs a vertical tunnel shaft more than a meter (39 in) deep, with its nest chamber excavated off to the side at some height above the shaft 's bottom; this arrangement helps to keep the nest from being flooded during heavy rain. Buff - breasted paradise - kingfishers dig their nests into the compacted mud of active termite mounds, either on the ground or in trees. Specific soil types may favour certain species and it is speculated that several species of bee - eater favor loess soils which are easy to penetrate.
Birds use a combination of their beaks and feet to excavate burrow nests. The tunnel is started with the beak; the bird either probes at the ground to create a depression, or flies toward its chosen nest site on a cliff wall and hits it with its bill. The latter method is not without its dangers; there are reports of kingfishers being fatally injured in such attempts. Some birds remove tunnel material with their bills, while others use their bodies or shovel the dirt out with one or both feet. Female paradise - kingfishers are known to use their long tails to clear the loose soil.
Some crepuscular petrels and prions are able to identify their own burrows within dense colonies by smell. Sand martins learn the location of their nest within a colony, and will accept any chick put into that nest until right before the young fledge.
Not all burrow - nesting species incubate their young directly. Some megapode species bury their eggs in sandy pits dug where sunlight, subterranean volcanic activity, or decaying tree roots will warm the eggs. The crab plover also uses a burrow nest, the warmth of which allows it to leave the eggs unattended for as long as 58 hours.
Predation levels on some burrow - nesting species can be quite high; on Alaska 's Wooded Islands, for example, river otters munched their way through some 23 percent of the island 's fork - tailed storm - petrel population during a single breeding season in 1977. There is some evidence that increased vulnerability may lead some burrow - nesting species to form colonies, or to nest closer to rival pairs in areas of high predation than they might otherwise do.
The cavity nest is a chamber, typically in living or dead wood, but sometimes in the trunks of tree ferns or large cacti, including saguaro. In tropical areas, cavities are sometimes excavated in arboreal insect nests. A relatively small number of species, including woodpeckers, trogons, some nuthatches and many barbets, can excavate their own cavities. Far more species -- including parrots, tits, bluebirds, most hornbills, some kingfishers, some owls, some ducks and some flycatchers -- use natural cavities, or those abandoned by species able to excavate them; they also sometimes usurp cavity nests from their excavating owners. Those species that excavate their own cavities are known as "primary cavity nesters '', while those that use natural cavities or those excavated by other species are called "secondary cavity nesters ''. Both primary and secondary cavity nesters can be enticed to use nest boxes (also known as bird houses); these mimic natural cavities, and can be critical to the survival of species in areas where natural cavities are lacking.
Woodpeckers use their chisel - like bills to excavate their cavity nests, a process which takes, on average, about two weeks. Cavities are normally excavated on the downward - facing side of a branch, presumably to make it more difficult for predators to access the nest, and to reduce the chance that rain floods the nest. There is also some evidence that fungal rot may make the wood on the underside of leaning trunks and branches easier to excavate. Most woodpeckers use a cavity for only a single year. The endangered red - cockaded woodpecker is an exception; it takes far longer -- up to two years -- to excavate its nest cavity, and may reuse it for more than two decades. The typical woodpecker nest has a short horizontal tunnel which leads to a vertical chamber within the trunk. The size and shape of the chamber depends on species, and the entrance hole is typically only as large as is needed to allow access for the adult birds. While wood chips are removed during the excavation process, most species line the floor of the cavity with a fresh bed of them before laying their eggs.
Trogons excavate their nests by chewing cavities into very soft dead wood; some species make completely enclosed chambers (accessed by upward - slanting entrance tunnels), while others -- like the extravagantly plumed resplendent quetzal -- construct more open niches. In most trogon species, both sexes help with nest construction. The process may take several months, and a single pair may start several excavations before finding a tree or stump with wood of the right consistency.
Species which use natural cavities or old woodpecker nests sometimes line the cavity with soft material such as grass, moss, lichen, feathers or fur. Though a number of studies have attempted to determine whether secondary cavity nesters preferentially choose cavities with entrance holes facing certain directions, the results remain inconclusive. While some species appear to preferentially choose holes with certain orientations, studies (to date) have not shown consistent differences in fledging rates between nests oriented in different directions.
