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basic unit of volume in the si system | SI base unit - wikipedia
The International System of Units (SI) defines seven units of measure as a basic set from which all other SI units can be derived. The SI base units and their physical quantities are the metre for measurement of length, the kilogram for mass, the second for time, the ampere for electric current, the kelvin for temperature, the candela for luminous intensity, and the mole for amount of substance.
The SI base units form a set of mutually independent dimensions as required by dimensional analysis commonly employed in science and technology.
The names and symbols of SI base units are written in lowercase, except the symbols of those named after a person, which are written with an initial capital letter. For example, the metre (US English: meter) has the symbol m, but the kelvin has symbol K, because it is named after Lord Kelvin and the ampere with symbol A is named after André - Marie Ampère.
Several other units, such as the litre (US English: liter), are formally not part of the SI, but are accepted for use with SI.
2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles. '' 14th CGPM (1971, Resolution 3; CR, 78) "In this definition, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest and in their ground state, are referred to. '' (Added by CIPM in 1980)
The definitions of the base units have been modified several times since the Metre Convention in 1875, and new additions of base units have occurred. Since the redefinition of the metre in 1960, the kilogram is the only unit that is directly defined in terms of a physical artifact, rather than a property of nature. However, the mole, the ampere, and the candela are linked through their definitions to the mass of the platinum -- iridium cylinder stored in a vault near Paris.
It has long been an objective in metrology to define the kilogram in terms of a fundamental constant, in the same way that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. The 21st General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM, 1999) placed these efforts on an official footing, and recommended "that national laboratories continue their efforts to refine experiments that link the unit of mass to fundamental or atomic constants with a view to a future redefinition of the kilogram. '' Two possibilities have attracted particular attention: the Planck constant and the Avogadro constant.
In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved preparation of new definitions for the kilogram, the ampere, and the kelvin and it noted the possibility of a new definition of the mole based on the Avogadro constant. The 23rd CGPM (2007) decided to postpone any formal change until the next General Conference in 2011.
In a note to the CIPM in October 2009, Ian Mills, the President of the CIPM Consultative Committee - Units (CCU) catalogued the uncertainties of the fundamental constants of physics according to the current definitions and their values under the proposed new definition. He urged the CIPM to accept the proposed changes in the definition of the kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole so that they are referenced to the values of the fundamental constants, namely the Planck constant (h), the electron charge (e), the Boltzmann constant (k), and the Avogadro constant (N).
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who went home on masterchef last night 2017 | MasterChef (Us season 8) - wikipedia
Season 8 of the American competitive reality TV series MasterChef premiered on Fox on May 31, 2017.
Gordon Ramsay and Christina Tosi returned as judges. Aarón Sanchez joined the cast this season as the third judge.
This season was won by Dino Angelo Luciano with Eboni Henry and Jason Wang finishing as co-runners - up.
Source for names, hometowns and occupations: Ages and nicknames as given on air.
^ Note 1 While Mike Newton 's elimination occurred from the events on Episode 11 (August 16), his elimination was not revealed until Episode 12 (August 23).
Shaun O'Neale -- Episode 10 Joe Bastianich -- Episodes 20 & 21
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in which case did the supreme court establish the right to privacy | Griswold v. Connecticut - wikipedia
Griswild v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965), is a landmark case in the United States about access to contraception. The case involved a Connecticut "Comstock law '' that prohibited any person from using "any drug, medicinal article or instrument for the purpose of preventing conception. '' The court held that the statute was unconstitutional, and that "the clear effect of (the Connecticut law...) is to deny disadvantaged citizens (...) access to medical assistance and up - to - date information in respect to proper methods of birth control. '' By a vote of 7 -- 2, the Supreme Court invalidated the law on the grounds that it violated the "right to marital privacy '', establishing the basis for the right to privacy with respect to intimate practices. This and other cases view the right to privacy as a right to "protect (ion) from governmental intrusion. ''
Although the Bill of Rights does not explicitly mention "privacy '', Justice William O. Douglas wrote for the majority that the right was to be found in the "penumbras '' and "emanations '' of other constitutional protections, such as the self - incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment. Douglas wrote, "Would we allow the police to search the sacred precincts of marital bedrooms for telltale signs of the use of contraceptives? The very idea is repulsive to the notions of privacy surrounding the marriage relationship. '' Justice Arthur Goldberg wrote a concurring opinion in which he used the Ninth Amendment in support of the Supreme Court 's ruling. Justice Byron White and Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote concurring opinions in which they argued that privacy is protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Griswold v. Connecticut originated as a prosecution under the Connecticut Comstock Act of 1873. The law made it illegal to use "any drug, medicinal article, or instrument for the purpose of preventing conception (...) ''. Violators could be "(...) fined not less than fifty dollars or imprisoned not less than sixty days nor more than one year or be both fined and imprisoned. '' By the 1950s, Massachusetts and Connecticut were the only two states that still had such statutes, although they were almost never enforced.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, physicians in the United States largely avoided the publication of any material related to birth control, even when they often recommended or at least gave advice regarding it to their married patients. Then in 1914, Margaret Sanger openly challenged the public consensus against contraception. She influenced the Connecticut Birth Control League (CBCL) and helped to develop the eventual concept of the Planned Parenthood clinics.
The first Planned Parenthood clinic in Connecticut opened in 1935 in Hartford. It provided services to women who had no access to a gynecologist, including information about artificial contraception and other methods to plan the growth of their families. Several clinics were opened in Connecticut over the following years, including the Waterbury clinic that led to the legal dispute. In 1939, this clinic was compelled to enforce the 1879 anti-contraception law on poor women patients. This caught the attention of the CBCL leaders, who remarked on the importance of birth control for cases in which the lives of the patients depended upon it.
During the 1940s, several cases arose from the provision of contraception by the Waterbury clinic, leading to legal challenges to the constitutionality of the Comstock law, but these failed on technical grounds. In Tileston v. Ullman (1943), a doctor and mother challenged the law on the grounds that a ban on contraception could, in certain sexual situations, threaten the lives and well - being of patients. The U.S. Supreme Court dismissed the appeal on the grounds that the plaintiff lacked standing to sue on behalf of his patients. Yale School of Medicine gynecologist C. Lee Buxton and his patients brought a second challenge to the law in Poe v. Ullman (1961). The Supreme Court again dismissed the appeal, on the grounds that the case was not ripe: the plaintiffs had not been charged or threatened with prosecution, so there was no actual controversy for the Court to resolve.
The polemic around Poe led to the appeal in Griswold v. Connecticut, primarily based on the dissent of Justice John Marshall Harlan II in Poe, one of the most cited dissents in Supreme Court history.
(T) he full scope of the liberty guaranteed by the Due Process Clause can not be found in or limited by the precise terms of the specific guarantees elsewhere provided in the Constitution. This ' liberty ' is not a series of isolated points pricked out in terms of the taking of property; the freedom of speech, press, and religion; the right to keep and bear arms; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures; and so on. It is a rational continuum which, broadly speaking, includes a freedom from all substantial arbitrary impositions and purposeless restraints. -- Justice John Marshall Harlan II, dissent in Poe v. Ullman.
He argued, foremost, that the Supreme Court should have heard the case rather than dismissing it. Thereafter, he indicated his support for a broad interpretation of the due process clause. On the basis of this interpretation, Harlan concluded that the Connecticut statute violated the Constitution.
After Poe was handed down on June 1961, the Planned Parenthood League of Connecticut (PPLC) decided to challenge the law again. Estelle T. Griswold served on the PPLC as Executive Director from 1954 to 1965. Struggling through legal battles against birth control restrictions in Connecticut, Griswold and PPLC made an initial effort to financially support women who wanted contraceptives to bus to cities in New York and Rhode Island. PPLC Executive Director Estelle Griswold and Dr. Buxton (PPLC medical volunteer), opened a birth control clinic in New Haven, Connecticut, "thus directly challeng (ing) the state law. '' The clinic opened on November 1, 1961, and that same day received its first ten patients and dozens of appointment requests from married women who wanted birth control advice and prescriptions. Griswold and Buxton were arrested, tried, found guilty, and fined $100 each. The conviction was upheld by the Appellate Division of the Circuit Court, and by the Connecticut Supreme Court.
Griswold appealed her conviction to the United States Supreme Court, arguing that the Connecticut statute was a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution, which reads that "no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law... nor deny any person the equal protection of the laws, '' (Amendment 14 Section 1). By a 7 -- 2 majority, on June 7, 1965 the Supreme Court concluded that the Connecticut statute was unconstitutional.
Justice William O. Douglas, writing for the majority of the court, recognized the right to privacy, even though not enumerated in the Bill of Rights, is found in the "penumbras '' and "emanations '' of other constitutional protections, such as the self - incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment, or the freedom of association clause of the First Amendment. The right to privacy is seen as a right to "protect (ion) from governmental intrusion. '' Justice Arthur Goldberg wrote a concurring opinion in which he used the Ninth Amendment in support of the Supreme Court 's ruling, reasoning that the right of privacy was retained by the people. Justice Byron White and Justice John Marshall Harlan II also wrote concurring opinions in which they argued that privacy is protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Justices Hugo Black and Potter Stewart wrote dissenting opinions. Justice Black argued that the right to privacy is nowhere to be found in the Constitution. Furthermore, he criticized the interpretations of the Ninth and Fourteenth Amendments by his fellow justices. Justice Stewart called the Connecticut statute "an uncommonly silly law '' but argued that it was nevertheless constitutional.
The final decision of the court was later used in other cases related to sexual practices and other personal, often considered private, decisions for the American citizens.
Later decisions by the U.S. Supreme Court extended the principles of Griswold beyond its particular facts.
Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972) extended its holding to unmarried couples, whereas the "right of privacy '' in Griswold was said to only apply to marital relationships. The argument in Eisenstadt was that it was a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to deny unmarried couples the right to use contraception when married couples did have that right (under Griswold). Writing for the majority, Justice Brennan wrote that Massachusetts could not enforce the law against married couples because of Griswold v. Connecticut, so the law worked "irrational discrimination '' if not extended to unmarried couples as well.
The reasoning and language of both Griswold and Eisenstadt were cited in the concurring opinion by Associate Justice Potter Stewart in support of Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973). The decision in Roe struck down a Texas law that criminalized aiding a woman in getting an abortion. The Court ruled that this law was a violation of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Abortion became legalized for any woman for any reason, up through the first trimester, with possible restrictions for maternal health in the second trimester (the midpoint of which is the approximate time of fetal viability). In the third trimester of pregnancy, abortion is potentially illegal with exception for the mother 's health, which the court defined broadly in Doe v. Bolton.
Carey v. Population Services International (1977)
Lawrence v. Texas (2003) struck down a Texas sodomy law that prohibited certain forms of intimate sexual contact between members of the same sex. Without stating a standard of review in the majority opinion, the court overruled Bowers v. Hardwick (1986), declaring that the "Texas statute furthers no legitimate state interest which can justify its intrusion into the personal and private life of the individual. '' Justice O'Connor, who wrote a concurring opinion, framed it as an issue of rational basis review. Justice Kennedy 's majority opinion, based on the liberty interest protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, stated that the Texas anti-sodomy statute touched "upon the most private human conduct, sexual behavior, and in the most private of places, the home, '' and attempted to "control a personal relationship that... is within the liberty of persons to choose without being punished. '' Thus, the Court held that adults are entitled to participate in private, consensual sexual conduct. While the opinion in Lawrence was framed in terms of the right to liberty, Kennedy described the "right to privacy '' found in Griswold as the "most pertinent beginning point '' in the evolution of the concepts embodied in Lawrence.
Griswold was also cited in a chain of cases that led the Supreme Court to legalize same - sex marriage in another landmark case, Obergefell v. Hodges.
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who were the aztecs and where did they live | Aztec - wikipedia
Aztec culture (/ ˈæztɛk /), also known as Mexica culture, was a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521, during the time in which a triple alliance of the Mexica, Texcoca and Tepaneca tribes established the Aztec empire. The Aztec people were certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The Aztec have also referred to themselves as the Meshika or Mehika.
Aztec culture is the culture of the people referred to as Aztecs, but since most ethnic groups of central Mexico in the postclassic period shared basic cultural traits, many of the traits that characterize Aztec culture can not be said to be exclusive to the Aztecs. For the same reason, the notion of "Aztec civilization '' is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. The culture of central Mexico includes maize cultivation, the social division between pipiltin nobility and macehualtin commoners, a pantheon (featuring Tezcatlipoca, Tlaloc and Quetzalcoatl), and the calendric system of a xiuhpohualli of 365 days intercalated with a tonalpohualli of 260 days. Particular to the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan was the Mexica patron God Huitzilopochtli, twin pyramids, and the ceramic ware known as Aztec I to III.
From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of Aztec civilization: there the city of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Triple Alliance, was built upon raised islets in Lake Texcoco. The Triple Alliance formed the Aztec Empire, a tributary empire that expanded its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, conquering other city states throughout Mesoamerica in the late postclassic period. It originated in 1427 as an alliance between the city - states Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan; these allied to defeat the Tepanec state of Azcapotzalco, which had previously dominated the Basin of Mexico. Soon Texcoco and Tlacopan became junior partners in the alliance, of which the Mexica of Tenochtitlan were the de facto leaders. The empire extended its power by a combination of trade and military conquest. It was never a true territorial empire controlling a territory by large military garrisons in conquered provinces, but rather controlled its client states primarily by installing friendly rulers in conquered cities, by constructing marriage alliances between the ruling dynasties, and by extending an imperial ideology to its client states. Client states paid tribute to the Aztec emperor, the Huey Tlatoani, in an economic strategy limiting communication and trade between outlying polities, making them dependent on the imperial center for the acquisition of luxury goods. The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering cities as far south as Chiapas and Guatemala and spanning from the Pacific to the Atlantic oceans. The empire reached its maximal extent in 1519, just prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés, who managed to topple the Aztec empire by allying with some of the traditional enemies of the Aztecs, the Nahuatl - speaking Tlaxcalteca. Subsequently, the Spanish founded the new settlement of Mexico City on the site of the ruined Aztec capital, from where they proceeded with the process of colonizing Central America.
Aztec culture and history is primarily known through archaeological evidence found in excavations such as that of the renowned Templo Mayor in Mexico City; from indigenous bark paper codices; from eyewitness accounts by Spanish conquistadors such as Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo; and especially from 16th - and 17th - century descriptions of Aztec culture and history written by Spanish clergymen and literate Aztecs in the Spanish or Nahuatl language, such as the famous Florentine Codex compiled by the Franciscan monk Bernardino de Sahagún with the help of indigenous Aztec informants. At its height, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythological and religious traditions, as well as achieving remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments.
The Nahuatl words aztecatl (asˈtekat͡ɬ) (singular) and aztecah (asˈtekaʔ) (plural) mean "people from Aztlan '', a mythological place for the Nahuatl - speaking culture of the time, and later adopted as the word to define the Mexica people. Often the term "Aztec '' refers exclusively to the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan (now the location of Mexico City), situated on an island in Lake Texcoco, who referred to themselves as Mēxihcah Tenochcah (meːˈʃiʔkaʔ teˈnot͡ʃkaʔ) or Cōlhuah Mexihcah (ˈkoːlwaʔ meːˈʃiʔkaʔ).
Sometimes the term also includes the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan 's two principal allied city - states, the Acolhuas of Texcoco and the Tepanecs of Tlacopan, who together with the Mexica formed the Aztec Triple Alliance that controlled what is often known as the "Aztec Empire ''. In other contexts, Aztec may refer to all the various city states and their peoples, who shared large parts of their ethnic history and cultural traits with the Mexica, Acolhua and Tepanecs, and who often also used the Nahuatl language as a lingua franca. In this meaning, it is possible to talk about an Aztec civilization including all the particular cultural patterns common for most of the peoples inhabiting central Mexico in the late postclassic period.
When used to describe ethnic groups, the term "Aztec '' refers to several Nahuatl - speaking peoples of central Mexico in the postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology, especially the Mexica, the ethnic group that had a leading role in establishing the hegemonic empire based at Tenochtitlan. The term extends to further ethnic groups associated with the Aztec empire, such as the Acolhua, the Tepanec and others that were incorporated into the empire. In older usage the term was commonly used about modern Nahuatl - speaking ethnic groups, as Nahuatl was previously referred to as the "Aztec language ''. In recent usage, these ethnic groups are referred to as the Nahua peoples. Linguistically, the term "Aztecan '' is still used about the branch of the Uto - Aztecan languages (also sometimes called the yuto - nahuan languages) that includes the Nahuatl language and its closest relatives Pochutec and Pipil.
To the Aztecs themselves the word "aztec '' was not an endonym for any particular ethnic group. Rather, it was an umbrella term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl - speaking, that claimed heritage from the mythic place of origin, Aztlan. In the Nahuatl language "aztecatl '' means "person from Aztlan ''. Alexander von Humboldt originated the modern usage of "Aztec '' in 1810, as a collective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexica state and the Triple Alliance. In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H. Prescott, the term was adopted by most of the world, including 19th - century Mexican scholars who saw it as a way to distinguish present - day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This usage has been the subject of debate in more recent years, but the term "Aztec '' is still more common.
It is a matter of debate whether the enormous city of Teotihuacan was inhabited by speakers of Nahuatl, or whether Nahuas had not yet arrived in central Mexico in the classic period. It is generally agreed that the Nahua peoples were not indigenous to the highlands of central Mexico, but that they gradually migrated into the region from somewhere in northwestern Mexico. At the fall of Teotihuacan in the 6th century CE, a number of city states rose to power in central Mexico, some of them, including Cholula and Xochicalco, probably inhabited by Nahuatl speakers. One study has suggested that Nahuas originally inhabited the Bajío area around Guanajuato which reached a population peak in the 6th century, after which the population quickly diminished during a subsequent dry period. This depopulation of the Bajío coincided with an incursion of new populations into the Valley of Mexico, which suggests that this marks the influx of Nahuatl speakers into the region. These populated central Mexico, dislocating speakers of Oto - Manguean languages as they spread their political influence south. As the former nomadic hunter - gatherer peoples mixed with the complex civilizations of Mesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices, the foundation for later Aztec culture was laid. After 900 CE, during the Postclassic period, a number of sites almost certainly inhabited by Nahuatl speakers became powerful. Among them the site of Tula, Hidalgo, and also city states such as Tenayuca, and Colhuacan in the valley of Mexico and Cuauhnahuac in Morelos.
In the ethnohistorical sources from the colonial colonial period, Aztecs themselves describe their arrival in the Valley of Mexico. The ethnonym Aztec (Nahuatl ' ' Aztecah ' ') means "people from Aztlan '', Aztlan being a mythical place of origin toward the north. Hence the term applied to all those peoples who claimed to carry the heritage from this mythical place. The migration stories of the Mexica tribe tell how they traveled with other tribes, including the Tlaxcalteca, Tepaneca and Acolhua, but that eventually their tribal deity Huitzilopochtli told them to split from the other Aztec tribes and take on the name "Mexica ''. At the time of their arrival, there were many Aztec city - states in the region. The most powerful were Colhuacan to the south and Azcapotzalco to the west. The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco soon expelled the Mexicas from Chapultepec. In 1299, Colhuacan ruler Cocoxtli gave them permission to settle in the empty barrens of Tizapan, where they were eventually assimilated into Culhuacan culture. The noble lineage of Colhuacan traced its roots back to the legendary city state of Tula, and by marrying into Colhua families the Mexica now also adopted this heritage. After living in Colhuacan the Mexica were again expelled and moved on. According to Aztec legend, in 1323 the Mexicas were shown a vision of an eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus, eating a snake. The vision indicated the location where they were to build their home. The Mexica founded the town of Tenochtitlan on a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco. The year of foundation is usually given as 1325. In 1376 the Mexica royal dynasty was founded when Acamapichtli, son of a Mexica father and a Colhua mother, was elected as the first ' ' Huey Tlatoani ' ' of Tenochtitlan.
In the first 50 years after the founding of the Mexica dynasty, the Mexica were a tributary of Azcapotzalco, which had become a major regional power under the ruler Tezozomoc. The Mexica supplied the Tepaneca with warriors for their successful conquest campaigns in the region and received part of the tribute from the conquered city states. In this way, the prestige and economy of Tenochtitlan gradually grew.
In 1396, at Acamapichtli 's death, his son Huitzilihhuitl (Nahuatl: "Hummingbird feather '') became ruler, married to Tezozomoc 's daughter the relation with Azcapotzalco remained close. Chimalpopoca (Nahuatl: "She smokes like a shield ''), son of Huitzilihhuitl, became ruler of Tenochtitlan in 1417. In 1418, Azcapotzalco initiated a war against the Acolhua of Texcoco, and killed their ruler Ixtlilxochitl. Even though Ixtlilxochitl was married to Chimalpopoca 's daughter, the Mexica ruler continued to support Tezozomoc. Tezozomoc died in 1426, and his sons began a struggle for rulership of Azcapotzalco. During this struggle for power Chimalpopoca died, probably killed by Tezozomoc 's son Maxtla who saw him as a competitor.
Itzcoatl brother of Huitzilihhuitl and uncle of Chimalpopoca, was elected the next Mexica tlatoani. The Mexica were now in open war with Azcapotzalco and Itzcoatl petitioned for an alliance with Nezahualcoyotl, son of the slain Texcocan ruler Ixtlilxochitl against Maxtla. Itzcoatl also allied with Maxtla 's brother Totoquihuaztli ruler of the Tepanec city of Tlacopan. The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan besieged Azcapotzalco, and in 1428 they destroyed the city and sacrificed Maxtla. Through this victory Tenochtitlan became the dominant city state in the Valley of Mexico, and the alliance between the three cities provided the basis on which the Aztec Empire was built.
Itzcoatl proceeded by securing a power basis for Tenochtitlan, by conquering the city - states on the southern lake -- including Colhuacan, Xochimilco, Cuitlahuac and Mizquic. These states had an economy based on highly productive chinampa agriculture, cultivating floating gardens in the shallow lake Xochimilco. Itzcoatl then undertook further conquests in the valley of Morelos, subjecting the city state of Cuauhnahuac (today Cuernavaca).
In 1440, Motecuzoma I Ilhuicamina (Nahuatl: "he frowns like a lord, he shoots the sky '' was elected tlatoani, he was son of Huitzilihhuitl, brother of Chimalpopoca and had served as the war leader of his uncle Itzcoatl in the war against the Tepanecs. The accession of a new ruler in the dominant city state was often an occasion for subjected cities to rebel by refusing to pay tribute. This meant that new rulers began their rule with a coronation campaign, often against rebellious tributaries, but also sometimes demonstrating their military might by making new conquests. Motecuzoma tested the attitudes of the cities around the valley by requesting laborers for the enlargement of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan. Only the city of Chalco refused to provide laborers, and hostilities between Chalco and Tenochtitlan would persist until the 1450s. Motecuzoma then reconquered the cities in the valley of Morelos and Guerrero, and then later undertook new conquests in the Huaxtec region of northern Veracruz, and the Mixtec region of Coixtlahuaca and large parts of Oaxaca, and later again in central and southern Veracruz with conquests at Cosamalopan, Ahuilizapan and Cuetlaxtlan. During this period the city states of Tlaxcallan, Cholula and Huexotzinco emerged as major competitors to the imperial expansion, and they supplied warriors to several of the cities conquered. Motecuzoma therefore initiated a state of low intensity warfare against these three cities, staging minor skirmishes called "Flower Wars '' (Nahuatl ' ' xochiyaoyotl ' ') against them, perhaps as a strategy of exhaustion.
Motecuzoma also consolidated the political structure of the Triple Alliance, and the internal political organization of Tenochtitlan. His brother Tlacaelel served as his main advisor (Nahuatl ' ' Cihuacoatl ' ') and he is considered the architect of major political reforms in this period, consolidating the power of the noble class (Nahuatl ' ' pipiltin ' ') and instituting a set of legal codes, and the practice of reinstating conquered rulers in their cities bound by fealty to the Mexica tlatoani.
In 1469, the next ruler became Axayacatl (Nahuatl: "Water mask ''), son of Itzcoatl 's son Tezozomoc and Motecuzoma I 's daughter Atotoztli. He undertook a successful coronation campaign far south of Tenochtitlan against the Zapotecs in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Axayacatl also conquered the independent Mexica city of Tlatelolco, located on the northern part of the island where Tenochtitlan was also located. The Tlatelolca ruler Moquihuix was married to Axayacatl 's sister, and his alleged mistreatment of her was used as an excuse to incorporate Tlatelolco and its important market directly under the control of the tlatoani of Tenochtitlan.
Axayacatl then conquered areas in Central Guerrero, the Puebla Valley, on the gulf coast and against the Otomi and Matlatzinca in the Toluca valley. The Toluca valley was a buffer zone against the powerful Tarascan state in Michoacan, against which Axayacatl turned next. In the major campaign against the Tarascans (Nahua ' ' Michhuahqueh ' ') in 1478 -- 79 the Aztec forces were repelled by a well organized defense. Axayacatl was soundly defeated in a battle at Tlaximaloyan (today Tajimaroa), losing most of his 32,000 men and only barely escaping back to Tenochtitlan with the remnants of his army.
In 1481 at Axayacatls death, his older brother Tizoc was elected ruler. Tizoc 's coronation campaign against the Otomi of Metztitlan failed as he lost the major battle and only managed to secure 40 prisoners to be sacrificed for his coronation ceremony. Having shown weakness, many of the tributary towns rebelled and consequently most of Tizoc 's short reign was spent attempting to quell rebellions and maintain control of areas conquered by his predecessors. Tizoc died suddenly in 1485, and it has been suggested that he was poisoned by his brother and war leader Ahuitzotl who became the next tlatoani. Tizoc is mostly known as the namesake of the Stone of Tizoc a monumental sculpture (Nahuatl ' ' temalacatl ' '), decorated with representation of Tizoc 's conquests.
The next ruler was Ahuitzotl (Nahuatl: "Water monster ''), brother of Axayacatl and Tizoc and war leader under Tizoc. His successful coronation campaign suppressed rebellions in the Toluca valley and conquered Jilotepec and several communities in the northern Valley of Mexico. A second campaign to the gulf coast was also highly successful. He began an enlargement of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan, inaugurating the new temple in 1487. For the inauguration ceremony the Mexica invited the rulers of all their subject cities, who participated as spectators in the ceremony in which an unprecedented number of war captives were sacrificed -- some sources giving a figure of 84,000 prisoners sacrificed over four days. Probably the actual figure of sacrifices was much smaller, but still numbering several thousands. Ahuitzotl also constructed monumental architecture in sites such as Calixtlahuaca, Malinalco and Tepoztlan. After a rebellion in the towns of Alahuiztlan and Oztoticpac in Northern Guerrero he ordered the entire population executed, and repopulated with people from the valley of Mexico. He also constructed a fortified garrison at Oztuma defending the border against the Tarascan state.
At the death of Ahuitzotl the reign passed to his war leader Motecuzoma Xocoyotzin (Nahuatl "He frowns like a lord, the youngest child ''), a son of Axayacatl. His successful coronation campaign attacked the fortified city of Nopallan in Oaxaca and subjected the adjacent region to the empire. An effective warrior, Motecuzoma II maintained the pace of conquest set by his predecessor and subjected large areas in Guerrero, Oaxaca, Puebla and even far south along the Pacific and Gulf coasts, conquering the province of Xoconochco in Chiapas. he also intensified the flower wars waged against Tlaxcallan and Huexotzinco, and secured an alliance with Cholula. He also consolidated the class structure of Aztec society, by making it harder for commoners (Nahuatl macehualtin) to accede to the privileged class of the pipiltin through merit in combat, and instituted a strict sumptuary code limiting the types of luxury goods that could be consumed by commoners.
In 1517, Motecuzoma received the first news of ships with strange warriors having landed on the Gulf Coast near Cempoallan and he dispatched messengers to greet them and find out what was happening, and he ordered his subjects in the area to keep him informed of any new arrivals. In 1519, he was informed of the arrival of the Spanish fleet of Hernán Cortés, who soon marched towards Tlaxcallan where he formed an alliance with the traditional enemies of the Aztecs. On November 8, 1519, Motecuzoma II received Cortés and his troops and Tlaxcalan allies on the causeway south of Tenochtitlan, and he invited the spaniards to stay as his guests in Tenochtitlan. When Aztec troops destroyed a Spanish camp on the gulf coast, Cortés ordered Motecuzoma to execute the commanders responsible for the attack, and Motecuzoma complied. At this point the power balance had shifted towards the Spaniards who now held Motecuzoma as a prisoner in his own palace. As this shift in power became clear to Motecuzoma 's subjects the Spaniards became increasingly unwelcome guests in the capital city, and in June 1520, hostilities broke out, culminating in the massacre in the Great Temple, and a major uprising of the Mexica against the Spanish. During the fighting Motecuzoma was killed, either by the Spaniards who killed him as they fled the city or by the Mexica themselves who considered him a traitor.
The Spaniards fled the town on July 1, an episode later characterized as La Noche Triste (the Sad Night), which was a major victory for the Aztecs. The Spaniards nevertheless reached Tlaxcallan where they regrouped and received reinforcements, and began to prepare a campaign of conquest in collaboration with the Tlaxcalteca. In Tenochtitlan a new tlatoani was chosen, Motecuzoma 's brother Cuitlahuac, but as an epidemic of smallpox swept through the city he died having ruled less than a year. At his death Cuauhtemoc, son of Ahuitzotl was elected tlahtoani. The Spaniards and thousands of Tlaxcalteca allies returned in the spring of 1521 to lay siege to Tenochtitlan, beginning by conquering the altepetl on the lake bank, cutting off communications and provisions to the island. They then besieged the island of Tenochtitlan from the land side, also attacking from the lakeside with ships built for the purpose. The battle ended on August 13 with the destruction of the city, and the imprisonment of Cuauhtemoc, who was later executed along with the rulers of Tlacopan and Texcoco.
After the fall of Tenochtitlan, Aztec warriors were enlisted as auxiliary troops alongside the Spanish Tlaxcalteca allies, and Aztec forces participated in all of the subsequent campaigns of conquest in northern and southern Mesoamerica. This meant that aspects of Aztec culture and the Nahuatl language continued to expand during the early colonial period as Aztec auxiliary forces made permanent settlements in many of the areas that were put under the Spanish crown.
During the colonial period the Aztec ruling dynasty continued to govern the "indian republic '' of Tenochtitlan, but the susequent rulers were mostly puppets installed by the Spanish, such as Andrés de Tapia Motelchiuh, installed by the Spanish. Other Aztec city states likewise came to be governed as "Indian republics '' with a local indigenous gobernador in charge of the political organization of the indians, and of providing the Spanish landowners with tribute and corvee labor. Some indigenous governors became quite rich and influential and were able to maintain positions of power comparable to that of Spanish encomenderos.
After the arrival of the Europeans in Mexico and the conquest, indigenous populations plummeted. This was largely the result of the epidemics of viruses brought to the continent against which the natives had no immunity.
In 1520 -- 1521, an outbreak of smallpox swept through the population of Tenochtitlan and was decisive in the fall of the city. It is estimated that between 10 % and 50 % of the population fell victim to this epidemic.
Subsequently, the Valley of Mexico was hit with two more epidemics, smallpox (1545 -- 1548), and typhus (1576 -- 1581). The Spaniards, to consolidate the diminishing population, merged the survivors from small towns in the Valley of Mexico into bigger ones. This broke the power of the upper classes, but did not dissolve the coherence of the indigenous society in greater Mexico.
The population before the time of the conquest is unknown and hotly contested, but disease is known to have ravaged the region; thus, the indigenous population of the Valley of Mexico is estimated to have declined by more than 80 % in the course of about 60 years.
The highest class were the pīpiltin or nobility. The pilli status was hereditary and ascribed certain privileges to its holder, such as the right to wear particularly fine garments and consume luxury goods, as well as to own land and direct corvée labor by commoners. The most powerful nobles were called lords (Nahuatl teuctin) and they owned and controlled noble estates or houses, and could serve in the highest government positions or as military leaders. Nobles made up about 5 % of the population. p = The second class were the mācehualtin, originally peasants, but later extended to the lower working classes in general. Eduardo Noguera estimates that in later stages only 20 % of the population was dedicated to agriculture and food production. The other 80 % of society were warriors, artisans and traders. Eventually, most of the mācehuallis were dedicated to arts and crafts. Their works were an important source of income for the city. Macehualtin could become enslaved, (Nahuatl tlacotin) for example if they had to sell themselves into the service of a noble due to debt or poverty, but enslavement was not an inherited status among the Aztecs. Some macehualtin were landless and worked directly for a lord (Nahuatl mayehqueh), whereas the majority of commoners were organized into calpollis which gave them access to land and property.
Commoners were able to obtain privileges similar to those of the nobles by demonstrating prowess in warfare. When a warrior took a captive he accrued the right to use certain emblems, weapons or garments, and as he took more captives his rank and prestige increased.
The Aztec family pattern was bilateral, counting relatives on the fathers and mothers side of the family equally, and inheritance was also passed both to sons and daughters. This meant that women could own property just as men, and that women therefore had a good deal of economic freedom from their spouses. Nevertheless Aztec society was highly gendered with separate gender roles for men and women. Men were expected to work outside of the house, as farmers, traders, craftsmen and warriors, whereas women were expected to take the responsibility of the domestic sphere. Women could however also work outside of the home as small - scale merchants, doctors, priests and midwives. Warfare was highly valued and a source of high prestige, but women 's work was metaphorically conceived of as equivalent to warfare, and as equally important in maintaining the equilibrium of the world and pleasing the gods. This situation has led some scholars to describe Aztec gender ideology as an ideology not of a gender hierarchy, but of gender complementarity, with gender roles being separate but equal.
Among the nobles, marriage alliances were often used as a political strategy with lesser nobles marrying daughters from more prestigious lineages whose status was then inherited by their children. Nobles were also often polygamous, with lords having many wives. Polygamy was not very common among the commoners and some sources describe it as being prohibited.
The main unit of Aztec political organization was the city state, in Nahuatl called the altepetl, meaning "water - mountain ''. Each altepetl was lead by a ruler, a tlatoani, with authority over a group of nobles and a population of commoners. The altepetl included a capital which served as a religious center, the hub of distribution and organization of a local population which often lived spread out in minor settlements surrounding the capital. Altepetl were also the main source of ethnic identity for the inhabitants, even though Altepetl were frequently composed of groups speaking different languages. Each altepetl would see itself as standing in a political contrast to other altepetl states, and war was waged between altepetl states. In this way Nahuatl speaking Aztecs of one AAltepetl would be solidary with speakers of other languages belonging to the same altepetl, but enemies of Nahuatl speakers belonging to other competing altepetl states. In the valley of Mexico altepetl was composed of subdivisions called calpolli, which served as the main organizational unit for commoners. In Tlaxcala and the Puebla valley, the altepetl was organized into teccalli units headed by a lord (Nahuatl tecuhtli), who would hold sway over a territory and distribute rights to land among the commoners. A calpolli was at once a territorial unit where commoners organized labor and land use, since land was not in private property, and also often a kinship unit as a network of families that were related through intermarriage. Calpolli leaders might be or become members of the nobility, in which case they could represent their calpollis interests in the altepetl government.
In the valley of Morelos, Michael E. Smith estimates that a typical altepetl had from 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants, and covered an area between 70 and 100 square kilometers. In the Morelos valley altepetl sizes were somewhat smaller. Smith argues that the altepetl was primarily a political unit, made up of the population with allegiance to a lord, rather than as a territorial unit. He makes this distinction because in some areas minor settlements with different altepetl allegiances were interspersed.
The Aztec Empire was ruled by indirect means. Like most European empires, it was ethnically very diverse, but unlike most European empires, it was more of a system of tribute than a single system of government. In the theoretical framework of imperial systems posited by Alexander J. Motyl, the Aztec empire was an informal or hegemonic empire because it did not exert supreme authority over the conquered lands; it merely expected tributes to be paid. It was also a discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were connected; for example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in direct contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once their city - state was conquered, and the Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute payments were made.
Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, in fact most areas within the empire were organized as city - states, known as altepetl in Nahuatl. These were small polities ruled by a king (tlatoani) from a legitimate dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepetl. Even after the empire was formed in 1428 and began its program of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire 's hegemonic form of control.
As all Mesoamerican peoples Aztec society was organized around maize agriculture. The humid environment in the Valley of Mexico with its many lakes and swamps permitted intensive agriculture. The main crops in addition to maize were beans, squashes, chilies and amaranth. Particularly important for agricultural production in the valley was the construction of chinampas on the lake, artificial islands that allowed the conversion of the shallow waters into highly fertile gardens that could be cultivated year round. Chinampas are areas of raised land, created from alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake, and plant matter / other vegetation. These "raised beds '' were separated by narrow canals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. The chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. On the basis of current chinampa yields, it has been estimated that 1 hectare of chinampa would feed 20 individuals and 9,000 hectares of chinampas could feed 180,000.
The Aztecs further intensified agricultural production by constructing systems of artificial irrigation. While most of the farming occurred outside the densely populated areas, within the cities there was another method of (small scale) farming. Each family had their own garden plot where they grew maize, fruits, herbs, medicines and other important plants. When the city of Tenochtitlan became a major urban center, water was supplied to the city through aqueducts from springs on the banks of the lake, and they organized a system that collected human waste for use as fertilizer. Through intensive agriculture the Aztecs were able to sustain a large urbanized population. The lake was also a rich source of proteins in the form of aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians, shrimp, insects and insect eggs, and water fowl. The presence of such varied sources of protein meant that there was little use for domestic animals for meat (only turkeys and dogs were kept), and scholars have calculated that there was no shortage of protein among the inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico.
The excess supply of food products allowed a significant portion of the Aztec population to dedicate themselves to trades other than food production. Apart from taking care of domestic food production women weaved textiles from agave fibers and cotton. Men also engaged in craft specializations such as the production of ceramics and of obsidian and flint tools, and of luxury goods such as beadwork, featherwork and the elaboration of tools and musical instruments. Sometimes entire calpollis specialized in a single craft, and in some archeological sites large neighborhoods have been found where apparently only a single craft speciality was practiced.
The Aztecs did not produce much metal work, but did have knowledge of basic smelting technology for gold, and they combined gold with precious stones such as jade and turquoise. Copper products were generally imported from the Tarascans of Michoacan.
Products were distributed through a network of markets; some markets specialized in a single commodity (for example the dog market of Acolman) and other general markets with presence of many different goods. Markets were highly organized with a system of supervisors taking care that only authorized merchants were permitted to sell their goods, and punishing those who cheated their customers or sold substandard or counterfeit goods. A typical town would have a weekly market (every 5 days), while larger cities held markets every day. Cortés reported that the central market of Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan 's sister city, was visited by 60,000 people daily. Some sellers in the markets were petty vendors; farmers might sell some of their produce, potters sold their vessels, and so on. Other vendors were professional merchants who traveled from market to market seeking profits.
The pochteca were specialized long distance merchants organized into exclusive guilds. They made long expeditions to all parts of Mesoamerica bringing back exotic luxury goods, and they served as the judges and supervisors of the Tlatelolco market. Although the economy of Aztec Mexico was commercialized (in its use of money, markets, and merchants) land and labor were not commodities for sale. In the commercial sector of the economy several types of money were in regular use. Small purchases were made with cacao beans, which had to be imported from lowland areas. In Aztec marketplaces, a small rabbit was worth 30 beans, a turkey egg cost 3 beans, and a tamal cost a single bean. For larger purchases, standardized lengths of cotton cloth called quachtli were used. There were different grades of quachtli, ranging in value from 65 to 300 cacao beans. One source stated that 20 quachtli could support a commoner for one year in Tenochtitlan. A man could also sell his own daughter as a sexual slave or future religious sacrifice, generally for around 500 to 700 beans. A small gold statue approximately 0.62 kg (1.37 lb) cost 250 beans.
Another form of distribution of goods was through the payment of tribute. When an altepetl was conquered the victor imposed a yearly tribute, usually paid in the form of whichever local product was most valuable or treasured. Several pages from the Codex Mendoza list tributary towns along with the goods they supplied, which included not only luxuries such as feathers, adorned suits, and greenstone beads, but more practical goods such as cloth, firewood, and food. Tribute was usually paid twice or four times a year at differing times.
Archaeological excavations in the Aztec - ruled provinces show that incorporation into the empire had both costs and benefits for provincial peoples. On the positive side, the empire promoted commerce and trade, and exotic goods from obsidian to bronze managed to reach the houses of both commoners and nobles. Trade partners also included the enemy Purépecha (also known as Tarascans), a source of bronze tools and jewelry. On the negative side, imperial tribute imposed a burden on commoner households, who had to increase their work to pay their share of tribute. Nobles, on the other hand, often made out well under imperial rule because of the indirect nature of imperial organization. The empire had to rely on local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in maintaining order and keeping the tribute flowing.
Aztec society was a combined a relatively simple agrarian rural tradition with the development of truly urbanized society with a complex system of institutions, specializations and hierarchies. The urban tradition in Mesoamerica was developed during the classic period with major urban centers such as Teotihuacan with a population well above 100,000, and at the rise of the Aztec the urban tradition was ingrained in Mesoamerican society, with urban centers serving major religious, political and economic functions for the entire population.
The capital city of the Aztec empire was Tenochtitlan, now the site of modern - day Mexico City. Built on a series of islets in Lake Texcoco, the city plan was based on a symmetrical layout that was divided into four city sections called campan (directions). Tenochtitlan was built according to a fixed plan and centered on the ritual precinct, where the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan rose 50 m (164.04 ft) above the city. Houses were made of wood and loam, roofs were made of reed, although pyramids, temples and palaces were generally made of stone. The city was interlaced with canals, which were useful for transportation. Anthropologist Eduardo Noguera estimates the population at 200,000 based in the house count and merging the population of Tlatelolco (once an independent city, but later became a suburb of Tenochtitlan). If one includes the surrounding islets and shores surrounding Lake Texcoco, estimates range from 300,000 to 700,000 inhabitants. Michael E. Smith gives a somewhat smaller figure of 212,500 inhabitants of Tenochtitlan based on an area of 1,350 hectares and a population density of 157. The second largest city in the valley of mexico in the Aztec period was texcoco with some 25,000 inhabitants dispersed over 450 hectares.
The center of Tenochtitlan was the sacred precinct, a walled - off square area which housed the Great Temple, temples for other deities, the ballcourt, the calmecac (a school for nobles), a skull rack ' ' tzompantli ' ', displaying the skulls of sacrificial victims, houses of the warrior orders, a penitential palace of the tlatoani and a merchants palace. Around the sacred precinct were the royal palaces of the rulers.
The centerpiece of Tenochtitlan was the Templo Mayor, the Great Temple, a large stepped pyramid with a double stair case leading up to two twin shrines -- one dedicated to Tlaloc the other to Huitzilopochtli. This was where most of the human sacrifices were carried out during the ritual festivals and the bodies of sacrificial victims were thrown down the stairs. The temple was enlarged in several stages, and most of the Aztec rulers made a point of adding a further stage, each with a new dedication and inauguration. The temple has been excavated in the center of Mexico City and the rich dedicatory offerings are displayed in the Museum of the Templo Mayor.
Archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, in his essay "Symbolism of the Templo Mayor, '' posits that the orientation of the temple is indicative of the totality of the vision the Mexica had of the universe (cosmovision). He states that the "principal center, or navel, where the horizontal and vertical planes intersect, that is, the point from which the heavenly or upper plane and the plane of the Underworld begin and the four directions of the universe originate, is the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan. '' Matos Moctezuma supports his supposition by claiming that the temple acts as an embodiment of a living myth where "all sacred power is concentrated and where all the levels intersect. ''
Other major Aztec cities were some of the previous city state centers around the lake including Tenayuca, Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, Colhuacan, Tlacopan, Chapultepec, Coyoacan, Xochimilco, and Chalco. In the Puebla valley Cholula was the largest city with the largest pyramid temple in Mesoamerica, while the confederacy of Tlaxcala consisted of four smaller cities. In Morelos, Cuahnahuac was a major city of the Nahuatl speaking Tlahuica tribe, and Tollocan in the Toluca valley was the capital of the Matlatzinca tribe which included Nahuatl speakers as well as speakers of Otomi and the language today called Matlatzinca. Most Aztec cities had a similar layout with a central plaza with a major pyramid with two staircases and a double temple oriented towards the west.
Aztec religion was organized around the practice of calendar rituals dedicated to a pantheon of different deities. Similar to other Mesoamerican religious systems it has generally been understood as a polytheist agriculturalist religion with elements of animism. Central in the religious practice was the offering of sacrifices to the deities, as a way of thanking or paying for the continuation of the cycle of life.
The main deities worshipped by the Aztecs were Tlaloc, a rain and storm deity, Huitzilopochtli a solar and martial deity and the tutelary deity of the Mexica tribe, Quetzalcoatl, a wind, sky and star deity and cultural hero, Tezcatlipoca, a deity of the night, magic, prophecy and fate. The Great Temple in Tenochtitlan had two shrines on its top, one dedicated to Tlaloc, the other to Huitzilopochtli. Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca each had separate temples within the religious precinct close to the Great Temple, and the high priests of the Great Temple were named "' ' Quetzalcoatl Tlamacazqueh ' ' ''. Other major deities were Tlaltecutli or Coatlicue a female earth deity, the deity couple Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl were associated with life and sustenance, Mictlantecutli and Mictlancihuatl, a male / female couple of deities of the underworld and death, Chalchiutlicue, a female deity of lakes and springs, Xipe Totec, a deity of fertility and the natural cycle, Huehueteotl or Xiuhtecuhtli a fire god, Tlazolteotl a femal deity tied to childbirth and sexuality, and a Xochipilli and Xochiquetzal gods of song, dance and games. In some regions, particularly Tlaxcala, Mixcoatl or Camaxtli was the main tribal deity. A few sources mention a deity Ometeotl who may have been a god of the duality between life and death, male and female and who may have incorporated Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl. Apart from the major deities there were dozens of minor deities each associated with an element or concept, and as the Aztec empire grew so did their pantheon because they adopted and incorporated the local deities of conquered people into their own. Additionally the major gods had many alternative manifestations or aspects, creating small families of gods with related aspects.
Aztec mythology is known from a number of sources written down in the colonial period. One set of myths, called Legend of the Suns, describe the creation of four successive suns, or periods, each ruled by a different deity and inhabited by a different group of beings. Each period ends in a cataclysmic destruction that sets the stage for the next period to begin. In this process, the deities Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl appear as adversaries, each destroying the creations of the other. The current Sun, the fifth, was created when a minor deity sacrificed himself on a bonfire and turned into the sun, but the sun only begins to move once the other deities sacrifice themselves and offers it their life force.
In another myth of how the earth was created Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl appear as allies, defeating a giant crocodile Cipactli and requiring her to become the earth, allowing humans to carve into her flesh and plant their seeds, on the condition that in return they will offer blood to her. And in the story of the creation of humanity Quetzalcoatl travels with his twin Xolotl to the underworld and brings back bones which are then ground like corn on a metate by the goddess Cihuacoatl, the resulting dough is given human form and comes to life when Quetzalcoatl imbues it with his own blood.
Huitzilopochtli is the deity tied to the Mexica tribe and he figures in the story of the origin and migrations of the tribe. On their journey, Huitzilopochtli, in the form of a deity bundle carried by the Mexica priest, continuously spurs the tribe on by pushing them into conflict with their neighbors whenever they are settled in a place. In another myth Huitzilopochtli defeats and dismembers his sister the lunar deity Coyolxauhqui and her four hundred brothers at the hill of Coatepetl. The southern side of the Great Temple, also called Coatepetl, was a representation of this myth and at the food of the stairs lay a large stone monolith carved with a representation of the dismembered goddess.
Aztec religious life was organized around the calendars. As most Mesoamerican people, the Aztecs used two calendars simultaneously: a ritual calendar of 260 days called the tonalpohualli and a solar calendar of 365 days called the xiuhpohualli. Each day had a name and number in both calendars, and the combination of two dates were unique within a period of 52 years. The tonalpohualli was mostly used for divinatory purposes and it consisted of 20 day signs and number coefficients of 1 -- 13 that cycled in a fixed order. The xiuhpohualli was made up of 18 "months '' of 20 days, and with a remainder of 5 "void '' days at the end of a cycle before the new xiuhpohualli cycle began. Each 20 - day month was named after the specific ritual festival that began the month, many of which contained a relation to the agricultural cycle. Whether, and how, the Aztec calendar corrected for leap year is a matter of discussion among specialists. The monthly rituals involved the entire population as rituals were performed in each household, in the calpolli temples and in the main sacred precinct. Many festivals involved different forms of dancing, as well as the reenactment of mythical narratives by deity impersonators and the offering of sacrifice, in the form of food, animals and human victims.
Every 52 years the two calendars reached their shared starting point and a new calendar cycle began. This calendar event was celebrated with a ritual known as Xiuhmolpilli or the New Fire Ceremony. In this ceremony old pottery was broken in all homes and all fires in the Aztec realm were put out. Then a new fire was drilled over the breast of a sacrificial victim and runners brought the new fire to the different ' ' calpolli ' ' communities where fire was redistributed to each home. The night without fire was associated with the fear that star demons, ' ' tzitzimime ' ', might descend and devour the earth ending the fifth period of the sun.
To the Aztecs, death was instrumental in the perpetuation of creation, and gods and humans alike had the responsibility of sacrificing themselves in order to allow life to continue. As described in the myth of creation above, humans were understood as responsible for the sun 's continued revival, as well as for the paying the earth for its continued fertility. Blood sacrifice in various forms were conducted. Both humans and animals were sacrificed, depending on the god to be placated and the ceremony being conducted, and priests of some gods were sometimes required to provide their own blood through self - mutilation. It is known that some rituals included acts of cannibalism, with the captor and his family consuming part of the flesh of their sacrificed captives, but it is not known how widespread this practice was.
While human sacrifice was practiced throughout Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, if their own accounts are to be believed, brought this practice to an unprecedented level. For example, for the reconsecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days, reportedly by Ahuitzotl, the Great Speaker himself. This number, however, is not universally accepted.
The scale of Aztec human sacrifice has provoked many scholars to consider what may have been the driving factor behind this aspect of Aztec religion. In the 1970s, Michael Harner and Marvin Harris argued that the motivation behind human sacrifice among the Aztecs was actually the cannibalization of the sacrificial victims. Harner claimed that very high population pressure and an emphasis on maize agriculture, without domesticated herbivores, led to a deficiency of essential amino acids amongst the Aztecs. While there is universal agreement that the Aztecs practiced sacrifice, there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism was widespread. Harris, author of Cannibals and Kings, has propagated the claim, originally proposed by Harner, that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins. These claims have been refuted by Bernard Ortíz Montellano who, in his studies of Aztec health, diet, and medicine, demonstrates that while the Aztec diet was low in animal proteins, it was rich in vegetable proteins. Ortiz also points to the preponderance of human sacrifice during periods of food abundance following harvests compared to periods of food scarcity, the insignificant quantity of human protein available from sacrifices and the fact that aristocrats already had easy access to animal protein. Today many scholars point to ideological explanations of the practice, noting how the public spectacle of sacrificing warriors from conquered states was a major display of political power, supporting the claim of the ruling classes to divine authority. It also served as an important deterrent against rebellion by subjugated polities against the Aztec state, and such deterrents were crucial in order for the loosely organized empire to cohere.
The Aztecs did not have a fully developed writing system like the Maya did, but like the Maya and Zapotec they did use a writing system that combined logographic signs with phonetic syllable signs. Logograms would for example be the use of an image of a mountain to signify the word tepetl "mountain '', whereas a phonetic syllable sign would be the use of an image of a tooth tlantli to signify the syllable tla in words unrelated to teeth. The combination of these principles allowed the Aztecs to represent the sounds of names of persons and places. Narratives tended to be represented through sequences of images, using different iconographic conventions such as footprints to show paths, temples on fire to show conquest events etc.
Epigrapher Alfonso Lacadena has demonstrated that the different syllable signs used by the Aztecs almost enabled the representation of all the most frequent syllables of the Nahuatl language (with some notable exceptions), but some scholars have argued that such a high degree of phoneticity was only achieved after the conquest when the Aztecs had been introduced to the principles of phonetic writing by the Spanish. Other scholars, notably Gordon Whittaker, have argued that the syllabic and phonetic aspects of Aztec writing were considerably less systematic and more creative than Lacadena 's proposal suggests, arguing that Aztec writing never coalesced into a strictly syllabic system such as the Maya writing, but rather used a wide range of different types of phonetic signs.
The image to right demonstrates the use of phonetic signs for writing place names in a colonial Aztec codex. The uppermost place is "Mapachtepec '', meaning literally "Raccoon mountain '', but the glyph includes the phonetic signs "MA '' (hand) and "PACH '' (moss) over a mountain "TEPETL '' spelling the word "mapach '' ("raccoon '') phonetically instead of logographically. The other two placenames Mazatlan ("deer place '') and Huitztlan ("thorn place '') use the phonetic element "TLAN '' represented by a tooth (tlantli) combined with a deer head to spell "MAZA '' (mazatl = deer) and a thorn (huitztli) to spell "HUITZ ''.
Song and poetry were highly regarded; there were presentations and poetry contests at most of the Aztec festivals. There were also dramatic presentations that included players, musicians and acrobats.
There were several different genres of cuicatl (song): Yaocuicatl was devoted to war and the god (s) of war, Teocuicatl to the gods and creation myths and to adoration of said figures, xochicuicatl to flowers (a symbol of poetry itself and indicative of the highly metaphorical nature of a poetry that often utilized duality to convey multiple layers of meaning). "Prose '' was tlahtolli, also with its different categories and divisions.
A key aspect of Aztec poetics was the use of parallelism, using a structure of embedded couplets to express different perspectives on the same element. Some such couplets were diphrasisms, conventional metaphors whereby an abstract concept was expressed metaphorically by using two more concrete concepts. For example the Nahuatl expression for "poetry '' was in xochitl in cuicatl a dual term meaning "the flower, the song '', and the term for visual arts was in tlilli in tlapalli -- "the black ink, the red paint.
A remarkable amount of this poetry survives, having been collected during the era of the conquest. In some cases poetry is attributed to individual authors, such as Nezahualcoyotl, tlatoani of Texcoco, and Cuacuauhtzin, Lord of Tepechpan, but whether these attributions reflect actual authorship is a matter of opinion. The most important collection of these poems is Romances de los señores de la Nueva España, collected (Tezcoco 1582), probably by Juan Bautista de Pomar. Bautista de Pomar was the great - grandson of Netzahualcoyotl. He spoke Nahuatl, but was raised a Christian and wrote in Latin characters. (See also: "Is It You? '', a short poem attributed to Netzahualcoyotl, and "Lament on the Fall of Tenochtitlan '', a short poem contained within the "Anales de Tlatelolco '' manuscript.)
Aztec visual art was produced on animal skin (mostly deer), on cotton lienzos and on Amate paper made from bark (e.g. from Trema micrantha or Ficus aurea), it was also produced on ceramics and carved in wood and stone. The surface of the material was often first treated with gesso to make the images stand out more clearly. For ceramics most designs were produced in black ink on the background of an orange slip, this "black on orange '' ware being characteristic of the Aztec period.
In the Nahua treatise on art in The Florentine Codex, the venerated painters (the toltecaye) describe the colors, how they were obtained from nature, how they were produced, and how people painted with them. According to Magaloni Kerpel in The Colors of the New World, the treatise organizes colors according to a system of "complementary polarities. '' The colors are divided into the organic (those obtained from plants and insects) and mineral (those obtained from the earth). Furthermore, saturated and vibrant colors contrasted opaque and dark colors. There was also a distinction between primary (red, blue, yellow, black, and white) and secondary colors (green, purple, brown, and ochre). Each color had a specific significance based on their raw material and their natural state. Black ink was largely used to outline colored images. Rather than mixing colors, artists would often layer them in order to make them more intense.
Lastly, most of the colorants and pigments used in the Florentine Codex were of Mesoamerican origin; however, the only European paint pigment found in the codex is minium (red lead). Minium was often so often used in European medieval illuminated manuscripts that those paintings "were called miniatures from miniare in Latin, which means ' to color with red. ' '' In the Florentine Codex, minium 's use was specific: it was used on images that describe or indicate the colonial, Spanish present as a new era of Aztec history. Minimum (the European pigment) represented the present as it was dominated by Spaniards who had one the colonial war, while nocheztli (the Mesoamerican red pigment) represented the primitive, indigenous past of New Spain. Thus, the contrast between the saturated and diluted colors were utilized to indicate two temporalities in Mesoamerican history.
Sculptures were carved in stone and wood, but few wood carvings have survived. Aztec stone sculptures exist in many sizes from small figurines to large monuments, and are characterized by a high quality of work. Ceramics was also used for large sculptures, and decorative vessels.
Most modern - day Mexicans (and people of Mexican descent in other countries) are mestizos, of mixed indigenous and European ancestry. During the 16th century the racial composition of Mexico began to change from one that featured distinct indigenous (Mexicas and members of the many other Mexican indigenous groups) and immigrant (mostly Spanish) populations, to the population composed primarily of mestizos that is found in modern - day Mexico.
The Nahuatl language is today spoken by 1.5 million people, mostly in mountainous areas in the states of central Mexico. Local dialects of Spanish, Mexican Spanish generally, and the Spanish language worldwide have all been influenced, in varying degrees, by Nahuatl. Some Nahuatl words (most notably chocolate, derived from the Nahuatl word xocolatl, and tomato) have been borrowed through Spanish into other languages around the world.
Mexico City was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, making it one of the oldest living cities of the Americas. Many of its districts and natural landmarks retain their original Nahuatl names. Many other cities and towns in Mexico and Central America have also retained their Nahuatl names (whether or not they were originally Mexica or even Nahuatl - speaking towns). A number of town names are hybrids of Nahuatl and Spanish.
Mexican cuisine continues to be based on and flavored by agricultural products contributed by the Mexicas / Aztecs and Mesoamerica, most of which retain some form of their original Nahuatl names. The cuisine has also become a popular part of the cuisine of the United States and other countries around the world, typically altered to suit various national tastes.
The modern Mexican flag bears the emblem of the Mexica migration story.
Before the development of archaeology in Mexico in the 19th century, historians mainly interpreted the records of the Spanish conquerors and the accounts of early European travellers and antiquaries who investigated the enigmatic monuments the Indians left to posterity. It was not until the nineteenth century that the work of men such as John Lloyd Stephens, Eduard Seler and Alfred P. Maudslay, and of institutions such as the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, led to a better appreciation of the evidence available. Subsequently, there emerged indigenous Mexican archaeologists of international caliber. Archaeology allowed the reconsideration and criticism of some of those interpretations and contradictions between the primary sources. Now, the scholarly study of Aztec civilization is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies.
There are few extant Aztec codices created before the conquest and these are largely ritual texts. Post-conquest codices, like Codex Mendoza or Codex Ríos, were painted by Aztec tlacuilos (codex creators), but under the control of Spanish authorities. The possibility of Spanish influence poses potential problems for those studying the post-conquest codices. Itzcoatl had the oldest hieroglyphics destroyed for political - religious reasons and Bishop Zumarraga of Mexico (1528 -- 48) had all available texts burned for missionary reasons.
The accounts of the conquistadors are those of men confronted with a new civilization, which they tried to interpret according to their own culture. Cortés was the most educated, and his letters to Charles V are a valuable firsthand account. Unfortunately, one of his letters is lost and replaced by a posterior text and the others were censored prior to their publication. In any case, Cortés was not writing a dispassionate account, but letters justifying his actions and to some extent exaggerating his successes and downplaying his failures.
Bernal Díaz del Castillo accompanied Cortes, and he later wrote a book named: The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico. In his book, Capitan Bernal Díaz del Castillo provides his account of the Conquest of Mexico, in which he describes the events leading up to the conquest of Mexico, including accounts of the human sacrifices and cannibalism that he witnessed first hand. However, Bernal Díaz wrote several decades after the fact, never learned the native languages, and did not take notes. His account is colorful, but his work is considered by historians to be erratic and exaggerated.
Although Francisco López de Gómara was Cortes ' chaplain, friend, and confidant, he never visited the New World so his account is based on hearsay.
The accounts of the first priests and scholars, while reflecting their faith and their culture, are important sources. Fathers Diego Durán, Motolinia, and Mendieta wrote with their own religion in mind, Father Duran wrote trying to prove that the Aztec were one of the lost tribes of Israel. Bartolomé de las Casas wrote apologetically about the Indians, accusing the Spanish conquistadors of committing unspeakable atrocities in their subjugation of the Aztecs and other indigenous groups. Some authors tried to make a synthesis of the pre-Hispanic cultures, like "Oviedo y Herrera '', Jose de Acosta, and Pedro Mártir de Anghiera.
The most significant source about the Aztec are doubtless the manuscripts of Bernardino de Sahagún, who worked with Christian Aztec youths from Texcoco, Azcapotzalco and Tlatelolco who studying at the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco. With his assistants he interviewed Aztec elders who had knowledge of the prehispanic customs and recorded it in a bilingual 12 volume codex written in parallel Nahuatl and Såpanish columns. The work is now known as the Florentine Codex.
Other important sources are the work of native and mestizo authors, descendants of the upper classes. These authors include Don Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc, Chimalpahin Cuauhtlehuanitzin, Juan Bautista de Pomar, and Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl. Ixtlixochitl, for example, wrote a history of Texcoco from a Christian point of view. His account of Netzahualcoyotl, an ancestor of Ixtlilxochitl 's, has a strong resemblance to the story of King Solomon and portrays Netzahualcoyotl as a monotheist and a critic of human sacrifice.
Diego Muñoz Camargo (1521 -- c. 1612), a Tlaxcalan mestizo, wrote the History of Tlaxcala six decades after the Spanish conquest. Some parts of his work have a strong Tlaxcala bias.
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wallace and gromit curse of the were rabbit xbox 360 | Wallace & Gromit: the Curse of the Were - Rabbit (video game) - wikipedia
Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were - Rabbit is a video game developed by Frontier Developments and published by Konami. It was released for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles, and for the mobile phone. A Nintendo GameCube version was in development, but it was never released. It was released in North America and Europe in September, October and December 2005 respectively, and in Japan in March 16, 2006 for the PlayStation 2. It is based on the film of the same name by Aardman Animations.
The main characters are Wallace and Gromit, whose new company, Anti-Pesto, is charged with keeping rabbits away from the upcoming Giant Vegetable Competition, which has been run by Lady Tottington 's family at Tottington Hall for 517 years.
Cards must be collected to advance through the game. These can be obtained by completing tasks given by other characters, regaining the valves from Wallace 's "Mind - O - Matic '' machine that have been stolen by Lady Tottington 's suitor, Victor Quartermaine, or by simply finding hidden cards. Residents of the game 's various districts will give tasks in exchange for cards.
The game is divided into four districts; The Town Centre, Wallersey the harbour area, Grimsley the industrial area and Tottington Hall. In each district there is at least one "arena '', an area which Anti-Pesto must clear of pests. Arenas can be revisited at night, where Wallace is replaced by Hutch, who was originally a captive rabbit but swapped roles with Wallace after an accident with Wallace 's invention, the Mind - O - Matic.
Wallace, Gromit, and Hutch each carry a primary pest catching device, The BunGun. The BunGun is used to suck up pests and shoot them into a drain. Once in the drain, the pests are transported through the sewage system into Wallace and Gromit 's basement, where they are kept captive. At nightfall, Gromit and Hutch can use the BunGun as a weapon to destroy were - creatures with a swing of the gun. Once dead, their "were energy '' is stored in the BunGun, and can be used to destroy more creatures. The were energy can also be used to stun the Were - Rabbit.
Gromit can visit Mr. Caliche 's shop, where he can purchase items to help grow the marrow that he 's preparing for the Giant Vegetable Competition.
During the night, the Were - Rabbit tends to appear at random. Gromit and Hutch must chase it down and try and stop it from escaping. However, at the end of each chase, the Were - Rabbit hops over a barbed - wire fence which Wallace / Hutch and Gromit ca n't get over until it is opened.
As the duo progress through the game, a fortune teller, Madame Winnie Bago, who befriended Wallace and Gromit after they fixed her van, offers them tips and hints to help them complete tasks successfully.
At the end of the game, if the player has grown Gromit 's marrow to its full potential, a post credits sequence plays where Lady Tottington visits Wallace & Gromit 's house and awards Gromit The Golden Carrot.
Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were - Rabbit received "average '' reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. In Japan, Famitsu gave the PlayStation 2 version a score of three sixes and one eight for a total of 26 out of 40.
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what is the meaning of the theory of relativity | Theory of relativity - wikipedia
The theory of relativity usually encompasses two interrelated theories by Albert Einstein: special relativity and general relativity. Special relativity applies to elementary particles and their interactions, describing all their physical phenomena except gravity. General relativity explains the law of gravitation and its relation to other forces of nature. It applies to the cosmological and astrophysical realm, including astronomy.
The theory transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th century, superseding a 200 - year - old theory of mechanics created primarily by Isaac Newton. It introduced concepts including spacetime as a unified entity of space and time, relativity of simultaneity, kinematic and gravitational time dilation, and length contraction. In the field of physics, relativity improved the science of elementary particles and their fundamental interactions, along with ushering in the nuclear age. With relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes, and gravitational waves.
Albert Einstein published the theory of special relativity in 1905, building on many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others did subsequent work.
Einstein developed general relativity between 1907 and 1915, with contributions by many others after 1915. The final form of general relativity was published in 1916.
The term "theory of relativity '' was based on the expression "relative theory '' (German: Relativtheorie) used in 1906 by Planck, who emphasized how the theory uses the principle of relativity. In the discussion section of the same paper, Alfred Bucherer used for the first time the expression "theory of relativity '' (German: Relativitätstheorie).
By the 1920s, the physics community understood and accepted special relativity. It rapidly became a significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of atomic physics, nuclear physics, and quantum mechanics.
By comparison, general relativity did not appear to be as useful, beyond making minor corrections to predictions of Newtonian gravitation theory. It seemed to offer little potential for experimental test, as most of its assertions were on an astronomical scale. Its mathematics seemed difficult and fully understandable only by a small number of people. Around 1960, general relativity became central to physics and astronomy. New mathematical techniques to apply to general relativity streamlined calculations and made its concepts more easily visualized. As astronomical phenomena were discovered, such as quasars (1963), the 3 - kelvin microwave background radiation (1965), pulsars (1967), and the first black hole candidates (1981), the theory explained their attributes, and measurement of them further confirmed the theory.
Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. It was introduced in Einstein 's 1905 paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies '' (for the contributions of many other physicists see History of special relativity). Special relativity is based on two postulates which are contradictory in classical mechanics:
The resultant theory copes with experiment better than classical mechanics. For instance, postulate 2 explains the results of the Michelson -- Morley experiment. Moreover, the theory has many surprising and counterintuitive consequences. Some of these are:
The defining feature of special relativity is the replacement of the Galilean transformations of classical mechanics by the Lorentz transformations. (See Maxwell 's equations of electromagnetism).
General relativity is a theory of gravitation developed by Einstein in the years 1907 -- 1915. The development of general relativity began with the equivalence principle, under which the states of accelerated motion and being at rest in a gravitational field (for example, when standing on the surface of the Earth) are physically identical. The upshot of this is that free fall is inertial motion: an object in free fall is falling because that is how objects move when there is no force being exerted on them, instead of this being due to the force of gravity as is the case in classical mechanics. This is incompatible with classical mechanics and special relativity because in those theories inertially moving objects can not accelerate with respect to each other, but objects in free fall do so. To resolve this difficulty Einstein first proposed that spacetime is curved. In 1915, he devised the Einstein field equations which relate the curvature of spacetime with the mass, energy, and any momentum within it.
Some of the consequences of general relativity are:
Technically, general relativity is a theory of gravitation whose defining feature is its use of the Einstein field equations. The solutions of the field equations are metric tensors which define the topology of the spacetime and how objects move inertially.
Einstein stated that the theory of relativity belongs to a class of "principle - theories ''. As such, it employs an analytic method, which means that the elements of this theory are not based on hypothesis but on empirical discovery. By observing natural processes, we understand their general characteristics, devise mathematical models to describe what we observed, and by analytical means we deduce the necessary conditions that have to be satisfied. Measurement of separate events must satisfy these conditions and match the theory 's conclusions.
Relativity is a falsifiable theory: It makes predictions that can be tested by experiment. In the case of special relativity, these include the principle of relativity, the constancy of the speed of light, and time dilation. The predictions of special relativity have been confirmed in numerous tests since Einstein published his paper in 1905, but three experiments conducted between 1881 and 1938 were critical to its validation. These are the Michelson -- Morley experiment, the Kennedy -- Thorndike experiment, and the Ives -- Stilwell experiment. Einstein derived the Lorentz transformations from first principles in 1905, but these three experiments allow the transformations to be induced from experimental evidence.
Maxwell 's equations -- the foundation of classical electromagnetism -- describe light as a wave that moves with a characteristic velocity. The modern view is that light needs no medium of transmission, but Maxwell and his contemporaries were convinced that light waves were propagated in a medium, analogous to sound propagating in air, and ripples propagating on the surface of a pond. This hypothetical medium was called the luminiferous aether, at rest relative to the "fixed stars '' and through which the Earth moves. Fresnel 's partial ether dragging hypothesis ruled out the measurement of first - order (v / c) effects, and although observations of second - order effects (v / c) were possible in principle, Maxwell thought they were too small to be detected with then - current technology.
The Michelson -- Morley experiment was designed to detect second - order effects of the "aether wind '' -- the motion of the aether relative to the earth. Michelson designed an instrument called the Michelson interferometer to accomplish this. The apparatus was more than accurate enough to detect the expected effects, but he obtained a null result when the first experiment was conducted in 1881, and again in 1887. Although the failure to detect an aether wind was a disappointment, the results were accepted by the scientific community. In an attempt to salvage the aether paradigm, FitzGerald and Lorentz independently created an ad hoc hypothesis in which the length of material bodies changes according to their motion through the aether. This was the origin of FitzGerald -- Lorentz contraction, and their hypothesis had no theoretical basis. The interpretation of the null result of the Michelson -- Morley experiment is that the round - trip travel time for light is isotropic (independent of direction), but the result alone is not enough to discount the theory of the aether or validate the predictions of special relativity.
While the Michelson -- Morley experiment showed that the velocity of light is isotropic, it said nothing about how the magnitude of the velocity changed (if at all) in different inertial frames. The Kennedy -- Thorndike experiment was designed to do that, and was first performed in 1932 by Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike. They obtained a null result, and concluded that "there is no effect... unless the velocity of the solar system in space is no more than about half that of the earth in its orbit ''. That possibility was thought to be too coincidental to provide an acceptable explanation, so from the null result of their experiment it was concluded that the round - trip time for light is the same in all inertial reference frames.
The Ives -- Stilwell experiment was carried out by Herbert Ives and G.R. Stilwell first in 1938 and with better accuracy in 1941. It was designed to test the transverse Doppler effect -- the redshift of light from a moving source in a direction perpendicular to its velocity -- which had been predicted by Einstein in 1905. The strategy was to compare observed Doppler shifts with what was predicted by classical theory, and look for a Lorentz factor correction. Such a correction was observed, from which was concluded that the frequency of a moving atomic clock is altered according to special relativity.
Those classic experiments have been repeated many times with increased precision. Other experiments include, for instance, relativistic energy and momentum increase at high velocities, experimental testing of time dilation, and modern searches for Lorentz violations.
General relativity has also been confirmed many times, the classic experiments being the perihelion precession of Mercury 's orbit, the deflection of light by the Sun, and the gravitational redshift of light. Other tests confirmed the equivalence principle and frame dragging.
Far from being simply of theoretical interest, relativitistic effects are important practical engineering concerns. Satellite - based measurement needs to take into account relativistic effects, as each satellite is in motion relative to an Earth - bound user and is thus in a different frame of reference under the theory of relativity. Global positioning systems such as GPS, GLONASS, and the forthcoming Galileo, must account for all of the relativistic effects, such as the consequences of Earth 's gravitational field, in order to work with precision. This is also the case in the high - precision measurement of time. Instruments ranging from electron microscopes to particle accelerators would not work if relativistic considerations were omitted.
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a new coin called rupia was issued for the first time by | Coins of the Indian rupee - wikipedia
Coins of the Indian rupee were first minted in 1950. New coins have been produced annually since then and they make up a valuable aspect of the Indian currency system. Today, circulating coins exist in denominations of ₹ 1, ₹ 2, ₹ 5, and ₹ 10. All of these are produced by four mints located across India, in Kolkata, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Noida.
After Indian independence, British Indian coins were in use as a frozen currency until India became a republic in 1950. The first rupee coins of the Republic of India were minted in 1950. These included 1 / 2 rupee, 1 / 4 rupee, 2 anna, 1 anna, 1 / 2 anna & 1 pice coins, and are referred to as the anna series or pre-decimal coinage. Under the anna series, one rupee was divided into 16 annas or 64 pice, with each anna equal to 4 pice.
In 1957, India shifted to the decimal system, though for a short period of time, both decimal and non-decimal coins were in circulation. To distinguish between the two pice coins in circulation, the coins minted between 1957 and 1964 were printed with the legend "Naya Paisa '' ("New Paisa ''). The denominations in circulation were 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 (naya) paisa and one rupee. Since rupees retained their pre-decimal value, pre-decimal coins of one, half and quarter rupees remained in circulation after decimalisation.
The word "naya '' was dropped in 1964 and a new denomination, the 3 paisa, was introduced into circulation. A 20 paisa coin was minted in 1968. Neither of these coins gained much popularity. The 1, 2 and 3 paisa coins were phased out gradually in the 1970s. In 1982, a new 2 rupee coin was introduced experimentally to replace 2 rupee notes. The 2 rupee coin was not minted again till 1990, after which it was minted every following year.
Stainless steel coinage of 10, 25 and 50 paisa was introduced in 1988. In 1992, a new stainless steel rupee coin, smaller and lighter than the older rupee, was minted, alongside a 5 rupee Cupronickel coin.
In 2005, the 10 rupee coin was minted for the first time. Higher denomination coins were introduced due to an increasing demand for change and the increasing cost of printing 2, 5 and 10 rupee banknotes.
On 30 June 2011, all coins in denominations of 25 paisa and below were officially demonetised. Commemorative coins in circulation can be found in various denominations. They depict various special events or people, including Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, B.R. Ambedkar, Rajiv Gandhi, Dnyaneshwar, the 1982 Asian Games, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhas Chandra Bose, Sri Aurobindo, Chittaranjan Das, Chhatrapati Shivaji, the 2010 Commonwealth Games, Bhagat Singh and Rabindranath Tagore.
At Independence on 15 August 1947, India was partitioned into the new British Dominions of India and Pakistan. The new Dominion (or Union) of India retained the previous imperial currency with images of British monarchs. The basic unit of currency was the Indian rupee, which was itself divided into annas (16 annas to a rupee) and pice (the old spelling of paisa - 64 pice to a rupee). The lowest - denomination Indian coins, the half - pice (128 to a rupee) and the pie (192 to a rupee) were officially demonetized in 1947; while both denominations had continued to circulate up to that time, new examples were not minted after 1942 as they were practically worthless (India remained a member of the sterling area after independence and the rupee remained pegged to the pound sterling. Until 1966, the rupee was worth 1s. 6d, or 18 old British pence; a half - pice was therefore worth 0.141 old pence and a pie 0.09 old pence.)
From 15 August 1947 until 26 January 1950, the Indian coinage structure was as follows: (bold - denominations minted)
This represented the currency arrangements during the transition period up to the establishment of the Indian Republic.
The coins used after 1947 until the introduction of Republic of India - Pre decimalisation series were as follows:
On 26 January 1950, India became a sovereign republic. This series was introduced on 15 August 1950 and represented the first coinage of Republic India. The British King 's portrait was replaced by the Lion Capital of the Ashoka Pillar. A corn sheaf replaced the Tiger on the one rupee coin. In some ways this symbolised a shift in focus to progress and prosperity. Indian motifs were incorporated on other coins. The previous monetary system and the old units of currency were retained unchanged.
The move towards decimalization was afoot for over a century. However, it was in September, 1955 that the Indian Coinage Act was amended for the country to adopt a metric system for coinage. The Act came into force with effect from 1 April 1957, after which anna and pice denominations were demonetised. The rupee remained unchanged in value and nomenclature. It, however, was now divided into 100 ' paisa ' instead of 16 annas or 64 pice. Effective from 30 June 2011, all coins in denominations of 25 paisa and below were officially demonetized.
The antiquated spelling of "pice '' was modified to "paisa '' in the singular and "paise '' in the plural. For public recognition, the new decimal paisa was termed ' Naya Paisa ' (New Paisa) till 1 June 1964 when the term ' Naya ' was dropped. The coins of 50p, 25p, 10p, 5p, 2p, and 1p had a legend in Devanagari script explaining the value of coin in terms of fraction of a rupee.
In June 1964, the term ' Naya ' was dropped and the coins were reminted. The legend in Devanagari script explaining the value of coin in terms of fraction of a Rupee continued till it was finally dropped from the new design minted 1964 onwards.
The coin minted from 1965 did not have the legend in Devanagari, explaining the value of the coin as a fraction of the rupee. Small denomination coins which were made of bronze, nickel - brass, cupro - nickel, and aluminium - bronze were gradually minted in aluminium. The first coin minted in such type was the 3 Paisa coin in 1964, which was a new denomination, and continued to be minted till 1971. One and Two paisa coins were changed to Aluminium and were minted without the Devanagari legend from 1965. 20 paisa coin was introduced in 1968, which continued to be minted till 1971.
From 1982, New series was launched. the 20 paisa coin which was last minted in 1971, was reintroduced again, but in Aluminium. The size and the design of 10 paisa, 50 paisa and 1 rupee was changed, though they continued to be minted in the same metal. Coins of 3p, 2p and 1p were discontinued but continued to be the legal tender.
In Series IV, 5 paisa and 20 paisa coins were discontinued though they continued to be minted in Series III till 1994 and 1997 respectively. 10 paisa, 25 paisa and 50 paisa coins were minted in Stainless Steel. 1992 onwards, 1 Re coin was also minted in Steel and Rs. 2 and Rs. 5 coins in Copper Nickel were introduced. The very considerable costs of managing note issues of Re 1, Rs 2, and Rs 5 led to the gradual coinage of these denominations. These coins continued to be minted till 2004, when the Unity in diversity series was launched.
Cupro - Nickel coins are not minted anymore. Ferritic Stainless Steel coins of Two and Five Rupee denominations are currently in production.
In 2004, RBI issued a series in denominations of 1 rupee, followed by 2 rupee and 10 rupee in 2005. These issues however came into circulation in 2006, and created a controversy over their design. 10 rupee coins were the first bimetallic coins issued in India, and because of the controversy and being minted in only one mint, most of the coinage never found its way into circulation. The ones which did were hoarded by Coin collectors and Coin hoarders.
Copper Nickel Center in
Aluminium Bronze ring
in 2007 RBI issued a new series of Coins, The Hasta Mudra Series, in coins of 50 paisa, 1 rupee and 2 rupee denominations. These coins are stainless steel and feature various Hasta Mudras (hand gestures in Indian Classical dance). The 5 rupee piece that features waves in its design was also issued in 2007, along with a new 10 rupee coin. However, the design of the 10 rupee piece changed in 2008. The 5 rupee coin design was again reverted to the previous design, though it was issued in Nickel - brass instead of Copper - nickel. However, these 5 rupee and 10 rupee coins were not the part of the Hasta Mudra series.
The 5 rupee and 10 rupee coins were issued for common circulation in 2007, 2008, 2009 with changed designs and continued to be minted until the introduction of the Rupee Symbol series in 2011.
Copper Nickel Center in Aluminium Bronze ring
In 2011, RBI issued a series in denominations of 50p, ₹ 1, ₹ 2, ₹ 5, and ₹ 10. The 50p, ₹ 1, ₹ 2, and ₹ 5 designs are identical except the absence of the rupee symbol in 50p coin. The ₹ 10 coin continued to be issued in bimetallic issues as previously.
Ten rupees
Copper Nickel Center in
Aluminium Bronze ring
Five Rupees
Two Rupees
One Rupee
Fifty paisa
Because of the increasing demand for coins, the Indian government was forced to mint coins in foreign countries at various points in the country 's history.
Mints in Daegu, Korea, Slovakia (Kremnca), and Russia (Moscow) have also been used.
The first Indian commemorative coin was issued in 1964 to mourn the death of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India. Since then, numerous coins of these type on almost all denomination from 5 paisa to 10 rupees have been issued. These coins based on famous personalities (usually issued on their birth or death centenary, or in rare cases on their death), government programmes and social messages.
Commemorative coins are made at various mints across India including the ones at Mumbai, Noida, Kolkata and Hyderabad.
The first commemorative coins was dated 1964 and had a bust of Jawaharlal Nehru on observe and was issued in one and half rupee.
Note: Bold Marks are Silver Coins, Mint index: K = Kolkata (no mark), H = Hyderabad (⋆), M = Mumbai (or B), Noida = ().
The two - rupee coin issued from 2006 by the Reserve Bank, in stark contrast to the earlier coin, is rounded and simpler in design, without the map of India. The coin has already been criticized for being difficult to recognize by the visually impaired. Most controversially, it features an equal - armed cross with the beams divided into two rays and with dots between adjacent beams. According to RBI, this design represents "four heads sharing a common body '' under a new "unity in diversity '' theme. However, Hindu nationalists have charged that the symbol is a Christian cross resembling the symbol on the deniers issued by Louis the Pious.
India 's much awaited first ever bimetallic 10 rupee coin was released in 2005 under the theme "Unity in Diversity ''. But, due to its controversial design resembling a cross, it was criticised and was not minted in large numbers. Another reason for its availability being scarce is that it was minted only in one (Noida) of four mints in India. Coin dealers and the public who got this coin hoarded it and it never came into circulation. It is available for sale on some auction websites, but the price of this coin is very high in comparison to its denomination due to the uncertain number of issued coins. Some coin sellers claim that this coin is a limited edition. However, official information is not yet available on the number of mintage. A press release from Reserve Bank of India mentioned that there will be two themes of 10 rupee coins: "Unity in Diversity '' and "Connectivity and Information technology ''. From 2008 coins based on the second theme, "Connectivity and Information technology '', were also released. The coin depicts 15 rays above the numeric 10. It was again minted only by the Noida mint and was not easily available in circulation. From 2011, the same theme was continued with a slight design change showing 10 rays instead of the earlier 15 and the introduction of the new Re symbol. Now it is being minted in all four mints, which are Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, and Noida. Apart from these definitive coins, 10 rupee bi-metallic commemorative coins have also been released as follows: 2008 -- Tri Centenary of Gur - ta - Gaddi 2009 -- Homi Bhabha Birth Centenary 2010 -- RBI Platinum Jubilee 2012 -- 60 Years of Parliament 's first sitting.
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what caused the collapse of the egyptian empire | Ancient Egypt - wikipedia
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in the place that is now the country Egypt. Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often identified with Narmer). The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.
Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom, ruling much of Nubia and a sizable portion of the Near East, after which it entered a period of slow decline. During the course of its history Egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers, including the Hyksos, the Libyans, the Nubians, the Assyrians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians under the command of Alexander the Great. The Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom, formed in the aftermath of Alexander 's death, ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty, made with the Hittites. Ancient Egypt has left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. A new - found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.
The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization. Nomadic modern human hunter - gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region.
In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated.
By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert; it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper.
The Badari was followed by the Amratian (Naqada I) and Gerzeh (Naqada II) cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast. Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. Establishing a power center at Nekhen (in Greek, Hierakonpolis), and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the western desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean and Near East to the east.
The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal - use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language.
The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian - Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam. The third - century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He chose to begin his official history with the king named "Meni '' (or Menes in Greek) who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt (around 3100 BC).
The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette, in a symbolic act of unification. In the Early Dynastic Period about 3150 BC, the first of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which he could control the labour force and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labour, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.
Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population, made possible by a well - developed central administration. Some of ancient Egypt 's crowning achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order.
With the rising importance of central administration in Egypt a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of Egypt, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. As the power of the pharaohs diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the office of pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC, is believed to have caused the country to enter the 140 - year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.
After Egypt 's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country 's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small - scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the pharaoh, used their new - found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer -- which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes. In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period.
Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and political power. By 2160 BC, rulers in Herakleopolis controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in Thebes, the Intef family, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the northern Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.
The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country 's stability and prosperity, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects. Mentuhotep II and his Eleventh Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty around 1985 BC, shifted the nation 's capital to the city of Itjtawy, located in Faiyum. From Itjtawy, the pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far - sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls - of - the - Ruler '', to defend against foreign attack.
With the pharaohs having secured the country militarily and politically and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal, the nation 's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom displayed an increase in expressions of personal piety. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style. The relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical sophistication.
The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat III, allowed Semitic - speaking Canaanite settlers from the Near East into the Delta region to provide a sufficient labour force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with severe Nile floods later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties. During this decline, the Canaanite settlers began to assume greater control of the Delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as the Hyksos.
Around 1785 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened, a Western Asian people called the Hyksos, who had already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and established their capital at Avaris, forcing the former central government to retreat to Thebes. The pharaoh was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. The Hyksos ("foreign rulers '') retained Egyptian models of government and identified as pharaohs, thereby integrating Egyptian elements into their culture. They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow and the horse - drawn chariot.
After retreating south, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos ' Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the south. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555 BC. The pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ultimately able to defeat the Nubians to the south of Egypt, but failed to defeat the Hyksos. That task fell to Kamose 's successor, Ahmose I, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos ' presence in Egypt. He established a new dynasty and, in the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the pharaohs, who sought to expand Egypt 's borders and attempted to gain mastery of the Near East.
The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the Mitanni Empire, Assyria, and Canaan. Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen.
Between their reigns, Hatshepsut, a queen who established herself as pharaoh, launched many building projects, including restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos, and sent trading expenditions to Punt and the Sinai. When Tuthmosis III died in 1425 BC, Egypt had an empire extending from Niya in north west Syria to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood.
The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large - scale building campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built.
Around 1350 BC, the stability of the New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted the previously obscure sun deity Aten as the supreme deity, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and moved the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern - day Amarna). He was devoted to his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned and the traditional religious order restored. The subsequent pharaohs, Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb, worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten 's heresy, now known as the Amarna Period.
Around 1279 BC, Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history. A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh (in modern Syria) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty, around 1258 BC.
Egypt 's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the Libyan Berbers to the west, and the Sea Peoples, a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the Aegean Sea. Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern Canaan, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and civil unrest. After regaining their power, the high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.
Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078 BC, Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The south was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name only. During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945 BC, founding the so - called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in Leontopolis, and Kushites threatened from the south. Around 727 BC the Kushite king Piye invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta.
Egypt 's far - reaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen under the Assyrian sphere of influence, and by 700 BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667 BC the Assyrians began their attack on Egypt. The reigns of both Taharqa and his successor, Tanutamun, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians, against whom Egypt enjoyed several victories. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and sacked the temples of Thebes.
The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty - Sixth Dynasty. By 653 BC, the Saite king Psamtik I was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt 's first navy. Greek influence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the powerful Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from Iran, leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. A few successful revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.
Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the Twenty - Seventh dynasty, ended in 402 BC, when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties. The last of these dynasties, the Thirtieth, proved to be the last native royal house of ancient Egypt, ending with the kingship of Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the Thirty - First Dynasty, began in 343 BC, but shortly after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to Alexander the Great without a fight.
In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander 's successors, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered at the famous Library of Alexandria. The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city -- as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue - generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.
Hellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time - honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of Ptolemy IV. In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.
Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.
Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.
From the mid-first century AD, Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from Egyptian Religion and Greco - Roman religion and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out. In 391 the Christian Emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples. Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed. As a consequence, Egypt 's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population certainly continued to speak their language, the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert.
In the fourth century, as the Roman Empire divided, Egypt found itself in the Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople. In the waning years of the Empire, Egypt fell to the Sassanid Persian army (618 -- 628 AD), was recaptured by the Roman Emperor Heraclius (629 -- 639 AD), and then was finally captured by Muslim Rashidun army in 639 -- 641 AD, ending Roman rule.
The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme military commander and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the vizier, who acted as the king 's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the archives. At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they houses of worship, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the nation 's wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries administered by overseers, who redistributed grain and goods.
Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use coinage until the Late period, they did use a type of money - barter system, with standard sacks of grain and the deben, a weight of roughly 91 grams (3 oz) of copper or silver, forming a common denominator. Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn 51⁄2 sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn 71⁄2 sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140 deben. Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list. During the fifth century BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.
Egyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system. Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class '' in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. Slavery was known in ancient Egypt, but the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear.
The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes except slaves, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress. Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated by doctors in the workplace. Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices and opportunities for achievement. Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as Divine Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egyptian women did not often take part in official roles in the administration, served only secondary roles in the temples, and were not as likely to be as educated as men.
The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Ma'at. Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common - sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes. Local councils of elders, known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes. More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the Great Kenbet, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.
Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or impaling the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal 's family. Beginning in the New Kingdom, oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes '' or "no '' question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgment by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon.
A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.
Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river 's banks a layer of mineral - rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.
The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.
The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole. Animals, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. Poultry, such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force - fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax.
The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period. Camels, although known from the New Kingdom, were not used as beasts of burden until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest that elephants were briefly utilized in the Late Period but largely abandoned due to lack of grazing land. Dogs, cats, and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as Sub-Saharan African lions, were reserved for royalty. Herodotus observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses. During the Late Period, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess Bastet and the ibis god Thoth, and these animals were bred in large numbers on farms for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.
Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry. Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification, which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster. Ore - bearing rock formations were found in distant, inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert and the Sinai, requiring large, state - controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive gold mines in Nubia, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and gold. Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose. Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as sulfur as cosmetic substances.
The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai. Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial deposits, or by the more labor - intensive process of grinding and washing gold - bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late Period. High - quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster, and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el - Hudi.
The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian - style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty. Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.
By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with Punt provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons. Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli, which had to be imported from far - away Afghanistan. Egypt 's Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive oil. In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials, Egypt mainly exported grain, gold, linen, and papyrus, in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects.
The Egyptian language is a northern Afro - Asiatic language closely related to the Berber and Semitic languages. It has the second longest known history of any language (after Sumerian), having been written from c. 3200 BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian), Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes.
Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic language, but it became more analytic later on. Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite articles, which replaced the older inflectional suffixes. There was a change from the older verb -- subject -- object word order to subject -- verb -- object. The Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic Coptic alphabet. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church, and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic.
Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro - Asiatic languages. These include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Late Egyptian to about nine. The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the person. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton S - Ḏ - M is the semantic core of the word ' hear '; its basic conjugation is sḏm, ' he hears '. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb: sḏm ḥmt, ' the woman hears '.
Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with Arabic. The word order is predicate -- subject in verbal and adjectival sentences, and subject -- predicate in nominal and adverbial sentences. The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun. Verbs and nouns are negated by the particle n, but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).
Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day - to - day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing -- along with formal hieroglyphs -- that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.
Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs. Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt, but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean - François Champollion, were hieroglyphs substantially deciphered.
Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories. Some of the best - known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre known as Sebayt ("instructions '') was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the Ipuwer papyrus, a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval, is a famous example.
The Story of Sinuhe, written in Middle Egyptian, might be the classic of Egyptian literature. Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus, a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests. The Instruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of Near Eastern literature. Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700 BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the Greco - Roman period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses II.
Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of mud - brick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture.
The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin. Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family 's income.
Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and imported lutes and lyres from Asia. The sistrum was a rattle - like musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies.
The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. Senet, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was mehen, which had a circular gaming board. Juggling and ball games were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan. The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating as well.
The excavation of the workers village of Deir el - Medina has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world, which spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, working and living conditions of a community have been studied in such detail.
Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.
The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide - ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.
The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in Malkata and Amarna, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs. Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mud bricks. The architectural elements used in the world 's first large - scale stone building, Djoser 's mortuary complex, include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.
The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple 's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco - Roman period. The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba, a flat - roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber. The step pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock - cut tombs. The use of the pyramid form continued in private tomb chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royal pyramids of Nubia.
The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. These artistic standards -- simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth -- created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The Narmer Palette, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs. Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.
Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.
Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art, such as shabti statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife. During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.
Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan - style frescoes were found in Avaris. The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the Amarna period, where figures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten 's revolutionary religious ideas. This style, known as Amarna art, was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten 's death and replaced by the traditional forms.
Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system. These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.
Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king 's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god 's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos. After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh 's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.
The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or aspects. In addition to the body, each person had a šwt (shadow), a ba (personality or soul), a ka (life - force), and a name. The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become one of the "blessed dead '', living on as an akh, or "effective one ''. For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "feather of truth ''. If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form.
The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by mummification, performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife. Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars.
By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.
Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. Funerary texts were often included in the grave, and, beginning in the New Kingdom, so were shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife. Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.
The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt 's domination in the ancient Near East. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant.
Typical military equipment included bows and arrows, spears, and round - topped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the Khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers. The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons, did do so. However, it has also been argued that "kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, fighting alongside their troops. '' Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt.
In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional empiricism, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri (c. 1600 BC), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system.
Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper. The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment.
The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently. It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.
The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone - ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to abscesses (though caries were rare).
The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted periodontal disease. Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence. Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one - third of the population died in infancy.
Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such as Imhotep, remained famous long after their deaths. Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye - doctors and dentists. Training of physicians took place at the Per Ankh or "House of Life '' institution, most notably those headquartered in Per - Bastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments.
Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection, while opium thyme and belladona were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddess Isis. Moldy bread, honey and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred.
Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding as early as 3000 BC. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the oldest planked ships known are the Abydos boats. A group of 14 discovered ships in Abydos were constructed of wooden planks "sewn '' together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of New York University, woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000 BC was 75 feet (23 m) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh, perhaps one as early as Hor - Aha.
Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch for caulking the seams. The "Khufu ship '', a 43.6 - metre (143 ft) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500 BC, is a full - size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a solar barque. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints.
Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especially Byblos (on the coast of modern - day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the Land of Punt. In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a "Byblos Ship '', which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination.
In 2011 archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt excavating a dried - up lagoon known as Mersa Gawasis have unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages like Hatshepsut 's Punt expedition onto the open ocean. Some of the site 's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians ' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles. And in 2013 a team of Franco - Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world 's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Cheops on the Red Sea coast near Wadi el - Jarf (about 110 miles south of Suez).
In 1977, an ancient north - south canal dating to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt was discovered extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes. It was dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.
The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period, and show a fully developed numeral system. The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain. Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations -- addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division -- use fractions, compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids, and calculate the surface areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations.
Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively. Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to write fractions as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fraction two - fifths into the sum of one - third + one - fifteenth. Standard tables of values facilitated this. Some common fractions, however, were written with a special glyph -- the equivalent of the modern two - thirds is shown on the right.
Ancient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem, knowing, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 3 -- 4 -- 5 ratio. They were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting one - ninth from its diameter and squaring the result:
a reasonable approximation of the formula π r.
The golden ratio seems to be reflected in many Egyptian constructions, including the pyramids, but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.
Greek historian Herodotus claimed that ancient Egyptians looked like the people in Colchis (modern - day Georgia). This claim has been largely discredited as fictional by modern - day scholars.
For the fact is as I soon came to realise myself, and then heard from others later, that the Colchians are obviously Egyptian. When the notion occurred to me, I asked both the Colchians and the Egyptians about it, and found that the Colchians had better recall of the Egyptians than the Egyptians did of them. Some Egyptians said that they thought the Colchians originated with Sesostris ' army, but I myself guessed their Egyptian origin not only because the Colchians are dark - skinned and curly - haired (which does not count for much by itself, because these features are common in others too) but more importantly because Colchians, Egyptians and Ethiopians are the only peoples in the world who practise circumcision and who have always done so.
A team led by Johannes Krause managed the first reliable sequencing of the genomes of 90 mummified individuals in 2017. Whilst not conclusive, because of the non-exhaustive time frame and restricted location that the mummies represent, their study nevertheless showed that these ancient Egyptians "closely resembled ancient and modern Near Eastern populations, especially those in the Levant, and had almost no DNA from sub-Saharan Africa. What 's more, the genetics of the mummies remained remarkably consistent even as different powers -- including Nubians, Greeks, and Romans -- conquered the empire. '' Later, however, something did alter the genomes of Egyptians. Some 15 % to 20 % of modern Egyptians ' DNA reflects sub-Saharan ancestry, but the ancient mummies had only 6 - 15 % sub-Saharan DNA.
The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. The cult of the goddess Isis, for example, became popular in the Roman Empire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome. The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect Egyptian - style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.
During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul - Nun al - Misri and al - Maqrizi. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities.
Although the European colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a significant portion of the country 's historical legacy, some foreigners left more positive marks. Napoleon, for example, arranged the first studies in Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt 's natural history, which was published in the Description de l'Égypte.
In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavations, which are aimed at finding information rather than treasure. The council also supervises museums and monument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt.
Tourists at the pyramid complex of Khafre near the Great Sphinx of Giza
Frontispiece of Description de l'Égypte, published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829.
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ozone layer is found in the range of | Ozone layer - wikipedia
The Ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth 's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation. It contains high concentrations of ozone (O) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth 's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 kilometers (12 to 19 mi) above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. Measurements of the sun showed that the radiation sent out from its surface and reaching the ground on Earth is usually consistent with the spectrum of a black body with a temperature in the range of 5,500 -- 6,000 K (5,227 to 5,727 ° C), except that there was no radiation below a wavelength of about 310 nm at the ultraviolet end of the spectrum. It was deduced that the missing radiation was being absorbed by something in the atmosphere. Eventually the spectrum of the missing radiation was matched to only one known chemical, ozone. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G.M.B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958, Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day. The "Dobson unit '', a convenient measure of the amount of ozone overhead, is named in his honor.
The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun 's medium - frequency ultraviolet light (from about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength), which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life forms near the surface.
In 1976 atmospheric research revealed that the ozone layer was being depleted by chemicals released by industry, mainly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Concerns that increased UV radiation due to ozone depletion threatened life on Earth, including increased skin cancer in humans and other ecological problems, led to bans on the chemicals, and the latest evidence is that ozone depletion has slowed or stopped. The United Nations General Assembly has designated September 16 as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer.
Venus also has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 kilometers from the planet 's surface.
The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by the British physicist Sydney Chapman in 1930. Ozone in the Earth 's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking ordinary oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O to create ozone, O. The ozone molecule is unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long - lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O and an individual atom of oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone - oxygen cycle. Chemically, this can be described as:
About 90 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 kilometres (66,000 and 131,000 ft), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only 3 millimetres (⁄ inch) thick.
Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the sun. Extremely short or vacuum UV (10 -- 100 nm) is screened out by nitrogen. UV radiation capable of penetrating nitrogen is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV - A (400 -- 315 nm), UV - B (315 -- 280 nm), and UV - C (280 -- 100 nm).
UV - C, which is very harmful to all living things, is entirely screened out by a combination of dioxygen (< 200 nm) and ozone (> about 200 nm) by around 35 kilometres (115,000 ft) altitude. UV - B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause cataracts, immune system suppression, and genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer (which absorbs from about 200 nm to 310 nm with a maximal absorption at about 250 nm) is very effective at screening out UV - B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the Earth 's surface. Nevertheless, some UV - B, particularly at its longest wavelengths, reaches the surface, and is important for the skin 's production of vitamin D.
Ozone is transparent to most UV - A, so most of this longer - wavelength UV radiation reaches the surface, and it constitutes most of the UV reaching the Earth. This type of UV radiation is significantly less harmful to DNA, although it may still potentially cause physical damage, premature aging of the skin, indirect genetic damage, and skin cancer.
The thickness of the ozone layer varies worldwide and is generally thinner near the equator and thicker near the poles. Thickness refers to how much ozone is in a column over a given area and varies from season to season. The reasons for these variations are due to atmospheric circulation patterns and solar intensity.
The majority of ozone is produced over the tropics and is transported towards the poles by stratospheric wind patterns. In the northern hemisphere these patterns, known as the Brewer - Dobson circulation, make the ozone layer thickest in the spring and thinnest in the fall. When ozone in produced by solar UV radiation in the tropics, it is done so by circulation lifting ozone - poor air out of the troposphere and into the stratosphere where the sun photolyzes oxygen molecules and turns them into ozone. Then, the ozone - rich air is carried to higher latitudes and drops into lower layers of the atmosphere.
Research has found that the ozone levels in the United States are highest in the spring months of April and May and lowest in October. While the total amount of ozone increases moving from the tropics to higher latitudes, the concentrations are greater in high northern latitudes than in high southern latitudes, due to the ozone hole phenomenon. The highest amounts of ozone are found over the Arctic during the spring months of March and April, but the Antarctic has their lowest amounts of ozone during their summer months of September and October,
The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N O), hydroxyl (OH), atomic chlorine (Cl), and atomic bromine (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these species, the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man - made organohalogen compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and bromofluorocarbons. These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the stratosphere, where Cl and Br radicals are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone - depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities.
The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth 's surface at a higher intensity. Ozone levels have dropped by a worldwide average of about 4 percent since the late 1970s. For approximately 5 percent of the Earth 's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as "ozone holes ''. The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced by Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin, in a paper which appeared in Nature on May 16, 1985.
To support successful regulation attempts, the ozone case was communicated to lay persons "with easy - to - understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture '' and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance ''. The specific metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) proved quite useful and, compared to global climate change, the ozone case was much more seen as a "hot issue '' and imminent risk. Lay people were cautious about a depletion of the ozone layer and the risks of skin cancer.
In 1978, the United States, Canada and Norway enacted bans on CFC - containing aerosol sprays that damage the ozone layer. The European Community rejected an analogous proposal to do the same. In the U.S., chlorofluorocarbons continued to be used in other applications, such as refrigeration and industrial cleaning, until after the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985. After negotiation of an international treaty (the Montreal Protocol), CFC production was capped at 1986 levels with commitments to long - term reductions. This allowed for a ten - year phase - in for developing countries (identified in Article 5 of the protocol). Since that time, the treaty was amended to ban CFC production after 1995 in the developed countries, and later in developing countries. Today, all of the world 's 197 countries have signed the treaty. Beginning January 1, 1996, only recycled and stockpiled CFCs were available for use in developed countries like the US. This production phaseout was possible because of efforts to ensure that there would be substitute chemicals and technologies for all ODS uses.
On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer may be slowing down because of the international regulation of ozone - depleting substances. In a study organized by the American Geophysical Union, three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper - atmosphere ozone - depletion rate slowed down significantly during the previous decade. Some breakdown can be expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases which are already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes, ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016.
Compounds containing C -- H bonds (such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs) have been designed to replace CFCs in certain applications. These replacement compounds are more reactive and less likely to survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere where they could affect the ozone layer. While being less damaging than CFCs, HCFCs can have a negative impact on the ozone layer, so they are also being phased out. These in turn are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds that do not destroy stratospheric ozone at all.
The residual effects of CFCs accumulating within the atmosphere lead to a concentration gradient between the atmosphere and the ocean. This organohalogen compound is able to dissolve into the ocean 's surface waters and is able to act as a time - dependent tracer. This tracer helps scientists study ocean circulation by tracing biological, physical and chemical pathways
As ozone in the atmosphere prevents most energetic ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the Earth, astronomical data in these wavelengths have to be gathered from satellites orbiting above the atmosphere and ozone layer. Most of the light from young hot stars is in the ultraviolet and so study of these wavelengths is important for studying the origins of galaxies. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer, GALEX, is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, which operated until early 2012.
This GALEX image of the Cygnus Loop nebula could not have been taken from the surface of the Earth because the ozone layer blocks the ultra-violet radiation emitted by the nebula.
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names of characters in the things they carried | List of Asterix characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters in the Asterix comics.
Asterix, Obelix and Dogmatix are the first characters with short descriptions usually listed at the beginning of each of the Asterix books (after the map of Gaul). They each have separate articles containing more information. Unless otherwise stated, this article uses the names chosen for the English translations of the books.
Asterix is the main character. He is a brave, intelligent and shrewd warrior of somewhat diminutive size, who eagerly volunteers for all perilous missions.
Obelix is Asterix 's closest friend and works as a menhir sculptor and delivery man. He is a tall, obese man (he refers to himself as "well - padded '' and will immediately knock out anyone who calls him "fat '') with two notable attributes: his phenomenal strength and his voracious appetite for food, especially wild boar. His strength results from having fallen into Getafix 's magic potion cauldron as a baby. As a consequence, Getafix will not let him take additional potion for fear of side effects (for example, turning into stone, as shown in Asterix and Obelix all at Sea), something that Obelix finds immensely unfair. The only exception was in Asterix and Cleopatra when they were trapped in a pyramid and Getafix allows him to have three drops of the magic potion. Obelix 's size is often the brunt of many jokes. In Asterix and the Big Fight, a druid mistakes Obelix for a patient with an eating disorder. At the end of the book, Obelix decides to go on a diet, but quickly goes back to eating huge quantities of boar.
Dogmatix is Obelix 's pet dog. Unlike his immense master, Dogmatix is very tiny, but he can have a nasty temper. Dogmatix loves nature and hates to see trees suffer. (Obelix once mentions that this is because Dogmatix likes to urinate on them.) Dogmatix met Asterix and Obelix in Lutetia (in Asterix and the Banquet) and followed them all the way around Gaul until Obelix finally noticed him when they reached the village and Dogmatix barked behind him. Since then, Obelix has become very affectionate toward Dogmatix. In Asterix and the Chieftain 's Shield, Obelix gets angry with hungry people who try to take Dogmatix 's bone and insists they will be punished if they try to take advantage of his dog. Dogmatix is relatively intelligent, and is particularly good as a hunting dog. His most noteworthy moments were rescuing Asterix, Obelix and Getafix from entrapment in Cleopatra, finding the captured Asterix in Great Crossing, and locating the much needed desert petroleum in Black Gold.
At the beginning of most of the Asterix books, immediately after the map of Gaul, and before the narrative starts, there is a standard description of the main characters above, as well as Getafix, Cacofonix and Vitalstatistix (regardless of their importance in that particular book).
Getafix is the village druid. In appearance, he is tall with a long white beard, white robe, red cloak. He is usually seen in possession of a small golden sickle. While his age is never stated, in the story of Asterix 's birth (in which all but the oldest villagers are seen as small children), he appears unchanged. In Asterix and the Big Fight, the druid Psychoanalytix (who appears quite old) refers to him as his elder and teacher. In Asterix and Obelix 's Birthday: The Golden Book, as a gag, Getafix at 50 years older appears to be frail and old, while in the other books, he appeared healthy.
Although known for his strength - enhancing magic potion, he has many other magical and medicinal potions at his disposal, including a potion to make hair grow quickly, a potion to counteract poison, one that neutralizes a drug that would kill in a matter of days, and a potion that restores a person to full health after injury (although this potion also causes the person who takes it to lose their recent memories while also interacting badly with the magic potion). Aside from making the potion, he also acts as the village doctor and occasional teacher. Asterix (and most other villagers) will consult him whenever anything strange occurs. He does not engage normally himself in combat, whereas most of the villagers enjoy a good punch - up (even with each other). One exception is one of the stories explaining Gaulish women, using Mrs. Geriatrix as an example, in which he involves himself in a fight sparked by Impedimenta. The final cut is shown with all the male villagers and two females, Impedimenta and Bacteria included, with Getafix running to stop the fight, with a piece of fish flying towards him. His most notable brawl is when, masquerading as a cook in The Great Divide, he makes and partakes of the magic potion (passing it off as soup) to free the enslaved men from the divided village, captured by the Romans -- and doing a test run on the slaves who were present -- and then starts distributing slaps with obvious enjoyment.
As the only individual able to produce the "magic potion '' upon which the villagers rely for their strength, he is the focus of many stories, ranging from the Romans attempting to put him out of commission in some manner to requesting that Asterix and Obelix help him find some missing ingredient, and the conscience of the village. On a few occasions, he has refused to make the potion when the villagers become too selfish, including in Asterix and Caesar 's Gift, where he refused to provide the potion for anyone while the village was divided by an upcoming vote for a new chief, only to provide them with it once again when Vitalstatistix asked Getafix to provide the potion for Orthopedix, the man he had been running against for chief. He has also occasionally been taken prisoner by hostile forces to get access to the potion, only to be freed again thanks to Asterix and Obelix. The full recipe of the magic potion itself has never been revealed, but known ingredients are mistletoe (which must be cut with a golden sickle (Asterix and the Golden Sickle)), a whole lobster (an optional ingredient that improves the flavour), fresh fish, salt, and petroleum (called rock oil in the book), which is later replaced by beetroot juice. Replenishing the stores of ingredients for the magic potion has led to some adventures for Asterix and Obelix, including Asterix and the Great Crossing and Asterix and the Black Gold.
Getafix is very similar to many wise old men who act as mentors and father - figures to the heroes, such as Merlin or Gandalf. In the earlier books however, Getafix came across more as just a friend of the protagonists rather than a wise old counselor. He was also, from the very beginning, shown as a figure of fun and had a wonderful sense of humour: in Asterix the Gaul, he keeps cutting his finger while using his sickle and roars with uncontrollable laughter at Asterix 's teasing of the Roman Centurion; in Asterix and the Big Fight, he was shown as going literally crazy; and he 's not above making the occasional bad pun (such as in Asterix and the Great Divide, when one of the village 's frequent "stale fish '' fights prompts him to observe that the villagers may soon discover nuclear "fish - ion '').
Chief Vitalstatistix is the chief of the Gaulish village. He is a middle - aged, bigbellied man with red hair, pigtails and a huge moustache. He is generally reasonable, well - informed, fearless, (comparatively) even - tempered and unambitious -- the last much to the chagrin of his wife Impedimenta. His major failings are his love of good food and drink (it is unlikely to be a coincidence that his wife is the best cook in the village) -- which has led to health problems -- and his pride. As a Gaulish chief, he prefers to travel on a shield, carried by two shield bearers (they say pride comes before a fall... and he finds creative new ways to fall off the shield in almost every book). The names of the shield bearers are never mentioned.
Vitalstatistix fought at the battle of Alesia where Caesar (almost) completed his conquest of Gaul, before becoming chief of the village. In Asterix and the Chieftain 's Shield, it was revealed that the shield he is carried on originally belonged to the legendary Gaulish warrior chief Vercingetorix. His father was the village chief before him. He has a brother, Doublehelix, in Lutetia who has a young daughter and a son, Justforkix.
The introduction to each story states that Vitalstatistix has only one fear "that the sky may fall on his head tomorrow ''; however, he rarely alludes to this in an actual story, and then only as a rallying cry: "We have nothing to fear but... ''. This characteristic is based on a real historical account where Gallic chieftains were asked by Alexander the Great what they were most afraid of in all the world, and replied that their worst fear was that the sky might fall on their heads.
Although the chief of the village, his role in most plots is usually minor, commonly featuring him granting Asterix and Obelix permission to go on their latest missions, although he has shown a greater involvement in stories such as Asterix and the Big Fight when he had to battle a rival chieftain, Asterix and the Chieftain 's Shield when he traveled to a health spa on Getafix 's orders to cure a liver complaint and to lose weight, Asterix in Belgium, where he traveled to Belgium to defend his honor when Caesar apparently proclaimed that the Belgians were the bravest of all the Gaulish peoples, or Asterix and Caesar 's Gift, where he ran against a new arrival in the village for the position of chief.
From Asterix and Caesar 's Gift onwards, Vitalstatistix has had the same (unnamed) bearers carry (and drop) him; prior to that, he had different bearers in each album. In Asterix in Switzerland, he fires both his shield bearers after he tells them that it is a lovely day, and they look up, tipping the shield back and dropping the chief in the process. He then goes and hires new shield bearers including Asterix, Geriatrix, Fulliautomatix and Obelix (in these cases the shield is horribly tilted so he is forced to stand on a slant, and Obelix carried him with one hand like a waiter). The introduction page varies between showing the bearers straining under Vitalstatistix ' not inconsiderable bulk as he looks into the distance in some of the books, while in others he looks at them in good humour as they look up to him in respect.
Impedimenta is the matriarchal wife of chief Vitalstatistix, leader of the village wives and the best cook in the village. She is often disappointed with the other villagers (calling them barbarians) and wishes Vitalstatistix was more ambitious. Consequently, she zealously defends and flaunts every privilege due to her as first lady of the village, such as skipping the queue at the fishmongers. She frequently says she wants to go back to Lutetia and live with her successful merchant brother, Homeopathix -- the one member of the family her husband openly dislikes.
She nicknamed Vitalstatistix "Piggywiggy '' when they were courting, and starts doing this again in Asterix and the Soothsayer as a plan to make Asterix and Obelix erupt in hysterical laughter when she calls him by that name in front of them, thus irritating him and making him punish them by forcing them to stay in the village, away from the soothsayer.
On occasion she has an antagonistic rivalry with Mrs. Geriatrix that has erupted into violence. One such occasion was in Asterix and the Magic Carpet where the two beat each other with fish from Unhygenix 's store over the fakir Watziznehm 's carpet.
While usually presented in the books as a nag to her embarrassed husband, she has on occasion fought the Romans side by side with the men, typically using her rolling pin as a weapon. In emergencies, she 's famous for remaining in control, as in Asterix and Son where during a Roman attack she fearless led the women and children out of the burning village.
Her name appears to derive directly from the Latin military term "impedimenta '' -- "baggage ''.
Cacofonix is the village bard. He is usually only a supporting character, but has a major part in the plots of some albums (see Asterix and the Normans, Asterix the Gladiator, Asterix and the Magic Carpet, The Mansions of the Gods and Asterix and the Secret Weapon). He loves singing and playing his lyre, and jumps at every opportunity to do so. He also plays the bagpipes, drum and a Celtic trumpet resembling a boar called a Carnyx. While he can accompany traditional dances, and conducts a village band, his singing is unbearable. In Asterix and the Normans it is so unbearable that it teaches the fearless Normans the meaning of fear. In recent albums his music is so spectacularly horrible that it actually starts thunderstorms (even indoors), because of an old French saying that bad singing causes rain.
For his part, Cacofonix considers himself a genius and a superb singer, and he is angrily offended when people criticize his singing, to the point of dismissing them as barbarians. He is slightly effeminate, often seen smoothing back his hair and holding his head up high.
Some villagers go to extreme lengths to avoid hearing Cacofonix 's music. Most notably, Fulliautomatix, the village smith, bangs him on the head at the merest hint of breaking into a song, and has destroyed his lyre on a number of occasions, at one point being called the "ancestor of music critics ''. As a running gag, Cacofonix is generally tied up and gagged during the banquet at the end of most albums to allow the other villagers to have a good time without having to keep him from singing. He is nonetheless well liked when not singing.
In contrast to the villagers, some of the younger outsiders whom Cacofonix has met do appreciate his "talent '': Justforkix (in Asterix and the Normans) actually encouraged Cacofonix to think seriously about moving to Lutetia where he claimed the bard 's way with music would be enjoyed; Pepe (in Asterix in Spain) liked it because it reminded him of home (the goats bleating in his village); and Princess Orinjade (in Asterix and the Magic Carpet) expressed similar enthusiasm, though it was perhaps in gratitude for his music having saved her from being sacrificed.
Unlike the other villagers, whose huts are on the ground, Cacofonix 's hut is perched up in a tree. Ostensibly this is so that he can act as a lookout to warn the other villagers of imminent invasion, but the real reason is to let him practise his music as far from everyone as possible. It has been felled several times, often by Obelix, but has been replanted, or restored by Getafix 's magic acorns (in The Mansions of the Gods).
In the English and American adaptations of the series, he speaks in an effeminate voice.
In the animated Asterix and the Big Fight, Cacofonix is seen playing a rock song trying to restore Getafix 's memory, one occasion where Fulliautomatix and Unhygienix are not annoyed or angry with him.
He and Getafix are the village 's teachers, as only bards and druids are allowed to teach in school. He is rarely seen fighting the Romans (or even does n't join fish - fights that often) except when his personal honour is impugned and appear to be more pacifistic than the rest of the villagers. His voice apparently does not mix well with the magic potion, although in Asterix and the Magic Carpet it actually restores him to full voice. The fact that he is incredibly arrogant may also be partly to blame, as in at least one volume (Asterix and the Roman Agent) he is shown to have not even noticed the other villagers are fighting the Romans and is actually shown asking Getafix what 's going on (however, he had been suffering from a lost voice earlier in this volume and may have simply been staying in his hut while waiting to recover). In Asterix and the Missing Scroll it is revealed that he is the second stage of the village 's ' emergency measure ' if they are attacked while Getafix is absent; the first stage involves a secret supply of potion in the chief 's hut, while the second stage involves Cacofonix blowing on a very loud horn to set up a signal to alert Getafix to danger, Vitalstatistix noting that this is the main reason the village still puts up with Cacofonix.
Geriatrix is the oldest inhabitant of Asterix 's village: he is mentioned as 93 years old in Asterix at the Olympic Games (while drunk, he says he feels ten years younger, to which Asterix replies, "Well, that makes you 83, and it 's time you were in bed ''). Some translations make him no more than 80.
As an elder, Geriatrix demands respect (generally more than he is given). Nonetheless he dislikes being treated as old and will attack anyone who comments to that effect. In particular he often beats up the village blacksmith Fulliautomatix for refusing to fight back due to his age, and actually cries out to be attacked. Geriatrix is seen to sit on the village council at times, on the face of it an entitlement deriving from being the oldest in the community. An example is on p. 11 of Asterix and the Cauldron where he sits with Vitalstatistix, Cacofonix and Getafix, in deciding on Asterix 's punishment for having violated their honor code. In Asterix and the Roman Agent he acquires a club which he later uses to knock down The Mansions of the Gods.
Geriatrix is against foreigners who are not from his village. He is a veteran of the Battle of Gergovia and the Battle of Alesia, and refers to them when excited ("It 'll be just like Gergovia all over! '') or distraught ("It 's just like Alesia all over again! ''). He has an eye for the young ladies and has a very young and beautiful wife (who appears to be in her twenties) of whom he is very possessive -- particularly when Obelix is around.
In prequels such as How Obelix Fell into the Magic Potion When he was a Little Boy, in which most of the characters are children and Vitalstatistix is a slim young man, Geriatrix, along with Getafix, is unchanged.
Mrs. Geriatrix enjoys her husband 's devotion and also her status as wife of the village 's most senior inhabitant, which makes her one of the inner circle of village wives. Her youthful appearance suggests that she is less than half her husband 's age; she is also a lot taller. Although as ambitious and gossip - prone as the other wives, she has also shown herself to be very quick - witted. She is an excellent seamstress but has Geriatrix do most of the housework. She rules her home and marriage, and regularly tells her husband what to do even in direct contradiction of his own stated opinions. She does seem to be happily married, however, and the only serious conflict in her marriage is her occasional apparent interest in Obelix which makes her husband insanely jealous. On one occasion, she is offered the magic potion. She does not appear to be interested and says that it 's very fattening, while staring at Obelix. She appears to be in favour of women 's rights, as shown in Asterix and the Secret Weapon. She eagerly accepted the radical changes in the village that occurred in this story. She and Impedimenta cause a gigantic fight in "Mini Midi Maxi ''.
Unhygienix is the village fishmonger, as was his father Unhealthix before him (as seen in Asterix and the Class Act). His fish do not come from the sea near the village even though he has a fishing boat; instead they are transported all the way from Lutetia (and from Massilia in the German translations) as he believes they are of finer quality. He does not notice their smell, but most of the other villagers do and a lot of fights are caused by his stale fish, as when the blacksmith Fulliautomatix says: "Anyway, it (the fight) would n't have happened if they (the fish) were fresh! '' and then Unhygenix slaps him with his fish. He regularly has fights about his fish with his friend Fulliautomatix, the village blacksmith, which often escalate to involve most of the village. Fulliautomatix says the fish are stale, Unhygienix throws a fish at him, he throws it back, it hits someone else, etc., and the whole village gets into a fight. This rivalry is a family tradition -- their fathers also fought, and their children are continuing it. Despite this, his catch phrase is a scream to his wife, "Bacteria! Get the fish inside! '' or "Save the sales! '', in fights on the village he does n't want to enter (i.e. fights that are not about his fish), when villagers buy or steal his fish to fight with.
Bacteria is the wife of Unhygienix. She is one of the inner circle of village wives. She is quiet and easy - going, but does n't hesitate to say exactly what she thinks. She helps her husband run his shop, selling fish of dubious quality, and is unperturbed by the bizarre uses to which they are sometimes put. They have two sons (whose names have not been mentioned) -- one with blonde hair in Asterix in Corsica, and the other with red hair in Asterix and the Secret Weapon. In Asterix and Obelix 's Birthday: The Golden Book the blonde son is seen having taken over the shop but rather than to import the fish from Lutetia, he gets the fish he sells from the nearby sea. This displeases his father who fears that the "good name of the shop will go to waste '' that way.
Fulliautomatix is the village smith. His father, Semiautomatix, was the village smith before him. He is tall and robust, and very strong -- he is one of the strongest characters, perhaps second only to Obelix, and a bit of a ruffian, especially to Cacofonix. Fulliautomatix 's first appearance was in the first volume, Asterix the Gaul, where the Roman spy was amazed that he used his fists to forge iron. However, he is subsequently shown using a normal hammer and is now rarely seen without one. A very different looking Fulliautomatix appeared in Asterix and the Banquet in which he and Obelix argue as to who should be entitled to punch the Roman that they are both engaged in hitting anyway.
Fulliautomatix often interacts with Unhygienix, the fishmonger, with whom he has a friendly rivalry. Fulliautomatix claims the fish he sells are stale, and this often results in Unhygienix throwing a fish at his face, causing a fight (sometimes the other villagers join in just for fun). Fulliautomatix also takes great pleasure in abusing, breaking the lyre of Cacofonix the bard, threatening him and hitting him on the head at the merest hint of breaking into a song (the songs are so bad that the other villagers do not object) -- this happens so frequently that Cacofonix only protests about it if he had n't intended to sing in the first place (such as in Asterix and Cleopatra, where it turned out Cacofonix just wanted to tell Fulliautomatix that he was standing on Cacofonix 's foot). It has been stated that he is perhaps the ancestor of all music critics. On the other hand, he is occasionally beaten up with a cane by Geriatrix when he is provoked by some comment the smith makes. When this happens he will often take out his frustration on the nearest convenient bystander (Cacofonix for preference) on the grounds that he does not feel he can fight back against someone so old, which only helps to further incense the old man.
Fulliautomatix also has two unnamed children who have appeared in separate comics -- a son with blond hair in Asterix in Corsica, and a daughter with blonde hair in Asterix and the Secret Weapon. In Asterix and the Great Divide he is shown as having an apprentice, though it is not specified if he 's a relative; some speculate that he is the young son grown to teenage years. In Asterix and Obelix 's Birthday: The Golden Book Fulliautomatix is seen as an elderly man with his now adult son having taken over business; the scene begins with his son making steel dentures for Fulliautomatix who has gone toothless over the years.
Mrs. Fulliautomatix is one of the inner circle of village wives. One of the shortest women in the village, and possessing of a steep and pointy nose, she takes no nonsense and dominates her much larger husband as well as getting into a brawl with the wife of Chief Vitalstatistix in Asterix and the Class Act. Although she appears often, she has never been named in the stories. She has been known to beat up Cacofonix on occasion as well, in Asterix and the Secret Weapon. She has a brother, as mentioned by her husband in Asterix and the Black Gold.
Julius Caesar (Jules César) is the Roman dictator and main antagonist of the comics. Many of the stories involve his schemes to finally conquer this last Gaulish village holding out against his legions. At other times, the village has (indirectly) come to his aid, but more often it is a major embarrassment to him in the Roman senate -- in at least one book, the entire senate is laughing at him after a failed plan. Despite this, Cesar is also shown to be a man of honour, since whenever Asterix and Obelix somehow end up helping Caesar, Caesar always grants them any favour they ask. He goes so far as to rebuild the entire Gaulish village when it was destroyed by Brutus who was trying to kidnap Caesar 's son, whom Asterix returned safely to his family (Asterix and Son). The appearance of Caesar is based on portraits found on ancient Roman coins.
In the course of their travels, Asterix and Obelix regularly cross paths with -- and beat up -- a group of pirates. The Gauls then proceed to sink their ship, causing the pirates severe financial difficulties. The pirates make their first appearance in the fourth album (Asterix the Gladiator), and feature in almost every subsequent album.
The main pirates are based on the Belgian comic series Barbe Rouge (1959 and continuing). The adventures of Barbe Rouge (Redbeard) and his son Eric were published in Pilote magazine, where Asterix 's adventures were also published prior to appearing in book form.
Although Barbe Rouge is a popular character in his own right in continental Europe, the popularity of Asterix 's pirates is one of the few occasions when parody figures have overshadowed their originals.
On one occasion (in Asterix the Legionary) after the wreck the pirates were depicted in a scene similar to Théodore Géricault 's Raft of the Medusa. In the English version of this scene, the captain also refers to an ancient Gaulish artist called "Jericho '', an alternative spelling of the name Géricault.
Such is the fear that the pirates have for the Gauls that, having unknowingly taken them aboard -- Asterix and his companions boarded the ship in the night when it was too dark for either side to see the other properly, with the pirates only learning the truth when they sneaked into their guests ' cabin to rob them -- they fled their own ship in the middle of the night while the subjects of their fear were sound asleep (Asterix in Corsica). At other times, it is Asterix and Obelix who have boarded the pirates ' vessel and captured booty, thus reversing their roles of hunter and prey. This has happened mainly in the quest for food in an empty ocean (Asterix in Spain). On another occasion, Asterix and Obelix take all the food on the ship, leaving the pirates with a single sausage for the Captain 's birthday; the pirates decide to look on the bright side and note that their ship did n't sink (Asterix and the Great Crossing). It happened again (in Asterix and the Magic Carpet) with Asterix leaving a single coin for payment after Obelix threw all of their recently recovered treasure overboard while searching for food; the Captain told his depressed crew that it was better than nothing and that at least they still had the ship, but then their lookout proudly announced that he had upheld their honour and scuttled the ship himself. The other pirates were not impressed.
This "honorable suicide - sinking '' has actually happened in earlier Asterix adventures, such as in Asterix and Cleopatra when the captain himself sank the ship after learning that the Gauls were on a nearby Egyptian vessel, reasoning that that would be the eventual outcome and doing it themselves would spare them a punch - up. Curiously enough, at the end of the same adventure, he and his crew were having to work as rowers aboard the very galley taking the Gauls back home and he announced with unusual determination that he will hunt them down and get his revenge. On another occasion, the pirates destroyed their ship simply at the sight of Asterix and all his fellow villagers in another vessel taking them to the Olympic Games. In this event, though, the villagers did not attack since the captain of their ship announced that attacking the pirates would cost them extra.
On two occasions, Asterix also forced the Captain to spend all his hard - won loot on the merchandise of Ekonomikrisis the Phoenician merchant (Asterix and the Black Gold). On one occasion (The Mansions of the Gods) the Pirates appear on land, as part of the group of slaves (later freed) in the story. However, in one story so far -- Asterix and the Cauldron -- they end up happy for a change when a cauldron full of money that Asterix has been chasing throughout the story is tipped over a cliff and lands in their laps.
The main pirates are:
In addition a number of members of the pirate crew are sight gags, some of whom have appeared on more than one occasion such as Frankenstein 's Monster and a Mongol warrior.
It should also be noted that in the films where the pirates are seen, Erix replaces Pegleg on the jetsam with Redbeard.
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how my brother leon brought a wife author | Manuel Arguilla - wikipedia
Manuel Estabilla Arguilla (Nagrebcan, June 17, 1911 -- beheaded, Manila Chinese Cemetery, August 30, 1944) was an Ilokano writer in English, patriot, and martyr.
He is known for his widely anthologized short story "How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife, '' the main story in the collection How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife and Other Short Stories, which won first prize in the Commonwealth Literary Contest in 1940.
His stories "Midsummer '' and "Heat '' were published in Tondo, Manila by the Prairie Schooner.
Most of Arguilla 's stories depict scenes in Barrio Nagrebcan, Bauang, La Union, where he was born. His bond with his birthplace, forged by his dealings with the peasant folk of Ilocos, remained strong even after he moved to Manila, where he studied at the University of the Philippines, finished his BS in Education in 1933, and became a member and later the president of the U.P. Writer 's Club and editor of the university 's Literary Apprentice.
He married Lydia Villanueva, another talented writer in English, and they lived in Ermita, Manila. Here, F. Sionil José, another seminal Filipino writer in English, recalls often seeing him in the National Library, which was then in the basement of what is now the National Museum. "You could n't miss him '', José describes Arguilla, "because he had this black patch on his cheek, a birthmark or an overgrown mole. He was writing then those famous short stories and essays which I admired. ''
He became a creative writing teacher at the University of Manila and later worked at the Bureau of Public Welfare as managing editor of the bureau 's publication Welfare Advocate until 1943. He was later appointed to the Board of Censors. He secretly organized a guerrilla intelligence unit against the Japanese.
On August 5, 1944, he was captured and tortured by the Japanese army at Fort Santiago.
In one account, he was later transferred to the grounds of the Manila Chinese Cemetery. Along with him were guerrilla leaders, along with more than 10 men. They were then asked to dig their own graves, after which, they were immediately, one by one, beheaded with swords. His remains, as well as the others ', have never been recovered, as they were dumped into one unmarked grave.