Cavity - dwelling species have to contend with the danger of predators accessing their nest, catching them and their young inside and unable to get out. They have a variety of methods for decreasing the likelihood of this happening. Red - cockaded woodpeckers peel bark around the entrance, and drill wells above and below the hole; since they nest in live trees, the resulting flow of resin forms a barrier that prevents snakes from reaching the nests. Red - breasted nuthatches smear sap around the entrance holes to their nests, while white - breasted nuthatches rub foul - smelling insects around theirs. Eurasian nuthatches wall up part of their entrance holes with mud, decreasing the size and sometimes extending the tunnel part of the chamber. Most female hornbills seal themselves into their cavity nests, using a combination of mud (in some species brought by their mates), food remains and their own droppings to reduce the entrance hole to a narrow slit.
The cup nest is smoothly hemispherical inside, with a deep depression to house the eggs. Most are made of pliable materials -- including grasses -- though a small number are made of mud or saliva. Many passerines and a few non-passerines, including some hummingbirds and some swifts, build this type of nest.
Small bird species in more than 20 passerine families, and a few non-passerines -- including most hummingbirds, kinglets and crests in the genus Regulus, some tyrant flycatchers and several New World warblers -- use considerable amounts of spider silk in the construction of their nests. The lightweight material is strong and extremely flexible, allowing the nest to mold to the adult during incubation (reducing heat loss), then to stretch to accommodate the growing nestlings; as it is sticky, it also helps to bind the nest to the branch or leaf to which it is attached.
Many swifts and some hummingbirds use thick, quick - drying saliva to anchor their nests. The chimney swift starts by dabbing two globs of saliva onto the wall of a chimney or tree trunk. In flight, it breaks a small twig from a tree and presses it into the saliva, angling the twig downwards so that the central part of the nest is the lowest. It continues adding globs of saliva and twigs until it has made a crescent - shaped cup.
Cup - shaped nest insulation has been found to be related to nest mass, nest wall thickness, nest depth, nest weave density / porosity, surface area, height above ground and elevation above sea level.
More recently, nest insulation has been found to be related to the mass of the incubating parent. This is known as an allometric relationship. Nest walls are constructed with an adequate quantity of nesting material so that the nest will be capable of supporting the contents of the nest. Nest thickness, nest mass and nest dimensions therefore correlate with the mass of the adult bird. The flow - on consequence of this is that nest insulation is also related to parent mass.
The saucer or plate nest, though superficially similar to a cup nest, has at most only a shallow depression to house the eggs.
The platform nest is a large structure, often many times the size of the (typically large) bird which has built it. Depending on the species, these nests can be on the ground or elevated. In the case of raptor nests, or eyries (also spelt aerie), these are often used for many years, with new material added each breeding season. In some cases, the nests grow large enough to cause structural damage to the tree itself, particularly during bad storms where the weight of the nest can cause additional stress on wind - tossed branches.
The pendant nest is an elongated sac woven of pliable materials such as grasses and plant fibers and suspended from a branch. Oropendolas, caciques, orioles, weavers and sunbirds are among the species that weave pendant nests.
The sphere nest is a roundish structure; it is completely enclosed, except for a small opening which allows access.
Many species of bird conceal their nests to protect them from predators. Some species may choose nest sites that are inaccessible or build the nest so as to deter predators. Bird nests can also act as habitats for other inquiline species which may not affect the bird directly. Birds have also evolved nest sanitation measures to reduce the effects of parasites and pathogens on nestlings.
Some aquatic species such as grebes are very careful when approaching and leaving the nest so as not to reveal the location. Some species will use leaves to cover up the nest prior to leaving.
Ground birds such as plovers may use broken wing or rodent run displays to distract predators from nests.
Many species attack predators or apparent predators near their nests. Kingbirds attack other birds that come too close. In North America, northern mockingbirds, blue jays, and Arctic terns can peck hard enough to draw blood. In Australia, a bird attacking a person near its nest is said to swoop the person. The Australian magpie is particularly well known for this behavior.
Nests can become home to many other organisms including parasites and pathogens. The excreta of the fledglings also pose a problem. In most passerines, the adults actively dispose the fecal sacs of young at a distance or consume them. This is believed to help prevent ground predators from detecting nests. Young birds of prey however usually void their excreta beyond the rims of their nests. Blowflies of the genus Protocalliphora have specialized to become obligate nest parasites with the maggots feeding on the blood of nestlings.
Some birds have been shown to choose aromatic green plant material for constructing nests that may have insecticidal properties, while others may use materials such as carnivore scat to repel smaller predators.
Some birds use pieces of snake slough in their nests. It has been suggested that these may deter some nest predators such as squirrels.
Though most birds nest individually, some species -- including seabirds, penguins, flamingos, many herons, gulls, terns, weaver, some corvids and some sparrows -- gather together in sizeable colonies. Birds that nest colonially may benefit from increased protection against predation. They may also be able to better utilize food supplies, by following more successful foragers to their foraging sites.
Many birds nest close to human habitations and some have been specially encouraged. Nesting white storks have been protected and held in reverence in many cultures. Nest boxes are often used to encourage cavity nesting birds. The nesting of peregrine falcons on tall buildings has captured popular interest. Colonial breeders produce guano which is a valuable fertilizer. The saliva nest of the edible - nest swiftlet is used to make bird 's nest soup, long considered a delicacy in China. Collection of the swiftlet nests is big business: in one year, more than 3.5 million nests were exported from Borneo to China, and the industry was estimated at $1 billion US per year (and increasing) in 2008. While the collection is regulated in some areas (at the Gomantong Caves, for example, where nests can be collected only from February to April or July to September), it is not in others, and the swiftlets are declining in areas where the harvest reaches unsustainable levels.
Some species of birds are also considered nuisances when they nest in the proximity of human habitations. Feral pigeons are often unwelcome and sometimes also considered as a health risk.
The Beijing National Stadium, principal venue of the 2008 Summer Olympics, has been nicknamed "The Bird Nest '' because of its architectural design, which its designers likened to a bird 's woven nest.
In the Victorian era, naturalists often collected bird 's eggs and their nests. The study of bird nests is called caliology.
Bird nests are also built by humans to help in the conservation of certain birds (such as swallows). Swallow nests are generally built with plaster, wood, terracotta or stucco.
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when did the united states get their independence | History of the United states (1776 -- 89) - wikipedia
Between 1776 and 1789, the United States of America emerged as an independent country, creating and ratifying its new constitution and establishing its national government. In order to assert their traditional rights, American Patriots seized control of the colonies and launched a war for independence. The Americans declared independence on July 4, 1776, proclaiming "all men are created equal ''. Congress raised the Continental Army under the command of General George Washington, forged a military alliance with France and defeated the two main British invasion armies. Nationalists replaced the governing Articles of Confederation to strengthen the federal government 's powers of defense and taxation with the Constitution of the United States of America in 1789, still in effect today.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the British colonies in America had been largely left to their own devices by the crown; it was called salutary neglect. The colonies were thus largely self - governing; half the white men in America could vote, compared to one percent in Britain. They developed their own political identities and systems which were in many ways separate from those in Britain. This new ideology was a decidedly republican political viewpoint, which rejected royalty, aristocracy, and corruption and called for sovereignty of the people and emphasized civic duty. In 1763 with British victory in the French and Indian War, this period of isolation came to an end with the Stamp Act of 1765. The British government began to impose taxes in a way that deliberately provoked the Americans, who complained that they were alien to the unwritten English Constitution because Americans were not represented in parliament. Parliament said the Americans were "virtually '' represented and had no grounds for complaint. From the Stamp Act of 1765 onward, disputes with London escalated. By 1772 the colonists began the transfer of political legitimacy to their own hands and started to form shadow governments built on committees of correspondence that coordinated protest and resistance. They called the First Continental Congress in 1774 to inaugurate a trade boycott against Britain. Thirteen colonies were represented at the Congress. The other British colonies were under tight British control and did not rebel.