The remains of the executed men were said to be located and identified by their compatriots after the war, after a Japanese - American officer (working in the Japanese Army as a spy), revealed what he had seen and the location of the grave after the executions of August 30 of 1944. At present, their remains lie within the Manila North Cemetery.
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who was the prime minister in the victorian era | List of Prime Ministers of queen Victoria - wikipedia
Queen Victoria was the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Empire from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. At the start of her reign, responsible government outside of the United Kingdom itself was unknown, but starting in the 1840s this would change.
During her reign Victoria was served by well over 33 Prime Ministers: 15 from New Zealand, 10 from the United Kingdom, 7 from the Dominion of Canada and 1 from Australia.
Nova Scotia became the very first colony to have permanent responsible government in the history of the British Empire.
Confederation Party Nova Scotia Liberal Party Nova Scotia New Democratic Party Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia
Became part of Canada in 1867
Became Part of Canada in 1873
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who wrote the music for the original star wars | John Williams - wikipedia
John Towner Williams (born February 8, 1932) is an American composer, conductor, and pianist. With a career spanning over six decades, he has composed some of the most popular, recognizable, and critically acclaimed film scores in cinematic history, including those of the Star Wars series, Jaws, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Superman, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, the Indiana Jones series, the first two Home Alone films, the first two Jurassic Park films, Schindler 's List, and the first three Harry Potter films. Williams has been associated with director Steven Spielberg since 1974, composing music for all but three of his feature films. Other works by Williams include theme music for the 1984 Summer Olympic Games, NBC Sunday Night Football, "The Mission '' theme used by NBC News and Seven News in Australia, the television series Lost in Space and Land of the Giants, and the incidental music for the first season of Gilligan 's Island. Williams has also composed numerous classical concertos and other works for orchestral ensembles and solo instruments. From 1980 to 1993 he served as the Boston Pops 's principal conductor, and is currently the orchestra 's laureate conductor.
Williams has won 24 Grammy Awards, seven British Academy Film Awards, five Academy Awards, and four Golden Globe Awards. With 51 Academy Award nominations, Williams is the second most - nominated individual, after Walt Disney. In 2005, the American Film Institute selected Williams 's score to 1977 's Star Wars as the greatest American film score of all time. The soundtrack to Star Wars was additionally preserved by the Library of Congress into the National Recording Registry, for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. Williams was inducted into the Hollywood Bowl 's Hall of Fame in 2000, and was a recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors in 2004 and the AFI Life Achievement Award in 2016. Williams composed the score for eight of the top twenty highest - grossing films at the U.S. box office (adjusted for inflation).
John Towner Williams was born on February 8, 1932 in Floral Park, New York, to Esther (née Towner) and Johnny Williams, a jazz percussionist who played with the Raymond Scott Quintet. Williams has said of his lineage, "My father was a Maine man -- we were very close. My mother was from Boston. My father 's parents ran a department store in Bangor, Maine, and my mother 's father was a cabinetmaker. (...) People with those roots are not inclined to be lazy. ''
In 1948, the Williams family moved to Los Angeles where John attended North Hollywood High School, graduating in 1950. He later attended the University of California, Los Angeles, and studied privately with the Italian composer Mario Castelnuovo - Tedesco. Williams had originally briefly attended Los Angeles City College for one semester as the school had a Studio Jazz Band.
In 1952, Williams was drafted into the U.S. Air Force, where he played the piano, brass and conducted and arranged music for The U.S. Air Force Band as part of his assignments. In a 2016 interview with the US Air Force band, he recounted having attended basic Air Force training at Lackland base (San Antonio, Texas) following which he served as a pianist and brass player, with secondary duties of making arrangements for three years. He also attended music courses at the University of Arizona as part of his service.
In 1955, following his Air Force service, Williams moved to New York City and entered Juilliard School where he studied piano with Rosina Lhévinne. During this time Williams worked as a jazz pianist in the city 's many jazz clubs.
After moving to Los Angeles, he began working as a session musician, most notably for composer Henry Mancini. He worked with Mancini on the Peter Gunn soundtrack where his fellow musicians in the rhythm section included guitarist Bob Bain, bassist Rolly Bundock, and drummer Jack Sperling, many of whom were also featured on the Mr. Lucky television series.
Known as "Johnny '' during the 1950s and early 1960s, Williams composed the music for many television programmes (including several episodes of M Squad), and served as music arranger and bandleader for a series of popular music albums with the singer Frankie Laine.
While skilled in a variety of 20th - century compositional idioms, Williams 's most familiar style may be described as a form of neoromanticism, inspired by the late 19th century 's large - scale orchestral music -- in the style of Tchaikovsky or Richard Wagner 's compositions and their concept of leitmotif -- that inspired his film music predecessors.
After his studies at Juilliard, and the Eastman School of Music, Williams returned to Los Angeles, where he began working as an orchestrator at film studios. Among other composers, Williams worked with Franz Waxman, Bernard Herrmann, and Alfred Newman, and also with his fellow orchestrators Conrad Salinger and Bob Franklyn.
Williams was also a studio pianist, performing on film scores by composers such as Jerry Goldsmith, Elmer Bernstein, and Henry Mancini. Williams recorded with Henry Mancini the film scores of 1959 's Peter Gunn, 1962 's Days of Wine and Roses, and 1963 's Charade. (Williams actually played the well - recognized opening riff to Mancini 's Peter Gunn theme.)
Williams (sometimes credited as "Johnny Williams '', because of the already established actor of the same name) composed music for various television programs in the 1960s: the pilot episode of Gilligan 's Island, Bachelor Father (1959 -- 1960), the Kraft Suspense Theatre, Lost in Space (1965 -- 68), The Time Tunnel (1966 -- 67), and Land of the Giants (the last three created by the prolific TV producer, Irwin Allen).
Williams 's first film composition was for the 1958 B movie Daddy - O, and his first screen credit came two years later in Because They 're Young. He soon gained notice in Hollywood for his versatility in composing jazz, piano, and symphonic music. Williams received his first Academy Award nomination for his film score for 1967 's Valley of the Dolls, and was nominated again for his score for 1969 's Goodbye, Mr. Chips. Williams broke through to win his first Academy Award for his film score in the 1971 film Fiddler on the Roof. In 1972, he composed the score for the Robert Altman - directed psychological thriller Images (recorded in collaboration with noted percussionist Stomu Yamashta) which earned him another nomination in the category Best Music, Original Dramatic Score at the 1973 Academy Awards.
During the early 1970s, Williams 's prominence grew thanks to his work for now -- film producer Irwin Allen 's disaster films, composing the scores for 1972 's The Poseidon Adventure and 1974 's The Towering Inferno. In addition, he scored Universal 's 1974 film Earthquake for director Mark Robson, completing a "trinity '' of scores for the decade 's highest - grossing "disaster films ''. He also scored the 1972 film The Cowboys, a western starring John Wayne and directed by Mark Rydell.
In 1974, director Steven Spielberg approached Williams to compose the music for his feature directorial debut, The Sugarland Express. They teamed up again a year later for Spielberg 's second film, Jaws. Widely considered to be a classic suspense film, its film score 's ominous, two - note ostinato has become synonymous with sharks and approaching danger. The score earned Williams his second Academy Award, his first for an original composition.
Shortly thereafter, Spielberg and Williams began a long collaboration for their next feature film together, Close Encounters of the Third Kind. During their two - year - long collaboration, they crafted its distinctive five - note figure that functions both in the background music and as the communications signal of the film 's extraterrestrials. Williams also used a system of musical hand signals in the film that were based on hand signs created by John Curwen and refined by Zoltán Kodály.
During the same period, Spielberg recommended Williams to his friend and fellow director George Lucas, who needed a composer to score his ambitious 1977 space epic film Star Wars. Williams delivered a grand symphonic score in the fashion of Richard Strauss, Antonín Dvořák, and Golden Age Hollywood composers Max Steiner and Erich Wolfgang Korngold. Its main theme, "Luke 's Theme '' is among the most widely recognized in film history, and the "Force Theme '' and "Princess Leia 's Theme '' are well - known examples of leitmotif. Both the film and its score were immensely successful -- it remains the highest grossing non-popular music recording of all - time -- and Williams won another Academy Award for Best Original Score.
In 1980, Williams returned to score The Empire Strikes Back, where he introduced "The Imperial March '' as the theme for Darth Vader and the Galactic Empire, "Yoda 's Theme '', and "Han Solo and the Princess ''. The original Star Wars trilogy concluded with the 1983 film Return of the Jedi, for which Williams 's score provided most notably the "Emperor 's Theme '', "Parade of the Ewoks '', and "Luke and Leia ''. Both scores earned him Academy Award nominations.
For the 1976 Alfred Hitchcock film, Family Plot, Williams was not in love with this particular film, but did not want to turn down the chance to work for Hitchcock. Hitchcock merely told him that in scoring the film to remember one thing, "Murder can be fun. '' Hitchcock was very satisfied with the result.
Williams worked with director Richard Donner to score the 1978 film Superman. The score 's heroic and romantic themes, particularly the main march, the Superman fanfare and the love theme, known as "Can You Read My Mind, '' appeared in the four sequel films. For the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark, created by Lucas and directed by Spielberg, Williams wrote a rousing main theme known as "The Raiders March '' to accompany the film 's hero, Indiana Jones. He composed separate themes to represent the Ark of the Covenant, the character Marion, and the story 's Nazi villains. Additional themes were featured in his scores to the subsequent films in the franchise Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, a prequel (1984), Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989), and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008). Williams composed an emotional and sensitive score to Spielberg 's 1982 fantasy film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. Williams was awarded a fourth Academy Award for this score.
The Spielberg - Williams collaboration resumed with the director 's 1987 film Empire of the Sun, and has continued to the present, spanning genres from science fiction thrillers (1993 's Jurassic Park), to somber tragedies (1993 's Schindler 's List, 2005 's Munich), to Eastern - tinged melodramas (2005 's Memoirs of a Geisha, directed by Rob Marshall), to dramatic war films (1998 's Saving Private Ryan). Spielberg has said, "I call it an honorable privilege to regard John Williams as a friend. ''
In 1999, George Lucas launched the first of a series of prequels to the original Star Wars trilogy. Williams was asked to score all three films, starting with The Phantom Menace. Along with themes from the previous films, Williams created new themes to be used as leitmotifs in 2002 's Attack of the Clones and 2005 's Revenge of the Sith. Most notable of these was "Duel of the Fates '', an aggressive choral movement in the style of Verdi 's Requiem, utilizing harsh Sanskrit lyrics that broadened the style of music used in the Star Wars films. Also of note was "Anakin 's Theme '', which begins as an innocent childlike melody and morphs insidiously into a quote of the sinister "Imperial March. '' For Episode II, Williams composed "Across the Stars '', a love theme for Padmé Amidala and Anakin Skywalker (mirroring the love theme composed for The Empire Strikes Back). The final installment combined many of the themes created for the series ' previous films, including "The Emperor 's Theme, '' "The Imperial March '', "Across the Stars '', "Duel of the Fates '', "The Force Theme '', "Rebel Fanfare '', "Luke 's Theme '', and "Princess Leia 's Theme '', as well as new themes for General Grievous and the film 's climax, entitled "Battle of the Heroes ''.
In the new millennium, Williams was asked to score the film adaptations of J.K. Rowling 's widely successful book series, Harry Potter. He went on to score the film franchise 's first three installments. As with his Superman theme, the most important theme from Williams 's scores for the Harry Potter films, dubbed "Hedwig 's Theme '', has been used in the fourth through to the eighth films (Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2), scored by Patrick Doyle (Goblet of Fire), Nicholas Hooper (Order of the Phoenix and Half - Blood Prince) and Alexandre Desplat (Deathly Hallows). Like the main themes from Jaws, Star Wars, Superman, and Indiana Jones, fans have come to identify the Harry Potter films with Williams 's original compositions. Williams was asked to return to score the film franchise 's final installment, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, but director David Yates stated that "their schedules simply did not align '' as he would have had to provide Williams with a rough cut of the film sooner than was possible.
In the 20th anniversary edition of E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial in 2002, Williams composed a reorchestrated score for the Universal Pictures logo with the variant of the movie itself, segueing to the notes from the movie.
In 2006, Superman Returns was completed under Bryan Singer 's direction, best known for directing the first two films in the X-Men series. Although Singer did not request Williams to compose a score for the intentionally Donner-esque film, he employed the skills of X2 composer John Ottman to incorporate Williams 's original Superman theme, as well as those for Lois Lane, Krypton and Smallville. In 2011, the "Main Title Theme '' and elements of "Can You Read My Mind '' were notably used in the final scene of "Finale, '' the series finale of the WB / CW television series Smallville. Don Davis performed a similar role for Jurassic Park III, recommended by Williams himself to the producers.
In 2008, Williams returned to the Indiana Jones series to score the fourth film -- Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. He received a Grammy nomination for his work on the film. Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull was also the only film score from the Indiana Jones film series not to be nominated for an Academy Award. During 2008, he also composed music for two documentaries, Warner at War, and A Timeless Call, the latter of which was directed by Steven Spielberg.
After a three - year absence from film scoring, Williams composed the scores for Spielberg 's The Adventures of Tintin and War Horse in 2011. Both scores received overwhelmingly positive reviews, with both scores earning Academy Award nominations, and the latter being nominated for a Golden Globe. The Oscar nominations are Williams 's 46th and 47th, making him the most nominated musician in Academy Awards history (having previously been tied with Alfred Newman 's 45 nominations), and the second most nominated overall, following Walt Disney. Williams won an Annie Award for his score for The Adventures of Tintin in 2012. In 2012, Williams scored Spielberg 's film Lincoln and subsequently received his 48th Academy Award nomination.
In February 2013, Williams expressed his interest in working in the Star Wars sequel trilogy, stating: "Now we 're hearing of a new set of movies coming in 2015, 2016... so I need to make sure I 'm still ready to go in a few years for what I hope would be continued work with George. '' He also scored the 2013 film The Book Thief, which marked his first collaboration with a director other than Spielberg since 2005. The score earned him an Academy Award, Golden Globe and BAFTA nominations and earned him a Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition. It was his 44th nomination for Best Original Score (and 49th overall), setting a new record for the most nominations in that category (he previously tied Alfred Newman 's record of 43 nominations in 2013).
In 2015, he scored Star Wars: The Force Awakens, earning him his 50th Academy Award nomination. Williams was also set to write the score for Bridge of Spies that year, which would have been his 27th collaboration with director Steven Spielberg. However, in March 2015, it was announced that Thomas Newman would replace Williams for the film, as Williams 's schedule was interrupted by a minor health issue and he became unavailable to score the film. This is the first Spielberg film since The Color Purple (1985) not scored by Williams.
In 2016, Williams composed the score for Spielberg 's The BFG, which opened in July 2016.
In March 2017, Williams scored the animated short film Dear Basketball directed by Glen Keane and based on a poem by Kobe Bryant.
Williams wrote the music for Star Wars: The Last Jedi, the eighth episode of the saga, released on December 15, 2017, and is presumed to be working on Star Wars Episode IX. Also in 2017, he composed the score for Steven Spielberg 's drama film The Post.
Williams contributed "The Adventures of Han '' for the 2018 standalone Star Wars film Solo: A Star Wars Story while John Powell wrote the film 's original score. Williams is also currently attached to score the fifth Indiana Jones film.
A three - disc box set compilation of all of Williams ' musical scores for Steven Spielberg 's films, titled John Williams & Steven Spielberg: The Ultimate Collection, was released on March 17, 2017, which includes two previous score compilations from 1991 and 1995.
Williams 's body of work in film composing was featured in the 2017 documentary film SCORE: A Film Music Documentary.
In March 2018, Williams announced that following Star Wars: Episode IX, which is due for release on December 20, 2019, that he will retire from composing music for the Star Wars franchise: "We know J.J. Abrams is preparing one Star Wars movie now that I will hopefully do next year for him. I look forward to it. It will round out a series of nine, that will be quite enough for me. ''
From 1980 -- 93, Williams succeeded Arthur Fiedler as the Boston Pops Orchestra 's Principal Conductor. Williams never met Fiedler in person but spoke with him by telephone. His arrival as the Pops ' new leader in the spring of 1980 allowed him to devote part of the Pops ' first PBS broadcast of the season to presenting his new compositions for The Empire Strikes Back.
Williams almost ended his tenure with the Pops in 1984. Considered a customary practice of opinion, some players hissed while sight - reading a new Williams composition in rehearsal; Williams abruptly left the session and turned in his resignation. He initially cited mounting conflicts with his film composing schedule, but later admitted a perceived lack of discipline in, and respect from, the Pops ' ranks, culminating in this latest instance. After entreaties by the management and personal apologies from the musicians, Williams withdrew his resignation and continued as principal conductor for nine more years. In 1995, he was succeeded by Keith Lockhart, the former associate conductor of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra and Cincinnati Pops Orchestra.
Williams is now the Pops ' Laureate Conductor, thus maintaining his affiliation with its parent, the Boston Symphony Orchestra (BSO). Williams leads the Pops on several occasions each year, particularly during their Holiday Pops season and typically for a week of concerts in May. He conducts an annual Film Night at both Boston Symphony Hall and Tanglewood, where he frequently enlists the Tanglewood Festival Chorus, the BSO 's official chorus.
Williams has written many concert pieces, including a symphony; a Concerto for Horn written for Dale Clevenger, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra 's Principal Hornist; a Concerto for Clarinet written for Michele Zukovsky (the Los Angeles Philharmonic 's Principal Clarinetist) in 1991; a sinfonietta for wind ensemble; a cello concerto premiered by Yo - Yo Ma and the Boston Symphony Orchestra at Tanglewood in 1994; concertos for the flute and violin recorded by the London Symphony Orchestra; and a trumpet concerto, which was premiered by The Cleveland Orchestra and their principal trumpet Michael Sachs in September 1996.
His bassoon concerto, "The Five Sacred Trees '', which was premiered by the New York Philharmonic and principal bassoon player Judith LeClair in 1995, was recorded for Sony Classical by Williams with LeClair and the London Symphony Orchestra. Williams was the subject of an hour - long documentary for the BBC in 1980, and was featured in a report on 20 / 20 in 1983.
In 1985, Williams was commissioned by NBC to compose a television news music package for various network news spots. The package, which Williams named "The Mission, '' consists of four movements, two of which are still used heavily by NBC today for Today, NBC Nightly News, and Meet the Press. He composed the "Liberty Fanfare '' for the Statue of Liberty 's rededication, "We 're Lookin ' Good! '' for the Special Olympics in celebration of the 1987 International Summer Games, and themes for the 1984, 1988, 1996, and 2002 Olympic Games. His most recent concert work, "Seven for Luck '', for soprano and orchestra, is a seven - piece song cycle based on the texts of former U.S. Poet Laureate Rita Dove. "Seven for Luck '' was given its world premiere by the Boston Symphony under Williams with soprano Cynthia Haymon.
Williams makes annual appearances with the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl, and took part as conductor and composer in the orchestra 's opening gala concerts for the Walt Disney Concert Hall in 2003. In 2004, Williams both served as the Grand Marshal for the Rose Parade, and directed "The Star Spangled Banner '' at the Rose Bowl 's beginning. In April 2005, Williams and the Boston Pops performed the "Throne Room Finale '' from Star Wars at opening day in Fenway Park as the Boston Red Sox, having won their first World Series championship since 1918, received their championship rings. For Game 1 of the 2007 World Series, Williams conducted a brass - and - drum ensemble through a new dissonant arrangement of the "Star Spangled Banner. ''
In February 2004, April 2006, and September 2007, he conducted the New York Philharmonic at Avery Fisher Hall in New York City. The initial program was intended to be a one - time special event, and featured Williams 's medley of Oscar - winning film scores first performed at the previous year 's Academy Awards. Its unprecedented popularity led to two concerts in 2006: fundraising gala events featuring personal recollections by film directors Martin Scorsese and Steven Spielberg. Continuing demand fueled three more concerts in 2007, which all sold out. These featured a tribute to the musicals of film director Stanley Donen, and had the distinction of serving as the New York Philharmonic season 's opening event. After a three - season absence, Williams conducted the Philharmonic once again in October 2011.
Maestro Williams also conducted the National Symphony Orchestra, the U.S. Army Herald Trumpets, the Joint Armed Forces Chorus, and the Choral Arts Society of Washington performing his new arrangement of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' for its 200th anniversary. The performance was held at A Capitol Fourth, an Independence Day celebration concert in Washington, D.C., on July 4, 2014.
At Star Wars Celebration Orlando, Williams performed a surprise concert along with the Orlando Philharmonic Orchestra, featuring "Princess Leia 's Theme '' (a tribute to the recently deceased Carrie Fisher), "The Imperial March '' and "Main Title '' followed by George Lucas saying, "The secret sauce of Star Wars, the greatest composer - conductor in the universe, John Williams. ''
Williams married Barbara Ruick, an American actress and singer, in 1956. Together they had three children: Jennifer (b. 1956), Mark Towner Williams (b. 1958), and Joseph (b. 1960), who is the lead singer of Toto. The two remained married until her death in 1974. In 1980, Williams married Samantha Winslow, a photographer.
John Williams has been nominated for 51 Academy Awards, winning 5; 6 Emmy Awards, winning 3; 25 Golden Globe Awards, winning 4; 67 Grammy Awards, winning 23; and has received 7 British Academy Film Awards. With 51 Oscar nominations, Williams currently holds the record for the most Oscar nominations for a living person, and is the second most nominated person in Academy Awards history behind Walt Disney 's 59. Forty - six of Williams 's Oscar nominations are for Best Original Score and five are for Best Original Song. He won four Oscars for Best Original Score and one for Best Scoring: Adaptation and Original Song Score (Fiddler on the Roof).
In 1980, Williams received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music.
Williams has been inducted into the American Classical Music Hall of Fame and the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame. Williams was honored with the annual Richard Kirk award at the 1999 BMI Film and TV Awards, recognizing his contribution to film and television music. In 2004, he received Kennedy Center Honors. He won a Classic Brit Award in 2005 for his soundtrack work of the previous year.
Notably, Williams has won the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition for his scores for Star Wars, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Superman, The Empire Strikes Back, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Angela 's Ashes, Munich, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, and The Book Thief. The competition includes not only composers of film scores, but also composers of instrumental music of any genre, including composers of classical fare such as symphonies and chamber music.
Williams received an Honorary Doctor of Music degree from Boston College in 1993 and from Harvard University in 2017.
In 2003, the International Olympic Committee accorded Williams its highest individual honor, the Olympic Order.
In 2009, Williams received the National Medal of Arts in the White House in Washington, D.C. for his achievements in symphonic music for films, and "as a pre-eminent composer and conductor (whose) scores have defined and inspired modern movie - going for decades. ''
Williams was made an honorary brother of Kappa Kappa Psi at Boston University in the late 1980s. In 2013, Williams was presented with the Ken Burns Lifetime Achievement Award.
In 2005, the American Film Institute selected Williams 's richly thematic and highly popular score to 1977 's Star Wars as the greatest American film score of all time. His scores for Jaws and E.T. also appeared on the list, at No. 6 and No. 14, respectively. He is the only composer to have three scores on the list. Williams received the AFI Life Achievement Award in June 2016, becoming the first composer to receive the award.
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is it illegal for a 16 year old to have a vape | Regulation of electronic cigarettes - Wikipedia
Regulation of electronic cigarettes varies across countries and states, ranging from no regulation to banning them entirely. Others have introduced strict restrictions and some have licensed devices as medicines such as in the UK. As of 2015, around two thirds of major nations have regulated e-cigarettes in some way. Because of the potential relationship with tobacco laws and medical drug policies, e-cigarette legislation is being debated in many countries. The companies that make e-cigarettes have been pushing for laws that support their interests. In 2016 the US Department of Transportation banned the use of e-cigarettes on commercial flights. This regulation applies to all flights to and from the US.
The legal status of e-cigarettes is currently pending in many countries. Many countries such as Brazil, Singapore, the Seychelles, and Uruguay have banned e-cigarettes. In Canada, they are technically illegal to sell, as no nicotine - containing e-fluid is approved by Health Canada, but this is generally unenforced and they are commonly available for sale Canada - wide. In the US and the UK, the use and sale to adults of e-cigarettes are legal. As of August 8, 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) extended its regulatory power to include e-cigarettes. Under this ruling the FDA will evaluate certain issues, including ingredients, product features and health risks, as well their appeal to minors and non-users. The FDA rule also bans access to minors. A photo ID is required to buy e-cigarettes, and their sale in all - ages vending machines is not permitted. In May 2016 the FDA used its authority under the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act to deem e-cigarette devices and e-liquids to be tobacco products, which meant it intended to regulate the marketing, labelling, and manufacture of devices and liquids; vape shops that mix e-liquids or make or modify devices were considered manufacturing sites that needed to register with FDA and comply with good manufacturing practice regulation. E-cigarette and tobacco companies have recruited lobbyists in an effort to prevent the FDA from evaluating e-cigarette products or banning existing products already on the market.
In February 2014 the European Parliament passed regulations requiring standardization and quality control for liquids and vaporizers, disclosure of ingredients in liquids, and child - proofing and tamper - proofing for liquid packaging. In April 2014 the FDA published proposed regulations for e-cigarettes. In the US some states tax e-cigarettes as tobacco products, and some state and regional governments have broadened their indoor smoking bans to include e-cigarettes. As of 9 October 2015, at least 48 states and 2 territories banned e-cigarette sales to minors.
E-cigarettes have been listed as drug delivery devices in several countries because they contain nicotine, and their advertising has been restricted until safety and efficacy clinical trials are conclusive. Since they do not contain tobacco, television advertising in the US is not restricted. Some countries have regulated e-cigarettes as a medical product even though they have not approved them as a smoking cessation aid. A 2014 review stated the emerging phenomenon of e-cigarettes has raised concerns in the health community, governments, and the general public and recommended that e-cigarettes should be regulated to protect consumers. It added, "heavy regulation by restricting access to e-cigarettes would just encourage continuing use of much unhealthier tobacco smoking. '' A 2014 review said these products should be considered for regulation in view of the "reported adverse health effects ''.
On 19 December 2012 the European Commission adopted its proposal to revise the European Union Tobacco Products Directive 2001 / 37 / EC which included proposals to introduce restrictions on the use and sales of e-cigarettes. On 8 October 2013 the European Parliament in Strasbourg voted down the Commission 's proposal to introduce medical regulation for e-cigarettes, but proposed that cross-border marketing of e-cigarettes be regulated similarly to tobacco products, meaning that sales of e-cigarettes to under - 18s would be prohibited in the European Union, along with most cross-border advertising. Warning labels also would be required. The Parliament and Member States are involved in trilogue discussions to reach a common conclusion. In February 2014, the European Parliament approved new regulations for tobacco products, including e-cigarettes. The new regulations forbid advertising of e-cigarettes, set limits on maximum concentrations of nicotine in liquids, limit maximum volumes of liquid that can be sold, require child - proof and tamper - proof packaging of liquid, set requirements on purity of ingredients, require that the devices deliver consistent doses of vapor, require disclosure of ingredients and nicotine content, and empower regulators to act if the regulations are violated. In October 2014 e-cigarette manufacturer Totally Wicked won the right to challenge the directive at the Court of Justice of the EU. The hearing took place on 1 October 2015 and the results will not be announced until early 2016.
In autumn 2013, the e-cigarette industry ran "a determined lobbying campaign '' to defeat proposed European legislation to regulate e-cigarettes like medical devices. Pharmaceutical manufacturers GlaxoSmithKline and Johnson & Johnson have lobbied the US government, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the EU parliament for stricter regulation of e-cigarettes which compete with their products Nicorette gum and nicotine patches.
Albania: No information is available.
Armenia: The sale of e-cigarettes and liquids with and without nicotine is not regulated.
Austria: Nicotine - containing cartridges are classified as medicinal products and e-cigarettes for nicotine inhalation as medical devices. Nicotine cartridges may not be sold without a license.
Azerbaijan: No information is available.
Belarus: No information is available.
Belgium: A royal decree legalized the sale of nicotine containing cartridges outside of pharmacies as long as the cartridge contains not more than 2 ml and a maximum of 20 mg / ml of nicotine. The sale to a minor under the age of 16 years is prohibited.
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Nicotine - containing cartridges are not classified as tobacco products, and therefore the sale is not regulated.
Bulgaria: The sale and use of electronic cigarettes are legal, as well as the sale of cartridges and liquids with nicotine. There are no specific regulations from EU.
Croatia: Advertising is restricted. Vaping is banned in all public enclosed facilities. By a law passed by the parliament e-cigarettes are classified as tobacco products. Therefore, vaping is banned in all public buildings, and the sale to a minor is prohibited.
Cyprus: No information is available.
Czech Republic: Sales are prohibited to people under 18 years of age. The use and advertising of e-cigarettes are legal. Sale of e-cigarettes is regulated in the same way as sale of conventional cigarettes -- as such, e-cigarettes can not be sold to minors and can be sold only at places permitted to sell conventional cigarettes. Online sale with mail delivery is de facto illegal due to the impossibility for age verification, however this rule is not enforced and there are plenty of e-shops.
Denmark: Advertising is restricted. The Danish Medicines Agency classifies e-cigarettes containing nicotine as medicinal products. Thus, authorization is required before the product may be marketed and sold, and no such authorization has currently been given. The agency has clarified, however, that e-cigarettes that do not administer nicotine to the user, and are not otherwise used for the prevention or treatment of disease, are not considered medicinal devices.
Estonia: The Estonian State Agency of Medicines had previously banned e-cigarettes, but the ban was overturned in court on 7 March 2013. Currently e-liquids containing more than 0.7 mg / ml of nicotine are still considered medicine and as such can not be legally purchased within the country due to no manufacturer being licensed properly. Following the outcome of EU tobacco directive in October 2013, the legislation is moving towards a more relaxed stance on the issue. As stated by the Estonian minister of social affairs Taavi Rõivas (in charge of tobacco regulation), e-cigarettes will receive an advertisement ban and will clearly be banned for minors but will be available for adults before the end of 2013.
Finland: The National Supervisory Authority of Welfare and Health (Valvira) declared that the new tobacco marketing ban (effective 1 January 2012) would also cover e-cigarettes, resulting in that Finnish stores or web stores ca n't advertise e-cigarettes because they might look like regular cigarettes. In theory, e-cigarettes with nicotine - free cartridges may still be sold, as long as their images and prices are not visible. Ordering from abroad remains allowed. Sale of nicotine cartridges is currently prohibited, as nicotine is considered a prescription drug requiring an authorization that such cartridges do not yet have. However, the Finnish authorities have decided that nicotine cartridges containing less than 10 mg nicotine, and e-liquid containing less than 0.42 g nicotine per bottle, may be legally brought in from other countries for private use. If the nicotine content is higher, a prescription from a Finnish physician is required. From a country within the European Economic Area a maximum of one year 's supply may be brought in for private use when returning to Finland, while three months ' supply may be brought in from outside the EEA. Mail - order deliveries from EEA countries, for a maximum of three months ' supply, are also allowed.
France: The sales of e-cigarettes or machines that imitate smoking, as well as the sale of cartridges containing or not containing nicotine, are prohibited to people under 18 years of age. The e-cigarettes are considered neither as a medical device nor as a medicine, according to a 2011 opinion of the National Agency for the Safety of Medicines and Health Products (ANSM), if it is not claimed by its sellers as a smoking cessation product, if the level and amount of nicotine do not exceed the thresholds of (20 mg / ml) and 10 mL respectively. In January 2017, the French Health Law transposing the European Directive on Tobacco Products came into force and establishes a list of places where smoking is prohibited. Offenders are liable to a fine of 150 euros or more. The persons responsible for the places where the prohibition applies and who have not put in place the signage will be fined 450 euros.
Georgia: No information is available.
Germany Sales of e-cigarettes are prohibited for people under 18 years of age since transposition deadline for member states of the European Union regarding the Tobacco Products Directive (2014 / 40 / EU) (including non-nicotine - containing cartridges). The use of such is not allowed in restaurants, where they are sold, and other public places.
Gibraltar: Sales of e-cigarettes is legal.
Greece: The marketing of e-cigarettes is banned unless a Ministerial decision authorises them under certain conditions. Sales of e-cigarettes are prohibited for people under 18 years of age (only for nicotine - containing cartridges).
Hungary: The sale of nicotine - containing cartridges is legal as long as they are packaged in volumes of 10ml maximum in bottles and only sold at the official ' Nemzeti Dohánybolt ' (National Tobacco Shops). At least 30 % of the packaging must indicate the following text, "This product contains nicotine, which causes a strong addiction '' The same restrictions apply to the sale of any e-cigarette and refillable tanker liquids as to any other tobacco product, therefore the legal purchasing age is 18 years.
Iceland:
Ireland: Vaping is not covered by the Irish smoking ban.
Italy: Sales of e-cigarettes are prohibited for people under 18 years of age (only for nicotine - containing cartridges). In 2013 the minimum age of 16 years for the sale of cartridges containing nicotine was raised to 18 years. Whoever now sells cartridges containing nicotine to a person under 18 years of age can be fined 250 - € 2.000.
Kosovo: No information is available.
Latvia: The sale and use of e-cigarettes are legal.
Liechtenstein: Sales of e-cigarettes to people under 16 years of age is prohibited.
Lithuania: The sale and use of e-cigarettes are legal.
Luxembourg: No information is available.
Macedonia: No information is available.
Malta: Sales and use of e-cigarettes under 18 years of age is prohibited. Since 2010 products and smoking devices which are simulating cigarette or tobacco smoking are included to "tobacco products '' as considered in the Tobacco (Smoking Control) Act.
Moldova: No information is available.
Montenegro: No information is available.
Netherlands: Sales of e-liquids with and without is legal.
Norway: The sale and use of e-cigarettes are legal, but nicotine cartridges can only be imported from other EEA member states (e.g. the UK) for private use. Norway does not allow e-cigarette advertising.
Poland Since a revision of the tobacco prohibition law in 2016. There has been a large change in the e-cigarette regulation, previously where it was very loose. Currently there is ban on sales to under 18s, prohibition of marketing and sales online and in cigarette machines and a ban in hospitals & all public transport including PKP train stations but not airports. Vapers who brake the laws are liable to a fine of up to 500 zloty (approximately € 117.80).
Portugal: The sale of nicotine - containing cartridges is restricted.
Romania The sale and use of e-cigarettes are legal, from 2016 the liquid used in e-cigarettes will have an excise duty
Russia: E-cigarettes are not considered to be a tobacco product in Russia according to the Ministry of Health therefore sales and possessions of such devices are unregulated.
Serbia: No information is available.
Slovakia: No information is available.
Slovenia: No information is available.
Spain: Sales of e-cigarettes to people under 18 years is prohibited. The sale of products that imitate smoking (which also includes e-cigarettes) to minors is illegal. The Ministry of Health also said that the use and sale of e-cigarettes will soon be regulated.
Sweden: Sale of e-cigarettes is legal to sell for anyone, but sales of nicotine e-liquid is illegal to sell to anyone under the age of 18.
Switzerland: The sale of nicotine - free e-cigarettes is legal. The use and importation of e-cigarettes containing nicotine is legal, but they can not be sold within the country. As of December 2011, the tobacco tax does not apply to e-cigarettes and respective liquids containing nicotine.
Turkey: Regulation of e-cigarettes is inconsistent. Sales are not completely banned and there are plenty of online shops. In May 2013 the Minister of Heath stated that e-cigarettes which contain nicotine are medical devices and thus can not be imported unless approved by the "Turkish Medicines and Medical Devices Agency ''. But according to a WHO report as of 2014 e-cigarettes are not regulated as a therapeutic product. However law 4207, which regulates smoking, was amended in June 2013 by article 26 of law 6487 to also apply to items which do not contain tobacco: "Herbal water pipes and all kind of cigarettes which do not contain tobacco but are used in a way to imitate tobacco products shall also be deemed as tobacco product. '' Vaping is thus forbidden indoors and on public transport, and also therefore forbidden for people under 18 years old. And thus, like tobacco products, personal import by mail or courier is forbidden. Specifically vaping is forbidden on high - speed trains.
Ukraine: No information is available.
United Kingdom: In the United Kingdom, the use, sale and advertising of e-cigarettes are legal and e-cigarettes are not covered by laws restricting smoking in public places. However, businesses may choose to ban e-cigarettes as well. A notable example is Transport for London, banning smoking and vaping as their Conditions of Carriage. Effective 1 October 2015, it is illegal to sell e-cigarettes or e-liquids to minors. In 2014 the government announced legislation would be brought forward to outlaw the purchase of e-cigarettes by people under the age of 18. In October 2014 the UK 's Advertising Standards Authority changed the regulations on e-cigarette advertising, allowing the devices to appear in TV ads from 10 November. The first advert to take advantage of the change, promoting KiK e-cigarettes, aired on the day it came into force. In June 2015 the Welsh Government announced that under legislation it planned to pass, in Wales e-cigarettes would be included in existing bans on smoking in workplaces and other public spaces.
Prior to 8 August 2016, regulations concerning the use of e-cigarettes varied considerably across the United States, although there is more variation regarding laws limiting their use by youth than regarding multi-level regulations, such as banning their use in public places. The FDA classified e-cigarettes as drug delivery devices and subject to regulation under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) before importation and sale in the US. The classification was challenged in court, and overruled in January 2010 by Federal District Court Judge Richard J. Leon, explaining that "the devices should be regulated as tobacco products rather than drug or medical products. ''
In March 2010, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia stayed the injunction pending an appeal, during which the FDA argued the right to regulate e-cigarettes based on their previous ability to regulate nicotine replacement therapies such as nicotine gum or patches. Further, the agency argued that tobacco legislation enacted the previous year "expressly excludes from the definition of ' tobacco product ' any article that is a drug, device or combination product under the FDCA, and provides that such articles shall be subject to regulation under the pre-existing FDCA provisions. '' On 7 December 2010, the appeals court ruled against the FDA in a 3 -- 0 unanimous decision, ruling the FDA can only regulate e-cigarettes as tobacco products, and thus can not block their import. The judges ruled that such devices would only be subject to drug legislation if they are marketed for therapeutic use -- E-cigarette manufacturers had successfully proven that their products were targeted at smokers and not at those seeking to quit. The District Columbia Circuit appeals court, on 24 January 2011, declined to review the decision en banc, blocking the products from FDA regulation as medical devices.
In April 2014, the FDA proposed new regulations for tobacco products, including e-cigarettes. The regulations require disclosure of ingredients used in e-cigarette liquids, proof of safety of those ingredients, and regulation of the devices used to vaporize and deliver the liquid. The FDA proposed regulation would ban the sale of e-cigarettes with nicotine to any individual under 18 years of age. In August 2014, attorneys general from over two dozen states advised the FDA to enact restrictions on e-cigarettes, including banning flavors. On 10 May 2016, the FDA published their deeming regulations in the federal register, which takes effect on 8 August 2016. Vendors and companies have until two years afterward to prepare paperwork with the FDA to have their product remain on the market. Currently, there are lawsuits and amendments made in the works in Congress to change that provision. The lack of research on the risks and possible benefits has resulted in precautionary policymaking in the US "which often lacks grounding in empirical evidence and results in spatially uneven diffusion of policy ''.
As of 8 August 2016, the FDA extended its regulatory power to include e-cigarettes. Under this ruling the FDA will evaluate certain issues, including ingredients, product features and health risks, as well their appeal to minors and non-users. The FDA rule also bans access to minors. A photo ID is required to buy e-cigarettes, and their sale in all - ages vending machines is not permitted. The FDA in September 2016 has sent warning letters for unlawful underage sales to online retailers and retailers of e-cigarettes.
Effective 8 August 2016, all US states will follow the same, uniform federal guidelines. With an absence of federal regulations, many states and cities had adopted their own e-cigarette regulations, most commonly to prohibit sales to minors, including Maryland, Kentucky, Minnesota, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Tennessee, Utah, Wisconsin, and Colorado. Other states are considering similar legislation. Several US cities and states have enacted laws that increased the legal age to purchase e-cigarettes to age 21. As of 2014, some states in the US permit e-cigarettes to be taxed as tobacco products, and some state and regional governments in the US had extended their indoor smoking bans to include e-cigarettes.
Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed a bill that would regulate the sale of e-cigarettes within the state on grounds that "if adults want to purchase and consume these products with an understanding of the associated health risks, they should be able to do so. ''
A review of regulations in 40 U.S. states found that how a law defines e-cigarettes is critical, with some definitions allowing e-cigarettes to avoid smoke - free laws, taxation, and restrictions on sales and marketing. Less policies have been created to restrict vaping indoors than with cigarette smoking.
Many local and state jurisdictions have recently begun enacting laws that prohibit e-cigarette usage everywhere that smoking is banned, although some state laws with comprehensive smoke - free laws will still allow for vaping to be permitted in bars and restaurants while prohibiting e-cigarettes in other indoor places. As of August 2016, the United States Navy is considering banning e-cigarettes. A 2017 report stated "As of 2 October 2015, five US states and over 400 counties have implemented some form of restriction of ECIG use indoors. International policies are more varied with certain restrictions for ECIG use in UK airports and trains and reports of complete ECIG bans in indoor public places for Malta, Belgium and Spain ''.
Australia: The Federal Department of Health and Ageing classifies every form of nicotine, except for replacement therapies and cigarettes, as a form of poison. In Australia, there are no laws pertaining to the regulation of e-cigarettes. Although there are a number of laws that are relevant to the regulation of poisons, therapeutic goods, and tobacco control which are applicable to e-cigarettes in certain cases. Australia is developing regulations on e-cigarettes. The sale of e-cigarettes must be registered with the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) before being sold. Importation of e-cigarettes and their related products is illegal unless approved by the TGA. The TPA has said that there were no laws preventing the importation of e-cigarettes bought over the internet for personal use, unless prohibited by state and territory legislation. State laws in Australia 's various states are a little bit conflicting. According to the Poisons Standard of 2010, inhaled nicotine is Pharmacy Only, or a Schedule 2 medication when used to help quit smoking. In April 2014 a court decision made it illegal to sell or supply e-cigarettes regardless of their appearance or nicotine content (even if zero) in Western Australia. Previously they were banned if they looked like cigarettes. The court ruled that the action they provided in and of itself looks like cigarettes. Precise rules in the other states vary.
Argentina: The sale, importation and manufacturing of electronic cigarettes have been banned by the local regulatory authority. Its use has also been discouraged by the National Clinical Practice Guideline for Tobacco Cessation from lack of enough evidence.
Bahrain: Vaping is not permitted in Bahrain. The importation of e-cigarettes is banned in Bahrain.
Brazil: The sale, importation and advertising of any kind of electronic cigarette is forbidden. The Brazilian health and sanitation federal agency, Anvisa, found the current health safety assessments about e-cigarettes to not be yet satisfactory for commercial approval eligibility.
Canada: E-cigarettes are mostly unregulated. They are technically illegal to sell, as no nicotine - containing e-fluid is approved by Health Canada, but this is generally unenforced and they are commonly available for sale Canada - wide. Vancouver bans use of e-cigarettes in public places where smoking is prohibited. Toronto bans use of e-cigarettes in city work spaces. The governing Liberals recently introduced a provincial legislation in Ontario to regulate electronic cigarette devices. Local vape shops in Ontario currently trying to Fight Bill 45. The city of Red Deer bans electronic cigarette use where smoking is prohibited.
East Timor: E-cigarettes are banned.
Hong Kong: The sale and possession of nicotine - based e-cigarettes classified as a Type I Poison, is governed under the Pharmacy and Poisons Ordinance. Sale or possession is not authorized and both are considered punishable by a fine of up to HK $100,000 and / or a prison term of 2 years. However, the law does not cover any non-nicotine inhalers.
India: The Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1945 does not provide any clear classification on various usage of nicotine especially in regards to e-cigarettes, Nicotine Gums or Lozenges however is regulated under Chapter IV of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1945. Currently there are no classification declaring nicotine as a drug or under which regulatory authority the use of nicotine falls under. In the state of Punjab However the State Drug controlling Authority have used the Drug and cosmetic Act of 1945 to declare e-cigarettes with nicotine as an unapproved drug. The state of Punjab sentenced a man to 3 years jail term and a fine of Rs. 1 Lakh on 7 / 4 / 16 by District Court. He had with his possession one cigarlike e-cigarette with eight cartridges.
Israel: In 2013, the Ministry of Health planned to extend existing laws on smoking in public places to e-cigarettes, a year after warning against the product 's usage.
Japan: E-cigarettes containing nicotine have been banned since 2010. Non-nicotine e-cigarettes are sold to adults and minors since no regulation exists for non-nicotine e-cigarettes in Japan.
Mexico: The Federal Commission for the Protection Against Sanitary Risks had previously forbidden the selling and promotion of non-tobacco objects that included elements generally associated with tobacco products. The ban was overturned in court on 23 September 2015.
Nepal: Under current cigarette laws, the sale of e-cigarettes is permitted.
New Zealand: Sales of e-cigarettes and liquids that do not contain nicotine is legal. Sales of e-cigarettes are banned for people under 18 years of age. E-cigarette advertising is not allowed. Nicotine vaping products are illegal to sell. Consumers wanting nicotine liquids must import it from overseas for personal use. Legislation of nicotine e-liquid for retail sale is under Ministry of Health consultation for parliamentary consideration.
Pakistan: The import and sale of e-cigarettes is legal, but Pakistan Medical and Dental council find that the current health safety assessments of e-cigarettes to not yet be satisfactory.
Panama: The importation, distribution and sale of e-cigarettes have been prohibited since June 2009. The Ministry of Health cites the FDA findings as their reasoning for the ban.
Philippines: The sale of e-cigarettes is unregulated, which makes them available to children and adolescents. The Philippine Medical Association has recommended to different city governments to broaden their public places and transportation smoking bans to include e-cigarettes.
Singapore: E-cigarettes are currently prohibited under Section 16 (1) of the Tobacco (Control of Advertisements and Sale) Act, which is enforced by the Health Sciences Authority (HSA). This legislation prohibits the importation, distribution, sale or offer for sale of any confectionery or other food product or any toy or other article that is designed to resemble a tobacco product or the packaging of which is designed to resemble the packaging commonly associated with tobacco products. HSA takes a serious view on any person who contravenes the law. Those guilty of the offence are liable to a fine of up to $5,000 upon conviction. According to Health Minister Khaw Boon Wan, e-cigarettes are the industry 's attempt to attract new users and were marketed to appeal to younger customers, including women.
South Korea: The sale and use of e-cigarettes is legal, but is heavily taxed. Electric cigarette possession among teenagers remains an issue.
Thailand: E-cigarettes are banned.
United Arab Emirates: The sale and use of e-cigarettes is illegal.
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where does the last name pulido originate from | Pulido - wikipedia
Pulido is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
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where does cerebrospinal fluid occur in our body | Cerebrospinal fluid - wikipedia
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord. It is produced in the choroid plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and absorbed in the arachnoid granulations. There is about 125mL of CSF at any one time, and about 500mL is generated every day. CSF acts as a cushion or buffer for the brain, providing basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull. The CSF also serves a vital function in cerebral autoregulation of cerebral blood flow.
The CSF occupies the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater) and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. It fills the ventricles of the brain, cisterns, and sulci, as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. There is also a connection from the subarachnoid space to the bony labyrinth of the inner ear via the perilymphatic duct where the perilymph is continuous with the cerebrospinal fluid.
A sample of CSF can be taken via lumbar puncture. This can reveal the intracranial pressure, as well as indicate diseases including infections of the brain or its surrounding meninges. Although noted by Hippocrates, it was only in the 18th century that Emanuel Swedenborg is credited with its rediscovery, and as late as 1914 that Harvey W. Cushing demonstrated CSF was secreted by the choroid plexus.
There is about 125 - 150 mL of CSF at any one time. This CSF circulates within the ventricular system of the brain. The ventricles are a series of cavities filled with CSF. The majority of CSF is produced from within the two lateral ventricles. From here, the CSF passes through the interventricular foramina to the third ventricle, then the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle. From the fourth ventricle, the fluid passes into the subarachnoid space through four openings -- the central canal of the spinal cord, the median aperture, and the two lateral apertures. CSF is present within the subarachnoid space, which covers the brain, spinal cord, and stretches below the end of the spinal cord to the sacrum. There is a connection from the subarachnoid space to the bony labyrinth of the inner ear making the cerebrospinal fluid continuous with the perilymph in 93 % of people.
CSF moves in a single outward direction from the ventricles, but multidirectionally in the subarachnoid space. Fluid movement is pulsatile, matching the pressure waves generated in blood vessels by the beating of the heart. Some authors dispute this, posing that there is no unidirectional CSF circulation, but cardiac cycle - dependent bi-directional systolic - diastolic to - and - fro cranio - spinal CSF movements.
The CSF is derived from blood plasma and is largely similar to it, except that CSF is nearly protein - free compared with plasma and has some different electrolyte levels. Owing to the way it is produced, CSF has a higher chloride level than plasma, and an equivalent sodium level.
CSF contains approximately 0.3 % plasma proteins, or approximately 15 to 40 mg / dL, depending on sampling site. In general, globular proteins and albumin are in lower concentration in ventricular CSF compared to lumbar or cisternal fluid. This continuous flow into the venous system dilutes the concentration of larger, lipid - insoluble molecules penetrating the brain and CSF. CSF is normally free of red blood cells, and at most contains only a few white blood cells. Any white blood cell count higher than this constitutes pleocytosis.
Around the third week of development, the embryo is a three - layered disc, covered with ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. A tube - like formation develops in the midline, called the notochord. The notochord releases extracellular molecules that affect the transformation of the overlying ectoderm into nervous tissue. The neural tube, forming from the ectoderm, contains CSF prior to the development of the choroid plexuses. The open neuropores of the neural tube close after the first month of development, and CSF pressure gradually increases.
As the brain develops, by the fourth week of embryological development three swellings have formed within the embryo around the canal, near where the head will develop. These swellings represent different components of the central nervous system: the prosencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon. Subarachnoid spaces are first evident around the 32nd day of development near the rhombencephalon; circulation is visible from the 41st day. At this time, the first choroid plexus can be seen, found in the fourth ventricle, although the time at which they first secrete CSF is not yet known.
The developing forebrain surrounds the neural cord. As the forebrain develops, the neural cord within it becomes a ventricle, ultimately forming the lateral ventricles. Along the inner surface of both ventricles, the ventricular wall remains thin, and a choroid plexus develops, producing and releasing CSF. The CSF quickly fills the neural canal. Arachnoid villi are formed around the 35th week of development, with aracnhoid granulations noted around the 39th, and continuing developing until 18 months of age.
The subcommissural organ secretes SCO - spondin, which forms Reissner 's fiber within the CSF that assist movement through the cerebral aqueduct. It is present in early intrauterine life but disappears during early development.
CSF serves several purposes:
The brain produces roughly 500 mL of cerebrospinal fluid per day, at a rate of about 25 mL an hour. This transcellular fluid is constantly reabsorbed, so that only 125 -- 150 mL is present at any one time.
Most (about two - thirds to 80 %) of CSF is produced by the choroid plexus. The choroid plexus is a network of blood vessels present within sections of the four ventricles of the brain. It is present throughout the ventricular system except for the cerebral aqueduct, frontal horn of the lateral ventricle, and occipital horn of the lateral ventricle. CSF is also produced by the single layer of column - shaped ependymal cells which line the ventricles; by the lining surrounding the subarachnoid space; and a small amount directly from the tiny spaces surrounding blood vessels around the brain.
CSF is produced by the choroid plexus in two steps. Firstly, a filtered form of plasma moves from fenestrated capillaries in the choroid plexus into an interstitial space, with movement guided by a difference in pressure between the blood in the capillaries and the interstitial fluid. This fluid then needs to pass through the epithelium cells lining the choroid plexus into the ventricles, an active process requiring the transport of sodium, potassium and chloride that draws water into the CSF by creating osmotic pressure. Unlike blood passing from the capillaries into the choroid plexus, the epithelial cells lining the choroid plexus contain tight junctions between cells, which act to prevent most substances flowing freely into the CSF.
Water and carbon dioxide from the interstitial fluid diffuse into the epithelial cells. Within these cells, carbonic anhydrase converts the substances into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. These are exchanged for sodium and chloride on the cell surface facing the interstitium. Sodium, chloride, bicarbonate and potassium are then actively secreted into the ventricular lumen. This creates osmotic pressure and draws water into the CSF, facilitated by aquaporins. Chloride, with a negative charge, moves with the positively charged sodium, to maintain electroneutrality. Potassium and bicarbonate are also transported out of the CSF. As a result, CSF contains a higher concentration of sodium and chloride than blood plasma, but less potassium, calcium and glucose and protein. Choroid plexuses also secrete growth factors, vitamins B1, 12 C, folate, beta - 2 microglobulin, arginine vasopressin and nitrous oxide into the CSF. A Na - K - Cl cotransporter and Na / K ATPase found on the surface of the choroid endothelium, appears to play a role in regulating CSF secretion and composition.
Orešković and Klarica hypothesise that CSF is not primarily produced by the choroid plexus, but is being permanently produced inside the entire CSF system, as a consequence of water filtration through the capillary walls into the interstitial fluid of the surrounding brain tissue, regulated by AQP - 4.
There are circadian variations in CSF secretion, with the mechanisms not fully understood, but potentially relating to differences in the activation of the autonomic nervous system over the course of the day.
CSF returns to the vascular system by entering the dural venous sinuses via arachnoid granulations. These are outpouchings of the arachnoid mater into the venous sinuses around the brain, with valves to ensure one - way drainage. This occurs because of a pressure difference between the arachnoid mater and venous sinuses. CSF has also been seen to drain into lymphatic vessels, particularly those surrounding the nose via drainage along the olfactory nerve through the cribriform plate. The pathway and extent are currently not known, but may involve CSF flow along some cranial nerves and be more prominent in the neonate. CSF turns over at a rate of three to four times a day. CSF has also been seen to be reabsorbed through the sheathes of cranial and spinal nerve sheathes, and through the ependyma.
The composition and rate of CSF generation are influenced by hormones and the content and pressure of blood and CSF. For example, when CSF pressure is higher, there is less of a pressure difference between the capillary blood in choroid plexuses and the CSF, decreasing the rate at which fluids move into the choroid plexus and CSF generation. The autonomic nervous system influences choroid plexus CSF secretion, with activation of the sympathetic nervous system increasing secretion and the parasympathetic nervous system decreasing it. Changes in the pH of the blood can affect the activity of carbonic anhydrase, and some drugs (such as frusemide, acting on the Na - K - Cl cotransporter) have the potential to impact membrane channels.
CSF pressure, as measured by lumbar puncture, is 10 -- 18 cmH O (8 -- 15 mmHg or 1.1 -- 2 kPa) with the patient lying on the side and 20 -- 30 cmH O (16 -- 24 mmHg or 2.1 -- 3.2 kPa) with the patient sitting up. In newborns, CSF pressure ranges from 8 to 10 cmH O (4.4 -- 7.3 mmHg or 0.78 -- 0.98 kPa). Most variations are due to coughing or internal compression of jugular veins in the neck. When lying down, the CSF pressure as estimated by lumbar puncture is similar to the intracranial pressure.
Hydrocephalus is an abnormal accumulation of CSF in the ventricles of the brain. Hydrocephalus can occur because of obstruction of the passage of CSF, such as from an infection, injury, mass, or congenital abnormality. Hydrocephalus without obstruction associated with normal CSF pressure may also occur. Symptoms can include problems with gait and coordination, urinary incontinence, nausea and vomiting, and progressively impaired thinking. In infants, hydrocephalus can cause an enlarged head, as the bones of the skull have not yet fused, seizures, irritability and drowsiness. A CT scan or MRI scan may reveal enlargement of one or both lateral ventricles, or causative masses or lesions, and lumbar puncture may be used to demonstrate and in some circumstances relieve high intracranial pressure. Hydrocephalus is usually treated through the insertion of a shunt, which diverts fluid to another part of the body, such as a ventriculo - peritoneal shunt.
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension is a condition of unknown cause characterised by a rise in CSF pressure. It is associated with headaches, double vision, difficulties seeing, and a swollen optic disc. It can occur in association with the use of Vitamin A and tetracycline antibiotics, or without any identifiable cause at all, particularly in younger obese women. Management may include ceasing any known causes, a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor such as acetazolamide, repeated drainage via lumbar puncture, or the insertion of a shunt such as a ventriculoperitoneal shunt.
CSF can leak from the dura as a result of different causes such as physical trauma or a lumbar puncture, or from no known cause when it is termed spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak. It is usually associated with intracranial hypotension: low CSF pressure. It can cause headaches, made worse by standing, moving and coughing, as the low CSF pressure causes the brain to "sag '' downwards and put pressure on its lower structures. If a leak is identified, a beta - 2 transferrin test of the leaking fluid, when positive, is highly specific and sensitive for the detection for CSF leakage. Medical imaging such as CT scans and MRI scans can be used to investigate for a presumed CSF leak when no obvious leak is found but low CSF pressure is identified. Caffeine, given either orally or intravenously, often offers symptomatic relief. Treatment of an identified leak may include injection of a person 's blood into the epidural space (an epidural blood patch), spinal surgery, or fibrin glue.
CSF can be tested for the diagnosis of a variety of neurological diseases, usually obtained by a procedure called lumbar puncture. Lumbar puncture is carried out under sterile conditions by inserting a needle into the subarachnoid space, usually between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae. CSF is extracted through the needle, and tested. About one third of people experience a headache after lumbar puncture, and pain or discomfort at the needle entry site is common. Rarer complications may include bruising, meningitis or ongoing post lumbar - puncture leakage of CSF.
Testing often including observing the colour of the fluid, measuring CSF pressure, and counting and identifying white and red blood cells within the fluid; measuring protein and glucose levels; and culturing the fluid. The presence of red blood cells and xanthochromia may indicate subarachnoid hemorrhage; whereas central nervous system infections such as meningitis, may be indicated by elevated white blood cell levels. A CSF culture may yield the microorganism that has caused the infection, or PCR may be used to identify a viral cause. Investigations to the total type and nature of proteins reveal point to specific diseases, including multiple sclerosis, paraneoplastic syndromes, systemic lupus erythematosus, neurosarcoidosis, cerebral angiitis; and specific antibodies such as Aquaporin 4 may be tested for to assist in the diagnosis of autoimmune conditions. A lumbar puncture that drains CSF may also be used as part of treatment for some conditions, including idiopathic intracranial hypertension and normal pressure hydrocephalus.
Lumbar puncture can also be performed to measure the intracranial pressure, which might be increased in certain types of hydrocephalus. However, a lumbar puncture should never be performed if increased intracranial pressure is suspected due to certain situations such as a tumour, because it can lead to fatal brain herniation.
Some anaesthetics and chemotherapy are injected intrathecally into the subarachnoid space, where they spread around the CSF, meaning substances that can not cross the blood - brain barrier can still be active throughout the central nervous system. Baricity refers to the density of a substance compared to the density of human cerebrospinal fluid and is used in general anesthesia to determine the manner in which a particular drug will spread in the intrathecal space.
Various comments by ancient physicians have been read as referring to CSF. Hippocrates discussed "water '' surrounding the brain when describing congenital hydrocephalus, and Galen referred to "excremental liquid '' in the ventricles of the brain, which he believed was purged into the nose. But for some 16 intervening centuries of ongoing anatomical study, CSF remained unmentioned in the literature. This is perhaps because of the prevailing autopsy technique, which involved cutting off the head, thereby removing evidence of the CSF before the brain was examined.
The modern rediscovery of CSF is now credited to Emanuel Swedenborg. In a manuscript written between 1741 and 1744, unpublished in his lifetime, Swedenborg referred to CSF as "spirituous lymph '' secreted from the roof of the fourth ventricle down to the medulla oblongata and spinal cord. This manuscript was eventually published in translation in 1887.
Albrecht von Haller, a Swiss physician and physiologist, made note in his 1747 book on physiology that the "water '' in the brain was secreted into the ventricles and absorbed in the veins, and when secreted in excess, could lead to hydrocephalus. Francois Magendie studied the properties of CSF by vivisection. He discovered the foramen Magendie, the opening in the roof of the fourth ventricle, but mistakenly believed that CSF was secreted by the pia mater.
Thomas Willis (noted as the discoverer of the circle of Willis) made note of the fact that the consistency of the CSF is altered in meningitis. In 1869 Gustav Schwalbe proposed that CSF drainage could occur via lymphatic vessels.
In 1891, W. Essex Wynter began treating tubercular meningitis by tapping the subarachnoid space, and Heinrich Quincke began to popularize lumbar puncture, which he advocated for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. In 1912, a neurologist William Mestrezat gave the first accurate description of the chemical composition of the CSF. In 1914, Harvey W. Cushing published conclusive evidence that the CSF is secreted by the choroid plexus.
During phylogenesis, cerebrospinal fluid is present within the neuraxis before it circulates. The CSF of Teleostei fish are contained within the ventricles of the brains, but not in a nonexistent subarachnoid space. In mammals, where a subarachnoid space is present, the CSF is present in it. Absorption of CSF is seen in amniotes and more complex species, and as species become progressively more complex, the system of absorption becomes progressively more enhanced, and the role of spinal epidural veins in absorption plays a progressively smaller and smaller role.
The amount of cerebrospinal fluid varies by size and species. In humans and other mammals, cerebrospinal fluid, produced, circulating, and reabsorbed in a similar manner to humans, and with a similar function, turns over at a rate of 3 -- 5 times a day. Problems with CSF circulation leading to hydrocephalus occur in other animals.
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when do i fly the flag at half mast | Half - mast - wikipedia
Half - mast or half - staff refers to a flag flying below the summit on a pole. In many countries this is seen as a symbol of respect, mourning, distress, or in some cases, a salute. Strictly speaking, flags are said to be half - mast if flown from ships, and half - staff if on land, although not all regional variations of English use "half - staff ''.
The tradition of flying the flag at half - mast began in the 17th century. According to some sources, the flag is lowered to make room for an "invisible flag of death '' flying above. However, there is disagreement about where on a flagpole a flag should be when it is at half - staff. It is often recommended that a flag at half - staff should be lowered only as much as the hoist, or width, of the flag. British flag protocol is that a flag should be flown no less than two - thirds of the way up the flagpole, with at least the height of the flag between the top of the flag and the top of the pole. It is common for the phrase to be taken literally and for a flag to be flown only halfway up a flagpole, although some authorities deprecate that practice.
When hoisting a flag that is to be displayed at half - mast, it should be raised to the finial of the pole for an instant, then lowered to half - mast. Likewise, when the flag is lowered at the end of the day, it should be hoisted to the finial for an instant, and then lowered.
The flag of Australia is flown half - mast in Australia:
The flag of Cambodia flew at half mast upon the death of King - Father Norodom Sihanouk for 7 days, from 15 -- 22 October 2012.
The term half - mast is the official term used in Canada, according to the Rules For Half - Masting the National Flag of Canada. The decision to fly the flag at half - mast on federal buildings rests with the Department of Canadian Heritage. Federally, the national flag of Canada is flown at half - mast to mark the following occasions:
Certain events are also marked by flying the national flag at half - mast on the Peace Tower at Parliament Hill. These include:
On occasion discretion can dictate the flying of the national flag at half - mast, not only on the Peace Tower, but on all federal facilities. Some examples include 11 September 2001, 11 September 2002, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Mayerthorpe tragedy, the death of Pope John Paul II, the 2005 London bombings, the death of Smokey Smith, the state funerals of former U.S. presidents Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford, and the death of Jack Layton
There are, however, exceptions to the rules of half - masting in Canada: if Victoria Day or Canada Day fall during a period of half - masting, the flags are to be returned to full - mast for the duration of the day. The national flag on the Peace Tower is also hoisted to full mast if a foreign head of state or head of government is visiting the parliament. These exemptions, though, do not apply to the period of mourning for the death of a Canadian monarch. The Royal Standard of Canada also never flies at half - mast, as it is considered representative of the sovereign, who ascends to the throne automatically upon the death of his or her predecessor. Each province can make its own determination of when to fly the flag at half - mast when provincial leaders or honoured citizens pass away.
To raise a flag in this position, the flag must be flown to the top of the pole first, then brought down halfway before the flag is secured for flying. When such mourning occurs, all flags should be flown at that position or not be flown at all, with the exception of flags permanently attached to poles.
A controversy surfaced in April, 2006, when the newly elected Conservative government discontinued the practice, initiated by the previous Liberal government following the Tarnak Farm incident, of flying the flag at half - mast on all government buildings whenever a Canadian soldier was killed in action in Afghanistan. The issue divided veterans ' groups and military families, some of whom supported the return to the original tradition of using Remembrance Day to honour all soldiers killed in action, while others felt it was an appropriate way to honour the fallen and to remind the population of the costs of war. In spite of the federal government 's policy, local authorities have often decided to fly the flag at half - mast to honour fallen soldiers who were from their jurisdiction, including Toronto and Saskatchewan.
On 2 April 2008, the House of Commons voted in favour of a motion calling on the government to reinstate the former policy regarding the half - masting of the flag on federal buildings. The motion, however, was not binding and the Cabinet refused to recommend any revision in policy to the Governor General. At the same time, a federal advisory committee tabled its report on the protocol of flying the national flag at half - mast, recommending that the Peace Tower flag remain at full height on days such as the Police Officers National Memorial Day and the National Day or Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women, stating that the flag should only be half - masted on Remembrance Day. At last report, the committee 's findings had been forwarded to the House of Commons all - party heritage committee for further study.
The National Flag Law provides for a number of situations on which the flag should be flown at half - mast, and authorizes the State Council to make such executive orders:
In Finland, the official term for flying a flag at half - mast is known as suruliputus (mourning by flag (ging)). It is performed by raising the flag briefly to the top of the mast and lowering it approximately one - third of the length of the flagpole, placing the lower hoist corner at half - mast. On wall - mounted and roof - top flagpoles the middle of the flag should fly at the middle of the flagpole. When removing the flag from half - mast, it is briefly hoisted to the finial before lowering.
Traditionally, private residences and apartment houses fly the national flag at half - mast on the day of the death of a resident, when the flag is displayed at half - mast until sunset or 21: 00, whichever comes first. Flags are also flown at half - mast on the day of the burial, with the exception that the flag is to be hoisted to the finial after the inhumation takes place.
Flags are also to be flown at half - mast on the days of national mourning. Such days are the deaths of former or current Finnish presidents, as well as significant catastophical events such as the aftermath of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, 2011 Norway attacks and significant national events such as the 2004 Konginkangas bus disaster and school shootings of Jokela and Kauhajoki.
Historically, flags were flown at half - mast on the Commemoration Day of Fallen Soldiers which takes place on the third Sunday of May. Originally, flag was raised to the finial in the morning, displayed at half - mast from 10: 00 to 14: 00, and again raised to the finial for the rest of the day. In 1995, the 50th anniversary of the end of the Second World War, the tradition of flying the flag at half - mast was discontinued and flag is displayed at the finial in a usual manner.
The French flag is flown half mast on any Day of Mourning by order of the government (for example after the Charlie Hebdo attack on 7 January 2015, the Paris attacks on 13 November 2015 and the Nice attack on 14 July 2016). Other countries have also flown the French flag at half mast because of this too. (Australia 's Sydney Harbour Bridge flew the French flag at half mast because of the Paris attacks on 13 November 2015).
Some occurrences of the French flag being flown half mast have been controversial, especially after the death of Pope John Paul II in 2005 but also in a lesser measure at the time following the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953.
The flag of Germany and the flags of its federal states are flown at half - mast:
According to Law 851 / 1978, the only day specified on which the Greek flag is flown at half - mast is Good Friday. Also, on other national and public mourning days.
Similar rules as in China apply for Hong Kong. See Flag of Hong Kong for details. Prior to the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, the rules for flying the flag at half - mast were the same as the British ones.
The flag of India is flown at half - mast for the death of a President, Vice-President, or Prime Minister, all over India. For the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Chief Justice of The Supreme Court of India, it is flown in Delhi and for a Union Cabinet Minister it is flown in Delhi and the state capitals, from where he or she came. For a Minister of State, it is flown only in Delhi. For a Governor, Lt. Governor, or Chief Minister of a state or union territory, it is flown in the concerned state.
If the intimation of the death of any dignitary is received in the afternoon, the flag shall be flown at halfmast on the following day also at the place or places indicated above, provided the funeral has not taken place before sunrise on that day. On the day of the funeral of a dignitary mentioned above, the flag shall be flown at half - mast at the place of the funeral.
In the event of a halfmast day coinciding with the Republic Day, Independence Day, Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday, National Week (6 to 13 April), any other particular day of national rejoicing as may be specified by the Government of India, or, in the case of a state, on the anniversary of formation of that state, flags are not permitted to be flown at half - mast except over the building where the body of the deceased is lying until it has been removed and that flag shall be raised to the full - mast position after the body has been removed.
Observances of State mourning on the death of foreign dignitaries are governed by special instructions issued from the Ministry of Home Affairs (Home Ministry) in individual cases. However, in the event of death of either the Head of the State or Head of the Government of a foreign country, the Indian Mission accredited to that country may fly the national flag on the above - mentioned days. India observed a five - day period of National Mourning on the death of Nelson Mandela in 2013. India also declared 29 March 2015 as a day of National Mourning as a mark of respect to the former Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew.
The flag of Iran is flown at half - mast on the death of a national figure or mourning days.
The flag of Ireland is flown at half - mast on the death of a national or international figure, that is, former and current Presidents or Taoiseach, on all prominent government buildings equipped with a flag pole. The death of a prominent local figure can also be marked locally by the flag being flown at half - mast. When the national flag is flown at half - mast, no other flag should be half - masted. When a balcony in Berkeley, California, collapsed, killing six Irish people, flags were flown at half mast above all state buildings.
The flag of Israel is flown at half - mast in Israel:
The flag of Italy was flown at half - mast after the 2013 Sardinia floods on 22 November 2013.
The flag of Indonesia is or has been flown half - mast during several occasions:
The flag of Japan is flown at half - mast upon the death of the Emperor of Japan, other members of the Imperial Family, or a current or former Prime Minister, and also following national disasters such as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. In addition to the tradition of half - mast, the national flag topped by black cloth may be flown to designate mourning. See the flag of Japan for more.
The flag of Malaysia (Jalur Gemilang) is flown at half - mast all over the country:
As a mark of respect to the passengers and crew who were on board Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 and their family members, some states had their states flag flown at half - mast. Similarly, as a mark of respect to the passengers and crew who were on board Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 and their family members, the national flag was flown at half - mast for three days and also on the national day of mourning, 22 August 2014. The 2015 Sabah earthquake had a mourning day and the flag half - mast on 8 June 2015.
The flag of Malta is flown at half - mast on government buildings by instruction of the government through the Office of the Prime Minister, for example after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
The flag of the Netherlands is nationally flown at half - mast:
The royal standard and other flags of the Dutch royal family are never flown at half - mast. Instead, a black pennon may be affixed to the flag in times of mourning.
For both government and public buildings, the flag of New Zealand is flown at half - mast for the following people:
In addition, it can also be flown at half - mast at the request of the Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage. Examples of this are for the deaths of prominent New Zealanders (e.g. Sir Edmund Hillary and Te Arikinui Dame Te Atairangikaahu, the Maori Queen), and for national tragedies (e.g. the Pike River Mine disaster)
According to the Ministry of Culture and Heritage, the position is always referred to as half - mast. The flag should be at least its own height from the top of the flagpole, though the actual position will depend on the size of the flag and the length of the flagpole.
The flag of Pakistan is routinely flown at half - mast on following days:
Any other day notified by the Government. For example, on the death of Saudi king King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz, the flag was flown at half - mast for seven days (the flag of Saudi Arabia was n't at half - mast because the flag contains the Shahada). Upon the Assassination of Benazir Bhutto, the flag was ordered to be flown at half - mast for three days. On the death of Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin, spiritual leader of Dawoodi Bohra community, the flag has been ordered by Sindh Chief Minister Qaim Ali Shah, to be flown at half - mast for two days (17 and 18 January) to express solidarity with the bereaved community. In 2014, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif announced a three - day mourning period from 16 December, including flying the flag at half - mast nationwide and at all Embassies and High Commissions of Pakistan, for the attack on Army Public School in Peshawar.
The flag of the Philippines may be flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning. Upon the official announcement of the death of the President or a former President, the flag should be flown at half - mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half - mast for seven days following the death of the Vice President, the Chief Justice, the President of the Senate or the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
The flag may also be required to fly at half - mast upon the death of other persons to be determined by the National Historical Institute, for a period less than seven days. The flag shall be flown at half - mast on all the buildings and places where the decedent was holding office, on the day of death until the day of interment of an incumbent member of the Supreme Court, the Cabinet, the Senate or the House of Representatives, and such other persons as may be determined by the National Historical Institute. Such other people determined by the National Historical Institute have included Pope John Paul II, and former U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
As per Republic Act No. 229, flags nationwide are flown at half - mast every Rizal Day on December 30 to commemorate the death of national hero José Rizal.
When flown at half - mast, the flag should be first hoisted to the peak for a moment then lowered to the half - mast position. It should be raised to the peak again before it is lowered for the day.
The flag may also be used to cover the caskets of the dead of the military, veterans of previous wars, national artists, and outstanding civilians as determined by the local government. In such cases, the flag must be placed such that the white triangle is at the head and the blue portion covers the right side of the casket. The flag should not be lowered to the grave or allowed to touch the ground, but should be solemnly folded and handed to the heirs of the deceased.
Flags must also be raised to half - mast immediately in any area recovering from natural disasters such as a typhoon or an earthquake.
The flag of Russia is flown at half - mast and (or) topped by black ribbon:
All the regional flags and the departmental ensigns are flown at half - mast on national or regional mourning days as well as the national flag. Firms and non-governmental organizations, embassies and representatives of international organizations often join the mourning. National or regional mourning usually lasts for one day.
The flag of Saudi Arabia is one of the four flags in the world that are never flown at half - mast because it shows the Shahada. The flag of Somaliland, a self - declared state internationally recognized as part of Somalia, also displays the Shahada. The flag of Iraq bears the Takbir once. The flag of Afghanistan displays the Takbir beneath the Shahada on the top. Since all four bear the concept of oneness of God, the flag is never lowered to half - mast even as a sign of mourning.
The flag of Singapore is flown at half - mast in Singapore following the deaths of an "important personage '' (such as state leaders) and during periods of national mourning. Examples include:
The flag of South Africa is flown at half - mast as a sign of mourning when ordered by the President of South Africa. Upon the official announcement of the death of the current or former President, the flag should be flown at half - mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half - mast for seven days following the death of the Deputy President, the Chairperson of NCOP, the Speaker of the National Assembly or the Chief Justice. For example, the flag was flown at half - mast from 6 -- 15 December 2013 during the national mourning period for Nelson Mandela.
The flag was flown at half - mast during the week of national mourning following the Marikana massacre in August 2012.
The flag of South Korea (Taegeukgi) is flown at half - mast on Hyeonchungil (Korean Memorial Day).
The flag of Sri Lanka is nationally flown at half - mast on a National day of mourning.
The flag of the Republic of China is flown at half - mast on 28 February to mark the anniversary of the 28 February Incident. On 5 August 2014, Taiwan flew their flag in half - mast for three days to commemorate the victims of the Kaohsiung gas explosions and TransAsia Airways Flight 222 crash.
The flag of Thailand was flown at half - mast for 15 days to mourn for the victims of 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
The flag of Thailand was flown at half - mast from 2 January to 15 January 2008 on the death of Princess Galyani Vadhana, the Princess of Naradhiwas.
Also from 14 October to 13 November 2016 the flag of Thailand was flown half - mast for 30 days; following the death of King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX).
The flag of Turkey is flown at half - mast throughout Turkey every 10 November, between 09: 05 and the sunset, in memory of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who died on 10 November 1938 at five past nine in the morning. At other times, the government may issue an order for the national flag to be flown at half - mast upon the death of principal figures of the Turkish political life as a mark of respect to their memory (such as Turgut Özal). When such an order is issued, all government buildings, offices, public schools and military bases are to fly their flags at half - mast. To show the sympathy of Turkish people to a foreign leader, flags are also flown at half - mast by governmental order (such as after the deaths of Yasser Arafat or Pope John Paul II). The flag at the Grand National Assembly in Ankara is never lowered to half - mast, regardless of the occasion. The flag at Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of Turkey, is only lowered to half - mast on November 10. At those times when the flag is to be flown at half - mast, it must first be raised to full height, then lowered to half - mast.
The flag of the United Arab Emirates is flown at half mast on 30 November (Martyrs ' Day) of every year from 08: 00 to 11: 30. The flag is also flown at half mast by decree of the President of the United Arab Emirates usually for three days. Each of the seven Emirs has the right to order flags to be flown at half mast in his Emirate.
The Royal Standard, the flag of the British monarch, is never flown at half - mast, because there is always a living monarch: the throne passes immediately to the successor.
There was some controversy in the United Kingdom in 1997 following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales that no flag was flying at half - mast at Buckingham Palace. Until 1997, the only flag to fly from Buckingham Palace was the Royal Standard, the official flag of the reigning British sovereign, which would only fly when the sovereign was in residence at the Palace (or, exceptionally, after the death of the sovereign, the flag of the next senior member of the Royal Family would be raised, if the new sovereign were not present); otherwise, no flag would fly.
In response to public outcry that the palace was not flying a flag at half mast, Queen Elizabeth II ordered a break with protocol, replacing the Royal Standard with the Union Flag at half - mast as soon as the Queen left the Palace to attend the Princess 's funeral at Westminster Abbey. The Royal Standard was again flown (at full hoist) on her return to the Palace. Since then, the Union Flag flies from the Palace when the Queen is not in residence, and has flown at half mast upon the deaths of members of the Royal Family, such as Princess Margaret and the Queen Mother in 2002 and other times of national mourning such as following the terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005.
In the UK, the correct way to fly the flag at half - mast is two - thirds between the bottom and top of the flagstaff, with at least the width of the flag between the top of the flag and the top of the pole according to the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, which decides the flying, on command of the Sovereign. The flag may be flown on a government building at half - mast on the following days:
According to the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, the correct term is Half Mast.
If a flag flying day coincides with a half - mast flag flying day (including the death of a member of the royal family), the flag is flown at full - mast unless a specific command is received from the Sovereign.
If more than one flag is flown on a half - mast day, they must all be flown at half - mast, or not at all. The flag of a foreign nation must never be flown at half - mast on UK soil unless that country has declared mourning.
At the United Nations offices in New York and Geneva, the flag of the United Nations flies at half - mast on the day after the death of a Head of State or a Head of Government of a member state, but generally not during the funeral. Other occasions are at the Secretary - General 's discretion. Other offices may follow local practice. To honor the memory of Dag Hammarskjöld the UN issued postage stamps showing its flag at half - mast.
In the United States, the usual government term for non-nautical use is "half - staff. '' While the term "half - mast '' is commonly used in place of half - staff, U.S. law and post-WW - I military tradition indicate that "half - mast '' is reserved to usage aboard a ship, where flags are typically flown from masts, and at naval ships ashore. Elsewhere ashore, flags are flown at "half - staff. '' In addition, flags are lowered to half - staff, not raised.
In the United States, the President can issue an executive order for the flag of the United States to be flown at half - staff upon the death of principal figures of the United States government and others, as a mark of respect to their memory. When such an order is issued, all government buildings, offices, public schools, and military bases are to fly their flags at half - staff. Under federal law (4 U.S.C. § 7 (f)), the flags of states, cities, localities, and pennants of societies, shall never be placed above the flag of the United States; thus, all other flags also fly at half - staff when the U.S. flag has been ordered to fly at half - staff. There is no penalty for failure to comply with the above law as to enforce such a penalty would violate the First Amendment.
Governors of U.S. states and territories are authorized by federal law to order all U.S. and state flags in their jurisdiction flown at half - staff as a mark of respect for a former or current state official who has died, or for a member of the armed forces who has died in active duty. The governor 's authority to issue the order is more restricted than the president 's, and does not include discretion to issue the order for state residents who do not meet the criteria stated. Since a governor 's executive order affects only his or her state, not the entire country, these orders are distinguished from presidential proclamations.
Under 4 U.S.C. § 7 (m) and established traditions by Presidential proclamations, the flag of the United States is to be flown at half - staff on rare occasions, in the following circumstances:
Federal law includes a Congressional request that the flag be flown at half - staff on Peace Officers Memorial Day (15 May), unless that day is also Armed Forces Day. Presidential proclamations also call for the flag to be flown at half - staff on Pearl Harbour Remembrance Day (7 December), and Patriot Day (September 11).
On 16 October 2001, President George W. Bush approved legislation requiring the United States flag to be lowered to half - staff on all Federal buildings to memorialize fallen firefighters. Pub. L. 107 -- 51 requires this action to occur annually in conjunction with observance of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service. The date of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service is traditionally the first Sunday in October. It is held at the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial in Emmitsburg, Maryland.
4 U.S.C. § 7 (m) was modified with new legislation signed into effect on 29 June 2007, by President Bush, requiring any federal facility within a region, which proclaims half - staff to honor a member of the U.S. Armed Forces who died on active duty, to follow the half - staff proclamation.
Apart from the lowered position of the flag of Vietnam, state mourning also warrants a black ribbon 1 / 10 the width of the flag 's width and equal to the length of the flag to be tied at the summit. Variants have the black ribbon wrapped around the flag itself, preventing it from being unfurled.
The flag of Zimbabwe is flown at half - mast at the conferment of National Hero Status to the deceased. As a first - generation republic, adjudication over such a status is currently done by the politburo of the ZANU -- PF.
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where did the last name cox come from | Cox (surname) - wikipedia
The surname Cox is of English or Welsh origin, and may have originated independently in several places in Great Britain, with the variations arriving at a standard spelling only later. There are also two native Irish surnames which were anglicised into Cox.
An early record of the surname dates from 1556 with the marriage of Alicea Cox at St. Martin in the Fields, Westminster, London. Cox is the 69th-most common surname in the United Kingdom.
One possibility of the origin is that it is a version of the Old English cocc which means "the little '', and was sometimes put after the name of a leader or chieftain as a term of endearment. Surnames such as Wilcox, Willcocks and Willcox are examples of this practice: all are composed of the name William and the archaic word cocc, coming together to mean "little William ''. The suggestion is that only the element - cox may have endured as a surname for some families.
Another opinion is that the name is derived from the Old English cock, which means a "heap '' or "mound '', and was a topographic name for a man living near any heap, hill or other bundle. Names like Haycock or Haycox come from such practice, meaning from "the hay mounds '' or "the hay fields ''. Again, the element - cox may have only been carried on in some families.
The third possibility is that it comes from the Welsh coch, meaning "red ''. In this opinion, the word could have either been applied to a man with red hair, calling him in essence "the Red '', or else served as a topographic name for someone living near the ruddy - hued hills found in Wales, implying that the man is "from the red hills ''. In Cornwall, the surnames Cock and Couch (pronounced ' cooch ') also derive from Cornish cogh "red, scarlet ''.
As a Cornish surname, Cock can also derive from ' cok ', "fishing boat '', the Cornish surname "Cocking '' being the diminutive form ' cokyn ', "small fishing boat ''. In these cases, the surname is likely to derive from occupation.
The English word "cock '', meaning "rooster '', is derived from the Anglo - Saxon word cocc, and a fourth possibility is that the surname came about as a nickname.
The surname Cox is also native to Belgian and Dutch Limburg. This name, like the related Cockx, is a degenerate form of Cocceius, a latinization of Kok (English: cook).
Noticeably similar surnames include Cock, Cocks, Coxe, Coxen and Coxon. There is no evidence beyond similar spellings and phonetics that these surnames are related. Given that the origins of the Cox surname are uncertain, it is possible that these names developed as spelling variations, or that each of these names has an origin in a separate word and language.
The origins of the surname in North America are speculated across several written accounts, with most sources pointing toward three distinct families arriving from England in the 17th and 18th Centuries: in 1690, brothers Thomas, William, and Walter Cocke originally of Surry; in 1705, the family of Dr. Wilham Cocke of Williamsburg; and at an unknown time before 1658, Nicholas Cocke of Middlesex.
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when did the number of american military personnel begin | History of the United States Army - wikipedia
The history of the United States Army began in 1775. From its formation, the United States Army has been the primary land based part of the United States Armed Forces. The Army 's main responsibility has been in fighting land battles and military occupation. The Corps of Engineers also has a major role in controlling rivers inside the United States. The Continental Army was founded in response to a need for professional soldiers in the American Revolutionary War to fight the invading British Army. Until the 1940s, the Army was relatively small in peacetime. In 1947, the Air Force became completely independent of the Army Air Forces. The Army was under the control of the War Department until 1947, and since then the Defense Department. The U.S. Army fought the Indian Wars of the 1790s, the War of 1812 (1812 -- 15), American Civil War (1861 -- 65), Spanish -- American War (1898), World War I (1917 -- 18), World War II (1941 -- 45), Korean War (1950 -- 53) and Vietnam War (1965 -- 71). Following the Cold War 's end in 1991, Army has focused primarily on Western Asia, and also took part in the 1991 Gulf War and war in Iraq, and the war in Afghanistan.
When the American Revolutionary War began in April 1775, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. Previously, each colony had relied upon the militia, made up of part - time civilian - soldiers. The initial orders from Congress authorized ten companies of riflemen. The first full regiment of Regular Army infantry, the 3rd Infantry Regiment, was not formed until June 1784. After the war, the Continental Army was quickly disbanded because of the American distrust of standing armies, and irregular state militias became the new nation 's sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Point 's arsenal.
During the War of 1812, an invasion of Canada failed, and U.S. troops were unable to stop the British from burning the new capital of Washington, D.C.. However, the Regular Army, under Generals Winfield Scott and Jacob Brown, proved they were professional and capable of defeating a major invasion by the regular British Army in the Niagara campaign of 1814. Between 1815 and 1860, the main role of the U.S. Army was fighting Native Americans in the West in the American Indian Wars, and manning coast artillery stations at major ports. The U.S. used regular units and many volunteer units in the Mexican -- American War of 1846 -- 48. At the outset of the American Civil War, the regular U.S. Army was small and generally assigned to defend the nation 's frontiers from attacks by Indians. Following the Civil War, the U.S. Army fought more wars with Indians, who resisted U.S. expansion into the center of the continent.
A combined conscript and volunteer force, the National Army, was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I. During World War II, the Army of the United States was formed as a successor to the National Army. The end of World War II set the stage for the ideological confrontation known as the Cold War. With the outbreak of the Korean War, concerns over the defense of Western Europe led to the establishment of NATO. During the Cold War, American troops and their allies fought communist forces in Korea and Vietnam (see containment). The 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The Army converted to an all - volunteer force with greater emphasis on training and technology. By 1989, the Cold War was nearing its conclusion. The Army leadership reacted by starting to plan for a reduction in strength. After Desert Storm, the Army did not see major combat operations for the remainder of the 1990s. After the September 11 attacks, and as part of the War on Terror, U.S. and other NATO forces invaded Afghanistan in 2001, replacing the Taliban government. The Army took part in the U.S. and allied 2003 invasion of Iraq.
The Continental Army consisted of troops from all 13 colonies. When the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. Previously, each colony had relied upon the militia, made up of part - time civilian - soldiers, for local defense, or the raising of temporary "provincial regiments '' during specific crises such as the French and Indian War. As tensions with Great Britain increased in the years leading up to the war, colonists began to reform their militia in preparation for the potential conflict. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774. Colonists such as Richard Henry Lee proposed creating a national militia force, but the First Continental Congress rejected the idea.
On April 23, 1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of a colonial army consisting of 26 company regiments, followed shortly by similar but smaller forces raised by New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. On June 14, 1775, the Second Continental Congress decided to proceed with the establishment of a Continental Army for purposes of common defense, adopting the forces already in place outside Boston (22,000 troops) and New York (5,000). It also raised the first ten companies of Continental troops on a one - year enlistment, riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware and Virginia to be used as light infantry, who later became the 1st Continental Regiment in 1776. On June 15, the Congress elected George Washington as Commander - in - Chief by unanimous vote.
Washington succeeded in forcing the British out of Boston in 1776, but was defeated and almost captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the dead of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey and restored momentum to the Patriot cause. Because of his strategy, Revolutionary forces captured two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. Historians laud Washington for his selection and supervision of his generals, encouragement of morale and ability to hold together the army, coordination with the state governors and state militia units, relations with Congress and attention to supplies, logistics, and training. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies. After victory had been achieved in 1783, Washington resigned rather than seize power, proving his opposition to military dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism.
The initial orders from Congress authorized ten companies of riflemen. However, the first full regiment of Regular Army infantry, the 3rd Infantry Regiment was not formed until June 1784.
After the authorization of the creation of a Continental Army, Congress, on 16 June 1775, created multiple departments to help support the operations of the Army. These four departments would later be renamed as Corps: the Adjutant General 's Corps, the Army Corps of Engineers, the Finance Corps and the Quartermasters Corps. Congress later authorized both the creation of Field Artillery and Cavalry units in November 1775 and December 1776 respectively.
Broadly speaking, Continental forces consisted of several successive armies, or establishments:
In addition to the Continental Army regulars, local militia units, raised and funded by individual colonies / states, participated in battles throughout the war. Sometimes, the militia units operated independently of the Continental Army, but often local militias were called out to support and augment the Continental Army regulars during campaigns. (The militia troops developed a reputation for being prone to premature retreats, a fact that was integrated into the strategy at the Battle of Cowpens.)
After the war the Continental Army was quickly disbanded as part of the American distrust of standing armies, and irregular state militias became the new nation 's sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Point 's arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Indians, it was soon realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The first of these, the Legion of the United States, was established in 1791.
The War of 1812, the second and last American war against the British, was less successful than the Revolution had been. An invasion of Canada failed, and U.S. troops were unable to stop the British from burning the new capital of Washington, D.C.. However, the Regular Army, under Generals Winfield Scott and Jacob Brown, proved they were professional and capable of defeating a major invasion by the regular British army in the Niagara campaign of 1814. The nation celebrated the Army 's great victory under Andrew Jackson, at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815, thus ending the war on a high note.
The multiple failures and fiascos of the War of 1812 convinced Washington that thorough reform of the War Department was necessary. Secretary of War John C. Calhoun reorganized the department into a system of bureaus, whose chiefs held office for life, and a commanding general in the field, although the Congress did not authorize this position. Through the 1840s and 1850s, Winfield Scott was the senior general, only retiring at the start of the American Civil War in 1861. The bureau chiefs acted as advisers to the Secretary of War while commanding their own troops and field installations. The bureaus frequently conflicted among themselves, but in disputes with the commanding general, the Secretary of War generally supported the bureaus. Congress regulated the affairs of the bureaus in detail, and their chiefs looked to that body for support.
Calhoun set up the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1824, the main agency within the War Department for dealing with Native Americans until 1849, when the Congress transferred it to the newly founded Department of the Interior.
Between 1815 and 1860, the main role of the Army was control of Indians in the West, and manning coast artillery stations at major ports. Most of the forces were stationed on the frontier, or and coastal defense units near seaports.
Transportation was a key issue and the Army (especially the Army Corps of Engineers) was given full responsibility for facilitating navigation on the rivers. The steamboat, first used on the Ohio River in 1811, made possible inexpensive travel using the river systems, especially the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their tributaries. Army expeditions up the Missouri River in 1818 -- 25 allowed engineers to improve the technology. For example, the Army 's steamboat "Western Engineer '' of 1819 combined a very shallow draft with one of the earliest stern wheels. In 1819 -- 25 Colonel Henry Atkinson developed keelboats with hand - powered paddle wheels.
Internally the main military action involved the years of warfare with the Seminole Indians in Florida. They refused to move west and effectively used the terrain as a defense. The First Seminole War was from 1814 to 1819, the Second Seminole War from 1835 to 1842, and the Third Seminole War from 1855 to 1858.
The U.S. used regular units and many volunteer units to fight Mexico, 1846 -- 48. The American strategy was threefold: to take control of the Southwest (New Mexico and California); to invade Mexico from the North under general Zachary Taylor. Finally to land troops and capture Mexico City with an army under General Winfield Scott. All the operations were successful; the Americans won all the major battles.
The army expanded from 6,000 regulars to more than 115,000. Of these, approximately 1.5 % were killed in the fighting and nearly 10 % died of disease; another 12 % were wounded or discharged because of disease.
At the outset of the American Civil War the regular U.S. army was small and generally assigned to defend the nation 's frontiers from Indian attacks. As one after another Southern state seceded many experienced officers and men resigned or left to join the Confederate States Army, further limiting the regular army 's abilities.
The attack on Fort Sumter by South Carolina militia marked the beginning of hostilities. Both sides recruited large numbers of men into a new Volunteer Army, recruited and formed by the states. Regiments were recruited locally, with company officers elected by the men. Although many officers in the regular army accepted commissions in the new volunteer units outsiders were not usually welcome as officers, unless they were surgeons whose value was obvious. Colonels -- often local politicians who helped raise the troops -- were appointed by the governors, and generals were appointed by President Abraham Lincoln.
The Volunteer Army was so much larger than the Regular Army that entirely new units above the regimental level had to be formed. The grand plan involved geographical theaters, with armies (named after rivers such as the Army of the Potomac in the Eastern Theater) comprising brigades, divisions and corps headquarters.
The rapidly growing armies were relatively poorly trained when the first major battle of the war occurred at Bull Run in the middle of 1861. The embarrassing Union defeat and subsequent inability of the Confederacy to capitalize on their victory resulted in both sides spending more time organizing and training their green armies. Much of the subsequent actions taken in 1861 were skirmishes between pro-Union and pro-Confederacy irregular forces in border states like Missouri and Kentucky.
In 1862 the war became much more bloody, though neither side was able to gain a lasting strategic advantage over the other. However, the decisive battles of Gettysburg in the east and Vicksburg in the west allowed the momentum of the war to shift in favor of the Union in 1863. Increasingly, Confederate forces were outmatched by the more numerous and better equipped Union forces, whose greater population and economic resources became critical factors as the war became one of attrition. An increasingly effective naval blockade further damaged the Southern war economy.
By 1864, long - term Union advantages in geography, manpower, industry, finance, political organization and transportation were overwhelming the Confederacy. Grant fought a remarkable series of bloody battles with Lee in Virginia in the summer of 1864. Lee 's defensive tactics resulted in higher casualties for Grant 's army, but Lee lost strategically overall as he could not replace his casualties and was forced to retreat into trenches around his capital, Richmond, Virginia. Meanwhile, in the West, William Tecumseh Sherman captured Atlanta in 1864. His March to the Sea destroyed a hundred - mile - wide swath of Georgia, with little Confederate resistance. In 1865, the Confederacy collapsed after Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse.
In all, 2.2 million men served in the Union army; 360,000 of whom died from all causes -- two - thirds from disease. The Volunteer Army was demobilized in summer 1865.
While the Confederacy suffered from a worsening lack of adequate supplies, the Union forces typically had enough food, supplies, ammunition and weapons. The Union supply system, even as it penetrated deeper into the South, maintained its efficiency. The key leader was Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs. Union quartermasters were responsible for most of the $3 billion spent for the war. They operated out of sixteen major depots, which formed the basis of the system of procurement and supply throughout the war. As the war expanded, operation of these depots became much more complex, with an overlapping and interweaving relationship between the Army and government operated factories, private factories, and numerous middlemen. The purchase of goods and services through contracts supervised by the quartermasters accounted for most of federal military expenditures, apart from the wages of the soldiers. The quartermasters supervised their own soldiers, and cooperated closely with state officials, manufacturers and wholesalers trying to sell directly to the army; and representatives of civilian workers looking for higher pay at government factories. The complex system was closely monitored by congressmen anxious to ensure that their districts won their share of contracts.
Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, enabled both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery. Black Union soldiers were mostly used in garrison duty, but they fought in several battles, such as the Battle of the Crater (1864), and the Battle of Nashville (1865).
There was bad blood between Confederates and black soldiers, with no quarter given on either side. At Ft. Pillow on April 12, 1864 Confederate units under Maj. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest went wild and massacred black soldiers attempting to surrender, which further inflamed passions.
Following the Civil War, the U.S. Army fought a Series Of Wars with Native Americans, who resisted U.S. expansion into the center of the continent. By the 1890s the U.S. saw itself as a potential international player. The Army played a central role in winning the Spanish -- American War of 1898 and the less well known Philippine -- American War of 1899 -- 1901.
As settlement sped up across the West after the transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, clashes with Native Americans of the Plains and southwest reached a final phase. The military 's mission was to clear the land of free - roaming Indians and put them onto reservations. The stiff resistance of battle - hardened, well - armed mounted Indian warriors resulted in the Indian Wars.
In the Apache and Navajo Wars, Colonel Christopher "Kit '' Carson forced the Mescalero Apache onto a reservation in 1862. Skirmishes between Americans and Apaches continued until after the turn of the century. In 1863 -- 1864, Carson used a scorched earth policy in the Navajo campaign, burning Navajo fields and homes, and capturing or killing their livestock. He was aided by other Indian tribes with long - standing enmity toward the Navajos, chiefly the Utes. Later in 1864, he fought a combined force of more than one thousand Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache at the First Battle of Adobe Walls. Carson retreated but he managed to destroy an Indian village and winter supplies. In the Red River War which followed the U.S. army systematically destroyed Comanche property, horses, and livelihood in the Texas panhandle, resulting in the surrender of the last Comanche war chief, Quanah Parker, in June 1875.
In June 1877, in the Nez Perce War the Nez Perce under Chief Joseph, unwilling to give up their traditional lands and move to a reservation, undertook a 1,200 mile fighting retreat from Oregon to near the Canada -- US border in Montana. Numbering only 200 warriors, the Nez Perce battled some 2,000 American regulars and volunteers in a total of eighteen engagements, including four major battles and at least four fiercely contested skirmishes. '' The Nez Perce were finally surrounded at the Battle of Bear Paw and surrendered.
The Great Sioux War of 1876 -- 77 was conducted by the Lakota under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. The conflict began after repeated violations of the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) once gold was discovered in the hills. By far the most famous battle was the one - sided Indian victory at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, in which combined Sioux and Cheyenne forces defeated the 7th Cavalry, led by General George Armstrong Custer. The West was largely pacified by 1890, apart from small Indian raids along the Mexican border.
Combat in the Indian wars resulted in the deaths of about 4,340 people, including soldiers, civilians and Native Americans. In all the Indian wars combined from 1790 to 1910, regular cavalry units fought in about 1000 engagements and suffered more than 2000 total killed and wounded. Disease and accidents caused far more Army casualties than combat; annually, eight soldiers per 1000 died from disease, and five per 1000 died from battle wounds or accidents.
In 1910, the U.S. Signal Corps acquired and flew the Army 's first aircraft, the Wright Type A biplane.
The Maneuver Division was formed in San Antonio, Texas, in March 1911, to undertake offensive operations against Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. This was the United States ' first attempt at modernizing the division concept. Major General Leonard Wood, then Army Chief of Staff, mobilized the division primarily to demonstrate to Congress that the United States was not adequately prepared for modern warfare. The division was disbanded on 7 August 1911.
Because of the mobilization difficulties experienced with the Maneuver Division, on 15 February 1913 a standing organization of a "regular army organized in divisions and cavalry brigades ready for immediate use as an expeditionary force or for other purposes... '' and "an army of national citizen soldiers organized in peace in complete divisions and prepared to reenforce the Regular Army in time of war '' was organized by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson and known as the "Stimson Plan. '' The continental United States was divided into four geographic departments (Eastern, Central, Western, and Southern) and a regular army division assigned to each, and 12 geographic districts, each with a national guard infantry division assigned. 32 of the 48 state governors committed their national guards to support of the plan. There were also three artillery commands: the Northern Atlantic Coast Artillery District, the Southern Atlantic Coast Artillery District, and the Pacific Coast Artillery District.
In 1914 and 1916, U.S. troops were sent into Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. The Pancho Villa Expedition under Brigadier General John J. Pershing attempted to capture Pancho Villa, a Mexican who had mounted attacks on U.S. border towns. The skirmishes on the border later became known as the Border War (1910 -- 19).
A combined conscript and volunteer force, the National Army, was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I. The National Army was formed from the old core of the regular United States Army, augmented by units of the United States National Guard and a large draft of able - bodied men.
The Selective Service Act established the broad outlines of the Army 's structure. There were to be three increments:
Much of the identity of these three segments eventually would be lost as recruits and draftees alike were absorbed in all units, so that in mid-1918 the War Department would change the designation of all land forces to one "United States Army. '' The original segment to which regiments, brigades, and divisions belonged nevertheless remained apparent from numerical designations. For the Regular Army, for example, divisions were numbered up to 25, while numbers 26 through 49 were reserved for the National Guard and 50 through higher numbers for divisions of the National Army.
At its greatest size the National Army had more than six million men out of which 2 million fought on western front. Promotions within the National Army were quick, with most United States Army officers receiving double and triple promotions within a space of only two years. Dwight D. Eisenhower entered the National Army as a captain and was a lieutenant colonel one year later. Douglas MacArthur also advanced quickly in the National Army, rising from major to brigadier general in two years.
The Army entered World War I with very large divisions, often numbering more than 30,000 men (the 4th Division contained 32,000, for example) and consisting of two infantry brigades of two regiments each, with a total of sixteen infantry battalions per division. Each division also had three artillery regiments and an engineer regiment.
The United States joined World War I in April 1917 on the side of the Triple Entente (British Empire, France, and Russia). Because of the necessary period of training before the units were moved overseas, the first elements of the American Expeditionary Forces arrived in June 1917. Their first actions of the Western Front came in October 1917. U.S. troops contributed to the offensive that finally broke through the German lines. With the armistice on 11 November 1918, the Army once again decreased its forces.
The National Army was disbanded in 1920 and all personnel not subject to demobilization who had held ranks in the National Army were reverted to Regular Army status. George S. Patton, who had been a colonel in the National Army, returned to the Regular Army as a captain. Some, such as Douglas MacArthur, maintained their wartime rank in the Regular Army. For those keeping their wartime ranks the reality was, however, that they would usually remain at that specific rank for years. This often resulted in talented officers leaving service in the interwar years.
After establishing post-World War I divisions, the Army experienced a prolonged period of stagnation and deterioration. The National Defense Act of 1920 authorized a Regular Army of 296,000 men, but Congress gradually backed away from that number. As with the Regular Army, the National Guard never recruited its authorized 486,000 men, and the Organized Reserves became merely a pool of reserve officers. The root of the Army 's problem was money. Congress yearly appropriated only about half the funds that the General Staff requested. Impoverished in manpower and funds, infantry and cavalry divisions dwindled to skeletal organizations.
Between 1923 and 1939 divisions gradually declined as fighting organizations. After Regular Army divisions moved to permanent posts, the War Department modified command relationships between divisional units and the corps areas, making division and brigade commanders responsible only for unit training. They were limited to two visits per year to their assigned elements -- and that only if corps area commanders made funds available. Later, as a further economy move, the War Department reduced the number of command visits to one per year, a restriction that effectively destroyed the possibility of training units as combined arms teams.
During World War II, the Army of the United States was formed as a successor to the National Army. The Army of the United States operated on the same principles as its predecessor, combining Regular Army, National Guard, and conscript forces into one fighting unit. The Army of the United States also incorporated Reserve forces.
The Army fought World War II with more flexible divisions, consisting of three infantry regiments of three infantry battalions each. From the point of view of soldiers, most of their time was spent in training in the United States, with large numbers going overseas in 1944.
The United States entered World War II after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. On the European front, U.S. Army troops formed a significant portion of the forces that captured North Africa and Sicily and later fought in Italy. On D - Day, 6 June 1944, and in the subsequent liberation of Europe and defeat of Nazi Germany, millions of U.S. Army troops played a central role. In the Pacific, Army soldiers participated alongside the U.S. Marine Corps in the "island hopping '' campaign that wrested the Pacific Islands from Japanese control. Following the Axis surrenders in May (Germany) and August (Japan) of 1945, Army troops were deployed to Japan and Germany to occupy the two defeated nations.
The U.S. Army Air Force, which was an outgrowth of the earlier Army Air Corps, had been virtually independent during the war. In 1947, it separated from the Army to become the United States Air Force.
Shortly after the war, in 1948, the Women 's Armed Services Integration Act gave women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Army.
The end of World War II set the stage for the East - West confrontation known as the Cold War. With the outbreak of the Korean War, concerns over the defense of Western Europe rose. Two corps, V and VII, were reactivated under Seventh United States Army in 1950 and American strength in Europe rose from one division to four. Hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops remained stationed in West Germany, with others in Belgium, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, until the 1990s in anticipation of a possible Soviet attack.
During the Cold War, American troops and their allies fought Communist forces in Korea and Vietnam (see Domino Theory). The Korean War began in 1950, when the Soviets walked out of a U.N. Security Council meeting, removing their possible veto. Under a United Nations umbrella, hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops fought to prevent the takeover of South Korea by North Korea, and later, to invade the northern nation. After repeated advances and retreats by both sides, and the PRC People 's Volunteer Army entry into the war, the Korean Armistice Agreement ended the war and returned the peninsula to the status quo in 1953.
During the 1950s, the Pentomic reorganization shifted the basic tactical unit from the regiment to the five - company battle group. Armored divisions did not change during the Pentomic era. Instead of brigades, an armored division had three Combat Commands designated: CCA, CCB, and CCC.
On 16 December 1960, the Army Chief of Staff directed a reappraisal of division organization. Resulting studies were carried out between January and April 1961, and fully implemented by 1965. The resulting Reorganization of Army Divisions (ROAD) program shifted all types of divisions (Mechanized, Airborne, Armor, Infantry and Cavalry) to an identical structure of three brigades of three (sometimes four) battalions. The ROAD division consisted of a mix of nine to twelve armor and infantry battalions assigned to the division to meet the expected needs of the division based on its Mission, the likely Enemy, the Terrain / weather, and other forces available or Troops (METT). Each brigade would be assigned or attached the mix of battalions and companies based on the division commanders estimate based on METT. The ROAD concept was based on the armored divisions of WWII and Korea.
As operations continued, the division commander could and did move battalions and companies as needed by the flow of the battle. The 1st Air Cavalry in Vietnam had nine battalions spread as needed between the three brigade headquarters, but often moved the equivalent of one battalion each day by airlift from one side of the battefield to the other. An infantry battalion in 1st Infantry Division in Vietnam could expect having the number of companies under his command change at least once a day, with companies from different divisions not uncommon. In the "Heavy '' divisions in Europe, a tank or infantry company could find itself moved to other battalions more than once a week, and to another brigade as needed.
The Vietnam War is often regarded as a low point in the Army 's record due to the extensive use of drafted enlisted personnel versus mobilization of Army Reserve and Army National Guard personnel, the unpopularity of the war with the American public, and frustrating restrictions placed on the Army by U.S. political leaders (i.e., no invasion of communist - held North Vietnam). While American forces had been stationed in the Republic of Vietnam since 1959, in intelligence and advisory / training roles, they did not deploy in large numbers until 1965, after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. American forces effectively established and maintained control of the "traditional '' battlefield, however they struggled to counter the guerrilla hit and run tactics of the communist Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. On a tactical level, American soldiers (and the U.S. military as a whole) did not lose a sizable battle. For instance in the Tet Offensive in 1968, the U.S. Army turned a large scale attack by communist forces into a massive defeat of the Viet Cong on the battlefield (though at the time the offensive sapped the political will of the American public) which permanently weakened the guerrilla force. Thereafter, most large scale engagements were fought with the regular North Vietnamese Army. In 1973 domestic political opposition to the war finally forced a U.S. withdrawal. In 1975, Vietnam was unified under a communist government.
During the 1960s the Department of Defense continued to scrutinize the reserve forces and to question the number of divisions and brigades as well as the redundancy of maintaining two reserve components, the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve. In 1967 Secretary of Defense McNamara decided that 15 combat divisions in the Army National Guard were unnecessary and cut the number to 8 divisions (1 mechanized infantry, 2 armored, and 5 infantry), but increased the number of brigades from 7 to 18 (1 airborne, 1 armored, 2 mechanized infantry, and 14 infantry). The loss of the divisions did not set well with the states. Their objections included the inadequate maneuver element mix for those that remained and the end to the practice of rotating divisional commands among the states that supported them. Under the proposal, the remaining division commanders were to reside in the state of the division base. No reduction, however, in total Army National Guard strength was to take place, which convinced the governors to accept the plan. The states reorganized their forces accordingly between 1 December 1967 and 1 May 1968.
A "Total Force Policy '' was adopted by Chief of Staff of the Army General Creighton Abrams in the aftermath of the Vietnam War and involved treating the three components of the Army -- the Regular Army, the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve as a single force.
Training and Doctrine Command was established as a major U.S. Army command on 1 July 1973. The new command, along with the U.S. Army Forces Command (FORSCOM), was created from the Continental Army Command (CONARC) located at Fort Monroe, VA. That action was the major innovation in the Army 's post-Vietnam reorganization, in the face of realization that CONARC 's obligations and span of control were too broad for efficient focus. The new organization functionally realigned the major Army commands in the continental United States. CONARC, and Headquarters, U.S. Army Combat Developments Command (CDC), situated at Fort Belvoir, VA, were discontinued, with TRADOC and FORSCOM at Fort Belvoir assuming the realigned missions. TRADOC assumed the combat developments mission from CDC, took over the individual training mission formerly the responsibility of CONARC, and assumed command from CONARC of the major Army installations in the United States housing Army training center and Army branch schools. FORSCOM assumed CONARC 's operational responsibility for the command and readiness of all divisions and corps in the continental U.S. and for the installations where they were based.
The 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The Army converted to an all - volunteer force with greater emphasis on training and technology. The Goldwater -- Nichols Act of 1986 created Unified Combatant Commands bringing the Army together with the other three military branches under unified, geographically organized command structures. The Army also played a role in the invasions of Grenada in 1983 (Operation Urgent Fury) and Panama in 1989 (Operation Just Cause).
By 1989 Germany was nearing reunification and the Cold War was coming to a close. The Army leadership reacted by starting to plan for a reduction in strength. By November 1989 Pentagon briefers were laying out plans for ' Operation Quicksilver, ' a plan to reduce Army endstrength by 23 %, from 750,000 to 580,000. A number of incentives such as early retirement were used. In 1990 Iraq invaded its smaller neighbor, Kuwait, and U.S. land forces, led by the 82nd Airborne Division, quickly deployed to assure the protection of Saudi Arabia. In January 1991 Operation Desert Storm commenced, a U.S. - led coalition which deployed over 500,000 troops, the bulk of them from U.S. Army formations, to drive out Iraqi forces. The campaign ended in a victory for the Army, as Western coalition forces routed the Iraqi Army, organized along Soviet lines, in just one hundred hours.
After Desert Storm, the Army did not see major combat operations for the remainder of the 1990s. Army units did participate in a number of peacekeeping activities, such as the UN peacekeeping mission in Somalia in 1993, where the abortive Operation Gothic Serpent led to the deaths of eighteen American soldiers and the withdrawal of international forces. The Army also contributed troops to NATO peacekeeping forces in the former Yugoslavia from December 1995, initially with IFOR. U.S. Army forces only left Bosnia & Herzegovina in 2004 with the disestablishment of Task Force Eagle on November 24, 2004. U.S. Army troops remain in Kosovo with KFOR.
During the first half of the decade the Army deactivated 8 of its 18 active divisions:
as well as two of its ten National Guard divisions:
Plans to convert two Army National Guard divisions to cadre formations were rejected by Congress in 1992.
During the mid-late 1990s, the Army trialled Force XXI. One of its initiatives was Task Force 21 (also called Task Force XXI), a battlefield digitized brigade formed for the Advanced Warfighting Exercises in 1997 to test Force XXI concepts, technology, and tactics. The brigade was formed from the 4th Infantry Division (which replaced the deactivated 2d Armored Division in 1992) and the 1st Cavalry Division as early as 1992, with some field testing beginning at Fort Hood in late 1992, early 1993. The 4th Infantry Division units assigned were 3 - 66 Armor and 1 - 22 Infantry, both of the 3d Brigade, while 1st Cavalry Division drew soldiers across a variety of support and combat fields.
Technologies tested included Software - defined radios, Applique computers, Ground Surveillance Radar, Satellite radio email systems, and Advanced UAV technology. TF - XXI participated in various Advanced Warfighting Exercises, including WARRIOR FOCUS (1995 # 4).
On September 11, 2001, 53 Army civilians (47 employees and six contractors) and 22 soldiers were among the 125 victims killed in the Pentagon in a terrorist attack when American Airlines Flight 77 commandeered by five Al - Qaeda hijackers slammed into the western side of the building, as part of the September 11 attacks. Lieutenant General Timothy Maude was the highest - ranking military official killed at the Pentagon, and the most senior U.S. Army officer killed by foreign action since the death of Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. on June 18, 1945, in the Battle of Okinawa during World War II.
In response to the September 11 attacks, and as part of the Global War on Terror, U.S. and NATO combined arms (i.e. Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine, Special Operations) forces invaded Afghanistan in October 2001, replacing the Taliban government.
The Army took part in the combined U.S. and allied 2003 invasion of Iraq. Within months the mission changed from conflict between regular militaries to counterinsurgency, with large numbers of suicide attacks resulting in the deaths of more than 4,000 U.S. service members (as of March 2008) and injuries to thousands more.
Most of the units that carried out the ground campaign phase of the invasion of Iraq, and who bore the larger part of the conflict with the Iraqi military in 2003 were those of the Army. Since then, they have performed numerous operations against insurgents.
The Army has had to make several adjustments to address demands on its personnel and equipment. The US Army has utilized its stop - loss policy and has required more of its combat personnel to serve more tours of duty than before, due to the need for experienced personnel. As opposed to Vietnam, there was no involuntary draft of enlisted males into the Army. Instead, the service employed its Total Force model and mobilized / recalled to active duty numerous Army National Guard and Army Reserve combat arms, combat support and combat service support units and personnel, often deploying many of them repeatedly to the Southwest Asia combat zone in a manner similar to their Regular Army counterparts.
There are deep concerns about effects on the psychological health of US soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan. Suicides among US soldiers have been rising, and have reached their highest rate in 26 years. This increase has coincided with US deployments in Afghanistan and Iraq.
During the insurgency, it was found that most Army and Marine Corps vehicles such as HMMWVs were insufficiently armored, leading to efforts to add greater armor to protect against improvised explosive devices. Some soldiers added armor by using modifications known as hillbilly armor. In the short term, HMMWVs in service in Iraq are being replaced by Category 1 MRAP vehicles, primarily the Force Protection Cougar H and the International MaxxPro. The US Marine Corps plans to replace all HMMWVs patrolling "outside the wire '' with MRAP vehicles.
The lack of stability in Iraq has led to longer deployments for Regular Army as well as Army Reserve and Army National Guard troops. U.S. troops withdrew in December 2011, but fighting continues. 3,293 US Army personnel were killed in the conflict.
The Army 's chief modernization plan was the Future Combat Systems program. Many systems were canceled and the remaining were swept into the BCT modernization program.
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when did they change from cape kennedy to cape canaveral | Cape Canaveral - wikipedia
Cape Canaveral, from the Spanish Cabo Cañaveral, is a cape in Brevard County, Florida, United States, near the center of the state 's Atlantic coast. Known as Cape Kennedy from 1963 to 1973, it lies east of Merritt Island, separated from it by the Banana River. It was discovered by the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León in 1513.
It is part of a region known as the Space Coast, and is the site of the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Since many U.S. spacecraft have been launched from both the station and the Kennedy Space Center on adjacent Merritt Island, the two are sometimes conflated with each other. In homage to its spacefaring heritage, the Florida Public Service Commission allocated area code 321 (as in a launch countdown) to the Cape Canaveral area.
Other features of the cape include the Cape Canaveral lighthouse and Port Canaveral, one of the busiest cruise ports in the world. The city of Cape Canaveral lies just south of the Port Canaveral District. Mosquito Lagoon, the Indian River, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and Canaveral National Seashore are also features of this area.
Humans have occupied the area for at least 12,000 years.
During the middle Archaic period, from 5000 BC to 2000 BC, the Mount Taylor period culture region covered northeast Florida, including the area around Cape Canaveral. Late in the Archaic period, from 2000 BC to 500 BC, the Mount Taylor culture was succeeded by the Orange culture, which was among the earliest cultures in North America to produce pottery. The Orange culture was followed by the St. Johns culture, from 500 BC until after European contact. The area around the Indian River was in the Indian River variant of the St. Johns culture, with influences from the Belle Glade culture to the south.
During the first Spanish colonial period the area around the Indian River, to the south of Cape Canaveral, was occupied by the Ais people, while the area around the Mosquito Lagoon, to the north of the Cape, was occupied by the Surruque people. The Surruque were allied with the Ais, but it is not clear whether the Surruque spoke a Timucua language, or a language related to the Ais language.
In the early 16th century, Cape Canaveral was noted on maps, although without being named. It was named by Spanish explorers in the first half of the 16th century as Cabo Cañareal. The name "Canaveral '' (Cañaveral in Spanish, meaning "reed bed '' or "sugarcane plantation '') is the third oldest surviving European place name in the US. The first application of the name, according to the Smithsonian Institution, was from the 1521 -- 1525 explorations of Spanish explorer Francisco Gordillo. A point of land jutting out into an area of the Atlantic Ocean with swift currents, it became a landing spot for many shipwrecked sailors. An early alternative name was "Cape of Currents ''. By at least 1564, the name appeared on maps.
English privateer John Hawkins and his journalist John Sparke gave an account of their landing at Cape Canaveral in the 16th century. A Presbyterian missionary was wrecked here and lived among the Indians. Other histories tell of French survivors from Jean Ribault 's colony at Fort Caroline, whose ship the Trinité wrecked on the shores of Cape Canaveral in 1565, and built a fort from its timbers.
In December 1571, Pedro Menéndez was wrecked off the Coast of Cape Canaveral and encountered the Ais Indians. From 1605 to 1606, the Spanish Governor of Florida Pedro de Ibarra sent Alvaro Mexia on a diplomatic mission to the Ais Indian nation. The mission was a success; diplomatic ties were made and an agreement for the Ais to receive ransoms for all the shipwrecked sailors they returned.
The first Cape Canaveral Lighthouse was completed in January 1848 to warn ships of the coral shoals off the coast.
The hurricane of August 1885, pushed a "wall of water '' over the barrier island (elevation, 10 feet (3.0 m)) devastating Cape Canaveral and adjacent areas. The ocean waves flooded the homesteaders and discouraged further settlement in the area. The beach near the lighthouse was severely eroded prompting its relocation one mile (1.6 km) west inland.
The 1890 graduating class of Harvard University started a gun club called the "Canaveral Club '' at the Cape. This was founded by C.B. Horton of Boston and George H. Reed. A number of distinguished visitors including presidents Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison were reported to have stayed here. In the 1920s, the grand building fell in disrepair and later burned to the ground.
In the 20th century, several communities sprang up in Cape Canaveral with names like Canaveral, Canaveral Harbor, Artesia and De Soto Beach. While the area was predominantly a farming and fishing community, some visionaries saw its potential as a resort for vacationers. However, the stock market crash of 1929 hampered its development.
In the 1930s, a group of wealthy journalists started a community called "Journalista Beach '', now called Avon by the Sea. The Brossier brothers built houses in this area and started a publication entitled the Evening Star Reporter that was the forerunner of the Orlando Sentinel.
Construction of Port Canaveral for military and commercial purposes was started in July 1950 and dedicated on November 4, 1953. Congress approved the construction of a deep - water port in 1929, half a century after it was first petitioned by the U.S. Navy in 1878. It is now the major deep - water port of Central Florida.
Cape Canaveral became the test site for missiles when the legislation for the Joint Long Range Proving Ground was passed by the 81st Congress and signed by President Harry Truman on May 11, 1949. Work began on May 9, 1950, under a contract with the Duval Engineering Company of Jacksonville, Florida, to build the Cape 's first paved access road and its first permanent launch site.
The first rocket launched at the Cape was a V - 2 rocket named Bumper 8 from Launch Complex 3 on July 24, 1950. On February 6, 1959, the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile was accomplished. NASA 's Project Mercury and Gemini space flights were launched from Cape Canaveral, as were Apollo flights using the Saturn I and Saturn IB rockets.
Cape Canaveral was chosen for rocket launches to take advantage of the Earth 's rotation. The linear velocity of the Earth 's surface is greatest towards the equator; the relatively southerly location of the cape allows rockets to take advantage of this by launching eastward, in the same direction as the Earth 's rotation. It is also highly desirable to have the downrange area sparsely populated, in case of accidents; an ocean is ideal for this. The east coast of Florida has logistical advantages over potential competing sites. The Spaceport Florida Launch Complex 46 of the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station is the easternmost near the tip of the cape.
A post office in the area was built and listed in the U.S. Post Office application as "Artesia '' and retained this name from 1893 to 1954. It was "Port Canaveral '' from 1954 to 1962, and lastly the City of Cape Canaveral from 1962 to 1963, when a larger post office was built.
From 1963 to 1973, the area had a different name when President Lyndon Johnson by executive order renamed the area "Cape Kennedy '' after President John F. Kennedy, who had set the goal of landing on the moon. After Kennedy 's assassination in November 1963, his widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, suggested to President Johnson that renaming the Cape Canaveral facility would be an appropriate memorial. Johnson recommended the renaming of the entire cape, announced in a televised address six days after the assassination, on Thanksgiving evening. Accordingly, Cape Canaveral was officially renamed Cape Kennedy. Kennedy 's last visit to the space facility was on November 16, six days before his death; the final Mercury mission had concluded six months earlier.
Although the name change was approved by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names of the Department of the Interior in December 1963, it was not popular in Florida from the outset, especially in the bordering city of Cape Canaveral. In 1973, the Florida Legislature passed a law in May restoring the former 400 - year - old name, and the Board went along. The name restoration to Cape Canaveral became official on October 9, 1973. Senator Ted Kennedy had stated in 1970 that it was a matter to be decided by the citizens of Florida. The Kennedy family issued a letter stating they "understood the decision, '' and NASA 's Kennedy Space Center retains the "Kennedy '' name.
The Gemini, Apollo, and first Skylab missions were all launched from "Cape Kennedy. '' The first manned launch under the restored name of "Cape Canaveral '' was the final Skylab mission, on November 16, 1973.
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who played lady penelope in the thunderbirds movie | Sophia Myles - wikipedia
Sophia Jane Myles (/ səˈfaɪ. ə /; born 18 March 1980) is an English actress, best known in film for portraying Erika in Underworld (2003), Lady Penelope Creighton - Ward in the live - action Thunderbirds film, Isolde in Tristan & Isolde and Darcy in Transformers: Age of Extinction, and has received critical acclaim for her television work, particularly as Madame de Pompadour in the Doctor Who episode "The Girl in the Fireplace '' and Beth Turner in Moonlight.
Myles was born in London. Her mother, Jane (née Allan), works in educational publishing, and her father, Peter R. Myles, is a retired Church of England vicar in Isleworth, West London. Her paternal grandmother was Russian, and Myles refers to herself as "half - Welsh, half - Russian ''. She grew up in Notting Hill and attended Fox Primary School. At the age of 11, she moved with her family to Isleworth and attended the Green School. Following success at her A-levels, she had been planning to study philosophy at Cambridge, but chose to pursue an acting career after being spotted by Julian Fellowes in a school play.
Since 1996, Myles has appeared in a number of films and television productions. In 2001, she got a small role as Victoria Abberline in the thriller film From Hell. She had a supporting role in the 2003 film Underworld, and reprised the character in a brief flashback scene in its sequel, Underworld: Evolution (2006). In 2003, she starred in the thriller Out of Bounds and played Lady Penelope in Thunderbirds. In 2006, she co-starred as Isolde in the romantic drama Tristan and Isolde.
Myles appeared as Madame de Pompadour in the 2006 Doctor Who episode "The Girl in the Fireplace ''. The episode was nominated for a Nebula Award and won the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form. She co-starred in 2006 's comedy film Art School Confidential. Also in 2006, she appeared as Lucy Westenra in a BBC adaptation of Dracula. In 2007, she played Freya in Outlander.
Myles was cast in the CBS supernatural television drama Moonlight. She was nominated for the Best Actress Award in 2007 for her role in Hallam Foe from the British Independent Film Award committee, for which she also received a BAFTA Scotland Award. Moonlight won for Best New Drama in the 2007 People 's Choice Awards. In 2010, she joined Spooks, a BBC series about a counter-terrorism unit in MI5, for its ninth series, playing Beth Bailey. She appeared in Transformers: Age of Extinction (2014).
Myles began dating David Tennant after filming an episode of Doctor Who. In October 2007, it was reported that Tennant had ended the relationship.
On 27 September 2014, Myles gave birth to a son, named Luke.
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what does a yellow speed limit sign mean in california | Advisory speed limit - wikipedia
An advisory speed limit is a speed recommendation by a governing body, used when it may be non-obvious to the driver that the safe speed is below the legal speed. It is a posting which approximates the Basic Speed Law or rule, and is subject to enforcement as such. Advisory speed limits are often set in areas with many pedestrians, such as in city centers and outside schools, and on difficult stretches of roads, such as on tight corners or through roadworks. While travelling above the advisory speed limit is not illegal per se, it may be negligence per se and liability for any collisions that occur as a result of traveling above the limit can be placed partially or entirely on the person exceeding the advisory speed limit.
Signposting of advisory speed limits varies from country to country; Australia makes extensive use of advisory speed limits across its highway networks while the Richtgeschwindigkeit ("reference speed '') in Germany is valid for the whole autobahn network (but can be overruled by speed limits in particular sections or for special reasons like weather conditions or roadworks), while the United States and the United Kingdom only give advisory speed limits for hazards such as bends.
Use of advisory speed limits varies from country to country, but they are generally used to reduce speed along short stretches of dangerous road, such as on the tight curves of an off - ramp or on a busy shopping street. The advisory speed limit when not posted is generally the same as the mandatory speed limit in ideal conditions.
In the United Kingdom, most speed limits imposed by variable - message signs are advisory, and there are no sanctions for drivers who exceed them; a notable exception being the Gatsometer - camera enforced, MIDAS and ATM variable limits on the M25, M42 and M6 motorways. Crucially, the signs imposing these limits are distinct from regular, advisory VMS displays by the inclusion of a red ring surround, effectively changing them from advance hazard warnings into standard, mandatory speed - limit signs.
As local councils require consent from the Department for Transport before changing speed limits, some use advisory speed limits on roads that the DfT refuses to officially downgrade.
The usefulness of advisory speed limits has been questioned by a number of studies: one group from the Transportation Research Board found advisory speed limits through roadworks being consistently flouted by motorists, while an investigation by Manchester Evening News found that almost all buses in Manchester city centre exceeded the local 10 miles per hour (16 km / h) advisory speed limit; some by as much as 30 miles per hour (48 km / h).
In Australia, if a person is involved in a single vehicle accident and the resulting investigation reveals that the driver was exceeding the Advisory Speed Limit displayed it can be a breach of the Insurance Cover Contract, resulting in no pay - out.
The Richtgeschwindigkeit (German Advisory or Suggested Speed of Travel) is a legal term in Germany describing the advisory speed limit for roads without a mandatory speed limit. Autobahns (German plural form: Autobahnen) have an advisory speed limit of 130 kilometres per hour (81 mph) on non-signposted sections.
Exceeding the advised speed is not a criminal offense, but may result in greater liability in the case of an accident due to an increased danger of operating the vehicle.
In Germany, the Autobahn - Richtgeschwindigkeits - Verordnung (Directive on Reference Speed on Motorways), introduced in 1974, recommends a speed of no more than 130 km / h (81 mph) for autobahns and similar roads, whose lanes are separated by a median or which have at least two lanes per direction, provided there are no traffic signs posting a lower speed limit.
Until 31 August 2009, a different reference speed could be posted by the traffic signs number 380 and 381, according to § 42 of the German traffic code (Straßenverkehrsordnung, StVO), as seen above. As these traffic signs were only rarely used, they meanwhile have been abolished.
The signage for advisory speed limits is not defined by the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, and is therefore not standardised internationally. The United States uses a small yellow sign under the main warning sign, as well as a standalone variation on the standard speed limit sign, with a yellow background instead of a white one, the words "speed limit '' omitted and an additional panel stating the type of hazard ahead. Though they list speeds, the U.S. advisory speed signs are classified as warning signs, not regulatory signs, as primary speed signs are. Australia uses a similar design as the U.S. in spite of regulatory speed limit signs being quite different. Germany used a square sign with a blue background and white lettering, similar to the minimum speed limit sign, and New Zealand uses a yellow background with black lettering (similar to the Australian design without the "km / h '' lettering). The United Kingdom currently uses an oblong white rectangle with black lettering stating "Max Speed ''.