When resistance in Boston culminated in the Boston Tea Party in 1773 with the dumping of taxed tea shipments into the harbor, London imposed the Intolerable Acts on the colony of Massachusetts, ended self - government, and sent in the Army to take control. The Patriots in Massachusetts and the other colonies readied their militias and prepared to fight.
General Washington assumed five main roles during the war.
First, he designed the overall strategy of the war, in cooperation with Congress. The goal was always independence. When France entered the war, he worked closely with the soldiers it sent -- they were decisive in the great victory at Yorktown in 1781.
Second, he provided leadership of troops against the main British forces in 1775 -- 77 and again in 1781. He lost many of his battles, but he never surrendered his army during the war, and he continued to fight the British relentlessly until the war 's end. Washington worked hard to develop a successful espionage system to detect British locations and plans. In 1778, he formed the Culper Ring to spy on the British movements in New York City. In 1780 it discovered Benedict Arnold was a traitor.
Third, he was charged selecting and guiding the generals. In June 1776, Congress made its first attempt at running the war effort with the committee known as "Board of War and Ordnance '', succeeded by the Board of War in July 1777, a committee which eventually included members of the military. The command structure of the armed forces was a hodgepodge of Congressional appointees (and Congress sometimes made those appointments without Washington 's input) with state - appointments filling the lower ranks. The results of his general staff were mixed, as some of his favorites never mastered the art of command, such as John Sullivan. Eventually, he found capable officers such as Nathanael Greene, Daniel Morgan, Henry Knox (chief of artillery), and Alexander Hamilton (chief of staff). The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Yorktown (1781) came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops.
Fourth he took charge of training the army and providing supplies, from food to gunpowder to tents... He recruited regulars and assigned Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff, to train them. He transformed Washington 's army into a disciplined and effective force. The war effort and getting supplies to the troops were under the purview of Congress, but Washington pressured the Congress to provide the essentials. There was never nearly enough.
Washington 's fifth and most important role in the war effort was the embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown, serving as the representative man of the Revolution. His long - term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times, and eventually this strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal. Furthermore, he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won, rather than declaring himself monarch. He also helped to overcome the distrust of a standing army by his constant reiteration that well - disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as poorly trained and led militias.
On April 19, 1775, the royal military governor sent a detachment of troops to seize gunpowder and arrest local leaders in Concord. At Lexington, Massachusetts, shots broke out with the Lexington militia, leaving eight colonists dead. The British failed to find their targets in Concord, and as they retreated back to Boston, the British came under continuous assault by upwards of 3,800 militia who had prepared an ambush. The Battle of Lexington and Concord ignited the American Revolutionary War. As news spread, local shadow governments (called "committees of correspondence '') in each of the 13 colonies drove out royal officials and sent militiamen to Boston to besiege the British there.
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the aftermath of armed clashes in April. With all thirteen colonies represented, it immediately began to organize itself as a central government with control over the army and diplomacy and instructed the colonies to write constitutions for themselves as states. On June 1775, George Washington, a charismatic Virginia political leader with combat experience was unanimously appointed commander of a newly organized Continental Army. He took command in Boston and sent for artillery to barrage the British. In every state, a minority professed loyalty to the King, but nowhere did they have power. These Loyalists were kept under close watch by standing Committees of Safety created by the Provincial Congresses. The unwritten rule was such people could remain silent, but vocal or financial or military support for the King would not be tolerated. The estates of outspoken Loyalists were seized; they fled to British - controlled territory, especially New York City.
During the winter of 1775 -- 76, an attempt by the Patriots to capture Quebec failed, and the buildup of British forces at Halifax, Nova Scotia, precluded that colony from joining the 13 colonies. The Americans were able to capture a British fort at Ticonderoga, New York, and to drag its cannon over the snow to the outskirts of Boston. The appearance of troops and a cannon on Dorchester Heights outside Boston led the British Army to evacuate the city on March 17, 1776.