Most of Europe
Australia
Australia (motorway exits)
Australia (with diagram of motorway exit shape)
Victoria, Australia
Western Australia, Australia (traffic - calming bumps, known as speed bumps)
Canada
Canada (Ontario) (highway ramps and exits)
Denmark
Finland
Japan
Netherlands
New Zealand
New Zealand (motorway exits)
New Zealand (dangerous curve)
New Zealand (extremely dangerous curve)
New Zealand (warning of danger of truck roll - over)
Norway
Philippines
South Korea
Sweden
United Kingdom (imperial)
United Kingdom (roadworks, imperial)
United States (customary)
United States (metric)
United States (highway exits)
United States (highway ramps)
United States (highway curves)
United States (warning of danger of truck roll - over)
United States (integrated into curve warning sign)
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who played wild bill hickok in the movie hickok | Wild Bill Hickok (film) - wikipedia
Wild Bill Hickok is a 1923 American Western silent film directed by Clifford Smith, and written by William S. Hart and J.G. Hawks. It stars William S. Hart, Ethel Grey Terry, Kathleen O'Connor, James Farley, Jack Gardner, Carl Gerard, and William Dyer. The film was released on November 18, 1923, by Paramount Pictures. It was the first film to depict Wyatt Earp, although in a very brief role, and the only film made before he died in 1929 that included his character, until Law and Order was released in 1932. A print of the film exists in the Museum of Modern Art film archive.
After the America Civil War ends, key military and government leaders meet in Washington D.C. Gunfighter Wild Bill Hickok (William Hart) goes to Dodge City where he hangs up his gun belt and takes over a card table. Local lawmen are unable to rid the town of lawless cowboys. Hickok 's arch - enemy and gang leader Jack McQueen (Jim Farley) accuses Hickok of losing his nerve. Hickok visits General Custer and retrieves his sword, taking up his role as a fighter for what is right.
He returns to Dodge City and enlists the help of friends Wyatt Earp, Calamity Jane, Bat Masterson, Doc Holliday, Charlie Bassett, Luke Short and Bill Tilghman to chase the bad guys out of town. Hickcok falls for the wife of George Hamilton (Carl Gerard). Pursued for his crimes, McQueen leaves town and gets away; follows him and kills him. Hickok departs Dodge City in sorrow since the woman he loved was already married.
William S. Hart, who played Wild Bill Hickok, and Wyatt Earp were best friends. Earp wanted Hart 's help to make a movie that would improve what the public thought about him and his brothers. Based on what the press wrote about his actions at the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral and his job as a referee of the Fitzsimmons vs. Sharkey boxing match, Earp had a dubious reputation. Earp wrote Hart in July 1925: "I am sure that if the story were exploited on the screen by you, it would do much towards setting me right before the public which has always been fed up with lies about me. ''
Bert Lindley playing Wyatt Earp appeared very briefly in a crowd scene. This was the first movie that depicted Wyatt Earp, and the only one that included his character before he died in 1929. Hollywood did n't make another film that referenced his character until Law and Order in 1932.
The film premiered in New York city on November 18, two weeks before its public release on December 3, 1923.
Despite his very small role, Earp was prominently featured in the promotional copy as "Deputy Sheriff to Bat Masterson of Dodge City, known as one of the three greatest gun - men that ever lived, along with Bat Masterson and ' Wild Bill ' Hickok... Back in the days when the West was young and wild, ' Wild Bill ' fought and loved and adventured with such famous frontiersmen as Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp. '' In reality, Earp was a virtually unknown assistant marshal in Dodge City when Wild Bill Hickok was murdered in 1876.
Earp served as a technical adviser on the film. Because the role of Earp 's character in the movie is so small, Bert Lindley is not listed on some descriptions of the movie and this portrayal of Earp is often overlooked. Alan Barra, author of Inventing Wyatt Earp: His Life and Many Legends, overlooked this movie in his biography.
Hart thought a great deal of Wyatt Earp and Bat Masterson, and after Masterson 's death in 1921, dedicated his next movie, Wild Bill Hickok to Masterson.
The film was not well received. One reviewer described it as "rather dull and tedious. '' The film 's poor box office draw helped end Hart 's already fading star.
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who is the first indian cricketer to hit a triple century in international cricket | List of Test cricket triple centuries - wikipedia
A triple century (an individual score of 300 or more) in Test cricket has been scored on 30 occasions by 26 different batsmen from eight of the twelve Test - cricket playing nations. No player from Bangladesh or Zimbabwe has scored 300.
The first Test triple century was achieved by Andy Sandham of England against the West Indies in 1930 in the first Test series hosted in the West Indies. The frequency of a batsman scoring a Test triple century is slightly less than that of a bowler taking a Test hat - trick (30 triple centuries versus 43 hat - tricks as of July 2017). The quickest Test triple - century was scored in 4 hours 48 minutes, by Wally Hammond for England against New Zealand at Auckland in 1932 -- 33. The fastest Test triple - century by number of balls faced, where that figure is recorded, is Virender Sehwag 's 278 - ball triple century for India against South Africa in the first Test of the Future Cup in Chennai in 2008.
Brian Lara and Chris Gayle of the West Indies, Donald Bradman of Australia and Virender Sehwag of India are the only batsmen to reach 300 more than once. Lara 's 400 not out against England in 2004, his second Test triple - century, is the highest score in Test cricket and the only instance of a Test quadruple century; Lara is also the only player to have surpassed 350 twice. Bradman also scored 299 not out against South Africa in 1932. Sehwag also scored 293 off 254 balls in the third Test between Sri Lanka and India in December 2009.
The two cricket grounds with the most triple centuries scored at them are Headingley in Leeds, England, and the Antigua Recreation Ground in St. John 's, Antigua and Barbuda, which have both had three triple centuries scored at them. The most triple centuries from one country is seven, by Australia.
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how far is cedar point from fort wayne | Fort Wayne (Detroit) - wikipedia
Fort Wayne is located in the city of Detroit, Michigan, at the foot of Livernois Avenue in the Delray neighborhood. The fort is situated on the Detroit River at a point where it is about a mile to the Canadian shore. The original 1848 limestone barracks (with later brick additions) still stands, as does the 1845 star fortification (renovated in 1863 with brick exterior facing). On the fort grounds but outside the original star fort are additional barracks, officers quarters, hospital, shops, recreation building, commissary, guard house, garage, and stables.
The fort sits on 96 acres (39 ha). Since the 1970s, 83 acres (34 ha), including the original star fort and a number of buildings, has been operated by the city of Detroit. The remaining area is operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as a boatyard. The fort was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1958 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971.
The site of Fort Wayne has a history going back to about the year 1000 A.D. Approximately 19 Native American burial mounds were present in the immediate area, as well as a larger one at the mouth of the Rouge River. The sole remaining burial mound at Fort Wayne was excavated by archaeologists at University of Michigan in the early 20th century, and at that time was found to contain human remains dating over 900 years old. A type of pottery found there is unique to the site; it was subsequently dubbed "Wayne Ware. '' The present star fort was built atop one of the burial mounds, and it is from this site that Springwells Township (later annexed into the City of Detroit) took its name. The site originally consisted of a high sand mound, with freshwater springs found along the marshy waterfront of the Detroit River.
Fort Wayne is Detroit 's third fort. The first, Fort Detroit, was built by the French in 1701. This fort, constructed shortly after Cadillac landed, was manned by the French until it was surrendered to the British in 1760 during the French and Indian War. The second fort, Fort Lernoult, was built by the British a few years later, and was manned by the British until 1796. When the United States took over Detroit, Fort Lernoult was renamed Fort Shelby. When Cadillac founded Fort Detroit, he also purportedly made arrangements with the local Potawatomi people to set up a small village at the site of Fort Wayne for purposes of trading; this was occupied and thriving by 1710.
The opening shots of the War of 1812 were fired in the vicinity of the fort 's future site, the "sand hill at Springwells ''. Although war had not been officially declared yet, Michigan militiamen bombarded the town of Sandwich, Canada (later annexed into Windsor) on July 4, 1812. Later in the course of the war, British general Isaac Brock crossed the narrowest part of the Detroit River with his troops and landed on the future Fort Wayne site before marching to Detroit. In the ensuing Siege of Detroit, American general William Hull, believing himself completely surrounded and outnumbered, surrendered Fort Shelby to the British without offering any resistance. The British later abandoned the fort and American troops reoccupied it. In 1815, the future Fort Wayne site was used for the signing of the Treaty of Springwells, which marked the official (though belated) end of hostilities between the American government and the local Native American tribes of the area who had allied with the British during the war. Among those present for the signing of the treaty were Lewis Cass and General William Henry Harrison. Following the end of the war, Fort Shelby fell into disrepair, and in 1826 it was sold to the City of Detroit and demolished.
In the late 1830s, small, short - lived rebellions occurred in Canada to protest corruption amongst its colonial government. Many Americans believed there was widespread Canadian support for these rebellions and formed volunteer militias to overthrow Canada 's colonial government. This led to a series of militia attacks on Canada known as the Patriot War. American troops were mustered to suppress the American volunteers and maintain America 's official neutrality in the conflict. However, at the same time, the United States government realized there was a lack of fortifications along the northern border to repel a potential British attack, and in particular, no counterpart to the British Fort Malden located in Amherstburg. In 1841, Congress appropriated funds to build a chain of forts stretching from the east coast to the Minnesota Territory, including one at Detroit.
Soon afterward, the Army sent Lieutenant Montgomery C. Meigs to Detroit. Meigs bought up riverfront farm property three miles below Detroit, in Springwells Township, at the point on the Detroit River closest to Canada. Construction on the fort began in 1842, with Meigs superintending. The original fortifications were cedar - reveted earthen walls. The fort was completed in 1851, costing $150,000. The Army named the new fort for Revolutionary War hero General "Mad '' Anthony Wayne, who had taken possession of Detroit from the British in 1796.
The original fort is star - patterned, with walls of earthen ramparts faced with cedar, covering vaulted brick tunnels that contain artillery ports. The design was based on fortifications developed by Sebastian Vauban, a 17th - century French military engineer, and modified by Dennis Hart Mahan. Artillery emplacements are atop the walls, designed for 10 - inch (250 mm) cannons mounted to fire over the parapet, although there is no indication that artillery intended for the fort was ever installed. There is a dry moat surrounding the fort, and a demilune facing the river.
Although the star fort today is substantially similar to the original construction, some changes have been made. Starting in 1863, under the supervision of Thomas J. Cram, the walls of the fort were reconstructed, replacing the original cedar facing with brick and concrete. In addition, the entranceway to the fort has been altered. The original entrance to the fort was a small sally port in the southeast bastion. In 1938, an arched entrance was constructed through the fort 's walls to accommodate vehicular traffic; later, the arches were removed to fit larger trucks.
Within the star fort (and built at approximately the same time) is a Federal style, 3 ⁄ - story limestone troop barracks, consisting of five independent but adjacent sections. Each section contains a ground floor mess, two floors of barracks rooms, and an attic. Brick additions were added to the rear of the building in 1861, housing washrooms and kitchens. Next to the barracks is a powder magazine, also constructed of limestone. Additional buildings originally built within the star fort, such as officer 's housing, have long since been destroyed.
Numerous additional buildings have been built on fort grounds outside of the star fort. A row of wooden Victorian officer 's homes was built in the 1880s. In 1937, these homes were completely refurbished and clad in brick by WPA workers. One home was restored in the 1980s to its original appearance. A Spanish -- American War guardhouse, built in 1889, is in the center of the fort grounds. The guard house was restored in 1984. In 1890, a brick hospital was built, with a later addition in 1898. In 1905, a new guardhouse, still in use today, was built near the gate to the fort grounds. Around the same time, four barracks buildings for enlisted men were built, as well as a service club (1903), headquarters (1905), and post office. By 1928, duplex housing for senior NCOs. In 1939, more NCO houses were built in a row facing Jefferson Avenue.
Before any cannon had been installed at the newly constructed Fort Wayne, the United States and Britain peacefully resolved their differences, eliminating the need for a fort on the Detroit River. Fort Wayne remained unused for a decade after its initial construction, manned only by a single watchman. There is evidence suggesting that the fort was a final stop on the Underground Railroad during these dormant years, as the Irish farmer who lived next to the fort 's demilune operated a small ferry to Canada to supplement his income, the only such ferry in this part of the city at that time.
In 1861, the American Civil War again made Fort Wayne relevant. British sympathy for the Confederacy renewed fears of an attack from Canada, leading to a reconstruction and strengthening of the fort walls. Two weeks after the beginning of the war, the Michigan 1st Volunteer Infantry Regiment was mustered into service at Fort Wayne. For the rest of the Civil War, the fort served as a mustering center for troops from Michigan, as well as a place for veterans to recover from their wounds. Alfred Gibbs was the first commander to occupy the fort, serving his parole at Fort Wayne after being captured by the Confederacy.
After the Civil War and until 1920, Fort Wayne served as a garrison post, with regiments rotated from the western frontier for rest. In 1875, the city of Detroit annexed a portion of Springwells Township; in 1884, it annexed more of Springwells Township east of Livernois Avenue, including all land adjacent to Fort Wayne.
During the Spanish -- American War, troops from the fort headed to Cuba and the Philippines. The fort 's guardhouse also housed the first telephone exchange in southwestern Detroit.
During the Red Scare following World War I, the fort served as a temporary detention center for accused communists awaiting trial. In 1921, the world 's first motorized ride - on lawn mower, patented by Ransom E. Olds and manufactured by the Ideal Power Mower Co. of Lansing, was used at Fort Wayne (as well as several other sites) for promotional purposes. During the Great Depression, the fort was opened to homeless families and it housed the Civilian Conservation Corps ".
During World War I, Fort Wayne had become instrumental in the acquisition of cars, trucks, and spare parts for the military. This motor vehicle supply function reached its peak in World War II, when Fort Wayne was designated Motor Supply Depot and additional buildings were constructed for warehousing and shipping. At that time, Fort Wayne was the largest motor supply depot in the entire world, the command center controlling the flow of materiel from the automobile factories to the citywide network of storage and staging facilities, which included the Michigan State Fairgrounds, and the Port of Detroit terminal. Every single tank, truck, jeep, tire, or spare part that was sent to the fronts of World War II from the Detroit factories came through Fort Wayne. At that time, there was a railroad spur along the riverfront, docks for large ships, and over 2,000 (mostly civilian women) workers were employed; the drivers and mechanics of the Red Ball Express were also trained here. Fort Wayne served as home to Italian prisoners of war (POWs) captured during the North African Campaign, who were employed as servants, cooks, and janitors. After Italy 's surrender, the POWs were given the chance to return to Italy, but many chose to remain and settle in Detroit.
At the end of World War II, plans were made to close the fort. In 1948, the star fort and original barracks were turned over to the City of Detroit 's Historical Commission for operation as a military museum. In the 1950s, anti-aircraft guns were installed at the fort, later upgraded to Nike - Ajax missiles. During the Cold War, Fort Wayne served as an entrance station for the armed services, with thousands of enlistees and draftees being sworn in during the Korean War and Vietnam War. The fort was again used to provide housing to displaced families after the 1967 12th Street Riot, with the last families staying at the fort until 1971.
The remainder of Fort Wayne was turned over piecemeal to the city of Detroit, with the last bit of property delivered in 1976.
From 1949 until 2006, the Fort Wayne Military Museum was operated by the Detroit Historical Museum. Since early 2006, the fort has been operated by the Detroit Recreation Department, assisted by the Historic Fort Wayne Coalition, the Friends of Fort Wayne, and the Detroit Historical Society.
Also on the grounds is the Tuskegee Airmen Museum and an ancient burial mound. It hosts historic reenactments (usually Civil War), spring and fall flea markets, concerts, youth soccer league matches, Hispanic and Boy Scout events and is open for some civic events. Areas can be rented for special events and family reunions as well.
Officers ' Quarters, c. 1900
Officers ' Row, c. 1900
Salley Port, 1934
Fort Wayne Barracks, 1934
Powder House, 1934
Main Barracks in January 2011
Officer 's Row in January 2011
Many structures are in disrepair. January 2011
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where did the money tree get its name | Pachira aquatica - wikipedia
Carolinea macrocarpa Bombax macrocarpum Bombax glabrum Pachira macrocarpa
Pachira aquatica is a tropical wetland tree of the mallow family Malvaceae, native to Central and South America where it grows in swamps. It is known by the common names Malabar chestnut, French peanut, Guiana chestnut, provision tree, saba nut, monguba (Brazil), pumpo (Guatemala) and is commercially sold under the names money tree and money plant. This tree is sometimes sold with a braided trunk and is commonly grown as a houseplant, although more commonly what is sold as a "Pachira aquatica '' houseplant is in fact a similar species, P. glabra.
Pachira aquatica can grow up to 18 m (59.1 ft) in height in the wild. It has shiny green palmate leaves with lanceolate leaflets and smooth green bark. Its showy flowers have long, narrow petals that open like a banana peel to reveal hairlike yellowish orange stamens. The tree is cultivated for its edible nuts, which grow in a large, woody pod. The nuts are light brown, striped with white. They are said to taste like peanuts, and can be eaten raw, cooked, or ground into flour to make bread. The leaves and flowers are also edible.
The tree grows well as a tropical ornamental in moist, frost - free areas, and can be started from seed or cutting. It is a durable plant and adapts well to different conditions. The pachira needs plenty of sunlight, though it is important that the plant be gradually introduced to direct sunlight in summer months, as the leaves are susceptible to sunburn.
The fruit, a nut, is of a brownish colour and can measure up to 12 inches (300 mm) in length and 2.5 inches (64 mm) in diameter. Seeds grow within until such time as the nut bursts, sending the seeds forth and propagating. The nut is edible and often eaten raw or roasted, with a flavor similar to a European chestnut; it may also be ground and made as a hot drink. The fruit is not eaten.
The genus name is derived from a language spoken in Guyana. The species name is Latin for "aquatic ''. It is classified in the subfamily Bombacoideae of the family Malvaceae. Previously it was assigned to Bombacaceae.
The name "money tree '' seems to refer to a story of its origin, where a poor man prayed for money, found this "odd '' plant, took it home as an omen, and made money selling plants grown from its seeds.
In East Asia, Pachira aquatica (Chinese: 馬 拉巴 栗; pinyin: Mǎlābā lì; literally: "Malabar chestnut '') is often referred to as the "money tree '' (發財 樹 fācái shù). The tree had long been popular as an ornamental in Japan. In 1986, a Taiwanese truck driver first cultivated five small trees in a single flowerpot with their trunks braided. The popularity of these ornamentals took off in Japan and later much of the rest of East Asia. They are symbolically associated with good financial fortune and are typically seen in businesses, sometimes with red ribbons or other auspicious ornamentation attached. The trees play an important role in Taiwan 's agricultural export economy with exports of NT $ 250 million (US $ 7 million) in 2005. However, much of what is in cultivation sold as Pachira aquatica is, in actuality, a similar species, P. glabra, which develops a thick base at a younger age and has a smaller growth habit, less showy flowers, and a 6 '' green seed pod rather than 12 '' brown seed pod.
The presence of cyclopropenoid fatty acids in the nuts has been used to state that the nuts are not edible and not suitable for human consumption, despite the nut being eaten or used in medicine. Hanus et al. 2008 argue that CPFA are carcinogenic, cocarcinogenic, and have medical and other effects on animals. According to them "CPFA in food is dangerous to human health ''. Out of 6 rats tested by Oliveira et al. 2000, 5 died after consuming the nuts. The surviving rat had enlarged organs including the stomach, liver, pancreas, kidneys, lungs and also had spleen atrophy. Research on the health effects of eating the nuts on humans is currently lacking.
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who wrote the book are you my mother | Are You My mother? - Wikipedia
Are You My Mother? is a children 's book by P.D. Eastman published by Random House Books for Young Readers on June 12, 1960 as part of its Beginner Books series. Based on a 2007 online poll, the National Education Association named the book one of its "Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children. '' It was one of the "Top 100 Picture Books '' of all time in a 2012 poll by School Library Journal.
Are You My Mother? is the story about a hatchling bird. His mother, thinking her egg will stay in her nest where she left it, leaves her egg alone and flies off to find food. The baby bird hatches. He does not understand where his mother is so he goes to look for her. As he loses his ability to fly, he walks, and in his search, he asks a kitten, a hen, a dog, and a cow if they are his mother, but none of them are.
Refusing to give up, he sees an old car, which he realizes certainly can not be his mother. In desperation, the hatchling calls out to a boat and a plane (neither responds), and at last, climbs onto the teeth of an enormous power shovel. It belches "SNORT '' from its exhaust stack, prompting the bird to cry, "You are not my mother! You are a Snort! '' As the machine shudders and grinds into motion, he can not escape. "I want my mother! '' he shouts.
At that moment, the Snort drops the hatchling into his nest, and his mother returns. The two are united, much to their delight, and the baby bird recounts to his mother the adventures he had looking for her.
On August 13, 1991, Are You My Mother? was part of the Beginner Book Video series, directed and produced by Ray Messecar. The cast included Ardys Flavelle, Merwin Goldsmith, Marian Hailey, Ron Marshall, Brendon Parry and Jim Thurman.
ArtsPower National Touring Theatre created an hour - long musical performance based on the book geared for children grades K - 2, with music by Richard DeRosa.
The book 's subjective appeal is derived from a compelling and compact plot full of humorous adventure, aided by line drawings that appeal to young children.
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who is the first transport minister of india | First Nehru ministry - wikipedia
After independence, on 15 August 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru assumed office as the first Prime Minister of India and chose fifteen ministers to form the First Nehru ministry.
The Constituent Assembly was set up while India was still under British rule, following negotiations between Indian leaders and members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India from the United Kingdom. The provincial assembly elections had been conducted early in 1946. The Constituent Assembly members were elected to it indirectly by the members of these newly elected provincial assemblies, and initially included representatives for those provinces which came to form part of Pakistan, some of which are now within Bangladesh. The Constituent Assembly had 299 representatives, including nine women.
The Interim Government of India was formed on 2 September 1946 from the newly elected Constituent Assembly. The Indian National Congress held a large majority in the Assembly, with 69 percent of all of the seats, while the Muslim League held almost all of the seats reserved in the Assembly for Muslims. There were also some members from smaller parties, such as the Scheduled Caste Federation, the Communist Party of India, and the Unionist Party. In June 1947, the delegations from the provinces of Sindh, East Bengal, Baluchistan, West Punjab, and the North West Frontier Province withdrew, to form the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, meeting in Karachi. On 15 August 1947, the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan became independent nations, and the members of the Constituent Assembly who had not withdrawn to Karachi became India 's Parliament. Only 28 members of the Muslim League finally joined the Indian Assembly. Later, 93 members were nominated from the princely states. The Congress thus secured a majority of 82 %.
Jawaharlal Nehru took charge as the first Prime Minister of India on 15 August 1947, and chose 15 other members for his cabinet. Vallabhbhai Patel served as the first Deputy Prime Minister until his death on 15 December 1950. Lord Mountbatten, and later C. Rajagopalachari, served as Governor - General until 26 January 1950, when Rajendra Prasad was elected as the first President of India.
There were members from Hindu, Muslim, Christian and Sikh communities. There were two members from the Dalit community as well. Rajkumari Amrit Kaur was the only female Cabinet minister. The following is a list of the ministers in the first Cabinet.
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who said no one gets out of this life alive | No One Here Gets Out Alive - Wikipedia
No One Here Gets Out Alive (1980) was the first biography of Jim Morrison, lead singer and lyricist of the L.A. rock band The Doors, written nearly a decade after Morrison 's death by journalist Jerry Hopkins, with "insider '' information added by Danny Sugerman. Hopkins had done an extensive interview with Morrison before his death, but his first manuscript was rejected by major publishers. Sugerman began working as an assistant in the Doors office at the age of 13, and became their manager after Morrison died (replacing Bill Siddons).
A companion video was made featuring interviews with The Doors members, Hopkins, Sugerman, and Paul Rothchild among others. It includes some rare footage, and was the first video released by the band. It helped rekindle interest in the Doors by allowing fans that were too young, or unable to remember, to see The Doors in action.
Taking its title from the Doors song "Five to One '', the book is divided into three sections: The Bow is Drawn, The Arrow Flies and The Arrow Falls, for the early years of his life, his rise to fame with the Doors and his final years and death, respectively.
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who is alice in the young and restless | The Young and the Restless characters (1990s) - wikipedia
A list of notable characters from the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless that significantly impacted storylines and debuted between January 1990 and December 1999.
Lillie Belle Barber first appeared in 1990 as the mother of Olivia and Drucilla Barber. The role was originated by Norma Donaldson, who portrayed the role for four years before being replaced by Robin Braxton briefly in 1994.
History Lillie Belle and her husband Walter are the parents of Drucilla and Olivia Barber. Lillie Belle, in particular, tended to favor her older daughter, Olivia, because Drucilla was the product of Walter and Lillie Belle having unprotected sex. The favoritism of Olivia over Drucilla caused Dru to run away from home to Genoa City as a teenager. Years later, when Lillie Belle and Walter reunited with Drucilla during a visit to Genoa City, she discovered the truth about her conception. Olivia was furious over this revelation and berated her mother mercilessly for mistreating her sister for her entire life. Later, Lillie Belle returned to town after leaving Walter, and she decided to live with Olivia and her husband, Nathan Hastings. Lillie Belle caused various problems in their marriage, and she remained a problem for everyone due to her health situation. Dru tried to get Lillie Belle to move in with her, but Lillie Belle, once again, chose Olivia over Dru. Eventually, Walter arrived and took Lillie Belle back home.
Walter Barber first appeared in 1990 as the father of the late Drucilla Barber, and Olivia Barber. The role was originated by Henry Sanders, and then taken over by Bennett Guillory from 1992 to 1994.
History Walter and his wife Lillie Belle were married in 1957. Lillie Belle, in particular, tended to favor her older daughter, Olivia, because Drucilla was the product of Walter and Lillie Belle having unprotected sex. The favoritism of Olivia over Drucilla caused Dru to run away from home to Genoa City as a teenager. Years later, when Lillie Belle and Walter reunited with Drucilla during a visit to Genoa City, she discovered the truth about her conception. Walter assured Drucilla that he always accepted her despite the fact that the pregnancy was unplanned. Olivia was furious over this revelation and berated her mother mercilessly for mistreating her sister for her entire life. Later, Lillie Belle returned to town after leaving Walter, and she decided to live with Olivia and her husband, Nathan Hastings. Lillie Belle caused various problems in their marriage, and she remained a problem for everyone due to her health situation. Dru tried to get Lillie Belle to move in with her, but Lillie Belle, once again, chose Olivia over Drucilla. Eventually, Walter arrived and took Lillie Belle back home.
Florence "Flo '' Webster is the mother of Nina Webster (Tricia Cast), portrayed by Sharon Farrell from 1991 to 1996. Florence was Farrell 's first role on daytime television.
History Florence, also known as "Flo '', came to Genoa City in 1991, living with her daughter Nina Webster for a few years. Flo worked as a part - time prostitute. She later was conned by a romance of her daughter, David Kimble (Michael Corbett) into marrying him, believing his name was "Jim Adams ''. Their marriage was declared invalid. In 1996, Flo left Genoa City and moved to Los Angeles.
Molly Carter first appeared in March 7, 1991 on The Young and the Restless the mother of Sheila Carter, portrayed by Marilyn Alex. The character departed Y&R in 1993, and returned again briefly in 1995. From October to November 1992, the character appeared on its sister soap The Bold and the Beautiful. The character returned to B&B in April 1994, and again from January 23, 1997 to April 27, 1998.
History Molly Carter is the mother of former nurse Sheila Carter, and Sarah Smythe. When Molly visited her daughter in 1991, she discovered that Sheila stole Lauren Fenmore 's newborn son, Scotty, and was passing him off as her own. After Molly suffered a stroke that left her inarticulate, Sheila sent her back to her farmhouse in Michigan, but Molly partly regained her voice and was able to communicate the truth to Lauren. Furious, Sheila kidnapped both Lauren and Molly and held them hostage at the farmhouse. An accidental fire broke loose and everyone believed Sheila perished in the flames. Lauren and Molly were rescued by Paul Williams and his secretary, Lynne Bassett.
It was revealed that Sheila had escaped the farmhouse fire and started a new life in Los Angeles. She began to use Molly to win Lauren 's favor in the hopes that Lauren would eventually forgive her for her crimes. Then, Sheila could marry the renowned fashion CEO, Eric Forrester. Her plan, however, did not work; Lauren and Sheila remained at odds for years. Molly returned to Los Angeles years later to attend Sheila 's wedding to James Warwick.
Alexander "Blade '' Bladeson first appeared in 1992. He is the twin brother of Rick Bladeson. Both Bladeson twins were portrayed by actor Michael Tylo until 1995.
History Blade was introduced as a Jabot Cosmetics photographer in 1992. After engaging in an affair with Jill Abbott, Blade began dating Ashley Abbott but Blade would not open up to her about his past beyond telling her that Blade was a stage name, he was escaping his past and he had a brother. They fell in love and married. They took up residence at the Abbott mansion awaiting the building of their new home. In 1994, Blade helps Malcolm Winters become Genoa City 's most prominent photographer. Blade 's former lover Mari Jo Mason comes to town telling him she read about his upcoming marriage to Ashley Abbott. Mari Jo said she wanted to see him, but Blade refused. Later, Blade could n't identify the "Mari - Lyn '' who sent him a painting as a wedding gift. As head of Jabot 's art department, Mari Jo was working with Ashley. Afterward, Blade told Marilyn not to call him again. They both agreed to keep their shared past a secret. Blade never forgave Mari Jo for sleeping with his twin brother, Rick. Mari Jo knew that Blade heard Rick 's cries for help while he supposedly drowned. She used that knowledge to her advantage.
In November 1994, Rick turned up alive in Genoa City and was angry with his brother for leaving him to die. Rick went on to date Mari Jo again. Ashley saw them together, and she thought Blade was having an affair. Blade was unable to explain things to Ashley without revealing the truth. Mari Jo went on to fall in love with Ashley 's brother, Jack Abbott, while Ashley and Blade try to work on their marriage. Rick kidnapped Blade and replaced him as Ashley 's husband. Ashley was overjoyed in the sudden change "Blade '' goes through, but Blade managed to escape and convinced Rick to leave town. After they switch places a few more times, Blade died when his car was hit by a train. Rick revealed the truth to Ashley, and she decided to leave Genoa City to privately deal with the pain of her husband 's death. Jill and Mari Jo then convinced Rick to get out of town.
Steve Connelly first appeared in June 1992, and would later be known as the husband of Traci Abbott. The role was originated by Greg Wrangler until August 1992, and again from 1993 to 1996. The character returned from September 21 to December 17, 2001, and again from September 21 to October 9, 2009.
History Steve Connelly was the publisher of Traci Abbott 's book. He moved to Genoa City to help Traci out with writing. The two bonded and soon started a relationship, which caused her ex-husband, Brad Carlton, to become jealous. Traci eventually decided to leave town and go to New York with Steve and her daughter with Brad, Colleen. Steve and Traci got married off - screen. In 2001, Traci revealed that Steve was cheating on her, and she moved back to Genoa City. Colleen was hurt by the fighting between Traci and Steve, while Ashley Abbott, who feared that Traci 's return might threaten her current marriage to Brad, encouraged Traci to try and work on her marriage with Steve. Steve and Traci eventually reconciled and returned to New York with Colleen. A rebellious streak in Colleen forced Traci and Steve to send her to live in Genoa City, where she wound up having all kinds of adventures of her own. Steve returned to Genoa City in 2009 to support Traci after Colleen tragically died.
Nathan "Nate '' Hastings, Jr. first appeared on September 22, 1992, when he was born onscreen as the son of Olivia Barber and Nathan Hastings, Sr. The character was portrayed by a series of child actors (see below) between 1992 and 2002. The character briefly returned in February 2011 after a 9 - year absence, portrayed by Walter Fauntleroy.
Casting The role was originated by Shantel and Shenice Buford from 1992 to 1995, during which Ashaneese and Nasharin Holderness served as back - up in 1993. Christopher Pope then took over in 1995, before being replaced by Malcolm Hunter that same year. Bryant Jones then portrayed the role from 1996 to 2002 on contract. In 2011, the role was briefly portrayed by Walter Fauntleroy.
History Nate is the son of Olivia Barber Winters and her first husband, the late Nathan Hastings, Sr. He was delivered early due to his mother 's ovarian cancer scare. Later, when Olivia found out about her husband 's affair with Keesha Monroe, a woman with AIDS, Nathan kidnapped Nate and disappeared. After several weeks on the run, Nathan decided to return Nate to Olivia. When Nate wandered away from his father on a crowded street, Nathan rushed to find his son and was fatally struck by a car.
After Nathan 's death, Olivia became close to Malcolm Winters, who also had a soft spot for Nate. Olivia enrolled Nate at the Walnut Grove Academy. Malcolm soon married Olivia and raised the possibility of adopting Nate, who considered Malcolm to be his father, even though he was old enough to remember his biological father. Olivia spent many hours at the hospital as a doctor, and Nate was often neglected; Malcolm and Nate 's nanny, Julia, raised him more than his own mother. Olivia and Malcolm eventually divorced, yet Malcolm remained a staple in Nate 's life. Olivia contracted aplastic anemia and changed her will so Malcolm 's brother, Neil Winters, would raise Nate if she were to pass away. Once Olivia became healthy again, she took away all of Malcolm 's paternal rights to Nate; Malcolm later sued Olivia for joint custody and won. Malcolm remained present in Nate 's life until he was presumed dead after disappearing from a photoshoot in Africa. Neil became an alcoholic, and Olivia refused to let him see Nate. Therefore, Nate no longer had a father figure in his life. Brad Carlton, Olivia 's best friend Ashley Abbott 's husband, tried to step in as a father figure to Nate. Still, Nate missed Malcolm, and he decided to go away to boarding school. Malcolm came back to Genoa City to see Nate, but he did n't realize that Nate was away at school. Nate never returned to Genoa City. In 2008, Olivia mentioned that Nate was attending Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in Baltimore, Maryland.
After a nine - year hiatus, the character returned on screen on February 8, 2011, as the Boston physician treating former FBI agent, Ronan Malloy and his liver ailment. After the situation with Ronan, Nate met up with his family: cousins Lily Winters and Devon Hamilton, as well as Neil and Malcolm; he also met Lily 's twins, Charlie Ashby and Matilda Ashby. Nate stayed with Lily for a short time while she mourned the loss of her husband, Cane Ashby. Then, he decided to live with Lily in her spare bedroom but, has n't been seen or mentioned since.
Marilyn JoAnne "Mari Jo '' Mason first appeared in February 1994, originally portrayed by actress Pamela Bach before being replaced by Diana Barton later that year, who remained in the role until 1996.
History In 1994, Mari Jo Mason was the head of the Jabot Cosmetics art department. She contacted her former lover, Blade Bladeson (Michael Tylo). She read about his upcoming marriage to Ashley Abbott (Brenda Epperson, then Shari Shattuck), and she wanted to see him, but Blade refused. Mari Jo was still in love with Blade, but he could not forgive her for sleeping with his twin brother, Rick Bladeson (also Michael Tylo). She agreed to keep their past hidden until she began blackmailing Blade. She witnessed the "fatal '' drowning of Rick, while Blade ignored his brother 's cries for help.
Later, Rick shocked everyone by returning to Genoa City alive. He was determined to get revenge on his brother for leaving him to die. Rick and Mari Jo had a short - lived romance, and Ashley, not knowing that Blade was a twin, thought that Rick was Blade. She believed that Blade was having an affair with Mari Jo. Upon confrontation, Blade had no choice but to tell Ashley about his twin brother. Mari Jo soon struck up a romance with Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman), and the two were engaged to be married. Jack broke off their engagement when he was reunited with his former lover, Luan Volien (Elizabeth Sung). Mari Jo tried to break Jack and Luan up by following them to St. Thomas on a vacation, where Ashley and Blade were also staying in an attempt to fix their marriage. After several switches between the twins, things took a turn for the worse, and Blade was fatally struck by a car in 1995.
Mari Jo decided to romance Jack 's son with Luan, Keemo Volien Abbott (Philip Moon). He ended their relationship after Mari Jo hired a hooker to impersonate her in bed. After Luan 's death, Mari Jo supported Jack after his loss, and she became obsessed with him. Then, Mari Jo shot Victor Newman (Eric Braeden) after she became fearful that Victor would find a fax that listed all of her misdeeds. After recovering, Victor decided to set Mari Jo up. He made it look like Christine Blair (Lauralee Bell) had a copy of the fax. Mari Jo drugged Christine, and she took her hostage. Along with Paul Williams (Doug Davidson), Victor found Mari Jo and Christine after they planted a tracking device on her. Mari Jo was about to kill Christine until she realized that the gun that Victor planted was full of blanks. Mari Jo was charged with the attempted murder of Victor and the kidnapping of Christine, and she was committed to a psychiatric facility in 1996.
Doris Collins first appeared in May 1994 as the mother of Sharon Newman. Originally portrayed by Victoria Ann Lewis, she was replaced the same year by Karen Hensel until 2003, returning in 2005, 2008, 2009, 2011, and 2012.
History Before debuting on the series, Doris became a paraplegic after going out to search for Sharon in a snowstorm and getting in a car accident. Doris was once again shaken up when her daughter Sharon Newman became pregnant at sixteen years old and suggested adoption. Sharon agreed, but years later, both Doris and Sharon were overjoyed when they were reunited with Cassie. Doris has been there for Sharon whenever she needs advice and continues to visit periodically. Doris visited again when Sharon 's ex-husband Nicholas Newman invited her back to Genoa City to help him and Sharon 's children, Noah and Faith, spread Sharon 's "ashes '' while believing her dead. Doris returned to Genoa City again the following year to ask Sharon to return to Madison with her after everyone in Genoa City despised Sharon after what she did when her husband, Victor Newman, went missing and then supposedly died.
Luan Volien Abbott first appeared in June 1994. She would later be known for her relationship and marriage to Jack Abbott. Luan is also the late mother of Keemo Volien Abbott and Mai Volien. The role was portrayed by actress Elizabeth Sung until the character 's onscreen death in April 1996.
History While serving in Vietnam, Jack fell in love with Luan, but they separated at the conclusion of the war. Twenty years later in 1994, Luan appeared in Genoa City, managing and working at her Chinese food restaurant. She and Jack soon reunited. Luan informed Jack that after the war, she gave birth to their son, Keemo. When Luan was shot at her restaurant by burglars, Keemo was found and brought to Genoa City by Christine Blair and Paul Williams. Keemo resented his parents, Luan and Jack, because they abandoned him, but he later made amends with Luan, who recovered from her shooting.
After Luan recovered, she and Jack reunited their former romance and married. Luan 's other daughter, Mai, comes to live with them. Shortly after getting married, Luan was diagnosed with a terminal illness and kept it hidden from Jack at first, until later when Jack learned the truth. Luan later died from the terminal illness. Upon his mother 's death, Keemo returned to Hong Kong with Mai in tow.
Keemo Volien Abbott first appeared in July 1994 as the son of Jack Abbott and Luan Volien. The role was portrayed by actor Philip Moon until April 1996.
History In July 1994, he was found living in the jungles of Vietnam by Christine Blair and Paul Williams when they went to Hong Kong to locate him to bring him to his mother Luan Volien, who had been shot by robbers at her restaurant in Genoa City.
Upon Keemo 's arrival in Genoa City, Keemo resented his parents for abandoning him, but he eventually formed a relationship with them. Keemo developed feelings for Christine, who let him down easy by telling him she wanted to be friends. Keemo later became romantically involved with Mari Jo Mason, but he got tired of Mari Jo 's mind - games and ended the relationship after she paid a prostitute to sleep with him. In April 1996, when Luan dies from a terminal illness, Keemo leaves Genoa City, along with his sister Mai.
Richard "Rick '' Bladeson first appeared in November 1994 as the twin brother of the late Blade Bladeson. Both Bladeson brothers were portrayed by Michael Tylo. Tylo portrayed Rick through 1995.
History Rick was believed to have drowned, and his brother, Blade Bladeson, refused to help him. But in November 1994, Rick turned up alive in Genoa City and was angry with his brother for leaving him to die. Rick went on to date Mari Jo Mason, a Blade 's ex-girlfriend who Rick had previous romance with. Blade 's wife Ashley Abbott, unaware that Rick was Blade 's identical twin brother, saw them together and thought Blade was having an affair. Blade was unable to explain things to Ashley without revealing the truth. Rick kidnapped Blade and replaced him as Ashley 's husband. Ashley was overjoyed in the sudden change "Blade '' goes through, but Blade managed to escape and convinced Rick to leave town. Rick told Blade that he owed Rick for saving his marriage to Ashley and giving Blade a second chance with Ashley. They switch places a few more times. One night Rick, again impersonating Blade, was with Ashley in her and Blade 's bedroom when Blade called. Blade heard Ashley talking in the background and Rick taunting Blade threatened to have sex with Ashley and impregnate her. Blade told Rick he was coming over to stop him and quickly drove home. Rick left the house to stop Blade but Blade was killed in a tragic car wreck when his car was hit by a train. Rick left, leaving Ashley thinking Blade had died after he left the house. When Rick returned to attend Blade 's funeral he revealed the entire truth to Ashley. Mari Jo and Jill soon learned of Rick 's sick game and confronted him and threatened to inform the police unless he left town. Rick left town and soon Ashley also left Genoa City to privately deal with the pain of her husband 's death.
Norman Peterson was portrayed by Mark Haining in 1994 as a con artist who married Esther Valentine and later murdered Rex Sterling.
History Norman Peterson was a con artist that put a personal ad in the newspaper which was found by Esther Valentine, who could not resist but to answer. In order to impress the gentleman, Esther posed as the owner of the Chancellor mansion, while the real owner Katherine Chancellor and Rex Sterling agreed to go along with her plan and dress as servants. In a rather short time, Norman convinced Esther to ask Kay to put her in her will. Kay and Rex were very suspicious of Norman when he proposed marriage to Esther, so they decided to have a fake wedding. Norman knew his plans were foiled and he was n't ready to wait years until he could get his hands on the Chancellor fortune, so he tried to break into the safe. Rex caught him, so Norman killed him and was arrested for his murder later.
Amy Wilson first appeared in 1994 as a high school girlfriend of Nicholas Newman, and then a victim of rapist Matt Clark. She was originally portrayed by Robin Scott, before being replaced by Julianne Morris who remained in the role until 1996.
History When Nicholas Newman returned to Genoa City in 1994 as a 16 - year - old, he started dating Amy Wilson, a respected teenager that was well liked by Nick 's parents. Amy was best friends with Sharon Collins, with whom Nick fell in love, but Nick decided to stay with Amy because Sharon was dating Matt Clark at the time. Amy was put aside when Nick decided to fight for Sharon. Much later, Nick 's father Victor found Amy in bad mental state, recovering from some sort of trauma that happened on the night Matt Clark was shot. Amy realized during that time that she had shot Matt after he raped her. Afterward, she left town to seek mental help. In November 2014, more than 18 years after she departed, she appeared in a dream of Nicholas Newman, in which he sees all the women he had loved.
Frank Barritt first appeared in 1995 as the biological father of the late Cassie Newman and her previously unknown of twin sister Mariah. He was a high school boyfriend of Sharon Newman, portrayed by Phil Dozois. He returned in 1997 and again in 2003 until the character 's onscreen death in 2004.
Character background During Sharon Collins ' early years of high school in Madison, Wisconsin, she ran off in rebellion to join her best friend, Grace Turner, and boyfriend, Frank. A dangerous snow storm developed. Sharon 's mother, Doris Collins, tried to look for Sharon and was paralyzed in car accident. When Sharon told Frank that she was pregnant after he had pressured her to have sex, he wanted nothing to do with her or his child. Sharon had the baby anyway. Sharon 's daughter, Cassie, was given up for adoption at birth as Sharon was only 17 years old at the time of the birth.
Frank returned in 2003; he ran into Sharon and Cassie suddenly at Fenmore 's Boutiques. Cassie wanted to know who he was, but her parents, now Sharon and her husband Nick Newman, would n't tell her. While on a trip in Denver, Sharon had a one - night stand with a man named Cameron Kirsten who tried to see her again in Genoa City. When Sharon tried to leave, Cameron tried to rape her. She smashed a champagne bottle over his head and thought she killed him. She asked Larry Warton to hide the body, which he did in the sewer. When Sharon started being haunted by the "ghost '' Cameron, she went to see the body in the sewer to make sure Cameron was dead. Much to everyone 's shock, the body turned out to be that of Frank who had stopped trying to see Cassie around New Year 's Eve. Sharon became the number one suspect in his murder. Frank 's body was found after it washed out of the sewer. Cameron had set Sharon up for Frank 's murder, but she was later exonerated.
Brian Hamilton first appeared in 1995 as the biological father of Daniel Romalotti and former lover of Phyllis Summers. The role was originated by Steven Culp, who portrayed the role in 1995. William A. Wallace portrayed the role briefly in 1997 and again for one episode on December 11, 2002.
History In 1995, Danny Romalotti was devastated to discover that his son with Phyllis Summers, Daniel, was really the child of a man from Phyllis ' past named Brian Hamilton. She had set Danny up all along. However, because Danny was the legal father on the birth certificate and had always acted as such, he still had rights. A vicious divorce and custody battle ensued, with Christine Blair as Danny 's lawyer, and the recently paroled Michael Baldwin assisting Phyllis ' legal counsel. Brian arrived in Genoa City to meet his son.
Phyllis and Michael began a wild affair. With the help of Brian, all of Phyllis 's lies and manipulations were brought out in court, including the fact that Danny had been drugged that first time and never even made love with Phyllis as she had claimed. The court found her to be unstable and an unfit mother. Danny won custody of Daniel, whom he still considered his son, although Phyllis was allowed visitation. Brian left town soon after the custody agreement was finalized.
George Summers was first seen in 1995 as the father of Phyllis Summers, and Avery Bailey Clark. On January 18, 2012, it was announced that Ken Howard was cast in the role. He began taping on January 19, and aired from February 23 to 27 for three episodes. Duke Stroud portrayed the role briefly in 1995. Howard is the president of the Screen Actors Guild. His storylines are expected to impact the lives of his daughters and bring back storyline from their back - story. Michaelfairmansoaps said "Are you looking forward to seeing Phyllis and Avery 's back - story with their dad and its emotional fallout? ''
Lydia Callahan first appeared in 1995 as the mother of Phyllis Summers. She was portrayed by Abby Dalton in 1995, Terie Lynn Davis in 1996, and Rosemary Murphy in 1998.
Character history Lydia is the mother of Phyllis Summers and Avery Bailey Clark, introduced in 1995. She made occasional visits to Genoa City throughout the 1990s. In 2012, Phyllis revealed that her family turned against her when she exposed her father for robbing potential investors.
Sasha Green first appeared in March 1995 as a former co-worker of Phyllis Romalotti. The role was portrayed by Tina Arning until July 1996, and again from January 1997 to May 27, 1997, when the character died in an apartment fire. However, she returned in a dream had by Phyllis on December 11, 2002.
History Sasha came to town when her former co-worker, Phyllis Romalotti, contacted her in order for her to switch her son 's, Daniel, paternity tests as her then - husband, Danny Romalotti, wanted one, feeling that Phyllis was not being honest about it. Christine Blair was also investigating Daniel 's paternity for Danny. Sasha did what Phyllis wanted, and Phyllis outsmarted Christine. Phyllis then paid a former love of hers, Peter Garrett, to romance Sasha. The two began dating and moved to New York City together.
In 1997, after Phyllis and Danny got married again and were happy together while raising their son, Sasha re-entered their lives. She had been dumped by Peter, and she was in need of some cash. She blackmailed Phyllis into giving her money to keep quiet about the real paternity of Phyllis ' son. After Phyllis initially refused, Sasha went to Christine with the same offer, but Phyllis was able to get a loan from Dr. Timothy Reid to pay off Sasha. Sasha made sure that she had copies of all of the documents that showed everything that Phyllis had done to Danny, but Phyllis managed to get rid of them. She confronted Sasha for the last time about possibly tricking her when Sasha died unexpectedly in her hotel room. Sasha was seen clutching a tabloid headline before her death, indicating that she may have sold her story to a tabloid. Phyllis feared that she might have killed Sasha, but the judge proclaimed that Sasha 's death was accidental, as Sasha was a known careless smoker and heavy drinker. The truth about Sasha 's death remains unrevealed. In 2012, Ricky Williams was going to start digging into it before his death.
Keesha Monroe first appeared in July 1995, portrayed by Wanda Acuna. Jennifer Gatti took over the role shortly after, and remained in the role through May 1996. Keesha is known as the late wife of Malcolm Winters.
History In 1995, Nathan Hastings ' wife Olivia had begun suspecting that Nathan was having an affair, which he was. Keesha, whose voice was only heard, later called Nathan without leaving her name. Nathan later confessed to Paul that he had been having an affair, but asked Paul to keep quiet. Keesha was first seen at Gina 's Place, where Malcolm Winters stumbled upon her, and the two slowly started dating. After a few months of happiness, Malcolm found out that Keesha had an affair with Nathan. Nathan and Keesha 's affair was over, but Keesha 's troubles did not end there. After another altercation with an upset Malcolm as Keesha pleaded with him to forgive her, Keesha phoned her former boyfriend, Stan, after she realized how much he had meant to her. Keesha was puzzled when the number Stan gave her was for a hospital and was shocked when Stan 's brother, Dave, said Stan had just died of AIDS. Later, she retrieved an old letter from Stan, who had written that he had HIV. Olivia was Keesha 's physician when Keesha went and had herself checked and learned she had HIV. Fearing that she could 've exposed Nathan to the virus, Keesha confessed her affair with Nathan to a furious Olivia.
Malcolm dropped his hostility and forgave Keesha for her affair with Nathan after he learned about her ailing health. Sadly, Keesha 's health took a turn for worse as the virus worsened. On Keesha 's dying breath in order to give her a few final moments of happiness, Malcolm arranged a wedding ceremony. Keesha lost her battle with AIDS as she died in Malcolm 's arms moments after reciting their vows.
Peter Garrett first appeared in November 1995 as an ex-boyfriend of Phyllis Summers, whom she dated during her first separation from Danny Romalotti. The role was portrayed by Justin Gorance until July 1996, and again from 1997 to January 1998.
History Peter was a man whom Phyllis Summers began dating during her separation from her ex-husband, Danny Romalotti. Phyllis dated Peter, who was also a patient of Phyllis ' therapist, in hopes of making Danny jealous. Danny was jealous mostly because of Peter 's connection with Phyllis and Danny 's son, Daniel, Phyllis ' plan backfired because it turned out that Danny was happy that Phyllis and Peter were together. Later, Phyllis ended things with Peter and fixed him up with her friend and former co-worker, Sasha Green, and the two moved to New York.
Larry Warton first appeared in December 1995, portrayed by David "Shark '' Fralick. His first run ended after a month in January 1996, though Fralick later returned on both contract and recurring status from December 29, 1999 to June 9, 2005.
History Larry became the cellmate of Nick Newman when Nick was wrongly convicted for shooting Matt Clark and ended up in prison. Larry constantly tormented and intimidated Nick. One day, a fight erupted between the two, which would have ended in Nick 's death if his father Victor Newman had not intervened. Victor then proceeded to beat Larry to a pulp. Larry was released on probation, and he was recruited by a vengeful Matt, under the alias Carter Mills, to bring the Newman family down. While plotting to frame Nick for manufacturing and selling ecstasy, Larry developed a soft spot for his young daughter, Cassie Newman, who eventually persuaded him to testify for Nick rather than against him.
Larry gradually began to reform after Nick 's mother, Nikki Newman, gave him a job as a janitor at Jabot Cosmetics. He also rescued young lovers Billy Abbott and Mackenzie Browning from Mackenzie 's stepfather, Ralph Hunnicutt, and ended up sleeping with Mackenzie 's mother, Amanda Browning. Larry then began an affair with Billy 's mother, Jill Abbott, who kept their affair a secret for fear that it would damage her reputation that she was dating a man so "beneath '' her. Katherine Chancellor caught Larry sneaking out of Jill 's room one night, and she confronted Jill about the affair. Jill viciously denied it, insulting Larry in the process. Larry retaliated by emptying a box of Jill 's sex toys over the table at a Jabot board meeting. Larry then helped Nick 's wife Sharon Newman cover up the fact that she had accidentally killed Cameron Kirsten. It was later revealed that Cameron was actually alive. Larry was last seen in 2005, when he returned to town to take Sharon for a ride on his motorcycle to cheer her up after Cassie 's tragic death.
Dr. Timothy "Tim '' Reid first appeared in March 1996 on The Young and the Restless as a therapist of Phyllis Summers, who would later blackmail her. The role was portrayed by Aaron Lustig on that soap until November 29, 1997. In 2001, it was announced that Lustig would reprise the role on The Bold and the Beautiful, airing from February 20 to May 11, 2001. In April 2012, it was announced that the character would return to The Young and the Restless for a brief guest period, his first appearance in 15 years. He aired from May 30 to June 8, with further appearances from July 27 to the character 's death onscreen on August 20, 2012.
History The Young and the Restless Timothy, whom Phyllis called Tim, was the psychiatrist of Phyllis Romalotti. Phyllis told him her most deep secrets, from disappointments in her childhood to her current life problems. Tim slept with Phyllis after she seduced him, and she used the videotape of their lovemaking to blackmail him to testify on her behalf in court during the trial to end her marriage to Danny Romalotti. Tim later recanted his testimony, which resulted in the confiscation of his psychiatrist 's license. After her marriage to Danny was over, Phyllis used Tim to make Danny jealous, even though Danny was never aware who Phyllis was sleeping with. Tim proposed to Phyllis and she accepted, but nothing came out of that after Danny wanted Phyllis back. Evidently, Tim dropped off canvas.
Fifteen years after being unseen in Genoa City, Tim was contacted by Ricky Williams after he found Tim 's business card in Phyllis 's home. Tim told Ricky he did n't ever want to hear Phyllis 's name again, but Ricky was able to convince Tim to tell him about his history with Phyllis, and he then stole Phyllis ' therapy file from his apartment. Tim then told Ricky to look into the events of Christmas 1994, when Phyllis ran over Christine Blair and Ricky 's father Paul Williams with her car. Afterward, Tim was reported missing and the news hit Genoa City, earning the attention of Paul and Phyllis ' sister, Avery. Phyllis later told Avery that she paid Tim to leave town permanently in order to cover up the hit - and - run incident from eighteen years earlier. His neighbor Beth placed a call to him and he was seen on some sort of vacation, informing him of recent developments about Phyllis. Ronan Malloy, by tapping into Beth 's phone records, then discovered Dr. Tim and brought him back to Genoa City where he, along with Michael Baldwin and Heather Stevens, questioned him. He revealed that Phyllis paid him to get out of town to keep her secrets safe. As a favor to Heather, who was also Ricky 's sister, he talked to Paul about his son and his character. Tim then revealed to Phyllis that he had a recording of her admitting to the hit and run during a therapy session, and begun to blackmail her again by making her transfer large sums of money into an offshore bank account. Despite having the money, all Tim really wanted was a sexual encounter with Phyllis. She became so desperate that she had to tap into her daughter 's trust find, leading her husband, Nicholas Newman, to find out what she had done and her sister quit as her legal counsel. Even as Nick told her by giving in to Tim 's blackmail she strengthened the prosecution 's case, she agreed to spending an evening with him as a final option to keep him quiet. Her plan was not to sleep with Tim, but drug him to fall asleep so he would believe they did. Unbeknownst to Phyllis, before she could drug him, Tim took a large amount of erectile dysfunction pills, which made him have a heart attack and die in front of her. Afterward, Phyllis enlisted the help of Kevin Fisher to dispose of Tim 's body at his apartment, to make it look like he died whilst at home.
The Bold and the Beautiful In 2001, Tim moved to Los Angeles, where he was found by Morgan DeWitt, a woman he knew from when they were young. Morgan seduced Tim and convinced him that it was okay what she did -- chained Taylor Hayes in the basement. They slept together and had an agreement to move Taylor from the basement to the living room. Once Taylor was free, the couple ran away, but Morgan had to return and ended up captured.
Dr. Joshua Landers first appeared in June 1996, portrayed by Heath Kizzier. He would later be known as the late husband of Nikki Newman. Kizzier portrayed the role until his character 's death onscreen on March 23, 1998.
History Joshua Landers was Nikki Newman 's gynecologist, whom she got involved with. As Joshua and Nikki 's relationship grew, he was thought to have been a widower, and he had no idea that his presumed deceased wife, Veronica Landers, was actually alive, locked away in a mental institution.
In October 1996, Nikki and Joshua eloped in Las Vegas. Nikki 's ex-husband, Victor Newman, tried to stop them, but he arrived too late. Joshua then moved in with Nikki at the Newman ranch, and they enjoyed a happy marriage until Veronica escaped from the mental institution. She made her way to the ranch in hopes of reuniting with Joshua. She managed to get herself hired as a servant at the ranch under the alias, "Sarah Lindsey ''. Over the following months, Veronica lurked around the ranch getting agitated with Joshua and Nikki 's relationship. One night, Veronica finally revealed herself to Joshua, but he made it clear to her that he did n't want to be with her, and he asked her to leave him alone. Upset by Joshua 's rejection, Veronica pulled out a gun, shot and killed Joshua.
Veronica Martin Landers first appeared in November 1996 as the insane ex-wife of Joshua Landers. The role was originated and portrayed by actress Tracy Lindsey Melchior until 1997, when the role was taken over by Candice Daly until the character 's death onscreen on August 20, 1998.
History Veronica Landers, the unstable wife of Joshua Landers, was presumed dead when a body was found at the bottom of a lake along with her wedding ring. However, Veronica turned up alive at Genoa City Memorial Hospital, having undergone extreme facial reconstruction after a car accident that left her hideously disfigured. She was determined to recover and return to her husband. After tracking Joshua down, she called him on the phone, but she was shocked when a woman, Joshua 's new wife, Nikki Newman, answered the phone. Devastated that her husband had remarried, Veronica came up with a plan. Disguised as a quiet, shy woman named Sarah Lindsey, Veronica came to work as Nikki and Josh 's new maid. For months, she spied on her husband and his new wife, who both thought "Sarah '' was a fantastic maid. She wanted to reveal her true identity to Josh, but she could never find the right time. Soon, Veronica stopped taking her medication for her psychotic problems, and she became careless and edgy; she knocked over a vase, smashing it on the floor, and she showed no remorse to Nikki.
On a stormy night, Nikki and Josh were in bed discussing plans to have a baby. Veronica, who had bugged their bedroom, heard the conversation, and she was determined not to let them conceive. Nikki then received a phone call from her son, Nick Newman, and she left the house. Veronica saw this time as the perfect opportunity to reveal herself to Josh. Josh was shocked to see her alive, and he rejected her advances. Then, a shattered Veronica shot him dead. Then, dressed as "Sarah '', she went downstairs to face Nikki when she returned home. Veronica frightened Nikki by talking in riddles, saying that Joshua was upstairs and would be asleep for a very long time. At first, Nikki thought "Sarah '' had been drinking, but after seeing the crazed look in her eyes, she demanded that "Sarah '' packed her things and got out. When Sarah refused, Nikki went to call the police, but Veronica shot her four times before she picked up the phone.
The following day, Nikki was found unconscious and in a pool of blood on her living room floor by her ex-husband Jack Abbott. Nikki was rushed to the hospital, but the doctors informed Nikki 's family that her chances of surviving were slim. Nikki 's other ex-husband, Victor Newman, divorced his wife, Diane Jenkins, and he married Nikki on her death bed. In a turn of events, Nikki miraculously survived, and Victor opted to stay married to her, however the marriage was invalid as Victor and Diane 's divorce was never finalized.
Meanwhile, Veronica was living on the run from the law in a seedy motel. No longer disguised, she ran into Nikki and Victor 's butler, Miguel Rodriguez, at a local Mexican restaurant. Much to Veronica 's relief, he did n't recognize her. After many such meetings, Miguel fell in love with Veronica. They began dating, and Veronica eventually developed genuine feelings for him. They soon became engaged, and he took her back to the Newman Ranch. Veronica was relieved that Nikki did n't recognize her upon her arrival.
Veronica was horrified to learn that novelist Cole Howard was researching Josh 's murder for his new novel. Nikki mentioned to Victor that Veronica seemed vaguely familiar, she was concerned for Miguel, who barely knew his new fiancée. Victor suggested that she run a background check. Afraid Nikki would recognize her, Veronica resolved that Nikki had to die. When Nikki decided to take a moonlit horse ride, Veronica took her gun, and she headed for the stables. Meanwhile, Cole and Malcolm Winters compared Veronica and Miguel 's engagement photo with Sarah 's wanted poster, and they discovered that Veronica was Sarah. Victor stopped by the ranch just as an old photo of Veronica fell out of one of Josh 's medical books that Miguel was packing. At the same moment, they realized that Veronica was Sarah, just as Cole called and told them that Veronica and Sarah were the same person. Victor and Miguel went straight to the stables, where they found Veronica holding Nikki at gunpoint. Miguel distracted Veronica, while Victor wrestled her for the gun. During the struggle, Veronica fatally impaled herself on a hay hook. Nikki was safe and no longer had to worry about Veronica, or Sarah, haunting her.
Dr. Kurt Costner first appeared on November 26, 1996, portrayed by Leigh McCloskey. His first run ended after a year on August 21, 1997. In March 2013, it was announced that McCloskey would be reprising the role for an extended run; his first appearance in 16 years.
History While walking through the woods, Ashley Abbott (Shari Shattuck) was rescued from two thugs by the mysterious Kurt Costner. During her rescue, Kurt wound up being shot, and Ashley went along as he was rushed to the hospital. An attraction grew between the two, and they began dating, but Kurt 's mysterious past kept getting in the way of their happiness. Kurt 's past included a wife and a daughter who were killed in a car accident, something that Kurt had always blamed himself for. Ashley eventually proved that Kurt was not responsible for it. Kurt also saved the life of Hope Wilson (Signy Coleman), an event that pushed him to decide to become a doctor again. Stuck between two women, Ashley and Hope, he eventually chose to go to Kansas with Hope.
In 2013, Kurt reappeared in Genoa City as Nikki Newman 's (Melody Thomas Scott) doctor upon her diagnosis with multiple sclerosis (MS), and also treats Adam Newman (Michael Muhney) after he was shot. He also revealed that he had married a woman named Liz while away from Genoa City, and she later died.
Antonio "Tony '' Viscardi first appeared in December 1996, portrayed by Nick Scotti, who departed on January 22, 1999. The role was then portrayed by Jay Bontatibus from February 5, 1999 to the character 's death onscreen on January 19, 2000. Tony is notable for being an ex-boyfriend of Grace Turner, and for being briefly married to Megan Dennison.
History Tony, an Italian mechanic, was introduced as the boyfriend of Grace Turner, who neglected Tony 's feelings and flirted with other guys. As Tony continued trying to get back together with Grace, he usually found himself in altercations with other guys. While Grace never fully wanted to rekindle her relationship with Tony, she would use him in order to get something. In 1997, they both started looking into what happened with the first child Grace 's friend Sharon Newman gave up for adoption and both located the child, Cassie Newman, in Madison, Wisconsin. When Grace became attached to the child, Tony constantly tried to encourage her to do the right thing. In 1998, Tony dumped Grace for good due to her obsession with Nicholas Newman.
One day at Crimson Lights Coffee House, Tony met college student Megan Dennison. He took an instant liking to her and thought she was a welcome relief from the manipulative Grace. Tony and Megan began dating, much to the disapproval of Megan 's father, Keith and her sister, Tricia. When Megan defiantly told Keith that she was going to keep seeing Tony despite what he thought, Tricia became unhealthily obsessed with breaking them up. Her efforts were futile. On Tony and Megan 's wedding day, Megan became concerned when the groom did not show up. Speeding to stop the wedding, Tricia had blindly run Tony down in the Dennisons ' driveway. Tony was rushed to hospital and married Megan moments before passing away.
Keith Dennison first appeared on January 8, 1997; he would later be known for being the father of Tricia and Megan Dennison. The role was portrayed respectively by Granville Van Dusen until 1999, and again in 2000 and 2001. The role was temporarily recast with David Allen Brooks briefly in 1999.
History Keith Dennison is the father of Tricia and Megan Dennison. He raised his daughters alone and was overprotective of them, especially Tricia, during her relationship with Ryan McNeil. In 1996, Jill Abbott became involved with Keith. Keith proposed to Jill, but she turned him down.
Keith was against Tricia and Ryan 's marriage and was worried that his daughter would end up getting hurt. After she miscarried, Tricia began acting strangely and committed a number of crimes before leaving town with her father. Keith returned to Genoa City later, once again to take care of Tricia, who was slowly losing her mental health. Keith decided to institutionalize his daughter, but she recovered later, even though Keith did not believe her. Tricia tried to kill Keith one day, but he suffered a stroke and ended up comatose in the hospital. Keith left town, but he was contacted by Victoria Newman, who was interested in Tricia 's husband, Ryan. Victoria wanted Keith to convince Tricia to leave town as well. Tricia ended up attacking Victoria and fatally shooting Ryan on their wedding day. She was then institutionalized, and Keith has not returned to Genoa City since his daughter 's episode.
Tricia Dennison McNeil first appeared on February 18, 1997, portrayed by Sabryn Genet. Tricia was known for her marriage to Ryan McNeil, whom she later shot to death. In September, 2001, reports speculated that Genet was to exit, with no confirmations of such information by the soap opera. The actress 's last airdate was November 28, 2001, when Tricia was institutionalized.
History
Tricia, the eldest daughter of Keith Dennison, met Ryan McNeil, who was having marital problems with his wife, Nina Webster. Ryan was attracted to Tricia, ultimately causing Ryan and Nina to divorce.
Ryan married Tricia, much to the disapproval of her father. Tricia became increasingly jealous of the attention Ryan lavished on Nina 's son, Phillip, whom he thought of as his own. When in private, the child was hostile to Tricia, believing her to have destroyed his family. Tricia pretended to be nice to Phillip for Ryan 's benefit, but confided in her sister, Megan, that she did n't like him. In desperation, Tricia stopped taking her birth control pills, unbeknownst to Ryan, and conceived. While Ryan was furious at first, he warmed to the idea of having a child. When Tricia miscarried, she believed it was punishment for deceiving her husband in the first place.
Tricia became obsessed with destroying Megan 's relationship with Tony Viscardi, of whom Tricia and her father, Keith, disapproved. When she ran Tony down in Megan 's driveway, it was suspected that Tricia had gone over the edge and intentionally killed him. Whether this was true or not was never revealed. Megan disowned her sister and left town. Tricia left Ryan and moved to London, England, with Keith.
Tricia returned six months later and asked Ryan to take her back, but he turned her down. Tricia then turned to Carter Mills, who was actually rapist Matt Clark, having had major reconstructive surgery. Matt drugged and slept with Tricia, before convincing her to frame Nicholas Newman, who had had Matt convicted years ago. Upon discovering that Matt had Rohypnol in his possession, Tricia realized that Matt had raped her the first time they had had sex and attempted suicide, but was foiled by Ryan. Tricia stopped Matt from raping Nicholas ' wife, Sharon Newman, by driving off a cliff, hoping to kill them both. In the hospital, Matt killed himself, and framed Nick for murder.
Ryan and his ex-wife, Victoria Newman, resumed their relationship. Suspicious of Tricia, Victor Newman arranged for her to move in with him in order to keep her away from his daughter, not realizing that Tricia was conspiring with the "ghost '' of Matt (the ghost being nothing more than a psychotic delusion) and that they were plotting against him. One night, she slipped a sleeping sedative into Victor 's drink. Tricia then led Victor up to his room and laid him on the bed. Victor then realized something was wrong when Tricia disrobed and had sex with him. The next day, Tricia had beaten herself to make it seem like Victor had raped her. Victor was arrested and placed in jail. Once in jail, Victor had to fight for his life, but during his court hearing, he escaped to save Victoria. On Ryan and Victoria 's wedding day, Tricia barged into the church wearing a gown identical to Victoria 's, locked Victoria in a closet and took her place at the altar, holding a gun to Ryan. Victor freed Victoria and had convinced Tricia to leave the wedding, but Victoria entered the room and Tricia shot at her. Ryan jumped in front of Victoria, taking the bullet for her. He was rushed to hospital, but died shortly after, with Victoria at his bedside. Tricia was then locked away in a mental institution for Ryan 's murder. In her mental state, she waved goodbye to the evil Matt who helped persuade Tricia to perform those diabolical plots.
Megan Dennison Viscardi first appeared on February 18, 1997, as the youngest daughter of Keith Dennison and sister of Tricia Dennison. The role was portrayed by actress Ashley Jones until 2000, and again in 2001.
History Megan, the youngest daughter of Keith Dennison and the younger sister of Tricia Dennison, was a college student before getting an apprenticeship at the Genoa City Chronicle. Megan had been dating Alec Moretti (Andre Khabbazi) for a while, but he wanted their relationship to be more serious than Megan did, so she broke it off with him. Megan then met the older mechanic Tony Viscardi at Crimson Lights Coffee House, and she was instantly attracted to him. Tony, who had just broken up with the manipulative Grace Turner, thought that Megan was a breath of fresh air. Megan 's uptight father and sister both disapproved of Tony, believing him to be unworthy of Megan. A defiant Megan told them that she did n't care what they thought of Tony, and she moved in with him.
When Tony and Megan were arrested for unknowingly driving a stolen car, Tony begged the District Attorney Glenn Richards to get Megan off. He did, and eventually, Grace posted Tony 's bail, and Tony moved back in with her. Tony soon admitted his feelings to Megan, and they got back together. At Keith 's request before he left town, Tricia vowed to break Tony and Megan up. She teamed up with Grace, but the two were unsuccessful in breaking up the pair. Tricia then began to pretend to accept Tony. Everyone except Megan saw through the charade. The tension between Tricia and Tony finally erupted on New Year 's Eve. During a physical fight between the two of them, Tricia stopped and violently kissed Tony.
As Tricia became increasingly psychotic, Tony resolved to marry Megan quickly. A small group of the couple 's friends congregated with the Justice of the Peace for the wedding, with Sharon Newman and Nina Webster standing up for Tony and Megan. Sharon 's daughter, Cassie Newman, was the flower girl. Megan arrived, but she was horrified when Tony did n't show up. Tony had been run down on his motorcycle by Tricia, as she blindly backed out of the Dennison driveway in a desperate rush to stop the wedding.
Tony was rushed to hospital, and he married Megan moments before he died. Megan, furious with Tricia for killing her husband, left town and attended college at Boston University. Tricia and Keith went to Megan 's graduation ceremony. Megan traveled through Europe before settling down in Boston, while her sister was institutionalized, and her father subsequently left Genoa City for an unknown location.
Callie Rogers first appeared on July 27, 1998, originated by Michelle Thomas until the actress ' untimely death. The role was recast with Siena Goines on December 28, 1998, who remained in the role until February 17, 2000. Callie is the ex-fiancée of Malcolm Winters.
History Malcolm Winters was surprised when Callie Rogers came back into his life. Prior to her arrival in town, Callie and Malcolm were lovers broken up by her father. Callie hooked up with Malcolm again, while Malcolm was dealing with his failed marriage to Olivia Winters. However, Malcolm and Callie had a hard time rekindling their former relationship due to Callie 's troubled marriage to Trey Stark, who served as her manager for her singing gigs and loved to remind Callie that he owned her and everything she did. With the problems from Trey, Malcolm decided to step aside and let Callie work out her marital issues but, Callie knew she wanted to be with Malcolm and out of her deal with Trey. Finally, the day came where Callie ended her relationship with Trey for good just as Malcolm 's marriage to Olivia was finalized.
Malcolm and Callie officially started their relationship. The couple became engaged and Malcolm moved in with Callie, but their happiness was soon destroyed when they found out Callie was still married to her Trey. Callie was pressured by Malcolm into divorcing Trey, while Trey refused to let Callie go. Malcolm could not handle Callie 's indecisiveness and they broke up.
Alice Johnson first appeared on December 4, 1998, as the former adoptive mother of the late Cassie Newman. She was portrayed by Tamara Clatterbuck on a recurring status until October 26, 2000. She returned for a guest appearance on August 18, 2005 In 2017, Clatterbuck returned to the serial, first appearing on August 29.
History In 1991, Sharon Collins gave birth to a baby girl at the age of 17. She thought it would be best for the baby to give her up for adoption, and she was adopted by Alice and named Cassidy.
In 1997, Alice left Cassidy in the care of her aging mother, Millie, to pursue a man. Millie loved Cassidy but did n't have the energy to keep up with a young girl thus leaving Cassidy to entertain herself with her beloved doll collection. Grace Turner searched for Sharon 's baby and found Cassidy. Nicholas Newman and Sharon, now Nick 's wife, tried to get custody of the now renamed Cassie. Alice showed up and tried to take Cassie back. Christine Blair and Michael Baldwin were adversaries again when Michael represented Alice in the custody battle over Cassie. The Newmans later gained custody, however, Alice made numerous visits to Cassie after losing custody of her. In 2005, Alice returned to Genoa City to visit Sharon and Nick after Cassie 's tragic death. Alice returns to Genoa City in 2017.
Rafael Delgado appeared from January 25 to July 26, 1999 as the step - brother of Ashley Abbott. The role was portrayed by Carlos Bernard.
History Rafael made his first appearance in Genoa City when his step sister, Ashley Abbott, went to Madrid to rescue him. Ashley 's biological father, Brent Davis, was married to Rafael 's mother, who was never named. Ashley helped him out by buying back forged paintings that he had painted and sold to unsuspecting customers.
Ashley 's husband at the time, Cole Howard, assumed that Ashley was having an affair with Rafael without knowing who Rafael actually was. Victoria Newman hooked up with Rafael while trying to break up Ashley and Cole, but nothing serious developed from their short adventure. Rafael then returned to his hometown of Madrid, Spain.
Raul Evan Guittierez first appeared on August 2, 1999, portrayed by David Lago until August 13, 2004. The character returned five years later from May 22 to June 17, 2009.
History Raul, who had lived in Genoa City all his life, came from a large and poor Cuban family and was Billy Abbott 's best friend from his grade school years. While attending Walnut Grove Academy, which Raul could only afford to attend via a scholarship, he became friends with Mackenzie Browning, Rianna Miner, J.T. Hellstrom and Brittany Hodges. Raul fell in love with Mackenzie and they began dating, but it was n't long before Mac left Raul for Billy, thus destroying Raul and Billy 's friendship. Raul soon started seeing Rianna.
Raul was then diagnosed with type 1 diabetes after having a seizure at the Abbott pool house. Rianna (now played by Alexis Thorpe) stayed by his side at the hospital. After being released from hospital, Raul seemed to cope well with his illness, but lapsed into a diabetic coma after overdosing on insulin. When he awoke, he tried to break it off with Rianna "for her own good '', but she convinced him to stay with her. When Raul discovered that she had lost her virginity to J.T. when they were together, he demanded sex. Rianna was furious with Raul, and dumped him. The pressure of his illness, failed relationships and school, coupled with the expectations his family and friends had for him, caused Raul to lash out at everyone, and soon his grades began to slip, canceling out his dreams of becoming the first in his family to attend college. Soon Raul 's brother Diego Guittierez arrived in town intending to help Raul through his problems, but Raul resented his brother for running away from the family, leaving Raul with all the responsibilities. Raul eventually got his life back on track.
Raul and Brittany began dating. Brittany, who had only ever had boys interested in her for her appearance, dumped Raul, for fear that she was falling in love. Raul eventually convinced her to be with him. Raul and Brittany 's relationship was going well, and Raul stood up for Billy (then Ryan Brown) at his wedding to Mac (then Kelly Kruger). On Billy and Mac 's wedding night, they discovered that they were, in fact, cousins. The marriage was annulled and they both left town, devastated, leaving Raul and Brittany broke. Desperate, they rented the spare room in the loft to J.T. Raul 's relationship with Brittany was dealt a devastating blow when she was offered a job stripping at Bobby Marsino 's gentlemen 's club. Brittany soon fell for Bobby and dumped Raul. Raul left Genoa City for Boston, having won a scholarship to the prestigious Pemberton College.
Raul returned to Genoa City five years later, in a relationship with Mac, which does not sit well with Billy. Billy has a problem with his best friend from high school dating his former "wife. '' Raul did n't think it would be a problem (it was only recently that it came out that Billy and Mac were not cousins) and informs Billy that he wants to marry Mac before never being seen or mentioned again.
Tomas Del Cerro first appeared on October 1, 1999 as a fictional world - renowned novelist who became involved with Nina Webster. The role was portrayed by Francesco Quinn until January 31, 2001, when the character dropped off canvas.
History Nina Webster met world - renowned novelist, Tomas Del Cerro, in 1999, and the two developed a friendship as they spent time together discussing novel writing. Nina felt that Tomas tried to distance himself and hold back his feelings. Even though Nina found out that Tomas was suffering from writer 's block at the time, he helped her continue her career, and they became lovers. Tomas helped Nina deal with the fact that she never found her baby that had been stolen by Rose DeVille. Nina 's career began to thrive after Tomas ' publisher expresses interest in her novel. Tomas decided to propose to Nina, and she reluctantly accepted. Still, their relationship was soon over because Tomas was unable to get past Nina 's new - found success as a writer. Nina left town with her son, Chance Chancellor, and Tomas disappeared from Genoa City.
Gary Dawson first appeared on October 5, 1999. He was portrayed by Ricky Paull Goldin until August 29, 2000. Gary dated Victoria Newman, however he began stalking her and was eventually deemed insane, and committed to a sanitarium.
History Gary Dawson was a shy man who worked as a marketing expert. Victoria Newman was attracted to him, and they began a relationship, although Victoria was unaware that Gary was actually the man who has been stalking her for weeks. In Gary 's apartment, Victoria eventually found a collage of her photos, including the centerfold she posed for years earlier. Gary kidnapped and raped Victoria in the Newman 's treehouse before she was eventually rescued by her brother, Nick Newman, and her friend, Paul Williams. Gary ended up in a sanitarium where he currently resides.
Rianna Miner first appeared on December 30, 1999, portrayed by Rianna Loving, who departed on October 5, 2000. The role was then portrayed by Alexis Thorpe from October 12, 2000 to February 14, 2002, and again briefly from June 5 to 25, 2002.
History A part of the teen scene in 1999, Rianna was known in school for dating a rich bad boy J.T. Hellstrom who was n't treating her right, and they broke up. Rianna was a part of the Glow by Jabot Kids, a promotion that Jabot ran. Rianna fell for Raul Guittierez and their relationship seemed perfect from the very beginning. Rianna was there for Raul when he had diabetes and it seemed like they were able to handle any problem future would give them, until Raul got careless with his medication and began acting strange again. Rianna was hurt when Raul wanted to break up with her, especially after he asked her for sex. Rianna started dating with J.T. again, convinced that J.T. had finally become a better person, but eventually realized that he was using her again, so she decided to move out of Genoa City. She returned to town once again in time to attend prom with Raul. They were friends again, and Rianna even helped Raul get closer to Brittany Hodges, who started to have feelings for Raul. Rianna left to attend the University of Michigan.
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how many episodes does barney wear the ducky tie | Ducky tie - Wikipedia
Ashley Williams (Victoria)
"Ducky Tie '' is the third episode of the seventh season of the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother and the 139th episode overall. It aired on September 26, 2011.
Marshall has acquired a blue tie with a yellow - duck pattern, which Barney despises because he finds the design unstylish. Now that Lily is pregnant, her breasts have gotten bigger, so Barney wants to see them; both Lily and Marshall refuse. The group decide to go to "Shinjitsu '', a teppanyaki restaurant, for dinner, where Barney insults the cooking style, claiming he can do with ease all the techniques the chef can do. Marshall becomes angry and challenges Barney to do every technique, with permission to touch Lily 's breasts if he succeeds. If Barney fails, he must wear the duck tie for one year.
Barney unnerves Marshall and Lily throughout dinner with suggestions that he is as adept at cooking as he claims. When he offers to call off the bet if he is allowed to see Lily 's breasts for 30 seconds in the alley, they accept until Marshall realizes that Barney has been conditioning Marshall to associate Barney 's sneezing with the desire to go to "Shinjitsu '' as part of a future scheme to use Marshall if Barney ever wanted something from him. Lily and Marshall are confident they have won the bet until after dinner, when Barney easily executes all but one of the cooking techniques. In desperation, Lily pulls up her shirt and flashes her breasts at Barney, which distracts and prevents him from succeeding at the final cooking technique. When the group returns to MacLaren 's, Barney reluctantly begins wearing the ducky tie.
Meanwhile, during dinner, Ted relays the story of what happened when he ran into Victoria again at the Architect 's Ball in "The Naked Truth ''. Ted makes a long - awaited apology for cheating on her, which Victoria accepts, saying she is no longer angry. However, she is surprised to learn that Ted does not find it strange that he, Robin and Barney hang out every night, despite the fact that both men dated and broke up with Robin. When Ted offers to help Victoria wash the dishes at her bakery, he learns that she is going to be engaged to Klaus, a classmate from Germany. He becomes upset when he further learns that she got together with him a day and a half after she and Ted broke up, meaning that he spent years feeling guilty for kissing Robin when Victoria was planning on leaving him for Klaus anyway. They end up arguing, but begin reminiscing about their time together after Ted reveals he deeply regretted cheating on her and they had loved one another; they end up sharing a kiss.
Despite the kiss, Victoria realizes that she wants to be with Klaus and leaves to meet him for a trip in the Hamptons. Though he concludes the story there with his friends, Future Ted reveals that he had asked Victoria what she imagined their lives would be like had they stayed together. Victoria had responded that Ted 's relationships over the past six years have failed because of Robin, telling him that she is a bigger part of his life than he realizes and warns him that the current friendship that he shares with Robin and Barney does n't work. Though Ted had not believed Victoria at the time, Future Ted reveals that she had been right.
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club rated the episode at A −.
The episode had 10.556 million viewers.
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who plays nia in it's kind of a funny story | It 's Kind of a Funny Story (film) - wikipedia
It 's Kind of a Funny Story is a 2010 American comedy - drama film written and directed by Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck, an adaptation of Ned Vizzini 's 2006 novel of the same name. The film stars Keir Gilchrist, Zach Galifianakis, Emma Roberts, and Viola Davis. It was released in the United States on October 8, 2010, and received generally positive reviews.
After contemplating suicide by jumping off the Brooklyn Bridge, 16 - year - old Craig Gilner decides to go to the hospital to seek help. Craig tells Dr. Mahmoud that he needs immediate help to which Dr. Mahmoud registers Craig for a one - week stay in the hospital 's psychiatric floor. It is revealed that Craig has a lot of pressure at his high school, Executive Pre-Professional (based on Manhattan 's Stuyvesant High School), stressing over the need to turn in an application for a prestigious summer school, his shortcomings in the shadow of his best friend, Aaron, whom he considers to be great at everything, and his dad who pressures him to do well. At first, Craig is uncertain if he made the right choice to stay, mostly due to the fact that his friends might find out when he misses school, especially Nia, his crush and Aaron 's girlfriend. He is placed in the adult ward with a few other teenagers because the teenage ward is undergoing renovations.
Craig is introduced to Bobby, an adult patient who claims he is only there on vacation, as he takes Craig under his wing. During a group discussion, Craig learns that Bobby is stressed about an upcoming interview in hopes of moving to a group home. When Bobby states that all he will have to wear for the interview is the sweater that he is currently wearing, Craig offers Bobby one of his dad 's dress shirts to wear, and Bobby accepts. Craig 's kind offer to Bobby is witnessed by Noelle, another teenage patient who is in for self - harm. She is impressed by Craig and leaves him a note to meet with her that night. Later, Craig and Noelle attend a painting session for the patients. Craig paints a picture of an imaginary city map which he describes as "like my own brain ''.
Throughout his stay, Craig forms close bonds with various patients, including Bobby and Noelle. Bobby reveals to Craig that he is a father of a little girl and that he is actually in the ward for attempting to commit suicide six times. As Craig tries to help Bobby with his problems, Bobby, in return, helps Craig to gain the courage to ask out Noelle. One night, Nia suddenly stops by to visit Craig, revealing that she and Aaron have broken up. Craig asks Nia to his room, where she tries to seduce him. However, the two are caught by Craig 's roommate Muqtada, an older patient who has not left the room during his stay. As Nia runs out of the room, Craig chases her and calls out that he loves her, unaware that Noelle is standing behind him. Upset, Noelle storms off leaving behind a self - portrait that she had planned to give Craig.
Craig eventually wins Noelle 's forgiveness, and the pair sneak out of the ward in scrubs and run around the hospital, ending up on the roof. There, while Craig is trying to finally work up the courage to ask her out, Noelle takes the initiative and asks him, then they kiss afterwards. Later, when Craig has an interview with the head physician, Dr. Minerva, he explains that he has realised that he wants to become an artist, and says he should be thankful that his problems are n't as bad as those of the others. That night, Craig arranges with one of the staff for a pizza party, promising to pay the cost, so the patients can say goodbye to him and Bobby, both of whom are being discharged the following day. He calls Aaron asking him to bring a record. When Aaron delivers the record, he tells Craig that he and Nia are working out their problems and they embrace. At the party, Craig plays the record, which is Egyptian music, bringing Muqtada out of his room. Craig tells Bobby that they should meet again after they are discharged, which Bobby considers, and thanks Craig for changing his outlook on life.
In the morning, Craig asks Smitty where Bobby is, but discovers Bobby had left earlier that morning. Craig is a little disappointed, but is happy that he and Bobby had left an impression on each other. After Craig leaves, it is shown that he starts dating Noelle, becomes better friends with Aaron and Nia (who are still together), begins pursuing his goal of becoming an artist and has broken the news to his dad that he is n't going to follow his path, which his dad understands. The movie ends with saying that while his stay did n't cure his condition, it helped him a lot, and he can get through the rest of his life with the help of his family and friends. The final scene shows how he goes on to live his life with his family, friends and Noelle.
In May 2006, Paramount Pictures and MTV Films acquired the film rights to the novel. Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck were hired to adapt the screenplay. The film was later placed in turnaround and bought by Focus Features.
Production began in New York City on November 30, 2009. Principal photography took about six weeks, ending on February 2, 2010. Scenes taking place in the fictional Executive Pre-Professional High School were shot at Poly Prep Country Day School in Brooklyn, while Woodhull Medical Center in Brooklyn stood in for Argenon Hospital.
As of May 13, 2010, the film completed editing. Canadian indie rock band Broken Social Scene worked on the score for the film.
The film was originally scheduled for a limited release in the United States on September 24, 2010. Focus Features later opted for a wide release of approximately 500 theaters across the US and a release date of October 8, 2010. The film premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival.
To coincide with the film 's release, Hyperion Books published a new edition of the novel, featuring photos from the film on the cover.
The film aired on HBO cable in the summer of 2011.
The film has received generally positive reviews from most film critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 63, based on 33 reviews, which indicates "Generally favorable reviews '', and a user score of 7.6 / 10 which indicates "Generally favorable reviews ''. Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 58 % rating based on 129 reviews, with an average score of 6 / 10 and a consensus of "It 's amiable, and it does a surprisingly good job of sidestepping psych ward comedy clichés, but given its talented cast and directors, It 's Kind of a Funny Story should be more than just mildly entertaining. ''
It 's Kind of a Funny Story was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on February 8, 2011.
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what is the population of the des moines area | Des Moines metropolitan area - wikipedia
Coordinates: 41 ° 33 ′ 19 '' N 93 ° 50 ′ 09 '' W / 41.555147 ° N 93.835831 ° W / 41.555147; - 93.835831
The Des Moines metropolitan area, officially known as the Des Moines -- West Des Moines, IA Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), consists of five counties in central Iowa, United States: Polk, Dallas, Warren, Madison, and Guthrie. The 2010 census population of these counties was 569,633, and the 2017 estimated population was 645,911.
Three additional counties, Boone, Jasper, and Story, are part of the Des Moines -- Ames -- West Des Moines Combined Statistical Area (CSA). The area encompasses the separate metropolitan area of Ames (Story County), and the separate micropolitan areas of Boone, (Boone County), and Newton (Jasper County). The total population of the CSA was 722,323 in the 2010 census and 806,863 based on 2017 estimates.
The lowest geographical point in the metropolitan area is the Des Moines River, where it passes the northeast corner of Warren County, and the southeast corner of Polk County.
Polk County was originally the only county in the Des Moines metropolitan area when the United States Bureau of the Budget (now the United States Office of Management and Budget) began defining metropolitan areas in 1950. Warren County was added in 1973 and Dallas County was added in 1983. Guthrie and Madison counties were added in 2003 after metropolitan areas were redefined. In 2005 the area was renamed the Des Moines -- West Des Moines Metropolitan Statistical Area after a special census showed that West Des Moines had topped the 50,000 mark in population.
As of the census of 2000, there were 481,394 people, 189,371 households, and 126,177 families residing within the MSA. The racial makeup of the MSA was 90.24 % White, 3.85 % African American, 0.24 % Native American, 2.15 % Asian, 0.05 % Pacific Islander, 2.00 % from other races, and 1.46 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.02 % of the population.
The median income for a household in the MSA was $44,667, and the median income for a family was $52,617. Males had a median income of $34,710 versus $25,593 for females. The per capita income for the MSA was $21,253.
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when does the life you save may be your own take place | The Life you Save May Be Your Own - wikipedia
"The Life You Save May Be Your Own '' is a short story by the American author Flannery O'Connor. It is one of the 10 stories in her short story collection A Good Man Is Hard to Find, published in 1955.
An elderly woman and her daughter sit quietly on their porch at sunset when Shiftlet comes walking up the road to their farm. Through carefully selected details, O'Connor reveals that the girl is deaf and mute, that the old woman views Shiftlet as ' a tramp, ' and that Shiftlet himself wears a "left coat sleeve that was folded up to show there was only half an arm in it. '' The two adults exchange curt pleasantries, then Mrs. Crater offers him shelter in exchange for work but warns, "I ca n't pay. '' Shiftlet says he has no interest in money, adding that he believes that most people are too concerned with money. Sensing not only a handyman but a suitor for her daughter, Mrs. Crater asks if Shiftlet is married, to which he responds, "Lady, where would you find you an innocent woman today? '' Mrs. Crater then makes known her love for her daughter, Lucynell, adding, "She can sweep the floors, cook, wash, feed the chickens, and hoe. '' Mrs. Crater is clearly offering her daughter 's hand to Shiftlet. For the moment, however, he simply decides to stay on the farm and to sleep in the broken - down car. Once Shiftlet moves into the Crater 's farm, he fixes a broken fence and hog pen, teaches Lucynell how to speak her first word ("bird '' -- a recurring symbol in O'Connor's fiction), and, most importantly, repairs the automobile. At this time Mrs. Crater gives her daughter 's hand in marriage over to Mr. Shiftlet, but he declines saying, "I ca n't get married right now, everything you want to do takes money and I ai n't got any. ''
Mrs. Crater, in her desperation to marry off her daughter, offers him a sum of money to marry Lucynell. He then accepts and agrees to marry her. Soon after, the three take the car into town and Lucynell and Shiftlet are married. After the wedding Shiftlet and Lucynell go on their honeymoon. They stop in a restaurant and have dinner. There Lucynell falls asleep. Once she is sound asleep on the counter of the diner, Shiftlet gets up out of his seat and begins to leave. The boy behind the counter looks at the girl and then back at Shiftlet in a confused manner. Seeing how beautiful Lucynell is, the boy exclaims, "She looks like an angel of Gawd ''. Shiftlet then replies "Hitchhiker '' and leaves her at the restaurant. Afterwards Shiftlet "was more depressed than ever '' and he "kept his eye out for a hitchhiker. '' As a storm is breaking in the sky, Shiftlet sees a road sign that reads, "Drive carefully. The life you save may be your own. '' Shiftlet then offers a ride to a boy who did not even have his thumb out.
Shiftlet tries to make conversation, telling stories about his sweet mother, who is -- as the boy at the diner called Lucynell -- "an angel of Gawd. '' But the boy does not buy Shiftlet 's sentimentality. "My old woman is a flea bag and yours is a stinking polecat, '' he snaps, before leaping from the car. Shocked, Shiftlet "felt the rottenness of the world was about to engulf him, '' exclaiming, "Oh Lord! Break forth and wash the slime from the earth! '' The rain finally breaks, with a "guffawing peal of thunder from behind and fantastic raindrops, like tin - can tops, crashed over the rear of Mr. Shiftlet 's car. '' Shiftlet speeds off to Mobile, Alabama.
As in several other O'Connor stories, such as "A Good Man Is Hard to Find '' and "Good Country People, '' in "The Life You Save May Be Your Own '' a malevolent stranger intrudes upon the lives of a family with destructive consequences. Tom Shiftlet has been compared to The Misfit in "A Good Man is Hard to Find ''; however, Shiftlet remains primarily a comic character and does not embody The Misfit 's spiritual dimensions.
In 1957, the story was adapted into a television production on the Schlitz Playhouse of Stars, starring Gene Kelly.
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difference between indian bank and south indian bank | Indian Bank - Wikipedia
Indian Bank is an Indian state - owned financial services company established in 1907 and headquartered in Chennai, India. It has 20,924 employees, 2836 branches and is one of the top performing public sector banks in India. Total business of the bank has touched Rs. 3.64 lakh Crores as on 31.03. 2018. Bank 's Information Systems & Security processes certified with ISO27001: 2013 standard and is among very few Banks certified worldwide. It has overseas branches in Colombo and Singapore including a Foreign Currency Banking Unit at Colombo and Jaffna. It has 227 Overseas Correspondent banks in 75 countries. The bank has two subsidiary companies - "Indbank Merchant Banking Services Ltd '' and "IndBank Housing Ltd. ''. Since 1969 the Government of India has owned the bank.
In the last quarter of 1906, Madras (now Chennai) was hit by the worst financial crisis the city was ever to suffer. Of the three best - known British commercial names in 19th century Madras, one crashed; a second had to be resurrected by a distress sale; and the third had to be bailed out by a benevolent benefactor. Arbuthnot & Co, which failed, was considered the soundest of the three. Parry 's (now EID Parry), may have been the earliest of them and Binny and Co. 's founders may have had the oldest associations with Madras, but it was Arbuthnot, established in 1810, that was the city 's strongest commercial organisation in the 19th Century. A key figure in the bankruptcy case for Arbuthnot 's was the Madras lawyer, V. Krishnaswamy Iyer who founded the Indian bank which was an offshoot of nationalistic fervour and the Swadeshi movement, when the then British Arbuthnot Bank collapsed and the Indian Bank emerged. Mr V. Krishnaswamy Iyer solicited the support of the Nagarathar Chettiars authored by Mr. Ramasamy Chettiar, who was Annamalai Chettiar 's elder brother. Sri V. Krishnaswamy Iyer and Mr. Ramasamy Chettiar were one of the first directors of Indian Bank. Later on in 1915, Mr. Annamalai Chettiar was inducted into the board of the Indian Bank. It commenced operations on 15 August 1907 with its head office in Parry 's Building, Parry Corner, Madras.
In 1932 IB opened a branch in Colombo. It opened its second branch in Ceylon in 1935 at Jaffna, but closed it in 1939. IB next opened a branch in Rangoon, Burma, in late 1940. Then in late 1941 IB opened branches in Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, and Penang. The exigencies of war forced IB to close its Singapore and Malayan branches with months. The closing of the Singapore branch resulted in little loss to IB; the loss of the branches in Malaya was much more costly.
World War II resulted in further financial problems for IB and it was forced in 1942 to close a number of its branches in India, and also its branch in Colombo.
After the war, in 1947, it reopened its branch in Colombo. Indian Bank also reopened its branches in Burma, Malayan and Singapore, the last in 1962. The Burmese government nationalised all foreign banks, including Indian Bank 's branch, in 1963.
The 1960s saw IB expand domestically as it acquired Rayalaseema Bank (est. 1939), Mannargudi Bank (est. 1932), Bank of Alagapuri, Salem Bank (est. 1925), and Trichy United Bank. (Trichy United was the result of the 1965 merger of Woraiyur Commercial Bank (est. 1948), the Palakkarai Bank, and the Tennur Bank (est. 3 March 1947.) These were all small banks with the result that all the acquisitions added only about 38 branches to IB 's network. Trichy United had five branches and its acquisition in 1967 brought the number of IB branches up to 210.
Then on 19 July 1969 the Government of India nationalised 14 top banks, including Indian Bank. One consequence of the nationalisation was that the Malaysian branches of nationalised Indian banks were forbidden to continue to operate as branches of the parent. At the time, Indian Bank had three branches, and Indian Overseas Bank, and United Commercial Bank had eight between them. In 1973 the three established United Asian Bank Berhad to amalgamate and take over their Malaysian operations. Post-nationalization, Indian Bank was left with only two foreign branches, one in Colombo and the other in Singapore.
International expansion resumed in 1978 with IB becoming a technical adviser to PT Bank Rama in Indonesia, the result of the merger of PT Bank Masyarakat and PT Bank Ramayana. Two years later, IB, Bank of Baroda, and Union Bank of India established IUB International Finance, a licensed deposit taker in Hong Kong. Each of the three banks took an equal share in the joint venture; IB 's Chairman became the first Chairman of IUB International Finance. In May 1980, IB also opened a foreign currency unit at its branch in Colombo.
In 1981 IB set up its first Regional Rural Bank, Sri Venkateswara Grameena Bank, in Chittoor.
In 1983 ethnic sectarian violence in the form of anti-Tamil riots resulted in the burning of Indian Overseas Bank 's branch in Colombo. Indian Bank, which may have had stronger ties to the Sinhalese population, escaped unscathed.
In 1990, Indian Bank rescued Bank of Tanjore (Bank of Thanjavur; est. 1901), with its 157 branches, based in Tamil Nadu.
A multi-crore scam was exposed in 1992, when then chairman M. Gopalakrishnan lent ₹ 13 billion to small corporates and exporters from the south, which the borrowers never repaid.
Bank of Baroda bought out its partners in IUB International Finance in Hong Kong in 1998. Apparently this was a response to regulatory changes following Hong Kong 's reversion to Chinese control. IUB became Bank of Baroda (Hong Kong), a restricted licence bank.
In June 2015, business of the bank crossed the Milestone Target of ₹ 3, 00,000 crore.
Citations
References
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who played ice cubes daughter in 22 jump street | 22 Jump Street - Wikipedia
22 Jump Street is a 2014 American action comedy film directed by Phil Lord and Christopher Miller, written by Jonah Hill, Michael Bacall, Oren Uziel and Rodney Rothman and produced by and starring Hill and Channing Tatum. It is the sequel to the 2012 film 21 Jump Street, based on the television series of the same name. The film was released on June 13, 2014, by Columbia Pictures and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer. The film received positive reviews and earned over $331 million at the box office.
A crossover with Men in Black, MIB 23, is in development, with Lord and Miller acting as producers, and James Bobin acting as the director. The crossover will replace a 23 Jump Street film.
Two years following their success in the 21 Jump Street program, Schmidt (Jonah Hill) and Jenko (Channing Tatum) are back on the streets chasing narcotics. However, after failing in the pursuit of a group of drug dealers led by Ghost (Peter Stormare), Deputy Chief Hardy (Nick Offerman) puts the duo back on the program to work for Captain Dickson (Ice Cube) -- now located across the street at 22 Jump Street. Their assignment is to go undercover as college students and locate the supplier of a drug known as "WHY - PHY '' (Work Hard? Yes, Play Hard? Yes) that killed a student photographed buying it on campus from a dealer.
At college, Jenko quickly makes friends with a pair of jocks named Zook (Wyatt Russell) and Rooster (Jimmy Tatro), the latter being a prime suspect of the investigation. Jenko starts attending parties with the jocks who do not take as kindly to Schmidt. Meanwhile, Schmidt gets the attention of an art student, Maya (Amber Stevens), by feigning an interest in slam poetry. The two sleep together, to the disapproval of Maya 's roommate Mercedes (Jillian Bell), and Schmidt later finds that Maya is the daughter of Captain Dickson, whom Schmidt bragged to about "getting laid '', much to Dickson 's fury. Despite sleeping together, Maya tells Schmidt not to take it seriously, and he starts to feel left out as Jenko bonds more and more with Zook who encourages him to join the football team.
When Schmidt and Jenko are unable to identify the dealer, they visit Mr. Walters (Rob Riggle) and Eric (Dave Franco) in jail for advice. After confessing the two are having regular intercourse, Walters points out a unique tattoo on the arm of the dealer in the photograph. Whilst hanging out with Zook and Rooster, Jenko notices that Rooster does not have the tattoo but sees it on Zook 's arm. Schmidt and Jenko are invited to join the fraternity led by the jocks but Schmidt refuses, furthering the tension between the two as Jenko passes their requirements. They later realize that Zook is not the dealer but rather another customer. Soon afterwards, they find Ghost and his men on campus, but Ghost again evades them. Jenko reveals to Schmidt that he has been offered a football scholarship with Zook and is uncertain about his future as a police officer. Afterwards, Schmidt reveals his true identity and moves out of the dorm, angering Maya.
Spring break arrives and Schmidt goes after Ghost. He is joined by Jenko, so the two can have one final mission together. The pair head to the beach where Ghost is likely to be dealing WHY - PHY. Inside a bar, they find Mercedes, who is Ghost 's daughter, giving instructions to other dealers. The pair, backed up by Dickson and the rest of Jump Street, ambush the meeting. Ghost flees, while Mercedes is knocked out by Schmidt. While pursuing Ghost, Jenko is then shot in the shoulder. Ghost attempts to escape in a helicopter; Schmidt and Jenko manage to jump across to it, but they fall into the sea due to Jenko 's injured arm. However, Jenko is able to throw a grenade into the helicopter. Ghost celebrates his victory prematurely while the grenade explodes, sending the totaled remains into the sea. Jenko tells Schmidt that he still wants to be a police officer as he believes their differences help their partnership, and the two reconcile in front of a cheering crowd. Dickson approaches them claiming to have a new mission undercover at a med school.
During the credits, Jenko and Schmidt go on to a variety of undercover missions to different schools, which are portrayed as fictional sequels, an animated series, and a toy line. One mission features Detective Booker (Richard Grieco) while another sees the return of Ghost, who survived the helicopter explosion. In a post-credits scene, Walters reveals to Eric that he is late, implying he is pregnant.
On March 17, 2012, Sony Pictures announced that it was pursuing a sequel to 21 Jump Street, signing a deal that would see Jonah Hill and Michael Bacall return to write a script treatment that would be again developed by Bacall. The film was originally scheduled to be released on June 6, 2014. On May 8, 2013, it was announced that the film would be pushed back a week until June 13, 2014. In June 2013, it was announced the film would be titled 22 Jump Street. In July 2013, Phil Lord and Christopher Miller confirmed they would return to direct the film. On September 6, 2013, Amber Stevens joined the cast of the film. On September 27, 2013, Kurt Russell mentioned that his son Wyatt turned down a role for The Hunger Games sequels to star in 22 Jump Street. Principal photography began on September 28, 2013, in New Orleans, Louisiana, with shots in San Juan, Puerto Rico as well (acting for the shots in the movie as the spring break in "Puerto Mexico '') and ended on December 15, 2013.
The end titles, featuring satirical concepts for an ongoing series of Jump Street films and merchandise, were designed by the studio Alma Mater.
The score for the film was composed by Mark Mothersbaugh and was released by La - La Land Records on a double disc album, limited to 2,000 copies, in September 2014. The second disc of the album also contains the score from the film 's predecessor, 21 Jump Street, composed by Mothersbaugh as well.
22 Jump Street grossed $191.7 million in North America and $139.4 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $331.3 million, against a budget of $84.5 million. It outgrossed the first Jump Street film, which made a total of $201.6 million during its theatrical run.
22 Jump Street grossed $5.5 million at its early Thursday night showings. On its opening day it grossed $25 million, including the early Thursday showings. In North America, the film opened at number one in its first weekend, with $57.1 million. In its second weekend, the film dropped to number two, grossing an additional $27.5 million. In its third weekend, the film stayed at number two, grossing $15.8 million. In its fourth weekend, the film dropped to number three, grossing $9.8 million.
22 Jump Street received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 84 % based on 200 reviews with an average rating of 7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Boasting even more of the bromantic chemistry between its stars -- and even more of the goofy, good - natured humor that made its predecessor so much fun -- 22 Jump Street is the rare sequel that improves upon the original. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 71 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A − '' on an A+ to F scale.
Inkoo Kang of The Wrap gave the film a positive review, saying "If 22 is n't as trim and tight as its predecessor, it 's certainly smarter and more heartfelt. Whether this sequel is better than the original is up for debate, but the franchise has definitely grown up. '' Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B −, saying "Hill 's neurotic - motormouth act and Tatum 's lovable - lunkhead shtick still shoot giddy sparks. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three out of four stars, saying "This is the ultimate meta movie. The repetition is exactly the point. '' Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave the film two out of four stars, saying "What 's the difference between 21 Jump Street and 22 Jump Street? Same as the difference between getting a 21 and a 22 at blackjack. '' Jocelyn Noveck of the Associated Press gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Hill and Tatum... have a Laurel - and - Hardy - like implausible chemistry that keeps you laughing pretty much no matter what they 're doing. '' Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film four out of five stars, saying "What makes it all work is the chemistry between Hill and Tatum, which in turn, of course, is a rich source of the film 's humor. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three out of four stars, saying "The peculiar sweetness of 21 Jump Street has taken a hiatus in 22 Jump Street, a brazen sequel that 's both slightly disappointing and a reliable, often riotous ' laffer ' in the old Variety trade - magazine parlance. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three out of four stars, saying "22 Jump Street is damn funny, sometimes outrageously so. It laughs at its own dumb logic and invites us in on the fun. '' Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Like its stars, Jump Street gets extra credit for getting by on charm while sticking to the rules. '' Ian Buckwalter of NPR gave the film a seven out of ten, saying "What separates 22 Jump Street from sequel mediocrity is that everyone 's in on the joke. ''
Sean Fitz - Gerald of The Denver Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Jump Street knows you know about the predictability and cheapness of sequels and rip - offs -- and in this case, to avoid the downfalls of other summer comedy sagas, embracing that problem might have been the best move for this absurd, unique franchise. '' Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review, saying "This sequel 's spoof of its predecessor 's riff on the original 1980s - era buddy - cop TV show coalesces into a raucous, raunchy, irreverent, imperfect riot. '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying "Lord and Miller are on a roll, and there may be no better moviemakers at playing to our modern need for irony -- at giving us the entertainment we crave while acknowledging our distrust of it. '' Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald gave the film three out of four stars, saying "There 's something going on at the edges of the frame in practically every scene of 22 Jump Street, a testament to the care and attention to detail directors Lord and Miller bring to this potentially silly material. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "At what point is sarcasm just a cheap substitute for wit? Exactly when does joking about how all sequels are just lame, repetitive cash - grabs start to suggest that maybe yours is, too? Actually, in this case, about 40 minutes in. '' Bill Zwecker of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Though I enjoyed enormously this latest offering in the rebooted Jump franchise, it 's the effortless, unexpected bromance / partnership between the two unlikely undercover cops is what makes this franchise work. ''
James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "There are times when 22 Jump Street is borderline brilliant. Unfortunately, those instances are outnumbered by segments that do n't work for one reason or another. '' Jaime N. Christley of Slant Magazine gave the film two out of four stars, saying "As funny and batshit insane as the movie often is, the fact that 22 Jump Street knows it 's a tiresome sequel does n't save it from being a tiresome sequel, even as Lord and Miller struggle to conceal the bitter pill of convention in the sweet tapioca pudding of wall - to - wall jokes. '' Scott Tobias of The Dissolve gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "22 Jump Street squeezes every last drop of comic inspiration it can get from Tatum and Hill, as well as the very notion of a sequel to such a superfluous enterprise. '' Steve Persall of the Tampa Bay Times gave the film a B, saying "22 Jump Street is a mixed bag of clever spoofery and miscalculated outrageousness. The unveiled homoeroticism of practically all interaction between Jenko and Schmidt is amusing to the point when it is n't. '' Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film three out of five stars, saying "This is a sequel that wears its well - worn formula, mocking inside jokes and gleeful taste for overkill proudly, flying the high - lowbrow flag for audiences that like their comedy just smart enough to be not - too - dumb. '' Scott Foundas of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "22 Jump Street hits far more often than it misses, and even when it misses by a mile, the effort is so delightfully zany that it 's hard not to give Lord and Miller an ' A ' for effort. ''
Peter Howell of the Toronto Star gave the film three out of four stars, saying "If it seemed Channing Tatum and Jonah Hill could n't possibly exceed their over-the - top buddy cop antics of 21 Jump Street, you lost that bet. '' Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film a B -, saying "There 's no real reason 22 Jump Street should work. Yet it does. '' Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch gave the film three out of four stars, saying "A self - aware sequel has to hop over hurdles to keep from swallowing its own tail, but the sharp writing and tag - team antics lift 22 Jump Street to a high level. '' Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film three out of four stars, saying "22 Jump Street is exactly what comedy is today. It 's coarse, free - flowing and playful. '' In 2016, James Charisma of Playboy ranked the film # 13 on a list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals.
22 Jump Street was released on DVD and Blu - ray on November 18, 2014.
On September 10, 2014, 23 Jump Street was confirmed. Channing Tatum had yet to sign on to the project, stating, "I do n't know if that joke works three times, so we 'll see. '' On August 7, 2015, it was revealed that Lord and Miller would not direct the film, but instead write and produce. A first draft of the film 's script has been completed. On December 10, 2014, it was revealed that Sony was planning a crossover between Men in Black and Jump Street. The news was leaked after Sony 's system was hacked and then confirmed by the directors of the films, Chris Miller and Phil Lord, during an interview about it. James Bobin was announced as the director in March 2016. The title of the crossover was later revealed as MIB 23, and it was revealed that the crossover would replace a 23 Jump Street film.
In early 2015, a female - driven 21 Jump Street film was rumored to also be in the works. In December 2016, Rodney Rothman was confirmed to make his directorial debut on the film.
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drivers who died at new hampshire motor speedway | List of NASCAR fatalities - wikipedia
This article lists drivers who have been fatally injured while competing in or in preparation for (testing, practice, qualifying) races sanctioned by the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR). A separate list compiles drivers who have died of a medical condition while driving or shortly thereafter and another section shows non-driver deaths.
The premier series of NASCAR has seen 28 driver fatalities, the most recent of which occurred in February 2001 when Dale Earnhardt was killed during the Daytona 500.
Safety in the sport has evolved through the decades. Technological advances in roll cages, window nets, seat mounts, air flaps, helmets, and driving suits as well as on - site medical facilities with helicopters, SAFER barriers, and the HANS device may have contributed to the prevention of further deaths.
This list shows NASCAR Cup Series fatalities.
This list covers both drivers who crashed their cars after suffering a fatal medical condition, i.e. they did not die of any injuries they may have sustained in the ensuing accident, and those who managed to stop their cars but succumbed to a medical condition a little later.
This section includes drivers participating in an event who were killed while on the sidelines.
This list shows NASCAR Cup Series fatalities.
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what am radio station is the cardinals game on | St. Louis Cardinals radio network - wikipedia
The St. Louis Cardinals Radio Network is a United States radio network that broadcasts St. Louis Cardinals baseball. The network consists of 111 stations (52 AM, 59 FM) and six FM translators in nine states (four in the Midwest and five in the South). Its flagship station is KMOX in St. Louis. Due to an earlier deal with KTRS / 550, it is still a partial owner of that station although Cardinals games no longer air on KTRS (which they did for the 2006 - 2010 seasons).
As of the 2016 season, the play - by - play is provided by former Cardinals right fielder Mike Shannon (home games only) and John Rooney, who have been calling games for the team since 1972 and 2006 respectively. Former Cardinals pitcher Rick Horton (who also serves as a color analyst for Cardinals telecasts on Fox Sports Midwest) fills in for Shannon on road games. Mike Claiborne hosts the pre - and post-game shows and occasionally fills in on play - by - play.
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what message would you have gotten if you had the elk cloner virus | Elk Cloner - wikipedia
Elk Cloner is one of the first known microcomputer viruses that spread "in the wild '', i.e., outside the computer system or laboratory in which it was written. It attached itself to the Apple II operating system and spread by floppy disk. It was written around 1982 by programmer and entrepreneur Rich Skrenta as a 15 - year - old high school student, originally as a joke, and put onto a game disk.
Elk Cloner spread by infecting the Apple DOS 3.3 operating system using a technique now known as a boot sector virus. It was attached to a game which was then set to play. The 50th time the game was started, the virus was released, but instead of playing the game, it would change to a blank screen that displayed a poem about the virus. If a computer booted from an infected floppy disk, a copy of the virus was placed in the computer 's memory. When an uninfected disk was inserted into the computer, the entire DOS (including Elk Cloner) would be copied to the disk, allowing it to spread from disk to disk. To prevent the DOS from being continually re-written each time the disk was accessed, Elk Cloner also wrote a signature byte to the disk 's directory, indicating that it had already been infected.
The poem that Elk Cloner would display was as follows:
It will get on all your disks It will infiltrate your chips Yes, it 's Cloner!
It will stick to you like glue It will modify RAM too
Elk Cloner did not cause deliberate harm, but Apple DOS disks without a standard image had their reserved tracks overwritten.
Elk Cloner was created by Skrenta as a prank in 1982. Skrenta already had a reputation for pranks among his friends because, in sharing computer games and software, he would often alter the floppy disks to shut down or display taunting on - screen messages. Due to this reputation, many of his friends simply stopped accepting floppy disks from him. Skrenta thought of methods to alter floppy disks without physically touching or harming them. During a winter break from Mt. Lebanon High School in Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania, Skrenta discovered how to launch the messages automatically on his Apple II computer. He developed what is now known as a boot sector virus, and began circulating it in early 1982 among high school friends and a local computer club. Twenty - five years later, in 2007, Skrenta called it "some dumb little practical joke. ''
According to contemporary reports, the virus was rather contagious, successfully infecting the floppies of most people Skrenta knew, and upsetting many of them.
Part of the "success '', of course, was that people were not at all wary of the potential problem, nor were virus scanners or cleaners available. The virus could be removed using Apple 's MASTER CREATE utility or other utilities to re-write a fresh copy of DOS to the infected disk. Furthermore, once Elk Cloner was removed, the previously - infected disk would not be re-infected since it already contained the Elk Cloner "signature '' in its directory. It was also possible to "inoculate '' uninfected disks against Elk Cloner by writing the "signature '' to the disk; the virus would then think the disk was already infected and refrain from writing itself.
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what is backflow of blood in the heart called | Regurgitation (circulation) - Wikipedia
Regurgitation is blood flow in the opposite direction from normal, as the backward flowing of blood into the heart or between heart chambers. It is the circulatory equivalent of backflow in engineered systems. It is sometimes called reflux, as in abdominojugular reflux.
Regurgitation in or near the heart is often caused by valvular insufficiency (insufficient function, with incomplete closure, of the heart valves); for example, aortic valve insufficiency causes regurgitation through that valve, called aortic regurgitation, and the terms aortic insufficiency and aortic regurgitation are so closely linked as usually to be treated as metonymically interchangeable.
The various types of heart valve regurgitation via insufficiency are as follows:
Regurgitant fraction is the percentage of blood that regurgitates back through the aortic valve to the left ventricle due to aortic insufficiency, or through the mitral valve to the atrium due to mitral insufficiency. It is measured as the amount of blood regurgitated into a cardiac chamber divided by the stroke volume.
This fraction affords a quantitative measure of the severity of the valvular lesion. Normally, no blood regurgitates, so the regurgitant fraction is zero. In patients with severe valvular lesions, regurgitant fraction can approach 80 %.
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when is the glass broken in a jewish wedding | Jewish wedding - wikipedia
A Jewish wedding is a wedding ceremony that follows Jewish laws and traditions.
While wedding ceremonies vary, common features of a Jewish wedding include a ketubah (marriage contract) which is signed by two witnesses, a wedding canopy (chuppah or huppah), a ring owned by the groom that is given to the bride under the canopy, and the breaking of a glass.
Technically, the Jewish wedding process has two distinct stages: kiddushin (sanctification or dedication, also called erusin, betrothal in Hebrew) and nissuin (marriage), when the couple start their life together. The first stage prohibits the woman to all other men, requiring a religious divorce (get) to dissolve, and the final stage permits the couple to each other. The ceremony that accomplishes nisuin is known as chuppah.
Today, erusin / kiddushin occurs when the groom gives the bride a ring or other object of value with the intent of creating a marriage. There are differing opinions as to which part of the ceremony constitutes nissuin / chuppah; they include standing under the canopy - itself called a chuppah - and being alone together in a room (yichud). While historically these two events could take place as much as a year apart, they are now commonly combined into one ceremony.
Before the wedding ceremony, the chatan (groom) agrees to be bound by the terms of the ketubah, or marriage contract, in the presence of two witnesses, whereupon the witnesses sign the ketubah. The ketubah details the obligations of the groom to the kallah (bride), among which are food, clothing, and marital relations. This document has the standing of a legally binding agreement. It is often written as an illuminated manuscript that is framed and displayed in their home. Under the chuppah, it is traditional to read the signed ketubah aloud, usually in the Aramaic original, but sometimes in translation. Traditionally, this is done to separate the two basic parts of the wedding. Non-Orthodox Jewish couples may opt for a bilingual ketubah, or for a shortened version to be read out.
A traditional Jewish wedding ceremony takes place under a Chuppah or wedding canopy, symbolizing the new home being built by the couple when they become husband and wife.
Prior to the ceremony, Ashkenazi Jews have a custom to cover the face of the bride (usually with a veil), and a prayer is often said for her based on the words spoken to Rebecca in Genesis 24: 60. The veiling ritual is known in Yiddish as badeken. Various reasons are given for the veil and the ceremony, a commonly accepted reason is that it reminds the Jewish people of how Jacob was tricked by Laban into marrying Leah before Rachel, as her face was covered by her veil (see Vayetze). Sephardi Jews do not perform this ceremony.
In many Orthodox Jewish communities, the bride is escorted to the chuppah by her father and mother known by Ashkenazi Jews as unterfirers (Yiddish, lit. ones who lead under).
The bride traditionally walks around the groom three or seven times when she arrives at the Chuppah. This may derive from Jeremiah 31: 22, "A woman shall surround a man ''. The three circuits may represent the three virtues of marriage: righteousness, justice and loving kindness (see Hosea 2: 19). Seven circuits derives from the Biblical concept that seven denotes perfection or completeness. Sephardic Jews do not perform this ceremony.
In traditional weddings, two blessings are recited before the betrothal; a blessing over wine, and the betrothal blessing, which is specified in the Talmud. The wine is then tasted by the couple.
The groom gives the bride a ring, traditionally a plain wedding band, and recites the declaration: Behold, you are consecrated to me with this ring according to the law of Moses and Israel. The groom places the ring on the bride 's right index finger. According to traditional Jewish law, two valid witnesses must see him place the ring.
During some egalitarian weddings, the bride will also present a ring to the groom, often with a quote from the Song of Songs: "Ani l'dodi, ve dodi li '' (I am my beloved 's and my beloved is mine), which may also be inscribed on the ring itself. This ring is sometimes presented outside the chuppa to avoid conflicts with Jewish law.
The Sheva Brachot or seven blessings are recited by the hazzan or rabbi, or by select guests who are called up individually. Being called upon to recite one of the seven blessings is considered an honour. The groom is given the cup of wine to drink from after the seven blessings. The bride also drinks the wine. In some traditions, the cup will be held to the lips of the groom by his new father - in - law and to the lips of the bride by her new mother - in - law. Traditions vary as to whether additional songs are sung before the seven blessings.
After the bride has been given the ring, or at the end of the ceremony (depending on local custom), the groom breaks a glass, crushing it with his right foot, and the guests shout "מזל טוב '' "Mazel tov! '' ("Congratulations ''). At some contemporary weddings, a lightbulb may be substituted because it is thinner and more easily broken, and it makes a louder popping sound.
The origin of this custom is unknown, although many reasons have been given. The primary reason is that joy must always be tempered. This is based on two accounts in the Talmud of rabbis who, upon seeing that their son 's wedding celebration was getting out of hand, broke a vessel -- in the second case a glass -- to calm things down. Another explanation is that it is a reminder that despite the joy, Jews still mourn the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Because of this, some recite the verses "If I forget thee / O Jerusalem... '' (Ps. 137: 5) at this point. Many other reasons have been given by traditional authorities.
Former Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel Ovadia Yosef has strongly criticized the way this custom is sometimes carried out, arguing that "Many unknowledgeable people fill their mouths with laughter during the breaking of the glass, shouting ' mazel tov ' and turning a beautiful custom meant to express our sorrow '' over Jerusalem 's destruction "into an opportunity for lightheadedness. ''
Reform Judaism has a new custom where brides and grooms break the wine glass together.
Yichud (Hebrew for "togetherness '' or "seclusion '') refers to the Ashkenazi practice of leaving the bride and groom alone for 10 -- 20 minutes after the wedding ceremony. The couple retreats to a private room. Yichud can take place anywhere, from a rabbi 's study to a synagogue classroom. The reason for yichud is that according to several authorities, standing under the canopy alone does not constitute chuppah, and seclusion is necessary to complete the wedding ceremony. However, Sephardic Jews do not have this custom, as they consider it a davar mechoar, a "repugnant thing '', compromising the couple 's modesty.
In Yemen, the Jewish practice was not for the groom and his bride to be secluded in a canopy (chuppah), as is widely practiced today in Jewish weddings, but rather in a bridal chamber that was, in effect, a highly decorated room in the house of the groom. This room was traditionally decorated with large hanging sheets of colored, patterned cloth, replete with wall cushions and short - length mattresses for reclining. Their marriage is consummated when they have been left together alone in this room. This ancient practice finds expression in the writings of Isaac ben Abba Mari (c. 1122 -- c. 1193), author of Sefer ha - ' Ittur, concerning the Benediction of the Bridegroom: "Now the chuppah is when her father delivers her onto her husband, bringing her into that house wherein is some new innovation, such as the sheets... surrounding the walls, etc. For we recite in the Jerusalem Talmud, Sotah 46a (Sotah 9: 15), ' Those bridal chambers, (chuppoth hathanim), they hang within them patterned sheets and gold - embroidered ribbons, ' etc. ''
Dancing is a major feature of Jewish weddings. It is customary for the guests to dance in front of the seated couple and entertain them. Traditional Ashkenazi dances include:
After the meal, Birkat Hamazon (Grace after meals) is recited, followed by sheva brachot. At a wedding banquet, the wording of the blessings preceding Birkat Hamazon is slightly different from the everyday version. Prayer booklets called benchers, may be handed out to guests. After the prayers, the blessing over the wine is recited, with two glasses of wine poured together into a third, symbolizing the creation of a new life together.
In recent years, the governing bodies of several branches of Judaism have developed standard Jewish prenuptial agreements designed to prevent a man from withholding a get (Jewish bill of divorce) from his wife, should she want one. Such documents have been developed and widely used in the United States, Israel, the United Kingdom and other places.
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who played dorcas in lark rise to candleford | Julia Sawalha - wikipedia
Julia Sawalha (born 9 September 1968) is an English actress known mainly for her role as Saffron Monsoon in the BBC sitcom Absolutely Fabulous. She is also known for portraying Lynda Day, editor of the Junior Gazette, in Press Gang and Lydia Bennet in the 1995 television miniseries of Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice. Additionally, she played Dorcas Lane in the BBC 's costume drama Lark Rise to Candleford, Carla Borrego in Jonathan Creek, and Jan Ward in the 2014 BBC One mystery Remember Me.
Sawalha was born in Lambeth, London, the daughter of Roberta Lane and actor Nadim Sawalha. Her father was born in Madaba, Jordan. She was named after her paternal grandmother, a businesswoman who had received an award from Queen Noor for enterprise. She is of Jordanian, English, and French Huguenot ancestry.
Sawalha was educated at the Theatre Arts School, a fee - paying independent school which is part of the Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts, based at the time in Clapham in south London, which she left at the age of fifteen.
She is part of an acting family; Sawalha 's father Nadim appeared in the James Bond movies The Spy Who Loved Me and The Living Daylights, while her sister Nadia starred in the soap EastEnders and is now a television presenter and chat show host with whom she has appeared on Lily Savage 's Blankety Blank.
Sawalha made her debut in the 1982 BBC miniseries Fame Is the Spur and in 1988, played a small role in Inspector Morse on the episode "Last Seen Wearing ''. She first gained attention for her starring role in the Bafta award - winning ITV teenage comedy - drama Press Gang, which ran from 1989 to 1993.
In 1992 she starred in episode "Parade '' (S2 E4) of Bottom as Veronica Head, a beautiful young barmaid at the Lamb and Flag, whom Richie tries to woo by boasting of his false adventures in the Falklands.
From 1991 -- 94, she starred in the ITV family comedy Second Thoughts and continued with her character, Hannah (Lynda Bellingham 's daughter), in the British Comedy Award - winning Faith in the Future (1995 -- 98). In 1994, she played Mercy (Merry) Pecksniff in the BBC production of Martin Chuzzlewit.
From 1992 to 2012, Sawalha played strait - laced daughter Saffron Monsoon in the BBC sitcom Absolutely Fabulous alongside Jennifer Saunders and Joanna Lumley. She appeared in the 1995 BBC adaptation of Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice as Lydia Bennet, with Jennifer Ehle and Colin Firth. She voiced Ginger in DreamWorks / Aardman 's Chicken Run. She also played "Dawn the Wise Man '' in The Flint Street Nativity on Christmas Eve.
In 2000 she appeared as Janet, the Australian barmaid ("Built for bar work; it 's instinct... instinct!! '') in the first series of the British sitcom Time Gentlemen Please. She also played the much put - upon PA to "Zak '' in Argos TV adverts during 2002 -- 2004, along with Richard E. Grant. She has also joined actor Ioan Gruffudd in the internationally successful TV adaptations of C.S. Forester 's Horatio Hornblower novels, as the captain 's wife Maria. The following year, she became Alan Davies 's co-star in Jonathan Creek after Caroline Quentin left, appearing in a Christmas Special ("Satan 's Chimney ''). She returned for a series between 2003 -- 2004.
In 2006, she participated in the third series of the genealogy documentary series Who Do You Think You Are? tracing her family 's roots, which are Jordanian Bedouin on her father 's side, and French Huguenot on her mother 's. She also appeared in the pilot of BBC 1 's A Taste of my Life presented by Nigel Slater. After a two - year break, she was back on screen in May 2007, competing in the BBC dog training celebrity reality show The Underdog Show. She then returned to acting in two successive BBC costume dramas; as Jessie Brown in 2007 series Cranford, followed by Lark Rise to Candleford in 2008. She provided the voice acting for Sister Hannah (a.k.a. "Hammer ''), a main character in the 2008 Xbox 360 video game Fable II. In autumn 2014, Julia played the part of Jan Ward in BBC One 's thriller miniseries Remember Me, featuring Michael Palin. On 9 May 2015 she read the account of a member of the Women 's Land Army at VE Day 70: A Party to Remember in Horse Guards Parade, London that was broadcast live on BBC1.
Sawalha lived with Press Gang co-star Dexter Fletcher, and subsequently comedian Richard Herring. She also had a relationship with Patrick Marber. She had an affair with Keith Allen, whom she met on the set of Martin Chuzzlewit.
On 1 January 2004, it was alleged in the tabloid newspapers that she had married boyfriend Alan Davies, her co-star in the television series Jonathan Creek. Both she and Davies, who avoided discussing their private lives in public, denied this, and took legal action against the reports.
After she met Rich Annetts at the Glastonbury Festival in 2005, the couple moved to Bath, Somerset, and lived in a flat close to the Royal Crescent. Sawalha started growing her own vegetables, attending yoga lessons and studying for an Open University English degree. Sawalha and Annetts have since split up.
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what's the percentage of canadian hockey players in the nhl | Race and ethnicity in the NHL - Wikipedia
The National Hockey League evolved from a mono - ethnic and primarily Canadian professional athletic league to span North America. The distribution of ethnic groups has been gradually changing since the inception of the NHL. The league consists of a variety of players from varying nationalities and diverse backgrounds. Once known as a league riddled with racism and exclusiveness, the NHL has made positive steps toward a more diverse and inclusive institution.
According to statistics, gathered by www.quanthockey.com, the NHL began its expansion of player nationalities in the 1970s, where players hailed from the United States, Sweden, and Finland. The share of Canadians in the league dropped to 75 % by the 1980s and is now slightly less than 50 %. In 2011, the NHL was composed of 93 percent of players who identified as white, with the remaining 7 percent identifying as varying ethnicities.
A number of ice hockey leagues for players of African descent formed in Canada as early as the late - 19th century. The Coloured Hockey League was an all - black ice hockey league established in 1895. Operating across the Maritime provinces of Canada, the league operated for several decades until 1930.
Although other ice hockey leagues saw integration in the early 20th century (including the Quebec Senior Hockey League), the NHL did not see its first non-white player until March 13, 1948, when Larry Kwong broke the NHL 's colour barrier playing with the New York Rangers. Born in Vernon, British Columbia, Kwong was a Chinese Canadian of Cantonese descent. In 1953, Fred Sasakamoose was the first Cree NHL player, and the first Canadian indigenous player in the NHL, debuting with the Chicago Black Hawks. On January 18, 1958, Willie O'Ree became the first Black Canadian to play in the NHL. Playing with the Boston Bruins, he was also the first NHL player of African - descent.
Val James was the first African American player to play in the NHL. James signed his contract with the Buffalo Sabres in 1982. His stint with the Buffalo Sabres and Toronto Maple Leafs were short lived and he eventually retired in 1987 due to injury. He experienced racism as the first player throughout his skating career. He never spoke of racism on the ice until 30 years after his career ended. In his account, he reported he could not watch hockey games for 10 years after leaving the ice without being haunted by the memories of his treatment as a man of color in the NHL. His hostile experiences were and continue to be representative of how institutional racism permeates the culture and socialization of men (and women) sports. A biography of his life in the sport was published under the title Black Ice: The Val James Story written by John Gallagher. The number of black NHL players moved to 26 by the end of the 20th century and sat at 32 in 2016. This is a seemingly minor yet significant change in the racial demographic of the NHL in its hundred - year history.
In addition to black and white players, other races and ethnicities represented in the NHL (in the 2017 -- 18 season) include players of Middle Eastern - descent (including Brandon Saad, Justin Abdelkader, Mika Zibanejad, and Nazem Kadri), players of Latino - descent (including Al Montoya, Auston Matthews, Max Pacioretty, and Raffi Torres), and players of Asian - descent (including Kailer Yamamoto, and Matthew Dumba).
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who won the oscar for best actress in 1987 | 59th Academy Awards - wikipedia
The 59th Academy Awards ceremony, organized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), took place on March 30, 1987, at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles beginning at 6: 00 p.m. PST / 9: 00 p.m. EST. During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 23 categories honoring films released in 1986. The ceremony, televised in the United States by ABC, was produced by Samuel Goldwyn Jr. and directed by Marty Pasetta. Actors Chevy Chase, Paul Hogan, and Goldie Hawn co-hosted the show. Hawn hosted the gala for the second time, having previously been a co-host of the 48th ceremony held in 1976. Meanwhile, this was Chase and Hogan 's first Oscars hosting stint. Eight days earlier, in a ceremony held at The Beverly Hilton in Beverly Hills, California on March 22, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Catherine Hicks.
Platoon won four awards including Best Picture. Other winners included Hannah and Her Sisters and A Room with a View with three awards, Aliens with two awards, and Artie Shaw: Time Is All You 've Got, The Assault, Children of a Lesser God, The Color of Money, Down and Out in America, The Fly, A Greek Tragedy, The Mission, Precious Images, Round Midnight, Top Gun, and Women -- for America, for the World with one.
The nominees for the 59th Academy Awards were announced on February 11, 1987, at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California, by Robert Wise, president of the Academy, actor Don Ameche, and actress Anjelica Huston. Platoon and A Room with a View led all nominees with eight each.
The winners were announced during the awards ceremony on March 30, 1987. Marlee Matlin was the first deaf performer to win an Oscar and the youngest winner in the Best Actress category. Best Actor winner Paul Newman was the fourth actor to have been nominated for portraying the same character in two different films, having previously earned a nomination for his role as "Fast Eddie '' Felson in 1961 's The Hustler. By virtue of his victory in the Best Actor category, Newman and wife Joanne Woodward, who won Best Actress for her performance in 1957 's The Three Faces of Eve, became the second married couple to win acting Oscars. Artie Shaw: Time Is All You 've Got and Down and Out in America 's joint win in the Best Documentary Feature category marked the fourth occurrence of a tie in Oscar history.
Winners are listed first, highlighted in boldface and indicated with a double dagger ().
The following 15 films had multiple nominations:
The following four films received multiple awards.
The following individuals presented awards or performed musical numbers.
Determined to revive interest surrounding the awards and reverse declining ratings, the Academy hired Samuel Goldwyn Jr. in November 1986 to produce the telecast for the first time. The following March, Goldwyn announced that comedian Chevy Chase, actress and Academy Award winner Goldie Hawn, and actor and Best Original Screenplay nominee Paul Hogan would share co-hosting duties for the 1987 ceremony. Actor Robin Williams was initially named a co-host, but he was forced to withdraw from emceeing duties due to his commitment toward his role in the upcoming film Good Morning, Vietnam.
One of the biggest priorities for Goldwyn was to shorten the length of the show to at least three hours or less. In view of his goal, he told reporters regarding winner 's acceptance speeches, "We are actually going to give them 45 seconds. The light (next to the camera) will start blinking at 45 seconds and go red at 55 seconds. After one minute we will either cut to a commercial or go to something else. We 've also asked multiple winners to flip a coin and pick a spokesman. '' Furthermore, instead of each Best Original Song nominee being performed separately, all five songs were performed as part of a musical number featuring actress Bernadette Peters singing brief introductions to each one. Although Goldwyn attempted to move the Documentary and Short Film Categories to a separate ceremony from the broadcast, the AMPAS Board of Governors refused to do so.
Several other people were involved with the production of the ceremony. Oscar - winning costume designer Theoni V. Aldredge was hired as fashion consultant for the awards ceremony and supervised a "fashion show '' segment showcasing the five nominees for Best Costume Design. Lionel Newman served as musical director and conductor for the ceremony. Actors Dom DeLuise, Pat Morita, and Telly Savalas performed the song "Fugue for Tinhorns '' from the musical Guys and Dolls at the start of the ceremony.
At the time of the nominations announcement on February 11, the combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees at the US box office was $119 million with an average of $23.9 million. Platoon was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $39.3 million in the domestic box office receipts. The film was followed by Hannah and Her Sisters ($35.4 million), Children of a Lesser God ($22.1 million), A Room with a View ($11.5 million), and The Mission ($11.1 million).
Of the 50 grossing movies of the year, 55 nominations went to 18 films on the list. Only Crocodile Dundee (2nd), Aliens (6th), The Color of Money (11th), Stand By Me (12th), Peggy Sue Got Married (18th), Platoon (23rd), Hannah and Her Sisters (29th), The Morning After (38th), The Color of Money (40th), and Crimes of the Heart (43rd) were nominated for Best Picture, directing, acting, or screenplay. The other top 50 box office hits that earned nominations were Top Gun (1st), The Karate Kid Part II (3rd), Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (4th), An American Tail (5th), Heartbreak Ridge (17th), Poltergeist II: The Other Side (19th), The Fly (22nd), and Little Shop of Horrors (30th).
The show received a mixed reception from media publications. Some media outlets were more critical of the show. Columnist Jerry Roberts of the Daily Breeze remarked "The whole mess was like some kind of geek show from a carnival row that had incestuously multiplied itself into a gargantuan sequin - lined ego battle royal accompanied by a firestorm of ballyhooing. '' Despite Chase and Hawn 's best efforts to liven up the broadcast, he commented, "The lumbering procedure completely defeated them. '' Television critic Tom Shales of The Washington Post wrote, "As usual, the Academy Awards show was marked by missed cues, noisy moving scenery, plunging necklines, inane scripted chatter and, as has often happened in recent years, few galvanizing or gratifying surprises. '' He also quipped that the segment showcasing the Best Costume Design nominees slowed down the ceremony 's pace. The Philadelphia Inquirer 's film critic Carrie Rickey observed, "As pace goes, the Academy Awards show was like watching a race between slugs and snails. '' She later wrote, "Oscarsclerosis is the show 's most critical condition, the result of a telecast larded, once again, with too many Vegas - style production numbers. ''
Other media outlets received the broadcast more positively. Film critic John Hartl of The Seattle Times noted that the ceremony "was well - paced and filled with comics and comic film clips. '' He also complimented producer Goldwyn for hiring comics including host Chase and presenters such as Rodney Dangerfield for helping "to keep the show light and funny. '' The New York Times columnist Janet Maslin wrote, "This was the trimmest, most varied and best - paced program in years. '' She also commented that without the witty banter of hosts Hogan and Chase, "The show would have seemed notably lacking in luster. '' Television editor Michael Burkett of the Orange County Register commented, "Monday night 's 59th installment was very nearly everything you could have wished it to be: quite entertaining, relatively fast - moving, unusually short on tastelessness and tackiness drenched in nostalgia, and featuring enough superbly chosen film clips for a monster round of Visual Trivial Pursuit.
The American telecast on ABC drew in an average of 37.19 million people over its length, which was a 2 % decrease from the previous year 's ceremony. However, the show drew higher Nielsen ratings compared to the previous ceremony with 27.5 % of households watching over a 43 share. Many media outlets pointed out that the broadcast earned higher ratings compared to the final game of the 1987 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament which was airing on CBS that same night.
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how to become a canadian forces clearance diver | Canadian armed forces Divers - wikipedia
Underwater divers employed by any of the Canadian armed forces
Canadian Forces diving is performed by units of the maritime, land, and air environmental commands (ECs), the Experimental Diving and Undersea Group (EDU Grp), and Special Operations Forces (SOF). Divers can be trained as Clearance Divers (CL Diver), Search and Rescue Technicians (SAR), Port Inspection Divers (PID), Ship 's Team Divers, and Combat Divers.
Royal Canadian Navy Clearance Divers are trained to conduct a wide variety of diving operations. These include the use of traditional open circuit (SCUBA) diving equipment, lightweight portable surface supplied diving systems, commercial grade mixed gas surface supplied diving systems, mixed gas rebreather systems (such as the CCDA and CUMA sets) as well as fixed and portable hyperbaric chambers.
Canada currently has two operational diving units from which RCN Clearance Diving Officers, Clearance Divers and Port Inspection Divers perform a variety of core capabilities, as outlined in their Naval Diving Operational Concept of Employment (ND OCE) terms of reference. These core capabilities are:
They also perform a number of secondary or support functions to these core capabilities include but are not limited to:
The two operational naval diving units are:
The Royal Canadian Clearance Diver motto is "Strength in depth ''.
Clearance Diving Officers and Divers also serve at:
Royal Canadian Navy Clearance Divers ' Prayer
On 30 April 2015 the RCN Clearance Diving Branch adopted the following prayer as their official branch prayer. The prayer was originally written by Padre David Jackson, the unit chaplain of Fleet Diving Unit Atlantic, for the occasion of the 60th Anniversary of the RCN Clearance Diving Branch. The prayer is based on Psalm 146: 6 & 139: 9 - 10 and also incorporates the branch motto "Strength in Depth ''.
(See Professional diving.)
History. Diving in the Canadian Army began in the 1960s when, as a result of the introduction of amphibious vehicles, it was essential to provide a diving capability to the safety organization for the swimming of the vehicles. Amphibious operations also required a better capability for the underwater reconnaissance of crossing sites. Following trials in 1966, diving sections were established in engineer units in 1969. Once the diving capability was established, additional tasks were added to make combat diving an extension of combat engineering into the water. Other tasks such as obstacle construction and breaching, employing and detecting landmines and limited underwater construction were added to the safety standby and reconnaissance tasks.
General Description. Combat divers provide the Army with the capability of performing combat engineer tasks underwater. They generally conduct tasks as part of the combined arms team; however, if required, they have the ability to execute tasks independently. Combat divers are combat engineers who perform combat diving as a secondary duty. They are grouped into mission - specific teams when a task is identified and ordered, to support operations.
Niche area. Combat divers do the majority of their work on inland waterways, either on the surface or beneath the water with breathing apparatus. They usually work close to shorelines and riverbanks because that is where the rest of the army will be conducting operations. At times the combat divers will work in salt water to support Army operations. In some circumstances, combat divers can be used to conduct reconnaissance in the face of enemy forces. They would be doing this reconnaissance with the support of the manoeuvre forces, which could assist the dive team with observation and suppressive fire.
Canada 's Combat Divers are an Occupation Sub-Specialization (OSS) in its Army Combat Engineer Regiments.
Training. Each of the four dive teams, one located in each of the Canadian army engineer regiments, conducts an intense preliminary selection course (typically two weeks in length) to select combat diver candidates for training. Successful candidates then proceed to a Fleet Diving Unit to begin initial dive training, and then proceed to the Army Dive Center at the Combat Training Center to complete the remainder of Combat Diver training. Once this training is completed, combat divers must dive at least once every ninety days in order to maintain their diving currency.
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where are the socceroos ranked in the world | Australia national soccer team - Wikipedia
The Australian national soccer team represents Australia in international men 's soccer. Officially nicknamed the Socceroos, sometimes just referred to as "The Roos '', the team is controlled by the governing body for soccer in Australia, Football Federation Australia (FFA), which is currently a member of the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) and the regional ASEAN Football Federation (AFF) since leaving the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) in 2006.
Australia is the only national team to have been a champion of two confederations, having won the OFC Nations Cup four times between 1980 and 2004, as well as the AFC Asian Cup at the 2015 event on home soil. The team has represented Australia at the FIFA World Cup tournament on four occasions, in 1974, 2006, 2010 and 2014. The team has also represented Australia at the FIFA Confederations Cup four times.
The first Australia national team was constituted in 1922 for a tour of New Zealand., which included two defeats and a draw. For the next 36 years, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa became regular opponents in tour (exhibition) matches. During that period, Australia also competed against Canada and India during their tours of Australia in 1924 and 1938 respectively. Australia recorded their worst ever defeat on 30 June 1951 as they lost 17 -- 0 in a match to a touring England side. Australia had a rare opportunity to compete on the world 's stage during the team 's very first major international tournament as hosts of the 1956 Melbourne Olympics. However, an inexperienced squad proved to be reason for the team 's disappointing performance. With the advent of cheap air travel, Australia began to diversify its range of opponents. However, its geographical isolation continued to play a role in its destiny for the next 30 years.
After failing to qualify for the FIFA World Cup in 1966 and 1970, losing in play - offs to North Korea and Israel respectively, Australia finally appeared at their first World Cup in West Germany, 1974. After managing only a draw from Chile and losses from East Germany and West Germany, the team which was made up of mostly amateur players was eliminated at the end of the first round, finishing last in their group without scoring a goal. It would prove to be the only appearance for the Australian team until the World Cup tournament returned to Germany more than three decades later in 2006. Over a 40 - year period, the Australian team was known for its near misses in its attempts to qualify for the World Cup; they lost play - offs in 1966 to North Korea, 1970 to Israel, 1986 to Scotland, 1994 to Argentina, 1998 to Iran and 2002 to Uruguay.
The team 's previously poor record in World Cup competition was not reflected in their reasonable performances against strong European and South American sides. In 1988, Australia defeated reigning world champions Argentina 4 -- 1 in the Australian Bicentennial Gold Cup. In 1997, Australia drew with reigning world champions Brazil 0 -- 0 in the group stage and then defeated Uruguay 1 -- 0 in the semi-finals to reach the 1997 FIFA Confederations Cup Final. In 2001, after a victory against reigning world champions France in the group stage, Australia finished the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup in third place after defeating Brazil 1 -- 0 in the third - place decider. Australia defeated England 3 -- 1 at Upton Park in 2003.
In early 2005, it was reported that Football Federation Australia had entered into discussions to join the Asian Football Confederation (AFA) and end an almost 40 - year association with the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC). Many commentators and fans, most notably soccer broadcaster and former Australian captain Johnny Warren, felt that the only way for Australia to progress was to abandon Oceania. On 13 March, the AFC executive committee made a unanimous decision to invite Australia to join the AFC. After the OFC executive committee unanimously endorsed Australia 's proposed move, FIFA approved the move on 30 June 2005. Australia joined Asia, with the move taking effect on 1 January 2006, though until then, Australia had to compete for a 2006 World Cup position as an OFC member country.
After a successful campaign, the team took the first steps towards qualification for the 2006 World Cup. After coach Frank Farina stood down from the position after Australia 's dismal performance at the 2005 Confederations Cup, Guus Hiddink was announced as the new national coach. Australia, ranked 49th, would then have to play the 18th ranked Uruguay in a rematch of the 2001 qualification play - off for a spot in the 2006 World Cup. After a successful friendly match against Jamaica (Australia 's biggest high - profile win: 5 -- 0), the first leg of the play - off tournament was lost (1 -- 0), with the return leg still to be played in Australia four days later in Sydney on 16 November 2005.
The second leg of the qualifying play - off was played in front of a crowd of 82,698 at Stadium Australia. Australia led Uruguay 1 -- 0 after 90 minutes following a goal by Mark Bresciano in the first half. The aggregate was tied, and extra time was played. Neither team scored after two periods of extra time, bringing the game to a penalty shootout. Australia won the penalty shootout (4 -- 2), making Australia the first ever team to qualify for a World Cup via a penalty shootout. Australian goalkeeper Mark Schwarzer made two saves, with John Aloisi scoring the winning penalty for a place in the World Cup, Australia 's first qualification in 32 years.
Australia went into the 2006 World Cup as the second lowest - ranked side. Although their ranking vastly improved in subsequent months after a series of exhibition matches against high - profile teams, including a 1 -- 1 draw against the Netherlands, and a 1 -- 0 win at the sold out 100,000 capacity Melbourne Cricket Ground against the then European Champions Greece.
For the 2006 World Cup, Australia was placed into Group F, along with Japan, Croatia and defending champions Brazil. In their opening group game, Australia defeated Japan 3 -- 1, with Tim Cahill scoring two goals (84 ', 89 ') and John Aloisi scoring one (90 + 2 ') in the last eight minutes. Their goals made history, being the first ever scored by Australia 's men 's soccer team in a World Cup, as well as all three goals being scored in the last seven minutes of the game, which was never before done in a World Cup match. Australia met Brazil in their second group game, which Australia lost to Brazil 2 -- 0. Australia faced Croatia in their third match. The final score (2 -- 2) was enough to see Australia proceed to the knockout stage, where they were eliminated from the competition after a 1 -- 0 defeat by the eventual champions Italy after conceding a controversial penalty in the 93rd minute. The loss marked the official end of Hiddink 's tenure as Australia 's national coach. The success achieved at the 2006 World Cup later saw the team named AFC National Team of the Year, as well as being dubbed the "golden generation '' in the history of the Socceroos.
Led by coach Graham Arnold, Australia went to their first Asian Cup in 2007, sending a strong squad which included 15 players from the previous year 's World Cup team. In Group A they played against Oman (1 -- 1 draw), Thailand (4 -- 0 win) and eventual champions Iraq (3 -- 1 loss), assuring Australia 's progression to the quarter final stage of the tournament. Though after drawing 1 -- 1 with Japan after extra time, Australia exited the tournament on penalties at the quarter - final stage. An international friendly on 11 September 2007 against Argentina (1 -- 0 loss) was Graham Arnold 's last game as head coach, with the position eventually being filled by Pim Verbeek on 6 December 2007.
Australia began their 2010 World Cup campaign in the third round of qualification, drawn into a group, composed of Qatar, Iraq and China PR, in which Australia finished first. Australia eventually saw progression through to the 2010 World Cup after comfortably winning the fourth round of qualification in a group consisting of Japan, Bahrain, Qatar and Uzbekistan. Australia 's qualification was already assured before the final two games, finally topping its group ahead of Japan by five points.
Australia were drawn into Group D in the 2010 FIFA World Cup, which featured three - time world champion Germany, Ghana and Serbia. On 14 June 2010, Australia faced Germany. Pim Verbeek 's surprising decision to play without a recognised striker saw Australia comprehensively defeated 4 -- 0. Verbeek received heavy criticism for his tactics, with SBS (Australia 's World Cup broadcaster) chief soccer analyst Craig Foster calling for his immediate sacking. Australia 's second group match against Ghana resulted in a draw of 1 -- 1, and their third and final group match against Serbia resulted in a 2 -- 1 win. Ultimately Australia 's heavy loss to Germany saw them eliminated in group stage. Pim Verbeek completed his term as Australian coach at the end of the 2010 World Cup and was soon replaced by Holger Osieck.
In 2010, Australia qualified for their second AFC Asian Cup, topping their qualification group. A successful campaign at the 2011 AFC Asian Cup saw Australia become runners - up to Japan, after losing in the Final 1 -- 0 in extra time.
In 2012, Australia agreed to compete in the East Asian Cup. Australia travelled to Hong Kong to compete in a series of qualification matches with the hopes of qualifying for the 2013 East Asian Cup. Despite handing several debuts and fielding an in - experienced squad, Australia was successful, finishing ahead of Hong Kong, North Korea, Guam and Chinese Taipei to progress to the 2013 East Asian Cup, where Australia eventually finished last behind Japan, South Korea and China PR. On 26 August 2013, Australia became full members of the ASEAN Football Federation sub-confederation.
Australia 's 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification began with a series of friendlies against the United Arab Emirates (0 -- 0), Germany (1 -- 2 win), New Zealand (3 -- 0 win), Serbia (0 -- 0) and Wales (1 -- 2 win). Australia 's World Cup campaign started in the third round of qualification, with Australia topping their group to progress to the fourth round. After winning their last fourth round - game, Australia finished as runners - up in their group, qualifying for the 2014 FIFA World Cup on 18 June 2013.
Shortly after achieving qualification to the World Cup, Australia played a series of friendly matches against Brazil and France, suffering consecutive 6 -- 0 defeats. This along with previous poor performances during the 2014 World Cup qualification campaign resulted in manager Holger Osieck 's sacking, bringing his four - year tenure as Australia 's manager to an end.
After a two - week search for a new manager, Ange Postecoglou was eventually appointed in the position. Postecoglou was tasked with regenerating the Australian national team, which was deemed to have been too reliant on members of their Golden Generation of 2006, subsequently leading to a stagnation of results, culminating in successive 6 -- 0 defeats to Brazil and France. In his first game as Australia 's manager, a home friendly match against Costa Rica, Australia won 1 -- 0 courtesy of a goal from Tim Cahill.
For the 2014 World Cup, Australia were drawn in Group B alongside reigning Cup holders Spain, 2010 runners - up Netherlands and Chile. Their first match was off to a lacklustre start, having conceded two goals in the opening 15 minutes from Alexis Sánchez and Jorge Valdivia. Despite a goal from Tim Cahill that inspired a late resurgence from Postecoglou 's team, they ultimately lost to Chile 3 -- 1. Their second match against the Netherlands was a close one, but their efforts ended in a 3 -- 2 loss, thus earning their early exit along with the Spanish team. Australian fans praised the team for their outstanding efforts in a tough group. In the end, Australia finished Group B with a third, consecutive defeat to former world champions Spain, 3 -- 0. Australia 's competitive World Cup performances in a difficult group lead to belief that a new Golden Generation was about to begin.
In their first international match proceeding the World Cup, Australia played World Cup quarter - finalists Belgium in Liège, with Australia going down 2 -- 0. Four days later, Australia achieved their first international win in ten months, and just their second win under Ange Postecoglou, with a 3 -- 2 victory of Saudi Arabia in London. After drawing against the United Arab Emirates, and suffering successive losses against Qatar and Japan, combined with previous poor results earlier in the year, saw Australia slip to 94 and 102 in the FIFA World Rankings, their lowest ever ranking.
The new year saw Australia host the 2015 AFC Asian Cup, with the team making their third consecutive appearance in the tournament. Australia won their first two group matches against Kuwait and Oman comfortably, with scorelines of 4 -- 1 and 4 -- 0 respectively. This guaranteed their qualification for the knockout stage, despite losing their final group match against South Korea in Brisbane 1 -- 0. They faced China PR in the quarter - finals and won 2 -- 0, courtesy of a second - half brace from Tim Cahill. In the semi-finals, Australia won 2 -- 0 over United Arab Emirates and advanced to the final for the second time in row. They faced South Korea in the final on 31 January at Stadium Australia, winning 2 -- 1 after extra time to claim their first Asian title and qualify for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup.
Following the Asian Cup Victory, the team travelled to Europe for friendly matches, drawing 2 -- 2 with defending World Champions Germany and 0 -- 0 with Macedonia.
Following the Asian Cup triumph, Australia went into the 2018 World Cup qualification, drawn in a group with Jordan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Bangladesh.
They began the qualifying group with an away match against Kyrgyzstan in Bishkek, where they achieved a 2 -- 1 win. In their first home match of the campaign, they beat Bangladesh 5 -- 0 at nib Stadium. After that, they played against Tajikistan in Dushanbe, winning comfortably 3 -- 0 with Tim Cahill scoring a brace. They blotted their perfect record with a loss 2 -- 0 to Jordan. However, they had managed a good comeback from behind, winning their last 4 matches in the group, including a 5 -- 1 win against Jordan at home.
In the 3rd round of qualifying Australia was drawn in a group with Japan, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iraq and Thailand. They started strongly with a 2 -- 0 victory at home to Iraq in Perth in September 2016. Only days later they managed to triumph a strong UAE side away from home resulting in a 0 -- 1 win putting them top of the group. This was followed by four consecutive draws against Saudi Arabia, Japan, Thailand and Iraq. Next were two home wins against UAE and Saudi Arabia, with the latter win consolidating Australia 's position of 3rd in Group B. Their next game against Japan conceded in a 2 -- 0 defeat keeping their 3rd position behind Japan and Saudi Arabia. They then went on to defeat Thailand 2 -- 1 at AAMI Park, however Saudi Arabia later beat group - leaders Japan 1 -- 0 in Saudi Arabia to secure automatic qualification to Russia, leaving Australia in 3rd place due to a better goal - difference. Australia then beat Syria in the AFC play - offs.
Australian matches are broadcast by subscription sports network Fox Sports and in 2017 by free - to - air network Nine on its 9Go! channel. Previous coverage has been extensively provided by SBS. The national team having set multiple ratings records for both subscription and free - to - air television. Australia 's final 2006 World Cup qualifying match against Uruguay was the highest rating program in SBS history with an audience of 3.4 million viewers, while a 2010 World Cup qualifying match against Uzbekistan set a record for the highest subscription television audience, with an average of 431,000 viewers. The 2015 Asian Cup Final against South Korea had a total reach of 5.3 million Australians overall.
Australia 's first kit was sky blue with a maroon hoop on the socks, the colours representing the states of New South Wales and Queensland. A look that was reminiscent of the Australian national rugby league team 's strips of the period. They wore the predominantly light blue kit until 1924 when they changed to green and gold.
Australia have worn a yellow jersey, usually accompanied by green shorts, and yellow socks since the 1960s. The colour of the socks has altered throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s from white to the same green as the shorts to the same yellow colour as the jersey. Their current away kit is a dark blue jersey accompanied by dark blue shorts and socks. Australia 's kits have been produced by manufacturers including Umbro, Adidas, KingRoo (from 1990 until 1993), Adidas again (from 1994 until January 2004) and recently Nike (since February 2004).
Rather than displaying the logo of Football Federation Australia, Australia 's jersey traditionally features the coat of arms of Australia over the left breast. The team first wore the traditional green and yellow colours in 1924. Australia 's 1974 World Cup kits were produced by Adidas as were all other national team kits in the tournament, with Adidas sponsoring the event. The kits, however, contained Umbro branding, due to the manufacturer 's Australian partnership at the time. Nike renewed the kit manufacturer deal with FFA for another 11 years in 2012, handing them the rights to make national team kits until 2022. In the lead - up to the 2014 World Cup, the new kits to be worn by the team were revealed. The design of the new kits included a plain yellow shirt with a green collar, plain dark green shorts and white socks, a tribute to the 1974 Socceroos. Inside the back of the neck also had woven the quote, "We Socceroos can do the impossible '', from Peter Wilson, the captain of the 1974 Australian team. This kit was well received. In March 2016, FFA revealed the new Socceroos kit, which featured a yellow jersey, yellow shorts and green socks. This was reportedly in accordance with a FIFA directive, instructing all national teams to have matching shirts and shorts. This kit was met with wide public contention, primarily due to the colour change of the shorts from the traditional green to yellow.
Australia 's nickname, "Socceroos '', was coined in 1967 by Sydney journalist Tony Horstead in his coverage of the team on a goodwill tour to South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. It is commonly used by both the Australian people and the governing body, the FFA. The nickname represents a cultural propensity for the use of colloquialisms in the country. It also represents the Australian English use of the sport 's name.
The name itself is similar to most other Australian national representative sporting team nicknames; used informally when referring to the team, in the media or in conversation. Similarly, the name is derived from a well - known symbol of Australia, in this case the kangaroo. The words soccer and kangaroo are combined into a portmanteau word as soccer - roo; such as Olyroos for the Australia Olympic soccer team.
Australia 's long time rivals are trans - Tasman neighbours New Zealand. The two teams ' history dates back to 1922, where they first met in both their international debuts. The rivalry between the Socceroos and the All Whites (New Zealand) is part of a wider friendly rivalry between the neighbours Australia and New Zealand, which applies not only to sport but to the culture of the two countries. The rivalry was intensified when Australia and New Zealand were both members of the OFC, regularly competing in OFC Nations Cup finals and in FIFA World Cup qualifications, where only one team from the OFC progressed to the World Cup. Since Australia left the OFC to join the AFC in 2006, competition between the two teams has been less frequent. However, the rivalry between the two teams is still strong, with the occasional match receiving much media and public attention.
After joining the AFC, Australia began to develop a fierce rivalry with fellow Asian powerhouse Japan. The rivalry began at the 2006 World Cup, where the two countries were grouped together. The rivalry continued with the two countries meeting regularly in various AFC competitions including the 2011 Asian Cup final and qualification for the World Cups of 2010, 2014 and 2018.
The main supporter group of the Australian national team is Socceroos Active Support (SAS). SAS was founded in January 2015 as an independent group, who uses social media to organise and keep in touch. This replaced the former active support group Terrace Australis, who were founded by Football Federation Australia and fans in 2013, during Australia 's 2014 World Cup qualification campaign. Its establishment came in the wake of poor off - field action and minimal community engagement. Previously, the emergence of Terrace Australis saw the Green and Gold Army relinquish its role as a hub for active support, which it had claimed since its establishment in 2001. Since the 2015 AFC Asian Cup triumph, the supporters had encouraged people in Australia to focus more on the national team, and the nation 's soccer pride.
Australia does not have a dedicated national stadium, instead the team plays at different venues throughout the country for exhibition or tournament purposes. In recent years, major international matches have usually been rotated around various large grounds, include Stadium Australia and Sydney Football Stadium in Sydney, Hunter Stadium in Newcastle, Docklands Stadium in Melbourne and Lang Park in Brisbane. International matches have also been played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground and Melbourne Rectangular Stadium in Melbourne, Hindmarsh Stadium and Adelaide Oval in Adelaide, Subiaco Oval in Perth and Canberra Stadium in Canberra.
Australia historically played at the Gabba in Brisbane, which hosted Australia 's first international match on home - soil on 9 June 1923. Other historic venues which regularly hosted international home matches include Olympic Park Stadium in Melbourne as well as the Sydney Cricket Ground, Sydney Sports Ground and Sydney Showground.
Australia has also played several "home '' games previously at Craven Cottage in Fulham (Fulham Football Club 's home ground), and Loftus Road, Shepherd 's Bush (Queens Park Rangers ' home ground), owing to the fact there is a large Australian expatriate community in West London, and that a high proportion of the senior team play in European leagues.
The following 25 players were named in the squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification matches against Honduras on 10 and 15 November 2017. Caps and goals correct as of 10 October 2017 after the game against Syria.
The following players have also been called up to the Australia squad within the last 12 months.
The following matches were played or are scheduled to be played in the current or upcoming seasons.
Mark Schwarzer holds the record for most Australia appearances with 109. Tim Cahill is second place with 103 caps, followed by Lucas Neill with 96 caps and Brett Emerton with 95 caps.
Tim Cahill is Australia 's highest goalscorer, with 50 goals since his first appearance for Australia in March 2004. Damian Mori (29 goals) and Archie Thompson (28 goals) complete the top three.
Australia currently hold the world record for the largest win and the most goals scored by a player in an international match. Both records were achieved during the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification match against American Samoa on 11 April 2001. Australia won 31 -- 0 with Archie Thompson scoring 13 goals and David Zdrilic scoring 8. Two days before the 31 -- 0 win, Australia broke the record for largest win with a 22 -- 0 win over Tonga. With 13 and 8 goals respectively, both Thompson and Zdrilic broke the previous record jointly held by another Australian, Gary Cole, who scored seven goals against Fiji in 1981, and Iranian Karim Bagheri, who also scored seven goals against Maldives in 1997.
1956: South Korea 1960: South Korea 1964: Israel 1968: Iran
1972: Iran 1976: Iran 1980: Kuwait 1984: Saudi Arabia
1988: Saudi Arabia 1992: Japan 1996: Saudi Arabia 2000: Japan
2004: Japan 2007: Iraq 2011: Japan 2015: Australia
1973: New Zealand 1980: Australia 1996: Australia
1998: New Zealand 2000: Australia 2002: New Zealand
2004: Australia 2008: New Zealand 2012: Tahiti
2016: New Zealand
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who sings you're the one that i want in grease | You 're the One That I Want - wikipedia
"You 're the One That I Want '' is a song written by John Farrar for the 1978 film version of the musical Grease. It was performed by John Travolta and Olivia Newton - John. It is one of the best - selling singles of all time, having sold over 6 million copies among the United States, the United Kingdom, and France alone, with estimates of more than 15 million copies sold overall.
"You 're the One That I Want '' was one of the two singles Farrar wrote specifically for Newton - John 's appearance in the film that had not been in the original stage musical, the other being "Hopelessly Devoted to You. '' Randal Kleiser, the film 's director, was not fond of this song because he felt that it did not mesh well with the rest of the Warren Casey - Jim Jacobs score.
Danny Zuko (Travolta), leader of the T - Birds, has recently lettered in cross-country running in an effort to win back his estranged girlfriend Sandy (Newton - John); unbeknownst to him, Sandy, who has been conflicted about her upright and proper etiquette in a school full of brash greasers, has herself transformed into a greaser queen to win Danny back. In the song, Danny expresses pleasant shock and arousal at Sandy 's transformation, with Sandy responding that Danny must "shape up '' to prove himself capable of treating Sandy the right way.
The song originally written at this point in the original musical, "All Choked Up, '' was similar in theme, but different in style, written as a pastiche of Elvis Presley 's "All Shook Up '' and with Sandy being more provocative. "All Choked Up '' was one of two songs from the Jacobs / Casey score that was excised completely from both the film and the film 's soundtrack. Most 21st - century performances of the musical also include "You 're the One That I Want '' instead of "All Choked Up. ''
Upon its release in conjunction with the film (and its status as a potential blockbuster worldwide), the single became a huge international hit, reaching number 1 in several countries.
In the U.S. the single reached # 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and on July 18 was certified Platinum for shipments exceeding 2 million copies. (It was already Gold by April 12.)
It also topped the UK Singles Chart for nine weeks in the summer of 1978, some months before the film had even been released in that country.
As of 2018, it is still the fifth best - selling single of all time in the U.K., where it has sold 2 million copies.
A re-released dance version of the single by Almighty Records reached # 4 in the UK and # 27 in Australia in 1998, the twentieth anniversary of the film 's debut.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 2013, a synthpop cover version by Lo - Fang reached no. 38 in France & no. 194 in the UK. It also reached no. 12 on the UK Indie chart.
Lo - Fang 's version was created for the Chanel No. 5 commercial featuring Brazilian supermodel Gisele Bundchen.
In 1984, Kids Incorporated covered "You 're the One That I Want '' in the Season 1 episode "Civic Day Parade ''. Kids Incorporated covered "You 're the One That I Want '' again in 1985 in the Season 2 episode "Decade of Hits ''.
In 1993, Epic Records released the London cast recording, Grease - Original London Cast Recording, and "You 're the One That I Want '' was issued as the lead single by Craig McLachlan and Deborah Gibson (Epic UK 659 522, released July 1993). It peaked at number thirteen in the UK.
British comedians Arthur Mullard and Hylda Baker also released a version of the song in 1978. Their version reached No. 22 in the UK.
In 1978, the German comedians Dieter Hallervorden and Helga Feddersen released a parody version under the title Du, die Wanne ist voll. The song reached position number four in the German charts.
The song serves as the source of the title of the American reality TV show Grease: You 're the One that I Want!.
In 2012, a cover version by Angus & Julia Stone was used in commercials for Sky (UK and Ireland).
In 2013, a synthpop cover version by Lo - Fang reached no. 38 in France & no. 194 in the UK.
The song was covered for the video game Just Dance 2016, as the song appears in - game.
In 2017, a cover version by Stephanie Tarling was used in commercials for the Microsoft Surface Laptop.
In 2018, the Foo Fighters performed the cover three times, Lexington KY, Tampa, FL and another at the festival Welcome to Rockville featuring John Travolta coming on stage.
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what two important things are not considered to have value in many economic systems | Socialist economics - wikipedia
Socialist economics refers to the economic theories, practices, and norms of hypothetical and existing socialist economic systems.
A socialist economic system is characterised by social ownership and operation of the means of production that may take the form of autonomous cooperatives or direct public ownership wherein production is carried out directly for use. Socialist systems that utilize markets for allocating inputs and capital goods among economic units are designated market socialism. When planning is utilized, the economic system is designated as a socialist planned economy. Non-market forms of socialism usually include a system of accounting based on calculation - in - kind to value resources and goods.
The term "socialist economics '' may also be applied to the analysis of former and existing economic systems that were implemented in socialist states, such as in the works of Hungarian economist János Kornai.
Socialist economics has been associated with different schools of economic thought. Marxian economics provided a foundation for socialism based on analysis of capitalism, while neoclassical economics and evolutionary economics provided comprehensive models of socialism. During the 20th century, proposals and models for both planned economies and market socialism were based heavily on neoclassical economics or a synthesis of neoclassical economics with Marxian or institutional economics.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believed that hunter - gatherer societies and some primitive agricultural societies were communal, and called this primitive communism. Engels wrote about this at length in the book The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, which was based on the unpublished notes of Marx on the work of Lewis Henry Morgan.
Values of socialism have roots in pre-capitalist institutions such as the religious communes, reciprocal obligations, and communal charity of Mediaeval Europe, the development of its economic theory primarily reflects and responds to the monumental changes brought about by the dissolution of feudalism and the emergence of specifically capitalist social relations. As such it is commonly regarded as a movement belonging to the modern era. Many socialists have considered their advocacy as the preservation and extension of the radical humanist ideas expressed in Enlightenment doctrine such as Jean - Jacques Rousseau 's Discourse on Inequality, Wilhelm von Humboldt 's Limits of State Action, or Immanuel Kant 's insistent defense of the French Revolution.
Capitalism appeared in mature form as a result of the problems raised when an industrial factory system requiring long - term investment and entailing corresponding risks was introduced into an internationalized commercial (mercantilist) framework. Historically speaking, the most pressing needs of this new system were an assured supply of the elements of industry -- land, elaborate machinery, and labour -- and these imperatives led to the commodification of these elements.
According to influential socialist economic historian Karl Polanyi 's classic account, the forceful transformation of land, money and especially labour into commodities to be allocated by an autonomous market mechanism was an alien and inhuman rupture of the pre-existing social fabric. Marx had viewed the process in a similar light, referring to it as part of the process of "primitive accumulation '' whereby enough initial capital is amassed to begin capitalist production. The dislocation that Polyani and others describe, triggered natural counter-movements in efforts to re-embed the economy in society. These counter-movements, that included, for example, the Luddite rebellions, are the incipient socialist movements. Over time such movements gave birth to or acquired an array of intellectual defenders who attempted to develop their ideas in theory.
As Polanyi noted, these counter-movements were mostly reactive and therefore not full - fledged socialist movements. Some demands went no further than a wish to mitigate the capitalist market 's worst effects. Later, a full socialist program developed, arguing for systemic transformation. Its theorists believed that even if markets and private property could be tamed so as not to be excessively "exploitative '', or crises could be effectively mitigated, capitalist social relations would remain significantly unjust and anti-democratic, suppressing universal human needs for fulfilling, empowering and creative work, diversity and solidarity.
Within this context socialism has undergone four periods: the first in the 19th century was a period of utopian visions (1780s -- 1850s); then occurred the rise of revolutionary socialist and Communist movements in the 19th century as the primary opposition to the rise of corporations and industrialization (1830 -- 1916); the polarisation of socialism around the question of the Soviet Union, and adoption of socialist or social democratic policies in response (1916 -- 1989); and the response of socialism in the neo-liberal era (1990 --). As socialism developed, so did the socialist system of economics.
The first theories which came to hold the term "socialism '' began to be formulated in the late 18th century, and were termed "socialism '' early in the 19th century. The central beliefs of the socialism of this period rested on the exploitation of those who labored by those who owned capital or rented land and housing. The abject misery, poverty and disease to which laboring classes seemed destined was the inspiration for a series of schools of thought which argued that life under a class of masters, or "capitalists '' as they were then becoming to be called, would consist of working classes being driven down to subsistence wages. (See Iron law of wages).
Socialist ideas found expression in utopian movements, which often formed agricultural communes aimed at being self - sufficient on the land. These included many religious movements, such as the Christian socialism of the Shakers in America and the Hutterites. The Zionist kibbutzim and communes of the counterculture are also manifestations of utopian socialist ideas.
Utopian socialism had little to offer in terms of a systematic theory of economic phenomena. In theory, economic problems were dissolved by a utopian society which had transcended material scarcity. In practice, small communities with a common spirit could sometimes resolve allocation problems.
The first organized theories of socialist economics were significantly impacted by classical economic theory, including elements in Adam Smith, Robert Malthus and David Ricardo. In Smith there is a conception of a common good not provided by the market, a class analysis, a concern for the dehumanizing aspects of the factory system, and the concept of rent as being unproductive. Ricardo argued that the renting class was parasitic. This, and the possibility of a "general glut '', an over accumulation of capital to produce goods for sale rather than for use, became the foundation of a rising critique of the concept that free markets with competition would be sufficient to prevent disastrous downturns in the economy, and whether the need for expansion would inevitably lead to war.
A key early socialist theorist of political economy was Pierre - Joseph Proudhon. He was the most well - known of nineteenth century mutualist theorists and the first thinker to refer to himself as an anarchist. Others were: Technocrats like Henri de Saint - Simon, agrarian radicals like Thomas Spence, William Ogilvie and William Cobbett; anti-capitalists like Thomas Hodgskin; communitarian and utopian socialists like Robert Owen, William Thompson and Charles Fourier; anti-market socialists like John Gray and John Francis Bray; the Christian mutualist William Batchelder Greene; as well as the theorists of the Chartist movement and early proponents of syndicalism.
The first advocates of socialism promoted social leveling in order to create a meritocratic or technocratic society based upon individual talent. Count Henri de Saint - Simon was the first individual to coin the term "socialism ''. Saint - Simon was fascinated by the enormous potential of science and technology, which led him to advocate a socialist society that would eliminate the disorderly aspects of capitalism and which would be based upon equal opportunities. Saint - Simon advocated a society in which each person was ranked according to his or her capacities and rewarded according to his or her work. This was accompanied by a desire to implement a rationally organized economy based on planning and geared towards large - scale scientific and material progress, which embodied a desire for a semi-planned economy.
Other early socialist thinkers were influenced by the classical economists. The Ricardian socialists, such as Thomas Hodgskin and Charles Hall, were based on the work of David Ricardo and reasoned that the equilibrium value of commodities approximated producer prices when those commodities were in elastic supply, and that these producer prices corresponded to the embodied labor. The Ricardian socialists viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange - value.
Karl Marx employed systematic analysis in an attempt to elucidate capitalism 's contradictory laws of motion, as well as to expose the specific mechanisms by which it exploits and alienates. He radically modified classical political economic theories. Marx transformed the labor theory of value, which had been worked upon by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, into his "law of value '', and used it for the purpose of revealing how commodity fetishism obscures the reality of capitalist society.
His approach, which Friedrich Engels would call "scientific socialism '', would stand as the branching point in economic theory. In one direction went those who rejected the capitalist system as fundamentally anti-social, arguing that it could never be harnessed to effectively realize the fullest development of human potentialities wherein "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all. ''.
Marx 's Das Kapital is an incomplete work of economic theory; he had planned four volumes but completed two and left his collaborator Engels to complete the third. In many ways, the work is modelled on Smith 's Wealth of Nations, seeking to be a comprehensive logical description of production, consumption, and finance in relation to morality and the state. The work of philosophy, anthropology, sociology, and economics includes the following topics:
Anarchist economics is the set of theories and practices of economics and economic activity within the political philosophy of anarchism.
Pierre Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings. Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought that originates in the writings of Pierre - Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market. Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual - credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value that holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange, it ought to receive goods or services embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility ''. Receiving anything less would be considered exploitation, theft of labor, or usury.
Collectivist anarchism (also known as anarcho - collectivism) is a revolutionary doctrine that advocates the abolition of the state and private ownership of the means of production. Instead, it envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. Once collectivization takes place, workers ' salaries would be determined in democratic organizations based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market. Collectivist anarchism is most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, the anti-authoritarian sections of the First International, and the early Spanish anarchist movement.
Anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, private property, and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, and workers ' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "from each according to ability, to each according to need ''. Unlike mutualism, collectivist anarchism, and Marxism, anarcho - communism as defended by Peter Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta rejected the labor theory of value altogether, instead advocating a gift economy and to base distribution on need. Anarchist communism as a coherent, modern economic - political philosophy was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by Carlo Cafiero, Emilio Covelli, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa, and other ex-Mazzinian Republicans. Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunin 's death. By the early 1880s, most of the European anarchist movement had adopted an anarchist communist position, advocating the abolition of wage labour and distribution according to need. Ironically, the "collectivist '' label then became more commonly associated with Marxist state socialists who advocated the retention of some sort of wage system during the transition to full communism.
Left - wing market anarchism strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self - ownership and free markets, while maintaining that, taken to their logical conclusions, these ideas support strongly anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical, pro-labor positions and anti-capitalism in economics and anti-imperialism in foreign policy.
Non-revolutionary socialists were inspired by the writings of John Stuart Mill, and later John Maynard Keynes and the Keynesians, who provided theoretical justification for state involvement in existing market economies. According to the Keynesians, if business cycles could be smoothed out by national ownership of key industries and state direction of their investment, class antagonism would be effectively tamed. They argue that a compact would form between labour and the capitalist class and that there would be no need for revolution. Joan Robinson and Michael Kalecki formed the basis of a critical post-Keynesian economics that at times went well beyond liberal reformism.
Marxist economists developed different tendencies based on conflicting interpretations of Marx 's ideas, such as the ' Law of Value ' and crisis theory. The monopoly capitalist school saw Paul A. Baran and Paul Sweezy attempt to modify Marx 's theory of capitalist development -- which was based upon the assumption of price competition -- to reflect evolution to a stage where both economy and state were subject to the dominating influence of giant corporations.
World - systems analysis restated Marx 's ideas about the worldwide division of labour and the drive to accumulate from the holistic perspective of capitalism 's historical development as a global system. Immanuel Wallerstein, wrote in 1979:
There are today no socialist systems in the world - economy any more than there are feudal systems because there is only one world - system. It is a world - economy and it is by definition capitalist in form. Socialism involves the creation of a new kind of world - system, neither a redistributive world - empire nor a capitalist world - economy but a socialist world - government. I do n't see this projection as being in the least utopian but I also do n't feel its institution is imminent. It will be the outcome of a long social struggle in forms that may be familiar and perhaps in very few forms, that will take place in all the areas of the world - economy.
Piero Sraffa attempted to construct a value theory that was an explanation of the normal distribution of prices in an economy, as well that of income and economic growth. He found that the net product or surplus in the sphere of production was determined by the balance of bargaining power between workers and capitalists, which was subject to the influence of non-economic, presumably social and political, factors.
The mutualist tendency associated with Pierre - Joseph Proudhon also continued, influencing the development of libertarian socialism, anarchist communism, syndicalism and distributivism.
A socialist economy is a system of production where goods and services are produced directly for use, in contrast to a capitalist economic system, where goods and services are produced to generate profit (and therefore indirectly for use). "Production under socialism would be directly and solely for use. With the natural and technical resources of the world held in common and controlled democratically, the sole object of production would be to meet human needs. '' Goods and services would be produced for their usefulness, or for their use - value, eliminating the need for market - induced needs to ensure a sufficient amount of demand for products to be sold at a profit. Production in a socialist economy is therefore "planned '' or "coordinated '', and does not suffer from the business cycle inherent to capitalism. In most socialist theories, economic planning only applies to the factors of production and not to the allocation of goods and services produced for consumption, which would be distributed through a market. Karl Marx stated that "lower - stage communism '' would consist of compensation based on the amount of labor one contributes to the social product.
The ownership of the means of production varies in different socialist theories. It can either be based on public ownership by a state apparatus; direct ownership by the users of the productive property through worker cooperative; or commonly owned by all of society with management and control delegated to those who operate / use the means of production.
Management and control over the activities of enterprises is based on self - management and self - governance, with equal power - relations in the workplace to maximize occupational autonomy. A socialist form of organization would eliminate controlling hierarchies so that only a hierarchy based on technical knowledge in the workplace remains. Every member would have decision - making power in the firm and would be able to participate in establishing its overall policy objectives. The policies / goals would be carried out by the technical specialists that form the coordinating hierarchy of the firm, who would establish plans or directives for the work community to accomplish these goals.
However, the economies of the former Socialist states, excluding Yugoslavia, were based on bureaucratic, top - down administration of economic directives and micromanagement of the worker in the workplace inspired by capitalist models of scientific management. As a result, some socialist movements have argued that said economies were not socialist due to the lack of equal power - relations in the workplace, the presence of a new "elite '', and because of the commodity production that took place in these economies. These economic and social systems have been classified as being either "bureaucratic collectivist '', "state capitalist '' or "deformed workers ' states '' by its critics. The exact nature of the USSR et al remains unresolved within said socialist movements. However, other socialist movements defend the systems that were in place in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, remembering, as said above, that public ownership of the means of production can signify many variants. In the case of the Soviet Union and its satellites, it was the State which controlled and managed almost all of the economy as a big huge enterprise. Furthermore, the products that were manufactured in Soviet - type economies were produced directly for use, given the fact that all of them were sold to the public at below - market prices (i.e. they were sold in deficit to satisfy the needs of the population).
I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate (the) grave evils (of capitalism), namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow - men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.
Economic planning is a mechanism for the allocation of economic inputs and decision - making based on direct allocation, in contrast to the market mechanism, which is based on indirect allocation. An economy based on economic planning appropriates its resources as needed, so that allocation comes in the form of internal transfers rather than market transactions involving the purchasing of assets by one government agency or firm by another. Decision - making is carried out by workers and consumers on the enterprise - level.
Economic planning is not synonymous with the concept of a command economy, which existed in the Soviet Union, and was based on a highly bureaucratic administration of the entire economy in accordance to a comprehensive plan formulated by a central planning agency, which specified output requirements for productive units and tried to micromanage the decisions and policies of enterprises. The command economy is based on the organizational model of a capitalist firm, but applies it to the entire economy.
Various advocates of economic planning have been staunch critics of command economies and centralized planning. For example, Leon Trotsky believed that central planners, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and understand the local conditions and rapid changes in the economy. Therefore, central planners would be unable to effectively coordinate all economic activity because they lacked this informal information.
Economic planning in socialism takes a different form than economic planning in capitalist mixed economies (such as Dirigisme, Central banking and Indicative planning); in the former case planning refers to production of use - value directly (planning of production), while in the latter case planning refers to the planning of capital accumulation in order to stabilize or increase the efficiency of this process.
The goal of socialist economics is to neutralize capital (or, in the case of market socialism, to subject investment and capital to social planning), to coordinate the production of goods and services to directly satisfy demand (as opposed to market - induced needs), and to eliminate the business cycle and crises of overproduction that occur as a result of an economy based on capital accumulation and private property in the means of production.
Socialists generally aim to achieve greater equality in decision - making and economic affairs, grant workers greater control of the means of production and their workplace, and to eliminate exploitation by directing the surplus value to employees. Free access to the means of subsistence is a requisite for liberty, because it ensures that all work is voluntary and no class or individual has the power to coerce others into performing alienating work.
The ultimate goal for Marxist socialists is the emancipation of labor from alienating work, and therefore freedom from having to perform such labor to receive access to the material necessities for life. It is argued that freedom from necessity would maximize individual liberty, as individuals would be able to pursue their own interests and develop their own talents without being coerced into performing labor for others (the power - elite or ruling class in this case) via mechanisms of social control, such as the labor market and the state. The stage of economic development in which this is possible is contingent upon advances in the productive capabilities of society. This advanced stage of social relations and economic organization is called pure communism.
Socialist economic theories base the value of a good or service on its use value, rather than its cost of production (labor theory of value) or its exchange value (Marginal Utility). Other socialist theories, such as mutualism and market socialism, attempt to apply the labor theory of value to socialism, so that the price of a good or service is adjusted to equal the amount of labor time expended in its production. The labor - time expended by each worker would correspond to labor credits, which would be used as a currency to acquire goods and services. Market socialists that base their models on neoclassical economics, and thus marginal utility, such as Oskar Lange and Abba Lerner, have proposed that publicly owned enterprises set their price to equal marginal cost, thereby achieving pareto efficiency. Anarcho - communism as defended by Peter Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta rejected the labor theory of value and exchange value itself, advocated a gift economy and to base distribution on need.
Robin Hahnel and Michael Albert identify five different economic models within socialist economics:
János Kornai identifies five distinct types of socialism:
Socialism can be divided into market socialism and planned socialism based on their dominant mechanism of resource allocation. Another distinction can be made between the type of property structures of different socialist systems (public, cooperative or common) and on the dominant form of economic management within the economy (hierarchical or self - managed).
Economic democracy is a model of market socialism primarily developed by the American economist David Schweickart. In Schweickart 's model, enterprises and natural resources are owned by society in the form of public banking, and management is elected by the workers within each firm. Profits would be distributed among the workers of the respective enterprise.
The Lange -- Lerner model involves public ownership of the means of production and the utilization of a trial - and - error approach to achieving equilibrium prices by a central planning board. The Central Planning Board would be responsible for setting prices through a trial - and - error approach to establish equilibrium prices, effectively acting as the abstract Walrasian auctioneer in Walrasian economics. Managers of the state - owned firms would be instructed to set prices to equal marginal cost (P = MC), so that economic equilibrium and Pareto efficiency would be achieved. The Lange model was expanded upon by the American economist Abba Lerner and became known as the Lange -- Lerner theorem, particularly the role of the social dividend. Forerunners of the Lange model include the neoclassical economists Enrico Barone and Fred M. Taylor.
The self - managed economy is a form of socialism where enterprises are owned and managed by their employees, effectively negating the employer - employee (or wage labor) dynamic of capitalism and emphasizing the opposition to alienation, self - managing and cooperative aspect of socialism. Members of cooperative firms are relatively free to manage their own affairs and work schedules. This model was developed most extensively by the Yugoslav economists Branko Horvat, Jaroslav Vanek and the American economist Benjamin Ward.
Worker self - directed enterprise is a recent proposal advocated by the American Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff. This model shares many similarities with the model of socialist self - management in that employees own and direct their enterprises, but places a greater role on democratically elected management within a market economy.
Democratic planned socialism is a form of decentralized planned economy.
Feasible socialism was the name Alec Nove gave his outline for socialism in his work The Economics of Feasible Socialism. According to Nove, this model of socialism is "feasible '' because it can be realized within the lifetime of anyone living today. It involves a combination of publicly owned and centrally directed enterprises for large - scale industries, autonomous publicly owned enterprises, consumer and worker - owned cooperatives for the majority of the economy, and private ownership for small businesses. It is a market - based mixed economy that includes a substantial role for macroeconomic interventionism and indicative economic planning.
The American economist James Yunker detailed a model where social ownership of the means of production is achieved the same way private ownership is achieved in modern capitalism through the shareholder system that separates management functions from ownership. Yunker posits that social ownership can be achieved by having a public body, designated the Bureau of Public Ownership (BPO), owning the shares of publicly listed firms without affecting market - based allocation of capital inputs. Yunker termed this model pragmatic market socialism because it does not require massive changes to society and would leave the existing management system intact, and would be at least as efficient as modern - day capitalism while providing superior social outcomes as public ownership of large and established enterprises would enable profits to be distributed among the entire population in a social dividend rather than going largely to a class of inheriting rentiers.
Participatory economics utilizes participatory decision making as an economic mechanism to guide the production, consumption and allocation of resources in a given society.
Proposals for utilizing computer - based coordination and information technology for the coordination and optimization of resource allocation (also known as cybernetics) within an economy have been outlined by various socialists, economists and computer scientists, including Oskar Lange, the Soviet engineer Viktor Glushkov, and more recently the Paul Cockshott and Allin Cottrell.
The "networked information age '' has enabled the development and emergence of new forms of organizing the production of value in non-market arrangements that have been termed commons - based peer production along with the negation of ownership and the concept of property in the development of software in the form of open source and open design.
Economist Pat Devine has created a model of coordination called "negotiated coordination '', which is based upon social ownership by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with decisions made by those at the most localised level of production.
Although a number of economic systems have existed with various socialist attributes, or have been deemed socialist by their proponents, almost all of the economic systems listed below have largely retained elements of capitalism such as wage labor, the accumulation of capital, and commodity production. Nonetheless, various elements of a socialist economy have been implemented or experimented with in various economies throughout history.
Various forms of socialist organizational attributes have existed as minor modes of production within the context of a capitalist economy throughout history -- examples of this include cooperative enterprises in a capitalist economy, and the emerging free - software movement based on social peer - to - peer production.
A centrally planned economy combines public ownership of the means of production with centralised state planning. This model is usually associated with the Soviet - style command economy. In a centrally planned economy, decisions regarding the quantity of goods and services to be produced are planned in advance by a planning agency. In the early years of Soviet central planning, the planning process was based upon a selected number of physical flows with inputs mobilized to meet explicit production targets measured in natural or technical units. This material balances method of achieving plan coherence was later complemented and replaced by value planning, with money provided to enterprises so that they could recruit labour and procure materials and intermediate production goods and services. The Soviet economy was brought to balance by the interlocking of three sets of calculation, namely the setting up of a model incorporating balances of production, manpower and finance. The exercise was undertaken annually and involved a process of iteration (the "method of successive approximation ''). Although nominally a "centrally planned '' economy, in reality formulation of the plan took place on a more local level of the production process as information was relayed from enterprises to planning ministries. Aside from the USSR and Eastern bloc economies, this economic model was also utilized by the People 's Republic of China, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Republic of Cuba and North Korea.
The Soviet Union and some of its European satellites aimed for a fully centrally planned economy. They dispensed almost entirely with private ownership over the means of production. However, workers were still effectively paid a wage for their labour. Some believe that according to Marxist theory this should have been a step towards a genuine workers ' state. However, some Marxists consider this a misunderstanding of Marx 's views of historical materialism and his views of the process of socialization.
The characteristics of this model of economy were:
The planning system in the Soviet Union was introduced under Stalin between 1928 and 1934. Following the Second World War, in the seven countries with communist governments in Central and Eastern Europe, central planning with five - (or six -) year plans on the Soviet model had been introduced by 1951. The common features were the nationalization of industry, transport and trade, compulsory procurement in farming (but not collectivization) and a monopoly on foreign trade. Prices were largely determined on the basis of the costs of inputs, a method derived from the labour theory of value. Prices did not therefore incentivize production enterprises whose inputs were instead purposely rationed by the central plan. This "taut planning '' began around 1930 in the Soviet Union and was only attenuated after the economic reforms in 1966 -- 1968 when enterprises were encouraged to make profits.
The stated purpose of planning according to the communist party was to enable the people through the party and state institutions to undertake activities that would have been frustrated by a market economy (for example, the rapid expansion of universal education and health care, urban development with mass good quality housing and industrial development of all regions of the country). Nevertheless, markets continued to exist in socialist planned economies. Even after the collectivization of agriculture in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, members of the collective farm and anyone with a private garden plot were free to sell their own produce (farm workers were often paid in kind). Licensed markets operated in every town and city borough where non-state - owned enterprises (such as cooperatives and collective farms) were able to offer their products and services. From 1956 / 59 onwards all wartime controls over manpower were removed and people could apply and quit jobs freely in the Soviet Union. The use of market mechanisms went furthest in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. From 1975 Soviet citizens had the right to engage in private handicraft and in 1981 collective farmers could raise and sell livestock privately. It should also be noted that households were free to dispose of their income as they chose and incomes were lightly taxed.
Various scholars and political economists have criticized the claim that the centrally planned economy, and specifically, the Soviet model of economic development, constitutes a form of socialism. They argue that the Soviet economy was structured upon the accumulation of capital and the extraction of surplus value from the working class by the planning agency in order to reinvest this surplus into the economy -- and to distribute to managers and senior officials, indicating the Soviet Union (and other Soviet - style economies) were state capitalist economies. More fundamentally, these economies are still structured around the dynamic of capitalism: the accumulation of capital and production for profit (as opposed to being based on production for use -- the defining criterion for socialism), and have not yet transcended the system of capitalism but are in fact a variation of capitalism based on a process of state - directed accumulation.
On the other side of the argument are those who contend that no surplus value was generated from labour activity or from commodity markets in the socialist planned economies and therefore claim that there was no exploiting class, even if inequalities existed. Since prices were controlled and set below market clearing levels there was no element of ' value added ' at the point of sale as occurs in capitalist market economies. Prices were built up from the average cost of inputs, including wages, taxes, interest on stocks and working capital, and allowances to cover the recoupment of investment and for depreciation, so there was no ' profit margin ' in the price charged to customers. Wages did not reflect the purchase price of labour since labour was not a commodity traded in a market and the employing organizations did not own the means of production. Wages were set at a level that permitted a decent standard of living and rewarded specialist skills and educational qualifications. In macroeconomic terms, the plan allocated the whole national product to workers in the form of wages for the workers ' own use, with a fraction withheld for investment and imports from abroad. The difference between the average value of wages and the value of national output per worker did not imply the existence of surplus value since it was part of a consciously formulated plan for the development of society. Furthermore, the presence of inequality in the socialist planned economies did not imply that an exploiting class existed. In the USSR communist party members were able to buy scarce goods in special shops and the leadership elite took advantage of state property to live in more spacious accommodation and sometimes luxury. Although they received privileges not commonly available and thus some additional income in kind there was no difference in their official remuneration in comparison to their non-party peers. Enterprise managers and workers received only the wages and bonuses related to the production targets that had been set by the planning authorities. Outside of the cooperative sector, which enjoyed greater economic freedoms and whose profits were shared among all members of the cooperative, there was no profit - taking class.
Other socialist critics point to the lack of socialist social relations in these economies -- specifically the lack of self - management, a bureaucratic elite based on hierarchical and centralized powers of authority, and the lack of genuine worker control over the means of production -- leading them to conclude that they were not socialist but either bureaucratic collectivism or state capitalism. Trotskyists argue they are neither socialist nor capitalist -- but are deformed workers ' states.
This analysis is consistent with Lenin 's April Theses, which stated that the goal of the Bolshevik revolution was not the introduction of socialism, which could only be established on a worldwide scale, but was intended to bring production and the state under the control of the Soviets of Workers ' Deputies. Furthermore, these "Communist states '' often do not claim to have achieved socialism in their countries; on the contrary, they claim to be building and working toward the establishment of socialism in their countries. For example, the preamble to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam 's constitution states that Vietnam only entered a transition stage between capitalism and socialism after the country was re-unified under the Communist party in 1976, and the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Cuba states that the role of the Communist Party is to "guide the common effort toward the goals and construction of socialism ''.
This view is challenged by Stalinists and their followers, who claim that socialism was established in the Soviet Union after Joseph Stalin came to power and instituted the system of five year plans. The 1936 Constitution of the USSR, known as the Fundamental Law of Victorious Socialism, embodied the claim that the foundations for socialism had been laid. Joseph Stalin introduced the theory of Socialism in one country, which argued that socialism can be built in a single country, despite existing in a global capitalist economic system. Nevertheless, it was recognized that the stage during which developed socialism would be built would be a lengthy one and would not be achieved by the USSR on its own. According to the official textbooks, the first stage of the transition period from capitalism to socialism had been completed by the 1970s in the European socialist countries (except Poland and Yugoslavia), and in Mongolia and Cuba. The next stage of developed socialism would not be reached until "the economic integration of the socialist states becomes a major factor of their economic progress '' and social relations had been reconstructed on "collectivist principles ''. Communist writers accepted that during these earlier stages in constructing socialism, the exchange of commodities on the basis of the average socially necessary labour embodied within them occurred and involved the mediation of money. Socialist planned economies were systems of commodity production but this was directed in a conscious way towards meeting the needs of the people and not left to the "anarchy of the market ''. At the stage of developed socialism, "the state of dictatorship of the proletariat changes into a state of all people reflecting the increasing homogeneity of society '' and the "evening out of economic development levels '' within and between socialist countries. It would provide the foundations for a further stage of perfected socialist society, where an abundance of goods permitted their distribution according to need. Only then could the world socialist system progress towards the higher phase of communism.
By the 1980s, the world economic socialist system embraced one - third of the world 's population but generated no more than 15 percent of global economic output. At its height in the mid-1980s, the world socialist system could be said to comprise the following countries with a "socialist orientation '', though not all were allies of the Soviet Union: Afghanistan, Albania, Angola, Bulgaria, Cambodia, China, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Eastern Germany, Ethiopia, Hungary, Mozambique, Nicaragua, North Korea, Laos, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Vietnam, South Yemen, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. The system co-existed alongside the world capitalist system but was founded upon the principles of cooperation and mutual assistance rather than upon competition and rivalry The countries involved aimed to even - out the level of economic development and to play an equal part in the international division of labour. An important role was played by the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) or Comecon, an international body set up to promote economic development. It involved joint planning activity, the establishment of international economic, scientific and technical bodies and methods of cooperation between state agencies and enterprises, including joint ventures and projects. Allied to the CMEA were the International Development Bank, established in 1971; and the International Bank for Economic Cooperation, founded in 1963, which had their parallel in the World Bank and the Bank for International Settlements and the International Monetary Fund in the non-socialist world.
The main tasks of the CMEA were plan coordination, production specialization and regional trade. In 1961 Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, put forward proposals for establishing an integrated, centrally planned socialist commonwealth in which each geographic region would specialize production in line with its set of natural and human resources. The resulting document, the "Basic Principles of the International Socialist Division of Labour '' was adopted at the end of 1961, despite objections from Romania on certain aspects. The "Basic Principles '' were never implemented fully and were replaced in 1971 by the adoption of the "Comprehensive Programme for Further Extension and Improvement of Cooperation and Development of Socialist Economic Integration ''. As a result, many specialization agreements were made between CMEA member states for investment programmes and projects. The importing country pledged to rely on the exporting country for its consumption of the product in question. Production specialization occurred in engineering, automotive, chemicals, computers and automation, telecommunications and biotechnology. Scientific and technical cooperation between CMEA member states was facilitated by the establishment in 1969 of the International Centre for Scientific and Technical Information in Moscow.
Trade between CMEA member states was divided into "hard goods '' and "soft goods ''. The former could be sold on world markets and the latter could not. Commodities such as food, energy products and raw materials tended to be hard goods and were traded within the CMEA area at world market prices. Manufactures tended to be soft goods and their prices were negotiable and often adjusted to make bilateral payment flows balance.
Other countries with privileged affiliation with the CMEA were Algeria, Benin, Burma, Congo, Finland, Madagascar, Mali, Mexico, Nigeria, Seychelles, Syria, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. The Soviet Union also provided substantial economic aid and technical assistance to developing countries including Egypt, India, Iraq, Iran, Somalia and Turkey. It supported developing countries in calling for a New International Economic Order and backed the UN Charter of Economic Rights and Obligations of States adopted by the General Assembly in 1974.
In the officially sanctioned textbooks describing the socialist planned economies as they existed in the 1980s it was claimed that:
Data collected by the United Nations of indicators of human development in the early 1990s show that a high level of social development was achieved in the former socialist planned economies of Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CEE / CIS). Life expectancy in the CEE / CIS area in the period 1985 -- 1990 was 68 years, while for the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) it was 75 years. Infant mortality in the CEE / CIS area was 25 for every 1,000 live births in 1990, compared to 13 in the OECD area. In terms of education, the two areas enjoyed universal adult literacy and full enrolment of children in primary and secondary schools. For tertiary education, the CEE / CIS had 2,600 university students per 100,000 population, while in the OECD the comparable figure was 3,550 students. Overall enrolment at primary, secondary and tertiary levels was 75 percent in the CEE / CIS region and 82 percent in the OECD countries.
On housing the main problem was over-crowding rather than homelessness in the socialist planned economies. In the USSR the area of residential accommodation was 15.5 square meters per person by 1990 in urban areas but 15 percent of the population were without their own separate accommodation and had to live in communal apartments according to the 1989 census. Housing was generally of good quality in both the CEE / CIS region and in the OECD countries: 98 and 99 percent of the population in the OECD countries had access to safe drinking water and improved sanitation respectively, compared to 93 and 85 percent in the CEE / CIS area by 1990.
Unemployment did not exist officially in the socialist planned economies, though there were people between jobs and a fraction of unemployable people as a result of illness, disability or other problems, such as alcoholism. The proportion of people changing jobs was between 6 and 13 percent of the labour force a year according to employment data during the 1970s and 1980s in Central and Eastern Europe and the USSR. Labour exchanges were established in the USSR in 1967 to help enterprises re-allocate workers and provide information on job vacancies. Compulsory unemployment insurance schemes operated in Bulgaria, Eastern Germany and Hungary but the numbers claiming support as a result of losing their job through no fault of their own numbered a few hundred a year.
By 1988 GDP per person, measured at purchasing power parity in US dollars, was $7,519 in Russia and $6,304 for the USSR. The highest income was to be found in Slovenia ($10,663) and Estonia ($9,078) and the lowest in Albania ($1,386) and Tajikistan ($2,730). Across the whole CEE / CIS area, GDP per person was estimated at $6,162. This compared to the USA with $20,651 and $16,006 for Germany in the same year. For the OECD area as a whole estimated GDP per person was $14,385. Thus, on the basis of IMF estimates, national income (GDP) per person in the CEE / CIS area was 43 percent of that in the OECD area.
From the 1960s onwards, CMEA countries, beginning with Eastern Germany, attempted "intensive '' growth strategies, aiming to raise the productivity of labour and capital. However, in practice this meant that investment was shifted towards new branches of industry, including the electronics, computing, automotive and nuclear power sectors, leaving the traditional heavy industries dependent upon older technologies. Despite the rhetoric about modernization, innovation remained weak as enterprise managers preferred routine production that was easier to plan and brought them predictable bonuses. Embargoes on high technology exports organized through the US - supported CoCom arrangement hampered technology transfer. Enterprise managers also ignored inducements to introduce labour - saving measures as they wished to retain a reserve of personnel to be available to meet their production target by working at top speed when supplies were delayed.
Under conditions of "taut planning '', the economy was expected to produce a volume of output higher than the reported capacity of enterprises and there was no "slack '' in the system. Enterprises faced a resource constraint and hoarded labour and other inputs and avoided sub-contracting intermediate production activities, preferring to retain the work in - house. The enterprise, according to the theory promulgated by János Kornai, was constrained by its resources not by the demand for its goods and services; nor was it constrained by its finances since the government was not likely to shut it down if it failed to meet its financial targets. Enterprises in socialist planned economies operated within a "soft '' budget constraint, unlike enterprises in capitalist market economies which are demand - constrained and operate within "hard '' budget constraints, as they face bankruptcy if their costs exceed their sales. As all producers were working in a resource - constrained economy they were perpetually in short supply and the shortages could never be eliminated, leading to chronic disruption of production schedules. The effect of this was to preserve a high level of employment.
As the supply of consumer goods failed to match rising incomes (because workers still received their pay even if they were not fully productive), household savings accumulated, indicating, in the official terminology, "postponed demand ''. Western economists called this "monetary overhang '' or "repressed inflation ''. Prices on the black market were several times higher than in the official price - controlled outlets, reflecting the scarcity and possible illegality of the sale of these items. Therefore, although consumer welfare was reduced by shortages, the prices households paid for their regular consumption were lower than would have been the case had prices been set at market - clearing levels.
Over the course of the 1980s it became clear that the CMEA area was "in crisis '', although it remained viable economically and was not expected to collapse. The "extensive '' growth model was retarding growth in the CMEA as a whole, with member countries dependent upon supplies of raw materials from the USSR and upon the Soviet market for sales of goods. The decline in growth rates reflected a combination of diminishing returns to capital accumulation and low innovation as well as micro-economic inefficiencies, which a high rate of saving and investment was unable to counter. The CMEA was supposed to ensure coordination of national plans but it failed even to develop a common methodology for planning which could be adopted by its member states. As each member state was reluctant to give up national self - sufficiency the CMEA 's efforts to encourage specialization was thwarted. There were very few joint ventures and therefore little intra-enterprise technology transfer and trade, which in the capitalist world was often undertaken by trans - national corporations. The International Bank for Economic Cooperation had no means of converting a country 's trade surplus into an option to buy goods and services from other CMEA members.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc, many of the remaining socialist states presiding over centrally planned economies began introducing reforms that shifted their economies away from centralized planning. In Central and Eastern Europe and the USSR the transition from a planned economy to a market economy was accompanied by the transformation of the socialist mode of production to a capitalist mode of production. In Asia (China, Laos, North Korea and Vietnam) and in Cuba market mechanisms were introduced by the ruling communist parties and the planning system was reformed without systemic transformation.
The transformation from socialism to capitalism involved a political shift: from a people 's democracy (see People 's Republic and Communist state) with a constitutionally entrenched "leading role '' for the communist and workers ' parties in society to a liberal representative democracy with a separation of legislative, executive and judicial authorities and centres of private power that can act as a brake on the state 's activity.
Vietnam adopted an economic model it formally titled the socialist - oriented market economy. This economic system is a form of mixed - economy consisting of state, private, co-operative and individual enterprises coordinated by the market mechanism. This system is intended to be transitional stage in the development of socialism.
The transformation of an economic system from a socialist planned economy to a capitalist market economy in Central and Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union and Mongolia in the 1990s involved a series of institutional changes. These included:
China embraced a socialist planned economy after the Communist victory in its Civil War. Private property and private ownership of capital were abolished, and various forms of wealth made subject to state control or to workers ' councils.
The Chinese economy broadly adopted a similar system of production quotas and full employment by fiat to the Russian model. The Great Leap Forward saw a remarkably large - scale experiment with rapid collectivisation of agriculture, and other ambitious goals. Results were less than expected, (e.g., there were food shortages and mass starvation) and the program was abandoned after three years.
In recent decades China has opened its economy to foreign investment and to market - based trade, and has continued to experience strong economic growth. It has carefully managed the transition from a socialist planned economy to a market economy, officially referred to as the socialist commodity market economy, which has been likened to capitalism by some outside observers.
The current Chinese economic system is characterized by state ownership combined with a strong private sector that privately owned enterprises that generate about 33 % (People 's Daily Online 2005) to over 50 % of GDP in 2005, with a BusinessWeek article estimating 70 % of GDP, a figure that might be even greater considering the Chengbao system. Some western observers note that the private sector is likely underestimated by state officials in calculation of GDP due to its propensity to ignore small private enterprises that are not registered. Most of the state and private sectors of economy are governed by free market practices, including a stock exchange for trading equity. The free - market is the arbitrator for most economic activity, which is left to the management of both state and private firms. A significant amount of privately owned firms exist, especially in the consumer service sector.
The state sector is concentrated in the ' commanding heights ' of the economy with a growing private sector engaged primarily in commodity production and light industry. Centralized directive planning based on mandatory output requirements and production quotas has been superseded by the free - market mechanism for most of the economy and directive planning is utilized in some large state industries. A major difference from the old planned economy is the privatization of state institutions. 150 state - owned enterprises remain and report directly to the central government, most having a number of subsidiaries. By 2008, these state - owned corporations had become increasingly dynamic largely contributing to the increase in revenue for the state. The state - sector led the economic recovery process and increased economic growth in 2009 after the financial crises.
This type of economic system is defended from a Marxist perspective which states that a socialist planned economy can only be possible after first establishing the necessary comprehensive commodity market economy, letting it fully develop until it exhausts its historical stage and gradually transforms itself into a planned economy. Proponents of this model distinguish themselves from market socialists who believe that economic planning is unattainable, undesirable or ineffective at distributing goods, viewing the market as the solution rather than a temporary phase in development of a socialist planned economy.
The Socialist Republic of Vietnam has pursued similar economic reforms, though less extensive, which have resulted in a socialist - oriented market economy, a mixed economy in which the state plays a dominant role intended to be a transitional phase in establishment of a socialist economy.
The Republic of Cuba, under the leadership of Raul Castro, has begun to encourage co-operatives and self - employment in a move to reduce the central role of state enterprise and state management over the economy, with the goal of building a co-operative form of socialism.
Many of the industrialized, open countries of Western Europe experimented with one form of social democratic mixed economies or another during the 20th century. These include Britain (mixed economy and welfare state) from 1945 to 1979, France (state capitalism and indicative planning) from 1945 to 1982 under dirigisme, Sweden (social democratic welfare state) and Norway (state capitalist mixed economy) to the present. They can be regarded as social democratic experiments, because they universally retained a wage - based economy and private ownership and control of the decisive means of production.
Nevertheless, these western European countries tried to restructure their economies away from a purely private capitalist model. Variations range from social democratic welfare states, such as in Sweden, to mixed economies where a major percentage of GDP comes from the state sector, such as in Norway, which ranks among the highest countries in quality of life and equality of opportunity for its citizens. Elements of these efforts persist throughout Europe, even if they have repealed some aspects of public control and ownership. They are typically characterized by:
Various state capitalist economies, which consist of large commercial state enterprises that operate according to the laws of capitalism and pursue profits, have evolved in countries that have been influenced by various elected socialist political parties and their economic reforms. While these policies and reforms did not change the fundamental aspect of capitalism, and non-socialist elements within these countries supported or often implemented many of these reforms themselves, the result has been a set of economic institutions that were at least partly influenced by socialist ideology.
Singapore pursued a state - led model of economic development under the People 's Action Party, which initially adopted a Leninist approach to politics and a broad socialist model of economic development. The PAP was initially a member of the Socialist International. Singapore 's economy is dominated by state - owned enterprises and government - linked companies through Temasek Holdings, which generate 60 % of Singapore 's GDP. Temasek Holdings operates like any other company in a market economy. Managers of the holding are rewarded according to profits with the explicit intention to cultivate an ownership mind - set.
The state also provides substantial public housing, free education, health and recreational services, as well as comprehensive public transportation. Today Singapore is often characterized as having a state capitalist economy that combines economic planning with the free - market. While government - linked companies generate a majority of Singapore 's GDP, moderate state planning in the economy has been reduced in recent decades.
After gaining independence from Britain, India adopted a broadly socialist - inspired approach to economic growth. Like other countries with a democratic transition to a mixed economy, it did not abolish private property in capital. India proceeded by nationalizing various large privately run firms, creating state - owned enterprises and redistributing income through progressive taxation in a manner similar to social democratic Western European nations than to planned economies such as the Soviet Union or China. Today, India is often characterized as having a free - market economy that combines economic planning with the free - market. It did however adopt a very firm focus on national planning with a series of broad Five - Year Plans.
The Paris Commune was considered to be a prototype mode of economic and political organization for a future socialist society by Karl Marx. Private property in the means of production was abolished so that individuals and co-operative associations of producers owned productive property and introduced democratic measures where elected officials received no more in compensation than the average worker and could be recalled at any time. Anarchists also participated actively in the establishment of the Paris Commune. George Woodcock manifests that "a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and particularly to the organization of public services was made by members of various anarchist factions, including the mutualists Courbet, Longuet, and Vermorel, the libertarian collectivists Varlin, Malon, and Lefrangais, and the bakuninists Elie and Elisée Reclus and Louise Michel.
Various forms of socialist organization based on co-operative decision making, workplace democracy and in some cases, production directly for use, have existed within the broader context of the capitalist mode of production since the Paris Commune. New forms of socialist institutional arrangements began to take form at the end of the 20th century with the advancement and proliferation of the internet and other tools that allow for collaborative decision - making.
Michel Bauwens identifies the emergence of the open software movement and peer - to - peer production as an emergent alternative mode of production to the capitalist economy that is based on collaborative self - management, common ownership of resources, and the (direct) production of use - values through the free cooperation of producers who have access to distributed capital.
Commons - based peer production generally involves developers who produce goods and services with no aim to profit directly, but freely contribute to a project relying upon an open common pool of resources and software code. In both cases, production is carried out directly for use -- software is produced solely for their use - value.
Wikipedia, being based on collaboration and cooperation and a freely associated individuals, has been cited as a template for how socialism might operate. This is a modern example of what the Paris Commune -- a template for possible future organization -- was to Marx in his time.
Yugoslavia pursued a socialist economy based on autogestion or worker - self management. Rather than implementing a centrally planned economy, Yugoslavia developed a market socialist system where enterprises and firms were socially owned rather than publicly owned by the state. In these organizations, the management was elected directly by the workers in each firm, and were later organized according to Edvard Kardelj 's theory of associated labor.
The Mondragon Corporation, a federation of cooperatives in the Basque region of Spain, organizes itself as an employee - owned, employee - managed enterprise. Similar styles of decentralized management, which embrace cooperation and collaboration in place of traditional hierarchical management structures, have been adopted by various private corporations such as Cisco Systems, inc. But unlike Mondragon, Cisco remains firmly under private ownership. More fundamentally, employee - owned, self - managed enterprises still operate within the broader context of capitalism and are subject to the accumulation of capital and profit - loss mechanism.
In Spain, the national anarcho - syndicalist trade union Confederación Nacional del Trabajo initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the Spanish Civil War (1936 -- 1939). In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist - inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivised the land. But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the Soviet Union. The events known as the Spanish Revolution was a workers ' social revolution that began during the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of anarchist and more broadly libertarian socialist organizational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily Catalonia, Aragon, Andalusia, and parts of the Levante. Much of Spain 's economy was put under worker control; in anarchist strongholds like Catalonia, the figure was as high as 75 %, but lower in areas with heavy Communist Party of Spain influence, as the Soviet - allied party actively resisted attempts at collectivization enactment. Factories were run through worker committees, agrarian areas became collectivised and run as libertarian communes. Anarchist historian Sam Dolgoff estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution, which he claimed "came closer to realizing the ideal of the free stateless society on a vast scale than any other revolution in history. ''
Criticism of socialist economics comes from market economists, including the classicals, neoclassicals and Austrians, as well as from some anarchist economists. Besides this, some socialist economic theories are criticized by other socialists. Libertarian socialist, mutualist, and market socialist economists, for example, criticize centralized economic planning and propose participatory economics and decentralized socialism.
Market economists generally criticise socialism for eliminating the free market and its price signals, which they consider necessary for rational economic calculation. They also consider that it causes lack of incentive. They believe that these problems lead to a slower rate of technological advance and a slower rate of growth of GDP.
Austrian school economists, such as Friedrich Hayek and Ludwig Von Mises, have argued that the elimination of private ownership of the means of production would inevitably create worse economic conditions for the general populace than those that would be found in market economies. They argue that without the price signals of the market, it is impossible to calculate rationally how to allocate resources. Mises called this the economic calculation problem. Polish economist Oskar Lange and Abba Lerner responded to Mises ' argument by developing the Lange Model during the economic calculation debate. The Lange model argues that an economy in which all production is performed by the state, where there is a functioning price mechanism, has similar properties to a market economy under perfect competition, in that it achieves Pareto efficiency.
The neoclassical view is that there is a lack of incentive, not a lack of information in a planned economy. They argue that within a socialist planned economy there is a lack of incentive to act on information. Therefore, the crucial missing element is not so much information as the Austrian school argued, as it is the motivation to act on information.
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what group made up the largest number of whites in the south | Race and ethnicity in the United States - wikipedia
The United States of America has a racially and ethnically diverse population. The United States Census officially recognizes six racial categories: White American, Black or African American, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and people of two or more races; a category called "some other race '' is also used in the census and other surveys, but is not official. The United States Census Bureau also classifies Americans as "Hispanic or Latino '' and "Not Hispanic or Latino '', which identifies Hispanic and Latino Americans as an ethnicity (not a race) distinct from others, and comprising the largest minority group in the nation.
The United States Supreme Court unanimously held that "race '' is not limited to Census designations on the "race question '' but extends to all ethnicities, and thus can include Jewish and Arab as well as Polish or Italian or Irish, etc. In fact, the Census asks an "Ancestry Question '' which covers the broader notion of ethnicity initially in the 2000 Census long form and now in the American Community Survey. The ancestry question will return in the 2020 Census.
As of July 2016, White Americans are the racial majority. African Americans are the largest racial minority, amounting to an estimated 12.7 % of the population. Hispanic and Latino Americans amount to an estimated 17.8 % of the total U.S. population, making up the largest ethnic minority. The White, non-Hispanic or Latino population make up 61.3 % of the nation 's total, with the total White population (including White Hispanics and Latinos) being 76.9 %.
White Americans are the majority in every census - defined region (Northeast, Midwest, South, West) and in every state except Hawaii, but contribute the highest proportion of the population in the Midwestern United States, at 85 % per the Population Estimates Program (PEP), or 83 % per the American Community Survey (ACS). Non-Hispanic Whites make up 79 % of the Midwest 's population, the highest ratio of any region. However, 35 % of White Americans (whether all White Americans or non-Hispanic / Latino only) live in the South, the most of any region.
55 % of the African American population lives in the South. A plurality or majority of the other official groups reside in the West. The latter region is home to 42 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans, 46 % of Asian Americans, 48 % of American Indians and Alaska Natives, 68 % of Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, 37 % of the "two or more races '' population (Multiracial Americans), and 46 % of those self - designated as "some other race ''.
In the 2000 Census and subsequent United States Census Bureau surveys, Americans self - described as belonging to these racial groups:
Each person has two identifying attributes, racial identity and whether or not they are of Hispanic ethnicity. These categories are sociopolitical constructs and should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature. They have been changed from one census to another, and the racial categories include both "racial '' and national - origin groups.
In 2007, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the US Department of Labor finalized its update of the EEO - 1 report format and guidelines to come into an effect on September 30, 2007. In particular, this update concerns the definitions of racial / ethnic categories.
The question on Hispanic or Latino origin is separate from the question on race. Hispanic and Latino Americans have ethnic origins in the countries of Latin America, Spain, and Portugal. Latin American countries are, like the United States, racially diverse. Consequently, no separate racial category exists for Hispanic and Latino Americans, as they do not constitute a race, nor a national group. When responding to the race question on the census form, each person is asked to choose from among the same racial categories as all Americans, and are included in the numbers reported for those races.
Each racial category may contain Non-Hispanic or Latino and Hispanic or Latino Americans. For example: the White (European - American) race category contains Non-Hispanic Whites and Hispanic Whites (see White Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Black or African - American category contains Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic Blacks (see Black Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Asian - American category contains Non-Hispanic Asians and Hispanic Asians (see Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans); and likewise for all the other categories. See the section on Hispanic and Latino Americans in this article.
Self - identifying as both Hispanic or Latino and not Hispanic or Latino is neither explicitly allowed nor explicitly prohibited.
In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, Africans and Europeans were considered to belong to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria for membership in these groups were similar, comprising a person 's appearance, their social circle (how they lived), and their known non-White ancestry. History played a part, as persons with known slave ancestors were assumed to be African (or, in later usage, black), regardless of whether they also had European ancestry.
The differences between how Native American and Black identities are defined today (blood quantum versus one - drop and political assumptions) have been based on different historical circumstances. According to the anthropologist Gerald Sider, such racial designations were a means to concentrate power, wealth, privilege and land in the hands of Whites in a society of White hegemony and privilege (Sider 1996; see also Fields 1990). The differences had little to do with biology and more to do with the history of slavery and its racism, and specific forms of White supremacy (the social, geopolitical and economic agendas of dominant Whites vis - à - vis subordinate Blacks and Native Americans). They related especially to the different social places which Blacks and Amerindians occupied in White - dominated 19th - century America. Sider suggests that the blood quantum definition of Native American identity enabled mixed - race Whites to acquire Amerindian lands during the allotment process. The one - drop rule of Black identity, enforced legally in the early 20th century, enabled Whites to preserve their agricultural labor force in the South. The contrast emerged because, as peoples transported far from their land and kinship ties on another continent, Black labor was relatively easy to control, and they became reduced to valuable commodities as agricultural laborers. In contrast, Amerindian labor was more difficult to control; moreover, Amerindians occupied large territories that became valuable as agricultural lands, especially with the invention of new technologies such as railroads. Sider thinks the blood quantum definition enhanced White acquisition of Amerindian lands in a doctrine of Manifest Destiny, which subjected Native Americans to marginalization and resulted in numerous conflicts related to American expansionism.
The political economy of race had different consequences for the descendants of aboriginal Americans and African slaves. The 19th - century blood quantum rule meant that it was relatively easier for a person of mixed Euro - Amerindian ancestry to be accepted as White. The offspring of a few generations of intermarriage between Amerindians and Whites likely would not have been considered Amerindian (at least not in a legal sense). Amerindians could have treaty rights to land, but because an individual with only one Amerindian great - grandparent no longer was classified as Amerindian, he lost a legal claim to Amerindian land, under the allotment rules of the day. According to Sider 's theory, Whites were more easily able to acquire Amerindian lands. On the other hand, the same individual who could be denied legal standing in a tribe, according to the government, because he was "too White '' to claim property rights, might still have enough visually identifiable Amerindian ancestry to be considered socially as a "half - breed '' or breed, and stigmatized by both communities.
The 20th - century one - drop rule made it relatively difficult for anyone of known Black ancestry to be accepted as White. The child of an African - American sharecropper and a White person was considered Black by the local communities. In terms of the economics of sharecropping, such a person also would likely become a sharecropper as well, thus adding to the landholder or employer 's labor force. In short, this theory suggests that in a 20th - century economy that benefited from sharecropping, it was useful to have as many Blacks as possible.
Although some scholars of the Jim Crow period agree that the 20th - century notion of invisible Blackness shifted the color line in the direction of paleness, and "expanded '' the labor force in response to Southern Blacks ' Great Migration to the North. But, others (such as the historians Joel Williamson, C. Vann Woodward, George M. Fredrickson, and Stetson Kennedy) considered the one - drop rule a consequence of the need to define Whiteness as being pure, and justifying White - on - Black oppression.
Over the centuries when Whites wielded power over both Blacks and Amerindians and believed in their inherent superiority over people of color, they created a social order of hypodescent, in which they assigned mixed - race children to the lower - status groups. They were often ignorant of the systems among Native American tribes of social classification, including kinship and hypodescent. The Omaha people, for instance, who had a patrilineal kinship system, classified all children with white fathers as "white '', and excluded them as members of the clans and tribe, unless one was formally adopted by a male member. Tribal members might care for mixed - race children of white fathers, but considered them outside the hereditary clan and kinship fundamental to tribal society.
The hypodescent social construction related to the racial caste that was associated with African slavery and the conditions of the slave societies. It was made explicit by Virginia and other colonies ' laws as early as 1662. Virginia incorporated the Roman principle of partus sequitur ventrem into slave law, saying that children of slave mothers were born into their status. Under English common law for subjects, children 's social status was determined by the father, not the mother. But the colonists put Africans outside the category of English subjects. Generally, white men were in positions of power to take sexual advantage of black women slaves. But, historian Paul Heinegg has shown that most free African - American families listed in the censuses of 1790 -- 1810 were, in fact, descended from unions between white women and African men in colonial Virginia, from the years when working classes lived and worked closely together, and before slavery had hardened as a racial caste.
In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time by whites that classified individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories (Gossett 1997), but these were always porous. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790, after slavery was well established in the United States, included classification of persons by race: white, black, mulatto, and Indian (Nobles 2000). But, the inclusion of mulatto was an explicit acknowledgement of mixed race. In addition, before the Civil War, Virginia and some other states had legal definition of "whiteness '' that provided for people being classified as white if no more than 1 / 8 black. (For example, if not born into slavery, Thomas Jefferson 's children by his slave Sally Hemings would have been classified as legally white, as they were 7 / 8 white by ancestry. Three of the four surviving children entered white society as adults, and their descendants have identified as white.) In the late 18th and 19th centuries, people of mixed race often migrated to frontiers where societies were more open, and they might be accepted as white if satisfying obligations of citizenship.
The more familiar "one - drop rule '' was not adopted by Virginia and other states until the 20th century, but it classified persons with any known African ancestry as black (Davis 2001). Passage of such laws was often urged by white supremacists and people promoting "racial purity '' through eugenics, having forgotten the long history of multi-racial unions in the South that comprised the ancestry of many families.
In other countries in the Americas, where mixing among groups was overtly more extensive, social categories have tended to be more numerous and fluid. In some cases, people may move into or out of categories on the basis of a combination of socioeconomic status, social class, ancestry, and appearance (Mörner 1967).
The term Hispanic as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century, with the rise of migration of laborers from Spanish - speaking countries of the western hemisphere to the United States. It includes people who may have been considered racially distinct (Black, White, Amerindian or other mixed groups) in their home countries. Today, the word "Latino '' is often used as a synonym for "Hispanic ''. Even if such categories were earlier understood as racial categories, today they have begun to represent ethno - linguistic categories (regardless of perceived race). Similarly, "Anglo '' is now used among many Hispanics to refer to non-Hispanic White Americans or European Americans, most of whom speak the English language but are not of primarily English descent.
The United States is a racially diverse country. The growth of the Hispanic population through immigration and high birth rates is noted as a partial factor for the US ' population gains in the last quarter - century. The 2000 census revealed that Native Americans had reached their highest documented population, 4.5 million, since the US was founded in 1776.
The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions of the Old World. In the Americas, the immigrant populations began to mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continents. In the United States, for example, most people who identify as African American have some European ancestors, as revealed by genetic studies. In one analysis of those genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7 % for a sample of Jamaicans to ~ 23 % for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans, where there was historically a large class of mixed race (now called Louisiana Creoles) (Parra et al. 1998).
In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, African Americans, and European Americans were classified as belonging to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria among whites for membership in these groups were similar, comprising physical appearance, assumption of non-European ancestry, and social circle. The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century. During and after Reconstruction, after the emancipation of slaves after the Civil War, in the effort to restore white supremacy in the South, whites began to classify anyone with "one drop '' of "black blood '', or known African ancestry, to be black. Such a legal definition was not put into law until the early 20th century in most southern states, but many established racial segregation of facilities during the Jim Crow era, after white Democrats regained control of state legislatures in the South.
Efforts to track mixing between groups led to an earlier proliferation of historical categories (such as "mulatto '' and "octaroon '' among persons with partial African descent) and "blood quantum '' distinctions, which became increasingly untethered from self - reported ancestry. In the 20th century, efforts to classify the increasingly mixed population of the United States into discrete categories generated many difficulties (Spickard 1992). By the standards used in past censuses, many mixed - race children born in the United States were classified as of a different race than one of their biological parents. In addition, a person may change personal racial identification over time because of cultural aspects, and self - ascribed race can differ from assigned race (Kressin et al. 2003).
Until the 2000 census, Latinos were required to identify as one race, and none was Latino. Partly as a result of the confusion generated by the distinction, 32.9 % (U.S. census records) of Latino respondents in the 2000 census ignored the specified racial categories and checked "some other race ''. (Mays et al. 2003 claim a figure of 42 %)
Historical trends influencing the ethnic demographics of the United States include:
In some cases, immigrants and migrants form ethnic enclaves; in others, mixture creates ethnically diverse neighborhoods.
(For demographics by specific ethnic groups rather than general race, see "Ancestry '' below.)
The majority of people currently living in the United States are White and European Americans. The United States Census Bureau defines White people as those "having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. '' Like all official U.S. racial categories, "White '' has a "not Hispanic or Latino '' and a "Hispanic or Latino '' component, the latter consisting mostly of White Mexican Americans and White Cuban Americans.
White Americans are the majority in 49 of the 50 states, with Hawaii as the exception. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states; Hawaii, New Mexico, California, and Texas (and the District of Columbia) are the exceptions. These five jurisdictions have "minority majorities '', i.e. minority groups compose the majority of the population.
The non-Hispanic White percentage (63 % in 2012) tends to decrease every year, and this sub-group is expected to become a plurality of the overall U.S. population after the year 2043. White Americans overall (non-Hispanic Whites together with White Hispanics) are projected to continue as the majority, at 73.1 % (or 303 million out of 420 million) in 2050, from currently 77.1 %.
Although a high proportion of the population is known to have multiple ancestries, in the 2000 census, the first with the option to choose more than one, most people still identified with one racial category. In the 2000 census, self - identified German Americans made up 17.1 % of the U.S. population, followed by Irish Americans at 12 %, as reported in the 2000 U.S. Census. This makes German and Irish the largest and second - largest self - reported ancestry groups in the United States. Both groups had high rates of immigration to the U.S. beginning in the mid-19th century, triggered by the Great Famine in Ireland and the failed 1848 Revolution in Germany. However, English Americans and British Americans are still considered the largest ethnic group due to a serious under count following the 2000 census whereby many English and British Americans self - identified under the new category entry ' American ' considering themselves ' indigenous ' because their families had resided in the US for so long or, if of mixed European ancestry, identified with a more recent and differentiated ethnic group.
7.2 % of the population listed their ancestry as American on the 2000 census (see American ethnicity). According to the United States Census Bureau, the number of people in the U.S. who reported American and no other ancestry increased from 12.4 million in 1990 to 20.2 million in 2000. This change in reporting represented the largest "growth '' of any ethnic group in the United States during the 1990s, but it represented how people reported themselves more than growth through birth rates, for instance, and certainly did not reflect immigration.
Most French Americans are believed descended from colonists of Catholic New France; exiled Huguenots, much fewer in number and settling in the eastern English colonies in the late 1600s and early 1700s, needed to assimilate into the majority culture and have intermarried over generations. Isleños of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest have had, in part, direct Spanish ancestry; most self - reported White Hispanics are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban origins, each of which are multi-ethnic nations. Hispanic immigration has increased from nations of Central and South America.
Black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self - identify as African - American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa. The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual 's self - identification since not all immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa are "Black ''. Among these racial outliers are persons from Cape Verde, Madagascar, various Hamito - Semitic populations in East Africa and the Sahel, and the Afrikaners of Southern Africa.
African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro - Americans, and formerly as American Negroes) are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. According to the 2009 American Community Survey, there were 38,093,725 Black and African Americans in the United States, representing 12.4 % of the population. In addition, there were 37,144,530 non-Hispanic blacks, which comprised 12.1 % of the population. This number increased to 42 million according to the 2010 United States Census, when including Multiracial African Americans, making up 14 % of the total U.S. population. Black and African Americans make up the second largest group in the United States, but the third largest group after White Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race). The majority of the population (55 %) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and Midwest.
Most African Americans are the direct descendants of captives from West Africa, who survived the slavery era within the boundaries of the present United States. As an adjective, the term is usually written African - American. The first West Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. The English settlers treated these captives as indentured servants and released them after a number of years. This practice was gradually replaced by the system of race - based slavery used in the Caribbean. All the American colonies had slavery, but it was usually the form of personal servants in the North (where 2 % of the people were slaves), and field hands in plantations in the South (where 25 % were slaves); by the beginning of the American Revolutionary War 1 / 5th of the total population was enslaved. During the revolution, some would serve in the Continental Army or Continental Navy, while others would serve the British Empire in Lord Dunmore 's Ethiopian Regiment, and other units. By 1804, the northern states (north of the Mason -- Dixon line) had abolished slavery. However, slavery would persist in the southern states until the end of the American Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Following the end of the Reconstruction Era, which saw the first African American representation in Congress, African Americans became disenfranchised and subject to Jim Crow laws, legislation that would persist until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 due to the Civil Rights Movement.
According to US Census Bureau data, very few African immigrants self - identify as African - American. On average, less than 5 % of African residents self - reported as "African - American '' or "Afro - American '' on the 2000 US Census. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants (~ 95 %) identified instead with their own respective ethnicities. Self - designation as "African - American '' or "Afro - American '' was highest among individuals from West Africa (4 % - 9 %), and lowest among individuals from Cape Verde, East Africa and Southern Africa (0 % - 4 %). None the less, African immigrants often develop very successful professional and business working - relationships with African - Americans.
In 2008, "Hispanic or Latino origin '' was the self - identification of 47 million Americans. They chiefly have origins in the Spanish - speaking nations of Latin America. Very few also come from other places, for example: 0.2 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans were born in Asia. The group is heterogeneous in race and national ancestry.
The Census Bureau defines "Hispanic or Latino origin '' thus:
The leading country - of - origin for Hispanic Americans is Mexico (30.7 million), followed by Puerto Rico (4.2 million) (which actually has a special relationship with the US, of which its people are citizens), and Cuba (1.6 million), as of 2008. However, as of 2010, there were 1,648,968 Salvadorans in the United States, the largest of the U.S. - Central American community. Salvadorans are poised to become the third largest Hispanic group by the next census, significantly overtaking and replacing Cubans. Recent estimates already put the Salvadoran population as high as 2 million, as of 2013, the third largest Hispanic - American group.
62.4 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans identified as white. 30.5 % identified as "some other race '' (other than the ones listed). According to the PEP 91.9 % of Latinos are white, as these official estimates do not recognize "some other race ''. In the official estimates, Black or African American Hispanics are the second - largest group, with 1.9 million, or 4.0 % of the whole group. The remaining Hispanics are accounted as follows, first per the PEP: 1.6 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.5 % two or more races, 0.7 % Asian, and 0.03 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. Per the ACS: 3.9 % two or more races, 1.9 % Black or African American, 1.0 % American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.4 % Asian, and 0.05 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander.
In the United States the Hispanic and Latino population has reached 58 million in 2016. According to Pew Research Center the Latino population has been the principal driver of United States demographic growth since 2000. Mexicans make up most of the Hispanic and Latino population 35,758,000. There is also a growth of Hispanics who are receiving a college education in 2015, 40 % of Hispanics age 25 and older have had a college experience. In 2000 the percentage was at a low 30 %. In all the 50 US states California houses the largest population percentage of Latinos. In 2015, 15.2 million Hispanics lived in California.
The Hispanic or Latino population is young and fast - growing, due to immigration and higher birth rates. For decades it has contributed significantly to U.S. population increases, and this is expected to continue. The Census Bureau projects that by 2050, one - quarter of the population will be Hispanic or Latino.
A third significant minority is the Asian American population, comprising 19.4 million in 2013, or 6.0 % of the U.S. population. California is home to 4.5 million Asian Americans, whereas 495,000 live in Hawaii, where they compose the plurality, at 38.5 % of the islands ' people. This is their largest share of any state. Historically first concentrated on Hawaii and the West Coast, Asian Americans now live across the country, living and working in large numbers in New York City, Chicago, Boston, Houston, and other major urban centers.
Their histories are diverse. As with the new immigration from central and eastern Europe to the East Coast from the mid-19th century on, Asians started immigrating to the United States in large numbers in the 19th century. This first major wave of immigration consisted predominantly of Chinese and Japanese laborers, but also included Korean and South Asian immigrants. Many immigrants also came during and after this period from the Philippines, which was a US colony from 1898 to 1946. Exclusion laws and policies largely prohibited and curtailed Asian immigration until the 1940s. After the US changed its immigration laws during the 1940s to 1960s to make entry easier, a much larger new wave of immigration from Asia began. Today the largest self - identified Asian American sub-groups according to census data are Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans, Indian Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Korean Americans, and Japanese Americans, among other groups.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas, particularly Native Americans, made up 0.8 % of the population in 2008, numbering 2.4 million. An additional 2.3 million persons declared part - American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry.
The legal and official designation of who is Native American has aroused controversy by demographers, tribal nations, and government officials for many decades. Federally recognized tribes and state recognized tribes set their own membership requirements; tribal enrollment may require residency on a reservation, documented lineal descent from recognized records, such as the Dawes Rolls, and other criteria. Some tribes have adopted the use of blood quantum, requiring members to have a certain percentage. The federal government requires individuals to certify documented blood quantum of ancestry for certain federal programs, such as education benefits, available to members of recognized tribes. But Census takers accept any respondent 's identification. Genetic scientists estimated that more than 15 million other Americans, including African Americans and Hispanic Americans (specifically those of Mexican heritage), may have up to one quarter of American Indian ancestry.
Once thought to face extinction as a race or culture, Native Americans of numerous tribes have achieved revival of aspects of their cultures, together with asserting their sovereignty and direction of their own affairs since the mid-20th century. Many have started language programs to revive use of traditional languages; some have established tribally controlled colleges and other schools on their reservations, so that education is expressive of their cultures. Since the late 20th century, many tribes have developed gaming casinos on their sovereign land to raise revenues for economic development, as well as to promote the education and welfare of their people through health care and construction of improved housing.
Today more than 800,000 to one million persons claim Cherokee descent in part or as full - bloods; of these, an estimated 300,000 live in California, 70,000 -- 160,000 in Oklahoma, and 15,000 in North Carolina in ancestral homelands.
The second largest tribal group is the Navajo, who call themselves Diné and live on a 16 - million acre (65,000 km2) Indian reservation covering northeast Arizona, northwest New Mexico, and southeast Utah. It is home to half of the 450,000 Navajo Nation members. The third largest group are the Lakota (Sioux) Nation, with distinct federally recognized tribes located in the states of Minnesota, Nebraska, Montana, Wyoming; and North and South Dakota.
Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders numbered 427,810 in 2008, or 0.1 % of the population. Additionally, nearly as many individuals identify as having partial Native Hawaiian ancestry, for a total of 829,949 people of full or part Native Hawaiian ancestry. This group constitutes the smallest minority in the United States. More than half identify as "full - blooded '', but historically most Native Hawaiians on the island chain of Hawaii are believed to have admixture with Asian and European ancestries. But, the Census takes reporting by individuals as to how they identify.
Some demographers believe that by the year 2025, the last full - blooded Native Hawaiian will die off, leaving a culturally distinct, but racially mixed population. The total number of persons who have identified as Native Hawaiian in 2008 was more than the estimated Hawaiian population when the US annexed the islands in 1898. Native Hawaiians are receiving ancestral land reparations. Throughout Hawaii, they are working to preserve and assert adaptation of Native Hawaiian customs and the Hawaiian language. They have cultural schools solely for legally Native Hawaiian students.
According to the Arab American Institute (AAI), countries of origin for Arab Americans include Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
There are an estimated 1.9 - 2.0 million Middle Eastern Americans according to the U.S. Census, including both Arab and non-Arab Americans, comprising 0.6 % of the total U.S. population; however, the Arab American Institute estimates a population closer to 3.6 million. U.S. Census population estimates are based on responses to the ancestry question on the census, which makes it difficult to accurately count Middle Eastern Americans. Though Middle Eastern American communities can be found in each of the 50 states, the majority live in just 10 states with nearly "one third of the total liv (ing) in California, New York, and Michigan ''. More Middle Eastern Americans live in California than any other state, but Middle Eastern Americans represent the highest percentage of the population of Michigan. In particular, Dearborn, Michigan has long been home to a high concentration of Middle Eastern Americans.
The United States Census Bureau is presently finalizing the ethnic classification of MENA populations. In 2012, prompted in part by post-9 / 11 discrimination, the American - Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee petitioned the Department of Commerce 's Minority Business Development Agency to designate the MENA populations as a minority / disadvantaged community. Following consultations with MENA organizations, the US Census Bureau announced in 2014 that it would establish a new MENA ethnic category for populations from the Middle East, North Africa and the Arab world, separate from the "white '' classification that these populations had previously sought in 1909. The expert groups, including some Jewish organizations, felt that the earlier "white '' designation no longer accurately represents MENA identity, so they successfully lobbied for a distinct categorization. This process does not currently include ethnoreligious groups such as Jews or Sikhs, as the Bureau only tabulates these groups as followers of religions rather than members of ethnic groups.
As of December 2015, the sampling strata for the new MENA category includes the Census Bureau 's working classification of 19 MENA groups, as well as Turkish, Sudanese, Somali, Mauritanian, Armenian, Cypriot, Afghan, Azerbaijani and Georgian groups.
Self - identified multiracial Americans numbered 7.0 million in 2008, or 2.3 % of the population. They have identified as any combination of races (White, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, "some other race '') and ethnicities. The U.S. has a growing multiracial identity movement.
While the colonies and southern states protected white fathers by making all children born to slave mothers be classified as slaves, regardless of paternity, they also banned miscegenation or interracial marriage, most notably between whites and blacks. This did little to stop interracial relationships, except as legal, consensual unions.
Demographers state that, due to new waves of immigration, the American people through the early 20th century were mostly multi-ethnic descendants of various immigrant nationalities, who maintained cultural distinctiveness until, over time, assimilation, migration and integration took place. The Civil Rights Movement through the 20th century gained passage of important legislation to enforce constitutional rights of minorities.
According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University, Northridge, by some calculations in the 2000 Census, the multiracial population that is part white (which is the largest percentage of the multiracial population), is as follows:
A 2002 study found an average of 18.6 % European genetic contribution and 2.7 % Native American genetic contribution (with standard errors 1.5 % and 1.4 % respectively) in a sample of 232 African Americans. Meanwhile, in a sample of 187 European Americans from State College, Pennsylvania, there was an average of 0.7 % West African genetic contribution and 3.2 % Native American genetic contribution (with standard errors 0.9 % and 1.6 % respectively). Most of the non-European admixture was concentrated in 30 % of the sample, with West African admixture ranging from 2 to 20 %, with an average of 2.3 %.
In 1958 Robert Stuckert produced a statistical analysis using historical census data and immigration statistics. He concluded that the growth in the White population could not be attributed solely to births in the White population and immigration from Europe, but was also due to people identifying as white who were partly black. He concluded that 21 percent of white Americans had some recent African - American ancestors. He also concluded that the majority of Americans of known African descent were partly European and not entirely sub-Saharan African.
More recently, many different DNA studies have shown that many African Americans have European admixture, reflecting the long history in this country of the various populations. Proportions of European admixture in African - American DNA have been found in studies to be 17 % and between 10.6 % and 22.5 %. Another recent study found the average to be 21.2 %, with a standard error of 1.2 %.
The Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group of the National Human Genome Research Institute notes that "although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person 's ancestors coming from various continental populations, these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history. ''
In the 2000 census, the non-standard category of "Other '' was especially intended to capture responses such as Mestizo and Mulatto, two large multiracial groups in most of the countries of origin of Hispanic and Latino Americans. However, many other responses are captured by the category.
In 2008 15.0 million people, nearly 5 % of the total U.S. population, were estimated to be "some other race '', with 95 % of them being Hispanic or Latino.
Due to this category 's non-standard status, statistics from government agencies other than the Census Bureau (for example: the Centers for Disease Control 's data on vital statistics, or the FBI 's crime statistics), but also the Bureau 's own official Population Estimates, omit the "some other race '' category and include most of the people in this group in the white population, thus including the vast majority (about 90 %) of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the white population. For an example of this, see The World Factbook, published by the Central Intelligence Agency.
The ancestry of the people of the United States of America is widely varied and includes descendants of populations from around the world. In addition to its variation, the ancestry of people of the United States is also marked by varying amounts of intermarriage between ethnic and racial groups.
While some Americans can trace their ancestry back to a single ethnic group or population in Europe, Africa, or Asia, these are often first - and second - generation Americans. Generally, the degree of mixed heritage increases the longer one 's ancestors have lived in the United States (see melting pot). In theory, there are several means available to discover the ancestry of the people residing in the United States, including genealogy, genetics, oral and written history, and analysis of Federal Population Census schedules. In practice, only few of these have been used for a larger part of the population.
According to the 2010 -- 2015 American Community Survey, the twenty largest ancestry groups in the United States were (see above for the OMB self - designation options):
These images display frequencies of self - reported ancestries, as of the 2000 U.S. Census. Regional African ancestries are not listed, though an African American map has been added from another source.
Frequency of American ancestry
Density of Asian Americans
Percent of Asian Americans
Density of African Americans
Percent of African Americans
Density of Native Hawaiian Americans
Percent of Native Hawaiian Americans
Density of Native Americans
Percent of Native Americans
Density of White Americans
Percent of White Americans
Black ancestry
Arab ancestry
Density of Hispanic ancestry
Percent of Hispanic ancestry
West Indian ancestry
These images display frequencies of self - reported European American ancestries as of the 2000 U.S. Census.
Czech ancestry
Danish ancestry
Dutch ancestry
English ancestry
Finnish ancestry
French ancestry
French Canadian ancestry
German ancestry
Greek ancestry
Hungarian ancestry
Icelandic ancestry
Irish ancestry
Italian ancestry
Lithuanian ancestry
Norwegian ancestry
Polish ancestry
Portuguese ancestry
Romanian ancestry
Russian ancestry
Scots - Irish ancestry
Scottish ancestry
Slovak ancestry
Swedish ancestry
Ukrainian ancestry
Welsh ancestry
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who opened the time capsule one tree hill | One Tree Hill (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of One Tree Hill, an American teen drama television series, began airing on October 5, 2005. The season concluded on May 3, 2006, after 22 episodes. It is the final season that aired on The WB television network. Season three dipped in ratings, averaging 2.8 million viewers weekly.
This season focuses on the first half of senior year at Tree Hill High School. Starting three months after the second season finale, Haley returns to Tree Hill and tries to save her marriage with Nathan. Peyton gets to know her birth mother. Lucas and Brooke begin a relationship. Keith and Karen get engaged. Nathan patches things up with Lucas, while Mouth begins a complicated relationship with newcomer Rachel, who also spreads a lot of drama through the core characters. After a shooting at the school things between Lucas and Peyton heat up despite Peyton 's proposal to Jake.
In the third season premiere, we finally discover Dan 's fate after the fire. In addition to the situation with his father, Nathan also has to deal with Haley 's reappearance in Tree Hill and the future of their relationship. Peyton tries to find the truth about the mysterious woman claiming to be her mother. Lucas looks forward to Brooke 's return after a summer apart.
Brooke has an end of the summer party on the beach. Nathan is home from basketball camp. Lucas deals with Brooke 's rules for non-exclusive dating. Brooke ends up having a ball with many guys whereas Lucas spends the night alone and then tells Brooke that he is the one for her, which marks the beginning of his mission to become exclusive. Peyton deals with family issues, by confronting her mom about her drug problem, after Lucas witnesses her buying. Haley tries to tell Nathan how she feels, however he is not ready for a relationship yet and is still angry with her.
It 's the first day of senior year for the Tree Hill gang. Lucas tells Dan he saved his life. Peyton discovers Ellie 's secret. Nathan tells Haley he 's considering a divorce. Dan accuses several people of starting the dealership fire and tries to get Whitey replaced as Ravens coach.
It 's Halloween in Tree Hill and everybody 's celebrating at TRIC, with special guest band Fall Out Boy. The masquerade ball gives Haley the chance to win Nathan back, while Lucas keeps trying to convince Brooke to be exclusive. Peyton decides to face her new mother and get to know her. Dan tries to use blackmail to become mayor but things do n't turn out the way he thought they would when Deb gets in his way.
The Ravens begin basketball practice. New team captain Nathan clashes with Lucas over Haley, and a new cheerleader named Rachel Gatina sets her sights on Lucas. Dan 's mayoral bid takes a surprising turn when an unlikely opponent emerges in Karen.
Brooke starts a "Fantasy Boy Draft '', after the cheerleaders start fighting over the same guys. Haley and Peyton continue to argue about Nathan. Dan butts heads with Karen as the election draws nearer. Lucas tries to keep up with the fast pace of basketball.
The fantasy draft dates begin, Lucas finds himself with Rachel and a very familiar setting. Brooke is on a double date with a surprising person and a surprising couple. Skills goes to Bevin 's house for the night, but is n't quite interested in what she has in mind. Mouth and Peyton hang out. Karen and Deb take the campaigning for mayor to a new level, to bring down Dan. Nathan gets mad when Chris gets close to Haley.
As the town readies for the Ravens ' first basketball game, Lucas worries that his head and heart are n't in it. Nathan accuses Lucas of being the Ravens ' weak link. Peyton and Haley mend fences to support Brooke in her time of need. When the mayoral race tightens, Dan resorts to a smear campaign.
It is revealed that Lucas knows who tried to kill Dan and he confronts the guilty party. Brooke, Peyton and Haley find themselves behind bars. Peyton is annoyed by the presence of her guilty conscience. Chris Keller convinces Nathan to be his wingman at a cash poker game. The residents of Tree Hill finally choose a mayor.
Lucas and Peyton take a road trip together to find Ellie. While out of town, Lucas reconnects with a friend from the past. Brooke, Haley and Mouth successfully launch the Clothes Over Bro 's website, only to find that demand far exceeds supply. Deb reveals to Nathan that she tried to kill Dan. Nathan and Haley finally get back together.
The Ravens lose their second game in a row, Whitey decides to teach them a tough lesson. Peyton and Ellie look for support for their album and hope to attract Nada Surf to the project. Both Dan and Haley upset Nathan, while Brooke plans a romantic thank - you for Lucas.
As the students meet with the school counselor to plan for the future, Nathan and Haley realize they want to attend colleges across the country from one another. Brooke discovers Rachel 's reasons for submitting her designs to Rogue Vogue. Meanwhile, Ellie and Peyton bond as they finish the benefit album.
A violent rainstorm knocks out the power in Tree Hill, leading Haley to Nathan 's doorstep and Brooke out into the downpour for a dramatic confrontation with Lucas. Peyton finally confronts the truth about Ellie 's illness. Mouth is tempted by his new friend, Rachel. Before morning, secrets are revealed, relationships are tested and romance heats up.
Brooke is forced to grow up in a hurry when her trip to a New York City fashion show prevents her from attending an annual cheerleading tournament. Nathan and Lucas are influenced by the father of a friend. Skills tells Bevin he ca n't swim to trick her into giving him a swimming lesson. Struggling with her birth mother 's cancer, Peyton joins Rachel for a night of blowing off steam. Haley and Nathan use their hotel room as the honeymoon suite they never had.
When someone unleashes the students ' time capsule on Tree Hill High, Lucas and Mouth must confront a person from their past. Brooke deals with the revelation that secrets are n't the only things she exposed in the time capsule. Dan tries to forgive Keith. Haley is forced to reconcile the man Nathan was before with the man he has become. Peyton 's Breast Cancer Benefit Concert at TRIC features performances by Haley and Jack 's Mannequin and the return of Fall Out Boy.
In the aftermath of the release of the time capsule, chaos breaks out, Jimmy Edwards holds students of Tree Hill High School hostage with a gun. While lives hang in the balance, Nathan and Lucas put themselves at risk to protect their friends and loved ones. Young lives are shattered and two will end. Dan takes revenge on a close relative.
The aftermath of the school shooting and the death of Jimmy Edwards force everyone in Tree Hill to examine their lives. Nathan reassesses his relationship with Haley, while Brooke and Rachel join forces to heal the student body. Dan must deal with the ramifications of killing Keith. Lucas and Peyton consider the implications of their kiss in the library.
Rachel invites the gang for a weekend getaway at her family 's cabin. Craziness will ensue, including a game of "I Never '' which will cause people to do things they normally would n't. A nasty little issue Mouth has been harboring toward Rachel will surface. Meanwhile, Karen confronts Dan about Keith 's death.
Lucas attempts to play in the first game after Keith 's death, but he can not bring himself to do it. After seeing Lucas 's pain, Nathan asks Whitey to forfeit the game. Lucas finally tells Whitey, Nathan, and Karen about his heart condition (HCM) after Deb convinces him to be there for Karen after Keith 's death. Nathan and Haley prepare to renew their vows. Mouth tries to get closer to Rachel. Peyton gets an invitation to go to Chicago, from Pete. Brooke gets revenge on Rachael, by making posters of Rachael who got multiple surgeries to become attractive, because she was obese when she was 14.
Nathan deals with a player who is a rival both on and off the court. Dan is given a restraining order from Deb and Nathan. Brooke and Mouth look to get even with Rachel, who has tricked Cooper into thinking she is 26 and a model. Dan has a run - in with Cooper. Peyton makes a major decision and goes to see Jake and Jenny who are in Savannah. At the end of the episode Peyton asks Jake to marry her.
Haley argues with Brooke about her wedding dress. Brooke plans an engagement party for Nathan and Haley. Karen and Lucas get back in town. Peyton is surprised by her own feelings when she mumble she loves Lucas in her sleep and Jake overhears.
Nathan worries about Haley as they prepare to renew their vows. Deb confesses to Dan about the fire. Peyton and Brooke 's friendship becomes strained when Peyton confesses she still loves Lucas. Nathan, Cooper and Rachel 's lives hang in the balance after a car accident. Someone might be pregnant.
The DVD release of season three was released after the season has completed broadcast on television. It has been released in Regions 1, 2 and 4. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material such as audio commentaries on some episodes from the creator and cast, deleted scenes, gag reels and behind - the - scenes featurettes.
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where were the judges from the nuremburg trials from | Nuremberg trials - wikipedia
Coordinates: 49 ° 27.2603 ′ N 11 ° 02.9103 ′ E / 49.4543383 ° N 11.0485050 ° E / 49.4543383; 11.0485050 The Nuremberg Trials (German: Die Nürnberger Prozesse) were a series of military tribunals held by the Allied forces under international law and the laws of war after World War II. The trials were most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, judicial and economic leadership of Nazi Germany, who planned, carried out, or otherwise participated in the Holocaust and other war crimes. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Germany, and their decisions marked a turning point between classical and contemporary international law.
The first and best known set of these trials were those of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT). They were described as "the greatest trial in history '' by Norman Birkett, one of the British judges who presided over them. Held between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the Tribunal was given the task of trying 24 of the most important political and military leaders of the Third Reich -- though the proceedings of Martin Bormann was tried in absentia, while another, Robert Ley, committed suicide within a week of the trial 's commencement.
Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, Wilhelm Burgdorf, Hans Krebs and Joseph Goebbels had all committed suicide in the spring of 1945 to avoid capture, though Himmler was captured before his suicide. Krebs and Burgdorf committed suicide two days after Hitler in the same place. Reinhard Heydrich had been assassinated by Czech partisans in 1942, so he was not included. Josef Terboven killed himself with dynamite in Norway in 1945. Adolf Eichmann fled to Argentina to avoid Allied capture, but was captured by Israel 's intelligence service the Mossad, convicted of war crimes, and hanged in 1962. Hermann Göring was sentenced to death but committed suicide the night before his execution as a perceived act of defiance against his captors. Miklós Horthy appeared as a witness at the Ministries trial held in Nuremberg in 1948.
This article primarily deals with the first set of trials conducted by the IMT. A second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunal (NMT), which included the Doctors ' trial and the Judges ' Trial.
The typification of the crimes and the constitution of the court represented a juridical advance that would be used afterwards by the United Nations for the development of a specific international jurisprudence in matters of war crime, crimes against humanity, war of aggression, as well as for the creation of the International Criminal Court.
A precedent for trying those accused of war crimes had been set at the end of World War I in the Leipzig War Crimes Trials held in May to July 1921 before the Reichsgericht (German Supreme Court) in Leipzig, although these had been on a very limited scale and largely regarded as ineffectual. At the beginning of 1940, the Polish government - in - exile asked the British and French governments to condemn the German invasion of their country. The British initially declined to do so; however, in April 1940, a joint declaration was issued by the British, French and Polish. Relatively bland because of Anglo - French reservations, it proclaimed the trio 's "desire to make a formal and public protest to the conscience of the world against the action of the German government whom they must hold responsible for these crimes which can not remain unpunished. ''
Three - and - a-half years later, the stated intention to punish the Germans was much more trenchant. On 1 November 1943, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States published their "Declaration on German Atrocities in Occupied Europe '', which gave a "full warning '' that, when the Nazis were defeated, the Allies would "pursue them to the uttermost ends of the earth... in order that justice may be done... The above declaration is without prejudice to the case of the major war criminals whose offences have no particular geographical location and who will be punished by a joint decision of the Government of the Allies. '' This intention by the Allies to dispense justice was reiterated at the Yalta Conference and at Berlin in 1945.
British War Cabinet documents, released on 2 January 2006, showed that as early as December 1944 the Cabinet had discussed their policy for the punishment of the leading Nazis if captured. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, had then advocated a policy of summary execution in some circumstances, with the use of an Act of Attainder to circumvent legal obstacles, being dissuaded from this only by talks with US and Soviet leaders later in the war.
In late 1943, during the Tripartite Dinner Meeting at the Tehran Conference, the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, proposed executing 50,000 -- 100,000 German staff officers. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt joked that perhaps 49,000 would do. Churchill, believing them to be serious, denounced the idea of "the cold blooded execution of soldiers who fought for their country '' and that he would rather be "taken out in the courtyard and shot '' himself than partake in any such action. However, he also stated that war criminals must pay for their crimes and that, in accordance with the Moscow Document which he himself had written, they should be tried at the places where the crimes were committed. Churchill was vigorously opposed to executions "for political purposes. '' According to the minutes of a meeting between Roosevelt and Stalin at Yalta, on 4 February 1945, at the Livadia Palace, President Roosevelt "said that he had been very much struck by the extent of German destruction in Crimea and therefore he was more bloodthirsty in regard to the Germans than he had been a year ago, and he hoped that Marshal Stalin would again propose a toast to the execution of 50,000 officers of the German Army. ''
Henry Morgenthau Jr., US Secretary of the Treasury, suggested a plan for the total denazification of Germany; this was known as the Morgenthau Plan. The plan advocated the forced de-industrialisation of Germany and the summary execution of so - called "arch - criminals '', i.e. the major war criminals. Roosevelt initially supported this plan, and managed to convince Churchill to support it in a less drastic form. Later, details were leaked generating widespread condemnation by the nation 's newspapers. Roosevelt, aware of strong public disapproval, abandoned the plan, but did not adopt an alternative position on the matter. The demise of the Morgenthau Plan created the need for an alternative method of dealing with the Nazi leadership. The plan for the "Trial of European War Criminals '' was drafted by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson and the War Department. Following Roosevelt 's death in April 1945, the new president, Harry S. Truman, gave strong approval for a judicial process. After a series of negotiations between Britain, the US, Soviet Union and France, details of the trial were worked out. The trials were to commence on 20 November 1945, in the Bavarian city of Nuremberg.
On 20 April 1942, representatives from the nine countries occupied by Germany met in London to draft the "Inter-Allied Resolution on German War Crimes ''. At the meetings in Tehran (1943), Yalta (1945) and Potsdam (1945), the three major wartime powers, the United Kingdom, United States, and the Soviet Union, agreed on the format of punishment for those responsible for war crimes during World War II. France was also awarded a place on the tribunal. The legal basis for the trial was established by the London Charter, which was agreed upon by the four so - called Great Powers on 8 August 1945, and which restricted the trial to "punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis countries ''
Some 200 German war crimes defendants were tried at Nuremberg, and 1,600 others were tried under the traditional channels of military justice. The legal basis for the jurisdiction of the court was that defined by the Instrument of Surrender of Germany. Political authority for Germany had been transferred to the Allied Control Council which, having sovereign power over Germany, could choose to punish violations of international law and the laws of war. Because the court was limited to violations of the laws of war, it did not have jurisdiction over crimes that took place before the outbreak of war on 1 September 1939.
Leipzig and Luxembourg were briefly considered as the location for the trial. The Soviet Union had wanted the trials to take place in Berlin, as the capital city of the ' fascist conspirators ', but Nuremberg was chosen as the site for two reasons, with the first one having been the decisive factor:
As a compromise with the Soviets, it was agreed that while the location of the trial would be Nuremberg, Berlin would be the official home of the Tribunal authorities. It was also agreed that France would become the permanent seat of the IMT and that the first trial (several were planned) would take place in Nuremberg.
Most of the accused had previously been detained at Camp Ashcan, a processing station and interrogation center in Luxembourg, and were moved to Nuremberg for the trial.
Each of the four countries provided one judge and an alternative, as well as a prosecutor.
Assisting Jackson were the lawyers Telford Taylor, William S. Kaplan and Thomas J. Dodd, and Richard Sonnenfeldt, a US Army interpreter. Assisting Shawcross were Major Sir David Maxwell - Fyfe and Sir John Wheeler - Bennett. Mervyn Griffith - Jones, who was later to become famous as the chief prosecutor in the Lady Chatterley 's Lover obscenity trial, was also on Shawcross 's team. Shawcross also recruited a young barrister, Anthony Marreco, who was the son of a friend of his, to help the British team with the heavy workload.
The vast majority of the defense attorneys were German lawyers. These included Georg Fröschmann, Heinz Fritz (Hans Fritzsche), Otto Kranzbühler (Karl Dönitz), Otto Pannenbecker (Wilhelm Frick), Alfred Thoma (Alfred Rosenberg), Kurt Kauffmann (Ernst Kaltenbrunner), Hans Laternser (general staff and high command), Franz Exner (Alfred Jodl), Alfred Seidl (Hans Frank), Otto Stahmer (Hermann Göring), Walter Ballas (Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach), Hans Flächsner (Albert Speer), Günther von Rohrscheidt (Rudolf Heß), Egon Kubuschok (Franz von Papen), Robert Servatius (Fritz Sauckel), Fritz Sauter (Joachim von Ribbentrop), Walther Funk (Baldur von Schirach), Hanns Marx (Julius Streicher), Otto Nelte (Wilhelm Keitel), and Herbert Kraus / Rudolph Dix (both working for Hjalmar Schacht). The main counsels were supported by a total of 70 assistants, clerks and lawyers. The defense counsel witnesses included several men who took part in the war crimes during World War II, such as Rudolf Höss. The men testifying for the defense hoped to receive more lenient sentences. All of the men testifying on behalf of the defense were found guilty on several counts.
The International Military Tribunal was opened on 19 November 1945 in the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg. The first session was presided over by the Soviet judge, Nikitchenko. The prosecution entered indictments against 24 major war criminals and seven organizations -- the leadership of the Nazi party, the Reich Cabinet, the Schutzstaffel (SS), Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Gestapo, the Sturmabteilung (SA) and the "General Staff and High Command '', comprising several categories of senior military officers. These organizations were to be declared "criminal '' if found guilty.
The indictments were for:
The 24 accused were, with respect to each charge, either indicted but not convicted (I), indicted and found guilty (G), or not charged (--), as listed below by defendant, charge, and eventual outcome:
The Rorschach test was administered to the defendants, along with the Thematic Apperception Test and a German adaptation of the Wechsler - Bellevue Intelligence Test. All were above average intelligence, several considerably.