On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, still meeting in Philadelphia, voted unanimously to declare the independence as the "United States of America ''. Two days later, on July 4, Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. The drafting of the Declaration was the responsibility of a Committee of Five, which included, among others, John Adams and Benjamin Franklin; it was drafted by Thomas Jefferson and revised by the others and the Congress as a whole. It contended that "all men are created equal '' with "certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '', and that "to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed '', as well as listing the main colonial grievances against the crown. July 4 ever since has been celebrated as the birthday of the United States.
The British returned in force in August 1776, landing in New York and defeating the fledgling Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island in one of the largest engagements of the war. They quickly seized New York City and nearly captured General Washington and his army. The British made the city their main political and military base of operations in North America, holding it until late 1783. Patriot evacuation and British military occupation made the city the destination for Loyalist refugees, and a focal point of Washington 's intelligence network. The British soon seized New Jersey, and American fortunes looked dim; Thomas Paine proclaimed "these are the times that try men 's souls ''. But Washington struck back in a surprise attack, crossing the icy Delaware River into New Jersey and defeated British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby regaining New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to Patriots at a time when morale was flagging, and have become iconic images of the war.
In early 1777, a grand British strategic plan, the Saratoga Campaign, was drafted in London. The plan called for two British armies to converge on Albany, New York from the north and south, dividing the colonies in two and separating New England from the rest. Failed communications and poor planning resulted in the army descending from Canada, commanded by General John Burgoyne, bogging down in dense forest north of Albany. Meanwhile, the British Army that was supposed to advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne went instead to Philadelphia, in a vain attempt to end the war by capturing the American capital city. Burgoyne 's army was overwhelmed at Saratoga by a swarming of local militia, spearheaded by a cadre of American regulars. The battle showed the British, who had until then considered the colonials a ragtag mob that could easily be dispersed, that the Americans had the strength and determination to fight on. Said one British officer:
The courage and obstinacy with which the Americans fought were the astonishment of everyone, and we now became fully convinced that they are not that contemptible enemy we had hitherto imagined them, incapable of standing a regular engagement, and that they would only fight behind strong and powerful works.
The American victory at Saratoga led the French into an open military alliance with the United States through the Treaty of Alliance (1778). France was soon joined by Spain and the Netherlands, both major naval powers with an interest in undermining British strength. Britain now faced a major European war, and the involvement of the French navy neutralized their previous dominance of the war on the sea. Britain was without allies and faced the prospect of invasion across the English Channel.
With the British in control of most northern coastal cities and Patriot forces in control of the hinterlands, the British attempted to force a result by a campaign to seize the southern states. With limited regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders realized that success depended on a large - scale mobilization of Loyalists.
In late December 1778, the British had captured Savannah. In 1780 they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston as well. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that the invaders soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping the Loyalists would rally to the flag. Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to move out. They fought their way north into North Carolina and Virginia, with a severely weakened army. Behind them, much of the territory they left dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, as the bands of Loyalists, one by one, were overwhelmed by the patriots.
The British army under Lord Cornwallis marched to Yorktown, Virginia where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet. When that fleet was defeated by a French fleet, however, they were trapped, and were surrounded by a much stronger force of Americans and French under Washington 's command. On October 1781, Cornwallis surrendered.
News of the defeat effectively ended the fighting in America, although the naval war continued. Support for the conflict had never been strong in Britain, where many sympathized with the rebels, but now it reached a new low. King George III personally wanted to fight on, but he lost control of Parliament, and had to agree to peace negotiations.
Long negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Paris (1783), which provided highly favorable boundaries for the United States; it included nearly all land east of the Mississippi River and south of Canada, except British West Florida, which was awarded to Spain. Encompassing a vast region nearly as large as Western Europe, the western territories contained a few thousand American pioneers and tens of thousands of Indians, most of whom had been allied to the British but were now abandoned by London.