Throughout the trials, specifically between January and July 1946, the defendants and a number of witnesses were interviewed by American psychiatrist Leon Goldensohn. His notes detailing the demeanor and comments of the defendants survive; they were edited into book form and published in 2004. Jean Delay was the psychiatric expert for the French delegation in the trial of Rudolph Hess.
The accusers were successful in unveiling the background of developments leading to the outbreak of World War II, which cost at least 40 million lives in Europe alone, as well as the extent of the atrocities committed in the name of the Hitler regime. Twelve of the accused were sentenced to death, seven received prison sentences (ranging from 10 years to life in prison), three were acquitted, and two were not charged.
The death sentences were carried out on 16 October 1946 by hanging using the standard drop method instead of long drop. The U.S. army denied claims that the drop length was too short which caused the condemned to die slowly from strangulation instead of quickly from a broken neck, but evidence remains that some of the condemned men died agonizingly slowly, struggling for 14 to 28 minutes before finally choking to death. The executioner was John C. Woods. Woods had hanged 34 U.S. soldiers during the war, botching several of them. The executions took place in the gymnasium of the court building (demolished in 1983).
Although the rumor has long persisted that the bodies were taken to Dachau and burned there, they were actually incinerated in a crematorium in Munich, and the ashes scattered over the river Isar. The French judges suggested that the military condemned (Göring, Keitel and Jodl) be shot by a firing squad, as is standard for military courts - martial, but this was opposed by Biddle and the Soviet judges, who argued that the military officers had violated their military ethos and were not worthy of death by being shot, which was considered to be more dignified. The prisoners sentenced to incarceration were transferred to Spandau Prison in 1947.
Of the 12 defendants sentenced to death by hanging, two were not hanged: Martin Bormann was convicted in absentia (he had, unknown to the Allies, died while trying to escape from Berlin in May 1945), and Hermann Göring committed suicide the night before the execution. The remaining 10 defendants sentenced to death were hanged.
The definition of what constitutes a war crime is described by the Nuremberg principles, a set of guidelines document which was created as a result of the trial. The medical experiments conducted by German doctors and prosecuted in the so - called Doctors ' Trial led to the creation of the Nuremberg Code to control future trials involving human subjects, a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation.
Of the indicted organizations the following were found not to be criminal:
The American authorities conducted subsequent Nuremberg Trials in their occupied zone.
Other trials conducted after the Nuremberg Trials include the following:
While Sir Geoffrey Lawrence of Britain was the judge chosen as president of the court, the most prominent of the judges at trial arguably was his American counterpart, Francis Biddle. Prior to the trial, Biddle had been Attorney General of the United States but had been asked to resign by Truman earlier in 1945.
Some accounts argue that Truman had appointed Biddle as the main American judge for the trial as an apology for asking for his resignation. Ironically, Biddle was known during his time as Attorney General for opposing the idea of prosecuting Nazi leaders for crimes committed before the beginning of the war, even sending out a memorandum on 5 January 1945 on the subject. The note also expressed Biddle 's opinion that instead of proceeding with the original plan for prosecuting entire organizations, there should simply be more trials that would prosecute specific offenders.
Biddle soon changed his mind, as he approved a modified version of the plan on 21 January 1945, likely due to time constraints, since the trial would be one of the main issues discussed at Yalta. At trial, the Nuremberg tribunal ruled that any member of an organization convicted of war crimes, such as the SS or Gestapo, who had joined after 1939 would be considered a war criminal. Biddle managed to convince the other judges to make an exemption for any member who was drafted or had no knowledge of the crimes being committed by these organizations.
Justice Robert H. Jackson played an important role in not only the trial itself, but also in the creation of the International Military Tribunal, as he led the American delegation to London that, in the summer of 1945, argued in favour of prosecuting the Nazi leadership as a criminal conspiracy. According to Airey Neave, Jackson was also the one behind the prosecution 's decision to include membership in any of the six criminal organizations in the indictments at the trial, though the IMT rejected this on the grounds that it was wholly without precedent in either international law or the domestic laws of any of the Allies. Jackson also attempted to have Alfried Krupp be tried in place of his father, Gustav, and even suggested that Alfried volunteer to be tried in his father 's place. Both proposals were rejected by the IMT, particularly by Lawrence and Biddle, and some sources indicate that this resulted in Jackson being viewed unfavourably by the latter.
Thomas Dodd was a prosecutor for the United States. There was an immense amount of evidence backing the prosecutors ' case, especially since meticulous records of the Nazis ' actions had been kept. There were records taken in by the prosecutors that had signatures from specific Nazis signing for everything from stationery supplies to Zyklon B gas, which was used to kill the inmates of the deathcamps. Thomas Dodd showed a series of pictures to the courtroom after reading through the documents of crimes committed by the defendants. The showing consisted of pictures displaying the atrocities performed by the defendants. The pictures had been gathered when the inmates were liberated from the concentration camps.
Henry Gerecke, a Lutheran pastor, was sent to minister to the Nazi defendants.
The Tribunal is celebrated for establishing that "(c) rimes against international law are committed by men, not by abstract entities, and only by punishing individuals who commit such crimes can the provisions of international law be enforced. '' The creation of the IMT was followed by trials of lesser Nazi officials and the trials of Nazi doctors, who performed experiments on people in prison camps. It served as the model for the International Military Tribunal for the Far East which tried Japanese officials for crimes against peace and against humanity. It also served as the model for the Eichmann trial and for present - day courts at The Hague, for trying crimes committed during the Balkan wars of the early 1990s, and at Arusha, for trying the people responsible for the genocide in Rwanda.
The Nuremberg trials had a great influence on the development of international criminal law. The Conclusions of the Nuremberg trials served as models for:
The International Law Commission, acting on the request of the United Nations General Assembly, produced in 1950 the report Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgement of the Tribunal (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1950, vol. II). See Nuremberg Principles.
The influence of the tribunal can also be seen in the proposals for a permanent international criminal court, and the drafting of international criminal codes, later prepared by the International Law Commission.
Tourists can visit courtroom 600 on days when no trial is on. A permanent exhibition has been dedicated to the trials.
The Nuremberg trials initiated a movement for the prompt establishment of a permanent international criminal court, eventually leading over fifty years later to the adoption of the Statute of the International Criminal Court. This movement was brought about because during the trials, there were conflicting court methods between the German court system and the U.S. court system. The crime of conspiracy was unheard of in the civil law systems of the Continent. Therefore, the German defense found it unfair to charge the defendants with conspiracy to commit crimes, while the judges from common - law countries were used to doing so.
It (IMT) was the first successful international criminal court, and has since played a pivotal role in the development of international criminal law and international institutions.
Critics of the Nuremberg trials argued that the charges against the defendants were only defined as "crimes '' after they were committed and that therefore the trial was invalid as a form of "victor 's justice ''. The alleged double standards associated with putative victor 's justice are also evident from the indictment of German defendants for conspiracy to commit aggression against Poland in 1939, while no one from the Soviet Union was charged for being part of the same conspiracy. As Biddiss observed, "the Nuremberg Trial continues to haunt us... It is a question also of the weaknesses and strengths of the proceedings themselves. ''
Quincy Wright, writing eighteen months after the conclusion of the IMT, explained the opposition to the Tribunal thus:
The assumptions underlying the Charter of the United Nations, the Statute of the International Court of Justice, and the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal are far removed from the positivistic assumptions which greatly influenced the thought of international jurists in the nineteenth century. Consequently, the activities of those institutions have frequently been vigorously criticized by positivistic jurists... (who) have asked: How can principles enunciated by the Nuremberg Tribunal, to take it as an example, be of legal value until most of the states have agreed to a tribunal with jurisdiction to enforce those principles? How could the Nuremberg Tribunal have obtained jurisdiction to find Germany guilty of aggression, when Germany had not consented to the Tribunal? How could the law, first explicitly accepted in the Nuremberg Charter of 1945, have bound the defendants in the trial when they committed the acts for which they were indicted years earlier?
Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court Harlan Fiske Stone called the Nuremberg trials a fraud. "(Chief U.S. prosecutor) Jackson is away conducting his high - grade lynching party in Nuremberg, '' he wrote. "I do n't mind what he does to the Nazis, but I hate to see the pretense that he is running a court and proceeding according to common law. This is a little too sanctimonious a fraud to meet my old - fashioned ideas. ''
Jackson, in a letter discussing the weaknesses of the trial, in October 1945 told U.S. President Harry S. Truman that the Allies themselves "have done or are doing some of the very things we are prosecuting the Germans for. The French are so violating the Geneva Convention in the treatment of prisoners of war that our command is taking back prisoners sent to them. We are prosecuting plunder and our Allies are practising it. We say aggressive war is a crime and one of our allies asserts sovereignty over the Baltic States based on no title except conquest. ''
Associate Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas charged that the Allies were guilty of "substituting power for principle '' at Nuremberg. "I thought at the time and still think that the Nuremberg trials were unprincipled, '' he wrote. "Law was created ex post facto to suit the passion and clamor of the time. ''
U.S. Deputy Chief Counsel Abraham Pomerantz resigned in protest at the low caliber of the judges assigned to try the industrial war criminals such as those at I.G. Farben.
A number of Germans who agreed with the idea of punishment for war crimes admitted trepidation concerning the trials. A contemporary German jurist said:
That the defendants at Nuremberg were held responsible, condemned and punished, will seem to most of us initially as a kind of historical justice. However, no one who takes the question of guilt seriously, above all no responsibly thoughtful jurist, will be content with this sensibility nor should they be allowed to be. Justice is not served when the guilty parties are punished in any old way, even if this seems appropriate with regard to their measure of guilt. Justice is only served when the guilty are punished in a way that carefully and conscientiously considers their criminal errors according to the provisions of valid law under the jurisdiction of a legally appointed judge.
The validity of the court has been questioned on a number of grounds:
In an editorial at the time The Economist, a British weekly newspaper, criticised the hypocrisy of both Britain and France for supporting the expulsion of the Soviet Union from the League of Nations over its unprovoked attack against Finland in 1939 and for six years later cooperating with the USSR as a respected equal at Nuremberg. It also criticised the allies for their own double - standard at the Nuremberg Trials: "nor should the Western world console itself that the Russians alone stand condemned at the bar of the Allies ' own justice... Among crimes against humanity stands the offence of the indiscriminate bombing of civilian populations. Can the Americans who dropped the atom bomb and the British who destroyed the cities of western Germany plead ' not guilty ' on this count? Crimes against humanity also include the mass expulsion of populations. Can the Anglo - Saxon leaders who at Potsdam condoned the expulsion of millions of Germans from their homes hold themselves completely innocent?... The nations sitting in judgement have so clearly proclaimed themselves exempt from the law which they have administered. ''
One criticism that was made of the IMT was that some treaties were not binding on the Axis powers because they were not signatories. This was addressed in the judgment relating to war crimes and crimes against humanity, which contains an expansion of customary law: "the (Hague) Convention expressly stated that it was an attempt ' to revise the general laws and customs of war, ' which it thus recognised to be then existing, but by 1939 these rules laid down in the Convention were recognised by all civilised nations, and were regarded as being declaratory of the laws and customs of war which are referred to in Article 6 (b) of the (London) Charter. ''
The Nuremberg Trials employed four official languages: English, French, German and Russian. In order to address the complex linguistic issues that clouded over the proceedings, interpretation and translation departments had to be established. However, it was feared that consecutive interpretation would slow down the proceedings significantly. What is therefore unique in both the Nuremberg tribunals and history of the interpretation profession was the introduction of an entirely new technique, extempore simultaneous interpretation. This technique of interpretation requires the interpreter to listen to a speaker in a source (or passive) language and orally translate that speech into another language in real time, that is, simultaneously, through headsets and microphones. Interpreters were split into four sections, one for each official language, with three interpreters per section working from the other three languages into the fourth (their mother tongue). For instance, the English booth consisted of three interpreters, one working from German into English, one working from French, and one from Russian, etc. Defendants who did not speak any of the four official languages were provided with consecutive court interpreters. Some of the languages heard over the course of the proceedings included Yiddish, Hungarian, Czech, Ukrainian, and Polish.
The equipment used to establish this system was provided by IBM, and included an elaborate setup of cables which were hooked up to headsets and single earphones directly from the four interpreting booths (often referred to as "the aquarium ''). Four channels existed for each working language, as well as a root channel for the proceedings without interpretation. Switching of channels was controlled by a setup at each table in which the listener merely had to turn a dial in order to switch between languages. People tripping over the floor - laid cables often led to the headsets getting disconnected, with several hours at a time sometimes being taken in order to repair the problem and continue on with the trials.
Interpreters were recruited and examined by the respective countries in which the official languages were spoken: US, UK, France, the Soviet Union, Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, as well as in special cases Belgium and the Netherlands. Many were former translators, army personnel, and linguists, some were experienced consecutive interpreters, others were ordinary individuals and even recent secondary school - graduates who led international lives in multilingual environments. It was, and still is believed, that the qualities that made the best interpreters were not just a perfect understanding of two or more languages, but more importantly a broad sense of culture, encyclopædic knowledge, inquisitiveness, as well as a naturally calm disposition.
With the simultaneous technique being extremely new, interpreters practically trained themselves, but many could not handle the pressure or the psychological strain. Many often had to be replaced, many returned to the translation department, and many left. Serious doubts were given as to whether interpretation provided a fair trial for the defendants, particularly because of fears of mistranslation and errors made on transcripts. The translation department had to also deal with the overwhelming problem of being understaffed and overburdened with an influx of documents that could not be kept up with. More often than not, interpreters were stuck in a session without having proper documents in front of them and were relied upon to do sight translation or double translation of texts, causing further problems and extensive criticism. Other problems that arose included complaints from lawyers and other legal professionals with regard to questioning and cross-examination. Legal professionals were most often appalled at the slower speed at which they had to conduct their task because of the extended time required for interpreters to render an interpretation properly. Also, a number of interpreters protested the idea of using vulgar language, especially if it referred to Jews or the conditions of the Nazi concentration camps. Bilingual / trilingual members who attended the trials picked up quickly on this aspect of character and were equally quick to file complaints.
Yet, despite the extensive trial and error, without the interpretation system the trials would not have been possible and in turn revolutionized the way multilingual issues were addressed in tribunals and conferences. A number of the interpreters following the trials were immediately recruited into the newly formed United Nations, while others returned to their ordinary lives, pursued other careers, or worked freelance. Outside the boundaries of the trials, many interpreters continued their positions on weekends interpreting for dinners, private meetings between judges, and excursions between delegates. Others worked as investigators or editors, or aided the translation department when they could, often using it as an opportunity to sharpen their skills and to correct poor interpretations on transcripts before they were available for public record.
For further reference, a book titled The Origins of Simultaneous Interpretation: The Nuremberg Trial, written by interpreter Francesca Gaiba, was published by the University of Ottawa Press in 1998.
Today, all major international organizations, as well as any conference or government that uses more than one official language, uses extempore simultaneous interpretation. Notable bodies include the Parliament of Kosovo with three official languages, the Parliament of Canada with two official languages, the Parliament of South Africa with eleven official languages, the European Union with twenty - four official languages, and the United Nations with six official working languages.
These citations refer to documents at "The International Military Tribunal for Germany ''. The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History, and Diplomacy. Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library.
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how many parts are in shadow of war | Middle - earth: Shadow of War - Wikipedia
Middle - earth: Shadow of War is an action role - playing video game developed by Monolith Productions and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. It is the sequel to 2014 's Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor, and was released worldwide for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on October 10, 2017.
Shadow of War continues the previous game 's narrative, which is based on J.R.R. Tolkien 's legendarium and set between the events of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Like its predecessor, the game also takes heavy inspiration from director Peter Jackson 's The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings film adaptations. The player continues the story of the ranger Talion and the spirit of the elf lord Celebrimbor, who shares Talion 's body, as they forge a new Ring of Power to amass an army to fight against Sauron. The game builds upon the "Nemesis System '' introduced in Shadow of Mordor, allowing Talion to gain followers from several races of Middle - earth, including Uruks and Ologs, and plan out complex strategies using these to complete missions.
Shadow of War had a generally positive reaction from critics, albeit more mixed than its predecessor; praise was aimed towards the gameplay and an improved nemesis system, although story elements and changes made to established characters received some negative reactions, as well as the inclusion of microtransactions and loot boxes. A free - to - play companion game for iOS and Android devices was also released.
Middle - earth: Shadow of War is an action role - playing game set in an open world environment and played from a third - person perspective, following from its predecessor. The player controls the game 's protagonist Talion, who has several natural athletic and combat abilities as a ranger of Gondor, but also has unique abilities provided by the spirit of the elf lord Celebrimbor, with whom he shares his body. The player uses their combined abilities to complete various missions, typically aimed to disrupt the armies of Sauron. The game includes main quests that drive the game 's narrative, and numerous optional quests that can help the player boost Talion 's abilities and Followers via the game 's "Nemesis System ''. In contrast to the previous game, which was more of a hack and slash, the sequel will have an action role - playing approach, creating a more personalized experience for each player. It will also feature dynamic weather system as well as day - night cycle which affects the gameplay and enemy behaviour.
The Nemesis System expands upon its introduction in Shadow of Mordor to apply to a larger part of the world, including other characters called Followers that have behavior guided by how the player - character has interacted with them. Players will be able to transfer their top Nemesis and their most loyal follower from Shadow of Mordor into Shadow of War. It will include an in - game store from which players can purchase elements to improve their Followers, such as purchasing support of new allies or abilities, or loot chests that contain randomized items of various rarity. The in - game store can use currency earned in game, though players may also purchase such elements with microtransactions. The inclusion of microtransactions in a full - price single - player game has been criticized by game journalists, although later on, it was announced that the game would have multiplayer as well.
The game 's multiplayer features a "Social Conquest mode '', in which players are able to invade other players ' fortresses and attempt to conquer them. This mode has two settings: friendly and ranked. Friendly allows the player to invade someone 's fortress, without the risk of losing your army. Ranked, on the other hand, allows the player to invade, but with a risk of losing some of their Orc Followers permanently.
The mobile companion versions of Shadow of War are played as a real - time strategy role - playing game from a top - down perspective, where players can recruit characters from not only the console / PC versions of the game itself, but also characters from its 2014 predecessor Shadow of Mordor and even the Lord of the Rings film trilogy to fight Sauron 's forces in small - scale, action - packed battles. Like the console / PC versions of the game, players can make use of the Nemesis system to gain extra advantages in battle, as well as make optional in - game purchases.
Shadow of War continues the narrative from Shadow of Mordor, following Talion who is still infused with the spirit of the elf lord Celebrimbor. Talion and Celebrimbor travel to Mt. Doom, where they forge a new Ring of Power free of Sauron 's corruption. However, once the Ring is complete, Celebrimbor is abducted and held hostage by Shelob, who asks Talion to hand over the Ring in exchange for Celebrimbor. Talion reluctantly agrees and gives the Ring to Shelob, who claims they have a common enemy in Sauron. She uses the Ring to see into the future and directs Talion to the last Gondorian stronghold in Mordor, Minas Ithil, which is under siege by Sauron 's forces due to the city 's possession of a valuable Palantir. The Palantir would allow whoever possesses it to see anything they wish, making it a valuable tool for Celebrimbor and a dangerous weapon for Sauron.
Talion travels to Minas Ithil and quickly comes to odds with Celebrimbor. Talion wants to help his fellow Gondorians, while Celebrimbor believes the city is already lost and the retrieval of the Palantir must take priority. Talion reasons that protecting Minas Ithil will also protect the Palantir and he meets up with the city 's defenders: General Castamir, his daughter Idril, and his lieutenant Baranor. Together, they sabotage Orcish efforts to break into the city until Castamir betrays them, allowing the Orcs to breach the gates and handing over the Palantir to the Witch King of Angmar in return for sparing Idril. Castamir is killed by the Witch - King and Talion is barely able to escape thanks to the help of Eltariel, an Elven assassin working on Galadriel 's behalf. The Witch King seizes Minas Ithil, renaming it Minas Morgul. With the Palantir, Sauron realizes that Shelob is holding Celebrimbor 's Ring and sends the Nazgûl to attack her. Talion is able to save Shelob, who returns the Ring to him and tells him that the fate of Middle - earth is in his hands.
With the Ring back in his possession, Talion begins to use its power to dominate Orcs and build his army. During this time, he assists Idril and Baranor in rescuing Gondorian survivors, helps the forest god Carnen defeat the Balrog Tar Goroth and the necromancer Zog, is betrayed by one of his followers, and hunts the Nazgûl alongside Eltariel. Eventually, Talion builds up enough strength to assault Sauron 's fortress directly. During the battle, Talion faces Isildur, now corrupted into a Nazgûl. Talion manages to defeat Isildur, but upon seeing his memories of how he was corrupted by the One Ring, decides to destroy Isildur and release his spirit rather than dominate him. Celebrimbor remarks angrily that Isildur would have been a valuable asset to their cause, leading Talion to realize that Celebrimbor wishes to replace Sauron by dominating him rather than destroying him. Talion refuses to follow Celebrimbor 's orders any more, causing the wraith to abandon him and possess Eltariel instead.
Without Celebrimbor or the ring, Talion begins to die, but is visited by Shelob in a vision. Shelob informs him that if Talion had gone on to fight Sauron, they would have succeeded and Celebrimbor would have enslaved Sauron and marched on the rest of Middle - earth. She implores Talion to continue to fight to contain the darkness within Mordor. Deciding to put his fate in his own hands, Talion picks up the Ring of Power Isildur was wearing to preserve his own life. He then uses the power of Isildur 's Ring to assault and seize Minas Morgul, defeating the Witch King in the process. Talion then takes possession of the Palantir and observes Celebrimbor and Eltariel making their assault on Sauron. The two manage to gain the upper hand and Celebrimbor attempts to dominate Sauron, only for Sauron to cut off two of Eltariel 's fingers, one of which is adorned with the Ring of Power, and merge himself with Celebrimbor. As a result, Sauron and Celebrimbor remain trapped in Sauron 's tower in the form of a flaming eye as their spirits continue to battle for dominance. Talion decides to use Minas Morgul as a fortress to keep Sauron 's forces contained in Mordor.
Decades later, Talion succumbs to the corruption of Isildur 's Ring, and joins Sauron 's forces as a Nazgûl, where he goes with the others to hunt Frodo and the One Ring. However, with the destruction of Sauron and the One Ring, Talion dies with the rest of the Nazgûl and his spirit is freed. He is last seen in the afterlife discarding his weapons and armor as he walks off into the sunrise.
Creative Director Michael de Plater said that the development of Shadow of Mordor was a learning study for Monolith in how to make open world games, and the development team limited themselves in the scope of what they could deliver for that game. With those lessons learned, de Plater said that Monolith was able to take a bolder step forward for Shadow of War, saying "(t) his was our ambition to do the big, blockbuster version of the ideas we 'd begun to explore in the first game. It 's kind of our Terminator 2 to Terminator. ''
Monolith wanted to move the game from the more solitary player experience to one that captured the epic battles shown in The Lord of the Rings films. They created battle systems that enable large - scale battles where parts of the battle would be managed by the various Followers that the player has recruited, thus allowing the player to still focus on the violence and brutality of close - quarter combat. Recognizing the violence inherent with the Middle - earth setting, Monolith aimed to include light humorous elements that play off the thirst for violence that the orcs have, so that the game would not "wallow in it, or feel sadistic ''. The console / PC versions were later confirmed to be rated Mature by the ESRB, like their predecessor, although the mobile versions are less violent and were given the milder Teen rating.
On March 3, 2016, Monolith 's Executive Producer, Michael David Forgey, died of cancer. To commemorate the loss of Shadow of War 's Executive Producer, Monolith and Warner Bros announced a DLC named "Forthog Orc - Slayer ''. Originally selling for $5, Warner Brothers promised to donate $3.50 of the proceeds from each sale of the DLC made from any of the majority of the U.S. states to the Forgey family through December 31, 2019. Warner Brothers was criticized for attempting to cash in on Michael Forgey 's death even though the $1.50 difference was simply the 30 % cut steam takes from all sales. Following public backlash, on September 27, 2017, the DLC was made free to all who purchased the game and all proceeds were refunded to those who purchased it beforehand, in favor of Warner Bros making a lump sum donation to the Forgey family.
Shadow of War was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. The Play Anywhere feature will extend to Microsoft 's upcoming premium console, the Xbox One X, upon that console 's launch, which is planned for the end of 2017.
The title was originally scheduled to be shipped in August 2017, but in June of that year, Warner Bros. Interactive announced that the release would be put off for two months, until October 10, 2017, to make sure the game meets "the highest quality experience '' for players. Despite this delay, the mobile companion versions of Shadow of War were released on September 28, 2017, ahead of the console / PC versions.
Middle - earth: Shadow of War received "generally positive '' reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. IGN gave a positive review stating that the game was "bigger and more ambitious in scope than Shadow of Mordor, with great results '' especially praising the nemesis system, the battles and the multiplayer. However, GameSpot gave a more critical review, "It tries to be larger than its predecessor, there are more abilities, more weapons, more Orcs, yet it leaves you wanting less. '' It specifically criticized "the storefront and the menus and loot system '' but summed up "at its core, it 's a fun experience with brilliant moments. ''
Another unfavorable review came from The Independent, publishing a review titled "A Disappointing Sequel. '' Critic Jack Shepherd criticized the uninvolving story, stating that "by the end, you only care about rival Orcs and not the story. A shame considering the Lord of the Rings has, and remains, one of the greatest tales ever told. ''
Entertainment Weekly ranked the game eighth on their list of the "Best Games of 2017 ''.
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hudson river crash what happened to the plane | US Airways Flight 1549 - Wikipedia
US Airways Flight 1549 was an Airbus A320 - 214 which, in the climbout after takeoff from New York City 's LaGuardia Airport on January 15, 2009, struck a flock of Canada geese just northeast of the George Washington Bridge and consequently lost all engine power. Unable to reach any airport, pilots Chesley Sullenberger and Jeffrey Skiles glided the plane to a ditching in the Hudson River off Midtown Manhattan. All 155 people aboard were rescued by nearby boats and there were few serious injuries.
The accident came to be known as the "Miracle on the Hudson '', and a National Transportation Safety Board official described it as "the most successful ditching in aviation history. '' The Board rejected the notion that the pilot could have avoided ditching by returning to LaGuardia or diverting to nearby Teterboro Airport.
The pilots and flight attendants were awarded the Master 's Medal of the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators in recognition of their "heroic and unique aviation achievement ''.
On January 15, 2009, US Airways Flight 1549 with callsign ' CACTUS 1549 ' was scheduled to fly from New York City 's LaGuardia Airport (LGA) to Charlotte Douglas (CLT), with direct onward service to Seattle -- Tacoma International Airport in Washington State. The aircraft was an Airbus A320 - 214 powered by two GE Aviation / Snecma - designed CFM56 - 5B4 / P turbofan engines.
The pilot in command was 57 - year - old Chesley B. "Sully '' Sullenberger, a former fighter pilot who had been an airline pilot since leaving the United States Air Force in 1980. At the time, he had logged 19,663 total flight hours, including 4,765 in an A320; he was also a glider pilot and expert on aviation safety. First officer Jeffrey B. Skiles, 49, had accrued 15,643 career flight hours, but this was his first Airbus A320 assignment since qualifying to fly it. There were 150 passengers and three flight attendants aboard.
The flight was cleared for takeoff to the northeast from LaGuardia 's Runway 4 at 3: 24: 56 pm Eastern Standard Time (20: 24: 56 UTC). With Skiles in control, the crew made its first report after becoming airborne at 3: 25: 51 as being at 700 feet (210 m) and climbing.
The weather at 2: 51 p.m. was 10 miles visibility with broken clouds at 3,700 feet, wind 8 knots from 290 °; an hour later it was few clouds at 4,200 feet, wind 9 knots from 310 °. At 3: 26: 37 Sullenberger remarked to Skiles: "What a view of the Hudson today. ''
At 3: 27: 11 the plane struck a flock of Canada geese at an altitude of 2,818 feet (859 m) about 4.5 miles (7.2 km) north - northwest of LaGuardia. The pilots ' view was filled with the large birds; passengers and crew heard very loud bangs and saw flames from the engines, followed by silence and an odor of fuel.
Realizing that both engines had shut down, Sullenberger took control while Skiles worked the checklist for engine restart. The aircraft slowed but continued to climb for a further nineteen seconds, reaching about 3,060 feet (930 m) at an airspeed of about 185 knots (343 km / h; 213 mph), then began a glide descent, accelerating to 210 knots (390 km / h; 240 mph) at 3: 28: 10 as it descended through 1,650 feet (500 m).
At 3: 27: 33, Sullenberger radioed a Mayday call to New York Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON): "... this is Cactus 1539 (sic -- correct call sign was Cactus 1549), hit birds. We 've lost thrust on both engines. We 're turning back towards LaGuardia ''. Air traffic controller Patrick Harten told LaGuardia 's tower to hold all departures, and directed Sullenberger back to Runway 13. Sullenberger responded, "Unable ''.
Sullenberger asked if they could attempt to land in New Jersey, mentioning Teterboro Airport; controllers obtained permission for a landing on Teterboro 's Runway 1. Sullenberger responded: "We ca n't do it... We 're gon na be in the Hudson ''. The aircraft passed less than 900 feet (270 m) above the George Washington Bridge. Sullenberger commanded over the cabin address system, "Brace for impact '', and the flight attendants relayed the command to passengers. Meanwhile, air traffic controllers asked the Coast Guard to caution vessels in the Hudson and ask them to prepare to assist with rescue.
About ninety seconds later, at 3: 31 pm, the plane made an unpowered ditching, descending southwards at about 125 knots (140 mph; 230 km / h) into the middle of the North River section of the Hudson tidal estuary, at 40 ° 46 ′ 10 '' N 74 ° 00 ′ 17 '' W / 40.7695 ° N 74.0046 ° W / 40.7695; - 74.0046 roughly opposite West 50th Street (near the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum) in Manhattan and Port Imperial in Weehawken, New Jersey. Flight attendants compared the ditching to a "hard landing '' with "one impact, no bounce, then a gradual deceleration. '' The ebb tide then began to take the plane southward.
Sullenberger opened the cockpit door and ordered evacuation. The crew began evacuating the passengers through the four overwing window exits and into an inflatable slide / raft deployed from the front right passenger door (the front left slide failed to operate, so the manual inflation handle was pulled). A panicked passenger opened a rear door, which a flight attendant was unable to reseal. Water was also entering a hole in the fuselage and through cargo doors that had come open, so as the water rose the attendant urged passengers to move forward by climbing over seats. One passenger was in a wheelchair. Finally, Sullenberger walked the cabin twice to confirm it was empty.
The air and water temperatures were about 19 ° F (− 7 ° C) and 41 ° F (5 ° C) respectively. Some evacuees waited for rescue knee - deep in water on the partially submerged slides, some wearing life - vests. Others stood on the wings or, fearing an explosion, swam away from the plane. One passenger, after helping with the evacuation, found the wing so crowded that he jumped into the river and swam to a boat.
Sullenberger had ditched near boats to facilitate rescue. NY Waterway ferries Thomas Jefferson and then Governor Thomas H. Kean both arrived within minutes and began taking people aboard using a Jason 's cradle. Sullenberger advised the ferry crews to rescue those on the wings first, as they were in more jeopardy than those on the slides, which detached to become life rafts. As the plane drifted, passengers on one slide, fearing that the boat would crush them, shouted for it to steer away. The last person was taken from the plane at 3: 55 pm.
About 140 New York City firefighters responded to nearby docks, as did police, helicopters, and various vessels and divers. Other agencies provided medical help on the Weehawken side of the river, where most passengers were taken.
There were five serious injuries, including a deep laceration in flight attendant Doreen Welsh 's leg. Seventy - eight people were treated, mostly for minor injuries and hypothermia, twenty - four passengers and two rescuers treated at hospitals, with two passengers kept overnight. One passenger now wears glasses because of jet fuel damaging his eyes. No pets were being carried on the flight.
Each passenger later received a letter of apology, $5,000 in compensation for lost baggage (and $5,000 more if they could demonstrate larger losses) and refund of the ticket price. In May 2009 they received any belongings that had been recovered. In addition, they reported offers of $10,000 each in return for agreeing not to sue US Airways.
Many passengers and rescuers later experienced post-traumatic stress symptoms such as sleeplessness, flashbacks, and panic attacks; some began an email support group. Patrick Harten, the controller who had worked the flight, said that "the hardest, most traumatic part of the entire event was when it was over '', and that he was "gripped by raw moments of shock and grief ''.
In an effort to prevent similar accidents, officials captured and gassed 1,235 Canada geese at 17 locations across New York City in mid-2009 and coated 1,739 goose eggs with oil to smother the developing goslings.
The partially submerged plane was moored to a pier near the World Financial Center in Lower Manhattan, roughly 4 miles (6 km) downstream from the ditching location. The left engine, detached by the ditching, was recovered from the riverbed. On January 17 the aircraft was barged to New Jersey.
The initial National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) evaluation that the plane had lost thrust after a bird strike was confirmed by analysis of the cockpit voice and flight data recorders.
It was soon reported that a few days earlier the plane had experienced a less severe compressor stall, and its passengers had been told an emergency landing might be required, but the affected engine was restarted. The NTSB later reported that a faulty temperature sensor had been the cause, and that the engine had not been damaged in that incident.
On January 21, the NTSB found evidence of soft - body damage in the right engine along with organic debris including a feather. The left engine also evidenced soft body impact, with: "dents on both the spinner and inlet lip of the engine cowling. Five booster inlet guide vanes are fractured and eight outlet guide vanes are missing. '' Both engines, missing large portions of their housings, were sent to the manufacturer for examination. On January 31, the plane was moved to Kearny, New Jersey. The bird remains were later identified by DNA testing to be Canada geese, which typically weigh more than engines are designed to withstand ingesting.
Because the plane was assembled in France the European Aviation Safety Agency (the European counterpart of the FAA) and the Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (the French counterpart of the NTSB) joined the investigation, with technical assistance from Airbus Industrie and GE Aviation / Snecma, respectively the manufacturers of the airframe and the engines.
The NTSB used flight simulators to test the possibility that the flight could have returned safely to LaGuardia or diverted to Teterboro; only seven of the thirteen simulated returns to La Guardia succeeded, and only one of the two to Teterboro. Furthermore, the NTSB report called these simulations unrealistic: "The immediate turn made by the pilots during the simulations did not reflect or account for real - world considerations. '' A further simulation, conducted with the pilot delayed by 35 seconds, crashed. In testimony before the NTSB, Sullenberger maintained that there had been no time to bring the plane to any airport, and that attempting to do so would likely have killed those onboard and more on the ground.
The Board ultimately ruled that Sullenberger had made the correct decision, reasoning that the checklist for dual - engine failure is designed for higher altitudes, when pilots have more time to deal with the situation, and that while simulations showed that the plane might have just barely made it back to LaGuardia, those scenarios assumed an instant decision to do so, with no time allowed for assessing the situation.
The NTSB concluded its investigation on May 4, 2010, identifying the probable cause as "the ingestion of large birds into each engine, which resulted in an almost total loss of thrust in both engines. '' The final report credited the outcome to four factors: good decision - making and teamwork by the cockpit crew (including decisions to immediately turn on the APU and to ditch in the Hudson); the fact that the A320 is certified for extended overwater operation (and hence carried life vests and additional raft / slides) even though not required for that route; the performance of the flight crew during the evacuation; and the proximity of working vessels to the ditching site. Contributing factors were good visibility and a fast response from the ferry operators and emergency responders. The report also makes a range of recommendations to improve safety in such situations.
Author and pilot William Langewiesche asserted that insufficient credit was given to the A320 's fly - by - wire design, by which the pilot uses a side - stick to make control inputs to the flight control computers. The computers then impose adjustments and limits of their own to keep the plane stable, which the pilot can not override even in an emergency. This design allowed the pilots of Flight 1549 to concentrate on engine restart and deciding the course, without the burden of manually adjusting the glidepath to reduce the plane 's rate of descent. Sullenberger said that these computer - imposed limits also prevented him from achieving the optimum landing flare for the ditching, which would have softened the impact.
In 2010, the damaged plane (excluding its engines) was acquired for the Carolinas Aviation Museum in Charlotte, North Carolina, which held a reception on June 11 to commemorate the arrival in Charlotte of the plane 's body, with Sullenberger as keynote speaker and the passengers invited.
An NTSB board member called the ditching "the most successful... in aviation history. These people knew what they were supposed to do and they did it and as a result, no lives were lost. ''
The crew, especially Sullenberger, was praised, notably by New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg and New York State Governor David Paterson, who said: "We had a Miracle on 34th Street. I believe now we have had a Miracle on the Hudson. '' U.S. President George W. Bush said he was "inspired by the skill and heroism of the flight crew, '' and praised the emergency responders and volunteers. President - elect Barack Obama said that everyone was proud of Sullenberger 's "heroic and graceful job in landing the damaged aircraft. '' He thanked the crew, whom he invited to his inauguration five days later.
The Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators awarded the crew a Master 's Medal on January 22, 2009; this is awarded only rarely, for outstanding aviation achievements at the discretion of the Master of the Guild. New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg presented the crew with the Keys to the City, and Sullenberger with a replacement copy of a library book lost on the flight, Sidney Dekker 's Just Culture: Balancing Safety and Accountability. Rescuers received Certificates of Honor.
The crew received a standing ovation at the Super Bowl XLIII on February 1, 2009, and Sullenberger threw out the first pitch at the 2009 Major League Baseball season for the San Francisco Giants. His Giants ' jersey was inscribed with the name "Sully '' and the number 155 -- the count of people aboard the plane.
On July 28, passengers Dave Sanderson and Barry Leonard organized a thank you luncheon for emergency responders from Hudson County, New Jersey, on the shores of Palisades Medical Center in North Bergen, New Jersey, where 57 passengers had been brought following their rescue. Present were members of the U.S. Coast Guard, North Hudson Regional Fire and Rescue, NY Waterway Ferries, the American Red Cross, Weehawken Volunteer First Aid, the Weehawken Police Department, West New York E.M.S., North Bergen E.M.S., the Hudson County Office of Emergency Management, the New Jersey E.M.S. Task Force, the Guttenberg Police Department, McCabe Ambulance, the Harrison Police Department, and doctors and nurses who treated survivors.
Sullenberger was named Grand Marshal for the 2010 Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California.
In August 2010, Jeppesen issued an approach plate titled "Hudson Miracle APCH, '' dedicated to the five crew of Flight 1549 and annotated "Presented with Pride and Gratitude from your friends at Jeppesen. ''
Sullenberger retired on March 3, 2010, after thirty years with US Airways and its predecessor, Pacific Southwest Airlines. At the end of his final flight he was reunited with Skiles and a number of the passengers from Flight 1549.
The accident was recorded by several closed - circuit television cameras. Various television reports and documentaries produced soon afterwards contained extensive video of the ditching and rescue, and recorded interviews with the aircrew, passengers, rescuers, and other key participants. These included:
The crash was featured in the Discovery Channel (Canada) / National Geographic TV series Mayday on the episode Hudson Splash Down. It was also recreated in a National Geographic Channel TV special titled "Miracle Landing on the Hudson, '' and in the United Kingdom for a Channel 5 special in 2011.
Garrison Keillor honored the entire flight crew by writing a song and performing it on his show, A Prairie Home Companion.
The ditching is referenced in the song "A Real Hero '' by College and Electric Youth, best known from the 2011 movie Drive. The lyrics of the second verse describe the water landing and the survival of the passengers and crew, as well alluding to the freezing river.
Sullenberger 's memoir, Highest Duty: My Search for What Really Matters was adapted into a feature film Sully: Miracle on the Hudson, directed by Clint Eastwood, with Tom Hanks as Sullenberger and Aaron Eckhart as co-pilot Jeff Skiles. It was released by Warner Bros. on September 9, 2016.
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who were the thirty tyrants and why was that label fitting | Thirty Tyrants - wikipedia
The Thirty Tyrants (Ancient Greek: οἱ τριάκοντα τύραννοι, hoi triákonta týrannoi) were a pro-Spartan oligarchy installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War in 404 BCE. Upon Lysander 's request, the Thirty were elected as a government, not just as a legislative committee. The Thirty Tyrants maintained power for eight months. Though brief, their reign resulted in the killing of 5 % of the Athenian population, the confiscation of citizens ' property, and the exile of other democratic supporters. They became known as the "Thirty Tyrants '' because of their cruel and oppressive tactics. The two leading members were Critias and Theramenes.
With Spartan support, the Thirty established an interim government in Athens. The Thirty were concerned with the revision and / or erasure of democratic laws inscribed on the wall next to the Stoa Basileios. Consequently, the Thirty reduced the rights of Athenian citizens in order to institute an oligarchical regime. The Thirty appointed a council of 500 to serve the judicial functions formerly belonging to all the citizens. However, not all Athenian men had their rights removed. In fact, the Thirty chose 3,000 Athenian men "to share in the government ''. These hand - selected individuals had the right to carry weapons, to have a jury trial, and to reside within city limits. The list of the selected 3,000 was consistently revised. Although little is known about these 3,000 men ‒ for a complete record was never documented ‒ it is hypothesised that the Thirty appointed these select few as the only men the Thirty could find who were devotedly loyal to their regime. The majority of Athenian citizens did not support the rule of the Thirty.
Led by Critias, the Thirty Tyrants presided over a reign of terror in which they executed, murdered, and exiled hundreds of Athenians, seizing their possessions afterward. Both Isocrates and Aristotle (the latter in the Athenian Constitution) have reported that the Thirty executed 1500 people without trial. Critias, a former pupil of Socrates, has been described as "the first Robespierre '' because of his cruelty and inhumanity; he evidently aimed to end democracy, regardless of the human cost. The Thirty removed criminals as well as many ordinary citizens whom they considered "unfriendly '' to the new regime for expressing support for the democracy. One of their targets was Theramenes, whom Critias believed was a threat to the rule of the oligarchy. Critias accused Theramenes of conspiracy and treason, and then forced him to drink hemlock. Many wealthy citizens were executed simply so the oligarchs could confiscate their assets, which were then distributed among the Thirty and their supporters. They also hired 300 "lash - bearers '' or whip - bearing men to intimidate Athenian citizens.
The Thirty 's regime did not meet with much overt opposition, although many Athenians disliked the new form of government. Those who did not approve of the new laws could either fight ‒ and risk exile or execution ‒ or accept the Thirty 's rule. Some supporters of democracy chose to fight and were exiled, among them Thrasybulus, a trierarch in the Athenian navy and noted supporter of democratic government. The uprising that overthrew the Thirty in 403 BCE was orchestrated by a group of exiles led by Thrasybulus. Critias was killed in the initial revolt.
The Thirty Tyrants ' brief reign was marred by violence and corruption. In fact, historians have argued that the violence and brutality the Thirty carried out in Athens was necessary to transition Athens from a democracy to an oligarchy. However, the violence produced an unanticipated paradox. The more violent the Thirty 's regime became, the more opposition they faced. The increased level of opposition ultimately resulted in the upheaval of the Thirty 's regime by Thrasybulus ' rebel forces. After the revolution, Athens needed to decide the best way to govern the liberated city - state and to reconcile the atrocities committed by the Thirty. It was decided that all of the members of the selected 3,000 were given amnesty except for the Thirty themselves, the Eleven, and the ten who ruled in Piraeus. After the revolution that overthrew the Thirty Tyrants, Athens and her citizens struggled to reconcile and rebuild.
Plato in the opening portion of his Seventh Letter recounts the rule of the Thirty Tyrants during his youth. He explains that following the revolution, fifty - one men became rulers of a new government, with a specific group of thirty in charge of the public affairs of Athens. Ten of the fifty - one were to rule the city, and eleven were sent to rule Piraeus. Plato corroborates the general consensus found in other sources: the rule of the Thirty was "reviled as it was by many ''. The rule of the Thirty made the former democracy resemble a golden age in comparison. Plato also includes an account of the interaction between Socrates and the Thirty.
In The Republic, Plato mentions Lysias, one of the men from Athens who escaped the Thirty 's reign of terror. Lysias ' brother Polemarchus "fell victim to the Thirty Tyrants ''.
Due to their desire to remain in complete control over Athens, the Thirty sought to exile or kill anyone who outwardly opposed their regime. Socrates remained in the city through this period, which caused the public to associate him with the Thirty and may have contributed to his eventual death sentence, especially since Critias had been his student.
In Plato 's Apology, Socrates recounts an incident in which the Thirty once ordered him (and four other men) to bring before them Leon of Salamis, a man known for his justice and upright character, for execution. While the other four men obeyed, Socrates refused, not wanting to partake in the guilt of the executioners. However, he did not attempt to warn or save Leon of Salamis. By disobeying, Socrates may have been placing his own life in jeopardy, and he claimed it was only the disbanding of the oligarchy soon afterward that saved his life:
"When the oligarchy came into power, the Thirty Commissioners in their turn summoned me and four others to the Round Chamber and instructed us to go and fetch Leon of Salamis from his home for execution. This was of course only one of many instances in which they issued such instructions, their object being to implicate as many people as possible in their crimes. On this occasion, however, I again made it clear, not by my words but by my actions, that the attention I paid to death was zero (if that is not too unrefined a claim); but that I gave all my attention to avoiding doing anything unjust or unholy. Powerful as it was, that government did not terrify me into doing a wrong action. When we came out of the rotunda, the other four went to Salamis and arrested Leon, but I simply went home. ''
Later on in his Seventh Letter, Plato describes the interaction between the Thirty and Socrates from his own point of view: "They tried to send a friend of mine, the aged Socrates, whom I should scarcely scruple to describe as the most upright man of that day, with some other persons to carry off one of the citizens by force to execution, in order that, whether he wished it, or not, he might share the guilt of their conduct; but he would not obey them, risking all consequences in preference to becoming a partner in their iniquitous deeds. ''
The Italian historian Luciano Canfora has inferred that another of Socrates students, Xenophon, may have played an important part in the rule of the Thirty, as one of the two commanders of the cavalry, which were the Thirty 's militia. Indeed, in his book Hipparchos (Commander of the cavalry), Xenophon only mentions one of the commanders (there were always two), only to revile him, but never mentions the other.
The names of the Thirty are listed by Xenophon:
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people's views on the history of timbuktu | History of Timbuktu - wikipedia
The following is a history of the city of Timbuktu, Mali.
Starting out as a seasonal settlement, Timbuktu became a permanent settlement early in the 12th century. After a shift in trading routes, Timbuktu flourished from the trade in salt, gold, ivory and slaves. It became part of the Mali Empire early in the 14th century. By this time it had become a major centre of learning in the area. In the first half of the 15th century the Tuareg tribes took control of the city for a short period until the expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the city in 1468. A Moroccan army defeated the Songhai in 1591, and made Timbuktu, rather than Gao, their capital.
The invaders established a new ruling class, the Arma, who after 1612 became virtually independent of Morocco. However, the golden age of the city was over, during which it was a major learning and cultural center of the Mali empire, and it entered a long period of decline. Different tribes governed until the French took over in 1893, a situation that lasted until it became part of the current Republic of Mali in 1960. Presently, Timbuktu is impoverished and suffers from desertification.
In its Golden Age, the town 's numerous Islamic scholars and extensive trading network made possible an important book trade: together with the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah, an Islamic university, this established Timbuktu as a scholarly centre in Africa. Several notable historic writers, such as Shabeni and Leo Africanus, have described Timbuktu. These stories fueled speculation in Europe, where the city 's reputation shifted from being extremely rich to being mysterious. This reputation overshadows the town itself in modern times, to the point where it is best known in Western culture as an expression for a distant or outlandish place.
Like other important Medieval West African towns such as Djenné (Jenné - Jeno), Gao, and Dia, Iron Age settlements have been discovered near Timbuktu that predate the traditional foundation date of the town. Although the accumulation of thick layers of sand has thwarted archaeological excavations in the town itself, some of the surrounding landscape is deflating and exposing pottery shards on the surface. A survey of the area by Susan and Roderick McIntosh in 1984 identified several Iron Age sites along the el - Ahmar, an ancient wadi system that passes a few kilometers to the east of the modern town.
An Iron Age tell complex located 9 kilometres (6 miles) southeast of the Timbuktu near the Wadi el - Ahmar was excavated between 2008 and 2010 by archaeologists from Yale University and the Mission Culturelle de Tombouctou. The results suggest that the site was first occupied during the 5th century BC, thrived throughout the second half of the 1st millennium AD and eventually collapsed sometime during the late 10th or early 11th century AD.
Unlike Gao, Timbuktu is not mentioned by the early Arab geographers such as al - Bakri and al - Idrisi. The first mention is by the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta who visited both Timbuktu and Kabara in 1353 when returning from a stay in the capital of the Mali Empire. Timbuktu was still relatively unimportant and Battuta quickly moved on to Gao. At the time both Timbuktu and Gao formed part of the Mali Empire. A century and a half later, in around 1510, Leo Africanus visited Timbuktu. He gave a description of the town in his Descrittione dell'Africa which was published in 1550. The original Italian was translated into a number of other languages and the book became widely known in Europe.
The earliest surviving local documents are the 17th century chronicles, al - Sadi 's Tarikh al - Sudan and Ibn al - Mukhtar 's Tarikh al - fattash. These provide information on the town at the time of the Songhay Empire and the invasion by Moroccan forces in 1591. The authors do not, in general, acknowledge their sources but the accounts are likely to be based on oral tradition and on earlier written records that have not survived. Al - Sadi and Ibn al - Mukhtar were members of the scholarly class and their chronicles reflect the interests of this group. The chronicles provide biographies of the imams and judges but contain relatively little information on the social and economic history of the town.
The Tarikh al - fattash ends in around 1600 while the Tarikh al - Sudan continues to 1655. Information after this date is provided by the Tadhkirat al - Nisyan (A Reminder to the Obvious), an anonymous biographical dictionary of the Moroccan rulers of Timbuktu written in around 1750. It does not contain the detail provided by the earlier Tarikh al - Sudan. A short chronicle written by Mawlay al - Qasim gives details of the pashalik in the second half of the 18th century. For the 19th century there are numerous local sources but the information is very fragmented.
When Abd al - Sadi wrote his chronicle Tarikh al - Sudan, based on oral tradition, in the 17th century, he dates the foundation at ' the end of the fifth century of the hijra ' or around 1100 AD. Al - Sadi saw Maghsharan Tuareg as the founders, as their summer encampment grew from temporary settlement to depot to travellers ' meeting place. However, modern scholars believe that there is insufficient available evidence to pinpoint the exact time of origin and founders of Timbuktu, although it is clear that the city originated from a local trade between Saharan pastoralists and boat trade within the Niger River Delta. The importance of the river prompted descriptions of the city as ' a gift of the Niger ', in analogy to Herodotus 's description of Egypt as ' gift of the Nile '.
During the twelfth century, the remnants of the Ghana Empire were invaded by the Sosso Empire king Soumaoro Kanté. Muslim scholars from Walata (beginning to replace Aoudaghost as trade route terminus) fled to Timbuktu and solidified the position of Islam, a religion that had gradually spread throughout West Africa, mainly through commercial contacts. Islam at the time in the area was not uniform, its nature changing from city to city, and Timbuktu 's bond with the religion was reinforced through its openness to strangers that attracted religious scholars.
Timbuktu was peacefully annexed by King Musa I when returning from his pilgrimage in 1324 to Mecca. The city became part of the Mali Empire and Musa I ordered the construction of a royal palace. Both the Tarikh al - Sudan and the Tarikh al - fattash attribute the building of the Djinguereber Mosque to Musa I. Two centuries later in 1570 Qadi al - Aqib had the mosque pulled down and rebuilt on a larger scale.
In 1375, Timbuktu appeared in the Catalan Atlas, showing that it was, by then, a commercial centre linked to the North - African cities and had caught Europe 's attention.
With the power of the Mali Empire waning in the first half of the 15th century, Timbuktu became relatively autonomous, although Maghsharan Tuareg had a dominating position. Thirty years later the rising Songhai Empire expanded, absorbing Timbuktu in 1468 or 1469. The city was led, consecutively, by Sunni Ali Ber (1468 -- 1492), Sunni Baru (1492 -- 1493) and Askia Mohammad I (1493 -- 1528). Although Sunni Ali Ber was in severe conflict with Timbuktu after its conquest, Askia Mohammad I created a golden age for both the Songhai Empire and Timbuktu through an efficient central and regional administration and allowed sufficient leeway for the city 's commercial centers to flourish.
With Gao the capital of the empire, Timbuktu enjoyed a relatively autonomous position. Merchants from Ghadames, Awjilah, and numerous other cities of North Africa gathered there to buy gold and slaves in exchange for the Saharan salt of Taghaza and for North African cloth and horses. Leadership of the Empire stayed in the Askia dynasty until 1591, when internal fights weakened the dynasty 's grip and led to a decline of prosperity in the city.
Following the Battle of Tondibi, the city was captured on 30 May 1591 by an expedition of mercenaries, dubbed the Arma. They were sent by the Saadi ruler of Morocco, Ahmad I al - Mansur, and were led by the Spanish Muslim Judar Pasha in search of gold mines. The Arma brought the end of an era of relative autonomy. (see: Pashalik of Timbuktu) The following period brought economic and intellectual decline.
In 1593, Ahmad I al - Mansur cited ' disloyalty ' as the reason for arresting, and subsequently killing or exiling, many of Timbuktu 's scholars, including Ahmad Baba. Perhaps the city 's greatest scholar, he was forced to move to Marrakesh because of his intellectual opposition to the Pasha, where he continued to attract the attention of the scholarly world. Ahmad Baba later returned to Timbuktu, where he died in 1608.
The city 's decline continued, with the increasing trans - atlantic trade routes -- transporting African slaves, including leaders and scholars of Timbuktu -- marginalising Timbuktu 's role as a trade and scholarly center. While initially controlling the Morocco -- Timbuktu trade routes, Morocco soon cut its ties with the Arma and the grip of the numerous subsequent pashas on the city began losing its strength: Tuareg temporarily took over control in 1737 and the remainder of the 18th century saw various Tuareg tribes, Bambara and Kounta briefly occupy or besiege the city. During this period, the influence of the Pashas, who by then had mixed with the Songhay through intermarriage, never completely disappeared.
This changed in 1826, when the Massina Empire took over control of the city until 1865, when they were driven away by the Toucouleur Empire. Sources conflict on who was in control when the French arrived: Elias N. Saad in 1983 suggests the Soninke Wangara, a 1924 article in the Journal of the Royal African Society mentions the Tuareg, while Africanist John Hunwick does not determine one ruler, but notes several states competing for power ' in a shadowy way ' until 1893.
Historic descriptions of the city had been around since Leo Africanus 's account in the first half of the 16th century, and they prompted several European individuals and organizations to make great efforts to discover Timbuktu and its fabled riches. In 1788 a group of titled Englishmen formed the African Association with the goal of finding the city and charting the course of the Niger River. The earliest of their sponsored explorers was a young Scottish adventurer named Mungo Park, who made two trips in search of the Niger River and Timbuktu (departing first in 1795 and then in 1805). It is believed that Park was the first Westerner to have reached the city, but he died in modern - day Nigeria without having the chance to report his findings.
In 1824, the Paris - based Société de Géographie offered a 10,000 franc prize to the first non-Muslim to reach the town and return with information about it. The Scotsman Gordon Laing arrived in August 1826 but was killed the following month by local Muslims who were fearful of European intervention. The Frenchman René Caillié arrived in 1828 travelling alone, disguised as a Muslim; he was able to safely return and claim the prize.
The American sailor Robert Adams claimed to have visited Timbuktu in 1812, while he was enslaved for several years in Northern Africa. After being freed by the British consul in Tangier and going to Europe, he gave an account of his experience, potentially making him the first Westerner for hundreds of years to have reached the city and returned to tell about it. However, his story quickly became controversial. While some historians have defended Adams ' account, more recent scholarship concludes that while Adams was almost certainly in Northern Africa, the discrepancies in his depiction of Timbuktu make it unlikely he ever visited the city. Three other Europeans reached the city before 1890: Heinrich Barth in 1853 and the German Oskar Lenz with the Spaniard Cristobal Benítez in 1880.
After the scramble for Africa had been formalized in the Berlin Conference, land between the 14th meridian and Miltou, South - West Chad, became French territory, bounded in the south by a line running from Say, Niger to Baroua. Although the Timbuktu region was now French in name, the principle of effective occupation required France to actually hold power in those areas assigned, e.g. by signing agreements with local chiefs, setting up a government and making use of the area economically, before the claim would be definitive. On 15 December 1893, the city, by then long past its prime, was annexed by a small group of French soldiers, led by Lieutenant Gaston Boiteux.
Timbuktu became part of French Sudan (Soudan Français), a colony of France. The colony was reorganised and the name changed several times during the French colonial period. In 1899 the French Sudan was subdivided and Timbuktu became part of Upper Senegal and Middle Niger (Haut - Sénégal et Moyen Niger). In 1902 the name became Senegambia and Niger (Sénégambie et Niger) and in 1904 this was changed again to Upper Senegal and Niger (Haut - Sénégal et Niger). This name was used until 1920 when it became French Sudan again.
During World War II, several legions were recruited in French Soudan, with some coming from Timbuktu, to help general Charles de Gaulle fight Nazi - occupied France and southern Vichy France.
About 60 British merchant seamen from the SS Allende (Cardiff), sunk on 17 March 1942 off the South coast of West Africa, were held prisoner in the city during the Second World War. Two months later, after having been transported from Freetown to Timbuktu, two of them, AB John Turnbull Graham (2 May 1942, age 23) and Chief Engineer William Soutter (28 May 1942, age 60) died there in May 1942. Both men were buried in the European cemetery -- possibly the most remote British war graves tended by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.
They were not the only war captives in Timbuktu: Peter de Neumann was one of 52 men imprisoned in Timbuktu in 1942 when their ship, the SS Criton, was intercepted by two Vichy French warships. Although several men, including de Neumann, escaped, they were all recaptured and stayed a total of ten months in the city, guarded by natives. Upon his return to England, he became known as "The Man from Timbuctoo ''.
After World War II, the French government under Charles de Gaulle granted the colony more and more freedom. After a period as part of the short - lived Mali Federation, the Republic of Mali was proclaimed on 22 September 1960. After 19 November 1968, a new constitution was created in 1974, making Mali a single - party state.
By then, the canal linking the city with the Niger River had already been filled with sand from the encroaching desert. Severe droughts hit the Sahel region in 1973 and 1985, decimating the Tuareg population around Timbuktu who relied on goat herding. The Niger 's water level dropped, postponing the arrival of food transport and trading vessels. The crisis drove many of the inhabitants of Tombouctou Region to Algeria and Libya. Those who stayed relied on humanitarian organizations such as UNICEF for food and water.
Despite its illustrious history, modern - day Timbuktu is an impoverished town, poor even by Third World standards. The population has grown an average 5.7 % per year from 29,732 in 1998 to 54,453 in 2009. As capital of the seventh Malian region, Tombouctou Region, Timbuktu is the seat of the current governor, Colonel Mamadou Mangara, who took over from Colonel Mamadou Togola in 2008. Mangara answers, as does each of the regional governors, to the Ministry of Territorial Administration & Local Communities.
Current issues include dealing with both droughts and floods, the latter caused by an insufficient drainage system that fails to transport direct rainwater from the city centre. One such event damaged World Heritage property, killing two and injuring one in 2002. Shifting of rain patterns due to climatic change and increased use of water for irrigation in the surrounding areas has led to water scarcity for agriculture and personal use.
Following increasing frustration within the armed forces over the Malian government 's ineffective strategies to suppress a Tuareg rebellion in northern Mali, a military coup on 21 March 2012 overthrew President Amadou Toumani Touré and overturned the 1992 constitution. The Tuareg rebels of the MNLA and Ansar Dine took advantage of the confusion to make swift gains, and on 1 April 2012, Timbuktu was captured from the Malian military.
On 3 April 2012, the BBC News reported that the Islamist rebel group Ansar Dine had started implementing its version of sharia in Timbuktu. That day, ag Ghaly gave a radio interview in Timbuktu announcing that Sharia law would be enforced in the city, including the veiling of women, the stoning of adulterers, and the punitive mutilation of thieves. According to Timbuktu 's mayor, the announcement caused nearly all of Timbuktu 's Christian population to flee the city.
The MNLA declared the independence of Azawad, containing Timbuktu, from Mali on 6 April 2012, but was rapidly pushed aside by Islamist movements Ansar Dine and AQMI who installed sharia in the city and destroyed some of the burial chambers. In early June, a group of residents stated they had formed an armed militia to fight against the rebel occupation of the city. One member, a former army officer, stated that the proclaimer ' Patriots ' Resistance Movement for the Liberation of Timbuktu ' opposed the secession of northern Mali. On 28 January 2013, French and Malian soldiers reclaimed Timbuktu with little or no resistance and reinstalled Malian governmental authorities. Five days later, French President François Hollande accompanied by his Malian counterpart Dioncounda Traoré visited the city before heading to Bamako and were welcomed by an ecstatic population.
The city has been attacked multiple times on several different occasions, once on 21 March 2013 when a suicide bomber detonated his explosives killing a Malian soldier, creating a fierce shoot - out at the international airport killing ten rebels. On 31 March, a group of 20 rebels infiltrated into Timbuktu as civilians and attacked the Malian army base in the city killing three Malian soldiers and injuring dozens more.
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an atom of 14 6 c decays by beta decay which atom is left after the decay | Beta decay - wikipedia
In nuclear physics, beta decay (β - decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta ray (fast energetic electron or positron) and a neutrino are emitted from an atomic nucleus. For example, beta decay of a neutron transforms it into a proton by the emission of an electron, or conversely a proton is converted into a neutron by the emission of a positron (positron emission), thus changing the nuclide type. Neither the beta particle nor its associated neutrino exist within the nucleus prior to beta decay, but are created in the decay process. By this process, unstable atoms obtain a more stable ratio of protons to neutrons. The probability of a nuclide decaying due to beta and other forms of decay is determined by its nuclear binding energy. The binding energies of all existing nuclides form what is called the nuclear band or valley of stability. For either electron or positron emission to be energetically possible, the energy release (see below) or Q value must be positive.
Beta decay is a consequence of the weak force, which is characterized by relatively lengthy decay times. Nucleons are composed of up or down quarks, and the weak force allows a quark to change type by the exchange of a W boson and the creation of an electron / antineutrino or positron / neutrino pair. For example, a neutron, composed of two down quarks and an up quark, decays to a proton composed of a down quark and two up quarks. Decay times for many nuclides that are subject to beta decay can be thousands of years.
Electron capture is sometimes included as a type of beta decay, because the basic nuclear process, mediated by the weak force, is the same. In electron capture, an inner atomic electron is captured by a proton in the nucleus, transforming it into a neutron, and an electron neutrino is released.
The two types of beta decay are known as beta minus and beta plus. In beta minus (β) decay, a neutron is converted to a proton and the process creates an electron and an electron antineutrino; while in beta plus (β) decay, a proton is converted to a neutron and the process creates a positron and an electron neutrino. β decay is also known as positron emission.
Beta decay conserves a quantum number known as the lepton number, or the number of electrons and their associated neutrinos (other leptons are the muon and tau particles). These particles have lepton number + 1, while their antiparticles have lepton number − 1. Since a proton or neutron has lepton number zero, β decay (a positron, or antielectron) must be accompanied with an electron neutrino, while β decay (an electron) must be accompanied by an electron antineutrino.
An example of electron emission (β decay) is the decay of carbon - 14 into nitrogen - 14 with a half - life of about 5,730 years:
In this form of decay, the original element becomes a new chemical element in a process known as nuclear transmutation. This new element has an unchanged mass number A, but an atomic number Z that is increased by one. As in all nuclear decays, the decaying element (in this case) is known as the parent nuclide while the resulting element (in this case) is known as the daughter nuclide.
An example of positron emission is the decay of magnesium - 23 into sodium - 23 with a half - life of about 11.3 s:
β decay also results in nuclear transmutation, with the resulting element having an atomic number that is decreased by one.
The beta spectrum, or distribution of energy values for the beta particles, is continuous. The total energy of the decay process is divided between the electron, the antineutrino, and the recoiling nuclide. In the figure to the right, an example of an electron with 0.40 MeV energy from the beta decay of Bi is shown. In this example, the total decay energy is 1.16 MeV, so the antineutrino has the remaining energy: 1.16 - 0.40 = 0.76 MeV. An electron at the far right of the curve would have the maximum possible kinetic energy, leaving the energy of the neutrino to be only its small rest mass.
Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel in uranium, and subsequently observed by Marie and Pierre Curie in thorium and in the new elements polonium and radium. In 1899, Ernest Rutherford separated radioactive emissions into two types: alpha and beta (now beta minus), based on penetration of objects and ability to cause ionization. Alpha rays could be stopped by thin sheets of paper or aluminium, whereas beta rays could penetrate several millimetres of aluminium. In 1900, Paul Villard identified a still more penetrating type of radiation, which Rutherford identified as a fundamentally new type in 1903 and termed gamma rays. Alpha, beta, and gamma are the first three letters of the Greek alphabet.
In 1900, Becquerel measured the mass - to - charge ratio (m / e) for beta particles by the method of J.J. Thomson used to study cathode rays and identify the electron. He found that m / e for a beta particle is the same as for Thomson 's electron, and therefore suggested that the beta particle is in fact an electron.
In 1901, Rutherford and Frederick Soddy showed that alpha and beta radioactivity involves the transmutation of atoms into atoms of other chemical elements. In 1913, after the products of more radioactive decays were known, Soddy and Kazimierz Fajans independently proposed their radioactive displacement law, which states that beta (i.e., β) emission from one element produces another element one place to the right in the periodic table, while alpha emission produces an element two places to the left.
The study of beta decay provided the first physical evidence for the existence of the neutrino. In both alpha and gamma decay, the resulting particle has a narrow energy distribution, since the particle carries the energy from the difference between the initial and final nuclear states. However, the kinetic energy distribution, or spectrum, of beta particles measured by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in 1911 and by Jean Danysz in 1913 showed multiple lines on a diffuse background. These measurements offered the first hint that beta particles have a continuous spectrum. In 1914, James Chadwick used a magnetic spectrometer with one of Hans Geiger 's new counters to make more accurate measurements which showed that the spectrum was continuous. The distribution of beta particle energies was in apparent contradiction to the law of conservation of energy. If beta decay were simply electron emission as assumed at the time, then the energy of the emitted electron should have a particular, well - defined value. For beta decay, however, the observed broad distribution of energies suggested that energy is lost in the beta decay process. This spectrum was puzzling for many years.
A second problem is related to the conservation of angular momentum. Molecular band spectra showed that the nuclear spin of nitrogen - 14 is 1 (i.e. equal to the reduced Planck constant) and more generally that the spin is integral for nuclei of even mass number and half - integral for nuclei of odd mass number. This was later explained by the proton - neutron model of the nucleus. Beta decay leaves the mass number unchanged, so the change of nuclear spin must be an integer. However, the electron spin is 1 / 2, hence angular momentum would not be conserved if beta decay were simply electron emission.
From 1920 -- 1927, Charles Drummond Ellis (along with Chadwick and colleagues) further established that the beta decay spectrum is continuous. In 1933, Ellis and Nevill Mott obtained strong evidence that the beta spectrum has an effective upper bound in energy. Niels Bohr had suggested that the beta spectrum could be explained if conservation of energy was true only in a statistical sense, thus this principle might be violated in any given decay. However, the upper bound in beta energies determined by Ellis and Mott ruled out that notion. Now, the problem of how to account for the variability of energy in known beta decay products, as well as for conservation of momentum and angular momentum in the process, became acute.
In a famous letter written in 1930, Wolfgang Pauli attempted to resolve the beta - particle energy conundrum by suggesting that, in addition to electrons and protons, atomic nuclei also contained an extremely light neutral particle, which he called the neutron. He suggested that this "neutron '' was also emitted during beta decay (thus accounting for the known missing energy, momentum, and angular momentum), but it had simply not yet been observed. In 1931, Enrico Fermi renamed Pauli 's "neutron '' to neutrino. In 1934, Fermi published his landmark theory for beta decay, where he applied the principles of quantum mechanics to matter particles, supposing that they can be created and annihilated, just as the light quanta in atomic transitions. Thus, according to Fermi, neutrinos are created in the beta - decay process, rather than contained in the nucleus; the same happens to electrons. The neutrino interaction with matter was so weak that detecting it proved a severe experimental challenge. Further indirect evidence of the existence of the neutrino was obtained by observing the recoil of nuclei that emitted such a particle after absorbing an electron. Neutrinos were finally detected directly in 1956 by Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines in the Cowan -- Reines neutrino experiment. The properties of neutrinos were (with a few minor modifications) as predicted by Pauli and Fermi.
In 1934, Frédéric and Irène Joliot - Curie bombarded aluminium with alpha particles to effect the nuclear reaction He + Al → + n, and observed that the product isotope emits a positron identical to those found in cosmic rays (discovered by Carl David Anderson in 1932). This was the first example of β decay (positron emission), which they termed artificial radioactivity since is a short - lived nuclide which does not exist in nature.
The theory of electron capture was first discussed by Gian - Carlo Wick in a 1934 paper, and then developed by Hideki Yukawa and others. K - electron capture was first observed in 1937 by Luis Alvarez, in the nuclide V. Alvarez went on to study electron capture in Ga and other nuclides.
In 1956, Tsung - Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang noticed that there was no evidence that parity was conserved in weak interactions, and so they postulated that this symmetry may not be preserved by the weak force. They sketched the design for an experiment for testing conservation of parity in the laboratory. Later that year, Chien - Shiung Wu and coworkers conducted the Wu experiment showing an asymmetrical beta decay of cobalt - 60 at cold temperatures that proved that parity is not conserved in beta decay. This surprising result overturned long - held assumptions about parity and the weak force. In recognition of their theoretical work, Lee and Yang were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1957.
In β decay, the weak interaction converts an atomic nucleus into a nucleus with atomic number increased by one, while emitting an electron () and an electron antineutrino (ν). β decay generally occurs in neutron - rich nuclei. The generic equation is:
where A and Z are the mass number and atomic number of the decaying nucleus, and X and X ' are the initial and final elements, respectively.
Another example is when the free neutron (n) decays by β decay into a proton (p):
At the fundamental level (as depicted in the Feynman diagram on the right), this is caused by the conversion of the negatively charged (− 1 / 3 e) down quark to the positively charged (+ 2 / 3 e) up quark by emission of a boson; the boson subsequently decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino:
In β decay, or "positron emission '', the weak interaction converts an atomic nucleus into a nucleus with atomic number decreased by one, while emitting a positron () and an electron neutrino (ν). β decay generally occurs in proton - rich nuclei. The generic equation is:
This may be considered as the decay of a proton inside the nucleus to a neutron
However, β decay can not occur in an isolated proton because it requires energy due to the mass of the neutron being greater than the mass of the proton. β decay can only happen inside nuclei when the daughter nucleus has a greater binding energy (and therefore a lower total energy) than the mother nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the kinetic energy of these particles. This process is opposite to negative beta decay, in that the weak interaction converts a proton into a neutron by converting an up quark into a down quark resulting in the emission of a or the absorption of a.
In all cases where β decay (positron emission) of a nucleus is allowed energetically, so too is electron capture allowed. This is a process during which a nucleus captures one of its atomic electrons, resulting in the emission of a neutrino:
An example of electron capture is one of the decay modes of krypton - 81 into bromine - 81:
All emitted neutrinos are of the same energy. In proton - rich nuclei where the energy difference between the initial and final states is less than 2m c, β decay is not energetically possible, and electron capture is the sole decay mode.
If the captured electron comes from the innermost shell of the atom, the K - shell, which has the highest probability to interact with the nucleus, the process is called K - capture. If it comes from the L - shell, the process is called L - capture, etc.
Electron capture is a competing (simultaneous) decay process for all nuclei that can undergo β decay. The converse, however, is not true: electron capture is the only type of decay that is allowed in proton - rich nuclides that do not have sufficient energy to emit a positron and neutrino.
If the proton and neutron are part of an atomic nucleus, the above described decay processes transmute one chemical element into another. For example:
Beta decay does not change the number (A) of nucleons in the nucleus, but changes only its charge Z. Thus the set of all nuclides with the same A can be introduced; these isobaric nuclides may turn into each other via beta decay. For a given A there is one that is most stable. It is said to be beta stable, because it presents a local minima of the mass excess: if such a nucleus has (A, Z) numbers, the neighbour nuclei (A, Z − 1) and (A, Z + 1) have higher mass excess and can beta decay into (A, Z), but not vice versa. For all odd mass numbers A, there is only one known beta - stable isobar. For even A, there are up to three different beta - stable isobars experimentally known; for example, Zr, Mo, and Ru are all beta - stable. There are about 355 known beta - decay stable nuclides.
Usually, unstable nuclides are clearly either "neutron rich '' or "proton rich '', with the former undergoing beta decay and the latter undergoing electron capture (or more rarely, due to the higher energy requirements, positron decay). However, in a few cases of odd - proton, odd - neutron radionuclides, it may be energetically favorable for the radionuclide to decay to an even - proton, even - neutron isobar either by undergoing beta - positive or beta - negative decay. An often - cited example is the single isotope Cu (29 protons, 35 neutrons), which illustrates three types of beta decay in competition. Copper - 64 has a half - life of about 12.7 hours. This isotope has one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron, so either the proton or the neutron can decay. This particular nuclide (though not all nuclides in this situation) is almost equally likely to decay through proton decay by positron emission (18 %) or electron capture (43 %) to Ni, as it is through neutron decay by electron emission (39 %) to Zn.
Most naturally occurring nuclides on earth are beta stable. Those that are not have half - lives ranging from under a second to periods of time significantly greater than the age of the universe. One common example of a long - lived isotope is the odd - proton odd - neutron nuclide, which undergoes all three types of beta decay (β, β and electron capture) with a half - life of 7016402990552000000 ♠ 1.277 × 10 years.
where
Beta decay just changes neutron to proton or, in the case of positive beta decay (electron capture) proton to neutron so the number of individual quarks do n't change. It is only the baryon flavor that changes, here labelled as the isospin.
Up and down quarks have total isospin I = 1 2 (\ displaystyle I = (\ frac (1) (2))) and isospin projections
All other quarks have I = 0.
In general
so all leptons have assigned a value of + 1, antileptons − 1, and non-leptonic particles 0.
For allowed decays, the net orbital angular momentum is zero, hence only spin quantum numbers are considered.
The electron and antineutrino are fermions, spin - 1 / 2 objects, therefore they may couple to total S = 1 (\ displaystyle S = 1) (parallel) or S = 0 (\ displaystyle S = 0) (anti-parallel).
For forbidden decays, orbital angular momentum must also be taken into consideration.
The Q value is defined as the total energy released in a given nuclear decay. In beta decay, Q is therefore also the sum of the kinetic energies of the emitted beta particle, neutrino, and recoiling nucleus. (Because of the large mass of the nucleus compared to that of the beta particle and neutrino, the kinetic energy of the recoiling nucleus can generally be neglected.) Beta particles can therefore be emitted with any kinetic energy ranging from 0 to Q. A typical Q is around 1 MeV, but can range from a few keV to a few tens of MeV.
Since the rest mass of the electron is 511 keV, the most energetic beta particles are ultrarelativistic, with speeds very close to the speed of light.
Consider the generic equation for beta decay
The Q value for this decay is
where m N (Z A X) (\ displaystyle m_ (N) \ left (() _ (Z) ^ (A) \ mathrm (X) \ right)) is the mass of the nucleus of the X atom, m e (\ displaystyle m_ (e)) is the mass of the electron, and m ν _̄ e (\ displaystyle m_ ((\ overline (\ nu)) _ (e))) is the mass of the electron antineutrino. In other words, the total energy released is the mass energy of the initial nucleus, minus the mass energy of the final nucleus, electron, and antineutrino. The mass of the nucleus m is related to the standard atomic mass m by
That is, the total atomic mass is the mass of the nucleus, plus the mass of the electrons, minus the sum of all electron binding energies B for the atom. This equation is rearranged to find m N (Z A X) (\ displaystyle m_ (N) \ left (() _ (Z) ^ (A) \ mathrm (X) \ right)), and m N (Z + 1 A X ′) (\ displaystyle m_ (N) \ left (() _ (Z + 1) ^ (A) \ mathrm (X ') \ right)) is found similarly. Substituting these nuclear masses into the Q - value equation, while neglecting the nearly - zero antineutrino mass and the difference in electron binding energies, which is very small for high - Z atoms, we have
This energy is carried away as kinetic energy by the electron and neutrino.
Because the reaction will proceed only when the Q - value is positive, β decay can occur when the mass of atom X is greater than the mass of atom X '.
The equations for β decay are similar, with the generic equation
giving
However, in this equation, the electron masses do not cancel, and we are left with
Because the reaction will proceed only when the Q - value is positive, β decay can occur when the mass of atom X exceeds that of X ' by at least twice the mass of the electron.
The analogous calculation for electron capture must take into account the binding energy of the electrons. This is because the atom will be left in an excited state after capturing the electron, and the binding energy of the captured innermost electron is significant. Using the generic equation for electron capture
we have
which simplifies to
where B is the binding energy of the captured electron.
Because the binding energy of the electron is much less than the mass of the electron, nuclei that can undergo β decay can always also undergo electron capture, but the reverse is not true.
Beta decay can be considered as a perturbation as described in quantum mechanics, and thus Fermi 's Golden Rule can be applied. This leads to an expression for the kinetic energy spectrum N (T) of emitted betas as follows:
where T is the kinetic energy, C is a shape function that depends on the forbiddenness of the decay (it is constant for allowed decays), F (Z, T) is the Fermi Function (see below) with Z the charge of the final - state nucleus, E = T + mc is the total energy, p = √ (E / c) − (mc) is the momentum, and Q is the Q value of the decay. The kinetic energy of the emitted neutrino is given approximately by Q minus the kinetic energy of the beta.
As an example, the beta decay spectrum of Bi (originally called RaE) is shown to the right.
The Fermi function that appears in the beta spectrum formula accounts for the Coulomb attraction / repulsion between the emitted beta and the final state nucleus. Approximating the associated wavefunctions to be spherically symmetric, the Fermi function can be analytically calculated to be:
where S = √ 1 − α Z (α is the fine - structure constant), η = ± αZE / pc (+ for electrons, − for positrons), ρ = r / ħ (r is the radius of the final state nucleus), and Γ is the Gamma function.
For non-relativistic betas (Q ≪ m c), this expression can be approximated by:
Other approximations can be found in the literature.
A Kurie plot (also known as a Fermi -- Kurie plot) is a graph used in studying beta decay developed by Franz N.D. Kurie, in which the square root of the number of beta particles whose momenta (or energy) lie within a certain narrow range, divided by the Fermi function, is plotted against beta - particle energy. It is a straight line for allowed transitions and some forbidden transitions, in accord with the Fermi beta - decay theory. The energy - axis (x-axis) intercept of a Kurie plot corresponds to the maximum energy imparted to the electron / positron (the decay 's Q - value). With a Kurie plot one can find the limit on the effective mass of a neutrino.
After the discovery of parity non-conservation (see History), it was found that, in beta decay, electrons are emitted mostly with negative helicity, i.e., they move, naively speaking, like left - handed screws driven into a material (they have negative longitudinal polarization). Conversely, positrons have mostly positive helicity, i.e., they move like right - handed screws. Neutrinos (emitted in positron decay) have positive helicity, while antineutrinos (emitted in electron decay) have negative helicity.
The higher the energy of the particles, the higher their polarization.
Beta decays can be classified according to the angular momentum (L - value) and total spin (S - value) of the emitted radiation. Since total angular momentum must be conserved, including orbital and spin angular momentum, beta decay occurs by a variety of quantum state transitions to various nuclear angular momentum or spin states, known as "Fermi '' or "Gamow - Teller '' transitions. When beta decay particles carry no angular momentum (L = 0), the decay is referred to as "allowed '', otherwise it is "forbidden ''.
Other decay modes, which are rare, are known as bound state decay and double beta decay.
A Fermi transition is a beta decay in which the spins of the emitted electron (positron) and anti-neutrino (neutrino) couple to total spin S = 0 (\ displaystyle S = 0), leading to an angular momentum change Δ J = 0 (\ displaystyle \ Delta J = 0) between the initial and final states of the nucleus (assuming an allowed transition). In the non-relativistic limit, the nuclear part of the operator for a Fermi transition is given by
with G V (\ displaystyle G_ (V)) the weak vector coupling constant, τ ± (\ displaystyle \ tau _ (\ pm)) the isospin raising and lowering operators, and a (\ displaystyle a) running over all protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
A Gamow - Teller transition is a beta decay in which the spins of the emitted electron (positron) and anti-neutrino (neutrino) couple to total spin S = 1 (\ displaystyle S = 1), leading to an angular momentum change Δ J = 0, ± 1 (\ displaystyle \ Delta J = 0, \ pm 1) between the initial and final states of the nucleus (assuming an allowed transition). In this case, the nuclear part of the operator is given by
with G A (\ displaystyle G_ (A)) the weak axial - vector coupling constant, and σ (\ displaystyle \ sigma) the spin Pauli matrices, which can produce a spin - flip in the decaying nucleon.
When L > 0, the decay is referred to as "forbidden ''. Nuclear selection rules require high L - values to be accompanied by changes in nuclear spin (J) and parity (π). The selection rules for the Lth forbidden transitions are:
where Δπ = 1 or − 1 corresponds to no parity change or parity change, respectively. The special case of a transition between isobaric analogue states, where the structure of the final state is very similar to the structure of the initial state, is referred to as "superallowed '' for beta decay, and proceeds very quickly. The following table lists the ΔJ and Δπ values for the first few values of L:
A very small minority of free neutron decays (about four per million) are so - called "two - body decays '', in which the proton, electron and antineutrino are produced, but the electron fails to gain the 13.6 eV energy necessary to escape the proton, and therefore simply remains bound to it, as a neutral hydrogen atom. In this type of beta decay, in essence all of the neutron decay energy is carried off by the antineutrino.
For fully ionized atoms (bare nuclei), it is possible in likewise manner for electrons to fail to escape the atom, and to be emitted from the nucleus into low - lying atomic bound states (orbitals). This can not occur for neutral atoms with low - lying bound states which are already filled by electrons.
The phenomenon in fully ionized atoms was first observed for Dy in 1992 by Jung et al. of the Darmstadt Heavy - Ion Research group. Although neutral Dy is a stable isotope, the fully ionized Dy undergoes β decay into the K and L shells with a half - life of 47 days.
Another possibility is that a fully ionized atom undergoes greatly accelerated β decay, as observed for Re by Bosch et al., also at Darmstadt. Neutral Re does undergo β decay with a half - life of 42 × 10 years, but for fully ionized Re this is shortened by a factor of 10 to only 32.9 years. For comparison the variation of decay rates of other nuclear processes due to chemical environment is less than 1 %.
Some nuclei can undergo double beta decay (ββ decay) where the charge of the nucleus changes by two units. Double beta decay is difficult to study, as the process has an extremely long half - life. In nuclei for which both β decay and ββ decay are possible, the rarer ββ decay process is effectively impossible to observe. However, in nuclei where β decay is forbidden but ββ decay is allowed, the process can be seen and a half - life measured. Thus, ββ decay is usually studied only for beta stable nuclei. Like single beta decay, double beta decay does not change A; thus, at least one of the nuclides with some given A has to be stable with regard to both single and double beta decay.
"Ordinary '' double beta decay results in the emission of two electrons and two antineutrinos. If neutrinos are Majorana particles (i.e., they are their own antiparticles), then a decay known as neutrinoless double beta decay will occur. Most neutrino physicists believe that neutrinoless double beta decay has never been observed.
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when does lucifer season 2 start in uk | List of Lucifer episodes - wikipedia
Lucifer is an American fantasy police procedural comedy - drama television series developed by Tom Kapinos that premiered on Fox on January 25, 2016. It features a character created by Neil Gaiman, Sam Kieth, and Mike Dringenberg taken from the comic book series The Sandman, which later became the protagonist of the spin - off comic book series Lucifer written by Mike Carey, both published by DC Comics ' Vertigo imprint.
On May 11, 2018, Fox canceled the series after three seasons. During the course of the series, 55 episodes of Lucifer aired over three seasons.
An episode titled "Once Upon a Time '' was filmed for the third season, directed by Kevin Alejandro, with the story by Ricardo Lopez, Jr. and teleplay by Ildy Modrovich & Joe Henderson. Before the series was cancelled, co-showrunner Ildy Modrovich stated that it was set to be one of two episodes moved to a potential fourth season. According to co-showrunner Joe Henderson, Fox still plans to air the two "bonus '' episodes, but also suggested that they could be released on the third season 's home media release.
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is it possible for the philippines to experience a temperate climate | Climate of the Philippines - wikipedia
TThe Philippines has five types of climates: tropical rainforest, tropical savanna, tropical monsoon, humid subtropical, and oceanic (both are in higher - altitude areas) characterized by relatively high temperature, oppressive humidity and plenty of rainfall. The Philippines is also hot so not a very goodbye place for a cold summer vacation There are two seasons in the country, the wet season and the dry season, based upon the amount of rainfall. This is also dependent on location in the country as some areas experience rain all throughout the year (see Climate types). Based on temperature, the warmest months of the year are March through October; the winter monsoon brings cooler air from November to February. May is the warmest month, and January, the coolest.
Weather in the Philippines is monitored and managed by Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA).
Monsoons are large - scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. Most summer monsoons have a dominant westerly component and a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious amounts of rain (because of the condensation of water vapor in the rising air). The intensity and duration, however, are not uniform from year to year. Winter monsoons, by contrast, have a dominant easterly component and a strong tendency to diverge, subside and cause drought.
The summer monsoon brings heavy rains to most of the archipelago from May to October. Annual average rainfall ranges from as much as 5,000 millimetres (197 in) in the mountainous east coast section of the country, to less than 1,000 millimetres (39 in) in some of the sheltered valleys. Monsoon rains, although hard and drenching, are not normally associated with high winds and waves.
At least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines can be traced to tropical cyclones, while the southern islands receiving less than 10 percent of their annual rainfall from tropical cyclones. The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact the archipelago was the July 1911 cyclone, when the total precipitation for Baguio was distributed over the four days as: 14th -- 879.8 mm (34.6 in), 15th -- 733.6 mm (28.9 in), 16th -- 424.9 mm (16.7 in), 17th -- 200.4 mm (7.9 in); followed by extraordinary drought from October 1911 to May 1912, so that the annual amount of those two years were hardly noticeable.
The Philippines sit across the typhoon belt, making dangerous storms from July through October. These are especially hazardous for northern and eastern Luzon and the Bicol and Eastern Visayas regions, but Manila gets devastated periodically as well. Bagyo is the Filipino term to any tropical cyclone in the Philippine Islands. From the statistics gathered by PAGASA from 1948 to 2004, around an average of 28 storms and / or typhoons per year enter the PAR (Philippine Area of Responsibility) -- the designated area assigned to PAGASA to monitor during weather disturbances. Those that made landfall or crossed the Philippines, the average was nine per year. In 1993, a record 19 typhoons made landfall in the country making it the most in one year. The fewest per year were 4 during the years 1955, 1958, 1992 and 1997.
PAGASA categorises typhoons into five types according to wind speed. Once a tropical cyclone enters the PAR, regardless of strength, it is given a local name for identification purposes by the media, government, and the general public.
For the past ten years, the Philippines has experienced a number of extremely damaging tropical cyclones, particularly typhoons with more than 20 km / h (12 mph; 11 kn; 5.6 m / s) of sustained winds. Because of this, the Super Typhoon (STY) category with more than 220 km / h (140 mph; 120 kn; 61 m / s) maximum sustained winds was officially adopted by the PAGASA. However, according to different stakeholders, the extensive and devastating damages caused by strong typhoons such as Typhoon Yolanda in 2013 made the four ‐ level warning system inadequate.
The deadliest typhoon to impact the Philippines was Typhoon Haiyan, locally known as Yolanda, in November 2013, in which more than 6,300 lives were lost from its storm surges and powerful winds. Over 1,000 went missing and nearly 20,000 were injured. Winds reached 315 km / h (196 mph; 170 kn; 88 m / s) in one -- minute sustained and may have been the strongest storm in history in terms of wind speeds as wind speeds before the 1970s were too high to record.
Back in 1995, where Typhoon Angela, known as Rosing was an extremely catastrophic category 5 typhoon that made landfall in Catanduanes and made across Manila. Winds reached 290 km / h (180 mph) on one - minute sustain winds. Rosing took 936 lives and the most powerful typhoon that ever hit Metro Manila.
On late December 3, 2012, Typhoon Bopha or known as Pablo made landfall on Eastern Mindanao, damage was over 1.04 billion USD by winds of 280 km / h (175 mph) on one - minute sustain winds. Typhoon Bopha was the most powerful typhoon ever hit Mindanao, killing 1,067 people and 834 people were missing. Most of the damage was caused by rushing storm surges and screaming winds.
In terms of central pressure, Typhoon Megi (2010) measured 885 mb. This was the strongest storm ever to make landfall in terms of pressure.
It was 295 kph (185 mph) in terms of one - minute sustained winds, killing 67 people and costing over 700 million USD in damage.
There are four recognized climate types in the Philippines, and they are based on the distribution of rainfall (See the Philippine Climate Map at the top). They are described as follows:
The average year - round temperature measured from all the weather stations in the Philippines, except Baguio City, is 26.6 ° C (79.9 ° F). Cooler days are usually felt in the month of January with temperature averaging at 25.5 ° C (77.9 ° F) and the warmest days, in the month of May with a mean of 28.3 ° C (82.9 ° F). Elevation factors significantly in the variation of temperature in the Philippines. In Baguio City, with an elevation of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above sea level, the mean average is 18.3 ° C (64.9 ° F) or cooler by about 4.3 ° C (8 ° F). In 1915, a one - year study was conducted by William H. Brown of the Philippine Journal of Science on top of Mount Banahaw at 2,100 m (6,900 ft) elevation. The mean temperature measured was 18.6 ° C (65.5 ° F), a difference of 10 ° C (18 ° F) from the lowland mean temperature.
Relative humidity is high in the Philippines. A high amount of moisture or vapor in the air makes hot temperatures feel hotter. This quantity of moisture is due to different factors -- the extraordinary evaporation from the seas that surrounds the country on all sides, to the different prevailing winds in the different seasons of the year, and finally, to the abundant rains so common in a tropical country. The first may be considered as general causes of the great humidity, which is generally observed in all the islands throughout the year. The last two may influence the different degree of humidity for the different months of the year and for the different regions of the archipelago.
The climate of the country is divided into two main seasons:
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what show has the theme song you're my best friend | You 're My Best Friend (Queen song) - wikipedia
"You 're My Best Friend '' is a song by the British rock band Queen, written by bass guitarist John Deacon. It was originally included on the album A Night at the Opera in 1975, and later released as a single. In the US, "You 're My Best Friend '' went to number sixteen. The song also appeared on the Live Killers (1979) live album and on the compilation albums Greatest Hits (1981), Absolute Greatest (2009) and Queen Forever (2014).
Deacon wrote the song for his wife, Veronica Tetzlaff. In this song, he plays a Wurlitzer electric piano in addition to his bass guitar work. The characteristic "bark '' of the Wurlitzer 's bass notes plays a prominent role in the song. During live performances, the band used a grand piano rather than an electric, and it would be played by Freddie Mercury, while Deacon played the bass guitar just like in the original recording.
The song was used in several TV shows and films such as Hot in Cleveland, Will & Grace, EastEnders, My Name is Earl, The King of Queens, The Simpsons, Shaun of the Dead, Peter 's Friends, and The Secret Life of Pets, in addition to the promo for the American television adaption of Wilfred. It appears in a 2016 TV commercial for PetSmart. The song was also covered in the television adaptation of School of Rock.
The music video, directed by Bruce Gowers, shows the band in a huge ballroom surrounded by over one thousand candles, including a huge chandelier hung from the ceiling. The video was filmed in April 1976 at Elstree Studios, London. Additionally, Deacon is seen playing a grand piano rather than the Wurlitzer he used on the recording.
The song was composed by John Deacon in the key of C major with a meter of 4 / 4, in swing feel.
The album A Night at the Opera features songs of numerous styles, including this three - minute pop song. Very unusual for the genre, there is no section appearing more than twice; characteristic of many Queen songs, as affirmed by Brian May. On the other hand, in terms of phrases and measures, there are numerous repetitions or variants. The form is cyclic and very similar to that of "Spread Your Wings '' (1977). Another similarity between the two songs is the lack of (real) modulation. The arrangement features 3 and 4 - part vocal and guitar harmonies, bass (melodic approach), drums, and electric piano. This is Deacon 's second recorded song and the first one released on single, some six months after the album - release. Mercury 's lead vocal features lot of "special effects '' (voice, rubato - ized rhythms, ornaments, slides). Mercury hits two sustained C s in the lead vocal track.
The band answered Tom Browne on 24 December 1977 in a live BBC Radio One interview, regarding Deacon 's control of the piano for the recording:
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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the invasion of kuwait by iraq resulted in a conflict that became known as | Invasion of Kuwait - wikipedia
Iraqi victory
Kuwaiti Army 16,000 Kuwaiti Air Force 2,200 Kuwaiti Navy 1,800 Kuwait National Guard Kuwait Police
Coalition intervention
Naval operations
Air campaign
Liberation of Kuwait
Post-ceasefire
The Invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990 was a 2 - day operation conducted by Iraq against the neighboring state of Kuwait, which resulted in the seven - month - long Iraqi occupation of the country. This invasion and Iraq 's subsequent refusal to withdraw from Kuwait by a deadline mandated by the United Nations led to military intervention by a United Nations - authorized coalition of forces led by the United States. These events came to be known as the first Gulf War and resulted in the expulsion of Iraqi forces from Kuwait and the Iraqis setting 600 Kuwaiti oil wells on fire during their retreat.
In early 1990 Iraq was accusing Kuwait of stealing Iraqi petroleum through slant drilling, although some Iraqi sources indicated Saddam Hussein 's decision to attack Kuwait was made a few months before the actual invasion. Some feel there were several reasons for the Iraqi move, including Iraq 's inability to pay the more than US $ 14 billion that it had borrowed to finance the Iran -- Iraq war, and Kuwaiti high petroleum production levels which kept revenues down for Iraq. The invasion started on 2 August 1990, and within two days most of the Kuwait Armed Forces were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard or fell back to neighbouring Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. The State of Kuwait was annexed, and Saddam Hussein announced a few days later that it was the 19th province of Iraq.
When the Iran -- Iraq War broke out, Kuwait initially stayed neutral and also tried mediating between Iran and Iraq. In 1982, Kuwait along with other Arab states of the Persian Gulf supported Iraq in order to curb the Iranian Revolutionary government. In 1982 -- 1983, Kuwait began sending significant financial aid to Iraq. Kuwait 's large - scale economic assistance to Iraq often triggered hostile Iranian actions against Kuwait. Iran repeatedly targeted Kuwaiti oil tankers in 1984 and fired weapons at Kuwaiti security personnel stationed on Bubiyan island in 1988. During the Iran -- Iraq War, Kuwait functioned as Iraq 's major port once Basra was shut down by the fighting. However, after the war ended, the friendly relations between the two neighbouring Arab countries turned sour for several economic and diplomatic reasons that culminated in an Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
By the time the Iran -- Iraq War ended, Iraq was not in a financial position to repay the US $14 billion it borrowed from Kuwait to finance its war and requested that Kuwait forgive the debt. Iraq argued that the war had prevented the rise of Iranian hegemony in Kuwait. However, Kuwait 's reluctance to pardon the debt created strains in the relationship between the two countries. During late 1989, several official meetings were held between the Kuwaiti and Iraqi leaders but they were unable to break the deadlock between the two.
In 1988 Iraq 's Oil Minister, Issam al - Chalabi, stressed a further reduction in the crude oil production quota of Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) members so as to end the 1980s oil glut. Chalabi argued that higher oil prices would help Iraq increase its revenues and pay back its US $60 billion debt. However, given its large downstream petroleum industry, Kuwait was less concerned about the prices of crude oil and in 1989, Kuwait requested OPEC to increase the country 's total oil production ceiling by 50 % to 1.35 million bpd. Throughout much of the 1980s, Kuwait 's oil production was considerably above its mandatory OPEC quota and this had prevented a further increase in crude oil prices. A lack of consensus among OPEC members undermined Iraq 's efforts to end the oil glut and consequently prevented the recovery of its war - crippled economy. According to former Iraqi Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz, "every US $1 drop in the price of a barrel of oil caused a US $1 billion drop in Iraq 's annual revenues triggering an acute financial crisis in Baghdad ''. It was estimated that between 1985 and 1989, Iraq lost US $14 billion a year due to Kuwait 's oil price strategy. Kuwait 's refusal to decrease its oil production was viewed by Iraq as an act of aggression against it.
The increasingly tense relations between Iraq and Kuwait were further aggravated when Iraq alleged that Kuwait was slant - drilling across the international border into Iraq 's Rumaila field. The dispute over Rumaila field started in 1960 when an Arab League declaration marked the Iraq -- Kuwait border 2 miles north of the southernmost tip of the Rumaila field. During the Iran -- Iraq War, Iraqi oil drilling operations in Rumaila declined while Kuwait 's operations increased. In 1989, Iraq accused Kuwait of using "advanced drilling techniques '' to exploit oil from its share of the Rumaila field. Iraq estimated that US $2.4 billion worth of Iraqi oil was "stolen '' by Kuwait and demanded compensation. Kuwait dismissed the accusations as a false Iraqi ploy to justify military action against it. Several foreign firms working in the Rumaila field also dismissed Iraq 's slant - drilling claims as a "smokescreen to disguise Iraq 's more ambitious intentions ''.
On 25 July 1990, only a few days before the Iraqi invasion, OPEC officials said that Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates had agreed to a proposal to limit daily oil output to 1.5 million barrels, thus potentially settling differences over oil policy between Kuwait and Iraq. At the time of the settlement, more than 100,000 Iraqi troops were deployed along the Iraq -- Kuwait border, and American officials expressed little indication of decline in tensions despite the OPEC settlement.
Many westerners believed that Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait was largely motivated by its desire to take control over the latter 's vast oil reserves. The Iraqi government justified its invasion by claiming that Kuwait was a natural part of Iraq carved off as a result of British imperialism. After signing the Anglo - Ottoman Convention of 1913, the United Kingdom split Kuwait from the Ottoman territories into a separate sheikhdom. The Iraqi government also argued that the Kuwaiti Emir was a highly unpopular figure among the Kuwaiti populace. By overthrowing the Emir, Iraq claimed that it granted Kuwaitis greater economic and political freedom.
Kuwait had been loosely under the authority of the Ottoman vilâyet of Basra, and although its ruling dynasty, the Al Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for its foreign affairs to Britain, it did not make any attempt to secede from the Ottoman Empire. For this reason, its borders with the rest of Basra province were never clearly defined or mutually agreed.
On 25 July 1990, April Glaspie, the U.S. Ambassador to Iraq, asked the Iraqi high command to explain the military preparations in progress, including the massing of Iraqi troops near the border.
The American ambassador declared to her Iraqi interlocutor that Washington, "inspired by the friendship and not by confrontation, does not have an opinion '' on the disagreement between Kuwait and Iraq, stating "we have no opinion on the Arab -- Arab conflicts ''.
She also let Saddam Hussein know that the United States did not intend "to start an economic war against Iraq ''. These statements may have caused Saddam to believe he had received a diplomatic green light from the United States to invade Kuwait.. This exchange only became public knowledge in 2011, following a Wikileaks release of a cable, sent by the US embassy in Iraq, following on from Ms Glaspie 's meeting with Saddam Hussein. In addition, one week before the invasion, the Assistant Secretary of State, John Kelly, told the US congress that the US had no treaty obligations to defend Kuwait.
According to Richard E. Rubenstein, Glaspie was later asked by British journalists why she had said that, her response was "we did n't think he would go that far '' meaning invade and annex the whole country. Although no follow - up question was asked, it can be inferred that what the U.S. government thought in July 1990 was that Saddam Hussein was only interested in pressuring Kuwait into debt forgiveness and to lower oil production.
On 2 August 1990 at 2: 00 am, local time, Iraq launched an invasion of Kuwait with four elite Iraqi Republican Guard divisions (1st Hammurabi Armoured Division, 2nd al - Medinah al - Munawera Armoured Division, 3rd Tawakalna ala - Allah Mechanized Infantry Division and 4th Nebuchadnezzar Motorized Infantry Division) and Iraqi Army special forces units equivalent to a full division. The main thrust was conducted by the commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to attack Kuwait City (see Battle of Dasman Palace), while the other divisions seized the airports and two airbases.
In support of these units, the Iraqi Army deployed a squadron of Mil Mi - 25 helicopter gunships, several units of Mi - 8 and Mi - 17 transport helicopters, as well as a squadron of Bell 412 helicopters. The foremost mission of the helicopter units was to transport and support Iraqi commandos into Kuwait City, and subsequently to support the advance of ground troops. The Iraqi Air Force (IQAF) had at least two squadrons of Sukhoi Su - 22, one of Su - 25, one of Mirage F1 and two of MiG - 23 fighter - bombers. The main task of the IQAF was to establish air superiority through limited air strikes against two main air bases of Kuwaiti Air Force, whose aircraft consisted mainly of Mirage F1s and Douglas (T) A-4KU Skyhawks. Meanwhile, certain targets in the capital of Kuwait City were bombed by Iraqi aircraft.
Despite months of Iraqi sabre - rattling, Kuwait did not have its forces on alert and was caught unaware. The first indication of the Iraqi ground advance was from a radar - equipped aerostat that detected an Iraqi armour column moving south. Kuwaiti air, ground, and naval forces resisted, but were vastly outnumbered. In central Kuwait, the 35th Armoured Brigade deployed approximately a battalion of Chieftain tanks, BMPs, and an artillery battery against the Iraqis and fought delaying actions near Al Jahra (see Battle of the Bridges), west of Kuwait City. In the south, the 15th Armoured Brigade moved immediately to evacuate its forces to Saudi Arabia. Of the small Kuwaiti Navy, two missile boats were able to evade capture or destruction.
Kuwait Air Force aircraft were scrambled, but approximately 20 % were lost or captured. An air battle with the Iraqi helicopter airborne forces was fought over Kuwait City, inflicting heavy losses on the Iraqi elite troops, and a few combat sorties were flown against Iraqi ground forces. The remaining 80 % were then evacuated to Saudi Arabia and Bahrain, some aircraft even taking off from the highways adjacent to the bases as the runways were overrun. While these aircraft were not used in support of the subsequent Gulf War, the "Free Kuwait Air Force '' assisted Saudi Arabia in patrolling the southern border with Yemen, which was considered a threat by the Saudis because of Yemen -- Iraq ties.
Iraqi troops attacked Dasman Palace, the Royal Residence, resulting in the Battle of Dasman Palace. The Kuwaiti Emiri Guard, supported by local police and M - 84 tanks managed to repel an airborne assault by Iraqi Special Forces, but the Palace fell after a landing by Iraqi Marines (Dasman Palace is located on the coast). The Kuwaiti National Guard, as well as additional Emiri Guards arrived, but the palace remained occupied, and Republican Guard tanks rolled into Kuwait City after several hours of heavy fighting.
The Emir of Kuwait, Jaber Al - Ahmad Al - Jaber Al - Sabah had already fled into the Saudi desert. His younger half brother, Sheikh Fahad Al - Ahmed Al - Jaber Al - Sabah, was shot and killed by invading Iraqi forces as he attempted to defend Dasman Palace after which his body was placed in front of a tank and run over, according to an Iraqi soldier who was present and deserted after the assault.
Towards the end of the first day of the invasion, only pockets of resistance were left in the country. By August 3, the last military units were desperately fighting delaying actions at choke points and other defensible positions throughout the country until out of ammunition or overrun by Iraqi forces. Ali al - Salem Air Base of the Kuwaiti Air Force was the only base still unoccupied on August 3, and Kuwaiti aircraft flew resupply missions from Saudi Arabia throughout the day in an effort to mount a defense. However, by nightfall, Ali al - Salem Air Base had been overrun by Iraqi forces. From then on it was only a matter of time until all units of the Kuwaiti Military were forced to retreat or be overrun.
Kuwaitis founded a local armed resistance movement following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. Most of the Kuwaitis who were arrested, tortured, and executed during the occupation were civilians. The Kuwaiti resistance 's casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages. The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision.
After the Iraqi victory, Saddam Hussein installed Alaa Hussein Ali as the Prime Minister of the "Provisional Government of Free Kuwait '' and Ali Hassan al - Majid as the de facto governor of Kuwait. The exiled Kuwaiti royal family and other former government officials began an international campaign to persuade other countries to pressure Iraq to vacate Kuwait. The UN Security Council passed 12 resolutions demanding immediate withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait, but to no avail.
Following the events of the Iraq -- Kuwait war, about half of the Kuwaiti population, including 400,000 Kuwaits and several thousand foreign nationals, fled the country. The Indian government evacuated over 170,000 overseas Indians by flying almost 488 flights over 59 days.
During the 7 - month occupation, the forces of Saddam Hussein looted Kuwait 's vast wealth and there were also reports of violations of human rights. A 2005 study revealed that the Iraqi occupation had a long - term adverse impact on the health of the Kuwaiti populace.
After Iraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait and Saddam Hussein deposed the Emir of Kuwait, Jaber Al - Sabah, he installed Ali Hassan al - Majid as the new governor of Kuwait.
The Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait was unanimously condemned by all major world powers. Even countries traditionally considered to be close Iraqi allies, such as France and India, called for immediate withdrawal of all Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Several countries, including the USSR and China, placed arms embargoes on Iraq. NATO members were particularly critical of the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait and by late 1990, the United States had issued an ultimatum to Iraq to withdraw its forces from Kuwait by 15 January 1991 or face war.
On 3 August 1990, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 660 condemning the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and demanding that Iraq unconditionally withdraw all forces deployed in Kuwait.
After a series of failed negotiations between major world powers and Iraq, the United States - led coalition forces launched a massive military assault on Iraq and Iraqi forces stationed in Kuwait in mid-January 1991. By January 16, Allied aircraft were targeting several Iraqi military sites and the Iraqi Air Force was destroyed. Hostilities continued until late February and on February 25, Kuwait was officially liberated from Iraq. On 15 March 1991, the Emir of Kuwait returned to the country after spending more than 8 months in exile. During the Iraqi occupation, about 1,000 Kuwaiti civilians were killed and more than 300,000 residents fled the country.
In December 2002, Saddam Hussein apologized for the invasion shortly before being deposed in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Two years later, the Palestinian leadership also apologized for its wartime support of Saddam. A longtime ally of Saddam Hussein, in 1990 Yemen 's president, Ali Abdullah Saleh backed Saddam Hussein 's invasion of Kuwait. After Iraq lost the Gulf War, Yemenis were deported en masse from Kuwait by the restored government.
The US military continue a strong presence adding 4,000 troops in February 2015 alone. There is also a very strong US civilian presence with an estimated 18,000 American children in Kuwait being taught by 625 US teachers.
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how many american casualties in the battle of midway | Battle of Midway - wikipedia
Pacific Fleet
Combined Fleet
Southeast Asia
Burma
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
The Battle of Midway was a decisive naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II which occurred between 4 and 7 June 1942, only six months after Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The United States Navy under Admirals Chester Nimitz, Frank Jack Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy under Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto, Chūichi Nagumo, and Nobutake Kondō near Midway Atoll, inflicting devastating damage on the Japanese fleet that proved irreparable. Military historian John Keegan called it "the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare ''.
The Japanese operation, like the earlier attack on Pearl Harbor, sought to eliminate the United States as a strategic power in the Pacific, thereby giving Japan a free hand in establishing its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The Japanese hoped another demoralizing defeat would force the U.S. to capitulate in the Pacific War and thus ensure Japanese dominance in the Pacific. Luring the American aircraft carriers into a trap and occupying Midway was part of an overall "barrier '' strategy to extend Japan 's defensive perimeter, in response to the Doolittle air raid on Tokyo. This operation was also considered preparatory for further attacks against Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii itself.
The plan was handicapped by faulty Japanese assumptions of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Most significantly, American cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, enabling the forewarned U.S. Navy to prepare its own ambush. There were seven aircraft carriers involved in the battle and four of Japan 's large fleet carriers -- Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū and Hiryū, part of the six - carrier force that had attacked Pearl Harbor six months earlier -- and a heavy cruiser were sunk, while the U.S. lost only the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer.
After Midway and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan 's capacity to replace its losses in materiel (particularly aircraft carriers) and men (especially well - trained pilots and maintenance crewmen) rapidly became insufficient to cope with mounting casualties, while the United States ' massive industrial and training capabilities made losses far easier to replace. The Battle of Midway, along with the Guadalcanal Campaign, is widely considered a turning point in the Pacific War.
After expanding the war in the Pacific to include Western outposts, the Japanese Empire had attained its initial strategic goals quickly, taking the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia); the latter, with its vital oil resources, was particularly important to Japan. Because of this, preliminary planning for a second phase of operations commenced as early as January 1942.
There were strategic disagreements between the Imperial Army (IJA) and Imperial Navy (IJN), and infighting between the Navy 's GHQ and Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto 's Combined Fleet, and a follow - up strategy was not formed until April 1942. Admiral Yamamoto finally succeeded in winning the bureaucratic struggle with a thinly veiled threat to resign, after which his plan for the Central Pacific was adopted.
Yamamoto 's primary strategic goal was the elimination of America 's carrier forces, which he regarded as the principal threat to the overall Pacific campaign. This concern was acutely heightened by the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942, in which 16 U.S. Army Air Forces B - 25 Mitchell bombers launched from USS Hornet bombed targets in Tokyo and several other Japanese cities. The raid, while militarily insignificant, was a shock to the Japanese and showed the existence of a gap in the defenses around the Japanese home islands as well as the accessibility of Japanese territory to American bombers.
This, and other successful hit - and - run raids by American carriers in the South Pacific, showed that they were still a threat, although seemingly reluctant to be drawn into an all - out battle. Yamamoto reasoned that another air attack on the main U.S. Naval base at Pearl Harbor would induce all of the American fleet to sail out to fight, including the carriers. However, considering the increased strength of American land - based air power on the Hawaiian Islands since the December 7 attack the previous year, he judged that it was now too risky to attack Pearl Harbor directly.
Instead, Yamamoto selected Midway, a tiny atoll at the extreme northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain, approximately 1,300 miles (1,100 nautical miles; 2,100 kilometres) from Oahu. This meant that Midway was outside the effective range of almost all of the American aircraft stationed on the main Hawaiian islands. Midway was not especially important in the larger scheme of Japan 's intentions, but the Japanese felt the Americans would consider Midway a vital outpost of Pearl Harbor and would therefore be compelled to defend it vigorously. The U.S. did consider Midway vital: after the battle, establishment of a U.S. submarine base on Midway allowed submarines operating from Pearl Harbor to refuel and re-provision, extending their radius of operations by 1,200 miles (1,900 km). In addition to serving as a seaplane base, Midway 's airstrips also served as a forward staging point for bomber attacks on Wake Island.
Typical of Japanese naval planning during World War II, Yamamoto 's battle plan for taking Midway (named Operation MI) was exceedingly complex. It required the careful and timely coordination of multiple battle groups over hundreds of miles of open sea. His design was also predicated on optimistic intelligence suggesting that USS Enterprise and USS Hornet, forming Task Force 16, were the only carriers available to the U.S. Pacific Fleet. During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, USS Lexington had been sunk and USS Yorktown suffered considerable damage such that the Japanese believed she too had been lost. However, following hasty repairs at Pearl Harbor, Yorktown sortied and would go on to play a critical role in the discovery and eventual destruction of the Japanese fleet carriers at Midway. Finally, much of Yamamoto 's planning, coinciding with the general feeling among the Japanese leadership at the time, was based on a gross misjudgment of American morale, which was believed to be debilitated from the string of Japanese victories in the preceding months.
Yamamoto felt deception would be required to lure the U.S. fleet into a fatally compromised situation. To this end, he dispersed his forces so that their full extent (particularly his battleships) would be concealed from the Americans prior to battle. Critically, Yamamoto 's supporting battleships and cruisers trailed Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's carrier force by several hundred miles. They were intended to come up and destroy whatever elements of the U.S. fleet might come to Midway 's defense once Nagumo 's carriers had weakened them sufficiently for a daylight gun battle; this tactic was typical of the battle doctrine of most major navies at the time.
What Yamamoto did not know was that the U.S. had broken the main Japanese naval code (dubbed JN - 25 by the Americans), divulging many details of his plan to the enemy. His emphasis on dispersal also meant none of his formations were in a position to support each other. For instance, despite the fact that Nagumo 's carriers were expected to carry out strikes against Midway and bear the brunt of American counterattacks, the only warships in his fleet larger than the screening force of twelve destroyers were two Kongō - class fast battleships, two heavy cruisers, and one light cruiser. By contrast, Yamamoto and Kondo had between them two light carriers, five battleships, four heavy cruisers, and two light cruisers, none of which would see action at Midway. The light carriers of the trailing forces and Yamamoto 's three battleships were unable to keep pace with the carriers of the Kidō Butai and so could not have sailed in company with them. The distance between Yamamoto and Kondo 's forces and Nagumo 's carriers had grave implications during the battle: the invaluable reconnaissance capability of the scout planes carried by the cruisers and carriers, as well as the additional antiaircraft capability of the cruisers and the other two battleships of the Kongō - class in the trailing forces, was denied to Nagumo.
In order to obtain support from the Imperial Japanese Army for the Midway operation, the Imperial Japanese Navy agreed to support their invasion of the Aleutian Islands. The IJA wished to occupy the western Aleutians to place the Japanese home islands out of range of U.S. land - based bombers based in Alaska. The Japanese operations in the Aleutian Islands (Operation AL) removed yet more ships that could otherwise have augmented the force striking Midway. Whereas many earlier historical accounts considered the Aleutians operation as a feint to draw American forces away, early twenty - first century research has suggested that AL was intended to be launched simultaneously with the attack on Midway. A one - day delay in the sailing of Nagumo 's task force resulted in Operation AL beginning a day before the Midway attack.
To do battle with an enemy expected to muster four or five carriers, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, needed every available U.S. flight deck. He already had Vice Admiral William Halsey 's two - carrier (Enterprise and Hornet) task force at hand, though Halsey was stricken with severe dermatitis and had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, Halsey 's escort commander. Nimitz also hurriedly recalled Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher 's task force, including the carrier Yorktown, from the South West Pacific Area.
Despite estimates that Yorktown, damaged in the Battle of the Coral Sea, would require several months of repairs at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, her elevators were intact and her flight deck largely so. The Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard worked around the clock, and in 72 hours she was restored to a battle - ready state, judged good enough for two or three weeks of operations, as Nimitz required. Her flight deck was patched, and whole sections of internal frames were cut out and replaced. Repairs continued even as she sortied, with work crews from the repair ship USS Vestal, herself damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor six months earlier, still aboard.
Yorktown 's partially depleted air group was rebuilt using whatever planes and pilots could be found. Scouting Five (VS - 5) was replaced with Bombing Three (VB - 3) from USS Saratoga. Torpedo Five (VT - 5) was also replaced by Torpedo Three (VT - 3). Also Fighting Three (VF - 3) was reconstituted to replace VF - 42 with sixteen pilots from VF - 42 and eleven pilots from VF - 3 with Lieutenant Commander John S. "Jimmy '' Thach in command. Some of the aircrew were inexperienced, which may have contributed to an accident in which Thach 's executive officer Lt Cmndr Donald Lovelace was killed. Despite efforts to get Saratoga (which had been undergoing repairs on the American West Coast) ready for the coming engagement, the need to resupply and assemble sufficient escorts meant she was not able to reach Midway until after the battle.
On Midway, by 4 June the USN had stationed four squadrons of PBYs -- 31 aircraft in total -- for long - range reconnaissance duties, and 6 brand - new Grumman TBF Avengers, the latter a detachment from Hornet 's VT - 8. The Marine Corps stationed 19 Douglas SBD Dauntless, 7 F4F - 3 Wildcats, 17 Vought SB2U Vindicators, and 21 Brewster F2A Buffalos. The USAAF contributed a squadron of 17 B - 17 Flying Fortresses and 4 Martin B - 26 Marauders equipped with torpedoes: in total 126 aircraft. Although the F2As and SB2Us were already obsolete, they were the only aircraft available to the Marine Corps at the time.
During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, the Japanese light carrier Shōhō had been sunk and the fleet carrier Shōkaku was severely damaged by three bomb hits, and was in drydock for months of repair. Although the fleet carrier Zuikaku escaped the battle undamaged, she had lost almost half her air group, and was in port in Kure awaiting replacement planes and pilots. That there were none immediately available is attributable to the failure of the IJN crew training program, which already showed signs of being unable to replace losses. Instructors from the Yokosuka Air Corps were employed in an effort to make up the shortfall.
Historians Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully believe that by combining the surviving aircraft and pilots from Shōkaku and Zuikaku, it is likely that Zuikaku could have been equipped with almost a full composite air group. They also note that doing so would have violated Japanese carrier doctrine, which stressed that carriers and their airgroups must train as a single unit (in contrast, American air squadrons were considered interchangeable between carriers). In any case, the Japanese apparently made no serious attempt to get Zuikaku ready for the forthcoming battle.
Thus, Carrier Division 5, consisting of the two most advanced aircraft carriers of the Kido Butai, would not be available, which meant that Vice-Admiral Nagumo had only two thirds of the fleet carriers at his disposal: Kaga and Akagi forming Carrier Division 1 and Hiryū and Sōryū as Carrier Division 2. This was partly due to fatigue; Japanese carriers had been constantly on operations since 7 December 1941, including raids on Darwin and Colombo. Nonetheless, the First Carrier Strike Force sailed with 238 available aircraft on the four carriers (60 on Akagi, 74 on Kaga (B5N2 squadron oversized), 57 on Hiryū and 57 on Sōryū).
The main Japanese carrier - borne strike aircraft were the D3A1 "Val '' dive bomber and the B5N2 "Kate '', which was used either as a torpedo bomber or as a level bomber. The main carrier fighter was the fast and highly maneuverable A6M "Zero ''. For a variety of reasons, production of the "Val '' had been drastically reduced, while that of the "Kate '' had been stopped completely and, as a consequence, there were none available to replace losses. In addition, many of the aircraft being used during the June 1942 operations had been operational since late November 1941 and, although they were well - maintained, many were almost worn out and had become increasingly unreliable. These factors meant all carriers of the Kido Butai had fewer aircraft than their normal complement, with few spare aircraft or parts stored in the carriers ' hangars.
In addition, Nagumo 's carrier force suffered from several defensive deficiencies which gave it, in Mark Peattie 's words, a "' glass jaw ': it could throw a punch but could n't take one. '' Japanese carrier anti-aircraft guns and associated fire control systems had several design and configuration deficiencies which limited their effectiveness. The IJN 's fleet combat air patrol (CAP) consisted of too few fighter aircraft and was hampered by an inadequate early warning system, including a lack of radar. Poor radio communications with the fighter aircraft inhibited effective command and control of the CAP. The carriers ' escorting warships were deployed as visual scouts in a ring at long range, not as close anti-aircraft escorts, as they lacked training, doctrine, and sufficient anti-aircraft guns.
Japanese strategic scouting arrangements prior to the battle were also in disarray. A picket line of Japanese submarines was late getting into position (partly because of Yamamoto 's haste), which let the American carriers reach their assembly point northeast of Midway (known as "Point Luck '') without being detected. A second attempt at reconnaissance, using four - engine H8K "Emily '' flying boats to scout Pearl Harbor prior to the battle and detect whether the American carriers were present, part of Operation K, was thwarted when Japanese submarines assigned to refuel the search aircraft discovered that the intended refueling point -- a hitherto deserted bay off French Frigate Shoals -- was now occupied by American warships, because the Japanese had carried out an identical mission in March. Thus, Japan was deprived of any knowledge concerning the movements of the American carriers immediately before the battle.
Japanese radio intercepts did notice an increase in both American submarine activity and message traffic. This information was in Yamamoto 's hands prior to the battle. Japanese plans were not changed; Yamamoto, at sea in Yamato, assumed Nagumo had received the same signal from Tokyo, and did not communicate with him by radio, so as not to reveal his position. These messages were, contrary to earlier historical accounts, also received by Nagumo before the battle began. For reasons which remain unclear, Nagumo did not alter his plans or take additional precautions.
Admiral Nimitz had one critical advantage: US cryptanalysts had partially broken the Japanese Navy 's JN - 25b code. Since early 1942, the US had been decoding messages stating that there would soon be an operation at objective "AF ''. It was initially not known where "AF '' was, but Commander Joseph Rochefort and his team at Station HYPO were able to confirm that it was Midway: Captain Wilfred Holmes devised a ruse of telling the base at Midway (by secure undersea cable) to broadcast an uncoded radio message stating that Midway 's water purification system had broken down. Within 24 hours, the code breakers picked up a Japanese message that "AF was short on water ''. No Japanese radio operators who intercepted the message seemed concerned that the Americans were broadcasting uncoded that a major naval installation close to the Japanese threat ring was having a water shortage, which could have tipped off Japanese intelligence officers that it was a deliberate attempt at deception.
HYPO was also able to determine the date of the attack as either 4 or 5 June, and to provide Nimitz with a complete IJN order of battle.
Japan had a new codebook, but its introduction had been delayed, enabling HYPO to read messages for several crucial days; the new code, which would take several days to be cracked, came into use on 24 May, but the important breaks had already been made.
As a result, the Americans entered the battle with a very good picture of where, when, and in what strength the Japanese would appear. Nimitz knew that the Japanese had negated their numerical advantage by dividing their ships into four separate task groups, all too widely separated to be able to support each other. This dispersal resulted in few fast ships being available to escort the Carrier Striking Force, reducing the number of anti-aircraft guns protecting the carriers. Nimitz calculated that the aircraft on his three carriers, plus those on Midway Island, gave the U.S. rough parity with Yamamoto 's four carriers, mainly because American carrier air groups were larger than Japanese ones. The Japanese, by contrast, remained mainly unaware of their opponent 's true strength and dispositions even after the battle began.
At about 09: 00 on 3 June, Ensign Jack Reid, piloting a PBY from U.S. Navy patrol squadron VP - 44, spotted the Japanese Occupation Force 500 nautical miles (580 miles; 930 kilometres) to the west - southwest of Midway. He mistakenly reported this group as the Main Force.
Nine B - 17s took off from Midway at 12: 30 for the first air attack. Three hours later, they found Tanaka 's transport group 570 nautical miles (660 miles; 1,060 kilometres) to the west.
Under heavy anti-aircraft fire, they dropped their bombs. Although their crews reported hitting 4 ships, none of the bombs actually hit anything and no significant damage was inflicted. Early the following morning, the Japanese oil tanker Akebono Maru sustained the first hit when a torpedo from an attacking PBY struck her around 01: 00. This was the only successful air - launched torpedo attack by the U.S. during the entire battle.
At 04: 30 on 4 June, Nagumo launched his initial attack on Midway itself, consisting of 36 Aichi D3A dive bombers and 36 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers, escorted by 36 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters. At the same time, he launched his 8 search aircraft (one from the heavy cruiser Tone launched 30 minutes late). Japanese reconnaissance arrangements were flimsy, with too few aircraft to adequately cover the assigned search areas, laboring under poor weather conditions to the northeast and east of the task force. As Nagumo 's bombers and fighters were taking off, 11 PBYs were leaving Midway to run their search patterns. At 05: 34, a PBY reported sighting 2 Japanese carriers and another spotted the inbound airstrike 10 minutes later.
Midway 's radar picked up the enemy at a distance of several miles, and interceptors were scrambled. Unescorted bombers headed off to attack the Japanese carriers, their fighter escorts remaining behind to defend Midway. At 06: 20, Japanese carrier aircraft bombed and heavily damaged the U.S. base. Midway - based Marine fighters led by Major Floyd B. Parks, which included 6 F4Fs and 20 F2As, intercepted the Japanese and suffered heavy losses, though they managed to destroy 4 B5Ns, as well as a single A6M. Within the first few minutes, 2 F4Fs and 13 F2As were destroyed, while most of the surviving U.S. planes were damaged, with only 2 remaining airworthy. American anti-aircraft fire was intense and accurate, destroying 3 additional Japanese aircraft and damaging many more.
Of the 108 Japanese aircraft involved in this attack, 11 were destroyed (including 3 that ditched), 14 were heavily damaged, and 29 were damaged to some degree. The initial Japanese attack did not succeed in neutralizing Midway: American bombers could still use the airbase to refuel and attack the Japanese invasion force, and most of Midway 's land - based defenses were intact. Japanese pilots reported to Nagumo that a second aerial attack on Midway 's defenses would be necessary if troops were to go ashore by 7 June.
Having taken off prior to the Japanese attack, American bombers based on Midway made several attacks on the Japanese carrier force. These included 6 Grumman Avengers, detached to Midway from Hornet 's VT - 8 (Midway was the combat debut of both VT - 8 and the TBF); Marine Scout - Bombing Squadron 241 (VMSB - 241), consisting of 11 SB2U - 3s and 16 SBDs, plus 4 USAAF B - 26s of the 18th Reconnaissance and 69th Bomb Squadrons armed with torpedoes, and 15 B - 17s of the 31st, 72nd, and 431st Bomb Squadrons. The Japanese repelled these attacks, losing 3 fighters while destroying 5 TBFs, 2 SB2Us, 8 SBDs, and 2 B - 26s. Among the dead was Major Lofton R. Henderson of VMSB - 241, killed while leading his inexperienced Dauntless squadron into action. The main airfield at Guadalcanal was named after him in August 1942.
One B - 26, after being seriously damaged by anti-aircraft fire, made a suicide run on Akagi. Making no attempt to pull out of its run, the aircraft narrowly missed crashing directly into the carrier 's bridge, which could have killed Nagumo and his command staff. This experience may well have contributed to Nagumo 's determination to launch another attack on Midway, in direct violation of Yamamoto 's order to keep the reserve strike force armed for anti-ship operations.
In accordance with Japanese carrier doctrine at the time, Admiral Nagumo had kept half of his aircraft in reserve. These comprised two squadrons each of dive bombers and torpedo bombers. The dive bombers were as yet unarmed. The torpedo bombers were armed with torpedoes should any American warships be located.
At 07: 15, Nagumo ordered his reserve planes to be re-armed with contact - fused general purpose bombs for use against land targets. This was a result of the attacks from Midway, as well as of the morning flight leader 's recommendation of a second strike. Re-arming had been underway for about 30 minutes when, at 07: 40, the delayed scout plane from Tone signaled that it had sighted a sizable American naval force to the east, but neglected to describe its composition. Later evidence suggests Nagumo did not receive the sighting report until 08: 00.
Nagumo quickly reversed his order to re-arm the bombers with general purpose bombs and demanded that the scout plane ascertain the composition of the American force. Another 20 -- 40 minutes elapsed before Tone 's scout finally radioed the presence of a single carrier in the American force. This was one of the carriers from Task Force 16. The other carrier was not sighted.
Nagumo was now in a quandary. Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, leading Carrier Division 2 (Hiryū and Sōryū), recommended that Nagumo strike immediately with the forces at hand: 18 Aichi D3A1 dive bombers each on Sōryū and Hiryū, and half the ready cover patrol aircraft. Nagumo 's opportunity to hit the American ships was now limited by the imminent return of his Midway strike force. The returning strike force needed to land promptly or it would have to ditch into the sea. Because of the constant flight deck activity associated with combat air patrol operations during the preceding hour, the Japanese never had an opportunity to position ("spot '') their reserve planes on the flight deck for launch.
The few aircraft on the Japanese flight decks at the time of the attack were either defensive fighters or, in the case of Sōryū, fighters being spotted to augment the Combat Air Patrol. Spotting his flight decks and launching aircraft would have required at least 30 minutes. Furthermore, by spotting and launching immediately, Nagumo would be committing some of his reserve to battle without proper anti-ship armament, and likely without fighter escort; indeed, he had just witnessed how easily unescorted American bombers had been shot down.
Japanese carrier doctrine preferred the launching of fully constituted strikes rather than piecemeal attacks. Without confirmation of whether the American force included carriers (not received until 08: 20), Nagumo 's reaction was doctrinaire. In addition, the arrival of another land - based American air strike at 07: 53 gave weight to the need to attack the island again. In the end, Nagumo decided to wait for his first strike force to land, then launch the reserve, which would by then be properly armed with torpedoes.
In the final analysis, it made no difference; Fletcher 's carriers had launched their planes beginning at 07: 00 (with Enterprise and Hornet having completed launching by 07: 55, but Yorktown not until 09: 08), so the aircraft that would deliver the crushing blow were already on their way. Even if Nagumo had not strictly followed carrier doctrine, he could not have prevented the launch of the American attack.
The Americans had already launched their carrier aircraft against the Japanese. Fletcher, in overall command aboard Yorktown, and benefiting from PBY sighting reports from the early morning, ordered Spruance to launch against the Japanese as soon as was practical, while initially holding Yorktown in reserve in case any other Japanese carriers were found.
Spruance judged that, though the range was extreme, a strike could succeed and gave the order to launch the attack. He then left Halsey 's Chief of Staff, Captain Miles Browning, to work out the details and oversee the launch. The carriers had to launch into the wind, so the light southeasterly breeze would require them to steam away from the Japanese at high speed. Browning therefore suggested a launch time of 07: 00, giving the carriers an hour to close on the Japanese at 25 knots (46 km / h; 29 mph). This would place them at about 155 nautical miles (287 km; 178 mi) from the Japanese fleet, assuming it did not change course. The first plane took off from Spruance 's carriers Enterprise and Hornet a few minutes after 07: 00. Fletcher, upon completing his own scouting flights, followed suit at 08: 00 from Yorktown.
Fletcher, along with Yorktown 's commanding officer, Captain Elliott Buckmaster, and their staffs, had acquired first - hand experience in organizing and launching a full strike against an enemy force in the Coral Sea, but there was no time to pass these lessons on to Enterprise and Hornet which were tasked with launching the first strike. Spruance ordered the striking aircraft to proceed to target immediately, rather than waste time waiting for the strike force to assemble, since neutralizing enemy carriers was the key to the survival of his own task force.
While the Japanese were able to launch 108 aircraft in just seven minutes, it took Enterprise and Hornet over an hour to launch 117. Spruance judged that the need to throw something at the enemy as soon as possible was greater than the need to coordinate the attack by aircraft of different types and speeds (fighters, bombers, and torpedo bombers). Accordingly, American squadrons were launched piecemeal and proceeded to the target in several different groups. It was accepted that the lack of coordination would diminish the impact of the American attacks and increase their casualties, but Spruance calculated that this was worthwhile, since keeping the Japanese under aerial attack impaired their ability to launch a counterstrike (Japanese tactics preferred fully constituted attacks), and he gambled that he would find Nagumo with his flight decks at their most vulnerable.
American carrier aircraft had difficulty locating the target, despite the positions they had been given. The strike from Hornet, led by Commander Stanhope C. Ring, followed an incorrect heading of 265 degrees rather than the 240 degrees indicated by the contact report. As a result, Air Group Eight 's dive bombers missed the Japanese carriers. Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT - 8, from Hornet), led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron, broke formation from Ring and followed the correct heading. The 10 F4Fs from Hornet ran out of fuel and had to ditch.
Waldron 's squadron sighted the enemy carriers and began attacking at 09: 20, followed at 09: 40 by VT - 6 from Enterprise, whose Wildcat fighter escorts lost contact, ran low on fuel, and had to turn back. Without fighter escort, all 15 TBD Devastators of VT - 8 were shot down without being able to inflict any damage. Ensign George H. Gay, Jr. was the only survivor of the 30 aircrew of VT - 8. VT - 6 lost 10 of its 14 Devastators, and 10 of 12 Devastators from Yorktown 's VT - 3 (who attacked at 10: 10) were shot down with no hits to show for their effort, thanks in part to the abysmal performance of their unimproved Mark 13 torpedoes. Midway was the last time the TBD Devastator was used in combat.
The Japanese combat air patrol, flying Mitsubishi A6M2 Zeros, made short work of the unescorted, slow, under - armed TBDs. A few TBDs managed to get within a few ship - lengths range of their targets before dropping their torpedoes -- close enough to be able to strafe the enemy ships and force the Japanese carriers to make sharp evasive maneuvers -- but all of their torpedoes either missed or failed to explode. Remarkably, senior Navy and Bureau of Ordnance officers never questioned why half a dozen torpedoes, released so close to the Japanese carriers, produced no results. The performance of American torpedoes in the early months of the war was scandalous, as shot after shot missed by running directly under the target (deeper than intended), prematurely exploded, or hit targets (sometimes with an audible clang) and failed to explode at all.
Despite their failure to score any hits, the American torpedo attacks achieved three important results. First, they kept the Japanese carriers off balance and unable to prepare and launch their own counterstrike. Second, the poor control of the Japanese combat air patrol (CAP) meant they were out of position for subsequent attacks. Third, many of the Zeros ran low on ammunition and fuel. The appearance of a third torpedo plane attack from the southeast by VT - 3 from Yorktown at 10: 00 very quickly drew the majority of the Japanese CAP to the southeast quadrant of the fleet. Better discipline, and the employment of a greater number of Zeroes for the CAP might have enabled Nagumo to prevent (or at least mitigate) the damage caused by the coming American attacks.
By chance, at the same time VT - 3 was sighted by the Japanese, three squadrons of SBDs from Enterprise and Yorktown were approaching from the southwest and northeast. The Yorktown squadron (VB - 3) had flown just behind VT - 3, but elected to attack from a different course. The two squadrons from Enterprise (VB - 6 and VS - 6) were running low on fuel because of the time spent looking for the enemy. Air Group Commander C. Wade McClusky, Jr. decided to continue the search, and by good fortune spotted the wake of the Japanese destroyer Arashi, steaming at full speed to rejoin Nagumo 's carriers after having unsuccessfully depth - charged U.S. submarine Nautilus, which had unsuccessfully attacked the battleship Kirishima. Some bombers were lost from fuel exhaustion before the attack commenced.
McClusky 's decision to continue the search and his judgment, in the opinion of Admiral Chester Nimitz, "decided the fate of our carrier task force and our forces at Midway... '' All three American dive - bomber squadrons (VB - 6, VS - 6 and VB - 3) arrived almost simultaneously at the perfect time, locations and altitudes to attack. Most of the Japanese CAP was focusing on the torpedo planes of VT - 3 and were out of position, armed Japanese strike aircraft filled the hangar decks, fuel hoses snaked across the decks as refueling operations were hastily being completed, and the repeated change of ordnance meant that bombs and torpedoes were stacked around the hangars, rather than stowed safely in the magazines, making the Japanese carriers extraordinarily vulnerable.
Beginning at 10: 22, the two squadrons of Enterprise 's air group split up with the intention of sending one squadron each to attack Kaga and Akagi. A miscommunication caused both of the squadrons to dive at the Kaga. Recognizing the error, Lieutenant Richard Halsey Best and his two wingmen were able to pull out of their dives and, after judging that Kaga was doomed, headed north to attack Akagi. Coming under an onslaught of bombs from almost two full squadrons, Kaga sustained four or five direct hits, which caused heavy damage and started multiple fires. One of the bombs landed near the bridge, killing Captain Jisaku Okada and most of the ship 's senior officers. Lieutenant Clarence E. Dickinson, part of McClusky 's group, recalled:
We were coming down in all directions on the port side of the carrier... I recognized her as the Kaga; and she was enormous... The target was utterly satisfying... I saw a bomb hit just behind where I was aiming... I saw the deck rippling and curling back in all directions exposing a great section of the hangar below... I saw (my) 500 - pound bomb hit right abreast of the (carrier 's) island. The two 100 - pound bombs struck in the forward area of the parked planes...
Several minutes later, Best and his two wingmen dived on the Akagi. Mitsuo Fuchida, the Japanese aviator who had led the attack on Pearl Harbor, was on the Akagi when it was hit, and described the attack:
A look - out screamed: "Hell - Divers! '' I looked up to see three black enemy planes plummeting towards our ship. Some of our machineguns managed to fire a few frantic bursts at them, but it was too late. The plump silhouettes of the American Dauntless dive - bombers quickly grew larger, and then a number of black objects suddenly floated eerily from their wings.
Although Akagi sustained only one direct hit (almost certainly dropped by Lieutenant Best), it proved to be a fatal blow: the bomb struck the edge of the mid-ship deck elevator and penetrated to the upper hangar deck, where it exploded among the armed and fueled aircraft in the vicinity. Nagumo 's chief of staff, Ryūnosuke Kusaka, recorded "a terrific fire... bodies all over the place... Planes stood tail up, belching livid flames and jet - black smoke, making it impossible to bring the fires under control. '' Another bomb exploded under water very close astern; the resulting geyser bent the flight deck upward "in grotesque configurations '' and caused crucial rudder damage.
Simultaneously, Yorktown 's VB - 3, commanded by Max Leslie, went for Sōryū, scoring at least three hits and causing extensive damage. Some of Leslie 's bombers did not have bombs as they were accidentally released when the pilots attempted to use electrical arming switches. Nevertheless, Leslie and others still dove, strafing carrier decks and providing cover for those who had bombs. Gasoline ignited, creating an "inferno '', while stacked bombs and ammunition detonated. VT - 3 targeted Hiryū, which was hemmed in by Sōryū, Kaga, and Akagi, but achieved no hits.
Within six minutes, Sōryū and Kaga were ablaze from stem to stern, as fires spread through the ships. Akagi, having been struck by only one bomb, took longer to burn, but the resulting fires quickly expanded and soon proved impossible to extinguish; she too was eventually consumed by flames and had to be abandoned. All three carriers remained temporarily afloat, as none had suffered damage below the waterline, other than the rudder damage to Akagi caused by the near miss close astern. Despite initial hopes that Akagi could be saved or at least towed back to Japan, all three carriers were eventually abandoned and scuttled.
Hiryū, the sole surviving Japanese aircraft carrier, wasted little time in counterattacking. Hiryū 's first attack wave, consisting of 18 D3As and 6 fighter escorts, followed the retreating American aircraft and attacked the first carrier they encountered, Yorktown, hitting her with three bombs, which blew a hole in the deck, snuffed out her boilers, and destroyed one anti-aircraft mount. The damage also forced Admiral Fletcher to move his command staff to the heavy cruiser Astoria. Repair teams were able to temporarily patch the flight deck and restore power to several boilers within an hour, giving her a speed of 19 knots (35 km / h; 22 mph) and enabling her to resume air operations. Thirteen Japanese dive bombers and three escorting fighters were lost in this attack (two escorting fighters turned back early after they were damaged attacking some of Enterprise 's SBDs returning from their attack on the Japanese carriers).
Approximately one hour later, Hiryū 's second attack wave, consisting of ten B5Ns and six escorting A6Ms, arrived over Yorktown; the repair efforts had been so effective that the Japanese pilots assumed that Yorktown must be a different, undamaged carrier. They attacked, crippling Yorktown with two torpedoes; she lost all power and developed a 23 - degree list to port. Five torpedo bombers and two fighters were shot down in this attack.
News of the two strikes, with the mistaken reports that each had sunk an American carrier, greatly improved Japanese morale. The few surviving aircraft were all recovered aboard Hiryū. Despite the heavy losses, the Japanese believed that they could scrape together enough aircraft for one more strike against what they believed to be the only remaining American carrier.
Late in the afternoon, a Yorktown scout aircraft located Hiryū, prompting Enterprise to launch a final strike of 24 dive bombers (including 6 SBDs from VS - 6, 4 SBDs from VB - 6, and 14 SBDs from Yorktown 's VB - 3). Despite Hiryū being defended by a strong cover of more than a dozen Zero fighters, the attack by Enterprise and orphaned Yorktown aircraft launched from Enterprise was successful: four bombs (possibly five) hit Hiryū, leaving her ablaze and unable to operate aircraft. Hornet 's strike, launched late because of a communications error, concentrated on the remaining escort ships, but failed to score any hits.
After futile attempts at controlling the blaze, most of the crew remaining on Hiryū were evacuated and the remainder of the fleet continued sailing northeast in an attempt to intercept the American carriers. Despite a scuttling attempt by a Japanese destroyer that hit her with a torpedo and then departed quickly, Hiryū stayed afloat for several more hours, being discovered early the next morning by an aircraft from the escort carrier Hōshō and prompting hopes she could be saved, or at least towed back to Japan. Soon after being spotted, Hiryū sank. Rear - Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, together with the ship 's captain, Tomeo Kaku, chose to go down with the ship, costing Japan perhaps its best carrier officer.
As darkness fell, both sides took stock and made tentative plans for continuing the action. Admiral Fletcher, obliged to abandon the derelict Yorktown and feeling he could not adequately command from a cruiser, ceded operational command to Spruance. Spruance knew the United States had won a great victory, but he was still unsure of what Japanese forces remained and was determined to safeguard both Midway and his carriers. To aid his aviators, who had launched at extreme range, he had continued to close with Nagumo during the day and persisted as night fell.
Finally, fearing a possible night encounter with Japanese surface forces, and believing Yamamoto still intended to invade, based in part on a misleading contact report from the submarine Tambor, Spruance changed course and withdrew to the east, turning back west towards the enemy at midnight. For his part, Yamamoto initially decided to continue the engagement and sent his remaining surface forces searching eastward for the American carriers. Simultaneously, he detached a cruiser raiding force to bombard the island. The Japanese surface forces failed to make contact with the Americans because Spruance had decided to briefly withdraw eastward, and Yamamoto ordered a general withdrawal to the west. It was fortunate Spruance did not pursue, for had he come in contact with Yamamoto 's heavy ships, including Yamato, in the dark and considering the Japanese Navy 's superiority in night - attack tactics at the time, there is a very high probability his cruisers would have been overwhelmed and his carriers sunk.
Spruance failed to regain contact with Yamamoto 's forces on 5 June, despite extensive searches. Towards the end of the day he launched a search - and - destroy mission to seek out any remnants of Nagumo 's carrier force. This late afternoon strike narrowly missed detecting Yamamoto 's main body and failed to score hits on a straggling Japanese destroyer. The strike planes returned to the carriers after nightfall, prompting Spruance to order Enterprise and Hornet to turn on their lights to aid the landings.
At 02: 15 on the night of 5 / 6 June, Commander John Murphy 's Tambor, lying 90 nautical miles (170 km; 100 mi) west of Midway, made the second of the submarine force 's two major contributions to the battle 's outcome, although its impact was heavily blunted by Murphy himself. Sighting several ships, neither Murphy nor his executive officer, Edward Spruance (son of Admiral Spruance), could identify them. Uncertain of whether they were friendly or not and unwilling to approach any closer to verify their heading or type, Murphy decided to send a vague report of "four large ships '' to Admiral Robert English, Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC). This report was passed on by English to Nimitz, who then sent it to Spruance. Spruance, a former submarine commander, was "understandably furious '' at the vagueness of Murphy 's report, as it provided him with little more than suspicion and no concrete information on which to make his preparations. Unaware of the exact location of Yamamoto 's "Main Body '' (a persistent problem since the time PBYs had first sighted the Japanese), Spruance was forced to assume the "four large ships '' reported by Tambor represented the main invasion force and so he moved to block it, while staying 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi) northeast of Midway.
In reality, the ships sighted by Tambor were the detachment of four cruisers and two destroyers Yamamoto had sent to bombard Midway. At 02: 55, these ships received Yamamoto 's order to retire and changed course to comply. At about the same time as this change of course, Tambor was sighted and during maneuvers designed to avoid a submarine attack, the heavy cruisers Mogami and Mikuma collided, inflicting serious damage on Mogami 's bow. The less severely damaged Mikuma slowed to 12 knots (22 km / h; 14 mph) to keep pace. Only at 04: 12 did the sky brighten enough for Murphy to be certain the ships were Japanese, by which time staying surfaced was hazardous and he dived to approach for an attack. The attack was unsuccessful and at around 06: 00 he finally reported two westbound Mogami - class cruisers, before diving again and playing no further role in the battle. Limping along on a straight course at 12 knots -- roughly one - third their top speed -- Mogami and Mikuma had been almost perfect targets for a submarine attack. As soon as Tambor returned to port, Spruance had Murphy relieved of duty and reassigned to a shore station, citing his confusing contact report, poor torpedo shooting during his attack run, and general lack of aggression, especially as compared to Nautilus, the oldest of the 12 boats at Midway and the only one which had successfully placed a torpedo on target (albeit a dud).
Over the following two days, several strikes were launched against the stragglers, first from Midway, then from Spruance 's carriers. Mikuma was eventually sunk by Dauntlesses, while Mogami survived further severe damage to return home for repairs. The destroyers Arashio and Asashio were also bombed and strafed during the last of these attacks. Captain Richard E. Fleming, a U.S. Marine Corps aviator, was killed while executing a glide bomb run on Mikuma and was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
Meanwhile, salvage efforts on Yorktown were encouraging, and she was taken in tow by USS Vireo. In the late afternoon of 6 June, the Japanese submarine I - 168, which had managed to slip through the cordon of destroyers (possibly because of the large amount of debris in the water), fired a salvo of torpedoes, two of which struck Yorktown. There were few casualties aboard, since most of the crew had already been evacuated, but a third torpedo from this salvo struck the destroyer USS Hammann, which had been providing auxiliary power to Yorktown. Hammann broke in two and sank with the loss of 80 lives, mostly because her own depth charges exploded. With further salvage efforts deemed hopeless, the remaining repair crews were evacuated from Yorktown, which sank just after 05: 00 on 7 June.
By the time the battle ended, 3,057 Japanese had died. Casualties aboard the four carriers were: Akagi: 267; Kaga: 811; Hiryū: 392; Soryū: 711 (including Captain Yanagimoto, who chose to remain on board); a total of 2,181. The heavy cruisers Mikuma (sunk; 700 casualties) and Mogami (badly damaged; 92) accounted for another 792 deaths.
In addition, the destroyers Arashio (bombed; 35) and Asashio (strafed by aircraft; 21) were both damaged during the air attacks which sank Mikuma and caused further damage to Mogami. Floatplanes were lost from the cruisers Chikuma (3) and Tone (2). Dead aboard the destroyers Tanikaze (11), Arashi (1), Kazagumo (1) and the fleet oiler Akebono Maru (10) made up the remaining 23 casualties.
At the end of the battle, the U.S. lost the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer. 307 Americans had been killed, including Major General Clarence L. Tinker, Commander, 7th Air Force, who personally led a bomber strike from Hawaii against the retreating Japanese forces on 7 June. He was killed when his aircraft crashed near Midway Island.
After winning a clear victory, and as pursuit became too hazardous near Wake, American forces retired. Spruance once again withdrew to the east to refuel his destroyers and rendezvous with the carrier Saratoga, which was ferrying much - needed replacement aircraft. Fletcher transferred his flag to Saratoga on the afternoon of 8 June and resumed command of the carrier force. For the remainder of that day and then 9 June, Fletcher continued to launch search missions from the three carriers to ensure the Japanese were no longer advancing on Midway. Late on 10 June a decision was made to leave the area and the American carriers eventually returned to Pearl Harbor.
Historian Samuel E. Morison noted in 1949 that Spruance was subjected to much criticism for not pursuing the retreating Japanese, thus allowing their surface fleet to escape. Clay Blair argued in 1975 that had Spruance pressed on, he would have been unable to launch his aircraft after nightfall, and his cruisers would have been overwhelmed by Yamamoto 's powerful surface units, including Yamato. Furthermore, the American air groups had suffered considerable losses, including most of their torpedo bombers. This made it unlikely that they would be effective in an airstrike against the Japanese battleships, even if they had managed to catch them during daytime. Also, by this time Spruance 's destroyers were critically low on fuel.
On 10 June, the Imperial Japanese Navy conveyed to the military liaison conference an incomplete picture of the results of the battle. Chūichi Nagumo 's detailed battle report was submitted to the high command on 15 June. It was intended only for the highest echelons in the Japanese Navy and government, and was guarded closely throughout the war. In it, one of the more striking revelations is the comment on the Mobile Force Commander 's (Nagumo 's) estimates: "The enemy is not aware of our plans (we were not discovered until early in the morning of the 5th at the earliest). '' In reality, the whole operation had been compromised from the beginning by Allied code - breaking efforts.
The Japanese public and much of the military command structure were kept in the dark about the extent of the defeat: Japanese news announced a great victory. Only Emperor Hirohito and the highest Navy command personnel were accurately informed of the carrier and pilot losses. Consequently, even the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) continued to believe, for at least a short time, that the fleet was in good condition.
On the return of the Japanese fleet to Hashirajima on 14 June the wounded were immediately transferred to naval hospitals; most were classified as "secret patients '', placed in isolation wards and quarantined from other patients and their own families to keep this major defeat secret. The remaining officers and men were quickly dispersed to other units of the fleet and, without being allowed to see family or friends, were shipped to units in the South Pacific, where the majority died in battle. None of the flag officers or staff of the Combined Fleet were penalized, with Nagumo later being placed in command of the rebuilt carrier force.
As a result of the defeat, new procedures were adopted whereby more Japanese aircraft were refueled and re-armed on the flight deck, rather than in the hangars, and the practice of draining all unused fuel lines was adopted. The new carriers being built were redesigned to incorporate only two flight deck elevators and new firefighting equipment. More carrier crew members were trained in damage - control and firefighting techniques, although the losses later in the war of Shōkaku, Hiyō, and especially Taihō suggest that there were still problems in this area.
Replacement pilots were pushed through an abbreviated training regimen in order to meet the short - term needs of the fleet. This led to a sharp decline in the quality of the aviators produced. These inexperienced pilots were fed into front - line units, while the veterans who remained after Midway and the Solomons campaign were forced to share an increased workload as conditions grew more desperate, with few being given a chance to rest in rear areas or in the home islands. As a result, Japanese naval air groups as a whole progressively deteriorated during the war while their American adversaries continued to improve.
Three U.S. airmen, Ensign Wesley Osmus, a pilot from Yorktown; Ensign Frank O'Flaherty, a pilot from Enterprise; and Aviation Machinist 's Mate Bruno F. (or P.) Gaido, the radioman - gunner of O'Flaherty's SBD, were captured by the Japanese during the battle. Osmus was held on Arashi; O'Flaherty and Gaido on the cruiser Nagara (or destroyer Makigumo, sources vary); all three were interrogated, and then killed by being tied to water - filled kerosene cans and thrown overboard to drown. The report filed by Nagumo tersely states of Ensign Osmus, "He died on 6 June and was buried at sea ''; O'Flaherty and Gaido 's fates were not mentioned in Nagumo 's report. The execution of Ensign Wesley Osmus in this manner was apparently ordered by Arashi 's captain, Watanabe Yasumasa (if Watanabe had survived the war, rather than having died when the destroyer Numakaze sank in December 1943, he would have likely been tried as a war criminal).
Two enlisted men from Mikuma were rescued from a life raft on 9 June by USS Trout and brought to Pearl Harbor. After receiving medical care, at least one of these sailors cooperated during interrogation and provided intelligence. Another 35 crewmen from Hiryū were taken from a lifeboat by USS Ballard on 19 June after being spotted by an American search plane. They were brought to Midway and then transferred to Pearl Harbor on USS Sirius.
The Battle of Midway has often been called "the turning point of the Pacific ''. It was the Allies ' first major naval victory against the Japanese, won despite the Japanese Navy having more forces and experience than its American counterpart. Had Japan won the battle as thoroughly as the U.S. did, it might have been able to conquer Midway Island. Saratoga would have been the only American carrier in the Pacific, with no new ones being completed before the end of 1942. While the U.S. would probably not have sought peace with Japan as Yamamoto hoped, his country might have revived Operation FS to invade and occupy Fiji and Samoa; attacked Australia, Alaska, and Ceylon; or even attempted to conquer Hawaii.
Although the Japanese continued to try to secure more territory, and the U.S. did not move from a state of naval parity to one of supremacy until after several more months of hard combat, Midway allowed the Allies to switch to the strategic initiative, paving the way for the landings on Guadalcanal and the prolonged attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign. Midway allowed this to occur before the first of the new Essex - class fleet carriers became available at the end of 1942. The Guadalcanal Campaign is also regarded by some as a turning point in the Pacific War.
Some authors have stated that heavy losses in carriers and veteran aircrews at Midway permanently weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy. Parshall and Tully have stated that the heavy losses in veteran aircrew (110, just under 25 % of the aircrew embarked on the four carriers) were not crippling to the Japanese naval air corps as a whole; the Japanese navy had 2,000 carrier - qualified aircrew at the start of the Pacific war. The loss of four large fleet carriers and over 40 % of the carriers ' highly trained aircraft mechanics and technicians, plus the essential flight - deck crews and armorers, and the loss of organizational knowledge embodied in such highly trained crews, were still heavy blows to the Japanese carrier fleet. A few months after Midway, the JNAF sustained similar casualty rates in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, and it was these battles, combined with the constant attrition of veterans during the Solomons campaign, which were the catalyst for the sharp downward spiral in operational capability.
After the battle, Shōkaku and Zuikaku were the only large carriers of the original Pearl Harbor strike force left for offensive actions. Of Japan 's other carriers, Taihō, which was not commissioned until early 1944, would be the only fleet carrier worth teaming with Shōkaku and Zuikaku; Ryūjō and Zuihō were light carriers, while Jun'yō and Hiyō, although technically classified as fleet carriers, were second - rate ships of comparatively limited effectiveness. In the time it took Japan to build three carriers, the U.S. Navy commissioned more than two dozen fleet and light fleet carriers, and numerous escort carriers. By 1942 the United States was already three years into a shipbuilding program mandated by the Second Vinson Act, intended to make the navy larger than all the Axis navies combined, plus the British and French navies, which it was feared might fall into Axis hands.
Both the United States and Japan accelerated the training of aircrew, but the United States had a more effective pilot rotation system, which meant that more veterans survived and went on to training or command billets, where they were able to pass on lessons they had learned in training, instead of remaining in combat, where errors were more likely to be fatal. By the time of the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, the Japanese had nearly rebuilt their carrier forces in terms of numbers, but their planes, many of which were obsolescent, were largely flown by inexperienced and poorly trained pilots.
Midway showed the worth of pre-war naval cryptanalysis and intelligence - gathering. These efforts continued and were expanded throughout the war in both the Pacific and Atlantic theaters. Successes were numerous and significant. For instance, cryptanalysis made possible the shooting down of Admiral Yamamoto 's airplane in 1943.
The Battle of Midway redefined the central importance of air superiority for the remainder of the war when the Japanese suddenly lost their four main aircraft carriers and were forced to return home. Without any form of air superiority, the Japanese never again launched a major offensive in the Pacific.
Because of the extreme depth of the ocean in the area of the battle (more than 17,000 ft or 5,200 m), researching the battlefield has presented extraordinary difficulties. On 19 May 1998, Robert Ballard and a team of scientists and Midway veterans from both sides located and photographed Yorktown. The ship was remarkably intact for a vessel that had sunk in 1942; much of the original equipment and even the original paint scheme were still visible.
Ballard 's subsequent search for the Japanese carriers was unsuccessful. In September 1999, a joint expedition between Nauticos Corp. and the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office searched for the Japanese aircraft carriers. Using advanced renavigation techniques in conjunction with the ship 's log of the submarine USS Nautilus, the expedition located a large piece of wreckage, subsequently identified as having come from the upper hangar deck of Kaga. The main wreck of Kaga has yet to be located.
Chicago Municipal Airport, important to the war effort in World War II, was renamed Chicago Midway International Airport (or simply Midway Airport) in 1949 in honor of the battle.
Waldron Field, an outlying training landing strip at Corpus Christi NAS, as well as Waldron Road leading to the strip, was named in honor of John C. Waldron, the commander of USS Hornet 's Torpedo Squadron 8. Yorktown Boulevard leading away from the strip was named for the U.S. carrier sunk in the battle.
Henderson Field (Guadalcanal) was named in honor of United States Marine Corps Major Lofton Henderson, who was the first Marine aviator to perish during the battle.
An escort carrier, USS Midway (CVE - 63) was commissioned on 17 August 1943. She was renamed St. Lo on 10 October 1944 to clear the name Midway for a large fleet aircraft carrier, USS Midway (CV - 41), which was commissioned on 10 September 1945, eight days after the Japanese surrender, and is now docked in San Diego, California, as the USS Midway Museum.
On 13 September 2000, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt designated the lands and waters of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge as the Battle of Midway National Memorial.
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how many countries in the world speak yoruba | Yoruba people - wikipedia
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The Yoruba people (Yoruba: Ìran Yorùbá, lit. ' Yoruba lineage '; also known as Àwon omo Yorùbá, lit. ' Children of Yoruba ', or simply as the Yoruba) are an ethnic group of southwestern and north - central Nigeria, as well as southern and central Benin. Together, these regions are known as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute over 40 million people in total. The majority of this population is from Nigeria, and the Yoruba make up 21 % of the country 's population, according to the CIA World Factbook, making them one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. The majority of the Yoruba speak the Yoruba language, which is tonal, and is the Niger - Congo language with the largest number of native speakers.
The Yoruba share borders with the Bariba to the northwest in Benin, the Nupe to the north and the Ebira to the northeast in central Nigeria. To the east are the Edo, Ẹsan and the Afemai groups in mid-western Nigeria. Adjacent to the Ebira and Edo groups are the related Igala people found in the northeast, on the left bank of the Niger River. To the southwest are the Gbe speaking Mahi, Egun, Fon and Ewe who border Yoruba communities in Benin and Togo. To the southeast are Itsekiri who live in the north - west end of the Niger delta. They are ancestrally related to the Yoruba but chose to maintain a distinct cultural identity. Significant Yoruba populations in other West African countries can be found in Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia and Sierra Leone.
The Yoruba diaspora consists of two main groupings; one of them includes relatively recent migrants, the majority of which moved to the United Kingdom and the United States after major economic and political changes in the 1960s to 1980s; the other is a much older population dating back to the Atlantic slave trade. This older group has communities in such countries as Cuba, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Saint Lucia, Jamaica, Brazil, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago, among others.
As an ethnic description, the word "Yoruba '' was first recorded in reference to the Oyo Empire in a treatise written by the 16th century Songhai scholar Ahmed Baba. It was popularized by Hausa usage and ethnography written in Arabic and Ajami during the 19th century, in origin referring to the Oyo exclusively. The extension of the term to all speakers of dialects related to the language of the Oyo (in modern terminology North - West Yoruba) dates to the second half of the 19th century. It is due to the influence of Samuel Ajayi Crowther, the first Anglican bishop in Nigeria. Crowther was himself a Yoruba and compiled the first Yoruba dictionary as well as introducing a standard for Yoruba orthography. The alternative name Akú, apparently an exonym derived from the first words of Yoruba greetings (such as Ẹ kú àárọ? "good morning '', Ẹ kú alẹ? "good evening '') has survived in certain parts of their diaspora as a self - descriptive, especially in Sierra Leone
The Yoruba culture was originally an oral tradition, and the majority of Yoruba people are native speakers of the Yoruba language. The number of speakers is roughly estimated at about 30 million in 2010. Yoruba is classified within the Edekiri languages, which together with the isolate Igala, form the Yoruboid group of languages within the Volta - Niger branch of the Niger - Congo family. Igala and Yoruba have important historical and cultural relationships. The languages of the two ethnic groups bear such a close resemblance that researchers such as Forde (1951) and Westermann and Bryan (1952) regarded Igala as a dialect of Yoruba.
The Yoruboid languages are assumed to have developed out of an undifferentiated Volta - Niger group by the 1st millennium BCE. There are three major dialect areas: Northwest, Central, and Southeast. As the North - West Yoruba dialects show more linguistic innovation, combined with the fact that Southeast and Central Yoruba areas generally have older settlements, suggests a later date of immigration for Northwest Yoruba. The area where North - West Yoruba (NWY) is spoken corresponds to the historical Oyo Empire. South - East Yoruba (SEY) was probably associated with the expansion of the Benin Empire after c. 1450. Central Yoruba forms a transitional area in that the lexicon has much in common with NWY, whereas it shares many ethnographical features with SEY.
Literary Yoruba, the standard variety taught in schools and spoken by newsreaders on the radio, has its origin in the Yoruba grammar compiled in the 1850s by Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther, who himself was a creole from Sierra Leone. Though for a large part based on the Oyo and Ibadan dialects, it incorporates several features from other dialects.
As of the 7th century BCE the African peoples who lived in Yorubaland were not initially known as the Yoruba, although they shared a common ethnicity and language group. By the 8th century, a powerful Yoruba kingdom already existed in Ile - Ife, one of the earliest in Africa.
The historical Yoruba develop in situ, out of earlier Mesolithic Volta - Niger populations, by the 1st millennium BCE. Oral history recorded under the Oyo Empire derives the Yoruba as an ethnic group from the population of the older kingdom of Ile - Ife. The Yoruba were the dominant cultural force in southern Nigeria as far back as the 11th century.
The Yoruba are among the most urbanized people in Africa. For centuries before the arrival of the British colonial administration most Yoruba already lived in well structured urban centres organized around powerful city - states (Ìlú) centred around the residence of the Oba. In ancient times, most of these cities were fortresses, with high walls and gates. Yoruba cities have always been among the most populous in Africa. Archaeological findings indicate that Òyó - Ilé or Katunga, capital of the Yoruba empire of Oyo (fl. between the 11th and 19th centuries CE), had a population of over 100,000 people (the largest single population of any African settlement at that time in history). For a long time also, Ibadan, one of the major Yoruba cities, was the largest city in the whole of Sub Saharan Africa. Today, Lagos (Yoruba: Èkó), another major Yoruba city, with a population of over twenty million, remains the largest on the African continent.
Archaeologically, the settlement of Ile - Ife showed features of urbanism in the 12th -- 14th century era. In the period around 1300 CE the artists at Ile - Ife developed a refined and naturalistic sculptural tradition in terracotta, stone and copper alloy - copper, brass, and bronze many of which appear to have been created under the patronage of King Obalufon II, the man who today is identified as the Yoruba patron deity of brass casting, weaving and regalia. The dynasty of kings at Ile - Ife, which is regarded by the Yoruba as the place of origin of human civilization, remains intact to this day. The urban phase of Ile - Ife before the rise of Oyo, c. 1100 -- 1600, a significant peak of political centralization in the 12th century) is commonly described as a "golden age '' of Ile - Ife. The oba or ruler of Ile - Ife is referred to as the Ooni of Ife.
Ife continues to be seen as the "Spiritual Homeland '' of the Yoruba. The city was surpassed by the Oyo Empire as the dominant Yoruba military and political power in the 17th century.
The Oyo Empire under its oba, known as the Alaafin of Oyo, was active in the African slave trade during the 18th century. The Yoruba often demanded slaves as a form of tribute of subject populations, who in turn sometimes made war on other peoples to capture the required slaves. Part of the slaves sold by the Oyo Empire entered the Atlantic slave trade.
Most of the city states were controlled by Obas (or royal sovereigns with various individual titles) and councils made up of Oloyes, recognised leaders of royal, noble and, often, even common descent, who joined them in ruling over the kingdoms through a series of guilds and cults. Different states saw differing ratios of power between the kingships and the chiefs ' councils. Some, such as Oyo, had powerful, autocratic monarchs with almost total control, while in others such as the Ijebu city - states, the senatorial councils held more influence and the power of the ruler or Ọba, referred to as the Awujale of Ijebuland, was more limited.
Yoruba settlements are often described as primarily one or more of the main social groupings called "generations '':
Monarchies were a common form of government in Yorubaland, but they were not the only approach to government and social organization. The numerous Ijebu city - states to the west of Oyo and the Ẹgba communities, found in the forests below Ọyọ 's savanna region, were notable exceptions. These independent polities often elected an Ọba, though real political, legislative, and judicial powers resided with the Ogboni, a council of notable elders. The notion of the divine king was so important to the Yoruba, however, that it has been part of their organization in its various forms from their antiquity to the contemporary era.
During the internecine wars of the 19th century, the Ijebu forced citizens of more than 150 Ẹgba and Owu communities to migrate to the fortified city of Abeokuta. Each quarter retained its own Ogboni council of civilian leaders, along with an Olorogun, or council of military leaders, and in some cases its own elected Obas or Baales. These independent councils elected their most capable members to join a federal civilian and military council that represented the city as a whole. Commander Frederick Forbes, a representative of the British Crown writing an account of his visit to the city in the Church Military Intelligencer (1853), described Abẹokuta as having "four presidents '', and the system of government as having "840 principal rulers or ' House of Lords, ' 2800 secondary chiefs or ' House of Commons, ' 140 principal military ones and 280 secondary ones. '' He described Abẹokuta and its system of government as "the most extraordinary republic in the world. ''
Gerontocratic leadership councils that guarded against the monopolization of power by a monarch were a trait of the Ẹgba, according to the eminent Ọyọ historian Reverend Samuel Johnson. Such councils were also well - developed among the northern Okun groups, the eastern Ekiti, and other groups falling under the Yoruba ethnic coming under an umbrella. In Ọyọ, the most centralized of the precolonial kingdoms, the Alaafin consulted on all political decisions with the prime elector or president of the House of Lords (the Basọrun) and the rest of the council of leading nobles known as the Ọyọ Mesi.
Traditionally kingship and chieftainship were not determined by simple primogeniture, as in most monarchic systems of government. An electoral college of lineage heads was and still is usually charged with selecting a member of one of the royal families from any given realm, and the selection is then confirmed by an Ifá oracular request. The Ọbas live in palaces that are usually in the center of the town. Opposite the king 's palace is the Ọja Ọba, or the king 's market. These markets form an inherent part of Yoruba life. Traditionally their traders are well organized, have various guilds, officers, and an elected speaker. They also often have at least one Iyaloja, or Lady head of the Market, who is expected to represent their interests in the aristocratic council of oloyes at the palace.
The monarchy of any city - state was usually limited to a number of royal lineages. A family could be excluded from kingship and chieftaincy if any family member, servant, or slave belonging to the family committed a crime, such as theft, fraud, murder or rape. In other city - states, the monarchy was open to the election of any free - born male citizen. In Ilesa, Ondo, Akure and other Yoruba communities, there were several, but comparatively rare, traditions of female Ọbas. The kings were traditionally almost always polygamous and often married royal family members from other domains, thereby creating useful alliances with other rulers. Ibadan, a city - state and proto - empire founded in the 18th century by a polyglot group of refugees, soldiers, and itinerant traders from Ọyọ and the other Yoruba sub-groups largely dispensed with the concept of monarchism, preferring to elect both military and civil councils from a pool of eminent citizens. The city became a military republic, with distinguished soldiers wielding political power through their election by popular acclaim and the respect of their peers. Similar practices were adopted by the Ijẹsa and other groups, which saw a corresponding rise in the social influence of military adventurers and successful entrepreneurs. The Ìgbómìnà were renowned for their agricultural and hunting prowess, as well as their woodcarving, leather art, and the famous Elewe masquerade.
Occupational guilds, social clubs, secret or initiatory societies, and religious units, commonly known as Ẹgbẹ in Yoruba, included the Parakoyi (or league of traders) and Ẹgbẹ Ọdẹ (hunter 's guild), and maintained an important role in commerce, social control, and vocational education in Yoruba polities. There are also examples of other peer organizations in the region. When the Ẹgba resisted the imperial domination of the Ọyọ Empire, a figure named Lisabi is credited with either creating or reviving a covert traditional organization named Ẹgbẹ Aro. This group, originally a farmers ' union, was converted to a network of secret militias throughout the Ẹgba forests, and each lodge plotted and successfully managed to overthrow Ọyọ 's Ajeles (appointed administrators) in the late 18th century.
Similarly, covert military resistance leagues like the Ekiti Parapọ and the Ogidi alliance were organized during the 19th century wars by often - decentralized communities of the Ekiti, Ijẹsa, Ìgbómìnà and Okun Yoruba in order to resist various imperial expansionist plans of Ibadan, Nupe, and the Sokoto Caliphate.
In the city - states and many of their neighbours, a reserved way of life remains, with the school of thought of their people serving as a major influence in West Africa and elsewhere.
Today, most contemporary Yoruba are Christians and Muslims. Be that as it may, many of the principles of the traditional faith of their ancestors are either knowingly or unknowingly upheld by a significant proportion of the populations of Nigeria, Benin and Togo.
The Yoruba faith, variously known as Aborisha, Orisha - Ifa or simply (and erroneously) Ifa, is commonly seen as one of the principal components of the African traditional religions.
Orisa'nla, also known as Ọbatala, was the arch - divinity chosen by Olodumare, the Supreme God, to create solid land out of the primordial water that then constituted the earth and populating the land with human beings molded out of clay.
The Yorùbá religion comprises the traditional religious and spiritual concepts and practices of the Yoruba people. Its homeland is in Southwestern Nigeria and the adjoining parts of Benin and Togo, a region that has come to be known as Yorubaland. Yorùbá religion is formed of diverse traditions and has no single founder. Yoruba religious beliefs are part of itan, the total complex of songs, histories, stories and other cultural concepts which make up the Yorùbá society.
One of the most common Yoruba traditional religious concepts has been the concept of Orisha. Orisha (also spelled Orisa or Orixa) are various godly forms, that reflect one of the various manifestations / avatars of God in the Yoruba spiritual or religious system. Some widely known Orisha are Ogun, (God of metal, war and victory), Shango or Jakuta (God of thunder, lightning, fire and justice who manifests as a king always wielding a double - edged axe which conveys his Ashe or divine authority & power), Esu / Eshu elegbara (The trickster and sole messenger to the pantheon, who conveys the wish of men to the gods. He understands every language / tongue spoken by humankind, and is also the guardian of the crossroads, Oríta méta in Yoruba). Eshu has two avatar forms which are manifestations of his dual nature - positive and negative energies; Eshu Laroye, a teacher instructor and leader, and Eshu Ebita, jesty, deceitful, suggestive and cunning, Orunmila, The god of Infinite Knowledge, divination, wisdom and fortune - telling, who reveals the past, solution to problems in the present, and the future, consulted through the Ifa divination system by oracles called Babalawos.
Olorun is one of the manifestations / avatars of the Supreme God of the Yoruba pantheon, the owner of the heavens, and is associated with the Sun known as Oòrùn in the Yoruba language. The other two avatar forms of the supreme God are; Olodumare, the supreme creator and Olofin, who is the conduit between Òrunn (Heaven) and Ayé (Earth), Oshumare a god that manifests in the form of a rainbow, also known as Òsùmàrè in Yorùbá, Obatala god of clarity and creativity Etc. This religion has found its way throughout the world and is now expressed in practices as varied as Candomblé in Brazil, Lucumí / Santería in Cuba and North America, orisha or ifa in Trinidad (Trinidad Orisha), Kélé in Saint Lucia, Anago and Oyotunji, as well as in some aspects of Umbanda, Winti, Obeah, Vodun and a host of others. These varieties, or spiritual lineages as they are called, are practiced throughout areas of Nigeria, the Republic of Benin, Togo, Brazil, Cuba, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, the United States, Uruguay, Argentina and Venezuela, among others. As interest in African indigenous religions grows, Orisha communities and lineages can be found in parts of Europe and Asia as well. While estimates may vary, some scholars believe that there could be more than 100 million adherents of this spiritual tradition worldwide.
Oral history of the Oyo - Yoruba recounts Odùduwà to be the Progenitor of the Yoruba and the reigning ancestor of their crowned kings.
His coming from the east, sometimes understood from Ife traditions to be Oke - Ora and by other sources as the "vicinity '' true East on the Cardinal points, but more likely signifying the region of Ekiti and Okun sub-communities in northeastern Yorubaland / central Nigeria. Ekiti is near the confluence of the Niger and Benue rivers, and is where the Yoruba language is presumed to have separated from related ethno - linguistic groups like Igala, Igbo, and Edo.
After the death of Oduduwa, there was a dispersal of his children from Ife to found other kingdoms. Each child made his or her mark in the subsequent urbanization and consolidation of the Yoruba confederacy of kingdoms, with each kingdom tracing its origin due to them to Ile - Ife.
After the dispersal, the aborigines became difficult, and constituted a serious threat to the survival of Ife. Thought to be survivors of the old occupants of the land before the arrival of Oduduwa, these people now turned themselves into marauders. They would come to town in costumes made of raffia with terrible and fearsome appearances, and burn down houses and loot the markets. Then came Moremi on the scene; she was said to have played a significant role in the quelling of the marauders advancements. But this was at a great price; having to give up her only son Oluorogbo. The reward for her patriotism and selflessness was not to be reaped in one lifetime as she later passed on and was thereafter immortalized. The Edi festival celebrates this feat amongst her Yoruba descendants.
Yoruba culture consists of folk / cultural philosophy, religion and folktales. They are embodied in Ifa - Ife Divination, known as the tripartite Book of Enlightenment in Yorubaland and in its diaspora.
Yoruba cultural thought is a witness of two epochs. The first epoch is a history of cosmogony and cosmology. This is also an epoch - making history in the oral culture during which time Oduduwa was the king, the Bringer of Light, pioneer of Yoruba folk philosophy, and a prominent diviner. He pondered the visible and invisible worlds, reminiscing about cosmogony, cosmology, and the mythological creatures in the visible and invisible worlds. His time favored the artist - philosophers who produced magnificent naturalistic artworks of civilization during and pre-dynastic Yorubaland. The second epoch is the epoch of metaphysical discourse, and the birth of modern artist - philosophy. This commenced in the 19th century in terms of the academic prowess of Bishop Dr. Ajayi Crowther (1807 -- 1891.) Although religion is often first in Yoruba culture, nonetheless, it is the philosophy, the thought of man that actually leads spiritual consciousness (ori) to the creation and the practice of religion. Thus, it is believed that thought (philosophy) is an antecedent to religion. Values such as respect, peaceful co-existence, loyalty and freedom of speech are both upheld and highly valued in Yoruba culture. Societies which are considered secret societies often strictly guard and encourage the observance of moral values. Today, the academic and nonacademic communities are becoming more interested in Yoruba culture. More research is being carried out on Yoruba cultural thought as more books are being written on the subject.
The Yoruba are traditionally a very religious people, and are today pluralistic in their religious convictions. The Yoruba are one of the more religiously diversified ethnic groups in Africa. Many Yorubas can be found in different types of Christian denominations. Many others are Muslims, as well as practitioners of the traditional Yoruba religion. Yoruba religious practices such as the Eyo and Osun - Osogbo festivals are witnessing a resurgence in popularity in contemporary Yorubaland. They are largely seen by the adherents of the modern faiths, especially the Christians and Muslims, as cultural rather than religious events. They participate in them as a means to celebrate their people 's history, and boost tourist industries in their local economies.
The Yorubas were one of the first groups in West Africa to be introduced to Christianity on a large scale. Christianity (along with western civilization) came into Yorubaland in the mid-19th century through the Europeans, whose original mission was commerce. The first European visitors were the Portuguese, they visited the Bini kingdom in the late 16th century, as time progressed other Europeans - such as the French, the British, and the Germans followed suit. British and French were most successful in their quest for colonies (These Europeans actually split Yorubaland, with the larger part being in British Nigeria, and the minor parts in French Dahomey, now Benin, and German Togoland). Home governments encouraged religious organizations to come, and to Christianize the so - called "animist '' Africans. Roman Catholics (known to the Yorubas as Ijo Aguda, so named after returning former Yoruba slaves from Latin America, who were mostly Catholic, and were also known as the Agudas, Saros or Amaros) started the race, followed by Protestants, whose prominent member - Church Mission Society (CMS) based in England made the most significant in - roads into the hinterland regions for evangelism and became the largest of the Christian missions. Methodists (known as Ijo - Eleto, so named after the Yoruba word for "method or process '') started missions in Agbadarigi / Gbegle by Thomas Birch Freeman in 1842. Henry Townsend, C.C. Gollmer, and Ajayi Crowther of the CMS worked in Abeokuta, then under the Egba division of Southern Nigeria in 1846.
Hinderer and Mann of CMS started missions in Ibadan / Ibarapa and Ijaye divisions of the present Oyo state in 1853. The Baptist missionaries - Bowen and Clarke concentrated on the northern Yoruba axis - (Ogbomoso and environs). With their success, other religious groups - Salvation Army, Evangelists Commission of West Africa (ECWA) became popular among the Igbomina and other non-denominational Christian groups joined. The increased tempo of Christianity led to the appointment of Saros and indigenes as missionaries, this move was initiated by Venn, the CMS Secretary. Nevertheless, the impact of Christianity in Yoruba land was not felt until fourth decade of 19th century, when a Yoruba slave boy, Samuel Ajayi Crowther had become a Christian convert, linguist, whose knowledge in languages would become a major tool and instrument to propagate Christianity in Yoruba land and beyond. Today, there are a number of Yoruba Pastors and Church founders with large congregations, e.g. Pastor Enoch Adeboye of the Redeemed Christian Church of God, Pastor David Oyedepo of Living Faith Church World Wide also known as Winners Chapel, Pastor Tunde Bakare of Latter rain Assembly, Prophet T.B. Joshua of Synagogue of All Nations, William Folorunso Kumuyi of Deeper Christian Life Ministry and Dr Daniel Olukoya of the Mountain of Fire and Miracles Ministries. The Yoruba are known for their love of privacy and respect for other ethnic groups - particularly around bigger cities such as Lagos and in Diasporan communities.
Islam came into Yorubaland centuries before Christianity and before the first Europeans ever set foot in Yorubaland. Yorubas first came in contact with Islam around the 14th century, as a result of trade with the Fulanis of the Malian Empire, during the reign of Mansa Kankan Musa. Hence, why Islam is traditionally known to the Yoruba as Esin Male or simply Imale i.e. religion of the Malians. On the other hand, another school of thought describes Imale as a compound form of the Yoruba phrase "imo lile '' which literally means "hard knowledge ''. This definition of the Islamic Religion is simply due to the way the adherents of the religion sought to spread Islam forcefully, thus the word "lile '' in Yoruba which could also be translated as "with force ''. In fact, Islam was practiced in Yorubaland so early on in history, that a sizable proportion of Yoruba slaves taken to the Americas were already Muslim. Some of these Yoruba Muslims would later on stage the Malê Revolt (or The Great Revolt) which was the most significant slave rebellion in Brazil. On a Sunday during Ramadan in January 1835, in the city of Salvador, Bahia, a small group of slaves and freedmen, inspired by Muslim teachers, rose up against the government. Muslims were called Malê in Bahia at this time, from Yoruba Imale that designated a Yoruba Muslim.
According to Al - Aluri, the first Mosque was built in Ọyọ - Ile / Katunga in 1550 A.D. although, there were no Yoruba Muslims at the time, the Mosque served the spiritual needs of foreign Muslims living in Ọyọ. Progressively, Islam started to gain a foothold in Yorubaland, and Muslims started building Mosques: Iwo town led, its first Mosque built in 1655 followed by Iṣẹyin, in 1760; Eko / Lagos got its first mosque in 1774; Shaki, 1790; and Oṣogbo, 1889. In time, Islam spread to other towns like Oyo (the first Oyo convert was Solagberu), Ibadan, Abẹokuta, Ijebu Ode, Ikirun, and Ede, all already had sizable Muslim communities before the 19th century Sokoto jihad. Several factors contributed to the rise of Islam in Yoruba land by mid 19th century. Before the decline of Ọyọ, several towns around it had large Muslim communities, however, when Ọyọ was destroyed, these Muslims (Yorubas and immigrants) relocated to newly formed towns and villages and became Islam protagonists.
Secondly, there was a mass movement of people at this time into Yoruba land, many of these immigrants were Muslims who introduced Islam to their hosts. According to Eades, the religion "differed in attraction '' and "better adapted to Yoruba social structure, because it permitted polygamy '', which was already a feature of various African societies; more influential Yorubas like (Seriki Kuku of Ijebu land) soon became Muslims with positive impact on the natives. Islam came to Lagos at about the same time as other Yoruba towns, however, it received royal support from Ọba Kosọkọ, after he came back from exile in Ẹpẹ. Islam, like Christianity also found a common ground with the natives who already believed in a Supreme Being Olodumare / Olorun. Without delay, Islamic scholars and local Imams started establishing Koranic centers to teach Arabic and Islamic studies, much later, conventional schools were established to educate new converts and to propagate Islam. Today, the Yorubas constitute the second largest Muslim group in Nigeria, after the Hausa people of the Northern provinces. They are mostly Sunni Muslims, with small Ahmadiyya communities.
Medieval Yoruba settlements were surrounded with massive mud walls. Yoruba buildings had similar plans to the Ashanti shrines, but with verandahs around the court. The wall materials comprised puddled mud and palm oil while roofing materials ranged from thatches to aluminium and corrugated iron sheets. A famous Yoruba fortification, the Sungbo 's Eredo was the second largest wall edifice in Africa. The structure was built in the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries in honour of a traditional aristocrat, the Oloye Bilikisu Sungbo. It was made up of sprawling mud walls and the valleys that surrounded the town of Ijebu - Ode in Ogun State. Sungbo 's Eredo is the largest pre-colonial monument in Africa, larger than the Great Pyramid or Great Zimbabwe.
The Yorubas worked with a wide array of materials in their art including; bronze, leather, terracotta, ivory, textiles, copper, stone, carved wood, brass, ceramics and glass. A unique feature of Yoruba art, is their striking realism - which unlike most African art, choose to create human sculptures in vivid realistic and life sized forms. The art history of the nearby Benin empire show that there was a cross - fertilization of ideas between the neighboring Yoruba and the Edo. The Benin court 's brass casters learned their art from an Ife master named Iguegha, who had been sent from Ife around 1400 at the request of Benin 's oba Oguola. Indeed, the earliest dated cast - brass memorial heads from Benin replicate the refined naturalism of the Yoruba sculptures from Ife.
A lot of Yoruba artworks, including staffs, court dress, and beadwork for crowns, are associated with palaces and the royal courts. The courts also commissioned numerous architectural objects such as veranda posts, gates, and doors that are embellished with carvings. Yoruba palaces are usually built with thicker walls, are dedicated to the gods and play significant spiritual roles. Yoruba art is also manifested in shrines and masking traditions. The shrines dedicated to these gods are adorned with carvings and house and array of altar figures and other ritual paraphernalia. Masking traditions vary by region, and diverse mask types are used in various festivals and celebrations. Aspects of Yoruba traditional architecture has also found its way into the New World in the form of shotgun houses. Today, however the traditional architecture has been greatly influenced by modern trends.
Masquerades are an important feature of Yoruba traditional artistry. They are generally known as Egúngún, singularly as Egún. The term refers to the Yoruba masquerades connected with ancestor reverence, or to the ancestors themselves as a collective force. There are different types of which one of the most prominent is the Gelede. An Ese Ifa (oral literature of orunmila divination) explains the origins of Gelede as beginning with Yemoja, The Mother of all the orisa and all living things. Yemoja could not have children and consulted an Ifa oracle, who advised her to offer sacrifices and to dance with wooden images on her head and metal anklets on her feet. After performing this ritual, she became pregnant. Her first child was a boy, nicknamed "Efe '' (the humorist / joker); the Efe mask emphasizes song and jests because of the personality of its namesake. Yemoja 's second child was a girl, nicknamed "Gelede '' because she was obese like her mother. Also like her mother, Gelede loved dancing.
After getting married themselves, neither Gelede or Efe 's partner could have children. The Ifa oracle suggested they try the same ritual that had worked for their mother. No sooner than Efe and Gelede performed these rituals - dancing with wooden images on their heads and metal anklets on their feet - they started having children. These rituals developed into the Gelede masked dance and was perpetuated by the descendants of Efe and Gelede. This narrative is one of many stories that explains the origin of Gelede. An outdated theory stated that the beginning of Gelede might be associated with the change from a matriarchal to a patriarchal society among the Yoruba people.
The Gelede spectacle and the Ifa divination system represent two of Nigeria 's only three pieces on the United Nations Oral and Intangible Heritages of Humanity list, as well as the only such cultural heritage from Benin and Togo.
One of the first observations of first time visitors to Yorubaland is the rich, pomp and ceremonial nature of their culture, which is made even more visible by the urbanized structures of Yoruba settlements. These occasions are avenues to experience the richness of the Yoruba culture. Traditional musicians are always on hand to grace the occasions with heavy rhythms and extremely advanced percussion which the Yorubas are well known for world over. Praise singers and Griots are there to add their historical insight to the meaning and significance of the ceremony, and of course the varieties of colorful dresses and attires worn by the people, attest to the aesthetic sense of the average Yoruba.
The Yoruba are a very expressive people who celebrate major events with colorful festivals and celebrations (Ayeye). Some of these festivals (about thirteen principal ones) are secular and only mark achievements and milestones in the achievement of mankind, these include wedding ceremonies (Ìgbéyàwó), Naming ceremonies (Ìsomolórúko), Funerals (Ìsìnkú), Housewarming (Ìsílé), New - Yam festival (Ìjesu), Odon itsu in Atakpame, Harvest ceremonies (Ìkórè), Birth (Ìbí), Chieftaincy (Ìjòyè) and so forth. Others have a more spiritual connotation, such as the various days and celebrations dedicated to specific Orisha like the Ogun day (Ojó Ògún), The Osun festival, which is usually done at the Osun - Osogbo sacred grove located on the banks of the Osun river and around the ancient town of Osogbo. The festival is dedicated to the river goddess Osun, which is usually celebrated in the month of August (Osù Ògùn) yearly. The festival attracts thousands of Osun worshippers from all over Yorubaland and The Yoruba diaspora in the Americas, spectators and tourists from all walks of life. The Osun - Osogbo Festival is a two - week - long programme. It starts with the traditional cleansing of the town called ' Iwopopo ', which is then followed in three days by the lighting of the 500 - year - old sixteen - point lamp called Ina Olojumerindinlogun, which literally means The sixteen eyed fire, the lighting of this sacred lamp, heralds the beginning of the Osun festival. Then comes the ' Ibroriade ', an assemblage of the crowns of the past ruler, Ataojas of Osogbo, for blessings. This event is led by the sitting Ataoja of Osogbo and the Arugba Yeye Osun (who is usually a young maiden dressed in white), who carries a sacred white calabash that contains propitiation materials meant for the goddess Osun, she is also accompanied by a committee of priestesses. A similar event holds in the New World as Odunde Festival.
Another very popular festival with spiritual connotations is the Eyo Olokun festival or Orisha play, celebrated by the people of Lagos. The Eyo festival is a dedication to the God of the Sea Olokun, who is an Orisha, and whose name literally mean Owner of the Seas. Generally, there is no customarily defined time for the staging the Eyo Festival, this leads to a building anticipation as to what date would be decided upon. Once a date for its performance is selected and announced, the festival preparations begin. It encompasses a week - long series of activities, and culminates in a striking procession of thousands of men clothed in white and wearing a variety of coloured hats, called Aga. The procession moves through Lagos Island Isale Eko, which is the historical centre of the Lagos metropolis. On the streets, they move through various crucial locations and landmarks in the city, including the palace of the traditional ruler of Lagos, the Oba, known as the Iga Idunganran. The festival starts from dusk to dawn, and has been held on Saturdays (Ojó Àbáméta) from time immemorial. A full week before the festival (always a Sunday), the ' senior ' eyo group, the Adimu (identified by a black, broad - rimmed hat), goes public with a staff. When this happens, it means the event will take place on the following Saturday. Each of the four other ' important ' groups -- Laba (Red), Oniko (yellow), Ologede (Green) and Agere (Purple) -- take their turns in that order from Monday to Thursday.
The Eyo masquerade essentially admits tall people, which is why it is described as Agogoro Eyo (literally meaning the tall Eyo masquerade). In the manner of a spirit (An Orisha) visiting the earth on a purpose, the Eyo masquerade speaks in a ventriloquial voice, suggestive of its otherworldliness; and when greeted, it replies: Mo yo fun e, mo yo fun ara mi which in Yoruba means: (I rejoice for you, and I rejoice for myself). This response connotes the masquerades as rejoicing with the person greeting it for the witnessing of the day, and its own joy at taking the hallowed responsibility of cleansing. During the festival, Sandals and foot wears, as well as Suku: A hairstyle that is popular among the Yorubas, one that has the hair converge at the middle, then shoot upward, before tipping downward, are prohibited. The festival has also taken a more touristic dimension in recent times, which like the Osun Osogbo festival, attracts visitors from all across Nigeria, as well as Yoruba diaspora populations. In - fact, it is widely believed that the play is one of the manifestations of the customary African revelry that serves as the forerunner of the modern carnival in Brazil and other parts of the New World, which may have been started by the Yoruba slaves transplanted in that part of the world due to the Atlantic slave trade.
The music of the Yoruba people is perhaps best known for an extremely advanced drumming tradition, especially using the dundun hourglass tension drums. The representation of musical instruments on sculptural works from Ile - Ife, indicates, in general terms a substantial accord with oral traditions. A lot of these musical instruments date back to the classical period of Ile - Ife, which began at around the 10th century A.D. Some were already present prior to this period, while others were created later. The hourglass tension drum (Dùndún) for example, may have been introduced around the 15th century (1400 's), the Benin bronze plaques of the middle period depicts them. Others like the double and single iron clapper-less bells are examples of instruments that preceded classical Ife. Yoruba folk music became perhaps the most prominent kind of West African music in Afro - Latin and Caribbean musical styles. Yorùbá music left an especially important influence on the music of Trinidad, the Lukumi religious traditions, practice and the music of Cuba.
Yoruba drums typically belong to four major families, which are used depending on the context or genre where they are played. The Dùndún / Gángan family, is the class of hourglass shaped talking drums, which imitate the sound of Yoruba speech. This is possible because the Yoruba language is tonal in nature. It is the most common and is present in many Yoruba traditions, such as Apala, Jùjú, Sekere and Afrobeat. The second is the Sakara family. Typically, they played a ceremonial role in royal settings, weddings and Oríkì recitation; it is predominantly found in traditions such as Sakara music, Were and Fuji music. The Gbedu family (literally, "large drum '') is used by secret fraternities such as the Ogboni and royal courts. Historically, only the Oba might dance to the music of the drum. If anyone else used the drum they were arrested for sedition of royal authority. The Gbèdu are conga shaped drums played while they sit on the ground. Akuba drums (a trio of smaller conga - like drums related to the gbèdu) are typically used in afrobeat. The Ogido is a cousin of the gbedu. It is also shaped like a conga but with a wider array of sounds and a bigger body. It also has a much deeper sound than the conga. It is sometimes referred to as the "bass drum ''. Both hands play directly on the Ogido drum.
Today, the word Gbedu has also come to be used to describe forms of Nigerian Afrobeat and Hip Hop music. The fourth major family of Yoruba drums is the Bàtá family which are well decorated double faced drums, with various tones. They were historically played in sacred rituals. They are believed to have been introduced by Shango, an Orisha, during his earthly incarnations as a warrior king. Traditional Yoruba drummers are known as Àyán. The Yoruba believe that Àyángalú was the first drummer. He is also believed to be the spirit or muse that inspires drummers during renditions. This is why some Yoruba family names contain the prefix ' Ayan - ' such as Ayangbade, Ayantunde, Ayanwande. Ensembles using the dundun play a type of music that is also called dundun. The Ashiko (Cone shaped drums), Igbin, Gudugudu (Kettledrums in the Dùndún family), Agidigbo and Bèmbé are other drums of importance. The leader of a dundun ensemble is the oniyalu meaning; ' Owner of the mother drum ', who uses the drum to "talk '' by imitating the tonality of Yoruba. Much of this music is spiritual in nature, and is often devoted to the Orisas.
Within each drum family there are different sizes and roles; the lead drum in each family is called Ìyá or Ìyá Ìlù, which means "Mother drum '', while the supporting drums are termed Omele. Yoruba drumming exemplifies West - African cross-rhythms and is considered to be one of the most advanced drumming traditions in the world. Generally, improvisation is restricted to master drummers. Some other instruments found in Yoruba music include, but are not limited to; The Gòjé (violin), Shèkèrè (gourd rattle), Agidigbo (thumb piano that takes the shape of a plucked Lamellophone), Saworo (metal rattles for the arm and ankles, also used on the rim of the bata drum), Fèrè (whistles), Aro (Cymbal) s, Agogô (bell), different types of flutes include the Ekutu, Okinkin & Igba.
Oriki (praise singing), a genre of sung poetry, which contains a series of proverbial phrases, praising or characterizing the respective person is of Egba and Ekiti origin, is often considered the oldest Yoruba musical tradition. Yoruba music is typically Polyrhythmic, which can be described as interlocking sets of rhythms that fit together somewhat like the pieces in a jigsaw puzzle. There is a basic timeline and each instrument plays a pattern in relation to that timeline. The resulting ensemble provides the typical sound of West African Yoruba drumming. Yorùbá music is regarded as the most important components of the modern Nigerian popular music scene. Although traditional Yoruba music was not influenced by foreign music, the same can not be said of modern - day Yoruba music which has evolved and adapted itself through contact with foreign instruments, talent and creativity.
The Yoruba present the highest dizygotic twinning rate in the world (4.4 % of all maternities). They manifest at 45 -- 50 twin sets (or 90 -- 100 twins) per 1,000 live births, possibly because of high consumption of a specific type of yam containing a natural phytoestrogen which may stimulate the ovaries to release an egg from each side. Twins are very important for the Yoruba and they usually tend to give special names to each twin. The first of the twins to be born is traditionally named Taiyewo or Tayewo, which means ' the first to taste the world ', or the ' slave to the second twin ', this is often shortened to Taiwo, Taiye or Taye. Kehinde is the name of the last born twin. Kehinde is sometimes also referred to as Kehindegbegbon which is short for; Omo kehin de gba egbon and means, ' the child that came behind gets the rights of the elder '.
Time is measured in ìṣẹ́jú (minutes), wákàtí (hours), ọjọ́ (days), ọ̀sẹ̀ (weeks), oṣù (months) and ọdún (years). There are 60 ìṣẹ́jú in 1 wákàtí; 24 wákàtí in 1 ọjọ́; 7 ọjọ́ in 1 ọ̀sẹ̀; 4 ọ̀sẹ̀ in 1 oṣù and 52 ọ̀sẹ̀ in 1 ọdún. There are 12 oṣù in 1 ọdún.
The Yoruba week consist of five days. Of these, only four have names. Traditionally, the Yoruba count their week starting from the Ojó Ògún, this day is dedicated to Ògún. The second day is Ojó Jákúta the day is dedicated to Sàngó. The third day is known as the Ojó Òsè - this day is dedicated to Òrìshà ńlá (Obàtálá), while the fourth day is the Ojó Awo, in honour of Òrúnmìlà.
The Yoruba calendar (Kojoda) year starts from 3 June to 2 June of the following year. According to this calendar, the Gregorian year 2008 CE is the 10,050 th year of Yoruba culture. To reconcile with the Gregorian calendar, Yoruba people also often measure time in seven days a week and four weeks a month:
Solid food, mostly cooked, pounded or prepared with hot water are basic staple foods of the Yoruba. These foods are all by - products of crops like cassava, yams, cocoyam and forms a huge chunk of it all. Others like Plantain, corn, beans, meat, and fish are also chief choices.
Some common Yoruba foods are iyan (pounded yam), Amala, eba, semo, fufu, Moin moin (bean cake) and akara. Soups include egusi, ewedu, okra, vegetables are also very common as part of diet. Items like rice and beans (locally called ewa) are part of the regular diet. Some dishes are also prepared for festivities and ceremonies such as Jollof rice and Fried rice. Other popular dishes are Ekuru, stews, corn, cassava and flours -- e.g. maize, yam, plantain and beans, eggs, chicken, beef and assorted forms of meat (pumo is made from cow skin). Some less well known meals and many miscellaneous staples are arrowroot gruel, sweetmeats, fritters and coconut concoctions; and some breads -- yeast bread, rock buns, and palm wine bread to name a few.
Àmàlà is a brown doughy dish made from yam and cssava flour usually eaten with stews, soups and other recipes.
Akara is a recipe by the Yoruba, which has been adopted by the rest of Nigeria. It is present in the Americas as acarajé
Eba is a doughy dish made by processing garri in hot water and turning till it becomes a consistent dough (shown combined with other dishes).
Iyan or pounded yam with mixed vegetables and fish stew
Cut Moin Moin; "ewe eran '' leaves (Thaumatococcus daniellii) are traditionally used to improve flavouring.
The Yoruba take immense pride in their attire, for which they are well known. Clothing materials traditionally come from processed cotton by traditional weavers. They believe that the type of clothes worn by a man depicts his personality and social status, and that different occasions require different clothing outfits.
Typically, The Yoruba have a very wide range of materials used to make clothing, the most basic being the Aṣo - Oke, which is a hand loomed cloth of different patterns and colors sewn into various styles. and which comes in very many different colors and patterns. Aso Oke comes in three major styles based on pattern and coloration;
Other clothing materials include but are not limited to:
Clothing in Yoruba culture is gender sensitive, despite a tradition of non-gender conforming families. For menswear, they have Bùbá, Esiki and Sapara, which are regarded as Èwù Àwòtélè or underwear, while they also have Dandogo, Agbádá, Gbariye, Sulia and Oyala, which are also known as Èwù Àwòlékè / Àwòsókè or overwear. Some fashionable men may add an accessory to the Agbádá outfit in the form of a wraparound (Ìbora).
They also have various types of Sòkòtò or native trousers that are sown alongside the above - mentioned dresses. Some of these are Kèmbè (Three - Quarter baggy pants), Gbáanu, Sóóró (Long slim / streamlined pants), Káamu & Sòkòtò Elemu. A man 's dressing is considered incomplete without a cap (Fìlà). Some of these caps include, but are not limited to; Gobi (Cylindrical, which when worn may be compressed and shaped forward, sideways, or backward), Tinko, Abetí - ajá (Crest - like shape which derives its name from its hanging flaps that resembles a dog 's hanging ears. The flaps can be lowered to cover the ears in cold weather, otherwise, they are upwardly turned in normal weather), Alagbaa, Oribi, Bentigoo, Onide, and Labankada (a bigger version of the Abetí - ajá, and is worn in such a way as to reveal the contrasting color of the cloth used as underlay for the flaps).
Women also have different types of dresses. The most commonly worn are Ìró (wrapper) and Bùbá (blouse - like loose top). Women also have matching Gèlè (head gear) that must be put on whenever the Ìró and Bùbá is on. Just as the cap (Fìlà) is important to men, women 's dressing is considered incomplete without Gèlè. It may be of plain cloth or costly as the women can afford. Apart from this, they also have ìborùn (Shawl) and Ìpèlé (which are long pieces of fabric that usually hang on the left shoulder and stretch from the hind of the body to the fore). At times, it is tied round their waists over the original one piece wrapper. Unlike men, women have two types of under wears (Èwù Àwòtélè), called; Tòbi and Sinmí. Tòbi is like the modern day apron with strings and spaces in which women can keep their valuables. They tie the tòbi around the waists before putting on the Ìró (wrapper). Sinmí is like a sleeveless T - shirt that is worn under before wearing any other dress on the upper body.
There are many types of beads (Ìlèkè), hand laces, necklaces (Egba orùn), anklets (Egba esè) and bangles (Egba owó) that are abound in Yoruba land, that both males and females put on for bodily adornment. Chiefs, priests, kings or people of royal descent, especially use some of these beads, often. Some of these beads include Iyun, Lagidigba, Àkún etc. An accessory especially popular among royalty and titled Babalawos / Babalorishas is the Ìrùkèrè, which is an artistically processed animal tail, a type of Fly - whisk. The horsetail whiskers are symbols of authority and stateliness. It can be used in a shrine for decoration but most often is used by chief priests and priestess as a symbol of their authority or Ashe. As most men go about with their hair lowly cut or neatly shaven every time, the reverse is the case with women. Hair is considered the ' Glory of the woman '. They usually take care of their hair in two major ways; They plait and they weave. There are many types of plaiting styles, and women readily pick any type they want. Some of these include kòlésè, Ìpàkó - elédè, Sùkú, Kojúsóko, Alágogo, Konkoso, Etc. Traditionally, The Yoruba consider tribal marks ways of adding beauty to the face of individuals. This is apart from the fact that they show clearly from which part of Yorubaland an individual comes from, since different areas are associated with different marks. Different types of tribal marks are made with local blades or knives on the cheeks. These are usually done at infancy, when children are not pain conscious. Some of these tribal marks include Pélé, Abàjà - Ègbá, Abàjà - Òwu, Abàjà - mérin, Kéké, Gòmbò, Ture, Pélé Ifè, Kéké Òwu, Pélé Ìjèbú etc. This practice has almost faded into oblivion.
The Yoruba believe that development of a nation is akin to the development of a man or woman. Therefore, the personality of an individual has to be developed in order to fulfill his or her responsibilities. Clothing among the Yoruba people is a crucial factor upon which the personality of an individual is anchored. This belief is anchored in Yoruba proverbs. Different occasions also require different outfits among the Yoruba.
Simple Iro & Buba with Gele
Agbádá àti Fìlà from Iseyin, Oyo State
Iro & Bùbá, with Gele & Ipele blouse, wrapper & headgear
Bùbá àti Kèmbè shirt and short baggy pants for men
Embroidered Aso Òkè fabric for women
Agbádá àti Sóró, Agbada and long slim pants for men
Ìró & Bùbá made from African lace material
Estimates of the Yoruba in Benin vary from around 1.1 to 1.5 million people. The Yoruba are the main group in the Benin department of Ouémé, all Subprefectures including Porto Novo (Ajasè), Adjara; Collines Province, all subprefectures including Savè, Dassa - Zoume, Bante, Tchetti, Gouka; Plateau Province, all Subprefectures including Kétou, Sakété, Pobè; Borgou Province, Tchaourou Subprefecture including Tchaourou; Zou Province, Ouihni and Zogbodome Subprefecture; Donga Province, Bassila Subprefecture and Alibori, Kandi Subprefecture.
The chief Yoruba cities or towns in Benin are: Porto - Novo (Ajase), Ouèssè (Wese), Ketu, Savé (Tchabe), Tchaourou (Shaworo), Bantè - Akpassi, Bassila, Ouinhi, Adjarra, Adja - Ouèrè (Aja Were), Sakété (Itakete), Ifangni (Ifonyi), Pobè, Dassa (Idasha), Glazoue (Gbomina), Ipinle, Aledjo - Koura etc.
The Yoruba in Burkina Faso are numbered around 70,000 people, and around 60,000 in Niger. In the Ivory Coast, they are concentrated in the cities of Abidjan (Treichville, Adjamé), Bouake, Korhogo, Grand Bassam and Gagnoa where they are mostly employed in business retail at major markets. Otherwise known as "Anago traders '', they dominate certain sectors of the retail economy.
The Yorubas are the main ethnic groups in the Nigerian federal states of Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, Kwara, Oyo, the western third of Kogi and the Akoko parts of Edo.
The chief Yoruba cities or towns in Nigeria are: Abẹokuta, Abigi, Ado - Ekiti, Agbaja, Ago iwoye, Akungba - akoko, Akurẹ, Atan - otta, Ayetoro, Ayetoro gbede, Badagry, Ede, Efon - alaaye, Egbe, Ejigbo, Emure - ekiti, Epe, Eruwa, Esa - oke, Esie, Fiditi, Gbongan, Ibadan, Idanre, Idi - iroko, Ido - ani, Ido - ekiti, Ifo, Ifon, Igbajo, Igangan, Iganna, Igbeti, Igboho, Igbo - ora, Ijẹbu - igbo, Ijebu - Ijesha, Ijebu Ode, Ijede, Ijero - ekiti, Ijoko, Ikare - akoko, Ikenne, Ikere - Ekiti, Ikire, Ikirun, Ikole - ekiti, Ikorodu, Ila - orangun, Ilaje, Ilaro, Ilawe - ekiti, Ilé - Ifẹ, Ile - oluji, Ilesa, Illah Bunu, Ilobu, Ilọrin, Imeko, Imota, Inisa, Iperu, Ipetu - Ijesha, Ipetumodu, Iragbiji, Isanlu, Ise - ekiti, Iseyin, Iwo, Iyara, Jebba, Kabba, Kishi, Eko / Lagos, Lalupon, Lokoja, Mopa, Obajana, Ode - Irele, Ode - omu, Ore, Odogbolu, Offa, Ogbomoso, Ogere - remo, Ogidi - ijumu, Oka - akoko, Okeho, Okitipupa, Okuku, Omu Aran, Omuo, Ondo City (Ode Ondo), Oro, Osogbo, Sango - otta, Owode, Otun - ekiti, Owo, Ọyọ, Shagamu, Shaki, Share, Tede, Usi - ekiti.
Estimates of the Yoruba in Togo vary from around 500,000 to 600,000 people. There are both immigrant Yoruba communities from Nigeria, and indigenous ancestral Yoruba communities living in Togo. Footballer Emmanuel Adebayor is an example of a Togolese from an immigrant Yoruba background. Indigenous Yoruba communities in Togo, however can be found in the Togolese departments of Plateaux Region, Anie, Ogou and Est - Mono prefectures; Centrale Region and Tchamba Prefecture. The chief Yoruba cities or towns in Togo are: Atakpame, Anié, Morita, Ofe, Kambole.
Yoruba people or descendants can be found all over the world especially in the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Cuba, Brazil, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Significant Yoruba communities can be found in South America and Australia. The migration of Yoruba people all over the world has led to a spread of the Yoruba culture across the globe. Yoruba people have historically been spread around the globe by the combined forces of the Atlantic slave trade and voluntary self migration. Their exact population outside Africa is unknown, but researchers have established that the majority of the African component in the ancestry of African Americans is of Yoruba and / or Yoruba - like extraction. In their Atlantic world domains, the Yorubas were known by the designations: "Nago / Anago '', "Terranova '', "Lucumi '' and "Aku '', or by the names of their various clans.
The Yoruba left an important presence in Cuba and Brazil, particularly in Havana and Bahia. According to a 19th - century report, "the Yoruba are, still today, the most numerous and influential in this state of Bahia. The most numerous are those from Oyo, capital of the Yoruba kingdom ''. Others included Ijexa (Ijesha), Lucumi Ota (Aworis), Ketus, Ekitis, Jebus (Ijebu), Egba, Lucumi Ecumacho (Ogbomosho), and Anagos. In the documents dating from 1816 to 1850, Yorubas constituted 69.1 % of all slaves whose ethnic origins were known, constituting 82.3 % of all slaves from the Bight of Benin. The proportion of slaves from West - Central Africa (Angola - Congo) dropped drastically to just 14.7 %.
Between 1831 and 1852 the African - born slave and free population of Salvador, Bahia surpassed that of free Brazil born Creoles. Meanwhile, between 1808 and 1842 an average of 31.3 % of African - born freed persons had been Nagô (Yoruba). Between 1851 and 1884, the number had risen to a dramatic 73.9 %.
Other areas which received a significant number of Yoruba people and are sites of Yoruba influence are: Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Santa margarita and Belize, British Guyana, Saint - Domingue (Now Haiti), Jamaica (Where they settled and established such places as Abeokuta, Naggo head in Portmore, and by their hundreds in other parishes like Hanover and Westmoreland, both in western Jamaica - leaving behind practices such as Ettu from Etutu, Yoruba for Atonement among other customs of people bearing same name, and certain aspects of Kumina such as Sango veneration), Barbados, Dominican republic, Montserrat, etc.
Genetic studies have shown the Yoruba to cluster most closely with other African peoples.
According to a 2017 study, Yoruba people have ~ 31 % prehistoric "Basal Human '' (BE) admixture.
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the middle layer of the adrenal cortex secretes | Adrenal cortex - wikipedia
Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, such as aldosterone and cortisol, respectively. It is also a secondary site of androgen synthesis. Recent data suggest that adrenocortical cells under pathological as well as under physiological conditions show neuroendocrine properties; within the normal adrenal, this neuroendocrine differentiation seems to be restricted to cells of the zona glomerulosa and might be important for an autocrine regulation of adrenocortical function.
The adrenal cortex comprises three main zones, or layers. This anatomic zonation can be appreciated at the microscopic level, where each zone can be recognized and distinguished from one another based on structural and anatomic characteristics. The adrenal cortex exhibits functional zonation as well: by virtue of the characteristic enzymes present in each zone, the zones produce and secrete distinct hormones.
All adrenocortical steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol. Cholesterol is transported into the adrenal gland. The steps up to this point occur in many steroid - producing tissues. Subsequent steps to generate aldosterone and cortisol, however, primarily occur in the adrenal cortex:
The adrenal cortex produces a number of different corticosteroid hormones.
The primary mineralocorticoid, aldosterone, is produced in the adrenocortical zona glomerulosa by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase (also known as CYP11B2). Aldosterone is largely responsible for the long - term regulation of blood pressure. Aldosterone effects on the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the kidney where it causes increased reabsorption of sodium and increased excretion of both potassium (by principal cells) and hydrogen ions (by intercalated cells of the collecting duct). Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon, and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Although sustained production of aldosterone requires persistent calcium entry through low - voltage activated Ca channels, isolated zona glomerulosa cells are considered nonexcitable, with recorded membrane voltages that are too hyperpolarized to permit Ca channels entry. However, mouse zona glomerulosa cells within adrenal slices spontaneously generate membrane potential oscillations of low periodicity; this innate electrical excitability of zona glomerulosa cells provides a platform for the production of a recurrent Ca channels signal that can be controlled by angiotensin II and extracellular potassium, the 2 major regulators of aldosterone production. Angiotensin II originates from plasmatic angiotensin I after the conversion of angiotensinogen by renin produced by the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney.
They are produced in the zona fasciculata. The primary glucocorticoid released by the adrenal gland is cortisol in humans and corticosterone in many other animals. Its secretion is regulated by the hormone ACTH from the anterior pituitary. Upon binding to its target, cortisol enhances metabolism in several ways:
They are produced in the zona reticularis. The most important androgens include:
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who is the ruling party in himachal pradesh | List of chief ministers of Himachal Pradesh - wikipedia
The Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh is the chief executive of the north Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. As per the Constitution of India, the governor is a state 's de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly, the state 's governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given that he has the confidence of the assembly, the chief minister 's term is for five years and is subject to no term limits.
Since 1952, five people have been Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh. Three of these belonged to the Indian National Congress party, including inaugural office - holder Yashwant Singh Parmar. After his first term ended in 1956, Himachal Pradesh was made a union territory, and the office of Chief Minister ceased to exist. In 1963, Parmar once again became Chief Minister, and during his reign, in 1971, Himachal regained full statehood. Until March 2015, when he was surpassed by Virbhadra Singh, Parmar was the state 's longest - serving chief minister. Since 1993, the chief ministership has changed hands every five years between Virbhadra Singh of the Congress and Prem Kumar Dhumal of the Bharatiya Janata Party. The current incumbent is Jai Ram Thakur of the Bharatiya Janata Party having been sworn in on 27 December 2017.
(Total 7680 Days)
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where is the swim bladder located in a fish | Swim bladder - wikipedia
The swim bladder, gas bladder, fish maw or air bladder is an internal gas - filled organ that contributes to the ability of many bony fish (but not cartilaginous fish) to control their buoyancy, and thus to stay at their current water depth without having to waste energy in swimming. Also, the dorsal position of the swim bladder means the center of mass is below the center of volume, allowing it to act as a stabilizing agent. Additionally, the swim bladder functions as a resonating chamber, to produce or receive sound.
The swim bladder is evolutionarily homologous to the lungs. Charles Darwin remarked upon this in On the Origin of Species. Darwin reasoned that the lung in air - breathing vertebrates had derived from a more primitive swim bladder, but scientists now believe that the swim bladder derived from a more primitive lung.
In the embryonic stages, some species, such as redlip blenny, have lost the swim bladder again, mostly bottom dwellers like the weather fish. Other fish like the Opah and the Pomfret use their pectoral fins to swim and balance the weight of the head to keep a horizontal position. The normally bottom dwelling sea robin can use their pectoral fins to produce lift while swimming.
The gas / tissue interface at the swim bladder produces a strong reflection of sound, which is used in sonar equipment to find fish.
Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, do not have swim bladders. Some of them can control their depth only by swimming (using dynamic lift); others store fats or oils with density less than that of seawater to produce a neutral or near neutral buoyancy, which does not change with depth.
The swim bladder normally consists of two gas - filled sacs located in the dorsal portion of the fish, although in a few primitive species, there is only a single sac. It has flexible walls that contract or expand according to the ambient pressure. The walls of the bladder contain very few blood vessels and are lined with guanine crystals, which make them impermeable to gases. By adjusting the gas pressurising organ using the gas gland or oval window the fish can obtain neutral buoyancy and ascend and descend to a large range of depths. Due to the dorsal position it gives the fish lateral stability.
In physostomous swim bladders, a connection is retained between the swim bladder and the gut, the pneumatic duct, allowing the fish to fill up the swim bladder by "gulping '' air. Excess gas can be removed in a similar manner.
In more derived varieties of fish (the physoclisti) the connection to the digestive tract is lost. In early life stages, these fish must rise to the surface to fill up their swim bladders; in later stages, the pneumatic duct disappears, and the gas gland has to introduce gas (usually oxygen) to the bladder to increase its volume and thus increase buoyancy. In order to introduce gas into the bladder, the gas gland excretes lactic acid and produces carbon dioxide. The resulting acidity causes the hemoglobin of the blood to lose its oxygen (Root effect) which then diffuses partly into the swim bladder. The blood flowing back to the body first enters a rete mirabile where virtually all the excess carbon dioxide and oxygen produced in the gas gland diffuses back to the arteries supplying the gas gland. Thus a very high gas pressure of oxygen can be obtained, which can even account for the presence of gas in the swim bladders of deep sea fish like the eel, requiring a pressure of hundreds of bars. Elsewhere, at a similar structure known as the oval window, the bladder is in contact with blood and the oxygen can diffuse back out again. Together with oxygen, other gases are salted out in the swim bladder which accounts for the high pressures of other gases as well.
The combination of gases in the bladder varies. In shallow water fish, the ratios closely approximate that of the atmosphere, while deep sea fish tend to have higher percentages of oxygen. For instance, the eel Synaphobranchus has been observed to have 75.1 % oxygen, 20.5 % nitrogen, 3.1 % carbon dioxide, and 0.4 % argon in its swim bladder.
Physoclist swim bladders have one important disadvantage: they prohibit fast rising, as the bladder would burst. Physostomes can "burp '' out gas, though this complicates the process of re-submergence.
The swim bladder in some species, mainly fresh water fishes (Common carp, catfish, bowfin) is interconnected with the inner ear of the fish. They are connected by four bones called the Weberian ossicles from the Weberian apparatus. These bones can carry the vibrations to the Saccule and the Lagena (anatomy). They are suited for detecting sound and vibrations due to its low density in comparison to the density of the fish 's body tissues. This increases the ability of sound detection. The swim bladder can radiate the pressure of sound which help increase its sensitivity and expand its hearing. In some deep sea fishes like the Antimora, the swim bladder maybe also connected to the Macula of saccule in order for the inner ear to receive a sensation from the sound pressure. In red - bellied piranha, the swimbladder may play an important role in sound production as a resonator. The sounds created by piranhas are generated through rapid contractions of the sonic muscles and is associated with the swimbladder.
Charles Darwin, 1859
Swim bladders are evolutionarily closely related (i.e., homologous) to lungs. Traditional wisdom has long held that the first lungs, simple sacs connected to the gut that allowed the organism to gulp air under oxygen - poor conditions, evolved into the lungs of today 's terrestrial vertebrates and some fish (e.g., lungfish, gar, and bichir) and into the swim bladders of the ray - finned fish. In 1997, Farmer proposed that lungs evolved to supply the heart with oxygen. In fish, blood circulates from the gills to the skeletal muscle, and only then to the heart. During intense exercise, the oxygen in the blood gets used by the skeletal muscle before the blood reaches the heart. Primitive lungs gave an advantage by supplying the heart with oxygenated blood via the cardiac shunt. This theory is robustly supported by the fossil record, the ecology of extant air - breathing fishes, and the physiology of extant fishes. In embryonal development, both lung and swim bladder originate as an outpocketing from the gut; in the case of swim bladders, this connection to the gut continues to exist as the pneumatic duct in the more "primitive '' ray - finned fish, and is lost in some of the more derived teleost orders. There are no animals which have both lungs and a swim bladder.
The cartilaginous fish (e.g., sharks and rays) split from the other fishes about 420 million years ago, and lack both lungs and swim bladders, suggesting that these structures evolved after that split. Correspondingly, these fish also have both heterocercal and stiff, wing - like pectoral fins which provide the necessary lift needed due to the lack of swim bladders. Teleost fish with swim bladders have neutral buoyancy, and have no need for this lift.
Sonar operators, using the newly developed sonar technology during World War II, were puzzled by what appeared to be a false sea floor 300 -- 500 metres deep at day, and less deep at night. This turned out to be due to millions of marine organisms, most particularly small mesopelagic fish, with swimbladders that reflected the sonar. These organisms migrate up into shallower water at dusk to feed on plankton. The layer is deeper when the moon is out, and can become shallower when clouds obscure the moon.
Most mesopelagic fish make daily vertical migrations, moving at night into the epipelagic zone, often following similar migrations of zooplankton, and returning to the depths for safety during the day. These vertical migrations often occur over large vertical distances, and are undertaken with the assistance of a swim bladder. The swim bladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, given the high pressures in the mesoplegic zone, this requires significant energy. As the fish ascends, the pressure in the swimbladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. When the fish wants to return to the depths, the swimbladder is deflated. Some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between 10 and 20 ° C, thus displaying considerable tolerance for temperature change.
Sampling via deep trawling indicates that lanternfish account for as much as 65 % of all deep sea fish biomass. Indeed, lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. The estimated global biomass of lanternfish is 550 -- 660 million metric tonnes, several times the entire world fisheries catch. Lanternfish also account for much of the biomass responsible for the deep scattering layer of the world 's oceans. Sonar reflects off the millions of lanternfish swim bladders, giving the appearance of a false bottom.
In some Asian cultures, the swim bladders of certain large fishes are considered a food delicacy. In China they are known as fish maw, 花 膠 / 鱼鳔, and are served in soups or stews.
The vanity price of a vanishing kind of maw is behind the imminent extinction of the vaquita, the world 's smallest dolphin breed. Only found in Mexico 's Gulf of California, the once numerous vaquita now number less than 60 in total. Vaquita die in gillnets set to catch totoaba (the world 's largest drum fish). Totoaba are being hunted to extinction for its maw, which can sell for as much $10,000 per kilogram.
Swim bladders are also used in the food industry as a source of collagen. They can be made into a strong, water - resistant glue, or used to make isinglass for the clarification of beer. In earlier times they were used to make condoms.
Swim bladder disease is a common ailment in aquarium fish. A fish with swim bladder disorder can float nose down tail up, or can float to the top or sink to the bottom of the aquarium.
Many anthropogenic activities, like pile driving or even Seismic wave, that could result from climate change or natural causes, can create high - intensity sound waves that cause a certain amount of damage to fish that possess a gas bladder. Physostomes can release air in order to decrease the tension in the gas bladder that may cause internal injuries to other vital organs. While physoclisti ca n't expel air fast enough, making it more difficult to avoid any major injuries. Some of the commonly seen injuries included ruptured gas bladder and renal Haemorrhage. These mostly affect the overall health of the fish and did n't affect their mortality rate. Investigators used the High - Intensity - Controlled Impedance Fluid Filled (HICI - FT), a stainless - steel wave tube with a electromagnetic shaker. It simulates high - energy sound waves in aquatic far - field, plane - wave acoustic conditions.
Siphonophores have a special swim bladder that allows the jellyfish - like colonies to float along the surface of the water while their tentacles trail below. This organ is unrelated to the one in fish.
Swim bladder display in a Malacca shopping mall
Fish maw soup
Swim bladder disease has resulted in this female ryukin goldfish floating upside down
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what is the plot of a thousand splendid suns | A Thousand Splendid Suns - wikipedia
A Thousand Splendid Suns is a 2007 novel by Afghan - American author Khaled Hosseini. It is his second, following his bestselling 2003 debut, The Kite Runner. Mariam is an illegitimate child, and suffers from both the stigma surrounding her birth along with the abuse she faces throughout her marriage. Laila, born a generation later, is comparatively privileged during her youth until their lives intersect and she is also forced to accept a marriage proposal from Rasheed, Mariam 's husband.
Hosseini has remarked that he regards the novel as a "mother - daughter story '' in contrast to The Kite Runner, which he considers a "father - son story ''. It continues some of the themes used in his previous work, such as the familial aspects, but focuses primarily on female characters and their roles in Afghan society.
A Thousand Splendid Suns was released on May 22, 2007, and received favorable prepublication reviews from Kirkus Reviews, Publishers Weekly, Library Journal, and Booklist, becoming a number one New York Times bestseller for fifteen weeks following its release. During its first week on the market, it sold over one million copies. Columbia Pictures purchased film rights in 2007 and confirmed intentions to create a movie adaption of the book. The first theatrical adaptation of the book premiered on February 1, 2017, at the American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco, California.
The title of the book comes from a line in the Josephine Davis translation of the poem "Kabul '', by the 17th - century Iranian poet Saib Tabrizi:
In an interview, Khaled Hosseini explains, "I was searching for English translations of poems about Kabul, for use in a scene where a character bemoans leaving his beloved city, when I found this particular verse. I realized that I had found not only the right line for the scene, but also an evocative title in the phrase ' a thousand splendid suns, ' which appears in the next - to - last stanza. ''
When asked what led him to write a novel centered on two Afghan women, Hosseini responded:
"I had been entertaining the idea of writing a story of Afghan women for some time after I 'd finished writing The Kite Runner. That first novel was a male - dominated story. All the major characters, except perhaps for Amir 's wife Soraya, were men. There was a whole facet of Afghan society which I had n't touched on in The Kite Runner, an entire landscape that I felt was fertile with story ideas... In the spring of 2003, I went to Kabul, and I recall seeing these burqa - clad women sitting at street corners, with four, five, six children, begging for change. I remember watching them walking in pairs up the street, trailed by their children in ragged clothes, and wondering how life had brought them to that point... I spoke to many of those women in Kabul. Their life stories were truly heartbreaking... When I began writing A Thousand Splendid Suns, I found myself thinking about those resilient women over and over. Though no one woman that I met in Kabul inspired either Laila or Mariam, their voices, faces, and their incredible stories of survival were always with me, and a good part of my inspiration for this novel came from their collective spirit. ''
Hosseini disclosed that in some ways, A Thousand Splendid Suns was more difficult to write than his first novel, The Kite Runner. This is partly because when he penned The Kite Runner, "no one was waiting for it. '' He also found his second novel to be more "ambitious '' than the first due to its larger number of characters, its dual focus on Mariam and Laila, and its covering of a multi-generational - period of nearly forty - five - years. However, he stated, "As I began to write, as the story picked up pace and I found myself immersed in the world of Mariam and Laila, these apprehensions vanished on their own. The developing story captured me and enabled me to tune out the background noise and get on with the business of inhabiting the world I was creating. '' The characters "took on a life of their own '' at this point and "became very real for (him) ''.
Similar to The Kite Runner, the manuscript had to be extensively revised; Hosseini divulged that he ultimately wrote the book five times before it was complete. The novel 's anticipated release was first announced in October 2006, when it was described as a story about "family, friendship, faith and the salvation to be found in love ''.
The novel centers on two women, Mariam and Laila, how their lives become intertwined after a series of drastic events, and their subsequent friendship and support for each other in the backdrop of Kabul in the 20th and 21st century. It is split into four parts that focus on individual stories: Part one is about Mariam, part two is on Laila, part three is on the relationship between the two women, and Laila 's life with Tariq is in part four. The last section also happens to be the only part written in the present tense.
Mariam lives in a kolba on the outskirts of Herat with her embittered mother. Jalil, her father, is a wealthy businessman who owns a cinema and lives in the town with three wives and nine children. Mariam is his illegitimate daughter, and she is prohibited to live with them, but Jalil visits her every Thursday. On her fifteenth birthday, Mariam wants her father to take her to see Pinocchio at his movie theater, against the pleas of her mother. When he does not show up, she hikes into town and goes to his house. He refuses to see her, and she ends up sleeping on the street. In the morning, Mariam returns home to find that her mother has committed suicide out of fear that her daughter had deserted her. Mariam is then taken to live in her father 's house. Jalil arranges for her to be married to Rasheed, a shoemaker from Kabul who is thirty - years her senior. In Kabul, Mariam becomes pregnant seven successive times, but is never able to carry a child to term. This is a sad, disquieting reality for both Rasheed and Mariam. Ultimately Rasheed grows more and more despondent over his wife 's inability to have a child and particularly a son. As their marriage wears on Rasheed gradually becomes more and more abusive.
Part Two introduces Laila. She is a girl growing up in Kabul who is close friends with Tariq, a boy living in her neighborhood. They eventually develop a romantic relationship despite being aware of the social boundaries between men and women in Afghan society. War comes to Afghanistan, and Kabul is bombarded by rocket attacks. Tariq 's family decides to leave the city, and the emotional farewell between Laila and Tariq culminates with them making love. Laila 's family also decides to leave Kabul, but as they are packing a rocket destroys the house, killing her parents and severely injuring Laila. Laila is subsequently taken in by Rasheed and Mariam.
After recovering from her injuries, Laila discovers that she is pregnant with Tariq 's child. After being informed by Abdul Sharif that Tariq has died, she agrees to marry Rasheed, a man eager to have a young and attractive second wife in hopes of having a son with her. When Laila gives birth to a daughter, Aziza, Rasheed is displeased and suspicious. This results in him becoming abusive towards Laila. Mariam and Laila eventually become confidants and best friends. They plan to run away from Rasheed and leave Kabul but are caught at the bus station. Rasheed beats them and deprives them of water for several days, almost killing Aziza.
A few years later, Laila gives birth to Zalmai, Rasheed 's son. The Taliban has risen to power and imposed harsh rules on the Afghan population, prohibiting women from appearing in public without a male relative. There is a drought, and living conditions in Kabul become poor. Rasheed 's workshop burns down, and he is forced to take jobs for which he is ill - suited. He sends Aziza to an orphanage. Laila endures a number of beatings from the Taliban when caught alone on the streets in attempts to visit her daughter.
Then one day Tariq appears outside the house, and he and Laila are reunited. Laila realizes that Rasheed had hired Abdul Sharif to inform her about Tariq 's fake death, so that he could marry her. When Rasheed returns home from work, Zalmai tells his father about the visitor. Rasheed starts to savagely beat Laila. He nearly strangles her, but Mariam intervenes and kills Rasheed with a shovel. Afterwards, Mariam confesses to killing Rasheed in order to draw attention away from Laila and Tariq. Mariam is publicly executed, allowing Laila and Tariq to leave for Pakistan with Aziza and Zalmai. They spend their days working at a guest house in Murree, a summer retreat.
After the fall of the Taliban, Laila and Tariq return to Afghanistan. They stop in the village where Mariam was raised, and discover a package that Mariam 's father left behind for her: a videotape of Pinocchio, a small sack of money, and a letter. Laila reads the letter and discovers that Jalil had regretted sending Mariam away. Laila and Tariq return to Kabul and use the money to fix up the orphanage, where Laila starts working as a teacher. Laila is pregnant with her third child, and if it is a girl, Laila has already named her Mariam.
When asked about common themes in The Kite Runner and A Thousand Splendid Suns, Khaled Hosseini replied:
"Both novels are multigenerational, and so the relationship between parent and child, with all of its manifest complexities and contradictions, is a prominent theme. I did not intend this, but I am keenly interested, it appears, in the way parents and children love, disappoint, and in the end honor each other. In one way, the two novels are corollaries: The Kite Runner was a father - son story, and A Thousand Splendid Suns can be seen as a mother - daughter story. ''
He ultimately considers both novels to be "love stories '' in that it is love that "draws characters out of their isolation, that gives them the strength to transcend their own limitations, to expose their vulnerabilities, and to perform devastating acts of self - sacrifice ''.
Hosseini visited Afghanistan in 2003, and "heard so many stories about what happened to women, the tragedies that they had endured, the difficulties, the gender - based violence that they had suffered, the discrimination, the being barred from active life during the Taliban, having their movement restricted, being banned essentially from practicing their legal, social rights, political rights ''. This motivated him to write a novel centered on two Afghan women.
Washington Post writer Jonathan Yardley suggests that "the central theme of A Thousand Splendid Suns is the place of women in Afghan society '', pointing to a passage in which Mariam 's mother states, "Learn this now and learn it well, my daughter: Like a compass needle that points north, a man 's accusing finger always finds a woman. Always. You remember that, Mariam. ''
In the book, both Mariam and Laila are forced into accepting a marriage to Rasheed, who requires them to wear a burqa before it is implemented by law under the Taliban. He later becomes increasingly abusive. A Riverhead Trades Weekly review states that the novel consistently shows the "patriarchal despotism where women are agonizingly dependent on fathers, husbands and especially sons, the bearing of male children being their sole path to social status. ''
In the first week following its release, A Thousand Splendid Suns sold over one million copies, becoming a number - one New York Times bestseller for fifteen weeks. Time magazine 's Lev Grossman placed it at number three in the Top 10 Fiction Books of 2007, and praised it as a "dense, rich, pressure - packed guide to enduring the unendurable. '' Jonathan Yardley said in the Washington Post "Book World '', "Just in case you 're wondering whether Khaled Hosseini 's A Thousand Splendid Suns is as good as The Kite Runner, here 's the answer: No. It 's better. ''
A Thousand Splendid Suns received significant praise from reviewers, with Publishers Weekly calling it "a powerful, harrowing depiction of Afghanistan '' and USA Today describing the prose as "achingly beautiful ''. Lisa See of The New York Times attributed the book 's success to Hosseini "(understanding) the power of emotion as few other popular writers do ''. Natasha Walter from The Guardian wrote, "Hosseini is skilled at telling a certain kind of story, in which events that may seem unbearable - violence, misery and abuse - are made readable. He does n't gloss over the horrors his characters live through, but something about his direct, explanatory style and the sense that you are moving towards a redemptive ending makes the whole narrative, for all its tragedies, slip down rather easily. ''
Cathleen Medwick gave the novel a highly positive review in O, the Oprah Magazine:
"Love may not be the first thing that comes to mind when you consider the war - ravaged landscape of Afghanistan. But that is the emotion -- subterranean, powerful, beautiful, illicit, and infinitely patient -- that suffuses the pages of Khaled Hosseini 's A Thousand Splendid Suns. As in his best - selling first novel, The Kite Runner, Hosseini movingly examines the connections between unlikely friends, the fissures that open up between parents and children, the intransigence of quiet hearts. ''
The New York Times writer Michiko Kakutani wrote a more critical review, describing the opening as "heavy - handed '' and early events in the novel as "soap - opera - ish ''. Despite these objections, she concluded, "Gradually, however, Mr. Hosseini 's instinctive storytelling skills take over, mowing down the reader 's objections through sheer momentum and will. He succeeds in making the emotional reality of Mariam and Laila 's lives tangible to us, and by conjuring their day - to - day routines, he is able to give us a sense of what daily life was like in Kabul -- both before and during the harsh reign of the Taliban. '' Similarly, Yvonne Zipp of The Christian Science Monitor concluded that A Thousand Splendid Suns was ultimately "a little shaky as a work of literature ''.
The depictions of the lead female characters, Mariam and Laila, were praised by several commentators. John Freeman from The Houston Chronicle found them "enormously winning '' while Carol Memmott from USA Today further described them as "stunningly heroic characters whose spirits somehow grasp the dimmest rays of hope ''. Medwick summed up the portrayals: "Mariam, branded as a harami, or bastard, and forced into an abusive marriage at the age of fifteen, and Laila, a beauty groomed for success but shrouded almost beyond recognition by repressive sharia law and the husband she and Mariam share. The story, epic in scope and spanning three decades, follows these two indomitable women whose fortunes mirror those of their beloved and battered country -- ' nothing pretty to look at, but still standing ' -- and who find in each other the strength they need to survive. ''
Jennifer Reese from Entertainment Weekly dubbed Rasheed "one of the most repulsive males in recent literature ''. Lisa See said that, with the exception of Tariq, "the male characters seem either unrelentingly evil or pathetically weak '' and opinionated, "If a woman wrote these things about her male characters, she would probably be labeled a man - hater. ''
Columbia Pictures owns the movie rights to the novel. Steven Zaillian finished writing the first draft of the screenplay in 2009 and is also slated to direct; Scott Rudin has signed on as a producer. In May 2013, studios confirmed a tentative release date of 2015.
The first theatrical adaptation of the novel premiered in San Francisco, California, on February 1, 2017. It is co-produced by the American Conservatory Theater and Theatre Calgary.
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has anyone won all 4 majors in the same year | Grand Slam (golf) - wikipedia
The Grand Slam in professional golf is winning all of golf 's major championships in the same calendar year.
The Grand Slam in men 's golf is an unofficial term used to describe a golfer who wins all four major championships in a calendar year.
In the modern era, the Grand Slam requires victories at the Masters Tournament, the U.S. Open, The Open Championship (also known as the British Open), and the PGA Championship in a single calendar year.
Prior to the creation of the Masters Tournament, the national amateur championships of the U.S. and the UK were considered major championships. During that earlier era, the Grand Slam comprised consecutive victories at the U.S. Amateur, British Amateur along with the U.S. Open and the Open Championship.
Only Bobby Jones has ever completed a Grand Slam. No man has ever achieved a modern era Grand Slam. Tiger Woods won all four major events consecutively within a 365 - day period, but his victories were spread over two calendar years.
The term also refers to a former tour tournament, the PGA Grand Slam of Golf, an annual off - season tournament (that was cancelled after the 2014 tournament) contested by the winners of the four major championships.
In annual playing order, the modern major championships are:
The term "Grand Slam '' was first applied to Bobby Jones ' achievement of winning the four major golf events of 1930: The Open Championship, the U.S. Open, the U.S. Amateur and the British Amateur. When Jones won all four, the sports world searched for ways to capture the magnitude of his accomplishment. Up to that time, there was no term to describe such a feat because no one had thought it possible. The Atlanta Journal 's O.B. Keeler dubbed it the "Grand Slam, '' borrowing a bridge term. George Trevor of the New York Sun wrote that Jones had "stormed the impregnable quadrilateral of golf. '' Keeler would later write the words that would forever be linked to one of the greatest individual accomplishments in the history of sports:
This victory, the fourth major title in the same season and in the space of four months, had now and for all time entrenched Bobby Jones safely within the ' Impregnable Quadrilateral of Golf, ' that granite fortress that he alone could take by escalade, and that others may attack in vain, forever.
Jones remains the only man to have achieved the Grand Slam, since before the creation of The Masters and the advent of the professional era, the amateur championships were considered major championships.
The modern definition could not be applied until at least 1934, when the Masters was founded, and still carried little weight in 1953 when Ben Hogan won the Masters, U.S. Open, and Open Championship. That year, it was impossible to win all four as the PGA Championship preceded and overlapped with the Open Championship; the PGA 's 36 - hole match play semifinals and finals near Detroit were the same days as the mandatory 36 - hole qualifier at Carnoustie in Scotland for the Open Championship; the only way to compete in both events was to lose an early match at the PGA. Hogan is the only player to have won the Masters, U.S. Open, and Open Championship in the same calendar year.
In 1960, Arnold Palmer won the Masters in April and U.S. Open in June. According to his autobiography, A Golfer 's Life, he and his friend Bob Drum (of the Pittsburgh Press), while on the trans - Atlantic flight to The Open Championship at St Andrews, came up with the idea that adding it and the PGA Championship titles that July would constitute a modern Grand Slam. Drum spread the notion among the gathered media and it caught on. Two years earlier, the PGA had changed to stroke play, and it started to be held two weeks after the Open Championship in 1960. Scheduling problems continued through the 1960s as the last two majors were held in successive weeks in July on five occasions. The PGA was played in August in 1965 but returned to July for the next three. With the formation of the Tournament Players Division in late 1968, now the PGA Tour, the PGA Championship permanently moved to August in 1969, except for the 1971 edition, held in late February to avoid the summer heat of Florida.
Tiger Woods came closest to meeting the modern definition of golf 's Grand Slam by holding all four modern major championships simultaneously -- the U.S. Open, Open Championship, and PGA Championship in 2000 and the 2001 Masters -- although not in the same calendar year. This has been referred to as a Consecutive Grand Slam or, after the only player to achieve it, a Tiger Slam. In other sports with a four - major format, it is referred as a Non-calendar year Grand Slam, based on a 1982 decision. In fact, even before Woods accomplished this, there was much debate over the definition of "Grand Slam. '' Fred Couples said, "I do n't know how I can put it more simply... if he wins all four, it 's a Slam. '' As noted above, however, because there is no official definition, there is no definitive answer.
Only five golfers have won all four of golf 's modern majors at any time during their careers, an achievement which is often referred to as a Career Grand Slam: Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Gary Player, Jack Nicklaus, and Tiger Woods. Woods and Nicklaus have won each of the four majors at least three times.
A number of dominant players of their eras have failed to achieve the Career Grand Slam because of their inability to win a particular major. Sam Snead and Phil Mickelson (through 2018) failed to win a U.S. Open; Arnold Palmer, Tom Watson, and Jordan Spieth (through 2017) failed to win a PGA Championship; Lee Trevino and Rory McIlroy (through 2018) failed to win The Masters; Byron Nelson and Raymond Floyd failed to win the Open Championship, at which the former competed only once. These shortcomings have been attributed to various factors: a particular major is ill - suited to a player 's game (this was cited especially with regard to Trevino and The Masters); the player lacked the ability to fully adapt to that major; the player simply experienced bad luck (Mickelson finished second a record six times at the U.S. Open); or war had led to the cancellation of a major during the player 's prime.
^ Hagen co-holds the all - time record of five PGA Championship victories, which he shares with Jack Nicklaus, but all of his occurred during match - play. ∞ Barnes never got the chance to play in the Masters Tournament during his career, as it was established in 1934. He did, however, win three Western Open titles, which were considered as majors in the pre-War era of golf. Walter Hagen and Tommy Armour did compete in the Masters, toward the end of their careers, without success, but were also Western Open champions in the pre-Masters era, Hagen on five occasions between 1916 and 1932 and Armour in 1929.
Women 's golf also has a set of majors. No woman has completed a four - major Grand Slam, but Babe Zaharias won all three majors contested in 1950 and Sandra Haynie won both majors in 1974.
Seven women have completed the Career Grand Slam by winning four different majors. There are variations in the set of four tournaments involved as the players played in different eras, and the women 's tournaments defined as "majors '' have varied considerably over time in a way that has not been paralleled in the men 's game. The seven are Pat Bradley, Juli Inkster, Inbee Park, Annika Sörenstam, Louise Suggs, Karrie Webb, and Mickey Wright. Webb is separately recognized by the LPGA as its only "Super Career Grand Slam '' winner, as she is the only one of the group to have won five different tournaments recognized as majors.
Although other women 's tours, notably the Ladies European Tour (LET) and the LPGA of Japan Tour, recognize a different set of "majors '', the U.S. LPGA is so dominant in global women 's golf that the phrase "women 's majors '', without further qualification, is almost universally considered as a reference to the U.S. LPGA majors.
The five current major championships are:
Inbee Park is recognized as achieving the career Grand Slam for winning four different major championships, even though The Evian Championship had since been designated as the fifth major championship.
Patty Berg is the all - time record holder of the most Titleholders and Women 's Western Open victories. Amy Alcott is tied for the most all - time ANA Inspiration wins. Betsy King is tied for the most all - time ANA Inspiration wins. Betsy Rawls is tied for the most all - time U.S. Women 's Open wins. Note: Mallon won two more Canadian Women 's Open championships after it was replaced by the Women 's British Open.
Senior (i.e., 50 and over) men 's golf also has a set of majors. Like the women 's majors, the senior majors are not globally recognized. However, because the U.S. - based Champions Tour (operated by the PGA Tour) overwhelmingly dominates worldwide senior golf, its roster of majors is by far the most widely recognized.
Unlike the mainstream men 's and women 's (until 2013) Grand Slams, the senior version (as recognized by the Champions Tour) now contains five events, arguably making a senior Grand Slam a greater accomplishment than in mainstream men 's golf.
In the current order of play, the five majors are:
The Senior PGA is by far the oldest of the senior majors, having been founded in 1937, decades before the establishment of the Champions Tour (as the Senior PGA Tour) in 1980. The other events were all founded in the 1980s -- the U.S. Senior Open in 1980, the Senior Players Championship in 1983, The Senior Open in 1987, and The Tradition in 1989. This era saw senior golf became a commercial success as the first golf stars of the television era, such as Arnold Palmer and Gary Player, reached their fifties. The Senior Open, however, was not recognized as a Champions Tour major until 2003.
The stability of the majors in senior golf falls somewhere between mainstream men 's golf and the LPGA:
No man has ever won all of the senior majors contested in a year, even in the period between 1980 and 1982 when only two senior majors existed. Bernhard Langer is the only man to have won all five of the current senior majors in his career. Miller Barber won both of the 1980 - 1982 senior majors, the Senior PGA and U.S. Senior Open, during that time span, and won the inaugural Senior Players Championship in 1983. Those three tournaments would be the only senior majors until The Tradition was first played in 1989. Prior to the founding of The Tradition, Palmer and Player also completed that era 's Career Senior Grand Slam. However, neither Barber, Palmer, nor Player would ever win The Tradition.
Jack Nicklaus is the only other player to have completed any era 's Career Senior Grand Slam, doing so in his first two years on the Senior Tour. In his first year of eligibility in 1990, he won The Tradition and the Senior Players Championship. The next year, he defended his Tradition title and went on to win the Senior PGA and U.S. Senior Open. However, he failed to defend his Senior Players title and thus missed out on a calendar - year Grand Slam.
Nicklaus is the only player to have won four different senior majors in his career. Although Nicklaus never won The Senior Open, that event was not recognized as a U.S. senior major until 2003, which was also the only year he played the event. Player won The Senior Open three times before 2003, when it was considered a major by the European Senior Tour but not the Senior PGA / Champions Tour.
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who defined economics as the study of mankind in the ordinary business of life | Welfare definition of economics - wikipedia
The welfare definition of economics is an attempt by Alfred Marshall, a pioneer neoclassical economist, to redefine his field of study. This definition expands the field of economic science to a larger study of humanity. Specifically, Marshall 's view is that economics studies all the actions that people take in order to achieve economic welfare. In the words of Marshall, "man earns money to get material welfare. '' This is why economists since Marshall have described his definition as the welfare definition of economics. This definition enlarged the scope of economic science by emphasizing the study of wealth and humanity together, rather than wealth alone.
In his widely read textbook, Principles of Economics, published in 1890, Marshall defines economics as follow
"Political Economy or Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of material requisites of well - being ''.
The following are the implications of this definition:
According to Edwin Cannan, "the aim of political economy or Economics is the explanation of the general causes on which the material welfare of human beings depend ''.
Marshall clearly explains that economic activity is different from other activity. For example,
Marshall defines economic activity as separate from the above activities. A farmer who toils in the field, or a worker on an assembly, are performing an economic activity: they work to increase their material welfare (primarily by earning money). Money buys goods or services that satisfy wants. In other words, economics deals with effort, wants, and the satisfaction of those wants.
Followers in the neoclassical tradition, such as William Beveridge and Arthur Pigou have continued to define economics in terms of material economic welfare. According to Pigou, "the range of enquiry becomes restricted to that part of social welfare that can be brought directly or indirectly into relation with the measuring rod of money ''.
Marshall 's definition has been criticized by more recent economists, including Lionel Robbins. Robbins ' criticisms include:
(1) Narrows down the scope of economics. Marshall distinguishes between material and non-material welfare, and confines economics to the study of material welfare. Robbins feels that economists should not limit their attention to material welfare. There are things that are "non-material '' but they promote human welfare. Robbins cites "the services of doctors, lawyers, teachers, dancers, engineers, professors ''. These goods "satisfy our wants and are scarce in supply ''. Some economists feel that Marshall 's definition of "material '' includes both goods and services, and that Robbins is either misreading Marshall 's text, or creating a straw man argument.
(2) Assumes equivalency between welfare and economic activity. For Robbins, there are economic activities which do not promote human welfare. For example, the sale of cocaine or heroin. Here Robbins says, "Why talk of welfare at all? Why not throw away the mask altogether ''.
(3) It is a vague concept. According to Robbins, "welfare '' is a vague concept to use to define economics because it is subjective. Economics is a quantitative science; but welfare can not be quantitatively measured, and two persons can not agree on what creates or improves welfare.
(4) It involves value judgement. Finally the word "welfare '' in Marshall 's definition brings economics to the realm of ethics. Robbins would prefer that economics remain neutral in assessing the results of economic transactions.
Broadly, economic welfare is the level of prosperity and standard of living of either an individual or a group of persons. In the field of economics, it specifically refers to utility gained through the achievement of material goods and services. In other words, it refers to that part of social welfare that can be fulfilled through economic activity.
According to Roefie Hueting, welfare is dependent on factors like employment, income distribution, labor conditions, leisure time, production and the scarce possible uses of the environmental functions.
Economic welfare is measured in different ways, depending on the preferences of those measuring it. Factors used to measure the economic welfare of a population, include: GDP, literacy, access to health care, and assessments of environmental quality.
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the place where the water is being wasted reason wikipedia | Wastewater - wikipedia
Wastewater (or waste water) is any water that has been affected by human use. Wastewater is "used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration ''. Therefore, wastewater is a byproduct of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities. The characteristics of wastewater vary depending on the source. Types of wastewater include: domestic wastewater from households, municipal wastewater from communities (also called sewage) or industrial wastewater from industrial activities. Wastewater can contain physical, chemical and biological pollutants.
Households may produce wastewater from flush toilets, sinks, dishwashers, washing machines, bath tubs, and showers. Households that use dry toilets produce less wastewater than those that use flush toilets.
Wastewater may be conveyed in a sanitary sewer which conveys only sewage. Alternatively, it can be transported in a combined sewer which includes stormwater runoff and industrial wastewater. After treatment at a wastewater treatment plant, the treated wastewater (also called effluent) is discharged to a receiving water body. The terms "wastewater reuse '' or "water reclamation '' apply if the treated waste is used for another purpose. Wastewater that is discharged to the environment without suitable treatment causes water pollution.
In developing countries and in rural areas with low population densities, wastewater is often treated by various on - site sanitation systems and not conveyed in sewers. These systems include septic tanks connected to drain fields, on - site sewage systems (OSS), vermifilter systems and many more.
The overarching term sanitation includes the management of wastewater, human excreta, solid waste and stormwater. The term sewerage refers to the physical infrastructure required to transport and treat wastewater.
Sources of wastewater include the following domestic or household activities:
Activities producing industrial wastewater:
Other activities or events:
Wastewater can be diluted or mixed with other types of water by the following mechanisms:
The composition of wastewater varies widely. This is a partial list of pollutants that may be contained in wastewater:
If the wastewater contains human feces, as is the case for sewage, then it may also contain pathogens of one of the four types:
It can also contain non-pathogenic bacteria and animals such as insects, arthropods, small fish.
Since all natural waterways contain bacteria and nutrients, almost any waste compounds introduced into such waterways will initiate biochemical reactions (such as shown above). Those biochemical reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Such chemicals are also liable to be broken down using strong oxidizing agents and these chemical reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the chemical oxygen demand (COD). Both the BOD and COD tests are a measure of the relative oxygen - depletion effect of a waste contaminant. Both have been widely adopted as a measure of pollution effect. The BOD test measures the oxygen demand of biodegradable pollutants whereas the COD test measures the oxygen demand of oxidizable pollutants.
Any oxidizable material present in an aerobic natural waterway or in an industrial wastewater will be oxidized both by biochemical (bacterial) or chemical processes. The result is that the oxygen content of the water will be decreased.
At a global level, around 80 % of wastewater produced is discharged into the environment untreated, causing widespread water pollution.
There are numerous processes that can be used to clean up wastewaters depending on the type and extent of contamination. Wastewater can be treated in wastewater treatment plants which include physical, chemical and biological treatment processes. Municipal wastewater is treated in sewage treatment plants (which may also be referred to as wastewater treatment plants). Agricultural wastewater may be treated in agricultural wastewater treatment processes, whereas industrial wastewater is treated in industrial wastewater treatment processes.
For municipal wastewater the use of septic tanks and other On - Site Sewage Facilities (OSSF) is widespread in some rural areas, for example serving up to 20 percent of the homes in the U.S.
One type of aerobic treatment system is the activated sludge process, based on the maintenance and recirculation of a complex biomass composed of micro-organisms able to absorb and adsorb the organic matter carried in the wastewater. Anaerobic wastewater treatment processes (UASB, EGSB) are also widely applied in the treatment of industrial wastewaters and biological sludge. Some wastewater may be highly treated and reused as reclaimed water. Constructed wetlands are also being used.
In some urban areas, municipal wastewater is carried separately in sanitary sewers and runoff from streets is carried in storm drains. Access to either of these systems is typically through a manhole.
During high precipitation periods a combined sewer system may experience a combined sewer overflow event, which forces untreated sewage to flow directly to receiving waters. This can pose a serious threat to public health and the surrounding environment.
Sewage may drain directly into major watersheds with minimal or no treatment but this usually has serious impacts on the quality of an environment and on the health of people. Pathogens can cause a variety of illnesses. Some chemicals pose risks even at very low concentrations and can remain a threat for long periods of time because of bioaccumulation in animal or human tissue.
Wastewater from industrial activities may be pumped underground through an injection well. Wastewater injection has been linked to Induced seismicity.
Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in cooling towers), in artificial recharge of aquifers, in agriculture and in the rehabilitation of natural ecosystems (for example in wetlands). In rarer cases it is also used to augment drinking water supplies. There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from bacteria and viruses. The following are some of the typical technologies: Ozonation, ultrafiltration, aerobic treatment (membrane bioreactor), forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, advanced oxidation.
Some water demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. One example of this scenario is in the domestic environment where toilets can be flushed using greywater from baths and showers with little or no treatment.
Irrigation with recycled wastewater can also serve to fertilize plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In developing countries, agriculture is using untreated wastewater for irrigation - often in an unsafe manner. There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. The World Health Organization developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006.
As part of the Environmental Protection Act 1994, the Environmental Protection (Water) Policy 2009 is responsible for the water management of Queensland, Australia.
In Nigeria, the Water Resources Act of 1993 is the law responsible for all kinds of water management.
In the Philippines, Republic Act 9275, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, is the governing law on wastewater management. It states that it is the country 's policy to protect, preserve and revive the quality of its fresh, brackish and marine waters, for which wastewater management plays a particular role.
The Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution in surface waters. Groundwater protection provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Superfund act.
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what does the blue eye in turkey mean | Nazar (amulet) - wikipedia
A nazar (from Arabic نظر , meaning sight, surveillance, attention, and other related concepts) is an eye - shaped amulet believed to protect against the evil eye. Hindi, Urdu and Persian have borrowed the term as well. In Turkey, it is known by the indigenous name nazar boncuğu (the latter word being a derivative of boncuk, "bead '') and historically as mâvi boncuk or Old Turkic: gökçe munçuk, both meaning "blue bead ''. In Persian and Afghan folklore, it is called a cheshm nazar (Persian: چشم نظر ) or nazar ghorboni (Persian: نظرقربونی ). In India and Pakistan, the Hindi - Urdu slogan Chashm - e-Baddoor is used to ward off the evil eye.
In such cultures, it is believed that if a person is complimented a lot, they will be jinxed and often sick the next day unless a verse of the Quran is recited.
A typical nazar is made of handmade glass featuring concentric circles or teardrop shapes in dark blue, white, light blue and black, occasionally with a yellow / gold edge.
As a legacy of the Turkish Ottoman Empire, it is a common sight in Turkey, Macedonia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Armenia, Iran, India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq and Azerbaijan, where the nazar is often hung in homes, offices, cars, children 's clothing, or incorporated in jewellery and ornaments. They are a popular choice of souvenir with tourists.
The Turkish boncuk (sometimes called a göz boncuğu ' eye bead ') is a glass bead characterized by a blue glass field with a blue or black dot superimposed on a white or yellow center. Historically old, the blue bead has gained importance as an item of popular culture in Modern Turkey. The bead probably originated in the Mediterranean and is associated with the development of glass making. Written documents and extant beads date as early as the 16th century BC. Glass beads were made and widely used throughout the ancient world: from Mesopotamia to Egypt, from Phoenicia to Persia, and throughout the Roman imperial period.
The eye bead is a kind of glass art based on nazar in Turkey. This art has changed very little for thousands of years. The 3,000 - year - old antique Mediterranean glass art lives in these eye bead furnaces with its every detail.
The roots of the very few glass evil eye bead masters that still practice this tradition go back to the Arabian artisans who settled in Izmir and its towns during the decline of the Ottoman Empire by the end of the 19th century. The glass art that had lost its glamour in Anatolia, combined with the eye sign, was enlivened. The masters who practised their arts at Araphan and Kemeraltı districts of Izmir were exiled due to the disturbance of the smoke from their furnace and risk of fire in the neighbourhood.
The nazar image was used as a symbol on the tailfins of aeroplanes belonging to the private Turkish airline Fly Air.
It is used in the logo for CryEngine 3, a game engine designed by Crytek, a video game company founded by three Turkish brothers (Cevat, Avni and Faruk Yerli).
It was also used in the logo of the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup events.
The video game Terraria (2011) has an accessory item called "Nazar '' which grants immunity to the "Cursed debuff '', referencing how a "Nazar '' is used to prevent the wearer from curses and bad Luck.
Nazar Amulet
Authentic Turkish Nazar Eye Beads
Nazar - inspired sculpture in the Netherlands.
Nazar evil eye charms.
A Persian cheshm nazar.
A Turkish nazar boncuğu.
Nazar on a newborn baby 's hospital room 's door in Turkey.
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who wrote song help me make it through the night | Help Me Make it Through the Night - wikipedia
"Help Me Make It Through The Night '' is a country music ballad written and composed by Kris Kristofferson and released on his 1970 album Kristofferson. It was covered later in 1970 by Sammi Smith, on the album Help Me Make It Through the Night. Smith 's recording of the song remains the most commercially successful and most well - known version in the United States. Her recording ranks among the most successful country singles of all time in terms of sales, popularity, and radio airplay. It topped the country singles chart, and was also a crossover hit, reaching number eight on the U.S. pop singles chart. "Help Me Make It Through The Night '' also became Smith 's signature song.
Inspired by Smith 's success with the song, numerous other artists covered it soon thereafter, including Loretta Lynn, Glen Campbell, Joan Baez, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Elvis Presley.
Other artists who have recorded charting versions of the song include Gladys Knight & the Pips, John Holt, and (in French) Claude Varade.
Kristofferson said that he got the inspiration for the song from an Esquire magazine interview with Frank Sinatra. When asked what he believed in, Frank replied, "Booze, broads, or a bible... whatever helps me make it through the night. ''
During his time as a struggling songwriter, Kristofferson wrote the song while staying with Dottie West and her husband, Bill, at their home on Shy 's Hill Road in Nashville 's Green Hills neighborhood. When he offered Dottie the song, she originally claimed it was "too suggestive '' for her. Eventually, she would record it before the year was out, and it is included on her album Careless Hands. However, by then, several others had recorded and released versions of it, some garnering great success. Later on, West said that not recording it when it was originally offered to her was one of the greatest regrets of her career.
Kristofferson 's original lyrics speak of a man 's yearning for sexual intimacy. They were controversial in 1971 when the song was covered by a woman: I do n't care what 's right or wrong, I do n't try to understand / Let the devil take tomorrow, Lord tonight I need a friend.
Sammi Smith 's recording reached number - one on the U.S. country charts and won the Grammy Award for Best Country Music Female performance. On February 20, 1971, it reached number 8 on Billboard 's U.S. pop singles chart, and also enjoyed success in Canada. Adult - Contemporary stations took to the song, and it peaked at number 3 on Billboard 's Easy Listening chart. Additionally, it spent three weeks at number 1 on the Country chart. The song became a gold record.
In 1971, Joe Simon hit # 69 on the Hot 100 and # 13 on the Hot Soul Singles chart.
In 1972, a version by Gladys Knight & the Pips reached number 33 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 13 on the Hot Soul Singles chart, and was a Top 10 pop hit in the United Kingdom. This version was later sampled extensively on Huff and Puff 's 1996 dance track "Help Me Make It ''.
In 1974, John Holt included the song on his album 1000 Volts of Holt. That year, his recording of the song made it into the UK Top Ten.
In 1975, the French Canadian singer Claude Valade recorded a French version of the song, "Aide - moi à passer la nuit '', produced and distributed by London Deram Records. The French - language lyrics were written by Canadian singer - songwriter Christine Charbonneau. The song made its way to fame and was on the charts (3rd place) for more than six months.
In 1980, Willie Nelson covered the song. His rendition became a hit on the Country music charts of both the U.S. and Canada.
In 2007, it was recorded for a second time in French with Annie Blanchard (Musicor Records) and the song made the Top 20 for 26 weeks, reaching a high of # 6.
Other artists who have recorded the song include:
Johnny Cash and his wife, June Carter Cash, recorded it as a duet. The recording is found on the 2006 compilation June Carter and Johnny Cash: Duets, released by Sony BMG. In this version, Johnny Cash inserts "June '' before the line tonight I need a friend.
In 2008, Mariah Carey recorded a version of the song intended for inclusion on the soundtrack album of the film Tennessee, but the album was never released. Her recording was eventually released on YouTube in 2010.
Barry Humphries, in the lecherous persona of his character Sir Les Patterson, released a version of the song on the 1985 LP 12 Inches of Les.
In 1990, country novelty musician Ray Stevens produced a comedic version of the song. After a conventional balladic first verse with piano and strings, a Foghorn Leghorn character breaks in demanding "a little fire in it! '' Stevens launches into an upbeat "hillbilly '' bluegrass tempo, interspersing each line with mocking jokes of those lines: the first line "Take the ribbon from your hair, '' is followed by a ripping sound followed by a woman yelling, Spike Jones - style, and so on. Another comedic version was recorded by novelty group Big Daddy, which was performed in the style, and with musical references to The Coasters. A parody was called "Help Me Make It Through the Yard '' by Pinkard & Bowden, in which the lyrics are altered to tell about the plight of a man coming home drunk: Take the rosebush from my hair, / Lord, it has a lot of thorns, / What 's the sprinkler doing on / At this hour of the morn?...