Every nation constructs and honors the memory of its founding, and following generations use it to establish its identity and define patriotism. The memory of the Founding and the Revolution has long been used as a political weapon. For example, the right - wing "Tea Party movement '' of the 21st century explicitly memorialized the Boston Tea Party as a protest against intrusive government.
The Patriot reliance on Catholic France for military, financial and diplomatic aid led to a sharp drop in anti-Catholic rhetoric. Indeed the king replaced the pope as the demon patriots had to fight against. Anti-Catholicism remained strong among Loyalists, some of whom went to Canada after the war while 80 % remained in the new nation. By the 1780s, Catholics were extended legal toleration in all of the New England states that previously had been so hostile. "In the midst of war and crisis, New Englanders gave up not only their allegiance to Britain but one of their most dearly held prejudices. ''
Historians have portrayed the Revolution became the main source of the non-denominational "American civil religion '' that has shaped patriotism, and the memory and meaning of the nation 's birth ever since. Key events and people were viewed as icons of fundamental virtues. Thus the Revolution produced a Moses - like leader (George Washington), prophets (Thomas Jefferson, Tom Paine), disciples (Alexander Hamilton, James Madison) and martyrs (Boston Massacre, Nathan Hale), as well as devils (Benedict Arnold). There are sacred places (Valley Forge, Bunker Hill), rituals (Boston Tea Party), emblems (the new flag), sacred days (Independence Day), and sacred scriptures whose every sentence is carefully studied (The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights).
During the 1780s, the nation was a loose confederation of 13 states and was beset with a wide array of foreign and domestic problems. The states engaged in small scale trade wars against each other, and they had difficulty suppressing insurrections such as Shays Rebellion in Massachusetts. The treasury was empty and there was no way to pay the war debts. There was no national executive authority. The world was at peace and the economy flourished. Some historians depict a bleak challenging time for the new nation. Merrill Jensen and others say the term "Critical Period '' is exaggerated, and that it was also a time of economic growth and political maturation.
The Treaty of Paris left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Second Continental Congress had drawn up Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, to regularize its own status. These described a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress -- the only federal institution -- little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president and no judiciary.
Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast - growing nation together, they do give Congress credit for resolving the conflict between the states over ownership of the western territories. The states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states, the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and provided the basis for the rest of American continental expansion through the 19th Century.
By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilist policies of the European powers. Before the war the Americans had shipped food and other products to the British colonies in the Caribbean, but now these ports were closed, since only British ships could trade there. France and Spain had similar policies for their empires. The former imposed restrictions on imports of New England fish and Chesapeake tobacco. New Orleans was closed by the Spanish, hampering settlement of the West, although it did n't stop frontiersmen from pouring west in great numbers. Simultaneously, American manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. The inability of the Congress to redeem the currency or the public debts incurred during the war, or to facilitate trade and financial links among the states aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786 -- 87, Shays 's Rebellion, an uprising of farmers in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government and the Congress was powerless to help.
The Continental Congress did have power to print paper money; it printed so much that its value plunged until the expression "not worth a continental '' was used for some worthless item. Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the states, which did not respond generously. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the states had been asked for two million in 1783 alone. In 1785, Alexander Hamilton issued a curt statement that the Treasury had received absolutely no taxes from New York for the year.
States handled their debts with varying levels of success. The South for the most part refused to pay its debts off, which was damaging to local banks, but Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia fared well due to their production of cash crops such as cotton and tobacco. South Carolina would have done the same except for a series of crop failures. Maryland suffered from financial chaos and political infighting. New York and Pennsylvania fared well, although the latter also suffered from political quarrels. New Jersey, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Connecticut struggled. Massachusetts was in a state of virtual civil war (see above) and suffered from high taxes and the decline of its economy. Rhode Island alone among the New England states prospered and mostly because of its notorious harboring of pirates and smugglers.
When Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the states to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the states themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each state acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.
By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.
The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington 's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like - minded nationalists, won Washington 's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long - term crisis.