In Austria, a German language version of the song was recorded by S.T.S.. Its title in German was "Gö, Du Bleibst Heut Nacht Bei Mir ''. The song was also covered by UK singer Charlie Landsborough on his 2009 album ' Nothing Lasts Forever '. Another German Version ("Hilf Mir Durch Die Nacht '') exists by Volker Lechtenbrink.
A Spanish version was recorded in Colombia in 2001 by Marco T.
In 1972, John Huston used Kristofferson 's version as the theme for his feature Fat City. It plays under the title credits, with instrumental arrangements later in the movie.
In 1978, Kristofferson made a guest appearance on the television series The Muppet Show; on that episode he performed "Help Me Make It Through the Night '' as a duet with a besotted Miss Piggy.
In 2013, American Idol contestant Kree Harrison sang this song during season 12 on "Songs They Wish They Had Written '' week.
In 2015, DeAnna Johnson covered this song on The Voice.
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the most beautiful girl in the world prince song | The Most Beautiful Girl in the World (Prince song) - wikipedia
"The Most Beautiful Girl in the World '' is the lead single from Prince 's 1994 EP The Beautiful Experience and 1995 album The Gold Experience. In his singles chronology, it was his third major release since changing his stage name to "The Artist Formerly Known As Prince '' or "TAFKAP ''. In his albums chronology, it along with the EP was his second release after changing his name. With the consent of Prince 's usual record distributor Warner Bros. Records, "The Most Beautiful Girl in the World '' was released by NPG Records and Edel Music, and independently distributed by Bellmark Records, under the control and guidance of Music of Life, as a one - off single, topping five different charts.
The single was released in February 1994 in the United Kingdom, and remains Prince 's only number one single in the UK Singles Chart, and was shortly followed by an EP of remixes titled The Beautiful Experience that also charted on # 18 in the chart in the United Kingdom. The version that was released on The Gold Experience is a different mix of the song.
The original track is a slow - grooving ballad that serenades a beautiful woman, his soon - to - be fiancé, Mayte Garcia. The song was played during the Miss USA pageant in 1994, but not in full. It was widely advertised in news and trade magazines that a new song from Prince would be premiered at the pageant. The ads had Prince sitting in a chair with a hat pulled down over his face, and Garcia standing next to his chair. The song was officially released on February 24, 1994. It later appeared on The Gold Experience.
The version on The Gold Experience is remixed. The drums are more crisp in the mix, and there are slight instrumental changes. There are also added sound effects and instrumental breaks in the second version. The bridge is slightly more robust as well. The song is still based in light guitar, keyboards and live drums. Although most of the song is sung in falsetto with Prince reaching some extremely high notes, the bridge has him using his regular voice as well as a lower baritone range in parts.
The song was a worldwide hit and established Prince 's ability to succeed commercially under his new name, peaking at No. 3 on the Billboard Hot 100. It was certified gold by the RIAA and sold 700,000 copies domestically.
It became his first and only United Kingdom No. 1 single under any name as a performer. He did have two other United Kingdom number ones as a songwriter: the 1984 hit single "I Feel for You '' covered by Chaka Khan and Sinéad O'Connor 's 1990 cover of "Nothing Compares 2 U ''. The song was his last top 5 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 during his lifetime. Prince danced to his own song "The Most Beautiful Girl In The World '' after the World Music Awards at an after show event with Kylie Minogue in 1994.
Mayte Garcia later recorded her own version called "The Most Beautiful Boy in the World '' when she and Prince were married. The song appears on her album Child of the Sun. It has the same instrumental backing track with extra reverb, and her vocals, with a few slight ad - lib changes. It was released by NPG Records.
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what is a census tract how many census tracts are in new york county | Census tract - wikipedia
A census tract, census area, census district or meshblock is a geographic region defined for the purpose of taking a census. Sometimes these coincide with the limits of cities, towns or other administrative areas and several tracts commonly exist within a county. In unincorporated areas of the United States these are often arbitrary, except for coinciding with political lines.
Census tracts represent the smallest territorial entity for which population data are available in many countries. In the United States, census tracts are subdivided into block groups and census blocks. In Canada they are divided into dissemination areas. In the U.S., census tracts are "designed to be relatively homogeneous units with respect to population characteristics, economic status, and living conditions '' and "average about 4,000 inhabitants ''.
In New Zealand census tracts are known as meshblocks, or mesh blocks, and are defined by Statistics New Zealand as being "the smallest geographic unit for which statistical data is collected and processed by Statistics New Zealand ''. It is a defined area, varying in size from part of a city block to large areas of rural land. Each of these borders another to form a network covering the whole country including inlets and coasts, and extending out to the 200 mile economic zone. Meshblocks are added together to "build up '' larger geographic areas such as area units and urban areas. They are also used to draw up and define New Zealand electorates and local authority boundaries.
British census tracts were first developed in the city of Oxford. The Inter-University Census Tract Committee was formed in 1955 and Oxford was divided into 48 tracts with an average population of 2,645 each. The Registrar General, however, opted for enumeration districts containing less than 1,000 people on average, rather than adopting census tracts. While tracts composed of enumeration districts were later developed, these were not extensively used. Census tracts have, however, been constructed and used by British demographers. The Office for National Statistics now uses enumeration districts only for the collection of data, with output areas used as the base unit in census releases.
The concept of the census tract was first developed in the United States. In 1906, Dr. Walter Laidlaw originated the concept of permanent, small geographic areas as a framework for studying change from one decennial census to another in neighborhoods within New York City. For the 1910 Census, eight cities -- New York, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and St. Louis -- delineated census tracts (then termed ' ' districts ' ') for the first time. No additional jurisdictions delineated census tracts until just prior to the 1930 Census, when an additional ten cities chose to do so. The increased interest in census tracts for the 1930 Census is attributed to the promotional efforts of Howard Whipple Green, who was a statistician in Cleveland, Ohio, and later the chairman of the American Statistical Association 's Committee on Census Enumeration Areas. For more than 25 years, Green strongly encouraged local citizens, via committees, to establish census tracts and other census statistical geographic areas. The committees created by local citizens were known as Census Tract Committees, later called Census Statistical Areas Committees.
After 1930, the Census Bureau saw the need to standardize the delineation, review, and updating of census tracts and published the first set of census tract criteria in 1934. The goal of the criteria has remained unchanged; that is, to assure comparability and data reliability through the standardization of the population thresholds for census tracts, as well as requiring that their boundaries follow specific types of geographic features that do not change frequently. The Census Bureau began publishing census tract data as part of its standard tabulations beginning with the 1940 Census. Prior to that time, census tract data were published as special tabulations.
For the 1940 Census, the Census Bureau began publishing census block data for all cities with 50,000 or more people. Census block numbers were assigned, where possible, by census tract, but for those cities that had not yet delineated census tracts, ' ' block areas ' ' (called ' ' block numbering areas ' ' (BNAs) in later censuses) were created to assign census block numbers. Starting with the 1960 Census, the Census Bureau assumed a greater role in promoting and coordinating the delineation, review, and update of census tracts. For the 1980 Census, criteria for BNAs were changed to make them more comparable in size and shape to census tracts. For the 1990 Census, all counties contained either census tracts or BNAs.
Census 2000 was the first decade in which census tracts were defined in all counties. In addition, the Census Bureau increased the number of geographic areas whose boundaries could be used as census tract boundaries. It also allowed tribal governments of federally recognized American Indian tribes with a reservation and / or off - reservation trust lands to delineate tracts without regard to State and / or county boundaries, provided the tribe had a 1990 Census population of at least 1,000.
Census tracts are also used by the Small Business Administration to define boundaries of HUBZones.
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who sings sometimes i get a good feeling | Good Feeling (song) - wikipedia
"Good Feeling '' is a song by American rapper Flo Rida from his 2012 EP of the same name, also appearing on his fourth studio album, Wild Ones. It was released as the album 's lead single on August 29, 2011 in the United States. The song was written by Flo Rida, Dr. Luke, Cirkut, Breyan Isaac, Arash Pournouri, Avicii, Etta James, Leroy Kirkland and Pearl Woods. It was also produced by Dr. Luke and Cirkut.
The song contains vocal samples from Etta James 's 1962 single "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '', which is why James, Leroy Kirkland and Pearl Woods received writing credits. Avicii and Arash Pournouri received credits as well because Avicii 's song "Levels '', which also sampled the Etta James song, is used as the primary musical sample under Flo Rida 's rapping. In addition, this is Flo Rida 's fourth collaboration with Dr. Luke (after "Right Round '', "Touch Me '' and "Who Dat Girl '') and second collaboration with Cirkut (after "Who Dat Girl ''). The three would next collaborate with Taio Cruz on the song "Hangover ''.
"Good Feeling '' peaked at number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Flo Rida 's sixth top - ten and fourth top - five single on the chart. The song became a top ten hit in 16 countries. This song is the second track on Now 42.
-- Flo Rida told MTV News about the collaboration.
"Good Feeling '' is the lead single from his album Wild Ones. The track was written by Flo Rida, Dr. Luke, Cirkut, Breyan Issac, Arash Pournouri, Avicii, Etta James, Leroy Kirkland and Pearl Woods, while production was helmed by Dr. Luke and Cirkut. Dr. Luke has previously produced Flo Rida 's songs "Right Round '', "Touch Me '' and "Who Dat Girl ''; Cirkut has previously teamed with Flo Rida on the latter song as well. "Good Feeling '' is written in the key of D ♭ minor and features acoustic - driven guitars, computerized beats and charging keyboards over a prominent sample from Avicii 's song "Levels '', which in turn samples Etta James 's 1962 gospel - tinged hit "Something 's Got a Hold on Me. ''
The first use of the Etta James vocal sample in a popular track was by Pretty Lights in the song "Finally Moving '' in 2006, with a remix surfacing in 2008.
The song has received mixed to positive reviews from music critics. Trent Fitzgerald of "Pop Crush '' gave the song four stars (out of possible five), writing that "the song is certainly destined to be a dance floor burner. '' The reviewer also said that "We have a good feeling that Flo Rida has a chart - topping hit on his hands with this club banger. It feels like an anthem for the fist - pumping crowd that idolizes MTV 's Guido - ville show ' The Jersey Shore. ' '' In a more favorable review, Katherine St Asaph of "Pop Dust '' wrote that the track "might be the most listenable Flo Rida track ever '' and that it 's "pretty damn good. ''
In a more negative review, Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey rated it two stars (out of possible five) and wrote that "the sampling of DJ Avicii 's ' Levels ' - which in turn samples Etta James 's ' Something 's Got a Hold on Me ' - makes this club - rap number sound about as authentic as Asda 's tinned spaghetti. '' Following James 's death on January 20, 2012, Flo Rida dedicated the song in her memory.
"Good Feeling '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 82 in its first week of release, and peaked at No. 3 in its 16th week on the Hot 100 in January 2012. It reached 3 million in sales by April 2012, and has sold over 4 million in the U.S. as of March 2014.
In the UK, "Good Feeling '' reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart in January 2012 eight weeks after release. It was his third No. 1 in the UK with sales of 51,000 that week. The song has sold 710,000 copies in the UK as of December 2012.
A lyric video was uploaded to Flo Rida 's YouTube channel on August 29, 2011. He shot the music video on September 27, 2011, and it was then later officially released to YouTube on October 21, 2011.
The music video for "Good Feeling '' follows Flo Rida on a tour around Europe. A lot of his exercise regime can be seen in detail. American rap artist Snoop Dogg can be seen in this video shaking hands with Flo Rida during a Marseilles show.
It also shows Flo Rida holding an Apple iPad in front of his face. He also rides a ' Tron Bike ', created by Parker Brothers
The song was featured in an advert for British travel company First Choice in late 2011 promoting all inclusive holidays. The song was used as a promotional song for the Australian television station Channel Ten for their revival of Young Talent Time, and was also used as a background for the title sequence and credits for the second series of BBC Three 's Junior Doctors: Your Life in Their Hands. The song was used in a 2011 Express Holiday Collection commercial. A mashup with The Cult 's "She Sells Sanctuary '' was featured in Budweiser 's "Eternal Optimism '' ad that aired during Super Bowl XLVI. This song is used in Nickelodeon South East Asia 's and Nickelodeon Philippines 's commercial for the Good Friday special. The same sampling used in "Levels '' by Avicii and "Die Young '' by Kesha is used in the first trailer for Wreck - It Ralph and in the teaser trailer for Ralph Breaks the Internet: Wreck - It Ralph 2. The song is also featured in the video game Just Dance 4.
The song is also used in Buick and Royal Caribbean commercials. A part of the song was also present in the 2012 movie Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days, but sped up.
The song is present in the pilot episode of iZombie.
It was also used in the official trailer for the 2017 comedy Father Figures.
For the 2011 -- 12 and 2012 -- 13 seasons, "Good Feeling '' was the unofficial victory song of the National Hockey League (NHL) 's New York Rangers. The song was played after every Rangers home win at Madison Square Garden until it was replaced with "Wake Me Up '', also by the song 's producer, for the 2013 -- 14 season. The song can also be heard in the second episode of HBO 's 24 / 7, Road to the 2012 Winter Classic following a scene of the Rangers last second win against the Phoenix Coyotes on December 17, 2011.
"Good Feeling '' was played to introduce the Super Bowl XLVI champion New York Giants during a celebration at the state 's City Hall. Following this, each player received a key to New York City by Mayor Michael Bloomberg.
Flo Rida performed this song at the 2012 NBA All - Star Game on February 26.
The WWE used this song as the official theme song to WWE Survivor Series 2011 and it was one of two Flo Rida songs that were used as one of the official theme songs to WrestleMania XXVIII with the other being "Wild Ones ''. Flo Rida also performed "Good Feeling '' along with "Wild Ones '' live at WrestleMania XXVIII prior to The Rock entrance for his "Once In A Lifetime '' match against John Cena.
The song was also used at Arthur Ashe Court during the 2012 US Open in Flushing, Queens, New York as a warm - up song.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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is there a difference between saline and lactated ringer's | Ringer 's lactate solution - wikipedia
Ringer 's lactate solution (RL), also known as sodium lactate solution and Hartmann 's solution, is a mixture of sodium chloride, sodium lactate, potassium chloride, and calcium chloride in water. It is used for replacing fluids and electrolytes in those who have low blood volume or low blood pressure. It may also be used to treat metabolic acidosis in cases other than those caused by lactic acidosis and to wash the eye following a chemical burn. It is given by injection into a vein or applied to the affected area.
Side effects may include allergic reactions, high blood potassium, volume overload, and high blood calcium. It may not be suitable for mixing with certain medications and some recommend against use in the same infusion as a blood transfusion. Ringer 's lactate solution has a lower rate of acidosis as compared with normal saline. Use is generally safe in pregnancy and breastfeeding. Ringer 's lactate solution is in the crystalloid family of medication. It is the same tonicity as blood.
Ringer 's solution was invented in the 1880s with lactate being added in the 1930s. It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Lactated Ringer 's is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 0.60 to 2.30 USD per liter. For people with poor liver function, Ringer 's acetate may be a better alternative with the lactate replaced by acetate. In Scandinavia Ringer 's acetate is typically used.
Ringer 's lactate solution is very often used for fluid resuscitation after a blood loss due to trauma, surgery, or a burn injury. Ringer 's lactate solution is used because the by - products of lactate metabolism in the liver counteract acidosis, which is a chemical imbalance that occurs with acute fluid loss or renal failure.
The IV dose of Ringer 's lactate solution is usually calculated by estimated fluid loss and presumed fluid deficit. For fluid resuscitation the usual rate of administration is 20 to 30 ml / kg body weight / hour. RL is not suitable for maintenance therapy (i.e., maintenance fluids) because the sodium content (130 mEq / L) is considered too low, particularly for children, and the potassium content (4 mEq / L) is too low, in view of electrolyte daily requirement. Moreover, since the lactate is converted into bicarbonate, longterm use will cause patients to become alkalotic. Ringer 's lactate and other crystalloids are also used as vehicles for the IV delivery of drugs.
In a large - volume resuscitation over several hours, LRS maintains a more stable blood pH than normal saline.
One liter of Ringer 's lactate solution contains:
Ringer 's lactate has an osmolarity of 273 mOsm / L. The lactate is metabolized into bicarbonate by the liver, which can help correct metabolic acidosis. Ringer 's lactate solution alkalinizes via its consumption in the citric acid cycle, the generation of a molecule of carbon dioxide which is then excreted by the lungs. They increase the strong ion difference in solution, leading to proton consumption and an overall alkalinizing effect.
The solution is formulated to have concentrations of potassium and calcium that are similar to the ionized concentrations found in normal blood plasma. To maintain electrical neutrality, the solution has a lower level of sodium than that found in blood plasma or normal saline.
Generally, the sodium, chloride, potassium and lactate come from NaCl (sodium chloride), NaC H O (sodium lactate), CaCl (calcium chloride), and KCl (potassium chloride).
There are slight variations for the composition for Ringer 's as supplied by different manufacturers. As such, the term Ringer 's lactate should not be equated with one precise formulation.
Although its pH is 6.5, it is an alkalizing solution.
Ringer 's saline solution was invented in the early 1880s by Sydney Ringer, a British physician and physiologist. Ringer was studying the beating of an isolated frog heart outside of the body. He hoped to identify the substances in blood that would allow the isolated heart to beat normally for a time. The use of Ringer 's original solution of inorganic salts slowly became more popular. In the 1930s, the original solution was further modified by American pediatrician Alexis Hartmann for the purpose of treating acidosis. Hartmann added lactate, which mitigates changes in pH by acting as a buffer for acid. Thus the solution became known as "Ringer 's lactate solution '' or "Hartmann 's solution ''.
Ringer 's solution technically refers only to the saline component, without lactate. Some countries instead use a Ringer 's acetate solution or Ringer - acetate, which has similar properties and the added benefit of not deranging the blood - lactate level. This may be helpful when analyzing blood - lactate for signs of anaerobic metabolism (e.g. present with septic shock, hypovolemic shock).
It is used for the treatment or palliative care of chronic renal failure in small animals. The solution can be administered both by IV and subcutaneously. Administering the fluids subcutaneously allows the solution to be readily given to the animal by a trained layperson, as it is not required that a vein be located. The solution is slowly absorbed from beneath the skin into the bloodstream of the animal.
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what is the maximum allowable lower explosive level (lel) | Flammability limit - wikipedia
Mixtures of dispersed combustible materials (such as gaseous or vaporised fuels, and some dusts) and air will burn only if the fuel concentration lies within well - defined lower and upper bounds determined experimentally, referred to as flammability limits or explosive limits. Combustion can range in violence from deflagration through detonation.
Limits vary with temperature and pressure, but are normally expressed in terms of volume percentage at 25 ° C and atmospheric pressure. These limits are relevant both to producing and optimising explosion or combustion, as in an engine, or to preventing it, as in uncontrolled explosions of build - ups of combustible gas or dust. Attaining the best combustible or explosive mixture of a fuel and air (the stoichiometric proportion) is important in internal combustion engines such as gasoline or diesel engines.
The standard reference work is that by Zabetakis using an apparatus developed by the United States Bureau of Mines.
Combustion can vary in degree of violence. A deflagration is a propagation of a combustion zone at a velocity less than the speed of sound in the unreacted medium. A detonation is a propagation of a combustion zone at a velocity greater than the speed of sound in the unreacted medium. An explosion is the bursting or rupture of an enclosure or container due to the development of internal pressure from a deflagration or detonation as defined in NFPA 69.
Lower flammability limit (LFL): The lowest concentration (percentage) of a gas or a vapor in air capable of producing a flash of fire in presence of an ignition source (arc, flame, heat). The term is considered by many safety professionals to be the same as the lower explosive level (LEL). At a concentration in air lower than the LFL, gas mixtures are "too lean '' to burn. Methane gas has an LFL of 5.0 %. If the atmosphere has less than 5.0 % methane, an explosion can not occur even if a source of ignition is present.
Percentage reading on combustible air monitors should not be confused with the LFL concentrations. Explosimeters designed and calibrated to a specific gas may show the relative concentration of the atmosphere to the LFL -- the LFL being 100 %. A 5 % displayed LFL reading for methane, for example, would be equivalent to 5 % multiplied by 5.0 %, or approximately 0.25 % methane by volume at 20 degrees C. Control of the explosion hazard is usually achieved by sufficient natural or mechanical ventilation, to limit the concentration of flammable gases or vapors to a maximum level of 25 % of their lower explosive or flammable limit.
Upper flammability limit (UFL): Highest concentration (percentage) of a gas or a vapor in air capable of producing a flash of fire in presence of an ignition source (arc, flame, heat). Concentrations higher than UFL or UEL are "too rich '' to burn. Operating above the UFL is usually avoided for safety because air leaking in can bring the mixture into combustibility range.
Flammability limits of mixtures of several combustible gases can be calculated using Le Chatelier 's mixing rule for combustible volume fractions x i (\ displaystyle x_ (i)):
and similar for UFL.
Temperature, pressure, and the concentration of the oxidizer also influences flammability limits. Higher temperature or pressure, as well as higher concentration of the oxidizer (primarily oxygen in air), results in lower LFL and higher UFL, hence the gas mixture will be easier to explode. The effect of pressure is very small at pressures below 10 millibar and difficult to predict, since it has only been studied in internal combustion engines with a turbocharger.
Usually atmospheric air supplies the oxygen for combustion, and limits assume the normal concentration of oxygen in air. Oxygen - enriched atmospheres enhance combustion, lowering the LFL and increasing the UFL, and vice versa; an atmosphere devoid of an oxidizer is neither flammable nor explosive for any fuel concentration. Significantly increasing the fraction of inert gases in an air mixture, at the expense of oxygen, increases the LFL and decreases the UFL.
Controlling gas and vapor concentrations outside the flammable limits is a major consideration in occupational safety and health. Methods used to control the concentration of a potentially explosive gas or vapor include use of sweep gas, an unreactive gas such as nitrogen or argon to dilute the explosive gas before coming in contact with air. Use of scrubbers or adsorption resins to remove explosive gases before release are also common. Gases can also be maintained safely at concentrations above the UEL, although a breach in the storage container can lead to explosive conditions or intense fires.
Dusts also have upper and lower explosion limits, though the upper limits are hard to measure and of little practical importance. Lower flammability limits for many organic materials are in the range of 10 -- 50 g / m3, which is much higher than the limits set for health reasons, as is the case for the LEL of many gases and vapours. Dust clouds of this concentration are hard to see through for more than a short distance, and normally only exist inside process equipment.
Flammability limits also depend on the particle size of the dust involved, and are not intrinsic properties of the material. In addition, a concentration above the LEL can be created suddenly from settled dust accumulations, so management by routine monitoring, as is done with gases and vapours, is of no value. The preferred method of managing combustible dust is by preventing accumulations of settled dust through process enclosure, ventilation, and surface cleaning. However, lower flammability limits may be relevant to plant design.
Situations caused by evaporation of flammable liquids into the air - filled void volume of a container may be limited by flexible container volume or by using an immicsible fluid to fill the void volume. Hydraulic tankers use displacement of water when filling a tank with petroleum.
The flammable / explosive limits of some gases and vapors are given below. Concentrations are given in percent by volume of air.
by volume of air
by volume of air
expressed at percent by volume in air (Note that for many chemicals it takes the least amount of ignition energy halfway between the LEL and UEL.)
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what is the biggest volcano in the us | Yellowstone caldera - wikipedia
The Yellowstone Caldera is a volcanic caldera and supervolcano in Yellowstone National Park in the Western United States, sometimes referred to as the Yellowstone Supervolcano. The caldera and most of the park are located in the northwest corner of Wyoming. The major features of the caldera measure about 34 by 45 miles (55 by 72 km).
The caldera formed during the last of three supereruptions over the past 2.1 million years: the Huckleberry Ridge eruption 2.1 million years ago (which created the Island Park Caldera and the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff); the Mesa Falls eruption 1.3 million years ago (which created the Henry 's Fork Caldera and the Mesa Falls Tuff); and the Lava Creek eruption approximately 630,000 years ago (which created the Yellowstone Caldera and the Lava Creek Tuff).
Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent, with calderas that were created during large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 630,000 years ago. The calderas lie over a hotspot where light, hot, magma (molten rock) from the mantle rises toward the surface. While the Yellowstone hotspot is now under the Yellowstone Plateau, it did help to create the eastern Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) through a series of huge volcanic eruptions. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east - northeast direction, but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than terrain and remains stationary while the North American Plate moves west - southwest over it.
Over the past 18 million years or so, this hotspot has generated a succession of violent eruptions and less violent floods of basaltic lava. Together these eruptions have helped create the eastern part of the Snake River Plain from a once - mountainous region. At least a dozen of these eruptions were so massive that they are classified as supereruptions. Volcanic eruptions sometimes empty their stores of magma so swiftly that the overlying land collapses into the emptied magma chamber, forming a geographic depression called a caldera.
The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near McDermitt, Nevada -- Oregon, although there are volcaniclastic piles and arcuate faults that define caldera complexes more than 60 km (37 mi) in diameter in the Carmacks Group of southwest - central Yukon, Canada, which are interpreted to have formed 70 million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot. Progressively younger caldera remnants, most grouped in several overlapping volcanic fields, extend from the Nevada -- Oregon border through the eastern Snake River Plain and terminate in the Yellowstone Plateau. One such caldera, the Bruneau - Jarbidge caldera in southern Idaho, was formed between 10 and 12 million years ago, and the event dropped ash to a depth of one foot (30 cm) 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away in northeastern Nebraska and killed large herds of rhinoceros, camel, and other animals at Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park. The United States Geological Survey ("USGS '') estimates there are one or two major caldera - forming eruptions and 100 or so lava extruding eruptions per million years, and "several to many '' steam eruptions per century.
The loosely defined term "supervolcano '' has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field which produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating West Thumb Lake 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 630,000 years ago, forming the Island Park Caldera, the Henry 's Fork Caldera, and Yellowstone calderas, respectively. The Island Park Caldera supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, was the largest, and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (~ 630,000 years ago) and produced the Lava Creek Tuff. The Henry 's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller Mesa Falls Tuff, but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain - Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today.
Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less - violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption. The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well: an explosion 13,800 years ago left a 5 km (3.1 mi) diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera). Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous geothermal vents scattered throughout the region, including the famous Old Faithful Geyser, plus recorded ground - swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.
The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great cove of magma located below the caldera 's surface. The magma in this cove contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure under which the magma is contained. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.
According to analysis of earthquake data in 2013, the magma chamber is 80 km (50 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide. It also has 4,000 km (960 cu mi) underground volume, of which 6 -- 8 % is filled with molten rock. This is about 2.5 times bigger than scientists had previously imagined it to be; however, scientists believe that the proportion of molten rock in the chamber is much too low to allow another supereruption.
The source of the Yellowstone hotspot is controversial. Some geoscientists hypothesize that the Yellowstone hotspot is the effect of an interaction between local conditions in the lithosphere and upper mantle convection. Others suggest an origin in the deep mantle (mantle plume). Part of the controversy is the relatively sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record. Additionally, the Columbia Basalt flows appeared at the same approximate time in the same place, causing speculation about their common origin. As the Yellowstone hotspot traveled to the east and north, the Columbia disturbance moved northward and eventually subsided.
Volcanic and tectonic actions in the region cause between 1,000 and 2,000 measurable earthquakes annually. Most are relatively minor, measuring a magnitude of 3 or weaker. Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an earthquake swarm. In 1985, more than 3,000 earthquakes were measured over a period of several months. More than 70 smaller swarms were detected between 1983 and 2008. The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or hydrothermal fluids.
In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 quakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven - day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9. The most recent swarm started in January 2010, after the Haiti earthquake and before the Chile earthquake. With 1,620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010, and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second - largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 that occurred on January 21, 2010. This swarm reached the background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6: 34 AM MST, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.
The last full - scale eruption of the Yellowstone Supervolcano, the Lava Creek eruption which happened approximately 640,000 years ago, ejected approximately 240 cubic miles (1,000 km) of rock, dust and volcanic ash into the sky.
Geologists are closely monitoring the rise and fall of the Yellowstone Plateau, which has been rising as fast as 0.6 inches (1.5 cm) per year, as an indication of changes in magma chamber pressure.
The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008 -- almost 3 inches (7.6 cm) each year -- was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923. From 2004 to 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as 8 inches (20 cm) at the White Lake GPS station. By the end of 2009, the uplift had slowed significantly and appeared to have stopped. In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly '' and that uplift continues but at a slower pace. The U.S. Geological Survey, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable. '' This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought ''. The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating,
Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a ' supereruption ' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not ' overdue ' for a supereruption.
Other media reports were more hyperbolic in their coverage.
A study published in GSA Today, the monthly news and science magazine of the Geological Society of America, identified three fault zones on which future eruptions are most likely to be centered. Two of those areas are associated with lava flows aged 174,000 -- 70,000 years, and the third is a focus of present - day seismicity.
Studies and analysis may indicate that the greater hazard comes from hydrothermal activity which occurs independently of volcanic activity. Over 20 large craters have been produced in the past 14,000 years, resulting in such features as Mary Bay, Turbid Lake, and Indian Pond which was created in an eruption about 1300 BC.
In a 2003 report, USGS researchers proposed that an earthquake may have displaced more than 77 million cubic feet (2,200,000 m) (576,000,000 US gallons) of water in Yellowstone Lake, creating colossal waves that unsealed a capped geothermal system and led to the hydrothermal explosion that formed Mary Bay.
Further research shows that very distant earthquakes reach and have effects upon the activities at Yellowstone, such as the 1992 7.3 magnitude Landers earthquake in California 's Mojave Desert that triggered a swarm of quakes from more than 800 miles (1,300 km) away, and the 2002 7.9 magnitude Denali fault earthquake 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away in Alaska that altered the activity of many geysers and hot springs for several months afterward.
In 2016, the United States Geological Survey announced plans to map the subterranean systems responsible for feeding the area 's hydrothermal activity. According to the researchers, these maps could help predict when another supereruption occurs.
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can you suggest one application of sound waves in oceanography | Acoustical oceanography - wikipedia
Acoustical oceanography is the use of underwater sound to study the sea, its boundaries and its contents.
The earliest efforts at bathymetry, or study of the contours of the ocean 's floor, were made by the ancient Greeks in the Mediterranean. They made a depth sounding by lowering a rope with a stone tied to the end over the side of a ship, until it hit bottom. The process was very time consuming, and not always accurate.
Interest in developing echo ranging systems began in earnest following the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912. By sending a sound wave ahead of a ship, the theory went, a return echo bouncing off the submerged portion of an iceberg should give early warning of collisions. By directing the same type of beam downwards, the depth to the bottom of the ocean could be calculated.
The first practical deep - ocean echo sounder was invented by Harvey C. Hayes, a U.S. Navy physicist. For the first time, it was possible to create a quasi-continuous profile of the ocean floor along the course of a ship. The first such profile was made by Hayes on board the U.S.S. Stewart, a Navy destroyer that sailed from Newport to Gibraltar between June 22 and 29, 1922. During that week, 900 deep - ocean soundings were made.
Using a refined echo sounder, the German survey ship Meteor made several passes across the South Atlantic from the equator to Antarctica between 1925 and 1927, taking soundings every 5 to 20 miles. Their work created the first detailed map of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It showed that the Ridge was a rugged mountain range, and not the smooth plateau that some scientists had envisioned. Since that time, both naval and research vessels have operated echo sounders almost continuously while at sea.
Important contributions to acoustical oceanography have been made by:
The earliest and most widespread use of sound and sonar technology to study the properties of the sea is the use of an rainbow echo sounder to measure water depth. Sounders were the devices used that mapped the many miles of the Santa Barbara Harbor ocean floor until 1993.
Fathometers measure the depth of the waters. It works by electronically sending sounds from ships, therefore also receiving the sound waves that bounces back from the bottom of the ocean. A paper chart moves through the fathometer and is calibrated to record the depth.
As technology advances, the development of high resolution sonars in the second half of the 20th century made it possible to not just detect underwater objects but to classify them and even image them. Electronic sensors are now attached to ROVs since nowadays, ships or robot submarines have Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs). There are cameras attached to these devices giving out accurate images. The oceanographers are able to get a clear and precise quality of pictures. The ' pictures ' can also be sent from sonars by having sound reflected off ocean surroundings. Oftentimes sound waves reflect off animals, giving information which can be documented into deeper animal behaviour studies.
See Clay and Medwin.
See Clay and Medwin.
Applications of acoustical oceanography include:
The study of marine life, from microplankton to the blue whale, uses bioacoustics.
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what are the highest and lowest elevations in the united states | List of U.S. States and territories by elevation - wikipedia
The elevation of U.S. states and territories may be described in several ways. These include:
The following list is a comparison of elevation absolutes in the United States. Data include interval measures of highest and lowest elevation for all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories.
Which state is "highest '' and "lowest '' is determined by the definition of "high '' and "low ''. For instance, Alaska could be regarded as the highest state because Denali, at 20,310 feet (6,190.5 m), is the highest point in the United States. However, Colorado, with the highest mean elevation of any state as well as the highest low point, could also be considered a candidate for "highest state ''. Determining which state is "lowest '' is equally problematic. California contains the Badwater Basin in Death Valley, at 279 feet (85 m) below sea level, the lowest point in the United States; while Florida has the lowest high point, and Delaware has the lowest mean elevation. Florida is also the flattest state, with the smallest difference between its highest and lowest points.
The list of highest points in each state is important to the sport of highpointing, where enthusiasts attempt to visit the highest point in each of the contiguous 48 states, or in all 50 states, or in all 50 states plus the District of Columbia and the territories. As of 2006, 155 people had reached all fifty state highpoints. Roughly 200 -- 300 people attend the Highpointers Club convention each year.
All elevations in the table below have been adjusted to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988. The mean elevation for each state is accurate to the nearest 100 ft (30 m).
Denali is the highest summit of the State of Alaska, the United States, and all of North America.
Mount Whitney is the highest summit of the Sierra Nevada, the State of California, and the "Lower 48 '' contiguous United States.
Mount Elbert is the highest summit of the Rocky Mountains and the State of Colorado.
Mount Rainier is the highest summit of the Cascade Range and the State of Washington
Gannett Peak is the highest summit of the Wind River Range and the State of Wyoming.
Mauna Kea is the highest summit the State of Hawai ʻi and the entire Pacific Ocean.
Kings Peak is the highest summit of the Uinta Range and the State of Utah.
Wheeler Peak in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains is the highest summit of the State of New Mexico.
Granite Peak is the highest summit of the Beartooth Range and the State of Montana.
Borah Peak is the highest summit of the Lost River Range and the State of Idaho.
Black Elk Peak is the highest summit of the Black Hills and the State of South Dakota.
Mount Mitchell is the highest summit of the Appalachian Mountains and the State of North Carolina.
Mount Washington is the highest summit of the White Mountains and the State of New Hampshire.
Mount Katahdin is the highest summit of the State of Maine
Lake Michigan is the lowest area of the State of Wisconsin.
Britton Hill in the State of Florida is the lowest state high point in the United States.
Lake Champlain is the lowest area of the State of Vermont.
The Badwater Basin in Death Valley is the lowest area of the State of California, the United States, and all of North America.
Cerro de Punta, the highest point in Puerto Rico, seen from Ponce (highest point in U.S. outside the 50 states)
Agrihan is the highest point in the Northern Mariana Islands
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night vision devices use which type of waves | Night vision - wikipedia
Night vision is the ability to see in low light conditions. Whether by biological or technological means, night vision is made possible by a combination of two approaches: sufficient spectral range, and sufficient intensity range. Humans have poor night vision compared to many animals, in part because the human eye lacks a tapetum lucidum.
Night - useful spectral range techniques can sense radiation that is invisible to a human observer. Human vision is confined to a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum called visible light. Enhanced spectral range allows the viewer to take advantage of non-visible sources of electromagnetic radiation (such as near - infrared or ultraviolet radiation). Some animals such as the mantis shrimp can see using much more of the infrared and / or ultraviolet spectrum than humans.
Sufficient intensity range is simply the ability to see with very small quantities of light.
Many animals have better night vision than humans do, the result of one or more differences in the morphology and anatomy of their eyes. These include having a larger eyeball, a larger lens, a larger optical aperture (the pupils may expand to the physical limit of the eyelids), more rods than cones (or rods exclusively) in the retina, and a tapetum lucidum.
Enhanced intensity range is achieved via technological means through the use of an image intensifier, gain multiplication CCD, or other very low - noise and high - sensitivity array of photodetectors.
All photoreceptor cells in the vertebrate eye contain molecules of photoreceptor protein which is a combination of the protein photopsin in color vision cells, rhodopsin in night vision cells, and retinal (a small photoreceptor molecule). Retinal undergoes an irreversible change in shape when it absorbs light; this change causes an alteration in the shape of the protein which surrounds the retinal, and that alteration then induces the physiological process which results in vision.
The retinal must diffuse from the vision cell, out of the eye, and circulate via the blood to the liver where it is regenerated. In bright light conditions, most of the retinal is not in the photoreceptors, but is outside of the eye. It takes about 45 minutes of dark for all of the photoreceptor proteins to be recharged with active retinal, but most of the night vision adaptation occurs within the first five minutes in the dark. Adaptation results in maximum sensitivity to light. In dark conditions only the rod cells have enough sensitivity to respond and to trigger vision.
Rhodopsin in the human rods is insensitive to the longer red wavelengths, so traditionally many people use red light to help preserve night vision. Red light only slowly depletes the rhodopsin stores in the rods, and instead is viewed by the red sensitive cone cells.
Another theory posits that since stars typically emit light with shorter wavelengths, the light from stars will be in the blue - green color spectrum. Therefore, using red light to navigate would not desensitize the receptors used to detect star light.
Using red light for night vision is less effective for people with red -- green color blindness, due to their insensitivity to red light.
Many animals have a tissue layer called the tapetum lucidum in the back of the eye that reflects light back through the retina, increasing the amount of light available for it to capture, but reducing the sharpness of the focus of the image. This is found in many nocturnal animals and some deep sea animals, and is the cause of eyeshine. Humans, and monkeys, lack a tapetum lucidum.
Nocturnal mammals have rods with unique properties that make enhanced night vision possible. The nuclear pattern of their rods changes shortly after birth to become inverted. In contrast to conventional rods, inverted rods have heterochromatin in the center of their nuclei and euchromatin and other transcription factors along the border. In addition, the outer layer of cells in the retina (the outer nuclear layer) in nocturnal mammals is thick due to the millions of rods present to process the lower light intensities. The anatomy of this layer in nocturnal mammals is such that the rod nuclei, from individual cells, are physically stacked such that light will pass through eight to ten nuclei before reaching the photoreceptor portion of the cells. Rather than being scattered, the light is passed to each nucleus individually, by a strong lensing effect due to the nuclear inversion, passing out of the stack of nuclei, and into the stack of ten photorecepting outer segments. The net effect of this anatomical change is to multiply the light sensitivity of the retina by a factor of eight to ten with no loss of focus.
Night vision technologies can be broadly divided into three main categories: image intensification, active illumination and thermal imaging.
This magnifies the amount of received photons from various natural sources such as starlight or moonlight. Examples of such technologies include night glasses and low light cameras. In the military context, Image Intensifiers are often called "Low Light TV '' since the video signal is often transmitted to a display within a control center. LLLTV These are usually integrated into a sensor containing both visible and IR detectors and the streams are used independently or in fused mode, depending on the mission at hand 's requirements. (1)
The image intensifier is a vacuum - tube based device (photomultiplier tube) that can generate an image from a very small number of photons (such as the light from stars in the sky) so that a dimly lit scene can be viewed in real - time by the naked eye via visual output, or stored as data for later analysis. While many believe the light is "amplified, '' it is not. When light strikes a charged photocathode plate, electrons are emitted through a vacuum tube that strike the microchannel plate that cause the image screen to illuminate with a picture in the same pattern as the light that strikes the photocathode, and is on a frequency that the human eye can see. This is much like a CRT television, but instead of color guns the photocathode does the emitting.
The image is said to become "intensified '' because the output visible light is brighter than the incoming light, and this effect directly relates to the difference in passive and active night vision goggles. Currently, the most popular image intensifier is the drop - in ANVIS module, though many other models and sizes are available at the market. Recently, the US Navy announced intentions to procure a dual - color variant of the ANVIS for use in the cockpit of airborne platforms. (2)
Active illumination couples imaging intensification technology with an active source of illumination in the near infrared (NIR) or shortwave infrared (SWIR) band. Examples of such technologies include low light cameras.
Active infrared night - vision combines infrared illumination of spectral range 700 -- 1,000 nm (just below the visible spectrum of the human eye) with CCD cameras sensitive to this light. The resulting scene, which is apparently dark to a human observer, appears as a monochrome image on a normal display device. Because active infrared night - vision systems can incorporate illuminators that produce high levels of infrared light, the resulting images are typically higher resolution than other night - vision technologies. Active infrared night vision is now commonly found in commercial, residential and government security applications, where it enables effective night time imaging under low - light conditions. However, since active infrared light can be detected by night - vision goggles, there can be a risk of giving away position in tactical military operations.
Laser range gated imaging is another form of active night vision which utilizes a high powered pulsed light source for illumination and imaging. Range gating is a technique which controls the laser pulses in conjunction with the shutter speed of the camera 's detectors. Gated imaging technology can be divided into single shot, where the detector captures the image from a single light pulse, and multi-shot, where the detector integrates the light pulses from multiple shots to form an image. One of the key advantages of this technique is the ability to perform target recognition rather than mere detection, as is the case with thermal imaging.
Thermal imaging detects the temperature difference between the background and the foreground objects. Some organisms are able to sense a crude thermal image by means of special organs that function as bolometers. This allows thermal infrared sensing in snakes, which functions by detection of thermal radiation.
Thermal imaging cameras are excellent tools for night vision. They detect thermal radiation and do not need a source of illumination. They produce an image in the darkest of nights and can see through light fog, rain and smoke (to a certain extent). Thermal imaging cameras make small temperature differences visible. Thermal imaging cameras are widely used to complement new or existing security networks, and for night vision on aircraft, where they are commonly referred to as "FLIR '' (for "forward - looking infrared ''). When coupled with additional cameras (for example, a visible camera or SWIR) multispectral sensors are possible, which take advantage of the benefits of each detection band capabilities. Contrary to misconceptions portrayed in the media, thermal imagers can not ' see ' through solid objects (walls for example), nor can they see through glass or perspex as both these materials have their own thermal signature and are opaque to long wave infrared radiation.
See articles: Night vision device and Thermal imaging device
Before the introduction of image intensifiers, night glasses were the only method of night vision, and thus were widely utilized, especially at sea. Second World War era night glasses usually had a lens diameter of 56 mm or more with magnification of seven or eight. Major drawbacks of night glasses are their large size and weight.
A night vision device (NVD) is a device comprising an image intensifier tube in a rigid casing, commonly used by military forces. Lately, night vision technology has become more widely available for civilian use. For example, enhanced vision systems (EVS) have become available for aircraft to help pilots with situational awareness and avoid accidents. These systems are included in the latest avionics packages from manufacturers such as Cirrus and Cessna. The US Navy has begun procurement of a variant integrated into a helmet - mounted display, produced by Elbit Systems.
A specific type of NVD, the night vision goggle (NVG) is a night vision device with dual eyepieces. The device can utilize either one intensifier tube with the same image sent to both eyes, or a separate image intensifier tube for each eye. Night vision goggles combined with magnification lenses constitutes night vision binoculars. Other types include monocular night vision devices with only one eyepiece which may be mounted to firearms as night sights. NVG and EVS technologies are becoming more popular with helicopter operations to improve safety. The NTSB is considering EVS as recommended equipment for safety features.
Night glasses are single or binocular with a large diameter objective. Large lenses can gather and concentrate light, thus intensifying light with purely optical means and enabling the user to see better in the dark than with the naked eye alone. Often night glasses also have a fairly large exit pupil of 7 mm or more to let all gathered light into the user 's eye. However, many people can not take advantage of this because of the limited dilation of the human pupil. To overcome this, soldiers were sometimes issued atropine eye drops to dilate pupils.
Night vision systems can also be installed in vehicles. An automotive night vision system is used to improve a vehicle driver 's perception and seeing distance in darkness or poor weather. Such systems typically use infrared cameras, sometimes combined with active illumination techniques, to collect information that is then displayed to the driver. Such systems are currently offered as optional equipment on certain premium vehicles.
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who sings that song say something i'm giving up on you | Say Something (a Great Big World song) - wikipedia
"Say Something '' is a song by American indie pop duo A Great Big World from their debut album, Is There Anybody Out There? (2013). Written by the duo members -- Ian Axel and Chad King -- alongside Mike Campbell, the song was originally recorded by Axel for his solo album This Is the New Year (2011). It was later released as a single by the duo on September 3, 2013, by Epic Records. Following its usage on American reality TV show So You Think You Can Dance, the track gained attention from singer Christina Aguilera, who wanted to collaborate with A Great Big World on the song. Soon afterwards, a re-recorded version of "Say Something '' with Aguilera was released on November 4, 2013.
"Say Something '' is a slow - tempo indie pop piano ballad that talks about a breakup, where the lover is implored to make a statement that could potentially cause the singer to change their mind, with the singers expressing humility, sadness and regret. In the single version with Aguilera, she plays a ghost of the lover to whom the song is addressed as she traces the steps of the lead vocal. The song was praised by music critics for its powerful lyrics, the emotional composition and Aguilera 's vocal delivery. At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards, the song earned A Great Big World and Aguilera a Grammy Award for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance.
"Say Something '' did not sell significantly well until the version with Aguilera was available. It debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart after A Great Big World and Aguilera performed the song on The Voice. It eventually peaked at number four and has since sold over four million copies in the United States. It also topped the singles charts in Australia, Belgium, and Canada. A music video was released on November 19, 2013, featuring the trio singing as people "act out the heartbreaking lyrics. '' To further promote "Say Something '', A Great Big World and Aguilera performed the track at the American Music Awards of 2013.
"Say Something '' was originally released on February 8, 2011 on band member Ian Axel 's solo album This Is the New Year with the song featuring harmonies by guest vocalist Jenny Owen Youngs, but the track went largely unnoticed until it received attention after being used on the TV series So You Think You Can Dance on season 10 's semi final episode contemporary dance routine by the eventual champion Amy Yakima. This sparked a chain reaction that eventually made its way to Christina Aguilera. "' Say Something ' was danced to on So You Think You Can Dance almost two months ago, and so many people responded to it, '' Axel tells Billboard. "In that whole process, someone on our team played it for someone on Christina 's team, and we got a call that Christina wanted to record it, and then, literally a week later, we were in L.A. recording it with her. '' The pair considers Aguilera as having "one of the top voices in the world, '' says Chad King, and re-recorded "Say Something '' with her in two hours. "We look at Christina as this icon who can say anything and make it sound amazing, '' says King.
About approaching the duo to re-record the track, Aguilera said, "Somebody sent me the song (...) and it 's just the most simplest song that does n't have to fit a formula to be heard and to be appreciated, so I just heard it and I 've never done anything like this before and I was just like, ' You know ', I just started to hear a harmony part over it and I was like, ' get in touch with these guys and see if they wan na get in the studio and sit behind the piano and just vibe together and see what happens... ' and we did, and they 're so humble, so sweet, so down to earth, and I 'm all about that and supporting that, and we came together so organically and it was fun. '' Aguilera also added, "It 's so quiet and still and steady and in a way pleading, '' she describes the song. "I 'm only taking on projects that feel good to me and represent, as always, a purpose of the here and now in my life. ''
"Say Something '' was written by Ian Axel, Chad King, and Mike Campbell while production was handled by Dan Romer. Sonically, the indie pop, piano ballad is underlined by a piano and string arrangement, which was performed by Los Angeles string players Mark Robertson, Andrew Duckles, and Vanessa Freebairn - Smith. The lyrics evoke the emotion felt when choosing to leave a failed relationship even though love still remains, imploring the lover to make a statement that could potentially convince the singer to salvage the relationship instead.
For Bill Lamb of About.com, the chorus "Say something, I 'm giving up on you '', "is brilliant. '' Lamb also explained the song, writing that, "instead of being filled with anger and desperation, it is a song expressing a powerful combination of humility, sadness and regret. '' The song was written at a time when both members were experiencing individual heartbreak. "Writing the song was part of the healing process, '' says Axel. "Whenever we perform it, it 's like revisiting the scar. It 's always a part of me, and I can always go there and feel it. '' Lewis Corner of Digital Spy noted that with its "stripped - down melody and emotive lyrics '', the song becomes the antithesis of the club - thumping blow - outs radio currently prefers. ''
"Say Something '' received universal acclaim from music critics, with significant acclaim going towards the emotional tone. Rick Florino of Artist Direct gave the song 5 out of 5 stars, calling it "Oscar - worthy '', with "a cinematic heft to the track that makes it utterly vivid and vibrant. '' Florino also praised Aguilera 's performance, calling it "one of her best ever, fortifying the hook and harmony masterfully. '' Lewis Corner of Digital Spy praised Aguilera for "reminding us why she always sounds infinitely better when heading up a ballad '', calling it "a beautifully simplistic ode to heartache that evidently connects. ''
Robert Copsey also of Digital Spy called it "one of (Aguilera 's) most understated outings in recent memory, and it 's all the better for it. '' Jon O'Brien of Yahoo! Music noted that the song features Aguilera 's "most restrained and indeed impressive vocal in years '', calling the song "as emotive as it is theatrical. '' Melinda Newman of HitFix praised Aguilera for "show (ing) admirable restraint vocally, beautifully pairing with Axel 's vocals. '' Sam Lansky of Idolator wrote that the song "was already pretty heartrending, but Aguilera 's vocals provide some lovely support and additional pathos; it 's a relief to hear that she enriches, rather than overwhelms, the track. '' Bradley Stern of MuuMuse praised the "slow, sad piano melody '', the "mournful strings, '' calling it "a haunting production -- made even better by the Stripped diva, proving once again that less is often more. '' Stern also praised Aguilera for showing a simple side of her voice, writing that she "does n't even have her own verse or chorus -- she resigns to delivering subtle, yet effective, backing vocals for the entirety of the re-recording. It 's only in the song 's final few moments that she allows that powerhouse pipes to blow in the background. And those whispers at the very end? ' Say something, I 'm giving up on you... ' Gulp. ''
-- The duo impressed with the success of the song.
The original version of the song had sold only 52,000 downloads before the version with Christina Aguilera was released, according to Nielsen SoundScan. "Say Something '' debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, following the impact of the performance on The Voice, as the song started at number - one on Digital Songs with 189,000 sold, with the remix featuring Aguilera accounting for 86 % of the song 's overall download sales in the chart 's tracking week. The song was also a success on the Canadian Hot 100, debuting at number 9 and peaking at number one.
After the performance on the AMAs, the song jumped to number 3 on the Digital Songs chart, with 197,000 copies. It also jumped from number 18 to number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming A Great Big World 's first top - ten single and Aguilera 's 11th top 10 and second in 2013 (with the other being "Feel This Moment '' at number eight), becoming the second time she achieved multiple top 10s in a single year, with the first being in 2000, when ' What a Girl Wants ' (number - one for two weeks), ' I Turn To You ' (number three) and ' Come On Over Baby (All I Want Is You) ' (number - one for four weeks), all from her self - titled debut album, reached the top tier. The song is also Aguilera 's first top 10 with lead billing since October 2008, when her single "Keeps Gettin ' Better '' debuted at its number seven peak.
"Say Something '' also became Epic 's first top - ten hit since 2008 with You Found Me by The Fray. "Say Something '' peaked at number 4 on the chart in the sixth week of release, with 39 million radio plays and sales of 233,000 copies for the week. The following week, the song sold 355,000 downloads and climbed to number 14 on Radio Songs, although it fell to number five. In February 2014, the song reached the Radio Songs top 10, becoming the band 's first top 10 and Aguilera 's ninth, marking her first Radio Songs top 10 in a lead role since "Beautiful '' in 2003. The song reached its 3 million sales mark in February 2014, and was certified triple platinum on March 5, 2014. In June of the same year, the single was certified 4x Platinum. As of December 2014, the song had sold about 4 million copies in the US. In May 2017 the single was certified 6 × platinum in the United States for sales in excess of 6 million units.
In Australia, "Say Something '' debuted at number 47 on the week of December 29, 2013. Later, it re-entered at number 45, on January 19, 2014. The song went to jump from number 50 to number 9, on the week of February 2, 2014, until it reached the top of the ARIA Charts on the week February 16, 2014. It became A Great Big World 's first number - one single and Aguilera 's third number - one single (the last being "Beautiful '' in 2003). The song became Aguilera 's 18th Top 10 single in Australia, her last entry was on the Pitbull song "Feel This Moment '' which made it to number six in March 2013. In New Zealand, the single debuted at number 18, on December 16, 2013, while on February 10, 2014, the song reached a peak of number two; Aguilera 's highest charting - single since her collaboration with Maroon 5 in "Moves Like Jagger '' (2011), and her 14th top - five single.
In Europe, the song managed to become a huge success. In Austria, the song peaked at number four on the Austrian Singles Chart, while in Norway, the song peaked at number eight on the Norwegian Singles Chart and in Sweden, "Say Something '' became a success, peaking at number four on the Swedish Singles Chart. In other countries, "Say Something '' was a moderate success, where in Spain, it peaked at number 24, in Switzerland, the song reached a peak of number 31 and in France, the song is currently at number 29, as of March 1, 2014. In the United Kingdom, "Say Something '' debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart, becoming Aguilera 's 24th Top 40 hit in Britain and A Great Big World 's debut there.
A music video, directed by Christopher Sims, was already shot on November 8, 2013, with Aguilera posting to her Twitter, Facebook and Instagram page a picture of her standing next to a piano, where the duo is playing the track. The music video, which was shot in Los Angeles, was released on November 19, 2013, exclusively on Entertainment Tonight, while VEVO premiered the video on November 20, 2013. The video features Aguilera in a minimalistic black dress and natural make - up, reminiscent of her "Beautiful '' days, according to MTV 's Natasha Chandel. In the video, the trio perform the ballad as people -- a child whose parents wo n't stop fighting, a young couple lying coldly side by side, an older man bidding his dying wife goodbye -- act out the heartbreaking lyrics.
The video received widespread acclaim from critics. For Jason Lipshut of Billboard Magazine, "Aguilera and AGBW 's Ian Axel look utterly sorrowful as they croon the break - up ballad together, with Axel carefully pounding away at the grand piano and Aguilera appearing on the verge of tears as the song reaches its climax. Meanwhile, various tear - inducing images accompany the majestic track, often in slow motion -- most strikingly, an older man climbing into a hospital bed with his peaceful female counterpart and emitting a silent shout. '' Peter Gicas of E! Online praised Aguilera 's emotion on the video, writing that she "serves up a certain subtleness to the clip, which is definitely appropriate given the tone of both the ballad and the video itself. '' Bradley Stern of MuuMuse agreed, writing that, "Armed with nothing else but a piano and an old bed frame by her side, the ' Lotus ' legend bares her soul and gives you pure Stripped - era vulnerability, conjuring the simple - yet - effective one - take video for ' The Voice Within. ' No over-the - top diva theatrics, no wigs -- just raw emotion and a genuinely powerful performance. ''
John Walker of MTV Buzzworthy called the video "equal parts tragically beautiful and beautifully tragic. Like, hand us a bucket, because we are ugly - crying from our eyes, noses, mouths, ears, and at least 17 other places where tear ducts biologically should n't be located. Mike Wass of Idolator also praised the video, writing that, "In keeping with the song 's soft and subtle tone, the visual is understated and classy. It centers around a bed and the universality of its occupants ' grief. Interspersed with those scenes is footage of the New York - based duo at the piano and Xtina looking utterly perfect in a sleek black dress. Grab a tissue and watch the emotional clip up top. '' Natasha Chandel of MTV praised "a rare moment, when Xtina breaks down on camera as the hook, ' Say something, I 'm giving up on you ' crescendos, exposing a tender side to the singer that we have n't seen since her album ' Stripped '.
On November 5, 2013, on the 14th episode from the fifth season of The Voice, Christina Aguilera (one of the competition 's coaches) performed "Say Something '' with A Great Big World. The performance consisted of a piano, some strings and a keyboard for instrumentation, while Aguilera "reining in her voice 's natural power '', according to Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz. Christina was wearing white t - shirt, jeans and a woolly hat. The performance was lauded by critics and other artists, such as OneRepublic, Christina Perri, Ingrid Michaelson, Cee Lo Green and Carson Daly. Caila Ball of Idolator wrote that, "She was legendary, obviously. '' Michelle Stark of Tampa Bay Times wrote the performance "gives us all of the goosebumps. '' British newspaper Daily Mail wrote that Christina "gave the competitors a master class in subtlety in her touching duet. '' Douglas Cobb of Las Vegas Guardian Express called it "a very emotional, low - key, cool performance. It was a very tender, touching song -- Christina did great, as usual, singing it. '' Bradley Stern of MuuMuse called the performance "perfect '', writing that, "Christina keeps it as stripped as the studio version, allowing her naturally beautiful vocals to sound a whole lot more vulnerable than usual. The result? One powerful, devastating performance -- you 'll be seeing your reflejo in the tears streaming down your face in no time. ''
A Great Big World and Aguilera also performed the song at the 2013 American Music Awards on November 24, 2013. With her hair in a braid and wearing a muted black dress, Aguilera sang an original verse midway through the performance, which included a string section and a fairly bare stage. With A Great Big World 's Chad King manning the keyboard, the group 's Ian Axel sat at the grand piano and stamped his feet furiously as ' Say Something ' approached its emotional climax, '' according to Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz. Lindsay Dreyer of Wetpaint wrote that "Taking her rightful place center stage in a floor - length black dress and braided updo, the 32 - year - old pop diva harmonized perfectly with the group 's lead singer Ian Axel, who worked the piano with passion and poise. Xtina 's rich yet breathy tone offered just the right amount of strength and vulnerability -- a side of Christina we have n't seen in a really long time. '' Dreyer finished the review stating, "If tonight 's AMA performance is any indication, Christina is on the brink of a major music comeback -- and we ca n't wait!. '' The band also performed the song at the 2013 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show on December 10, 2013. However, Aguilera did not perform the song with them as a duet, due to scheduling conflicts of The Voice. Aguilera also performed the song in Malaysia in a private concert without the band on March 28. The duo and Aguilera also performed the song during the New Orleans Jazz Festival. She gave a one - and - a-half - hour - long show and then invited the band to perform the song in front of a large crowd on May 2, 2014. The band (sans Aguilera) sang the song on the September 6 episode of Last Week Tonight in a duet with comedian John Oliver to mourn the loss of the Russian space geckos.
The song was performed live on the premiere episode of Late Night with Seth Meyers
American indie pop duo Alex & Sierra performed the song twice on third season of The X Factor (U.S.), where they were contestants and eventually won the show. During the sixth week, the duo performed the song for the first time, with Sierra on the piano and Alex on guitar. The performance was praised by the judges, with Kelly Rowland, one of them, feeling like she was watching an awards show performance. Catriona Wightman of Digital Spy called it "pretty simple, but showed how genuinely talented they are. '' The cover version of the song surpassed A Great Big World and Aguilera 's version on iTunes, climbing to number 1 the morning after they sang it onstage. Series creator and head judge Simon Cowell, who mentored the group, claimed that the duo success is proof that the show is still capable of turning small - town kids into bankable stars. The duo performed the song once again on the finale of the show, eventually winning the competition.
American progressive metal band Redemption includes their own cover version of the song on the vinyl version of their album The Art of Loss.
On January 19, 2014, The Voice of the Philippines coaches Sarah Geronimo and Bamboo performed their own rendition of the song on ABS - CBN 's Sunday variety show ASAP 19. Right after the performance, the hashtag ' SaySomethingAshBoo ' trended on Twitter.
Joe Brooks and Tammin Sursok released a pop rock version of the song on March 29, 2014, as a single. The song was released under Independent record label Fantastik Music and was distributed by TuneCore.
Jackie Evancho and Cheyenne Jackson performed the song on August 21, 2014 at Longwood Gardens, as part of the recording of the PBS special "Jackie Evancho: Awakening - Live in Concert '' supporting Evancho 's "Awakening '' album and tour.
Collabro, the winners of the 2014 edition of Britain 's Got Talent, performed the song at the Royal Variety Performance on 8 December 2014.
Polish singer Łukasz Tokarski covered the song in 2017.
KZ Tandingan was the fourth person to perform such song on Singer 2018 where she ranked fourth on Episode 7.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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when does new season of bondi rescue start | Bondi Rescue - Wikipedia
Bondi Rescue is an Australian factual television programme which is broadcast on Channel Ten. The programme, which has aired since 2006, follows the daily lives and routines of the Waverley Council professional lifeguards who patrol Bondi Beach.
Bondi Rescue was first broadcast in 2006. A spin - off, set in Bali, Indonesia, also briefly screened in 2008. Bondi Rescue is also broadcast internationally throughout 100 countries.
The show was created and produced by part - time lifeguard Ben Davies. It is narrated by Osher Günsberg.
The Bondi lifeguards perform around five thousand rescues over the summer period. They also deal with other incidents including lost children, shark scares, bluebottle stings, injuries, sexual deviants, drunk beach goers and thieves on the beach. Every once in a while, celebrities also make appearances on their shores. These have included actors / comedians David Hasselhoff and Kelly Slater (stars of the US lifeguards fiction show Baywatch), Hugh Grant, Zac Efron, Rowan Atkinson, Paris Hilton, Russell Crowe, entrepreneur Richard Branson, musician Snoop Dogg, Steve Irwin and daughter Bindi and the Indian Cricket Team. Bondi veterinarian Chris Brown repeatedly appeared on Bondi beach, meeting lifeguards, in his own show Bondi Vet.
Bondi also has its Annual Lifeguard Ironman Challenge, which tests the skills of each lifeguard with a one - kilometre run from Bondi to local beach Tamarama, then a one - kilometre swim to nearby Bronte Beach, followed by a two - kilometre board - paddle back to Bondi. The race is handicapped: the more accomplished swimmers and board - paddlers set off from Bondi later (up to twelve minutes, depending on how many competitors there are).
Footage for the show is shot during the preceding Australian summer (usually between November and February), with certain episodes reflecting incidents that have occurred during Christmas Day, New Year 's Day and Australia Day. Noteworthy incidents at nearby Tamarama and Bronte Beaches, which the lifeguards are also responsible for, are occasionally shown. Later seasons also featured footage of lifeguard trials and training exercises from the middle of the year. The training in the middle of the year is a trial to test the fitness, strength and ability of the lifeguards. It consists of an 800 - metre swim in under thirteen - and - a-half minutes in a swimming pool, then a 600 - metre swim surf and two 600 - metre runs on the sand at Bondi which should be completed in under 25 minutes. It is also a test for trainee lifeguards to show they are able and committed to the role of a lifeguard. If the competitors do not complete the tasks in the time limit, they are eliminated and do not advance to the next test.
Many rescue boards and jet skis have a camera attached for close - up footage. When deemed safe to do so, the cameraman accompanies the lifeguards out to sea and has even had to assist with rescue operations on a number of occasions.
The production company pays Waverley Council $139,000 per year and a percentage of profits to film the program, and the Council also holds "review rights '' to ensure content is acceptable to their practices.
Current lifeguards at Bondi beach
Cooper "Coops '' Wilson - Featured
A nine - part spin - off series, entitled Bondi Rescue: Bali and set in Bali, Indonesia, premiered on Ten on 10 September 2008. The spin - off followed two monthly delegations of the Bondi lifeguards (including Dean ' Deano ' Gladstone, Anthony ' Harries ' Carroll, Chris ' Chappo / Chips ' Chapman, Ryan ' Whippet ' Clark, Tom ' Egg ' Bunting, Matt ' Matty ' Dee, Aaron ' Azza ' and Kobi Graham and mission chief Terry ' Tezz ' McDermott) as they were assigned to a two - month stint at Kuta Beach, dealing with the more humid climate, a much larger beach, an exceptionally strong surf and the absence of the rescue equipment they had back home (even in ambulances), making it the world 's most deadly guarded beach: twelve fatalities in an average year. They join the hundred strong local life guards, supervised by popular singer Marcello Arayafaya, in an official international exchange program.
The spin - off failed to score ratings, and was cancelled after four episodes. However the whole series was aired and repeated overseas, notably in Flanders.
Bondi Rescue has proven to be very successful for Ten, averaging 1.31 million viewers during its third season. It won the Logie Awards Most Popular Factual Program in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012 and also a nomination for the Most Outstanding Factual Series at the 2010 and 2011 ceremonies. Its success also led to similar series such as the Seven Network 's Surf Patrol and Nine 's Deadly Surf being commissioned.
A game based on the show was developed for iPhone and iPad. In the game, the player is a lifeguard who must keep the swimmers between the flags and protect them from hazards.
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who did the dutch fight that led to their decline | Dutch revolt - wikipedia
The Dutch Revolt (1568 -- 1648) was the successful revolt of the northern, largely Protestant Seven Provinces of the Low Countries against the rule of the Roman Catholic King Philip II of Spain, hereditary ruler of the provinces. The southern provinces initially joined in the revolt but later submitted to Spain.
The religious "clash of cultures '' built up gradually but inexorably into outbursts of violence against the perceived repression of the Habsburg Crown. These tensions led to the formation of the independent Dutch Republic, whose first leader was William of Orange, followed by several of his descendants and relations. This revolt was one of the first successful secessions in Europe, and led to one of the first European republics of the modern era, the United Provinces.
King Philip was initially successful in suppressing the rebellion. In 1572, however, the rebels captured Brielle and the rebellion resurged. The northern provinces became independent, first in 1581 de facto, and in 1648 de jure. During the revolt, the United Provinces of the Netherlands, better known as the Dutch Republic, rapidly grew to become a world power through its merchant shipping and experienced a period of economic, scientific, and cultural growth. The Southern Netherlands (situated in modern - day Belgium, Luxembourg, northern France and southern Netherlands) remained under Spanish rule. The continuous heavy - handed rule by the Habsburgs in the south caused many of its financial, intellectual, and cultural elite to flee north, contributing to the success of the Dutch Republic. The Dutch imposed a rigid blockade on the southern provinces that prevented Baltic grain from relieving famine in the southern towns, especially from 1587 to 1589. By the end of the war in 1648, large areas of the Southern Netherlands had been lost to France, which had, under the guidance of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII of France, allied itself with the Dutch Republic in the 1630s against Spain.
The first phase of the conflict can be considered the Dutch War of Independence. The focus of the latter phase was to gain official recognition of the already de facto independence of the United Provinces. This phase coincided with the rise of the Dutch Republic as a major power and the founding of the Dutch Empire.
In a series of marriages and conquests, a succession of Dukes of Burgundy expanded their original territory by adding to it a series of fiefdoms, including the Seventeen Provinces. Although Burgundy itself had been lost to France in 1477, the Burgundian Netherlands were still intact when Charles V was born in Ghent in 1500. He was raised in the Netherlands and spoke fluent Dutch, French, Spanish, and some German. In 1506, he became lord of the Burgundian states, among which were the Netherlands. Subsequently, in 1516, he inherited several titles, including that of King of Spain, which had become a worldwide empire with the Spanish colonization of the Americas. In 1519, Charles became ruler of the Habsburg empire, and he gained the title Holy Roman Emperor in 1530. Although Friesland and Guelders offered prolonged resistance (under Grutte Pier and Charles of Egmond, respectively), virtually all of the Netherlands had been incorporated into the Habsburg domains by the early 1540s.
Flanders had long been a very wealthy region, coveted by French kings. The other regions of the Netherlands had also grown wealthy and entrepreneurial. Charles V 's empire had become a worldwide empire with large American and European territories. The latter were, however, distributed throughout Europe. Control and defense of these were hampered by the disparity of the territories and huge length of the empire 's borders. This large realm was almost continuously at war with its neighbors in its European heartlands, most notably against France in the Italian Wars and against the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean Sea. Further wars were fought against Protestant princes in Germany. The Dutch paid heavy taxes to fund these wars, but perceived them as unnecessary and sometimes downright harmful, because they were directed against their most important trading partners.
During the 16th century, Protestantism rapidly gained ground in northern Europe. Dutch Protestants, after initial repression, were tolerated by local authorities. By the 1560s, the Protestant community had become a significant influence in the Netherlands, although it clearly formed a minority then. In a society dependent on trade, freedom and tolerance were considered essential. Nevertheless, Charles V, and from 1555 his successor Philip II, felt it was their duty to defeat Protestantism, which was considered a heresy by the Catholic Church and a threat to the stability of the whole hierarchical political system. On the other hand, the intensely moralistic Dutch Protestants insisted their Biblical theology, sincere piety and humble lifestyle was morally superior to the luxurious habits and superficial religiosity of the ecclesiastical nobility. The harsh measures of suppression led to increasing grievances in the Netherlands, where the local governments had embarked on a course of peaceful coexistence. In the second half of the century, the situation escalated. Philip sent troops to crush the rebellion and make the Netherlands once more a Catholic region. Although failing in his attempts to introduce the Spanish Inquisition directly, the Inquisition of the Netherlands was nevertheless sufficiently harsh and arbitrary in nature to provoke fervent dislike.
Part of the shifting balance of power in the late Middle Ages meant that besides the local nobility, many of the Dutch administrators by now were not traditional aristocrats but instead stemmed from non-noble families that had risen in status over previous centuries. By the 15th century, Brussels had thus become the de facto capital of the Seventeen Provinces. Dating back to the Middle Ages, the districts of the Netherlands, represented by its nobility and the wealthy city - dwelling merchants, still had a large measure of autonomy in appointing its administrators. Charles V and Philip II set out to improve the management of the empire by increasing the authority of the central government in matters like law and taxes, a policy which caused suspicion both among the nobility and the merchant class. An example of this is the takeover of power in the city of Utrecht in 1528, when Charles V supplanted the council of guild masters governing the city by his own stadtholder, who took over worldly powers in the whole province of Utrecht from the archbishop of Utrecht. Charles ordered the construction of the heavily fortified castle of Vredenburg for defence against the Duchy of Gelre and to control the citizens of Utrecht.
Under the governorship of Mary of Hungary (1531 -- 1555), traditional power had for a large part been taken away both from the stadtholders of the provinces and from the high noblemen, who had been replaced by professional jurists in the Council of State.
In 1556 Charles passed on his throne to his son Philip II of Spain. Charles, despite his harsh actions, had been seen as a ruler empathetic to the needs of the Netherlands. Philip, on the other hand, was raised in Spain and spoke neither Dutch nor French. During Philip 's reign, tensions flared in the Netherlands over heavy taxation, suppression of Protestantism, and centralization efforts. The growing conflict would reach a boiling point and lead ultimately to the war of independence.
In an effort to build a stable and trustworthy government of the Netherlands, Philip appointed his half - sister Margaret of Parma as governor. He continued the policy of his father of appointing members of the high nobility of the Netherlands to the Raad van State (Council of State), the governing body of the seventeen provinces that advised the governor. He made his confidant Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle head of the Council. However, in 1558 the States of the provinces and the States - General of the Netherlands already started to contradict Philip 's wishes by objecting to his tax proposals. They also demanded, with eventual success, the withdrawal of Spanish troops, which had been left by Philip to guard the Southern Netherlands ' borders with France, but which they saw as a threat to their own independence (1559 -- 1561). Subsequent reforms met with much opposition, which was mainly directed at Granvelle. Petitions to King Philip by the high nobility went unanswered. Some of the most influential nobles, including Lamoral, Count of Egmont, Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, and William the Silent, withdrew from the Council of State until Philip recalled Granvelle.
In late 1564, the nobles had noticed the growing power of the reformation and urged Philip to come up with realistic measures to prevent violence. Philip answered that sterner measures were the only answer. Subsequently Egmont, Horne and Orange withdrew once more from the Council, and Bergen and Meghem resigned their Stadholdership. During the same period, the religious protests were increasing in spite of increased oppression. In 1566, a league of about 400 members of the nobility presented a petition to the governor Margaret of Parma to suspend persecution until the rest had returned. One of Margaret 's courtiers, Count Berlaymont, called the presentation of this petition an act of "beggars '' (French "gueux ''), a name then taken up by the petitioners themselves (they called themselves the Geuzen). The petition was sent on to Philip for a final verdict.
The atmosphere in the Netherlands was tense due to the rebellion, preaching of Calvinist leaders, hunger after the bad harvest of 1565, and economic difficulties due to the Northern Seven Years ' War. In early August 1566, a monastery church at Steenvoorde in Flanders (now in Northern France) was sacked by a mob led by the preacher Sebastian Matte. This incident was followed by similar riots elsewhere in Flanders, and before long the Netherlands had become the scene of the Beeldenstorm, a riotous iconoclastic movement by Calvinists, who stormed churches and other religious buildings to desecrate and destroy church art and all kinds of decorative fittings over most of the country. The number of actual image - breakers appears to have been relatively small, and the exact backgrounds of the movement are debated, but in general local authorities did not rein in the vandalism. The actions of the iconoclasts drove the nobility into two camps, with Orange and other grandees opposing the movement and others, notably Henry of Brederode, supporting it. Even before he answered the petition by the nobles, Philip had lost control in the troublesome Netherlands. He saw no other option than to send an army to suppress the rebellion. On 22 August 1567, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, marched into Brussels at the head of 10,000 troops.
Alba took harsh measures and rapidly established a special court (Raad van Beroerten or Council of Troubles) to judge anyone who opposed the King. Alba considered himself the direct representative of Philip in the Netherlands and frequently bypassed Margaret of Parma, the king 's half - sister who had been appointed governor of the Netherlands, and made use of her to lure back some of the fugitive nobles, notably the counts of Egmont and Horne, causing her to resign office in September 1567. Egmont and Horne were arrested for high treason, condemned, and a year later beheaded on the Grand Place in Brussels. Egmont and Horne had been Catholic nobles, loyal to the King of Spain until their deaths. The reason for their execution was that Alba considered they had been treasonous to the king in their tolerance to Protestantism. Their executions, ordered by a Spanish noble, provoked outrage. More than one thousand people were executed in the following months. The large number of executions led the court to be nicknamed the "Blood Court '' in the Netherlands, and Alba to be called the "Iron Duke ''. Rather than pacifying the Netherlands, these measures helped to fuel the unrest.
William I of Orange was stadtholder of the provinces Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht, and Burgrave of Antwerp, and he was the most influential noble in the States General who had signed the petition. After the arrival of Alba, to avoid arrest as had happened to Egmont and Horne, he fled to the lands ruled by his wife 's father -- the Count - Elector of Saxony. All his lands and titles in the Netherlands were forfeited to the Spanish King.
In 1568, William returned to try to drive the highly unpopular Duke of Alba from Brussels. William 's nominal purpose was to remove misguided ministers like Alba, end rebellion, and thus restore the proper authority of King Phillip. This view is reflected in today 's Dutch national anthem, the Wilhelmus, in which the last lines of the first stanza read: den koning van Hispanje heb ik altijd geëerd (I have always honoured the King of Spain). In pamphlets and in his letters to allies in the Netherlands William also called attention to the right of subjects to renounce their oaths of obedience if the sovereign would not respect their privileges. William 's forces moved into the Netherlands from four directions. Armies led by his brothers invaded from Germany while French Huguenots invaded from the south. The Spanish had won the Battle of Rheindalen near Roermond on 23 April 1568, but the Battle of Heiligerlee, fought on 23 May 1568, is commonly regarded as the beginning of the Eighty Years ' War, and it was a victory for the rebel army. But the campaign ended in failure as William ran out of money and his own army disintegrated, while those of his allies were destroyed by the Duke of Alba. William remained at large and, as the only grandee still able to offer resistance, was from then on seen as the leader of the rebellion.
When the revolt broke out once more in 1572, William moved his court back to the Netherlands, to Delft in Holland, as the ancestral lands of Orange in Breda remained occupied by the Spanish. Delft remained William 's base of operations until his assassination by Balthasar Gérard in 1584.
Spain was hampered because it was waging war on multiple fronts simultaneously. Its struggle against the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean Sea put serious limits on the military power it could deploy against the rebels in the Netherlands. France too was opposing Spain at every juncture. Furthermore, England, particularly English privateers, were harassing Spanish shipping and its colonies in the Atlantic.
Already in 1566 William I of Orange had asked for Ottoman support. As Suleiman the Magnificent claimed that he felt religiously close to the Protestants, ("since they did not worship idols, believed in one God and fought against the Pope and Emperor '') he supported the Dutch together with the French and the English, as well as generally supporting Protestants and Calvinists, as a way to counter Habsburg attempts at supremacy in Europe.
Even so, by 1570 the Spanish had more or less suppressed the rebellion throughout the Netherlands. However, in March 1569, in an effort to finance his troops, Alba had proposed to the States that new taxes be introduced, among them the "Tenth Penny '', a 1 / 10 levy on all sales other than landed property. This proposal was rejected by the States, and a compromise was subsequently agreed upon. Then, in 1571, Alba decided to press forward with the collection of the Tenth Penny regardless of the States ' opposition. This aroused strong protest from both Catholics and Protestants, and support for the rebels grew once more and was fanned by a large group of refugees who had fled the country during Alba 's rule.
On 1 March 1572, the English Queen Elizabeth I ousted the Gueux, known as Sea Beggars, from the English harbors in an attempt to appease the Spanish king. The Gueux under their leader Lumey then unexpectedly captured the almost undefended town of Brill on 1 April. In securing Brill, the rebels had gained a foothold, and more importantly a token victory in the north. This was a sign for Protestants all over the Low Countries to rebel once more.
Most of the important cities in the provinces of Holland and Zeeland declared loyalty to the rebels. Notable exceptions were Amsterdam and Middelburg, which remained loyal to the Catholic cause until 1578. William of Orange was put at the head of the revolt. He was recognized as Governor - General and Stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Friesland and Utrecht at a meeting in Dordrecht in July 1572. It was agreed that power would be shared between Orange and the States. With the influence of the rebels rapidly growing in the northern provinces, the war entered a second and more decisive phase.
However, this also led to an increased discord amongst the Dutch. On one side there was a militant Calvinist minority that wanted to continue fighting the Catholic Philip II and convert all Dutch citizens to Calvinism. On the other end was a mostly Catholic minority that wanted to remain loyal to the governor and his administration in Brussels. In between was the large majority of (Catholic) Dutch that had no particular allegiance, but mostly wanted to restore Dutch privileges and the expulsion of the Spanish mercenary armies. William of Orange was the central figure who had to rally these groups to a common goal. In the end he was forced to move more and more towards the radical Calvinist side fighting the Spanish. He converted to Calvinism himself in 1573.
Alba was unable to deal with the rebellion and was replaced in 1573 by Luis de Requesens, and a new policy of moderation was attempted. Spain, however, had to declare bankruptcy in 1575. Requesens had not managed to broker a policy acceptable to both the Spanish King and the Netherlands when he died in early 1576.
The inability of the Spanish to pay their mercenary armies endured, leading to numerous mutinies, and in November 1576 troops sacked Antwerp at the cost of some 8,000 lives. This so - called "Spanish Fury '' strengthened the resolve of the rebels in the seventeen provinces to take fate into their own hands.
The Netherlands negotiated an internal treaty, the Pacification of Ghent in 1576, in which the provinces agreed to religious tolerance and pledged to fight together against the mutinous Spanish forces. For the mostly Catholic provinces, the destruction by mutinous foreign troops was the principal reason to join in an open revolt, but formally the provinces still remained loyal to the sovereign Philip II. Some religious hostilities continued, however, and Spain, aided by shipments of bullion from the New World, was able to send a new army under Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza.
On 6 January 1579, prompted by the new Spanish governor Farnese, and upset by aggressive Calvinism, some of the Southern States (County of Artois, County of Hainaut and the so - called Walloon Flanders located in what is now France and Wallonia) left the alliance agreed upon by the pacification of Ghent and signed the Union of Arras (Atrecht), expressing their loyalty to the Spanish king. This meant an early end to the goal of united independence for the seventeen provinces on the basis of religious tolerance, agreed upon only three years previously.
In response to the union of Arras, William united the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Groningen in the Union of Utrecht on 23 January 1579; Brabant and Flanders joined a month later, in February 1579. Effectively, the seventeen provinces were now divided into a southern group loyal to the Spanish king and a rebellious northern group.
In 16th - century Europe, most countries had a king or other noble as head of state. Having repudiated Philip, the States - General of the Netherlands tried to find a suitable replacement. The Protestant Queen of England, Elizabeth I, seemed the obvious choice to be protector of the Netherlands. Elizabeth, however, found the idea abhorrent. Her intervention for the French Huguenots (see the Treaty of Hampton Court) had been a costly mistake, and she had resolved never again to involve herself in the domestic affairs of any of her fellow monarchs. Not only would intervention provoke Philip, but it would set a dangerous precedent. If she could interfere in the affairs of other monarchs, they could return the favour. (Elizabeth did later provide aid to the Dutch rebels in the Treaty of Nonsuch (1585), and as a consequence Philip aided Irish rebels in the Nine Years ' War.)
In 1581 the States - General invited François, Duke of Anjou (younger brother of King Henry III of France), to be sovereign ruler. Anjou accepted on the condition that the Netherlands officially renounce any loyalty to Philip. The States - General issued the Act of Abjuration, which declared that the King of Spain had not upheld his responsibilities to the people of the Netherlands and therefore would no longer be accepted as the rightful sovereign. Anjou arrived in February 1582. Though welcomed in some cities, he was rejected by Holland and Zeeland. Most of the people distrusted him as a Catholic, and the States - General granted him very limited powers. He brought a small French army to the Netherlands, and then decided to seize control of Antwerp by force in January 1583. This attempt failed disastrously, and Anjou left the Netherlands.
Elizabeth was now offered the sovereignty of the Netherlands, but she declined. All options for foreign royalty being exhausted, the States - General eventually decided to rule as a republican body instead.
Immediately after the Act of Abjuration, Spain sent a new army to recapture the United Provinces. Over the following years, the Duke of Parma reconquered the major part of Flanders and Brabant, as well as large parts of the northeastern provinces. The Roman Catholic religion was restored in much of this area. In 1585, Antwerp -- the largest city in the Low Countries at the time -- fell to the Spanish, which led over half its population to flee to the north. Between 1560 and 1590, the population of Antwerp plummeted from c. 100,000 inhabitants to c. 42,000.
William of Orange, who had been declared an outlaw by Philip II in March 1580, was assassinated by a supporter of the King on 10 July 1584. He would be succeeded as leader of the rebellion by his son Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange.
The Netherlands were split into an independent northern part and a southern part that remained under Spanish control. Due to the almost uninterrupted rule of the Calvinist - dominated separatists, much of the population of the northern provinces became converted to Protestantism over the next decades. The south, under Spanish rule, remained a Catholic stronghold; most of its Protestants fled to the north. Spain retained a large military presence in the south, where it could also be used against France.
With the war going against them, the United Provinces had sought help from the kingdoms of France and England and, in February to May 1585, even offered each monarch sovereignty over the Netherlands, but both had declined.
While England had unofficially been supporting the Dutch for years, Elizabeth had not officially supported the Dutch because she was afraid it might aggravate Spain into a war. However, the year before, the French Catholic League had signed a treaty with Spain to destroy the French Protestants. Afraid that France would fall under control of the Habsburgs, Elizabeth now decided to act. In 1585, under the Treaty of Nonsuch, Elizabeth I sent the Earl of Leicester to take the rule as lord - regent, with 5,000 to 6,000 troops, including 1,000 cavalry. The Earl of Leicester proved to be a poor commander, and also did not understand the sensitive trade arrangements between the Dutch regents and the Spanish. Moreover, Leicester sided with the radical Calvinists, earning him the distrust of the Catholics and moderates. Leicester also collided with many Dutch patricians when he tried to strengthen his own power at the cost of the Provincial States. Within a year of his arrival, he had lost his public support. Leicester returned to England, after which the States - General, being unable to find any other suitable regent, appointed Maurice of Orange (William 's son), at the age of 20, to the position of Captain General of the Dutch army in 1587. On 7 September 1589 Philip II ordered Parma to move all available forces south to prevent Henry of Navarre from becoming King of France. For Spain, the Netherlands had become a side show in comparison to the French Wars of Religion.
The borders of the present - day Netherlands were largely defined by the campaigns of Maurice of Orange. The Dutch successes owed not only to his tactical skill but also to the financial burden Spain incurred replacing ships lost in the disastrous campaign of the Spanish Armada in 1588, and the need to refit its navy to recover control of the sea after the subsequent English counterattack. One of the most notable features of this war are the number of mutinies by the troops in the Spanish army because of arrears of pay. At least 40 mutinies in the period 1570 to 1607 are known. In 1595, when Henry IV of France declared war against Spain, the Spanish government declared bankruptcy again. However, by regaining control of the sea, Spain was able to greatly increase its supply of gold and silver from the Americas, which allowed it to increase military pressure on England and France.
Under financial and military pressure, in 1598, Philip ceded the thrones of the Netherlands to his elder daughter Isabella and her husband (Philip 's nephew) Albert following the conclusion of the Treaty of Vervins with France. They proved to be highly competent rulers. By that time Maurice was engaged in conquering important cities in the Netherlands. Starting with the important fortification of Bergen op Zoom (1588), Maurice conquered Breda (1590), Zutphen, Deventer, Delfzijl and Nijmegen (1591), Steenwijk, Coevorden (1592) Geertruidenberg (1593) Groningen (1594) Grol, Enschede, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal (1597), Rheinberg (1601) and Grave (1602). As this campaign was restricted to the border areas of the current Netherlands, the heartland of Holland remained at peace, during which time it moved into its Golden age.
By now, it had become clear that Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands was strong. However, control over Zeeland meant that the Northern Netherlands could control and close the estuary of the Scheldt, the entry to the sea for the important port of Antwerp. The port of Amsterdam benefited greatly from the blockade of the port of Antwerp, to the extent that merchants in the North began to question the desirability of reconquering the South. A campaign to control the Southern provinces ' coast region was launched against Maurice 's advice in 1600. Although portrayed as a liberation of the Southern Netherlands, the campaign was chiefly aimed at eliminating the threat to Dutch trade posed by the Spanish - supported Dunkirkers. The Spaniards strengthened their positions along the coast, leading to the Battle of Nieuwpoort.
Although the States - General army won great acclaim for itself and its commander by inflicting a then - surprising defeat of a Spanish army in open battle, Maurice halted the march on Dunkirk and returned to the Northern Provinces. Maurice never forgave the regents, led by van Oldenbarneveld, for being sent on this mission. By now the division of the Netherlands into separate states had become almost inevitable. With the failure to eliminate the Dunkirk threat to trade, the states decided to build up their navy to protect sea trade, which had greatly increased through the creation of the Dutch East Indies Company in 1602. The strengthened Dutch fleets would prove to be a formidable force, hampering Spain 's naval ambitions thereafter.
In 1609, the United Provinces and the Spanish controlled southern states entered into a ceasefire, afterwards called the Twelve Years ' Truce, mediated by France and England at The Hague. During the ceasefire the Dutch made great efforts to build their navy, which was later to have a crucial bearing on the course of the war.
During the Truce, two factions emerged in the Dutch camp, along political and religious lines. On one side were the Arminians, whose prominent supporters included Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius. They tended to be well - to - do merchants who accepted a less strict interpretation of the Bible than did classical Calvinists. They were opposed by the more radical Gomarists, who had openly proclaimed their allegiance to Prince Maurice in 1610. In 1617 the conflict escalated when republicans pushed the "Sharp Resolution '', allowing the cities to take measures against the Gomarists. Prince Maurice accused van Oldenbarnevelt of treason, had him arrested, and in 1619, executed. Hugo Grotius fled the country after escaping from imprisonment in Castle Loevestein.
Negotiations for a permanent peace went on throughout the truce. Two major issues could not be resolved. First, the Spanish demand for religious freedom of Catholics in Northern Netherlands was countered by a Dutch demand for a similar religious freedom for Protestants in the Southern Netherlands. Second, there was a growing disagreement over the trade routes to the different colonies (in the Far East and the Americas). The Spanish made one last effort to reconquer the North, and the Dutch used their navy to enlarge their colonial trade routes to the detriment of Spain (the Dutch mostly concentrated on capturing Phillip 's possessions as King of Portugal, which had not signed the truce, in the Dutch -- Portuguese War). The war was on once more -- and crucially, merging with the wider Thirty Years ' War.
In 1622, a Spanish attack on the important fortress town of Bergen op Zoom was repelled. However, in 1625 Maurice died while the Spanish laid siege to the city of Breda. Ignoring orders, the Spanish commander Ambrogio Spinola succeeded in conquering the city of Breda. The war was now more focused on trade, much of it in between the Dutch and the Dunkirkers, but also on Dutch attacks on Spanish convoys, and above all the seizure of the undermanned Portuguese trading forts and ill defended territories. Maurice 's half - brother Frederick Henry had succeeded his brother and taken command of the army. Frederick Henry conquered the pivotal fortified city of ' s - Hertogenbosch in 1629. This town, largest in the northern part of Brabant, had been considered impregnable to attack. Its loss was a serious blow to the Spanish.
In 1632, Frederick Henry captured Venlo, Roermond, and Maastricht during his famous "March along the Meuse '' in a pincer move to prepare for the conquest of the major cities of Flanders. Attempts in the next years to attack Antwerp and Brussels failed, however. The Dutch were disappointed by the lack of support they received from the Flemish population. This was mainly because of the pillaging of Tienen and the new generation that had been raised in Flanders and Brabant, which had been thoroughly reconverted to Roman Catholicism and now distrusted the Calvinist Dutch even more than it loathed the Spanish occupants.
As more European countries began to build their empires, the war between the countries extended to colonies as well. Battles for profitable colonies were fought as far away as Macau, East Indies, Ceylon, Formosa (Taiwan), the Philippines, Brazil, and others. The most important of these conflicts would become known as the Dutch - Portuguese War. The Dutch carved out a trading empire all over the world, using their dominance at sea to great advantage. The Dutch East India Company was founded to administer all Dutch trade with the East, while the Dutch West India Company did the same for the West.
In the Western colonies, the Dutch States General mostly restricted itself to supporting privateering by their captains in the Caribbean to drain the Spanish coffers and fill their own. The most successful of these raids was the capture of the larger part of the Spanish treasure fleet by Piet Hein in 1628, which allowed Frederick Henry to finance the siege of ' s - Hertogenbosch, and seriously troubled Spanish payments of troops. But attempts were also made to conquer existing colonies or found new ones in Brazil, North America and Africa. Most of these would be only briefly or partially successful. In the East the activities led to the conquest of many profitable trading colonies, a major factor in bringing about the Dutch Golden Age.
In 1639, Spain sent an armada bound for Flanders, carrying 20,000 troops, to assist in a last large - scale attempt to defeat the northern rebels. The armada was decisively defeated by Lieutenant - Admiral Maarten Tromp in the Battle of the Downs. This victory had historic consequences far beyond the Eighty Years ' War as it marked the end of Spain as the dominant sea power.
An alliance with France changed the balance of power. The Republic could now hope to reconquer the Southern Netherlands. However, this would not mean that they would become a part of the Netherlands, but that they would be divided among the victors, resulting in a powerful French state bordering the Republic. Furthermore, it would mean that the port of Antwerp would most likely no longer be blockaded and might become serious competition for Amsterdam. With the Thirty Years ' War decided, there was also no longer any need to fight on to support fellow Protestant nations. As a result, the decision was made to end the war.
On 30 January 1648, the war ended with the Treaty of Münster between Spain and the Netherlands. In Münster on 15 May 1648, the parties exchanged ratified copies of the treaty. This treaty was part of the European - scale Peace of Westphalia that also ended the Thirty Years ' War. In the treaty, the power balance in Western Europe was readjusted to the actual geopolitical reality. This meant that de jure the Dutch Republic was recognized as an independent state and retained control over the territories that were conquered in the later stages of the war. The new republic consisted of seven provinces: Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, Overijssel, Friesland, and Groningen. Each province was governed by its local Provincial States and by a stadtholder. In theory, each stadtholder was elected and subordinate to the States - General. However, the princes of Orange - Nassau, beginning with William I of Orange, became de facto hereditary stadtholders in Holland and Zeeland. In practice they usually became stadtholder of the other provinces as well. A constant power struggle, which already had shown its precursor during the Twelve Years ' Truce, emerged between the Orangists, who supported the stadtholders, and the Regent 's supporters.
The border states, parts of Flanders, Brabant and Limburg that were conquered by the Dutch in the final stages of the war, were to be federally governed by the States - General. These were the so - called Generality Lands (Generaliteitslanden), which consisted of Staats - Brabant (present North Brabant), Staats - Vlaanderen (present Zeelandic Flanders) and Staats - Limburg (around Maastricht).
The peace would not be long - lived as the newly emerged world powers, the Republic of the Netherlands and the Commonwealth of England, would start their first war in 1652, only four years after the peace was signed.
The Eighty Years ' War began with a series of battles mostly fought by mercenaries, as was typical of the time. While successes for both parties were limited, costs were high and continued to grow as the war progressed. The structural inability of the Spanish government to pay its soldiers -- it went bankrupt several times -- led to perpetual large - scale mutinies among the Spanish army in the Netherlands, which continually frustrated Spain 's military campaigns in multiple fronts while at the same time defending a huge colonial empire. On the Dutch side the States of Holland, with its opulent capital Amsterdam, bore the brunt of the costs of war and were able to do so successfully as locals. The Spanish effort in the Netherlands was also hampered by the war against the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean during the 1570s, which demanded much of Spain 's financial and human resources.
As the revolt and its suppression centered largely around issues of religious freedom and taxation, the conflict necessarily involved not only soldiers, but also civilians at all levels of society. This may be one reason for the resolve and subsequent successes of the Dutch rebels in defending cities. Another factor was that the unpopularity of the Spanish army, which existed even before the start of the revolt, was exacerbated when in the early stage of the war a few cities were purposely sacked by the Spanish troops after having surrendered; this was done as a practice to intimidate the remaining rebel cities into surrender. Given the involvement of all sectors of Dutch society in the conflict, a more - or-less organized, irregular army emerged alongside the regular forces. Among these were the geuzen (from the French word "gueux '' meaning "beggars ''), who waged a guerrilla war against Spanish interests. Especially at sea, the ' watergeuzen ' were effective agents of the Dutch cause.
Another aspect of warfare in the Netherlands was its relatively static character. There were very few pitched battles where armies met in the field. Most military operations were sieges, as was typical of the era, resulting in protracted and expensive use of the military forces available. The Dutch had fortified most of their cities and even many smaller towns in accordance with the most modern views of the time, and these cities had to be subdued one by one. Sometimes sieges were broken off when the enemy threatened to attack the besieging army, or, on the Spanish side, conquered cities were given up immediately, or occasionally sold back to the Dutch, when the conquering army turned mutinous.
In the later stages, Maurice raised a professional standing army that was even paid when no hostilities were taking place, a radical innovation in that time and part of the Military Revolution. This ensured him of loyal soldiers, who were trained in co-operating among each other and were intimately familiar with the doctrines of their commanders and were capable of carrying out complicated manoeuvres.
In the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, Charles V established the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands as an entity separate from France, Burgundy, or the Holy Roman Empire. The Netherlands at this point was among the wealthiest regions in Europe, and an important center of trade, finance, and art. The Eighty Years ' War introduced a sharp breach in the region, with the Dutch Republic (the present - day Netherlands) growing into a world power (see Dutch Golden Age), and the Southern Netherlands (more or less present - day Belgium) losing much of its economic and cultural significance for centuries to come. The naval blockade during much of the Eighty Years ' War of Antwerp, once the largest commercial center of Europe, greatly contributed to the rise of Amsterdam as the new center of European and world trade.
Politically, a unique situation had emerged in the Netherlands where a republican body (the States General) ruled, but where a (increasingly hereditary) noble function of Stadtholder was occupied by the house of Orange - Nassau. This division of power prevented large scale fighting between nobility and civilians as happened in the English Civil War. The frictions between the civil and noble fractions, that already started in the twelve years ' truce, were numerous and would finally lead to an outburst with the French supported Batavian Republic, where Dutch bourgeoisie hoped to get rid of the increasing self - esteem in the nobility once and for all. However, in a dramatic resurgence of nobility after the Napoleonic era the republic would be abandoned in favour of the foundation of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Thus, one of the oldest republics of Europe was turned into a monarchy, which it still is today.
The conquest of various American territories made Spain the leading European power of the 16th century, leading to continuous conflict with France and the emerging power of England. In addition, the deeply religious monarchs Charles V and Philip II saw a role for themselves as protectors of the Catholic faith against Islam in the Mediterranean, and against Protestantism in northern Europe. This meant the Spanish Empire was almost continuously at war. Of all these conflicts, the Eighty Years ' War was the most prolonged and had a major effect on the Spanish finances and the morale of the Spanish people, who saw taxes increase and soldiers not returning, with little successes to balance the scales. The Spanish government had to declare several bankruptcies. The Spanish population increasingly questioned the necessity of the war in the Netherlands. The loss of Portugal in 1640 and the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, ending the war, were the first signs that the role of the Spanish Empire in Europe was declining.
The Dutch revolt against their lawful sovereign, most obviously illustrated in the Act of Abjuration (1581), implied that a sovereign could be deposed by the population if there was agreement that he did not fulfill his God - given responsibility. This act by the Dutch challenged the concept of the divine right of kings and eventually led to the formation of the Dutch Republic. The acceptance of a non-monarchic country by the other European powers in 1648 spread across Europe, fueling resistance against the divine power of Kings.
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what are the main objectives of nrega 2005 | National rural employment Guarantee Act, 2005 - Wikipedia
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (or, NREGA No 42, later renamed as the "Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act '', MGNREGA), is an Indian labour law and social security measure that aims to guarantee the ' right to work '.
It aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.
The act was first proposed in 1991 by P.V. Narasimha Rao. In 2006, it was finally accepted in the parliament and commenced implementation in 625 districts of India. Based on this pilot experience, NREGA was scoped up to covered all the districts of India from 1 April 2008. The statute is hailed by the government as "the largest and most ambitious social security and public works programme in the world ''. In its World Development Report 2014, the World Bank termed it a "stellar example of rural development ''.
The MGNREGA was initiated with the objective of "enhancing livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year, to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work ''. Another aim of MGNREGA is to create durable assets (such as roads, canals, ponds and wells). Employment is to be provided within 5 km of an applicant 's residence, and minimum wages are to be paid. If work is not provided within 15 days of applying, applicants are entitled to an unemployment allowance. Thus, employment under MGNREGA is a legal entitlement.
MGNREGA is to be implemented mainly by gram panchayats (GPs). The involvement of contractors is banned. Labour - intensive tasks like creating infrastructure for water harvesting, drought relief and flood control are preferred.
Apart from providing economic security and creating rural assets, NREGA can help in protecting the environment, empowering rural women, reducing rural - urban migration and fostering social equity, among others. ''
The law provides many safeguards to promote its effective management and implementation. The act explicitly mentions the principles and agencies for implementation, list of allowed works, financing pattern, monitoring and evaluation, and most importantly the detailed measures to ensure transparency and accountability.
From 1960, the first 30 years of experimentation with employment schemes in rural areas taught few important lessons to the government like the ' Rural Manpower Programme ' taught the lesson of financial management, the ' Crash Scheme for Rural Employment ' of planning for outcomes, a ' Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Programme ' of labour - intensive works, the ' Drought Prone Area Programme ' of integrated rural development, ' Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Scheme ' of rural economic development, the ' Food for Work Programme ' (FWP) of holistic development and better coordination with the states, the ' National Rural Employment Programme ' (NREP) of community development, and the ' Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme ' of focus on landless households. The Planning Commission later approved the scheme and the same was adopted on national scale.
On 1 April 1989, to converge employment generation, infrastructure development and food security in rural areas, the government integrated NREP and RLEGP into a new scheme JRY. The most significant change was the decentralization of implementation by involving local people through PRIs and hence a decreasing role of bureaucracy.
On 2 October 1993, the Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was initiated by the then prime minister P.V. Narasimha Rao to provide employment to agricultural hands during the lean agricultural season. Rao had started discussions on this act in 1991. The role of PRIs was reinforced with the local self - government at the district level called the ' Zilla Parishad ' as the main implementing authority. Later, EAS was merged with SGRY in 2001.
On 1 April 1999, the JRY was revamped and renamed to JGSY with a similar objective. The role of PRIs was further reinforced with the local self - government at the village level called the ' Village Panchayats ' as the sole implementing authority. In 2001, it was merged with SGRY.
In January 2001, the government introduced FWP (Food for Work Programme) similar to the one initiated in 1977. Once NREGA was enacted, the two were merged in 2006.
On 25 September 2001 to converge employment generation, infrastructure development and food security in rural areas, the government integrated EAS and JGSY into a new scheme SGRY. The role of PRIs was retained with the ' Village Panchayats ' as the sole implementing authority. Yet again due to implementation issues, it was merged with Mahatma Gandhi NREGA in 2006.
The total government allocation to these precursors of Mahatma Gandhi NREGA had been about three - quarters of ₹ 1 trillion (US $15 billion).
The UPA Government had planned to increase the number of working days from 100 to 150 before the 2014 Lok Sabha Elections in the country but failed.
The NDA government has decided to provide 150 days for rain hit areas.
The registration process involves an application to the Gram Panchayat and issue of job cards. The wage employment must be provided within 15 days of the date of application. The work entitlement of ' 120 days per household per year ' may be shared between different adult members of the same household.
The law also lists permissible works: water conservation and water harvesting; drought proofing including afforestation; irrigation works; restoration of traditional water bodies; land development; flood control; rural connectivity; and works notified by the government. The Act sets a minimum limit to the wage - material ratio as 60: 40. The provision of accredited engineers, worksite facilities and a weekly report on worksites is also mandated by the Act.
Furthermore, the Act sets a minimum limit to the wages, to be paid with gender equality, either on a time - rate basis or on a piece - rate basis. The states are required to evolve a set of norms for the measurement of works and schedule of rates. Unemployment allowance must be paid if the work is not provided within the statutory limit of 15 days.
The law stipulates Gram Panchayats to have a single bank account for NREGA works which shall be subjected to public scrutiny. To promote transparency and accountability, the act mandates ' monthly squaring of accounts '. To ensure public accountability through public vigilance, the NREGA designates ' social audits ' as key to its implementation.
The most detailed part of the Act (chapter 10 and 11) deals with transparency and accountability that lays out role of the state, the public vigilance and, above all, the social audits.
For evaluation of outcomes, the law also requires management of data and maintenance of records, like registers related to employment, job cards, assets, muster rolls and complaints, by the implementing agencies at the village, block and state level.
The legislation specifies the role of the state in ensuring transparency and accountability through upholding the right to information and disclosing information proactively, preparation of annual reports by CEGC for Parliament and SEGCs for state legislatures, undertaking mandatory financial audit by each district along with physical audit, taking action on audit reports, developing a Citizen 's Charter, establishing vigilance and monitoring committees, and developing grievance redressal system.
The Act recommends establishment of ' Technical Resource Support Groups ' at district, state and central level and active use of Information Technology, like creation of a ' Monitoring and Information System (MIS) ' and a NREGA website, to assure quality in implementation of NREGA through technical support.
The law allows convergence of NREGA with other programmes. As NREGA intends to create ' additional ' employment, the convergence should not affect employment provided by other programmes.
The Act aims to follow the Directive Principles of State Policy enunciated in Part IV of the Constitution of India. The law by providing a ' right to work ' is consistent with Article 41 that directs the State to secure to all citizens the right to work. The statute also seeks to protect the environment through rural works which is consistent with Article 48A that directs the State to protect the environment.
In accordance with the Article 21 of the Constitution of India that guarantees the right to life with dignity to every citizen of India, this act imparts dignity to the rural people through an assurance of livelihood security. The Fundamental Right enshrined in Article 16 of the Constitution of India guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and prevents the State from discriminating against anyone in matters of employment on the grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, place of residence or any of them. NREGA also follows Article 46 that requires the State to promote the interests of and work for the economic uplift of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and protect them from discrimination and exploitation.
Article 40 mandates the State to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self - government. Conferring the primary responsibility of implementation on Gram Panchayats, the Act adheres to this constitutional principle. Also the process of decentralization initiated by 73rd Amendment to the Constitution of India that granted a constitutional status to the Panchayats is further reinforced by the Mahatma Gandhi NREGA that endowed these rural self - government institutions with authority to implement the law.
Academic research has focused on many dimensions of the NREGA: economic security, self - targeting, women 's empowerment, asset creation, corruption, how the scheme impacts agricultural wages. An early overall assessment in the north India states suggested that NREGA was "making a difference to the lives of the rural poor, slowly but surely. ''
The evidence on self - targeting suggests that works though there is a lot of unmet demand for work.
One of the objectives of NREGA was to improve the bargaining power of labour who often faced exploitative market conditions. Several studies have found that agricultural wages have increased significantly, especially for women since the inception of the scheme. This indicates that overall wage levels have increased due to the act, however, further research highlights that the key benefit of the scheme lies in the reduction of wage volatility. This highlights that NREGA may be an effective insurance scheme. Ongoing research efforts try to evaluate the overall welfare effects of the scheme; a particular focus has been to understand whether the scheme has reduced migration into urban centers for casual work.
Another important aspect of NREGA is the potential for women 's empowerment by providing them opportunities for paid work. One third of all employment is reserved for women, there is a provision for equal wages to men and women, provision for child care facilities at the worksite - these are three important provisions for women in the Act. More recent studies have suggested that women 's participation has remained high, though there are inter-state variations. One study in border villages of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat studied the effect on short term migration and child welfare. and found that among children who do not migrate, grade completed is higher. The same study found that demand for NREGA work is higher, even though migrant wages are higher.
On asset creation, there have not been too many detailed studies. A few focusing on the potential for asset creation under NREGA suggest that (a) the potential is substantial and (b) in some places it is being realized and (c) lack of staff, especially technical staff rather than lack of material are to blame for poor realization of this potential. Others have pointed out that water harvesting and soil conservation works promoted through NREGA "could have high positive results on environment security and biodiversity and environment conservation '' A study conducted by researchers at the Indian Institute of Science and other collaborators attempts to quantify the environmental and socio - economic benefits of works done through the NREGA
Corruption in government programmes has remained a serious concern, and NREGA has been no exception. According to recent estimates, wage corruption in NREGA has declined from about 50 % in 2007 - 8 to between 4 - 30 % in 2009 - 10. Much of this improvement is attributable to the move to pay NREGA wages through bank and post office accounts. Some of the success in battling corruption can also be attributed to the strong provisions for community monitoring. Others find that "the overall social audit effects on reducing easy - to - detect malpractices was mostly absent ''.
A few papers also study the link between electoral gains and implementation of NREGA. One studies the effect in Andhra Pradesh - the authors find that "while politics may influence programme expenditure in some places and to a small extent, this is not universally true and does not undermine the effective targeting and good work of the scheme at large. '' The two other studies focus on these links in Rajasthan and West Bengal. Several local case studies are also being conducted to identify the regional impacts of NREGA.
The second performance audit by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India covered 3,848 gram panchayats (GPs) in 28 states and 4 union territories (UTs) from April 2007 to March 2012. This comprehensive survey by the CAG documents lapses in implementation of the act. The main problems identified in the audit included: a fall in the level of employment, low rates of completion of works (only 30.3 per cent of planned works had been completed), poor planning (in one - third of Gram Panchayats, the planning process mandated by the act had not been followed), lack of public awareness partly due to poor information, education and communication IEC) by the state governments, shortage of staff (e.g., Gram Rozgar Sewaks had not been appointed in some states) and so on. Notwithstanding the statutory requirement of notification, yet five states had not even notified the eight - years - old scheme. The comprehensive assessment of the performance of the law by the constitutional auditor revealed serious lapses arising mainly due to lack of public awareness, mismanagement and institutional incapacity. The CAG also suggested some corrective measures.
Even though the mass social audits have a statutory mandate of Section 17 (as outlined in Chapter 11 of the NREGA Operational Guidelines), only seven states have the institutional capacity to facilitate the social audits as per prescribed norms. Although the Central Council is mandated to establish a central evaluation and monitoring system as per the NREGA Operational Guidelines, even after six years it is yet to fulfill the NREGA directive. Further, the CAG audit reports discrepancies in the maintenance of prescribed basic records in up to half of the gram panchayats (GPs) which inhibits the critical evaluation of the NREGA outcomes. The unreliability of Management Information System (MIS), due to significant disparity between the data in the MIS and the actual official documents, is also reported.
To increase public awareness, the intensification of the Information, Education and Communication (IEC) activities is recommended. To improve management of outcomes, it recommended proper maintenance of records at the gram panchayat (GP) level. Further the Central Council is recommended to establish a central evaluation and monitoring system for "a national level, comprehensive and independent evaluation of the scheme ''. The CAG also recommends a timely payment of unemployment allowance to the rural poor and a wage material ratio of 60: 40 in the NREGA works. Moreover, for effective financial management, the CAG recommends proper maintenance of accounts, in a uniform format, on a monthly basis and also enforcing the statutory guidelines to ensure transparency in the disposal of funds. For capacity building, the CAG recommends an increase in staff hiring to fill the large number of vacancies.
For the first time, the CAG also included a survey of more than 38,000 NREGA beneficiaries. An earlier evaluation of the NREGA by the CAG was criticized for its methodology.
Ex-Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh released an anthologys of research studies on the MGNREGA called "MGNREGA Sameeksha '' in New Delhi on 14 July 2012, about a year before the CAG report. Aruna Roy and Nikhil Dey said that "the MGNREGA Sameeksha is a significant innovation to evaluate policy and delivery ''. The anthology draws on independent assessments of MGNREGA conducted by Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and others in collaboration with United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) published from 2008 to 2012. The Prime Minister said:
The Mahatma Gandhi NREGA story in numbers is a story worth telling... the scheme scores high on inclusivness... no welfare scheme in recent memory has caught the imagination of the people as much as NREGA has... under which ₹ 1, 10,000 crore (about USD $25 billion) have been spent to pay wages to 1,200 crore (12 billion) people.
Minister of Rural Development Jairam Ramesh says in the ' MGNREGA Sameeksha ':
It is perhaps the largest and most ambitious social security and public works programme in the world... soundness and high potential of the MGNREGA are well established... That, at any rate, is one of the main messages emerging from this extensive review of research on MGNREGA. It is also a message that comes loud and clear from the resounding popularity of MGNREGA -- today, about one - fourth of all rural households participate in the programme every year.
Meanwhile, the social audits in two Indian states highlight the potential of the law if implemented effectively.
Further the Minister says:
MGNREGA 's other quantitative achievements have been striking as well:
Civil society organisations (CSOs), nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), political representatives, civil servants and workers of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh collectively organise social audits to prevent corruption under the NREGA. As the corruption is attributed to the secrecy in governance, the ' Jansunwai ' or public hearing and the right to information (RTI), enacted in 2005, are used to fight this secrecy Goetz 1999 Official records obtained using RTI are read out at the public hearing to identify and rectify irregularities. "This process of reviewing official records and determining whether state reported expenditures reflect the actual monies spent on the ground is referred to as a social audit. '' Aiyar 2009, pp. 8 -- 9 Participation of informed citizens promotes collective responsibility and awareness about entitlements. Chandoke 2007
A continuous process of social audit on NREGA works involves public vigilance and verification at the stipulated 11 stages of implementation: registration of families; distribution of job cards; receipt of work applications; selection of suitable public works; preparation of technical estimates; work allocation; implementation and supervision; payment of wages; payment of unemployment allowance; evaluation of outcomes; and mandatory social audit in the Gram Sabha or Social Audit Forum. The Gram Panchayat Secretary called ' Sarpanch ' is designated as the authority responsible for carrying out the social audit at all stages. For some stages, the programme officer and the junior engineer is also responsible along with Sarpanch.
The statute designates the Gram Sabha meetings held to conduct social audit as the ' Social Audit Forums ' and spells out three steps to make them effective: publicity and preparation of documents; organizational and procedural aspects; and the mandatory agenda involving questions verifying compliance with norms specified at each of the 11 stages of implementation.
An application under the RTI to access relevant official documents is the first step of the social audit. Then the management personnel of the social audit verify these official records by conducting field visits. Finally, the ' Jansunwai ' or public hearing is organised at two levels: the Panchayat or village level and the Mandal level. The direct public debate involving the beneficiaries, political representatives, civil servants and, above all, the government officers responsible for implementing the NREGA works highlights corruption like the practice of rigging muster rolls (attendance registers) and also generates public awareness about the scheme.
These social audits on NREGA works in Rajasthan highlight: a significant demand for the scheme, less that 2 per cent corruption in the form of fudging of muster rolls, building the water harvesting infrastructure as the first priority in the drought - prone district, reduction of out - migration, and above all the women participation of more than 80 per cent in the employment guarantee scheme. The need for effective management of tasks, timely payment of wages and provision of support facilities at work sites is also emphasised.
To assess the effectiveness of the mass social audits on NREGA works in Andhra Pradesh, a World Bank study investigated the effect of the social audit on the level of public awareness about NREGA, its effect on the NREGA implementation, and its efficacy as a grievance redressal mechanism. The study found that the public awareness about the NREGA increased from about 30 per cent before the social audit to about 99 per cent after the social audit. Further, the efficacy of NREGA implementation increased from an average of about 60 per cent to about 97 per cent.
The critics claim that the scheme leads to wastefulness and contributes to fiscal deficit of the Government of India.
Proponents of the scheme enumerate number of benefits. For example, Rejaul Karim Laskar, an ideologue of the Congress party - the largest constituent of the UPA Government which introduced the scheme, claims that the scheme has multifarious benefits including "reduction in poverty, reduction in migration, women empowerment, improvement of productivity of agricultural land and regeneration of water resources ''. ±
' Save MGNREGA ' is a set of demands proposed during the joint meeting of the national leadership of CITU, AIAWU, AIDWA and AIKS in New Delhi. The agenda was to discuss the dilution of MGNREGA scheme by the new government. Following demands were proposed:
1. Government of India should increase the Central allocation for the scheme so that number of workdays can be increased to 200 and per day wage can be increased to Rs. 300.
2. Job card to be issued for everyone who demands job, failing which, after 15 days employment benefits should be given.
3. Minimum 150 days of work should be ensured to all card holders
4. Minimum wage act should be strictly implemented. Delay in wage payment should be resolved.
5. MGNREGA should be extended to urban areas.
6. Gram Sabhas should be strengthened to monitor proper implementation of the scheme and also to check corruption.
Union Rural Development Minister, Nitin Gadkari, proposed to limit MGNREGA programmes within tribal and poor areas. He also proposed to change the labour: material ratio from 60: 40 to 51: 49. As per the new proposal, the programme will be implemented in 2,500 backward blocks coming under Intensive Participatory Planning Exercise. These blocks are identified per the Planning Commission Estimate of 2013 and a Backwardness Index prepared by Planning Commission using 2011 census. This backwardness index consists of following five parameters - percentage of households primarily depended on agriculture, female literacy rates, households without access to electricity, households without access to drinking water and sanitation within the premises and households without access to banking facilities.
Both proposals came in for sharp criticism. A number of economists with diverse views opposed the idea of restricting or "focussing '' implementation in a few districts or blocks.
In the November 2014 cabinet expansion, Birender Singh replaced Nitin Gadkari as rural development minister. Among the first statements made by the new minister was an assurance that NREGA would continue in all districts. Around the same time, however, NREGA budget saw a sharp cut and in the name of ' focusing ' on a few blocks the programme has been limited to those blocks.
Finance Minister Arun Jaitley announced Rs. 48,000 crore to be allocated to the MGNREGA as a part of 2017 Union budget of India.
A major criticism of the MNREGA is that a lot of money disbursed by the government gets siphoned off by middlemen, thus leaving a number of MGNREGA workers either with unpaid wages or less than standard wages. In Mahuadand, Jharkhand, most of the people who had worked under the MNREGA did not get paid, while some either got paid less than stipulated or were given 5 kg of rice by private contractors instead.
Another criticism of NREGA is that it is making agriculture less profitable. Landholders often oppose it on these grounds. The big farmer 's point of view can be summed up as follows: landless labourers are lazy and they do n't want to work on farms as they can get money without doing anything at NREGA worksites; farmers may have to sell their land, thereby laying foundation for the corporate farming.
Economists like Jagdish Bhagwati and Arvind Panagariya have described NREGA as "an inefficient instrument of shifting income to the poor '' -- the general notion being that it takes five rupees to transfer one rupee to NREGA workers. Economists including Surjit Bhalla have termed it as unsuccessful suggesting that schemes such as the NREGA need to be junked, saying that any scheme with 85 percent leakages ca n't be proclaimed to be "working successfully ''.
The workers points of view can be summed up as: labourers do not get more than Rs. 80 in the private agricultural labour market, there is no farm work for several months; few old age people who are jobless for at least 8 months a year; when farm work is available they go there first; farmers employ only young and strong persons to work in their farms and reject the others and hence many go jobless most of the time.
NREGA has been criticised for leakages and corrupt implementation. It has been alleged that individuals have received benefits and work payments for work that they have not done, or have done only on paper, or are not poor. In 2014 - 15, only 28 % of the payments were made on time to workers. Following the allegations of corruption in the scheme, NDA government ordered a re-evaluation of the scheme in 2015. G
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the fundamental orders of connecticut stands out in colonial history because it | Fundamental Orders of Connecticut - wikipedia
The Fundamental Orders were adopted by the Connecticut Colony council on January 14, 1639 OS (January 24, 1639 NS). The fundamental orders describe the government set up by the Connecticut River towns, setting its structure and powers. They wanted the government to have access to the open ocean for trading.
The Orders have the features of a written constitution and are considered by one author to be the first written Constitution in the Western tradition, although the Mayflower compact has an equal claim 19 years before. Thus, Connecticut earned its nickname of The Constitution State. Connecticut historian John Fiske was the first to claim that the Fundamental Orders were the first written Constitution, a claim disputed by some modern historians. The orders were transcribed into the official colony records by the colony 's secretary Thomas Welles. It was a Constitution the government that Massachusetts had set up. However, this Order gave men more voting rights and made more men eligible to run for elected positions.
In the year of 1635, a group of Puritans and others who were dissatisfied with the rate of Anglican reforms sought to establish an ecclesiastical society subject to their own rules and regulations. The Massachusetts General Court granted them permission to settle the cities of Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford. Ownership of the land was called into dispute by the English holders of the Warwick Patent of 1631. The Massachusetts General Court established the March Commission to mediate the dispute, and named Roger Ludlow as its head. The Commission named eight magistrates from the Connecticut towns to implement a legal system. The March commission expired in March 1636, after which the settlers continued to self - govern.
On May 29, 1638, Ludlow wrote to Massachusetts Governor Winthrop that the colonists wanted to "unite ourselves to walk and lie peaceably and lovingly together. '' Ludlow and other principals drafted the Fundamental Orders, which were adopted on January 14, 1639 OS (January 24, 1639 NS) and established Connecticut as a self - ruled colony. Major John Mason was a magistrate and is credited with being one of the writers of this document.
There is no record of the debates or proceedings of the drafting or enactment of the Fundamental Orders. According to John Taylor:. Puritans used to punish the townspeople for having different beliefs or wanting a new religion.
"The men of the three towns were a law unto themselves. It is known that they were in earnest for the establishment of a government on broad lines; and it is certain that the ministers and captains, the magistrates and men of affairs, forceful in the settlements from the beginning, were the men who took the lead, guided the discussions, and found the root of the whole matter in the first written declaration of independence in these historical orders. ''
The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut is a short document, but contains some principles that were later applied in creating the United States government. Government is based in the rights of an individual, and the orders spell out some of those rights, as well as how they are ensured by the government. It provides that all free men share in electing their magistrates, and uses secret, paper ballots. It states the powers of the government, and some limits within which that power is exercised.
In one sense, the Fundamental Orders were replaced by a Royal Charter in 1662, but the major outline of the charter was written in Connecticut and embodied the Orders ' rights and mechanics. It was carried to England by Governor John Winthrop and basically approved by the British King, Charles II. The colonists generally viewed the charter as a continuation and surety for their Fundamental Orders. Later on, the Charter Oak got its name when that charter was taken from Jeremy Adams 's tavern and supposedly hidden in an oak tree, rather than it be surrendered to the agents of James II, who intended to annex Connecticut to the more centralized Dominion of New England.
Today, the individual rights in the Orders, with others added over the years, are still included as a "Declaration of Rights '' in the first article of the current Connecticut Constitution, adopted in 1965.
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can you make a right turn on a red light in texas | Turn on red - Wikipedia
A turn on red is a principle of law permitting vehicles at a traffic light showing a red signal to turn into the direction of traffic nearer to them (almost always after a complete stop) when the way is clear, without having to wait for a green signal. It is intended to allow traffic to resume moving, with minimal risk provided that proper caution is observed.
It is commonly known as a right turn on red (or simply right on red) in countries that drive on the right side of the road, or a left turn on red in countries which drive on the left side of the road.
Right turns on red are permitted in many regions of North America. While Western states have allowed it for more than 50 years; eastern states amended their traffic laws to allow it in the 1970s as a fuel - saving measure in response to motor fuel shortages in 1973. The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 required in § 362 (c) (5) that in order for a state to receive federal assistance in developing mandated conservation programs, they must permit right turns on red lights. All 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, and Puerto Rico have allowed right turns on red since 1980, except where prohibited by a sign or where right turns are controlled by dedicated traffic lights. (The last state with a right - on - red ban, Massachusetts, ended its ban on January 1, 1980.) The few exceptions include New York City, where right turns on red are prohibited, unless a sign indicates otherwise.
In some states, such as New York, Virginia, North Carolina, and California, a right turn on red is prohibited when a red arrow is displayed.
At intersections where U-turns are permitted and controlled by a U-turn arrow from the left-most lane, motorists turning right on red onto the same road must yield to those making U-turns before turning, as the motorists making U-turns have the right of way and a collision could easily occur. At intersections where U-turns are prohibited in the same fashion, a green right turn arrow will sometimes appear with the red light for those turning right onto the road, allowing only traffic turning right to proceed without having to stop or yield to other vehicles or pedestrians. Some states such as California have "No U-Turn '' signs posted at these intersections because of the green right turn arrow.
Most Caribbean countries with right - hand traffic, such as the Dominican Republic, allow right turn on red unless a sign prohibits it. Some vehicles, such as those carrying hazardous materials and school buses, are not allowed to turn on red under any circumstance and must wait for a green light or arrow.
During 1982 -- 1992, approximately 84 fatal crashes per year occurred in the U.S. where a vehicle was turning right at intersections where right turn on red was permitted. As of 1992, right turn on red is governed federally by 42 U.S.C. § 6322 (c) ("Each proposed State energy conservation plan to be eligible for Federal assistance under this part shall include:... (5) a traffic law or regulation which, to the maximum extent practicable consistent with safety, permits the operator of a motor vehicle to turn such vehicle right at a red stop light after stopping, and to turn such vehicle left from a one - way street onto a one - way street at a red light after stopping. ''). All turns on red are forbidden in New York City unless a sign is posted permitting it.
Through most of Canada, a driver may turn right at a red light after coming to a complete stop unless a sign indicates otherwise. In the province of Quebec, turning right on a red was illegal until a pilot study carried out in 2003 showed that the right turn on red manoeuvre did not result in significantly more accidents. Subsequent to the study, the Province of Quebec now allows right turns on red except where prohibited by a sign. However, like in New York City, it remains illegal to turn right on a red anywhere on the Island of Montreal. Motorists are reminded of this by large signs posted at the entrance to all bridges.
In Mexico, right turns on red are generally allowed unless a sign indicates otherwise. Mexico City has implemented a new transit law which prohibits right turns and motorists can be issued a citation for noncompliance.
In Costa Rica, right turns on red are allowed in general, but a sign can forbid them.
In Chile, right turns on red are only allowed when a sign permitting it is shown.
In Paraguay, right turns on red are allowed in some towns.
In Argentina, Brazil, Peru and Uruguay, right turns on red are not allowed.
In the European Union member states in general, it is illegal to turn on a red light, unless it is indicated otherwise, for example by a green arrow on a red light, a flashing amber arrow with a red light or a permanent green board next to the red light.
In Poland, right turns on red are permitted, only if an additional green arrow light (apart from the main signal light) is present and lit. However, the regulations require drivers to stop completely, as their paths intersect with other vehicles or pedestrians in at least one direction. Green arrow light can be also directed left (the same regulations apply).
In Germany, right turns on red are only permitted, after a complete stop, when a specific sign is present. This rule was first introduced in 1978 in East Germany and was originally supposed to become obsolete together with the East German highway code by the end of 1990, following German reunification. However, authorities were unable to remove the signs in time, and public opinion caused them to leave the regulation unchanged, even extending its scope to the areas of the former West Germany in 1994. By 1999, there were 300 turn - on - red intersections on the territory of the former West Germany while that of the former East Germany featured 2,500. However, the numbers in the former West Germany have risen considerably since then and as of 2002 a total of 5,000 turn - on - red intersections were counted, representing 48 % of the national total.
In Russia, turns on red are prohibited unless a separate arrow - shaped green light allows it; drivers must give way to any vehicle coming from a different direction. When the arrow is not lit, turns in the arrow direction are prohibited.
In the Netherlands, bicycles are occasionally allowed to turn right on a red light (assuming that the design of the junction is such that the light is even applicable to right turning cyclists, which it often is not in the Netherlands). Wherever this is the case, a sign "rechtsaf voor fietsers vrij '' (right turn free for cyclists) or "rechtsaf voor (brom) fietsers vrij '' (right turn free for cyclists and mopeds) is present.
In France a right turn on red without stopping is allowed when a separate arrow - shaped amber light flashes, but drivers do not have priority. They must check if any pedestrians are crossing before turning and must give way to vehicles coming from other directions.. In France, cyclists are permitted to turn right on red if a sign indicates it.
In Belgium, road signs that allow cyclists to turn right on a red light have been added to traffic law in 2012. Such roads signs have been placed on intersections in the Brussels Capital Region.
Like in the Netherlands, Belgium and France have a road sign that allows cyclists to turn right on a red light. The French and Belgian signs consist of a yield sign with a yellow bike and arrow inside. Such signs are placed under traffic lights.
In the United Kingdom, which drives on the left, left turn on red is prohibited, but at some junctions there is a separate left arrow - shaped green "filter '' light which, when lit, allows left - hand turns but conflicting traffic will always have a red signal. Other non conflicting traffic movements may have their own left or right arrow - shaped green light. Sometimes there are specific lanes without signals for turning left, separated from the through traffic signalled traffic by traffic islands, but give way signs are installed.
In the Republic of Ireland, which drives on the left, left turns on red are prohibited.
In Lithuania, drivers are allowed to turn right on red when a particular sign with a green arrow on a white background is mounted beside the red light of the traffic signal. However, on 10 November 2014, national traffic rules were altered meaning that this sign will be valid only until 31 December 2019 at the latest, by which time all such signs will have been eliminated. These changes for reasons of road safety.
In Czech Republic and Slovakia right turns on red are allowed only when there is a lit green arrow present (called S 5 in Czech Republic and S 10 in Slovakia). Also in this case the car turning on red must give way to ongoing traffic, to pedestrians and other road users. (According to Czech law § 70 of decree 30 / 2001 of Law Codex; and Slovak law § 9, part 3g, decree 9 / 2009 of Law Codex)
In Romania, right turns on red are prohibited, except when there is a small green flashing light with a right turn arrow. Drivers must yeld to pedestrians. In some one - way junctions, the same rule applies for left on red (such as Cluj - Napoca Avram Iancu Square).
In Bulgaria, right turns on red are prohibited.
In Spain, right turns on red are allowed only if there 's either a flashing amber or lit green arrow - shaped traffic light. Flashing amber arrow allows turning without priority (turn must be done exercising caution, giving way to any other vehicles and pedestrians that may cross the path), while a lit green arrow grants priority. If just a regular set of traffic lights is present (no light arrows), then turning on red is prohibited.
In Iceland, right turns on red are prohibited.
As in the United Kingdom, left turn on red is always prohibited in Hong Kong. At some junctions, however, there may be separate sets of signals for left turns, or specific lanes for turning left separating from the through traffic by traffic islands and give way signs are installed. One such example is at the junction of Queen 's Road East and Morrison Hill Road.
In China, a right turn on red is generally permitted, unless there is a red arrow pointing to the right. However, certain cities such as Shantou prohibited right turn on red.
In India, which drives on the left, a "free left turn '' is generally prohibited. However, some cities specifically permit turning left on a red signal. An explicit green or blinking orange left signal also permits a turn on red, which usually means that conflicting traffic is not permitted to enter the same road.
In Japan, which drives on the left, the only left turn allowed requires a green left arrow along with the red light.
In Singapore, which drives on the left, left turn on red is allowed only when the "Left Turn On Red '' sign is displayed at the traffic junction. The driver will have to stop at the red light first and give way to pedestrians and oncoming vehicles from their right before turning.
In Taiwan, right turn on red is always prohibited, except when there is a green arrow along with the red light.
In Thailand, which drives on the left, left turn on red is allowed unless a sign prohibits it.
In Saudi Arabia, right turn on red is generally permitted, unless there is a dedicated slip lane for right turn.
In Lebanon, unless sign or a red arrow prohibits it, right turning on red is permitted after coming to a full stop to give way to oncoming traffic and pedestrians.
In Australia, which drives on the left, left turns on red are not permitted unless a sign indicating otherwise exists at the intersection. At such intersections, a sign generally reads "left turn on red permitted after stopping, '' meaning a vehicle can make a left turn only after coming to a complete stop first and giving way to approaching traffic and any crossing pedestrians or cyclists. These intersections often take the form of a slip lane.