Congress, meeting in New York, called on each state to send delegates to a Constitutional Convention, meeting in Philadelphia. While the stated purpose of the convention was to amend the Articles of Confederation, many delegates, including James Madison and George Washington, wanted to use it to craft a new constitution for the United States. The Convention convened in May 1787 and the delegates immediately selected Washington to preside over them. Madison soon proved the driving force behind the Convention, engineering the compromises necessary to create a government that was both strong and acceptable to all of the states. The Constitution, proposed by the Convention, called for a federal government -- limited in scope but independent of and superior to the states -- within its assigned role able to tax and equipped with both Executive and Judicial branches as well as a two house legislature. The national legislature -- or Congress -- envisioned by the Convention embodied the key compromise of the Convention between the small states which wanted to retain the power they had under the one state / one vote Congress of the Articles of Confederation and the large states which wanted the weight of their larger populations and wealth to have a proportionate share of power. The upper House -- the Senate -- would represent the states equally, while the House of Representatives would be elected from districts of approximately equal population.
The Constitution itself called for ratification by state conventions specially elected for the purpose, and the Confederation Congress recommended the Constitution to the states, asking that ratification conventions be called.
Several of the smaller states, led by Delaware, embraced the Constitution with little reservation. But in the most populous two states, New York and Virginia, the matter became one of controversy. Virginia had been the first successful British colony in North America, had a large population, and its political leadership had played prominent roles in the Revolution. New York was likewise large and populous; with the best situated and sited port on the coast, the state was essential for the success of the United States. Local New York politics were tightly controlled by a parochial elite led by Governor George Clinton, and local political leaders did not want to share their power with the national politicians. The New York ratification convention became the focus for a struggle over the wisdom of adopting the Constitution.
Those who advocated the Constitution took the name Federalists and quickly gained supporters throughout the nation. The most influential Federalists were Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, the anonymous authors of The Federalist Papers, a series of 85 essays published in New York newspapers, under the pen name "Publius ''. The papers became seminal documents for the new United States and have often been cited by jurists. These were written to sway the closely divided New York legislature.
Opponents of the plan for stronger government, the Anti-Federalists, feared that a government with the power to tax would soon become as despotic and corrupt as Great Britain had been only decades earlier. The most notable Anti-federalist writers included Patrick Henry and George Mason, who demanded a Bill of Rights in the Constitution.
The Federalists gained a great deal of prestige and advantage from the approval of George Washington, who had chaired the Constitutional Convention. Thomas Jefferson, serving as Minister to France at the time, had reservations about the proposed Constitution. He resolved to remain neutral in the debate and to accept either outcome.
Promises of a Bill of Rights from Madison secured ratification in Virginia, while in New York, the Clintons, who controlled New York politics, found themselves outmaneuvered as Hamilton secured ratification by a 30 -- 27 vote. North Carolina and Rhode Island eventually signed on to make it unanimous among the 13 states.
The old Confederation Congress now set elections to the new Congress as well as the first presidential election. The electoral college unanimously chose Washington as first President; John Adams became the first Vice President. New York was designated as the national capital; they were inaugurated in April 1789 at Federal Hall.
Under the leadership of Madison, the first Congress set up all the necessary government agencies, and made good on the Federalist pledge of a Bill of Rights. The new government at first had no political parties. Alexander Hamilton in 1790 -- 92 created a national network of friends of the government that became the Federalist party; it controlled the national government until 1801.
However, there continued to be a strong sentiment in favor of states ' rights and a limited federal government. This became the platform of a new party, the Republican or Democratic - Republican Party, which assumed the role of opposition to the Federalists. Jefferson and Madison were its founders and leaders. The Democratic - Republicans strongly opposed Hamilton 's First Bank of the United States. American foreign policy was dominated by the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars between the United Kingdom and France. The Republicans supported France, encouraging the French Revolution as a force for democracy, while the Washington administration favored continued peace and commerce with Britain, signing the Jay Treaty much to the disgust of Democratic - Republicans, who accused Hamilton and the Federalists of supporting aristocracy and tyranny. John Adams succeeded Washington as President in 1797 and continued the policies of his administration. The Jeffersonian Republicans took control of the Federal government in 1801 and the Federalists never returned to power.
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