Such signs are only in limited locations in the states of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia as well as the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory and are banned in other states. In South Australia, there were just 6 such intersections allowing turns on red in the entire state as of 2016. There are conflicting views on the policy of left turns on red, with supporters pointing to lower vehicle emission and time savings, while opponents cite safety concerns.
In New Zealand, which drives on the left, left turns on red are not permitted. However, some intersections have a slip lane passing to the left of the traffic light that then joins on to the main road with a give way sign, effectively allowing a left turn on red.
Turns on red are especially problematic for pedestrians due to drivers looking left for traffic on red light and not noticing a pedestrian waiting to cross the street to the driver 's right. This may lead to a "right hook '' collision when the driver and pedestrian both enter the intersection. Right on red reduces perceived safety for pedestrians and hence walkability. Suburbanization and car oriented development of the west has been a driving force behind right turn on red, although in some downtown core areas even in Western US right on red is explicitly prohibited with signs.
In the U.S., 36 states and Puerto Rico allow left turns on red only if both the origin and destination streets are one way. (See South Carolina law Section 56 - 5 - 970 C3, for example.)
Five other states, namely Alaska, Idaho, Michigan, Oregon and Washington, allow left turns on red onto a one - way street even from a two - way street.
The following states and territories ban left turns on red: South Dakota (unless permitted by local ordinance), Connecticut, Maine, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Rhode Island, the District of Columbia, and Guam. New York City also prohibits left turn on red lights, unless a sign indicates otherwise.
In Canada, left turn on red light from a one - way road into a one - way road is permitted except in some areas of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. Left turn on red light from a two - way road into a one - way road is permitted in British Columbia but only if the driver turns onto the closest lane and yields to pedestrians and cross traffic.
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where does an index go in a report | Index (publishing) - wikipedia
An index (plural: usually indexes, more rarely indices; see below) is a list of words or phrases (' headings ') and associated pointers (' locators ') to where useful material relating to that heading can be found in a document or collection of documents. Examples are an index in the back matter of a book and an index that serves as a library catalog.
In a traditional back - of - the - book index, the headings will include names of people, places, events, and concepts selected by the indexer as being relevant and of interest to a possible reader of the book. The indexer may be the author, the editor, or a professional indexer working as a third party. The pointers are typically page numbers, paragraph numbers or section numbers.
In a library catalog the words are authors, titles, subject headings, etc., and the pointers are call numbers. Internet search engines (such as Google) and full - text searching help provide access to information but are not as selective as an index, as they provide non-relevant links, and may miss relevant information if it is not phrased in exactly the way they expect.
Perhaps the most advanced investigation of problems related to book indexes is made in the development of topic maps, which started as a way of representing the knowledge structures inherent in traditional back - of - the - book indexes. The concept embodied by book indexes lent its name to database indexes, which similarly provide an abridged way to look up information in a larger collection, albeit one for computer use rather than human use.
In the English language, indexes have been referred to as early as 1593, as can be seen from lines in Christopher Marlowe 's Hero and Leander of that year:
Therefore, even as an index to a book So to his mind was young Leander 's look.
A similar reference to indexes is in Shakespeare 's lines from Troilus and Cressida (I. 3.344), written nine years later:
And in such indexes, although small pricks To their subsequent volumes, there is seen The baby figure of the giant mass Of things to come at large.
But according to G. Norman Knight, "at that period, as often as not, by an ' index to a book ' was meant what we should now call a table of contents. ''
Among the first indexes -- in the modern sense -- to a book in the English language was one in Plutarch 's Parallel Lives, in Sir Thomas North 's 1595 translation. A section entitled "An Alphabetical Table of the most material contents of the whole book '' may be found in Henry Scobell 's Acts and Ordinances of Parliament of 1658. This section comes after "An index of the general titles comprised in the ensuing Table ''. Both of these indexes predate the index to Alexander Cruden 's Concordance (1737), which is erroneously held to be the earliest index found in an English book.
The word is derived from Latin, in which index means "one who points out '', an "indication '', or a "forefinger ''.
In Latin, the plural form of the word is indices. In English, the plural "indices '' is commonly used in mathematical and computing contexts, and sometimes in bibliographical contexts -- for example, in the 17 - volume Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia (1999 -- 2002). However, this form is now seen as an archaism by many writers and commentators, who prefer the anglicised plural "indexes ''. "Indexes '' is widely used in the publishing industry; in the International Standard ISO 999, Information and documentation -- Guidelines for the content, organization and presentation of indexes; and is preferred by the Oxford Style Manual. The Chicago Manual of Style allows both forms.
G. Norman Knight quotes Shakespeare 's lines from Troilus and Cressida (I. 3.344) -- "And in such indexes... '' -- and comments:
"But the real importance of this passage is that it establishes for all time the correct literary plural; we can leave the Latin form "indices '' to the mathematicians (and similarly "appendices '' to the anatomists). ''
The indexer reads through the text, identifying indexable concepts (those for which the text provides useful information and which will be of relevance for the text 's readership). The indexer creates index headings to represent those concepts, which are phrased such that they can be found when in alphabetical order (so, for example, one would write ' indexing process ' rather than ' how to create an index '). These headings and their associated locators (indicators to position in the text) are entered into specialist indexing software which handles the formatting of the index and facilitates the editing phase. The index is then edited to impose consistency throughout the index.
Indexers must analyze the text to enable presentation of concepts and ideas in the index that may not be named within the text. The index is intended to help the reader, researcher, or information professional, rather than the author, find information, so the professional indexer must act as a liaison between the text and its ultimate user.
In the United States, according to tradition, the index for a non-fiction book is the responsibility of the author, but most authors do n't actually do it. Most indexing is done by freelancers hired by authors, publishers or an independent business which manages the production of a book, publishers or book packagers. Some publishers and database companies employ indexers.
Commercial software is available to aid the indexer in building a book index. There are several dedicated, indexing software programs available to assist with the special sorting and copying needs involved in index preparation. The most widely known include Cindex, Macrex and SkyIndex. TExtract is a hybrid semi-automatic program combining conventional manual indexing with automated indexing features and text linking.
Embedded indexing involves including the index headings in the midst of the text itself, but surrounded by codes so that they are not normally displayed. A usable index is then generated automatically from the embedded text using the position of the embedded headings to determine the locators. Thus, when the pagination is changed the index can be regenerated with the new locators.
LaTeX documents support embedded indexes primarily through the MakeIndex package. Several widely used XML DTDs, including DocBook and TEI, have elements that allow index creation directly in the XML files. Most word processing software, such as StarWriter / OpenOffice.org Writer, Microsoft Word, and WordPerfect, as well as some desktop publishing software (for example, FrameMaker and InDesign), as well as other tools (MadCap Software 's Flare)) have some facility for embedded indexing as well. TExtract supports embedded indexing of Microsoft Word documents.
An embedded index requires more time to create than a conventional static index; however, an embedded index can save time in the long run when the material is updated or repaginated. This is because, with a static index, if even a few pages change, the entire index must be revised or recreated while, with an embedded index, only the pages that changed need updating or indexing.
Indexes are designed to help the reader find information quickly and easily. A complete and truly useful index is not simply a list of the words and phrases used in a publication (which is properly called a concordance), but an organized map of its contents, including cross-references, grouping of like concepts, and other useful intellectual analysis.
Sample back - of - the - book index excerpt:
In books, indexes are usually placed near the end (this is commonly known as "BoB '' or back - of - book indexing). They complement the table of contents by enabling access to information by specific subject, whereas contents listings enable access through broad divisions of the text arranged in the order they occur. It has been remarked that, while "(a) t first glance the driest part of the book, on closer inspection the index may provide both interest and amusement from time to time. ''
Some principles of good indexing include:
Indexing pitfalls:
Some indexers specialize in specific formats, such as scholarly books, microforms, web indexing (the application of a back - of - book - style index to a website or intranet), search engine indexing, database indexing (the application of a pre-defined controlled vocabulary such as MeSH to articles for inclusion in a database), and periodical indexing (indexing of newspapers, journals, magazines).
Some indexers with expertise in controlled vocabularies also work as taxonomists and ontologists.
Some indexers specialize in particular subject areas, such as anthropology, business, computers, economics, education, government documents, history, law, mathematics, medicine, psychology, and technology. An indexer can be found for any subject.
In "The Library of Babel '', a short story by Jorge Luis Borges, there is an index of indexes that catalogues all of the books in the library, which contains all possible books.
Kurt Vonnegut 's novel Cat 's Cradle includes a character who is a professional indexer and believes that "indexing (is) a thing that only the most amateurish author (undertakes) to do for his own book. '' She claims to be able to read an author 's character through the index he created for his own history text, and warns the narrator, an author, "Never index your own book. ''
Vladimir Nabokov 's novel Pale Fire includes a parody of an index, reflecting the insanity of the narrator.
Mark Danielewski 's novel House of Leaves contains an exhaustive 41 page index of words in the novel, including even large listings for inconsequential words such as the, and, and in.
The American Society for Indexing, Inc. (ASI) is a national association founded in 1968 to promote excellence in indexing and increase awareness of the value of well - designed indexes. ASI serves indexers, librarians, abstractors, editors, publishers, database producers, data searchers, product developers, technical writers, academic professionals, researchers and readers, and others concerned with indexing. It is the only professional organization in the United States devoted solely to the advancement of indexing, abstracting and related methods of information retrieval.
Other similar societies include:
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who does notre dame play for the rest of the season | Notre Dame Fighting Irish Football - wikipedia
The Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team is the intercollegiate football team representing the University of Notre Dame in Notre Dame, Indiana. The team is currently coached by Brian Kelly and plays its home games at the campus 's Notre Dame Stadium, which has a capacity of 77,622. Notre Dame is one of four schools that competes as an Independent at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision level; however, they play five games a year against opponents from the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), which Notre Dame is a member of in all other sports except ice hockey.
Notre Dame is one of the most iconic and successful programs in college football. The school claims 11 national championships, but the NCAA recognizes the school with 13. Moreover, Notre Dame has 21 national championships recognized by all major selectors; this is the most in the FBS, followed by Alabama with 20. Notre Dame and Ohio State share the record of seven Heisman Trophy winners, but Notre Dame leads Ohio State by the number of individual winners. Notre Dame has produced 101 consensus All - Americans, 34 unanimous All - Americans, 52 members of the College Football Hall of Fame, and 13 members of the NFL Hall of Fame, all NCAA records. Notre Dame has had 495 players selected in the NFL Draft, second only to USC.
All Notre Dame home games have been televised by NBC since 1991, and Notre Dame is the only school to have such a contract. It was the only independent program to be part of the Bowl Championship Series coalition and its guaranteed payout, and it has one of the largest, most widespread fan bases in college football. These factors help make Notre Dame one of the most financially valuable football programs in the country, which allows the school to remain an independent.
Football did not have an auspicious beginning at the University of Notre Dame. In their inaugural game on November 23, 1887, the Irish lost to Michigan by a score of 8 -- 0. Their first win came in the final game of the 1888 season when the Irish defeated Harvard Prep School of Chicago by a score of 20 -- 0. At the end of the 1888 season they had a record of 1 -- 3 with all three losses being at the hands of Michigan by a combined score of 43 -- 9. Between 1887 and 1899 Notre Dame compiled a record of 31 wins, 15 losses, and four ties against a diverse variety of opponents ranging from local high school teams to other universities.
In 1894, James L. Morison was hired as Notre Dame 's first head football coach. Notre Dame took a significant step toward respectability, prominence, and stability when they hired Morison. He wrote an acquaintance after his first day on the job: "I arrived here (Notre Dame) this morning and found about as green a set of football players that ever donned a uniform... They want to smoke, and when I told them that they would have to run and get up some wind, they thought I was rubbing it in on them. "One big, strong cuss remarked that it was too much like work. Well, maybe you think I did n't give him hell! I bet you a hundred no one ever makes a remark like that again. '' Morrison had been hired for $40 plus expenses for two weeks.
In 1908, the win over Franklin saw end Fay Wood catch the first touchdown pass in Notre Dame history. Notre Dame continued its success near the turn of the century and achieved their first victory over Michigan in 1909 by the score of 11 -- 3 after which Michigan refused to play Notre Dame again for 33 years. By the end of the 1912 season they had amassed a record of 108 wins, 31 losses, and 13 ties.
Jesse Harper became head coach in 1913 and remained so until he retired in 1917. During his tenure the Irish began playing only intercollegiate games and posted a record of 34 wins, five losses, and one tie. This period would also mark the beginning of the rivalry with Army and the continuation of rivalry with Michigan State.
In 1913, Notre Dame burst into the national consciousness and helped to transform the collegiate game in a single contest. In an effort to gain respect for a regionally successful but small - time Midwestern football program, Harper scheduled games in his first season with national powerhouses Texas, Penn State, and Army. On November 1, 1913, the Notre Dame squad stunned the Black Knights of the Hudson 35 -- 13 in a game played at West Point. Led by quarterback Gus Dorais and end Knute Rockne -- who was soon to be legendary coach -- the Notre Dame team attacked the Cadets with an offense that featured both the expected powerful running game but also long and accurate downfield forward passes from Dorais to Rockne. This game has been miscredited as the invention of the forward pass. Prior to this contest, receivers would come to a full - stop and wait on the ball to come to them, but in this contest, Dorais threw to Rockne in stride, changing the forward pass from a seldom - used play into the dominant ball - moving strategy that it is today.
Irish assistant Knute Rockne became head coach in 1918. Under Rockne, the Irish would post a record of 105 wins, 12 losses, and five ties. The 105 wins account for 12.3 % of all wins in Notre Dame football history. During his 13 years, the Irish won three national championships, had five undefeated seasons, won the Rose Bowl in 1925, and produced players such as George Gipp and the "Four Horsemen ''. Knute Rockne has the highest winning percentage (. 881) in NCAA Division I / FBS football history. Rockne 's offenses employed the Notre Dame Box and his defenses ran a 7 -- 2 -- 2 scheme.
Rockne took over in the war - torn season of 1918 and posted a 3 -- 1 -- 2 record; he lost only to the Michigan Agricultural Aggies. He made his coaching debut on September 28, 1918, against Case Tech in Cleveland, Ohio and earned a 26 -- 6 victory. Leonard Bahan, George Gipp, and Curly Lambeau were in the backfield. With Gipp, Rockne had an ideal handler of the forward pass. The 1919 team had Rockne handle the line and Gus Dorais handle the backfield. The team went undefeated and won the national championship.
Gipp died at age 25 on December 14, 1920, just two weeks after Walter Camp elected him as Notre Dame 's first All - American. Gipp likely contracted strep throat and pneumonia while giving punting lessons after his final game on November 20 against Northwestern. Since antibiotics were not available in the 1920s, treatment options for such infections were limited and they could be fatal even to young, healthy individuals. Rockne was speaking to Gipper on his hospital bed when he was purported to have delivered the famous, "Win one for the Gipper '' line.
John Mohardt led the 1921 Notre Dame team to a 10 -- 1 record with 781 rushing yards, 995 passing yards, 12 rushing touchdowns, and nine passing touchdowns. Grantland Rice wrote that "Mohardt could throw the ball to within a foot or two of any given space '' and noted that the 1921 Notre Dame team "was the first team we know of to build its attack around a forward passing game, rather than use a forward passing game as a mere aid to the running game. '' Mohardt had both Eddie Anderson and Roger Kiley at end to receive his passes.
The national champion 1924 team included the "Four Horsemen '' backfield of Harry Stuhldreher, Don Miller, Jim Crowley, and Elmer Layden. The line was known as the "Seven Mules ''. The Irish capped an undefeated, 10 -- 0 season with a victory over Stanford in the Rose Bowl.
The 1926 team beat Army and was led by Christie Flanagan. For all his success, Rockne also made what an Associated Press writer called "one of the greatest coaching blunders in history. '' Instead of coaching his team against Carnegie Tech, Rockne traveled to Chicago for the Army -- Navy Game to "write newspaper articles about it, as well as select an All - America football team. '' Carnegie Tech used the coach 's absence as motivation for a 19 -- 0 win; the upset likely cost the Irish a chance for a national title.
The 1928 team lost to national champion Georgia Tech. "I sat at Grant Field and saw a magnificent Notre Dame team suddenly recoil before the furious pounding of one man -- Peter Pund, '' said Rockne. "Nobody could stop him. I counted 20 scoring plays that this man ruined. '' Among the events that occurred during Rockne 's tenure none may be more famous than the Rockne 's Win one for the Gipper speech. Army came into the 1928 matchup undefeated and was the clear favorite. Notre Dame, on the other hand, was having their worst season under Rockne 's leadership and entered the game with a 4 -- 2 record. At the end of the half Army was leading and looked to be in command of the game. Rockne entered the locker room and gave his account of Gipp 's final words: "I 've got to go, Rock. It 's all right. I 'm not afraid. Some time, Rock, when the team is up against it, when things are going wrong and the breaks are beating the boys, tell them to go in there with all they 've got and win just one for the Gipper. I do n't know where I 'll be then, Rock. But I 'll know about it, and I 'll be happy. '' The speech inspired the team and they went on to upset Army and win the game 12 -- 6.
The 1929 and 1930 teams both went undefeated, winning national championships, and the 1930 team was led by the likes of Frank Carideo, Joe Savoldi, Marchy Schwartz and Marty Brill. It featured the first and only example of all four members of a backfield being named to an All - American team during the same season. The 1929 team played all of its games on the road while the new Notre Dame Stadium was being built. In 1930, "Jumping Joe '' Savoldi scored the first Notre Dame touchdown in the new stadium on a 98 - yard kickoff return. Savoldi is also known as "the first hero in the lore of Notre Dame 's Stadium '' based on scoring three touchdowns in the official stadium dedication game against Navy the following week. Rockne coached his last game on December 14, 1930, when he led a group of Notre Dame all - stars against the New York Giants in New York City. The game raised funds for the Mayor 's Relief Committee for the unemployed and needy of the city. 50,000 fans turned out to see the reunited "Four Horsemen '' along with players from Rockne 's other championship teams take the field against the pros.
On March 31, 1931, Rockne died at age 43 in the crash of a Transcontinental & Western Air airliner in Kansas; he was on his way to help in the production of the film The Spirit of Notre Dame. The crash site is located in a remote expanse of Kansas known as the Flint Hills and now features a Rockne Memorial. As Notre Dame 's head coach from 1918 to 1930, Rockne posted what has remained for decades the all - time highest winning percentage (. 881) for a football coach in the NCAA 's flagship FBS division. During his 13 - year tenure as head coach of the Fighting Irish, Rockne collected 105 victories, 12 losses, 5 ties and 3 national championships. Rockne also coached Notre Dame to 5 undefeated and untied seasons.
Through game broadcasts during the Golden Age of Radio, Notre Dame football gained a nationwide following of "subway alumni '', Catholics who became fans whether or not they attended the university. Former Saint Louis head coach Heartley "Hunk '' Anderson was promoted from assistant coach and took the helm of the Irish after Knute Rockne 's death, leading them to a record of 16 wins, nine losses, and two ties. Anderson was a former Irish player under Rockne and was serving as an assistant coach at the time of Rockne 's death. Anderson resigned as Irish head coach after the 1933 season to accept the position of head football coach at NC State.
Notre Dame finished 6 -- 2 -- 1 in 1931. The Irish began the season with a 25 -- 0 win over Indiana, Notre Dame tied Northwestern in the season 's second game. Anderson 's squad then demolished Drake by a score of 63 -- 0. After defeating Pittsburgh by a score of 25 -- 12, the Fighting Irish shut out their next three opponents; Carnegie Mellon, Pennsylvania and Navy. The Irish lost a heartbreaker by a score of 16 -- 14 to USC on November 21 that snapped the Irish 's 26 - game non-losing streak. Army shut out the Irish by a score of 12 -- 0 on November 28 to finish the Irish 's season. The Irish went 7 -- 2 in 1932. Anderson 's team began with three blowout victories; 73 -- 0 over Haskell, 62 -- 0 over Drake and 42 -- 0 over Carnegie Mellon. The Irish then faced Pittsburgh in front of a then - record crowd of 62,000, losing by a score of 12 -- 0. Notre Dame bounced back to win its next four; 24 -- 6 over Kansas, 21 -- 0 over Northwestern, 12 -- 0 over Navy and 21 -- 0 over Army in front of a new record crowd on 80,000. Anderson 's Irish closed the season on a sour note, losing to USC by a score of 13 -- 0. 1933 was a tough year for the Irish as they finished with a 3 -- 5 -- 2 record. Notre Dame began the season in a scoreless tie with Kansas. After defeating Indiana by a score of 12 -- 2, ND suffered a four - game losing streak, failing to score a point in all four losses to Carnegie Tartan, Pittsburgh, Navy. and Purdue. Notre Dame ended the losing streak by defeating Northwestern by a score of 7 -- 0. The Fighting Irish closed the season with a 19 -- 0 loss to USC and a 13 -- 12 win over Army.
Anderson was replaced by Elmer Layden, who was one of Rockne 's "Four Horsemen '' in the 1920s. After graduating, Layden played professional football for one year and then began a coaching career. The Irish posted a record of 47 wins, 13 losses, and three ties in seven years under Layden, the most successful record of a Notre Dame coach not to win a national championship. He left Notre Dame after the 1940 season to become Commissioner of the National Football League.
Layden 's 1935 squad posted one of the greatest wins in school history by rallying to defeat Ohio State by a score of 18 -- 13. His 1938 team finished 8 -- 1, losing only to USC in the season finale. This loss cost them a possible consensus national championship, but the team was named national champion by the Dickinson System. Like Rockne before him, Layden was a goodwill ambassador for Notre Dame during his time as head coach. He was able to schedule a home - and - home series with Michigan after meeting with Fielding H. Yost, healing a rift between the two schools. The two teams had not met since 1909, when, after eight straight losses to the Wolverines, the Irish posted their first win. They were scheduled to meet again in 1910, but Michigan canceled the game and refused to play the Irish again. By the time they met again in 1943, Layden had left Notre Dame and Frank Leahy had taken his place. Unlike the easygoing Layden, Leahy was intense, and after the Irish had thrashed Michigan by a score of 35 -- 12 in 1943, Wolverine coach and athletic director Fritz Crisler never scheduled the Irish again.
Boston College head coach Frank Leahy was hired by Notre Dame to take over for Layden in 1941, and was another former Irish player who played during the Rockne era. After graduating from Notre Dame, Leahy held several coaching positions, including line coach of the "Seven Blocks of Granite '' of Fordham University that helped that team win all but two of their games between 1935 and 1937. He then coached the Boston College Eagles to a win in the 1941 Sugar Bowl and a share of the national championship. His move to Notre Dame began a new period of gridiron success for the Irish, and ensured Leahy 's place among the winningest coaches in the history of college football.
Leahy coached the team for 11 seasons, from 1941 to 1943 and 1946 to 1953. He has the second highest winning percentage (. 864) of any college coach in history. He led the Irish to a record of 87 wins, 11 losses, and nine ties including 39 consecutive games without a loss (37 -- 0 -- 2), four national championships, and six undefeated seasons. A fifth national championship was lost because of a 1953 tie against Iowa, in a game that featured 1953 Heisman Trophy winner Johnny Lattner that caused a minor scandal at the time, when it appeared that some Irish players had faked injuries to stop the clock, leading some to nickname those players the "Fainting Irish ''. From 1944 to 1945, Leahy served in the U.S. Navy during World War II and was honorably discharged as a Captain. Edward McKeever, Leahy 's assistant coach, became interim head coach when Leahy left for the Navy. During his one year at the helm (1944) the Irish managed 8 wins and 2 losses. McKeever left Notre Dame in 1945 to take over as head coach of Cornell. He was replaced by Hugh Devore for the 1945 season who led the Irish to a 7 -- 2 -- 1 record.
Leahy retired in 1954 reportedly due to health issues. Perhaps the best example of this occurred during the Georgia Tech game in 1953. Leahy fell ill during the game, which led to him collapsing during halftime. The situation was so dire that a priest was called in to give Leahy the last rites. However, Leahy recovered, and the consequent diagnosis was that he was suffering from nervous tension and pancreatitis.
The departure of Frank Leahy ushered in a downward slope in Notre Dame 's performance, referred to in various circles as a period of de-emphasis. 25 - year old assistant coach Terry Brennan was hired as Frank Leahy 's successor as the Notre Dame head coach in 1954 and would stay until 1958. When asked if he thought he was too young to be a head coach at the age of 25, Brennan replied, "Oh, I do n't know. I 'll be 26 in a few months. '' He departed with a total of 32 wins and 18 losses. But note: the 32 wins included 17 in 1954 and 1955. From 1956 to 1958 his record was 15 -- 15. Brennan was a former player under Leahy and before joining the Irish had coached the Mount Carmel High School team in Chicago and later the freshman squad and assistant at Notre Dame. His first two seasons the Irish were ranked fourth and ninth respectively. It was the 1956 season that began to darken his reputation, for it became one of the most dismal in the team 's history and saw them finish the season with a mere two wins, including losses to Michigan State, Oklahoma, and Iowa. One bright spot in the 1956 season was the awarding of the Heisman Trophy to Paul Hornung, who would go on to a legendary NFL career with the Green Bay Packers. To date, Hornung is the only Heisman winner to win the award while playing for a team that had a losing record. The Irish would recover the following season, posting a record of 7 -- 3 and including in their wins a stunning upset of Oklahoma, in Norman, Oklahoma, that ended the Sooners ' still - standing record of 47 consecutive wins. In Brennan 's final season, though, the Irish finished 6 -- 4. Brennan was fired in mid-December. Brennan 's tenure can only be properly framed with the understanding that in a time of zero scholarship limitations in college football, Notre Dame 's administration inexplicably began a process of deemphasizing football, severely cutting scholarships and hindering Brennan from building a roster of any meaningful depth.
Former San Francisco, Chicago Cardinals and Washington Redskins head coach Joe Kuharich took the head coaching position at Notre Dame in 1959, realizing a longtime ambition to return to his alma mater. He had earlier been courted by Notre Dame after the 1956 season, after the Irish finished 2 -- 8, but before he had a chance to accept an offer, Terry Brennan was given a reprieve. He brought a professional touch to Irish football, putting shamrocks on the players ' helmets and shoulder stripes on their jerseys. Kuharich compiled a 17 -- 23 record over four non-winning seasons and remains to this day the only coach ever to have an overall losing record at Notre Dame. Included was a school - record eight - game losing streak in 1960, a year in which the Irish finished 2 -- 8. It was one of the worst stretches in program history. The consensus opinion was that Kuharich never made the adjustment from pro football to college football, attempting to use complicated pro coaching techniques with collegiate players, and never adapted to the limited substitution rules in effect at the time, having big, immobile linemen playing both ways in an era where smaller, quicker players were preferred. He often said, "You win some and you lose some '', and seemed perfectly content finishing 5 -- 5 every year. This did not sit well with the Irish faithful, who expected Notre Dame to beat everybody. When the pressure of winning became too much to bear, Kuharich resigned in the spring of 1963 and assumed the post of supervisor of NFL officials. Because it was so late in the spring, Hugh Devore was named head coach for the 1963 season while the search for a permanent replacement was being conducted. The players that he recruited came to within 93 seconds of an undefeated season and a national championship in 1964 under first - year coach Ara Parseghian. Despite his unsuccessful Notre Dame tenure, Kuharich remains the only Irish coach to post back - to - back shutouts over their greatest rival, the University of Southern California Trojans in 1960 (17 -- 0) and 1961 (30 -- 0).
Kuharich was involved in a game whose controversial ending resulted in a rule change still in effect today. In 1961, Notre Dame faced Syracuse at home and trailed, 15 -- 14, with three seconds left to play. A desperation 56 - yard field goal attempt fell short as time ran out, and Syracuse appeared to have won the game. But the Orangemen were penalized 15 yards for roughing the placekick holder, and given a second chance with no time showing on the clock, Notre Dame kicker Joe Perkowski drilled a 41 - yard field goal for a 17 -- 15 Irish victory. Syracuse immediately cried foul, claiming that under the existing rules, the second kick should not have been allowed because time had expired. It never was clear whether the officials had erred in allowing the extra play, and the Irish victory was permitted to stand. As a result of this game, the rule was clarified to state that a half can not end on an accepted defensive foul -- consistent with the officials ' ruling in this game.
In 1964, Ara Parseghian left his job as the Northwestern head football coach when he was hired to take over the coaching duties at Notre Dame. He immediately brought the team back to a level of success in Irish football history that was comparable only to Rockne and Leahy. These three coaches have an 80 % or greater winning percentage while at Notre Dame -- Rockne at. 881, Leahy at. 864, and Parseghian at. 836. Parseghian 's teams never won fewer than seven nor lost more than three games during the ten game regular seasons of the era.
In his first year, the Irish improved their record to 9 -- 1, but they lost the national championship in the last game of the season at USC when Craig Fertig connected with a touchdown pass to Rod Sherman. Parseghian earned coach of the year honors from the American Football Coaches Association, the Football Writers Association, and The Sporting News, as well as several others, and a cover story in Time magazine. Parseghian was also named coach of the year by several selectors in his national championship years of 1966 and 1973 and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1980. It was under Parseghian as well that Notre Dame lifted its 40 - plus year - old "no bowl games '' policy, beginning with the season of 1969, after which the Irish played the No. 1 Texas Longhorns in the Cotton Bowl Classic, losing in the final minutes in a closely contested game. The following year, Parseghian 's 9 -- 1 squad ended Texas ' Southwest Conference record 30 - game winning streak in the 1971 Cotton Bowl.
During his eleven - year career, the Irish amassed a record of 95 -- 17 -- 4 and captured two national championships as well as the MacArthur Bowl in 1964. The Irish also had undefeated seasons in 1966 and 1973, had three major bowl wins in five appearances, and produced one Heisman Trophy winner (John Huarte in 1964). In 1971, Cliff Brown became the first African - American quarterback to start a game for the program. Due to health issues, Parseghian was forced to retire from coaching after the 1974 season.
Dan Devine was hired to take over as head coach upon Parseghian 's departure from Notre Dame in 1975. Devine was already a highly successful coach and had led Arizona State, Missouri, and the NFL 's Green Bay Packers. Devine had been a leading candidate for the head coaching job at Notre Dame in 1964, when Ara Parseghian was hired. When approached for the job following Parseghian 's resignation, Devine accepted immediately, joking that it was probably the shortest job interview in history. When he arrived at Notre Dame he already had a college coaching record of 120 wins, 40 losses, and eight ties and had led his teams to victory in four bowl games. At Notre Dame he would lead the Irish to 53 wins, 16 losses, and a tie as well as three bowl victories.
His lasting achievement came midway through this run, when Notre Dame won the 1977 national championship, led by junior quarterback Joe Montana. The championship season climaxed with a 38 -- 10 win in the 1978 Cotton Bowl Classic over previously top - ranked Texas, led by Heisman Trophy winner Earl Campbell. The win vaulted the Irish from fifth to first in the polls. Earlier in the season, before the annual game against USC, played at home on October 22, Devine changed the team 's jerseys from navy blue & white to kelly green & gold, later known as the "green jersey game '' resulting in a 49 -- 19 victory over the Trojans. The Irish continued to wear green for the rest of Devine 's tenure at the school.
Like Joe Kuharich before him, Devine was involved in a game while at Notre Dame whose ending resulted in a rule change still in effect today. On September 15, 1979, the Irish faced the Michigan Wolverines in Ann Arbor in their season opener. With six seconds remaining, Michigan lined up for a game - winning field goal attempt. Notre Dame linebacker Bob Crable climbed up onto the back of opposing long snapper Mike Trgovac and was able to block the kick, preserving a 12 -- 10 Irish victory. A new rule was implemented the following season that prohibited this tactic.
Because he had the unenviable task of following a legend, Devine came under heavy scrutiny while at Notre Dame and it was felt that he was never fully embraced by the Notre Dame community, despite winning a national championship. After a 5 -- 2 start in his first season, rumors of incompetence were circulated and that Devine would be dismissed and replaced by Don Shula or even Ara Parseghian (who went so far as to say he would not return to Notre Dame under any circumstances). Even on the day of the 1977 USC game, "Dump Devine '' bumper stickers were being sold outside Notre Dame Stadium. He also had the notoriety of losing to his old program, a shocking 3 -- 0 loss to the Tigers at South Bend in 1978.
On August 15, 1980, Devine announced that he would be leaving Notre Dame at the end of season, saying he wanted to be able to spend more time with his wife. He moved back to Arizona and became a fundraiser for Arizona State University 's Sun Devil Foundation. In 1985, he was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame, and then returned to his old school at Missouri seven years later as athletic director to help navigate the school through financial troubles. Devine was inducted into the inaugural class of the University of Minnesota Duluth Athletic Hall of Fame in 1991.
Gerry Faust was hired to replace Devine in 1981. Prior to Notre Dame, Faust had been one of the more successful high school football coaches in the country. As coach of Moeller High School in Cincinnati he amassed a 174 -- 17 -- 2 record over 19 seasons. Many of his players had gone on to play for Notre Dame; indeed, when he arrived in South Bend, he was reunited with nine of his former players from Moeller.
Despite his success in the high school ranks, Faust 's success at Notre Dame was mixed and his record mediocre at best. In his first season, the Irish finished 5 -- 6. In Faust 's second season, Notre Dame improved slightly to 6 -- 4 -- 1. The most successful years under Faust were the 1983 and 1984 campaigns where the Irish finished 7 -- 5 and made trips to the Liberty Bowl and Aloha Bowl respectively. His final record at Notre Dame was 30 -- 26 -- 1. To avoid being fired, Faust resigned at the end of the 1985 season, following fan cries of "Oust Faust ''. He accounced his resignation prior to the final game of the year, where Notre Dame suffered a humiliating 58 -- 7 loss at Miami; Allen Pinkett scored the Irish TD. Faust proceeded to take over as head coach at Akron.
Lou Holtz had 17 years of head coaching experience by the time he was hired to lead the Irish. He had previously been head coach of William & Mary, North Carolina State, the NFL 's New York Jets, Arkansas, and Minnesota. Holtz began in 1986 where his predecessor left off in 1985, finishing with an identical record of 5 wins and 6 losses. However, unlike the 1985 squad, which was generally outcoached and outplayed, Holtz 's 1986 edition was competitive in nearly every game, losing five out of those six games by a combined total of 14 points. That would be his only losing season as he posted a record of 95 -- 24 -- 2 over the next ten seasons adding up to a 100 -- 30 -- 2 record overall.
In 1987, Holtz led the Irish to a 8 -- 4 record. Notre Dame 's best player was star wide receiver Tim Brown, who would win the Heisman Trophy that season and is Notre Dame 's seventh and last Heisman winner to date. The season began with the Irish defeating # 9 Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan by a score of 26 -- 7. The next week, the Irish defeated # 17 Michigan State by a score of 31 -- 8. After defeating Purdue, the Irish lost to Pittsburgh and lost starting quarterback Terry Andrysiak to injury during the game. With sophomore quarterback Tony Rice under center, the Irish reeled off five straight wins, beginning with Air Force, then USC, Navy, Boston College and # 10 Alabama. Notre Dame would then lose their last three to close the season, starting with Penn State, then # 2 Miami and Texas A&M in the Cotton Bowl.
In contrast to Faust, Holtz was well known as a master motivator and a strict disciplinarian. The tone was set with Holtz 's first meeting with his team as Irish head coach in 1986, immediately demanding his players sit up straight in their chairs and look him in the eye as he spoke. He displayed the latter trait in spades when two of his top contributing players showed up late for dinner right before the then top - ranked Irish played second - ranked USC in the final regular season game of 1988. In a controversial move, coach Lou Holtz took his 10 -- 0 Irish squad to Los Angeles without stars Ricky Watters and Tony Brooks, who he suspended for disciplinary reasons. This was not the first time these players had gotten into trouble and the players had been warned there would be serious consequences if it happened again. His move was vindicated when the Irish defeated USC anyway. Holtz was named national coach of the year (Paul "Bear '' Bryant Award) in 1988, the same season he took Notre Dame to an upset of No. 1 Miami in the Catholics vs. Convicts series and a win over No. 3 West Virginia in the Fiesta Bowl, thus capturing the national championship. The Irish finished a perfect 12 -- 0 in 1988, its last undefeated season and national championship to date.
Occasionally, despite his lack of success with the N.Y. Jets, he was rumored to be leaving Notre Dame for the NFL. Following a 6 -- 10 season in 1990 and an 8 -- 8 showing in 1991, the Minnesota Vikings were rumored to replace Jerry Burns with Holtz. However, Holtz denied these rumors each of those two seasons. Holtz remained at Notre Dame; the Vikings, meanwhile, hired Dennis Green to replace the retired Jerry Burns. Ironically, Holtz nearly replaced Green five years later after retiring from Notre Dame.
In 1989, Holtz led the Irish to a 12 -- 1 record. The Irish began the season in the Kickoff Classic game in East Rutherford, New Jersey against Virginia. The Irish won by a score of 36 -- 13. Next, top - ranked Notre Dame defeated # 2 Michigan by a score of 24 -- 19. That was followed by wins over Michigan State, Purdue, Stanford, # 17 Air Force, # 9 USC, # 7 Pittsburgh, Navy, SMU and # 17 Penn State. The Irish would lose to # 7 Miami the following week, ending Notre Dame 's 23 - game winning streak. Holtz would lead the Irish to a victory in the Orange Bowl over # 1 Colorado to end the season.
Holtz led the Fighting Irish to a 9 -- 3 record in 1990. The season began with a # 1 ranking and a victory over # 4 Michigan by a score of 28 -- 24. The Irish defeated # 24 Michigan State the following week then beat Purdue. The Irish would suffer its first defeat of the season the next week, losing to Stanford by a score of 36 -- 31. The Irish would rebound to post five consecutive wins, defeating Air Force, # 2 Miami, Pittsburgh, Navy and # 9 Tennessee. After losing 24 -- 21 to # 22 Penn State, the Irish defeated USC by a score of 10 -- 6 in the regular season finale. The Irish would get a rematch with Colorado in the Orange Bowl but would lose by a score of 10 -- 9.
The Fighting Irish would go 10 -- 3 in 1991. After defeating Indiana to open the season, the Irish lost to # 4 Michigan by a score of 24 -- 14. The Irish won their next seven, defeating Michigan State, Purdue, Stanford, # 12 Pittsburgh, Air Force, USC and Navy. The Irish would suffer a defeat to # 13 Tennessee at home, blowing a 24 - point lead to lose by a score of 35 -- 34. Notre Dame would then lose back - to - back games for the first time since 1987 when they lost to unranked Penn State, their first loss to an unranked opponent also since 1987. The Irish would close out the regular season with a victory over Hawaii by a score of 48 -- 42. The Irish would receive a berth in the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans, Louisiana, where they defeated Florida by a score of 39 -- 28.
In 1992, Notre Dame would finish 10 -- 1 -- 1. After defeating Northwestern to start the season, the Fighting Irish tied # 5 Michigan, their first tie of the Holtz era. After defeating Michigan State and Purdue, the Irish lost to # 19 Stanford by a score of 33 -- 16. Notre Dame would win out for the rest of the season, defeating Pittsburgh, BYU, Navy, # 9 Boston College, # 21 Penn State, # 23 USC and the Cotton Bowl against # 3 Texas A&M.
The Irish would enjoy another successful season in 1993, finishing the season at 11 -- 1. After scoring 27 points in wins over Northwestern and # 2 Michigan to start the season, the Irish defeated Michigan State, Purdue, Pittsburgh, BYU, USC, Navy and # 1 Florida State. However, a loss to # 12 Boston College on a game - winning field goal as time expired by a score of 41 -- 39 ended the Irish 's national championship aspirations. The Irish would face a rematch with # 6 Texas A&M in the Cotton Bowl to finish the season, a game the Irish won by a score of 24 -- 21.
In 1994, Holtz led Notre Dame to a 6 -- 5 -- 1 record, the Irish 's worst record since Holtz 's first season in 1986. The Irish would begin by defeating Northwestern but would lose to # 5 Michigan by a score of 26 -- 24. The Irish defeated Michigan State the following week by a score of 21 -- 20. After wins over Purdue and Stanford, the Irish would lose three of their next four to drop out of the rankings for the first time since 1986. After beating Navy, the Fighting Irish lost to # 6 Florida State by a score of 23 -- 16. After beating Air Force, Notre Dame tied USC and lost to # 5 Colorado in the Fiesta Bowl by a score of 41 -- 24.
The Irish would improve to 9 -- 3 in 1995. Despite getting upset by Northwestern to begin the season, the Irish won their next three, defeating Purdue, Vanderbilt (a game in which Coach Holtz missed because of a health issue and defensive coordinator Bob Davie filled in as head coach for the game), and # 10 Texas. After losing to # 6 Ohio State, the Irish reeled off six straight wins, defeating # 15 Washington, Army, # 5 USC, Boston College, Navy and Air Force. The Irish would finish the 1995 campaign by losing to # 8 Florida State in the Orange Bowl.
Lou Holtz 's last season at Notre Dame in 1996 resulted in an 8 -- 3 record. After defeating Vanderbilt, Purdue and # 8 Texas, the Irish lost to # 4 Ohio State. Notre Dame would finish the season with a win over # 16 Washington, a loss to Air Force in overtime, a win over Navy, a win over Boston College, a win over Pittsburgh, a win over Rutgers and an overtime loss to USC, snapping the Irish 's 13 - game non-losing streak against the Trojans.
Holtz 's option offense, which helped catapult Notre Dame to many victories in the late 1980s and early 1990s, also helped rack up impressive recruiting classes. During the 1989 season, Holtz had the following future NFL players on offense: QB Rick Mirer, RB Ricky Watters, RB Anthony Johnson, RB Rodney Culver, RB Dorsey Levens, and WR Raghib Ismail. In 1990, he added RB Jeff Burris (who would later move to Safety), FB Jerome Bettis and TE Irv Smith. 1991 saw the additions of RB Reggie Brooks and FB Ray Zellars. 1992 saw the addition of WR Derrick Mayes. For 1993, he added FB Marc Edwards. In 1995, he added RB Autry Denson. From the 1987 -- 1991 NFL Drafts, there were 33 Notre Dame players selected. From the 1992 -- 1995 NFL Drafts, there were 32 Notre Dame players selected.
Overall, Holtz took Notre Dame to one undefeated season, nine consecutive New Year 's Day bowl games, and top 10 finishes in the AP poll in five seasons. Holtz retired from Notre Dame following the 1996 season, but would unretire in 1999 to accept the head coaching position at South Carolina where he would serve until the completion of the 2004 season.
Bob Davie, who had been Holtz 's defensive coordinator from 1994 to 1996, was promoted to head coach when Holtz retired. Davie, who turned down a head coaching offer from Purdue to accept the Irish 's head coaching position, was a well - respected defensive mind who had also served as defensive coordinator at Tulane and Texas A&M. Davie had also filled in as head coach for one game during the 1995 season when Lou Holtz was dealing with a health issue. One of his first major decisions was to fire long - time offensive line coach Joe Moore, who then successfully sued the university for age discrimination. On Davie 's watch, the team suffered three bowl game losses (1997 Independence Bowl, 1999 Gator Bowl, and 2001 Fiesta Bowl), and it failed to qualify for a bowl game in two others (1999 and 2001). The highlight of Davie 's tenure was a 36 -- 20 upset win in 1998 over # 5 Michigan, the defending national champions. Davie 's Irish also posted a 25 -- 24 home victory over USC in 1999. Davie nearly defeated top ranked Nebraska in 2000, with the Irish comeback bid falling short in overtime 27 -- 24. The aforementioned 2001 Fiesta Bowl was Notre Dame 's first invitation to the Bowl Championship Series. The Irish lost by 32 points to Oregon State, but would finish No. 15 in the AP Poll, Davie 's highest ranking as head coach. The 2001 squad was awarded the American Football Coaches Association Achievement Award for its 100 % graduation rate.
On December 17, 1999, Notre Dame was placed on probation by the NCAA for the only time in its history. The association 's Committee on Infractions found two series of violations. The New York Times reported "the main one involved the actions of a booster, Kimberly Dunbar, who lavished gifts on football players with money she later pleaded guilty to embezzling. '' In the second series of events, a football player was accused of trying to sell several complimentary game tickets and of using others as repayment of a loan. The player was also said "to have been romantically involved with a woman (not Dunbar), a part - time tutor at the university, who wrote a term paper for another player for a small fee and provided players with meals, lodging and gifts. '' The Dunbar violation began while Lou Holtz was head coach: "According to the NCAA committee report, Dunbar, the woman at the center of the more serious violations, had become romantically involved with several Notre Dame football players from June 1995 to January 1998 and had a child with one, Jarvis Edison. '' Notre Dame was placed on probation for two years and lost one of its 85 football scholarships each year in what the Times termed "minor '' penalties.
Following the 1998 season, the team fell into a pattern of frustrating inconsistency and alternated between successful and mediocre seasons. Despite Davie 's rocky tenure, new athletic director Kevin White gave the coach a contract extension following the Fiesta Bowl - capped 2000 season, then saw the team start 0 -- 3 in 2001 -- the first such start in school history. Disappointed by the on - field results, coupled with the Joe Moore and Kim Dunbar scandals, the administration decided to dismiss Davie after the 2001 season. His final record at Notre Dame was 35 -- 25. After departing Notre Dame, Davie accepted an offer from ESPN to serve as a play - by - play broadcast college football analyst, a position he would hold for ten years before New Mexico hired him to be their head football coach in December 2011.
On December 9, 2001, Notre Dame hired George O'Leary, the head coach at Georgia Tech, to replace Davie. However, while researching a "local boy done good '' story on O'Leary, (Manchester) Union Leader reporter Jim Fennell uncovered misrepresentations in O'Leary's resume that had influenced the administration 's decision to hire him. The resulting media scandal embarrassed Notre Dame officials, and tainted O'Leary; he resigned five days later, before coaching a single practice, recruiting a single player, or hiring a single assistant coach. O'Leary's tenure is the shortest of any head coach in FBS history. O'Leary would go on to become the head football coach at the University of Central Florida.
Once again in need of a new head coach, the school turned to Tyrone Willingham, the head coach at Stanford. Willingham 's hiring made him the first African American head coach in Notre Dame football history. Bringing a feeling of change and excitement to campus, Willingham led the 2002 squad to a 10 -- 2 regular season record, including an 8 -- 0 start with wins over # 7 Michigan and # 11 Florida State, and a No. 4 ranking. This great early start, however, would be the lone highlight of Willingham 's tenure, as Notre Dame finished the year with a heart - breaking loss to Boston College, then lopsided losses to USC and North Carolina State in the Gator Bowl. The program faltered over the next two seasons under Willingham, compiling an 11 -- 12 record. During this time, Notre Dame lost a game by at least 30 points on five occasions. Furthermore, Willingham 's 2004 recruiting class was judged by analysts to be the worst at Notre Dame in more than two decades. Citing Notre Dame 's third consecutive four - touchdown loss to arch - rival USC compounded by another year of sub-par recruiting efforts, the Willingham era ended on November 30, 2004 (after the conclusion of the 2004 season) when the university chose to terminate him and pay out the remainder of Willingham 's six - year contract. Willingham would n't be unemployed for long, however, as he would accept the head coaching position at Washington two weeks after he was fired by the Irish.
After Willingham 's firing, Notre Dame initially pursued Utah head coach Urban Meyer, who had been an Irish assistant from 1996 -- 2000. After Meyer accepted the Florida head coaching position and turned down the Irish, Charlie Weis left the NFL 's New England Patriots, where he won three Super Bowls as offensive coordinator, to become head football coach for the Irish beginning with the 2005 season. Weis ' hiring as the Irish 's 30th head football coach made him the first Notre Dame graduate to hold the football head coaching position on a full - fledged basis since Joe Kuharich (a 1938 Notre Dame graduate).
In his inaugural season he led Notre Dame to a record of 9 -- 3, including an appearance in the Fiesta Bowl, where they were defeated by the Ohio State Buckeyes 34 -- 20. In the first half of the first game (against Pittsburgh), Notre Dame had gained more offensive yards than it had in five games combined, during the previous season. On September 25, Weis and the Irish traveled to Seattle, Washington to face Washington and former head coach Tyrone Willingham, who was hired by the Huskies to be their head coach two weeks after getting fired at Notre Dame. The Irish won by a score of 36 -- 17. Quarterback Brady Quinn would go on to break numerous team passing records that season and rise to the national spotlight, by holding 35 Notre Dame records as well as becoming a top Heisman Trophy contender. Wide receiver Jeff Samardzija would be the team 's leading receiver and would go on to a successful career in Major League Baseball as a pitcher for the San Francisco Giants. Tight end Anthony Fasano would be another key offensive player during the 2005 season who would go on to an NFL career with the Dallas Cowboys, Miami Dolphins, Kansas City Chiefs and Tennessee Titans. During the 2005 season, Notre Dame signed Weis to a big raise and ten - year contract extension that was set to keep the coach in South Bend through the 2015 season.
Weis and the Irish went into the 2006 season with a No. 2 preseason ranking in the ESPN / Coaches Poll. They finished the regular season with a 10 -- 2 record, losing only to Michigan and USC. Notre Dame accepted a bid to the 2007 Sugar Bowl, losing to LSU 41 -- 14. This marked their ninth consecutive post-season loss, the longest drought in NCAA history. As a result, Notre Dame dropped to No. 17 in the final rankings.
In the wake of a graduating class that sent eleven players to the NFL, the 2007 season (3 -- 9) included various negative milestones: the most losses in a single year (9); two of the ten worst losses ever (38 -- 0 losses to both Michigan and USC); and the first 6 - game losing streak for home games. The Naval Academy recorded their first win over the Irish since 1963, breaking the NCAA - record 43 - game streak.
In 2008, the Irish started 4 -- 1, but completed the regular season with a 6 -- 6 record, including a 24 -- 23 home loss to Syracuse, the first time that Notre Dame had fallen to an eight - loss team. Quarterback Jimmy Clausen would be the team 's star player, completing over 60 % of his passes his sophomore season in 2008. Despite speculation the university might fire Weis, it was announced he would remain head coach. Weis 's Notre Dame squad ended the season breaking the Irish 's NCAA record nine - game bowl losing streak by beating Hawaii, 49 -- 21, in the Hawaii Bowl. After the 2008 season, offensive coordinator Mike Haywood left to accept the head coaching position at Miami (OH). Instead of hiring a replacement, Weis elected to assume offensive coordinator duties himself, which included calling the plays.
Charlie Weis entered the 2009 season with the expectation from the Notre Dame administration that his team would be in position to compete for a BCS Bowl berth. Notre Dame started the first part of the season 4 -- 2, with close losses to Michigan and USC. Many of their wins were also close, aside from a 35 -- 0 victory over Nevada and a 40 -- 14 defeat of Washington State. Sitting at 6 -- 2, however, Notre Dame lost a close game at Notre Dame Stadium to Navy, 23 -- 21. This loss was the second to Navy in the last three years, and would be the first loss in a four - game losing streak to finish the season. The following week, Notre Dame lost to # 8 Pittsburgh, then lost to UConn at home in double overtime on senior day. The Irish lost to Stanford the last week of the season by a score of 45 -- 38. Quarterback Jimmy Clausen and wide receiver Golden Tate would forgo their senior seasons and enter the NFL Draft.
Weis was fired on November 30, 2009, exactly five years after his predecessor. According to Weis ' buyout, he was to be paid $6 million then $2.05 million annually until the contract ran out in December 2015 for a total of about $19 million. During that time, Weis made more money annually not to coach the Irish than his successor, Brian Kelly, made to coach the team. After leaving Notre Dame, Weis would serve as offensive coordinator for the NFL 's Kansas City Chiefs in 2010 as well as Florida under Will Muschamp in 2011 before accepting the head coaching position at Kansas in December 2011. His hiring made him the fifth consecutive former Notre Dame head coach (sixth counting George O'Leary) to be hired as head coach by another FBS school; joining Gerry Faust (Akron), Lou Holtz (South Carolina), Bob Davie (New Mexico) and Tyrone Willingham (Washington). O'Leary was hired by Central Florida.
Brian Kelly became the 31st head coach of the Fighting Irish on December 10, 2009, after coaching Cincinnati to a 12 -- 0 record and BCS bowl - game berth, but he left the team before the bowl game. In his first season, Kelly led the Fighting Irish to an 8 -- 5 record. Tragedy struck early in the season when Declan Sullivan, a junior working for the athletic department, died while filming a practice on a scissor lift in dangerously high winds. Dayne Crist started the season at quarterback but was injured for a second consecutive year, this time in the Tulsa game, which the Irish lost. Kelly turned to freshman quarterback Tommy Rees, who led the Irish to victories in the last three games against No. 14 Utah, Army in Yankee Stadium, and breaking an eight - year losing streak to USC in the LA Coliseum. Kelly guided the Irish to a 33 -- 17 win over Miami (FL) in the 2010 Sun Bowl to finish 2010 with an 8 -- 5 record. With senior wide out Michael Floyd returning for his senior season and an outstanding recruiting class that included several highly touted defensive linemen,
Kelly and the Irish looked to improve on their 8 -- 5 record from the prior year. However, an early season upset to a Skip Holtz - led South Florida team, and a last second loss to Michigan in Ann Arbor left the Irish at 0 -- 2 to start the season. The Irish bounced back to beat # 15 Michigan State and had two 4 - game winning - streaks, with the only loss during that stretch coming at the hands of USC. The Irish also broke Navy 's 2 - game winning streak over Notre Dame (2009 -- 10). Notre Dame finished the season with an 8 -- 4 record but lost 18 -- 14 to Florida State in the 2011 Champs Sports Bowl, concluding the 2011 campaign with and 8 -- 5 record overall, identical to the 2010 season. In the team 's losses, multiple turnovers from the quarterback position were often the culprit, and as a whole turnovers at critical times in the game often derailed potential Irish comebacks. After the 2011 season, offensive coordinator Charley Molnar left ND to accept the head coaching position at UMass. Safeties coach and recruiting coordinator Chuck Martin would move over to the offensive side of the ball as Molnar 's replacement running the offense.
On September 12, 2012, during the football program 's 125th season, Notre Dame announced that it would leave the Big East Conference for the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), excluding the football and hockey programs. This move became official on July 1, 2013, in time for the fall sports to compete within the ACC conference. While the Fighting Irish football team will remain an FBS independent, it has agreed to play five games per season against ACC teams starting with the 2014 football season, as the schedule allows. In return, Notre Dame will become eligible to participate in the ACC 's sub-BCS level bowl arrangements.
On November 18, 2012, Notre Dame was ranked No. 1 in the nation in both the AP and Coaches ' polls after reaching 11 -- 0 during the regular season for the first time since 1993, also ranking No. 1 in the BCS standings for the first time in the 14 - year history of the selection system. After defeating the University of Southern California Trojans on November 24, 2012, Notre Dame concluded its first 12 -- 0 regular season, and on December 2, 2012, the Irish were formally named to appear in the BCS National Championship Game for the first time in the 2013 BCS National Championship Game. In that game, on January 7, 2013, the Irish lost to Alabama 42 -- 14.
Coming off the previous year 's national title game appearance, the Fighting Irish were dealt a blow when 2012 starting quarterback, Everett Golson, was suspended from the University due to an academic violation. Senior Tommy Rees then took over. Notre Dame 's 2013 season ended with a record of 9 -- 4 and a victory over Rutgers in the Pinstripe Bowl. Notre Dame finished No. 20 in the AP poll. After the 2013 season, offensive coordinator Chuck Martin left ND to accept the head coaching position at Miami (OH), marking the second assistant coach to leave Kelly 's staff to accept an FBS head coaching job. Mike Denbrock was promoted from wide receivers coach to offensive coordinator to replace Martin.
The 2014 season started off with 6 straight victories and a # 5 national ranking heading into a showdown with # 2 Florida State in Tallahassee, Florida. FSU won that game 31 -- 27, on a controversial offensive pass interference call that brought back a last second Notre Dame touchdown. The Fighting Irish bounced back with a win against Navy before dropping their final 4 games of the season. They did win the Music City Bowl by defeating the LSU Tigers and finished the season at an 8 -- 5 record. After the 2014 season, the Irish again changed offensive coordinators, as Mike Denbrock stepped down from the position due to prostate cancer and returned to coaching the team 's receivers.
The 2015 Fighting Irish began its season with another new offensive coordinator, Mike Sanford Jr. That year 's squad is arguably the most explosive offense that Brian Kelly has coached at Notre Dame. During the regular season, the Irish were one of twenty - one schools in the country to average 200 or more passing yards and rushing yards per game. The Irish had fourteen plays of over 50 yards during the season, which ranked 13th in the country and was a school record. They also had two touchdowns of over 90 yards, (a 91 - yard touchdown run by C.J. Prosise and a 98 - yard touchdown run by Josh Adams). The Irish only had two in the previous 126 years of Notre Dame football. The running game was dominant. The 5.76 yards per carry were fifth in the country. They finished the regular season averaging 34 points per game, including a 62 - point effort against UMass, the most points in a game since 1996. The Irish finished their 2015 season with a 10 -- 3 record, a ranking of # 11 in the AP and # 12 in the Coaches ' Poll and a Fiesta Bowl appearance, a loss to Ohio State.
The 2016 season ended with an 4 -- 8 record, Brian Kelly 's worst win / loss record at Notre Dame up to that point. The tone for the season was set early, with a heartbreaking double overtime loss to Texas in the season opener. On September 24, Notre Dame lost to Duke by a score of 38 -- 35. Just 4 games into the season, Brian Kelly fired defensive coordinator Brian VanGorder. Mike Elko was hired from Wake Forest as VanGorder 's replacement. After a sloppy 10 -- 3 loss to NC State in Raleigh, North Carolina during messy conditions due to Hurricane Matthew, Kelly publicly called out his starting center over "poor snapping and atrocious play ''. At the end of the season, starting quarterback DeShone Kizer declared for the NFL Draft and backup quarterback Malik Zaire announced he would be transferring in the winter after graduation. Offensive coordinator Mike Sanford Jr. left the ND staff after the season to accept the head coaching position at Western Kentucky, making him the third Irish OC under Kelly to accept an FBS head coaching position. Chip Long was hired from Memphis as his replacement. Mike Denbrock also departed the Notre Dame staff, accepting the offensive coordinator position at Cincinnati under new head coach Luke Fickell. Amidst speculation that Kelly 's job was in jeopardy and that Kelly was looking to leave Notre Dame, athletics director Jack Swarbrick announced that Kelly would return for the 2017 season.
The following is a list of Notre Dame 's 11 claimed national championships:
Notre Dame has made 715 appearances in the Associated Press poll over 71 seasons. Notre Dame has spent 496 weeks in the Top 10, 277 weeks in the Top 5, and 95 weeks at No. 1. Notre Dame has finished the year ranked in the final Associated Press poll of the season 49 times:
Notre Dame has participated in ten "# 1 vs # 2 '' matchups since the AP poll began in 1936. They have a record of 5 -- 3 -- 2 in such games, with a 4 -- 1 -- 1 record as the No. 1 team in such matchups. Here 's a list of such games:
Notre Dame has played in many regular season games that have been widely regarded by both the media and sports historians as historic or famous games. Notre Dame has played in many games labeled as "game of the century '' games as well as several No. 1 vs No. 2 matchups, It has also participated in several games that ended record streaks in college football. The games listed are widely regarded as of historical importance to the game of college football and are written about by sports historians and make many sportswriters ' lists.
Notre Dame has also played in several bowl games considered by many sportswriters to be among the best bowl games played:
Notre Dame 's all - time record at the end of the 2017 season stands at 885 wins, 324 losses, and 42 ties. The winning percentage of. 724 is Fourth All - Time. Its 885 wins are sixth behind Michigan, Ohio State, Texas, Nebraska, and Alabama, while its 324 losses are tied with Ohio State as the second lowest of any college programs that have been playing football for 100 years or more, behind Oklahoma 's 323.
Notre Dame has made 35 Bowl appearances, winning 17 and losing 18. After an initial appearance in a postseason contest in the 1925 Rose Bowl, the Fighting Irish refused to participate in bowl games for more than four decades; writers like Dan Jenkins have speculated that Notre Dame might have gone to as many as twenty bowl games during the self - imposed forty - five - year hiatus. It has played in the BCS National Championship Game (1 loss), Rose Bowl (1 win), the Cotton Bowl Classic (5 wins, 2 losses), the Orange Bowl (2 wins, 3 losses), the Sugar Bowl (2 wins, 2 losses), the Gator Bowl (1 win, 2 losses), the Liberty Bowl (1 win), the Aloha Bowl (1 loss), the Fiesta Bowl (1 win, 4 losses), the Independence Bowl (1 loss), the Insight Bowl (1 loss), Hawaii Bowl (1 win), the Sun Bowl (1 win), the Pinstripe Bowl (1 win) and the Citrus Bowl (1 win). From 1994 to the 2006 football seasons, Notre Dame lost 9 consecutive bowl games, tied with Northwestern University for the most in NCAA history. That streak ended with a 49 -- 21 win over Hawaii in the 2008 Hawaii Bowl. In the process, Notre Dame scored its highest point total in post-season play. The record of 9 consecutive bowl losses was later tied by Northwestern in 2011, then that streak was snapped a year later.
Between 2009 -- 2016, Notre Dame has hosted an annual off - site home football game known as the Shamrock Series. The series promotes Notre Dame 's athletic and academic brand, and has brought the Fighting Irish to San Antonio, New York, Greater Washington, D.C., Chicago, Indianapolis, Boston and the Dallas / Fort Worth metroplex.
Prior to the 2012 season, Notre Dame Athletic Director Jack Swarbrick announced at a news conference of plans to continue the series through 2016. He confirmed after his news conference that New York is expected to fall in that rotation and then continue to be the one consistently repeating venue for Shamrock Series games. The Shamrock Series was not held in 2017.
One of the unique aspects of the Shamrock Series is its inclusion of academic and other non-football activities in the area of that year 's host city the days and hours leading up to the game, which include pep rallies, drummers ' circles, and academic lectures.
Seven Notre Dame football players have won the Heisman Trophy, more than any other university (Ohio State has 7 trophies won by 6 players; USC has 6 trophies, following Reggie Bush 's forfeit of the 2005 award due to NCAA violations).
Heisman Voting:
Forty - five former Notre Dame players and 6 coaches have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, located in Atlanta, Georgia. Notre Dame leads all universities in players inducted.
Notre Dame 's home jersey is navy blue with white numerals, gold outlining, and a small interlocking "ND '' logo on each sleeve. The away jersey is white with navy numerals, gold outlining, and the interlocking "ND '' on the sleeves. In recent years, neither jersey included the player 's name on the back, but names were included during the Dan Devine and Gerry Faust eras. However, for the Irish 's Hawai'i Bowl appearance in 2008 vs. the University of Hawai'i, Notre Dame once again wore last names on their jerseys. Gold pants, with a small ND logo just below the left waist, are worn with both home and away jerseys.
Notre Dame 's helmets are solid gold with gray facemasks, the gold being emblematic of the University 's famed "Golden Dome. '' Notre Dame 's tradition for the team 's student managers to spray - paint the team 's helmets prior to each game ended in 2011 when the football equipment staff, along with Notre Dame Athletics Director Jack Swarbrick and head coach Brian Kelly outsourced the painting process to Hydro Graphics Inc.
Over the years, Notre Dame has occasionally worn green instead of blue as its home jersey, sometimes adopting the jersey for an entire season -- or more -- at a time. Currently, Notre Dame reserves its green jerseys for "special '' occasions. Often on such occasions, the Irish will take the field for warmups dressed in blue, only to switch to green when they go back to the locker room before kickoff. This tradition was started by Dan Devine in 1977 before the USC game. Notre Dame has also been known to switch jerseys at halftime, as during the 1985 USC game, and in the loss to Nile Kinnick - led Iowa in 1939, although this was to help avoid confusion between their navy uniforms and Iowa 's black ones. The current design of the jersey is kelly green with gold numbers and white outlining. For the 2006 Army game, Coach Charlie Weis broke out the Green jerseys as a reward to his senior players, as well finally ending the string of losses by the Irish when wearing green. Notre Dame wore throwback green jerseys in 2007 against USC in honor of the 30th anniversary of the 1977 National Championship team. On at least one occasion (1992 Sugar Bowl) Notre Dame has worn an away variant of the jersey: a white jersey with green numbers. Champion supplied football jerseys for The University of Notre Dame for over 50 years until they switched to Adidas in 2001. On July 1, 2014, the University of Notre Dame Athletic department will begin wearing uniforms and footwear supplied by Under Armour.
During Gerry Faust 's tenure (1981 -- 85), Notre Dame 's blue jerseys switched from the traditional navy to royal blue with gold and white stripes on the sleeves. The navy blue jerseys returned in 1984.
No uniform numbers have been retired by Notre Dame. Upon being issued a number, each player is given a card which lists some of the more famous players who have worn that particular number. Number 3 is perhaps the most famous number in Irish football history, having been worn by Ralph Guglielmi, George Izo, Daryle Lamonica, Coley O'Brien, Joe Montana, Michael Floyd, Rick Mirer and Ron Powlus, among others. Number 5 is also notable, as it is the only number to be worn by one of the Four Horsemen (Elmer Layden) a Heisman Trophy Winner (Paul Hornung) and a National Title winning Quarterback (Terry Hanratty). Number 7 has been worn by such Irish greats as 1964 Heisman Trophy winner John Huarte, 1970 Heisman runner - up Joe Theismann, Steve Beuerlein, Jimmy Clausen and Jarious Jackson.
In 2011, both Michigan and Notre Dame wore throwback uniforms in their game against each other. For the Shamrock Series games Notre Dame and their outfitters have announced that the school will wear specially - designed helmets, jerseys, and pants.
Notre Dame Stadium is the home football stadium for the University of Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team. Located on the southeast part of the university 's campus in Notre Dame, Indiana and with a seating capacity of 77,622, Notre Dame Stadium is one of the most renowned venues in college football. The Sporting News ranks Notre Dame Stadium as # 2 on its list of "College Football Cathedrals ''. With no JumboTron and just two modest scoreboards, the stadium experience evokes a more traditional feel. Notre Dame Stadium is used for football related activities and for Commencement (since 2010). Notre Dame Stadium had no permanent lighting until the expansion project in 1997. NBC paid for the lighting as they have televised all Notre Dame home football games since 1991. On April 12, 2014, it was announced during the annual Blue - Gold Spring Game that a FieldTurf synthetic surface would replace the grass field after the 2014 Commencement Weekend. In November 2014 the University of Notre Dame embarked on a $400 million stadium expansion called the Crossroads Campus Project. The project is expected to be completed by August 2017.
Cartier Field was the original playing field of the Fighting Irish. In 1930, it was replaced by Notre Dame Stadium, due to the growing popularity of ND football. Notre Dame 's practice facility still bears the Cartier Field name. Most ND practices take place on Cartier Field.
Known by fans as "the Gug '' (pronounced "goog ''), the Guglielmino Athletics Complex is Notre Dame 's brand new athletics complex. The Gug houses the new football offices, a brand new state - of - the - art weight room, and practice week locker rooms for the football team. The Gug is utilized by all Notre Dame athletes. The complex was underwritten by Don F. Guglielmino and his family.
Notre Dame has rivalries with several universities. Although the Fighting Irish competes as an Independent, they play a more national schedule and have frequently scheduled opponents. USC, Michigan, Michigan State, Pitt, and Navy are among Notre Dame 's oldest rivals.
USC is Notre Dame 's primary rival. The rivalry has produced more national titles, Heisman trophies, and All - Americans than any other. It is considered one of the most important rivalries in college football, and is often called the greatest rivalry not dictated by conference, affiliation, or geography. Other than during World War II, the teams have played each other since 1926. Notre Dame leads the series 46 -- 36 -- 5.
Navy and Notre Dame have one of the longest continuous series in college football, having played 83 games without interruption since 1927. Notre Dame had a 43 - game win streak during this time frame, the longest in Division 1 - A football, which ended in 2007. Navy won three of four consecutive meetings in 2007, 2009, and 2010. Notre Dame has won in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015. Navy won in 2016. Notre Dame won in 2017.
Michigan is considered Notre Dame 's first and oldest rivalry, first meeting back in 1887, although the two teams did not play each other for many years. The series has been quite frequent in the near past since the rivalry was reunited beginning in 1978. It is heightened by the two schools ' competition for all - time win percentage, which Michigan leads again since 2016. The most recent meeting in 2014 was won by Notre Dame 31 -- 0 in South Bend. Michigan leads the all - time series 24 -- 17 -- 1, with 6 of the Wolverine victories coming before 1900.
This rivalry stopped during the 2014 season when Notre Dame shut out Michigan for the first time in the rivalry 's history. Shortly before the 2012 game, the Associated Press reported that Notre Dame had exercised a three - year out clause in their series contract. This series was the first casualty of Notre Dame 's future arrangement with the Atlantic Coast Conference, under which the Fighting Irish will play five games per season against ACC opponents once the school joins the ACC in all sports except for football and hockey in 2014. In 2016, Michigan announced that the rivalry will resume for two consecutive seasons, in 2018 and 2019.
The Michigan State Spartans are one of Notre Dame 's most important rivals with the two teams playing for the Megaphone Trophy. Notre Dame holds an all - time 48 -- 28 -- 1 series winning margin. The one tie was the Game of the Century, one of the greatest college football games ever played. The Spartans ' 28 victories over Notre Dame are second-most of any school after USC. The Megaphone Trophy series record is 32 -- 26 -- 1 in favor of Notre Dame. Michigan State won the Megaphone Trophy in 2010 after beating the Irish 34 -- 31 in East Lansing on an overtime fake field goal play known as "Little Giants ''. In 2011, the Irish reclaimed the trophy with a 31 -- 13 victory in which they led all the way.
Due to its long and storied history, Notre Dame football boasts many traditions unique to Notre Dame. Some of these are:
Since the NFL began drafting players in 1936, 495 Notre Dame football players have been selected by NFL teams. Additionally, Notre Dame has had 65 players selected in the first round of the NFL draft, including five overall number one picks. Of the 46 Super Bowls competed, only 14 teams have won the event without an Irish player on the roster. Looking at both participating team rosters, there have only been five Super Bowls that did not feature at least one former Notre Dame player on either team 's roster -- Denver vs. Atlanta, 1999; Dallas vs. Buffalo, 1994; Washington vs. Denver, 1988; Dallas vs. Denver, 1978; and Baltimore vs. Dallas, 1971. Eleven former players have won multiple Super Bowls: Mark Bavaro, Rocky Bleier, Nick Buoniconti, Eric Dorsey, Dave Duerson, David Givens, Terry Hanratty, Bob Kuechenberg, Joe Montana, Steve Sylvester and Justin Tuck.
Thirteen former Notre Dame players / alumni have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranking it 1st of all College Football Programs.
* McNally graduated from St. John 's (MN), but started his career at Notre Dame and is listed as a hall of famer under both schools in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
As of 24 September 2017
The Fighting Irish are unique among sports teams in the United States, as they are the only team, professional or college, to have all their games broadcast nationally on the radio, as well as the only team to have all of their home games broadcast nationally on television. Notre Dame famously left the College Football Association, a consortium that administered television broadcast rights on behalf of over 64 schools, in 1990, in order to establish its own broadcasting deal with NBC. From 1968 to 2007, Westwood One served as the official radio partner for the Irish, broadcasting their games for 40 consecutive years.
Until the 2006 Air Force game, Notre Dame had a record 169 consecutive games broadcast nationally on either NBC, ABC, ESPN, or CBS. The 2006 ND vs. Air Force game was broadcast on CSTV, a college sports channel owned by CBS who had an exclusive contract with the Mountain West Conference, of which Air Force is a member.
NBC has been televising Notre Dame Home football games since the 1991 season. The deal was considered to be a major coup for NBC, given the high popularity of Notre Dame football at the time.
Notre Dame is the only FBS football team to have all of its home games televised exclusively by one television network. In addition to TV broadcasts, NBC also maintains several dedicated websites to ND football, and Notre Dame Central, which provides complete coverage, full game replays and commentary of the Notre Dame team. NBC 's television contract with Notre Dame was renewed in April 2013 and is set to continue through the 2025 football season.
Radio rights to the Fighting Irish are currently held by IMG Sports, who began a 10 - year deal with the team in 2008. The new deal displaced its previous broadcast partner, Westwood One, who had broadcast Notre Dame football nationally on radio for 40 consecutive years (after taking over from the Mutual Radio Network). Notre Dame ended its relationship with Westwood One at the conclusion of the 2007 football season citing financial reasons.
IMG claims that the Notre Dame football broadcasts are carried by more affiliate stations than any other team (professional or collegiate, and in ' any ' sport) in North America. The game broadcasts are also carried on SiriusXM 's satellite radio and internet streaming services (on the Catholic Channel; two Catholic Channel hosts also produced a live broadcast from the official tailgate party prior to the 2017 USC game).
Although the Notre Dame football program is not a full member of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), it has an agreement to play an average of five ACC schools per season. In return Notre Dame has access to the non-College Football Playoff ACC bowl line - up. Notre Dame currently utilizes a format of six home games in South Bend, five away games, and one major metropolitan area neutral site "Shamrock Series '' home game for scheduling. This includes preserving traditional yearly rivalries with USC, Stanford, and Navy, five rotating ACC opponents (two away ACC games will coincide in even years with away games at Navy and three away ACC games will coincide in odd years with home games against Navy), two home and home series (one home game and one away game), one one - time opponent home game, and the traveling "Shamrock Series '' home game.
The 2018 schedule was officially released on March 2, 2017. The game against Syracuse at Yankee Stadium has been designated as the Shamrock Series game for 2018.
The 2019 schedule was officially released on March 2, 2017. One currently scheduled home game will be moved to a neutral site as part of the "Shamrock Series '' -- TBA.
The neutral site game at Lambeau Field has been designated the Shamrock Series game.
An additional 1 non-ACC home game will be scheduled -- TBA. The neutral site game at Soldier Field has been designated the Shamrock Series game, although television rights are owned and operated by the Big Ten Network.
TBA: An additional 4 non-ACC home games will be scheduled.
TBA: An additional 2 non-ACC home games will be scheduled.
TBA: An additional 3 non-ACC home games will be scheduled.
TBA: One additional non-ACC home game will be scheduled.
TBA: An additional 3 non-ACC home games will be scheduled.
TBA: An additional 3 non-ACC games will be scheduled (2 home and 1 away).
TBA: An additional 3 non-ACC home games will be scheduled.
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who is the narrator in the curious case of benjamin button | The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (film) - wikipedia
The Curious Case of Benjamin Button is a 2008 American fantasy romantic drama film directed by David Fincher. The storyline by Eric Roth and Robin Swicord is loosely based on the 1922 short story of the same name by F. Scott Fitzgerald. The film stars Brad Pitt as a man who ages in reverse and Cate Blanchett as the love interest throughout his life.
The film was released in North America on December 25, 2008 to positive reviews. The film went on to receive thirteen Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Fincher, Best Actor for Pitt and Best Supporting Actress for Taraji P. Henson, and won three, for Best Art Direction, Best Makeup, and Best Visual Effects.
In August 2005, elderly Daisy Fuller is on her deathbed in a New Orleans hospital as Hurricane Katrina approaches. She starts rambling to her daughter, Caroline, about a train station built in 1918 and Mr. Gateau, the best clockmaker in all of the South, who was hired to make a clock for it. Mr. Gateau was blind, and lost his son in World War I, which crushed him, but he continued to labor over his clock. When it was unveiled at the station, the public was surprised to see that the clock ran backwards, to which Mr. Gateau says he made it that way so that the boys they lost in the war could come back again and live their lives that were ended too soon. After that, Mr. Gateau was never seen again, and people speculated he died of a broken heart or went out to sea.
Daisy then asks Caroline to read aloud from the diary of Benjamin Button.
From the reading, it is revealed that on the evening of November 11, 1918, a boy was born with the appearance and physical maladies of an elderly man. The baby 's mother died after giving birth, and the father, Thomas Button, abandons the infant on the porch of a nursing home. Queenie and Mr. "Tizzy '' Weathers, workers at the nursing home, find the baby, and Queenie decides to care for him as her own.
Benjamin learns to walk in 1925, after which he uses crutches in place of a wheelchair. On Thanksgiving 1930, Benjamin meets seven - year - old Daisy, whose grandmother lives in the nursing home. He and Daisy become good friends. Later, he accepts work on a tugboat captained by Mike Clark. Benjamin also meets Thomas Button, who does not reveal that he is Benjamin 's father. In Autumn 1936, Benjamin leaves New Orleans for a long - term work engagement with the tugboat crew; Daisy later is accepted into a dance company in New York City under choreographer George Balanchine.
In 1941, Benjamin is in Murmansk, where he begins having an affair with Elizabeth Abbott, wife of the British Trade Minister. That December, Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, thrusting the United States into World War II. Mike volunteers the boat for the U.S. Navy; the crew is assigned to salvage duties. During a patrol, the tugboat finds a sunken U.S. transport and the bodies of many American troops. A German submarine surfaces; Mike steers the tugboat full speed towards it while a German gunner fires on the tugboat, killing most of the crew, including Mike. The tugboat rams the submarine, causing it to explode, sinking both vessels. Benjamin and another crewman are rescued by U.S. Navy ships the next day.
In May 1945, Benjamin returns to New Orleans and reunites with Queenie. A few weeks later, he reunites with Daisy; they go out for dinner. Upon failing to seduce him afterward, she departs. Benjamin later reunites with Thomas Button, who, terminally ill, reveals he is Benjamin 's father and wills Benjamin his button company and his estate.
In 1947, Benjamin visits Daisy in New York unannounced but departs upon seeing that she has fallen in love with someone else. In 1954, Daisy 's dancing career ends when her leg is crushed in an automobile accident in Paris. When Benjamin visits her, Daisy is amazed by his youthful appearance, but, frustrated by her injuries, she tells him to stay out of her life.
In 1962, Daisy returns to New Orleans and reunites with Benjamin. Now of comparable physical age, they fall in love and go sailing together. They return to learn that Queenie has died, then move in together. In 1967, Daisy, who has opened a ballet studio, tells Benjamin that she is pregnant; she gives birth to a girl, Caroline, in the spring of 1968. Believing he can not be a proper father to his daughter due to his reverse aging, Benjamin departs after selling his belongings, leaving a bank account book holding the proceeds behind for Daisy and Caroline; he travels alone during the 1970s.
Benjamin returns to Daisy in 1980. Now married, Daisy introduces him, as a family friend, to her husband and daughter. Daisy admits that he was right to leave; she could not have coped otherwise. She later visits Benjamin at his hotel, where they again share their passion for each other, then part once more.
In 1990, widowed Daisy is contacted by social workers who have found Benjamin -- now physically a pre-teen. When she arrives, they explain that he was living in a condemned building and was taken to the hospital in poor physical condition, and that they found her name in his diary. The bewildered social workers also say he is displaying early signs of dementia. Daisy moves into the nursing home in 1997 and cares for Benjamin for the rest of his life.
Daisy says that in 2002, a new clock replaced Mr. Gateau 's in the train station, a digital clock that ran forward, not backwards. Then, a year later in the spring of 2003, Benjamin dies in Daisy 's arms, physically an infant but chronologically 84 years of age. Having finally revealed the story of Caroline 's father to her, Daisy dies as Hurricane Katrina approaches.
The final scene of the movie ends with Benjamin 's narration about what people were brought into this world for, recapping all the individuals that he loved and lost throughout his life. The film ends with alarms wailing as Katrina quickly floods a dimly lit storage room that holds Mr. Gateau 's forgotten clock, which continues to tick backwards.
Producer Ray Stark bought the film rights to do The Curious Case of Benjamin Button in the mid-1980s, and it was optioned by Universal Pictures. The first choice to direct it was Frank Oz, with Martin Short attached for the title role, but Oz could not work out how to make the story work. The film was optioned in 1991 by Steven Spielberg, with Tom Cruise attached for the lead role, but Spielberg left the project to direct Jurassic Park and Schindler 's List. Other directors attached were Patrick Read Johnson and Agnieszka Holland. Stark eventually sold the rights to producers Kathleen Kennedy and Frank Marshall, who took the film to Paramount Pictures, with Universal Pictures still on as a co-production partner. By summer 1994, Maryland Film Office chief Jack Gerbes was approached with the possibility of making the film in Baltimore. In October 1998, screenwriter Robin Swicord wrote for director Ron Howard an adapted screenplay of the short story, a project which would potentially star actor John Travolta. In May 2000, Paramount Pictures hired screenwriter Jim Taylor to adapt a screenplay from the short story. The studio also attached director Spike Jonze to helm the project. Screenwriter Charlie Kaufman had also written a draft of the adapted screenplay at one point. In June 2003, director Gary Ross entered final negotiations to helm the project based on a new draft penned by screenwriter Eric Roth. In May 2004, director David Fincher entered negotiations to replace Ross in directing the film.
In May 2005, actors Brad Pitt and Cate Blanchett entered negotiations to star in the film. In September 2006, actors Tilda Swinton, Jason Flemyng and Taraji P. Henson entered negotiations to be cast into the film. The following October, with production yet to begin, actress Julia Ormond was cast as Daisy 's daughter, to whom Blanchett 's character tells the story of her love for Benjamin Button. Brad Pitt had collaborated with many of his co-stars in previous films. He co-starred with Ormond in Legends of the Fall, with Flemyng in Snatch, with Jared Harris in Ocean 's Twelve, with Blanchett in Babel and with Swinton in Burn After Reading.
For Benjamin Button, New Orleans, Louisiana and the surrounding area was chosen as the filming location for the story to take advantage of the state 's production incentives, and shooting was slated to begin in October 2006. By filming in Louisiana and taking advantage of the state 's film incentive, the production received $27 million, which was used to finance a significant portion of the film 's $167 million budget. Filming of Benjamin Button began on November 6, 2006 in New Orleans. In January 2007, Blanchett joined the shoot. Fincher praised the ease of accessibility to rural and urban sets in New Orleans and said that the recovery from Hurricane Katrina did not serve as an atypical hindrance to production.
In March 2007, production moved to Los Angeles for two more months of filming. Principal photography was targeted to last a total of 150 days. Additional time was needed at visual effects house Digital Domain to make the visual effects for the metamorphosis of Brad Pitt 's character to the infant stage. The director used a camera system called Contour, developed by Steve Perlman, to capture facial deformation data from live - action performances.
Several digital environments for the film were created by Matte World Digital, including multiple shots of the interior of the New Orleans train station, to show architectural alterations and deterioration throughout different eras. The train station was built as a 3D model and lighting and aging effects were added, using Next Limit 's Maxwell rendering software -- an architectural visualization tool. Overall production was finished in September 2007.
The score to The Curious Case of Benjamin Button was written by French composer Alexandre Desplat, who recorded his score with an 87 - piece ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Sony Scoring Stage.
At the Academy Awards the film won in three categories: Best Achievement in Art Direction, Best Achievement in Makeup, and Best Achievement in Visual Effects. It was also nominated in ten other categories: Best Motion Picture of the Year, Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role, Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role, Best Achievement in Directing, Best Writing, Adapted Screenplay, Best Achievement in Cinematography, Best Achievement in Film Editing, Best Achievement in Costume Design, Best Achievement in Music Written for Motion Pictures, Original Score, and Best Achievement in Sound Mixing.
Taraji P. Henson won Best Actress at the BET Awards for her role in the film combined with two other performances in Not Easily Broken, and The Family That Preys.
The film won all four awards it was nominated for at the 7th Visual Effects Society Awards, the categories of "Outstanding Visual Effects in a Visual Effects - Driven Feature Motion Picture, '' "Best Single Visual Effect of the Year, '' "Outstanding Animated Character in a Live Action Feature Motion Picture, '' and "Outstanding Compositing in a Feature Motion Picture. ''
The Curious Case of Benjamin Button was originally slated for theatrical release in May 2008, but it was pushed back to November 26, 2008. The release date was moved again to December 25 in the United States, January 16, 2009 in Mexico, February 6 in the United Kingdom, February 13 in Italy and February 27 in South Africa.
On its opening day, the film opened in the number two position behind Marley & Me, in North America with $11,871,831 in 2,988 theaters with a $3,973 average. However, during its opening weekend, the film dropped to the third position behind Marley & Me and Bedtime Stories with $26,853,816 in 2,988 theaters with an $8,987 average. The film has come to gross $127.5 million domestically and $206.4 million in foreign markets, with a total gross of $333.9 million.
The film has received positive reviews, with Pitt 's performance receiving praise. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 72 % of critics gave the film positive reviews based on 238 reviews. Consensus reads: "Curious Case of Benjamin Button is an epic fantasy tale with rich storytelling backed by fantastic performances. '' According to Metacritic, the film received an average score of 70 out of 100, based on 37 reviews. Yahoo! Movies reported the film received a B+ average score from critical consensus, based on 12 reviews.
Todd McCarthy of Variety magazine gave the film a positive review, calling it a "richly satisfying serving of deep - dish Hollywood storytelling. '' Peter Howell of The Toronto Star says: "It 's been said that the unexamined life is not worth living. The Curious Case of Benjamin Button suggests an addendum: a life lived backwards can be far more enriching '' and describes the film as "a magical and moving account of a man living his life resoundingly in reverse '' and "moviemaking at its best. '' Rod Yates of Empire awarded it five out of a possible five stars. Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter felt the film was "superbly made and winningly acted by Brad Pitt in his most impressive outing to date. '' Honeycutt praised Fincher 's directing of the film and noted that the "cinematography wonderfully marries a palette of subdued earthen colors with the necessary CGI and other visual effects that place one in a magical past. '' Honeycutt states the bottom line about Benjamin Button is that it is "an intimate epic about love and loss that is pure cinema. ''
A.O. Scott of The New York Times states: "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, more than two and a half hours long, sighs with longing and simmers with intrigue while investigating the philosophical conundrums and emotional paradoxes of its protagonist 's condition in a spirit that owes more to Jorge Luis Borges than to Fitzgerald. '' Scott praised director David Fincher and writes "Building on the advances of pioneers like Steven Spielberg, Peter Jackson and Robert Zemeckis, Mr. Fincher has added a dimension of delicacy and grace to digital filmmaking '' and further states: "While it stands on the shoulders of breakthroughs like Minority Report, The Lord of the Rings and Forrest Gump, Benjamin Button may be the most dazzling such hybrid yet, precisely because it is the subtlest. '' He also stated: "At the same time, like any other love -- like any movie -- it is shadowed by disappointment and fated to end. '' On the other hand, Anne Hornaday of The Washington Post states: "There 's no denying the sheer ambition and technical prowess of The Curious Case of Benjamin Button. What 's less clear is whether it entirely earns its own inflated sense of self - importance '' and further says, "It plays too safe when it should be letting its freak flag fly. '' Kimberley Jones of the Austin Chronicle panned the film and states, "Fincher 's selling us cheekboned movie stars frolicking in bedsheets and calling it a great love. I did n't buy it for a second. ''
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying that it is "a splendidly made film based on a profoundly mistaken premise. '' He goes on to elaborate that "the movie 's premise devalues any relationship, makes futile any friendship or romance, and spits, not into the face of destiny, but backward into the maw of time. '' Peter Bradshaw in The Guardian called it "166 minutes of twee tedium '', giving it one star out of a possible five.
Cosmo Landesman of the Sunday Times wrote: "The film 's premise serves no purpose. It 's a gimmick that goes on for nearly three hours, '' concluding "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button is an anodyne Hollywood film that offers a safe and sanitised view of life and death. It 's Forrest Gump goes backwards, '' while awarding the film two out of five stars. James Christopher in The Times called it "a tedious marathon of smoke and mirrors. In terms of the basic requirements of three - reel drama the film lacks substance, credibility, a decent script and characters you might actually care for '' while Derek Malcolm of London 's Evening Standard notes that "never at any point do you feel that there 's anything more to it than a very strange story traversed by a film - maker who knows what he is doing but not always why he is doing it. ''
The film was released on DVD on May 5, 2009 by Paramount, and on Blu - ray and 2 - Disc DVD by The Criterion Collection. The Criterion release includes over three hours of special features, and a documentary about the making of the film.
As of November 1, 2009 the DVD has sold 2,515,722 DVD copies and has generated $41,196,515 in sales revenue.
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what is the current repo rate in india | Monetary policy of India - Wikipedia
Monetary policy is the process by which monetary authority of a country, generally central bank controls the supply of money in the economy by its control over interest rates in order to maintain price stability and achieve high economic growth. In India, the central monetary authority is the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). It is so designed as to maintain the price stability in the economy. Other objectives of the monetary policy of India, as stated by RBI, are: -
The Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 (RBI Act) was amended by the Finance Act, 2016, to provide for a statutory and institutionalised framework for a Monetary Policy Committee, for maintaining price stability, while keeping in mind the objective of growth. The Monetary Policy Committee is entrusted with the task of fixing the benchmark policy rate (repo rate) required to contain inflation within the specified target level. As per the provisions of the RBI Act, out of the six Members of Monetary Policy Committee, three Members will be from the RBI and the other three Members of MPC will be appointed by the Central Government.
The Government of India, in consultation with RBI, notified the ' Inflation Target ' in the Gazette of India Extraordinary dated 5th August 2016 for the period beginning from the date of publication of this notification and ending on the March 31, 2021 as 4 %. At the same time lower and upper tolerance levels were notified to be 2 % and 6 % respectively.
Monetary operations involve monetary techniques which operate on monetary magnitudes such as money supply, interest rates and availability of credit aimed to maintain Price Stability, Stable exchange rate, Healthy Balance of Payment, Financial stability, Economic growth. RBI, the apex institute of India which monitors and regulates the monetary policy of the country stabilizes the price by controlling Inflation. RBI takes into account the following monetary policies:
These instruments are used to control the money flow in the economy,
As of 1 August 2018, the key indicators are
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famous nfl players that went to notre dame | List of University of Notre Dame athletes - wikipedia
This list of University of Notre Dame athletes includes graduates, non-graduate former students, and current students of Notre Dame who are notable for their achievements within athletics, sometimes before or after their time at Notre Dame. Other alumni can be found in the list of University of Notre Dame alumni.
Although Notre Dame is highly ranked academically, it has also been called a "jock school '' as it has produced a large number of athletes. Intercollegiate sports teams at Notre Dame are called the "Fighting Irish ''. Notre Dame offers 13 varsity sports for both men and women: Men 's American Football, Men 's Baseball, Men 's and Women 's Basketball, Men 's and Women 's Cross Country, Men 's and Women 's Fencing, Men 's and Women 's Golf, Men 's Ice Hockey, Men 's and Women 's Lacrosse, Women 's Rowing, Men 's and Women 's Soccer, Women 's Softball, Men 's and Women 's Swimming and Diving, Men 's and Women 's Tennis, Men 's and Women 's Track and Field, and Women 's Volleyball. Approximately 400 students have gone on to play professional American football in the National Football League, the American Football League, or the All - America Football Conference, with many others going to play other sports professionally. Some athletes have also participated in the Olympic Games.
Jeff Alm
James Farragher
Mike Golic
Ryan Grant
Johnny Lattner
Jim Molinaro
Joe Montana
Geoff Price
Brady Quinn
Louis J. Salmon
Joe Theismann
Darius Walker
Jimmy Clausen
Jerome Bettis
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who plays benny on have and have nots | Tyler Lepley - wikipedia
Tyler Lepley (March 24, 1987) is an American actor, best known for his portrayal of Benjamin "Benny '' Young on the Tyler Perry produced The Have and the Have Nots; which is the first scripted television series to air on the Oprah Winfrey Network.
Lepley was born and raised in Philadelphia by his mother and stepfather, who has been in his life since the age of 6. Lepley is Italian on his mother 's side and Jamaican on his biological father 's side. Lepley revealed that he was teased as a child because he was the only black kid in his school. He graduated from Central Bucks High School West in Doylestown. Lepley did several sports including track, football, basketball, karate -- as a young child -- and boxing but focused more on football as he got older. Lepley played football in high school under the name Tyler Dinnis. In June 2003, he suffered an injury which nearly ended his football career and later underwent surgery. By the summer of 2004, Lepley was back on the field and was selected as the MVP at sports camp for Villanova University. He attended Kutztown University on a football scholarship. Lepley played football for the university until the fall of 2007 when he and another player were suspended for fighting. While Lepley was reinstated to the college, his football career was over and he was charged with a misdemeanor. Lepley went on to graduate from Kutztown in 2010 with a degree in criminal justice. But because of his record, Lepley could not find a job in the field. Instead, he found work as gas station attendant, at sandwich shop and also worked as a bookie. Knowing it would not end well, Lepley accepted a friend 's offer to relocate to Los Angeles in 2011 and found work as a personal trainer at Iron Fitness Gym in Santa Monica.
About three months after he settled in Los Angeles, Lepley was discovered by a producer at a boxing gym who invited him to audition. From that meeting, he booked a lead role in an independent horror movie, Slumber Party Slaughter. Lepley, reluctantly took his agent 's advice to get serious about acting and enrolled in acting classes and he soon made appearances in CBS 's CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and The CW 's 90210. In 2013, he booked the role of Benny on Tyler Perry 's The Haves and the Have Nots after a four month long casting process. Lepley was quite surprised when Perry came to the audition dressed as his famous Madea character because he was shooting a movie at the time. Lepley also appeared in the 2013 comedy Baggage Claim starring Paula Patton. In early 2016, Lepley booked the lead role of Jaxon in the made for television film, produced by Swirl Films Ringside, directed by Russ Parr. The film premiered in September 2016 TV One. His costars included Everybody Hates Chris actor Tequan Richmond and R&B singer Sevyn Streeter.
Tyler Lepley on IMDb
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when is the last time the browns won a football game | List of Cleveland Browns seasons - wikipedia
The Cleveland Browns were a charter member club of the All - America Football Conference (AAFC) when the league was founded in 1946. From 1946 to 1949, the Browns won each of the league 's four championships. The National Football League (NFL) does not recognize the Browns ' AAFC championships; however, the Pro Football Hall of Fame does recognize the team 's championships, which is reflected in this list. When the AAFC folded in 1949, the Browns were absorbed into the NFL in 1950. The Browns went on to win three NFL championships, nearly dominating the NFL in the 1950s, and won one more NFL championship in 1964. The team has yet to appear in a Super Bowl, however. Overall, the team has won eight championships: four in the AAFC, and four in the NFL.
In 1996, then - Browns owner Art Modell made the decision to move the team from Cleveland, Ohio to Baltimore, Maryland. An agreement between the city of Cleveland and the NFL kept the team 's history, name and colors in Cleveland, while Modell 's new team would be regarded as an expansion team. The Baltimore Ravens would begin play in 1996, and the Browns would return to the league in 1999. For record - keeping purposes, the Browns are considered to have suspended operations from 1996 to 1998, which is reflected in this list. In 2017, the Cleveland Browns became the second team in NFL history to suffer an 0 -- 16 record.
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who is the first keralite to be printed on sreelankan stamp | Postage stamps and postal history of Sri Lanka - Wikipedia
This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka, known as Ceylon before 22 May 1972, is an island country in South Asia, located about 31 km off the southern coast of India. After over two thousand years of rule by local kingdoms, parts of Sri Lanka were colonized by Portugal and the Netherlands beginning in the 16th century, before control of the entire country passed to Britain in 1815. A nationalist political movement arose in the country in the early 20th century with the aim of obtaining political independence, which was eventually granted by the British after peaceful negotiations in 1948.
The first stamps for Ceylon were issued on 1 April 1857. The stamp features a portrait of Queen Victoria and is brown in colour. It is a 6 pence value used to send a half ounce letter from Ceylon to England. Eight more stamps were issued in year 1857, all featuring the portrait of Queen Victoria. One of the 5 stamps that were issued on 23 April 1859 is considered to be the most valuable stamp in Sri Lanka: it is a 4 pence with a dark pink colour known as the ' Dull Rose '.
1857 Victoria on 6 pence
1859 Victoria on 1 sh 9 p - Cert. B.P.A.
1888 Double Inverted Surcharge
Sri Lanka is the only country to include details in a stamp in three languages viz. Sinhala, Tamil and English. The first stamps marked Sri Lanka were issued on 22 May 1972.
Sri Lanka has been issuing souvenir sheets since 1966. Many of the earliest souvenir sheets issued by Sri Lanka are valuable. Sri Lanka issues souvenir sheets each year on many different themes.
The first souvenir sheet of Sri Lanka was issued on 5 February 1966 on the topic ' Typical Birds of Ceylon ' and was imperforate. This sheet was reissued on 15 September 1967 to commemorate the 1st National Stamp Exhibition of Sri Lanka, overprinted ' FIRST NATIONAL STAMP EXHIBITION 1967 '. Subsequestly many souvenir sheets were issued, on many themes mostly perforated.
On 10 February 1981, a four stamp Surcharged souvenir sheet on ' Quadrupeds of Sri Lanka ' was issued. The 4 stamps in the sheet were surcharged at the issue.
A practice of issuing souvenir sheets containing the Wesak stamps started from year 1981.
On 21 October 1981 a souvenir sheet was issued to mark the Sri Lankan visit of Queen Elizabeth and was the first souvenir sheet issued to mark the visit of a distinguished foreign head of state.
On 2 December 1982 a souvenir sheet was issued to commemorate the 125th anniversary of the 1st postage Stamp of Sri Lanka. This was the 1st souvenir sheet of 2 stamps of different denominations; 50 cents and 2.50 rupees with a sheet value of Rs. 5.
On 1 April 2007 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the 1st postage stamp of Sri Lanka a souvenir sheet was issued in both perforate and imperforate types.
All the souvenir sheets issued so far were rectangular in shape. The first irregular shape souvenir sheet was issued on 22 May 2001 on ' Seashells of Sri Lanka ' for the World Biodiversity Day. The sheet was in the shape of a seashell.
Now, Sri Lanka issues several souvenir sheets annually. A souvenir sheet is almost always issued with Wesak and Christmas stamps. Sometimes, choosing one stamp from a set of stamps, a small miniature sheet, containing that single stamp is issued. Because they are attractive, they have become favourites among collectors.
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who gets invited to the trooping of the colour | Trooping the Colour - wikipedia
Trooping the Colour is a ceremony performed by regiments of the British and Commonwealth armies. It has been a tradition of British infantry regiments since the 17th century, although the roots go back much earlier. On battlefields, a regiment 's colours, or flags, were used as rallying points. Consequently, regiments would have their ensigns slowly march with their colours between the soldiers ' ranks to enable soldiers to recognise their regiments ' colours.
Since 1748, Trooping the Colour has also marked the official birthday of the British sovereign. It is held in London annually on a Saturday in June on Horse Guards Parade by St. James 's Park, and coincides with the publication of the Birthday Honours List. Among the audience are the Royal Family, invited guests, ticket holders and the general public. The ceremony is broadcast live by the BBC within the UK and is also shown in Germany and Belgium, and since 2018, has been streamed online to viewers all over the world, via the Time magazine YouTube channel and the Facebook page of the British newspaper The Telegraph, with the Associated Press providing live video coverage of the event.
The Queen travels down the Mall from Buckingham Palace in a royal procession with a sovereign 's escort of Household Cavalry (mounted troops or horse guards). After receiving a royal salute, she inspects her troops of the Household Division, both foot guards and horse guards, and the King 's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery. Each year, one of the foot - guards regiments is selected to troop its colour through the ranks of guards. Then the entire Household Division assembly conducts a march past the Queen, who receives a salute from the saluting base. Parading with its guns, the King 's Troop takes precedence as the mounted troops perform a walk - march and trot - past.
The music is provided by the massed bands of the foot guards and the mounted Band of the Household Cavalry, together with a Corps of Drums, and occasionally pipers, totalling approximately 400 musicians.
Returning to Buckingham Palace, the Queen watches a further march - past from outside the gates. Following a 41 - gun salute by the King 's Troop in Green Park, she leads the Royal Family on to the palace balcony for a Royal Air Force flypast.
A regiment 's colours embody its spirit and service, as well as its fallen soldiers. The loss of a colour, or the capture of an enemy colour, were respectively considered the greatest shame, or the greatest glory on a battlefield. Consequently, regimental colours are venerated by officers and soldiers of all ranks, second to the sovereign.
Only battalions of infantry regiments of the line carry colours; the Royal Artillery 's colours, for example, are its guns. Rifle regiments did not form a line and thus never carried colours. Their battle honours are carried on their drums. The exception to this is the Honourable Artillery Company, which has both a stand of colours and guns.
Trooping the Colour is an old ceremony whereby a battalion would fall in by companies and the colour - party would "troop '' or march the colours through the ranks so that every man would see that the colours were intact. This was done before and after every battle. This ceremony has been retained through time and is today largely ceremonial.
In the United Kingdom, Trooping the Colour is also known as the Queen 's Birthday Parade. It has marked the official birthday of the sovereign since 1748, and has occurred annually since 1820 (except in bad weather, periods of mourning and other exceptional circumstances). From the reign of King Edward VII, the sovereign has taken the salute in person. It was Edward VII who moved Trooping the Colour to its June date, because of the vagaries of British weather (his actual birthday being in November). From 1979 to 2017 it was always held on the Saturday falling between 11 -- 17 June; however, the date announced for 2018 fell on 9 June.
Trooping the Colour allows the troops of the Household Division to pay a personal tribute to the sovereign with great pomp and pageantry. Crowds lining the route and in St. James 's Park listen to music performed by both massed and mounted bands.
The Queen has attended Trooping the Colour in every year of her reign, except when prevented by a rail strike in 1955. Formerly mounted herself, she commenced riding in a carriage in 1987. On 13 June 1981, she and her mount were startled by an unemployed youth, Marcus Sarjeant, who fired six blank rounds from a starting revolver.
In her years attending on horseback, Her Majesty, as Colonel - in - Chief, wore a biretta and a Guards Regiment uniform with the medals she was awarded before becoming Queen (Order of the Crown of India; Defence Medal; War Medal 1939 -- 1945; King George V Silver Jubilee Medal; King George VI Coronation Medal; Canadian Forces Decoration) and the riband and star of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle or a combination of those orders, depending which regiment was trooping its colour. Since 1987, she has not worn uniform, but wears the Brigade of Guards badge, a large brooch representing the different regiments that participate (Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards, Welsh Guards, Irish Guards, and Scots Guards).
Her 80th birthday in 2006 was marked by a large flypast of 40 planes led by the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight and culminating with the Red Arrows. It was followed by the first feu de joie ("fire of joy '') fired in her presence during her reign, a second being fired at her Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2012. In 2008, a flypast of 55 aircraft commemorated the RAF 's 90th anniversary.
The Unit presenting the Colours usually commences Troop practice in April provided that the company does not have other prior military operations. The entire parade will rehearse in full dress at Horse Guards Parade before the Major General 's Review, such rehearsals are referred to as Guard Mount from Horse Guards. The Major General 's Review and the Colonel 's Review are scheduled on the Saturdays two and one weeks preceding the Queen 's Birthday Parade respectively. The salute is taken, respectively, by the Major - General commanding the Household Division and the Colonel of the Regiment which is trooping its colour.
On the day of Trooping the Colour, the Royal Standard is flown from Buckingham Palace and from Horse Guards Building, while the Union Flag (colloquially known as the Union Jack), is flown from public buildings as well as the flags of the British Commonwealth of Nations, especially in recent years.
Participants and positioning:
Nos 1 - 6 Guards - six companies of Foot Guards, each comprising 3 officers and 71 other ranks - line two sides of the perimeter of Horse Guards Parade in an extended "L '' shape. This recalls the defensive formation known as the "hollow square. ''
All six companies are collectively commanded as "Guards... '' and individually by company number, e.g., "No. 3 Guard... '' Up to eight Guards have taken part, the number varying over the years: six in 1939, five in 1954, seven from 1963 to 1967, and then eight until the 1980s.
The battalion trooping its colour in any given year is No. 1 Guard. During the parade, they are referred to as ' Escort for the Colour ' (and, once they have collected their colour during the ceremony, as ' Escort to the Colour ').
At the outset, the colour is held by the Colour Party - a colour sergeant and two other guardsmen of No. 1 Guards, standing well - spaced on the northern side of Horse Guards Parade. Once obtained by the Regimental Sergeant Major of No. 1 Guard, the colour is borne through the ranks of Nos 2 - 6 Guards by an Ensign of No. 1 Guard. It is a great honour for a young officer to carry the colour in this ceremony, as historically only the most courageous Ensigns were assigned to carry the regiment 's colours in battle. Nowadays the honour is normally given to second lieutenants who excel at drill and ceremonial and who are physically fit.
Lining the edge of St. James 's Park are the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment - the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals - as well as the King 's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery.
In the Royal Procession, the Household Cavalry are termed Sovereign 's Escort. Two divisions ride ahead of the Queen 's carriage and two behind it, and the Life Guards and Blues and Royals alternate these positions each year.
Three mounted officers drawn from No 1 Guard give drill commands during the parade. The most senior is the Field Officer in Brigade Waiting (rank of Lieutenant Colonel), assisted by the Major of the Parade. The Field Officer occupies a central position on the parade ground. The third mounted officer is the Adjutant.
The Garrison Sergeant Major of London District, who is not mounted, coordinates the whole event on the parade ground and the approach road from The Mall.
With almost 300 musicians on the field, led by the massed military bands of the Household Division, the music forms an integral part of the day. The massed bands of the Foot Guards number over 200 musicians. Joining them, since 2014, is the Mounted Band of the Household Cavalry, formed by the 2 merged Household Cavalry bands. There is also a Corps of Drums from several of the regiments and, on some occasions, pipe bands of the Scots Guards and Irish Guards.
The entire parade is best understood as an exercise of several elements carried out in slow and quick march time, with the Trooping the Colour phase forming the centrepiece.
The entire parade is supervised by the Field Officer in Brigade Waiting (sometimes shortened to "Field Officer ''), with the assistance of the Brigade Major and the Adjutant, all on horseback, and joined by the London District Garrison Sergeant Major, who is unmounted and coordinates the proceedings of the ceremony.
A detail of guardsmen bearing marker flags marches on, to mark the positions of Nos. 1 - 6 Guards. (These marker flags are the respective company colours from each regiment.)
Preceded by their regimental bands, Nos. 1 - 6 Guards march into position. No. 1 Guard is "Escort for the Colour. ''
With the foot guards in their home service order and the mounted band in state dress uniform, the assembled ranks of Household Division make a colourful spectacle.
Guards half - companies line up on the road to Horse Guards Parade to provide security to the Royal Family that will arrive later and to the marching and mounted contingents.
Preceding the sovereign, senior members of the Royal Family, in attendance but not on parade, arrive in barouches to view the ceremony from a central first floor window in the Duke of Wellington 's former office in Horse Guards Building. This procession turns at the Guards Memorial, and No. 3 Guard has opened ranks to allow their carriages to pass.
Preceded by the Sovereign 's Escort, the Queen (Colonel - in - Chief) journeys from Buckingham Palace down the Mall, in the Glass coach. Directly behind the Queen in the Royal Procession ride the Royal Colonels (the Prince of Wales (Welsh Guards), Duke of Kent (Scots Guards), Princess Royal (Blues and Royals), Duke of York (Grenadier Guards) and the Duke of Cambridge (Irish Guards)) followed by the non-royal Colonels of Regiments (those of the Coldstream Guards and the Life Guards). Other officers of the Household Division and of the Royal Household follow, all mounted, including the Master of the Horse, the Major - General commanding the Household Division with his Chief of staff and Aide - de-camp, Silver Stick - in - Waiting, the regimental Adjutants and a number of the Queen 's Equerries.
As the carriage arrives on Horse Guards Parade, the Royal Standard is prepared to be released and flown from the roof of Horse Guards. As the carriage passes behind the colour to the trooped, the head coachman, whip in hand, renders honours to it. The Queen alights at the Saluting Base to start the ceremonies.
The Field Officer commences the Parade with the command: "Guards - Royal Salute - Present Arms! '' and the national anthem (God Save The Queen) is played by the Household Division 's Foot Guards Massed Bands, led by the Senior Director of Music of the Household Division. Simultaneously, the Royal Standard is formally released and flies from the Horse Guards flagpole. This tradition was broken in the 2015 parade, as the salute and the playing of the National Anthem happened as the Queen approached the Saluting Base together with the Duke of Edinburgh, while the Royal Standard was released at the same time.
The Queen re-enters the carriage and is driven before and behind the long line of assembled guards, with the Royal Colonels following. BBC television commentaries every year emphasise the Queen 's knowledge of the attributes of her guards, and single out "steadiness '' as a highly prized quality for a guardsman.
The accompanying marches always carry a flavour of the regiment whose colour is being trooped, lending the royal inspection a unique atmosphere. For example, if the Welsh Guards are trooping their colour, the music will include their traditional regimental march, Men of Harlech. While the Queen passes the six companies of foot guards on her left, a slow march or air is played. Once the phaeton turns around the rear of No. 6 Guard, the music changes to a quick march. The Queen is conveyed back up the line, passing the Household Cavalry and King 's Troop stationed on her right, with the head coachman saluting the Sovereign 's Standard of the Household Cavalry and the lead gun of the King 's Troop in quick succession with a whip. The inspection completed, the music ceases, and she is conveyed back to the saluting base.
With the Queen once more seated at the saluting base, the command "Troop! '' is given by the Field Officer. This is not to be confused with the trooping of the colour itself, which occurs later in the ceremony. Three strikes on a bass drum give the signal for the Massed Bands to start their march.
The Guards, after standing at attention, change arms. Under the command of the Senior Drum Major, the Massed Bands march and countermarch on Horse Guards Parade in slow and quick time. The slow march music is traditionally the Waltz from Les Huguenots. During the quick march, a lone drummer from the Corps of Drums breaks away from the massed bands, marching to two paces to the right of No. 1 Guard to take his post while the band marches on, stopping just near the colour party.
The Trooping of the Colour phase of the ceremony is initiated by the lone drummer 's eight - bar "Drummer 's Call '', signalling the Captain of No. 1 Guard to cede his command to the Subaltern of No. 1 Guard. It slopes arms, while the Field Officer directs the other companies present to change arms and stand at ease. The call having been sounded, the lone drummer returns to the Massed Bands.
As Escort for the Colour, No. 1 Guard performs the centrepiece of the parade.
An orderly takes the pace stick from the Regimental Sergeant - Major (RSM), positioned behind the Escort for the Colour, thus freeing the RSM to draw his sword - the only time a British Army infantry warrant officer ever does so on parade. The Subaltern then commands No. 1 Guard to move into close order, and then dresses it. Then, led by the Subaltern with the Ensign following, and with the Regimental Sergeant - Major marching behind the company, the Escort for the Colour quick marches onto the field to "The British Grenadiers ''. (This tune is always used irrespective of which regiment 's colour is being trooped, because the right flank of every battalion used to be a grenadier company.) A guardsman behind the colour party marches forward towards the Colour Sergeant of the colour party at the same time during the Escort approaching then hands over the rifle to the Colour Sergeant, salutes the colour and leaves the parade ground. The Escort marks time while the Massed Bands "clear the line of march '' and move to the front of the Guards and mark time. Fifteen steps away from the Colour Party, the music halts and four paces later, the ' Escort for the Colour ' halts in place, and is ordered to open ranks and dressed, followed by the Massed Bands making an about turn.
The guards are then called to attention and then change and slope arms under the direction of the Field Officer, while the Household Cavalry are also called to attention by the commander of the Sovereign 's Escort.
The RSM marches around to the front of the Escort and, followed by the Ensign, approaches the Colour Party. Having saluted the colour with his sword, the Sergeant - Major takes it from the Colour Sergeant, freeing him to change and then slope arms. The RSM turns, marches to the Ensign, and presents the colour to him. The Ensign salutes the colour with his sword, sheathes the sword without taking his eyes off the colour, and takes possession of it.
Having obtained their colour, No. 1 Guard (formerly known as "Escort for the Colour '') is now termed "Escort to the Colour. '' By then, the massed bands, now with the line cleared, face front, with the Corps of Drums, pipe bands and the senior director of music leading.
To the first six bars of "God Save the Queen '', the Escort to the Colour presents arms; simultaneously, turning outward at an angle of 45 °, the NCOs (non-commissioned officers) at the four corners (or flanks) of the Escort port arms, as symbolic maximum protection for the colour.
The Escort to the Colour and Colour Party slope arms. The Colour Sergeant marches to the right and to the rear of the Escort. Once the Colour Party, Ensign and Regimental Sergeant - Major have joined the Escort, the RSM repositions himself to the left of and behind the Escort. The Subaltern then orders the Escort to change arms and orders the slow march.
As the Escort to the Colour slow - marches down the field towards No. 6 Guard to begin their colour trooping, the massed bands perform their unique anti-clockwise "spinwheel '' manoeuvre. This, a 90 ° turn in restricted space, is performed while playing the slow march "Escort to the Colour. ''
Prime responsibility for the celebrated spinwheel, which is largely individual and instinctive, rests with the Garrison Sergeant Major.
A ' wheel ' is not an easy manoeuvre with even a small body of troops, and with a block of 400 men the normal wheel is impossible. The massed band therefore pivots on its own centre, so that certain outer ranks and files march long distances in a hurry while the centre and inner ranks loiter with extreme intent, or merely mark time. Yet others not only step sideways but backwards as well. This highly complex movement is called a ' spin - wheel ', the details of which can be found in no drill book or manual of ceremonial. Its complexity defies description, and if the truth were known, many of the participants know not whither they go or, on arrival, how they got there. The spin - wheel is almost an art form and each performance of it, although similar in essentials, is different in detail. Most of the performers are adjusting their actions to suit the needs of the spin - wheel of the moment, having adjusted their movements quite otherwise on other occasions.
Once the Escort reaches the edge of No. 6 Guard, the music stops, and the Field Officer in Brigade Waiting orders the entire parade (except the Escort) to present arms as the trooping proper starts. The music changes to "The Grenadiers ' Slow March. ''
To the strains of the Grenadiers Slow March, the Escort to the Colour then troops the colour down the long line of Nos 6 - 2 Guards. The colour itself is borne by the Ensign in front of the line of guards, but the ranks of the Escort interweave with their ranks. For Nos 6 - 2 Guards, who maintain the ' present arms ' position, the long trooping, especially on a hot day, requires stamina. As this is done the Massed Bands move back in slow time to their original places.
Eventually the Escort arrives back at its original position as no. 1 Guard - from where it first marched off in quick time. Their Captain, who had temporarily ceded his command to the Subaltern, resumes his command over No. 1 Guard by ordering them to present arms, thus bringing the Escort back in line with Nos 2 - 6 Guards. The entire parade is now ordered by the Field Officer to slope arms, thus concluding the trooping phase.
The trooping phase is followed by the march - past in slow and quick time of the foot guards and then the Household Cavalry and King 's Troop, also in slow and quick time.
The Field Officer gives the command, "Officers, take post. '' Nos 1 to 5 Guard then "retire '', about - turning and right - forming into review formation. Nos 1 to 5 Guard then about - turn again as the Corps of Drums play. Since No. 6 Guard is already standing at right angles to the other five companies it does not need to execute this movement, but instead it moves close - order position then to the right in threes after Nos 1 to 5 Guards turn back to advance position.
Once intervals are established, the Field Officer salutes the Queen and informs her that the foot guards are ready to march past, then commands, "Guards will march past in slow and quick time. Slow march. '' No. 6 Guard will left turn to be advance and then form two ranks on Marching after the parade has started to execute the slow march.
No. 1 Guard - the Escort - leads the six companies for two circuits of Horse Guards Parade, saluting the Queen as they pass. The corners of the field are negotiated with the complex Left Form manoeuvre. Commands of "Change direction - left! '' are then followed by the Left Guide (or Right Guide) of each Guard signalling "Right Sir! '' to the Captain that the company has reached the position, the Captain will immediately orders "Left... Form! ''
At the end of both the slow and quick march - past, the Field Officer rides out to salute the Queen with his sword, telling her that her Majesty 's Guards have ended their march - past.
Neutral slow marches start and conclude this section. The guards are preceded past the saluting base by the Field Officer and the Major of the Parade, who salute the Queen with their swords and eyes right.
To the strains of their distinctive regimental slow marches, each of Nos. 1 - 6 Guards passes before the Queen with their eyes right, their regimental officers saluting with swords. The leading company, No. 1 Guard - the Escort to the Colour - has a particular honour. The Ensign lowers the colour - the ' flourish '. The Queen acknowledges it with a bow of the head, and the Royal Colonels salute the colour. Once past the saluting base, the colour is raised again - the ' recover ' - and "eyes front '' is ordered.
Each company 's salute is acknowledged by the Queen, the Duke, and the Royal Colonels.
For this circuit, the colour is at the rear of the Escort (No. 1 Guard), protected by the Colour Party. Their regimental quick marches are played as each guard passes before the Queen with eyes right. However, this being a quick march, the officers do not salute with swords, but only with the eyes right instead. As with the slow march - past, neutral marches start and conclude this section.
The massed bands, led by the Corps of Drums and the pipes and drums, march away to allow the mounted bands on to the ground. By then, the foot guards have ended their march, and are now back in place and dressed.
The now sole Mounted Band of the Household Cavalry in state dress, led by the two drum horses representing the two constituent regiments of the Household Cavalry, and the Director of Music of the Household Cavalry, ride slowly on to the field, traditionally to the tune "Preobrajensky. ''
It is the turn of Household Cavalry and King 's Troop to complete two circuits of Horse Guards Parade. For the horses, slow and quick time correspond to a walk - march and a sitting - trot, respectively. Since 1997, the mounted contingent is led by the commander of the King 's Troop and then by the Sovereign 's Escort commander.
In both turns of the ride past the Foot Guards present arms as per the Field Officer 's orders.
Salutes are again given to the Queen, and returned by her and the Royal Colonels to the colours as they pass by.
The Royal Horse Artillery, marching to the "Royal Artillery Slow March '' and then the "March from Aida '', is first, taking precedence over all other units when on parade with its guns. When the King 's Troop passes the saluting base, the Queen acknowledges the leading gun as the colour.
The Life Guards, in red jackets and white plumes, are next, followed by the Blues and Royals, in blue jackets and red plumes. The sequence of regimental marches is: "Life Guards ' Slow March '', followed by "Blues and Royals ' Slow March '', and then "The Royals. ''
Riding at the rear of the Household Cavalry are the farriers, one for each regiment, carrying their glinting axes and flanked by a soldier of each regiment. (The Life Guards farrier wears a black plume rather than the usual regimental white.)
The two Household Cavalry regiments take turns to parade and the job of parading the Queen 's Cavalry Standard of either of the two regiments alternates yearly between the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals. As the standard passes by, it is flourished in the presence of the Queen, the Duke and the Royal Colonels and after walking past them is recovered.
A state trumpeter of either of the two Household Cavalry regiments plays "The Trot '' to signal the beginning of the sitting trot - past. "The Keel Row '' is traditionally played, and much dust is raised by the horses. Both the King 's Troop 's lead gun and the Queen 's Cavalry Standard are trotted in the presence of the Queen and the Royal Colonels as they salute them.
As the trot - past ends the mounted band salutes the Queen, the drumhorse riders crossing their drumsticks above their heads. They then proceed back to the east side of Horse Guards Parade and halt in place.
Their director of music turns inwards on his horse as a signal to the Field Officer that the Household Cavalry and the King 's Troop are now in position to formally end the proceedings under the command of the Field Officer.
During the final Royal Salute, as the parade renders their birthday wishes from all 7 regiments of the Household Division to their colonel - in - chief, the colour of No. 1 Guard is lowered to the ground by the Ensign while "God Save the Queen '' is played by the Massed Bands. Forming divisions once more, accompanied by the Corps of Drums, the guards prepare to march off, and the Household Cavalry and the King 's Troop leave the field. The Field Officer, after forming the parade for the march - off, then rides towards the saluting base, informing the Queen that the guards are ready to march off the field while the RSM of the Escort returns his sword into his scabbard as an orderly returns to him his pace stick.
The King 's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery leaves Horse Guards Parade and proceeds to Green Park (adjacent to Buckingham Palace) to formally commence the royal 41 - gun salute. At the same time in the Tower of London, the Honourable Artillery Company takes its positions in the tower grounds for the special 62 - gun salute that will be happen when the Queen arrives. This gun salute is only done by the HAC during royal anniversaries.
Led by the massed bands, the Queen places herself at the head of her foot guards. The entire parade of 1,000 soldiers and 400 musicians marches up the Mall towards Buckingham Palace. The Markers then march off the grounds carrying the regimental company colours on the marker flags. The King 's Troop and the HAC, now in place, get ready to commence firing their respective gun salutes during the Royal Family 's arrival at the palace. At the same time, the old and new Queen 's Guards, now performing the Changing of the Guard in the palace forecourt at the same time as the ceremony being done, also prepare for the royal carriages ' arrival and to salute the Queen on her carriage when she arrives.
When the Queen returns to Buckingham Palace, the first division of the Escort to the Colour forms into two detachments of New Guards and enter the forecourt, opposite the Old Guards. Unlike the usual procedures of Changing of the Guards, the Regimental Sergeant Major participates in the Changing of the Guard ceremony on that day; moreover, the New Guard advances into the apposite position in the forecourt alongside the remainders of their regiment who are performing a march - pass outside the gateway in quick time instead of in slow time ordinarily. Each year, the Queen then stops at the gateway together with the Duke of Edinburgh. Standing before the central gateway, they then receive the salute of the remainder of the guards and then the mounted troops. As they file past, their regimental marches are played by the massed and mounted bands respectively. The Royal Family observes the spectacle from the balcony.
The Queen 's carriage passes into the palace between the Old and New Guards, with both guards saluting her. The usual semi-daily Changing of the Guard continues on the forecourt of the palace.
The gun salutes begin on the arrival of the Queen at Buckingham Palace, with the King 's Troop firing a 41 - gun royal salute in Green Park and the Honourable Artillery Company firing a 62 - gun royal salute from the Tower of London grounds.
Finally, the Queen and the Royal Family on the palace balcony witness a flypast by the Royal Air Force, often featuring the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight and the Red Arrows. This is once again followed by the National Anthem and in special years, a feu de joie followed by the shouting of the three cheers to the Queen on behalf of the entire Household Division.
Below are links to words and music of the regimental marches of the five foot guards regiments.
Slow marches
Quick marches Music for all five regiments ' quick marches
Since only one colour can be trooped down the ranks at a time, each year a single battalion of the five Foot Guards regiments is selected to troop its colours.
Non-participating Guards: TBD
Non-participating Guards: Irish and Welsh Guards
Non-participating Guards: Welsh Guards
Non-participant regiments: Irish and Welsh Guards
And the 1st Battalion, Coldstream Guards, which were originally scheduled to troop their Colour but an operational deployment prevented this
Showered by heavy rain
Since 1993, the 2nd Battalions of the Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards and Scots Guards have been in "suspended animation '' - they are represented in the parade by the three incremental companies. No incremental companies, however, serve for their respective 3rd Battalions, as well as for the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Irish and Welsh Guards.
The number of soldiers participating in Trooping the Colour in London has declined over the years due to defence budget cuts in Household Division battalions as well as the battalions ' commitments to military and peacekeeping operations overseas. This gives some of the units little time to practice ceremonial functions. However, the format of the ceremony has remained the same over the centuries following routines of old battle formations used in the era of musket warfare.
In Australia the Trooping the Queen 's Colour takes place annually on the Queen 's Birthday Holiday by the staff cadets of Royal Military College, Duntroon in Canberra, formerly at the RMC parade grounds and now at Rod Point at the shores of Lake Burley Griffin. The Queen 's colour was trooped there for the first time on the Queen 's Birthday Parade in 1956, a practice which has continued since then. Colours were first presented to the Corps of Staff Cadets by His Majesty King George VI when, as Duke of York, he visited Australia in 1927. These colours are now lodged in the college 's Patterson Hall. Colours were again presented by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on 10 May 1988 and most recently on 22 October 2011 during a brief visit to Australia, coinciding with RMC Duntroon 's centenary year.
The Champion Company of the Corps of Staff Cadets is named after the Sovereign 's Company and it carries the Queen Elizabeth II 's banner, which was first presented to the Corps of Staff Cadets by Her Majesty the Queen Mother on February 26, 1958. The Sovereign 's Company is entitled to carry the banner on all ceremonial parades as well as escorting the Queen 's colour during the Trooping the Colour. The Governor - General of Australia, being Her Majesty 's representative in the Commonwealth, is the reviewing officer of the parade, and since the move to Rod Field, has been attended by the public as well.
In Canada the Trooping the Colour ceremony takes place, with a trooping of the Queen 's Colour, only for the Queen, members of the Royal Family, the Governor General, or a Lieutenant - Governor, on Remembrance Day, or in honour of the Queen 's Birthday, on Victoria Day. New colours may also be trooped when they are presented. Colours are also trooped during unit anniversaries. In Ottawa, should any of the above be absent for the ceremony, the salute is taken by the Minister of National Defence and the Chief of the Defence Staff, and the Regimental Colour is trooped instead.
Jordan hosted its first Trooping the Colour - the first in the Middle East - in June 2016 celebrating the centenary of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire. In 2017, the Trooping of the Colour was moved to September and is held annually. Around 1,000 troops take part in the parade, which is held yearly in Amman, the national capital. Al Rayah Square (Square of the Emblem) was specially built for this occasion near the royal court. It stands on an area of 6,300 square metres and can host up to 5,000 people. In the parade, the King awards the Colours of the Arab Revolt to one of the army 's battalions which holds it until the next Trooping the Colour. In 2016, the colours went to the 28th prince Hussein bin Abdullah II Rangers Brigade. In 2017, the colours were awarded to the 39th Ja'far bin Abi Talib Infantry Battalion.
First ever Trooping the Colour in Jordan as well as in the Middle East.
Kenya is one of two African countries that still practices the traditional British ceremony of Trooping the Colour.
This takes place every 12 December on Jamhuri Day (the day when Kenya became an independent nation and later a republic), but unlike the British one all the three services of the Kenya Defence Forces takes part in the Trooping the colour. The service whose battalion is trooping the colour provides number one and number two guards.
The ceremony normally begins at 11: 30 after the arrival of the President of Kenya, who takes the national salute. After finishing his inspection of the parade, the band plays a slow march followed with a quick march the lone drummer then breaks away to take his position beside number one guard to play the drummers call, signalling the officers of No. 1 Guard to take positions to receive the colour. The escort for the colour then marches off to collect the colour as the massed KDF band plays the chosen Kenyan tune. After the hand over and as the Escort presents arms the first verse of the Kenya national anthem is played, then the escort to the colour marches off in a slow march to the tune of the British grenadier guards. The first tune normally played during the march is always ' By land and sea '.
Also part of the Commonwealth, Malaysia performs Trooping the Colours every first Saturday of June, the official birthday of the Yang di - Pertuan Agong, the elected Malaysian King, in front of the Yang di - Pertuan Agong, the Raja Permaisuri Agong, the Prime Minister of Malaysia, the Deputy Prime Minister, and other officials of the Government, and officers of the Malaysian Armed Forces, of which the King is the Commander - in - Chief as prescribed by the Malaysian Constitution of 1957 as amended.
The Malaysian trooping coincides with the publication of an Honours List for the King 's Birthday on the same day. It also incorporates many elements of the British Trooping ceremony, including a Royal Procession before and after the parade, The Sovereign 's Escort, Saluting Base at Merdeka Square or at the Merdeka Stadium, Royal Inspection, the duties of Field Officer, Major of the Parade and Adjutant officers and the NCO duties of Regt. Sergeant Majors and Colour Sergeants, the Royal Salute, 21 - gun salutes by the Royal Regiment of Artillery, and flypasts (flying the Malaysian flag and the flags of the Armed forces). It is conducted in Malay and includes prayers, in the Islamic traditions of the Malaysian Armed Forces. Motorized vehicles are used in the Royal Procession from the Royal Malaysian Police. The main differences are that five colours are trooped, covering all three branches of the Armed Forces, and some of marches played are locally composed. This threefold representation is reflected in the composition of the Colours Party, the Escort for / to the Colours and the Massed Military Bands in attendance.
The 2014 event was held on Friday, 13 June, at Kem Perdana, Sungai Besi, which was a departure from normal tradition of the Saturday troopings. This was the very first time in Malaysian history that Trooping the Colour was held on the Friday in June closest to the King 's Birthday, rather than the traditional first Saturday of the month. In an old tradition which resumed in 2016 at the National Heroes ' Square, Putrajaya, if the celebrations fall on Ramadan, then the birthday parade is held on the Friday before 29 July, Heroes ' Day.
For the first time in history, the traditional Trooping the Colours was held on 19 September 2017, the Tuesday after Malaysia Day, in National Heroes ' Square, Putrajaya, given the decision to move the King 's Birthday to the Monday following Hari Merdeka. Thus, the Trooping the Colours in Putrajaya ends more than a month of national celebrations in honour of the anniversary of Malaysian independence in 1957 and the formation of the armed forces in 1932.
Given Malta 's history as a former British dominion, the Armed Forces of Malta performs Trooping the Colour every 13 December in celebration of Republic Day at St. George 's Square in Valletta, the national capital. The salute is taken by the President of Malta, who is the commander in chief of the AFM.
The Singapore Armed Forces performs Trooping the Colours annually in the SAF Day Parade on 1 July. It is toned down as compared to the British version and is done after the awarding of the State Colours to the Best units of the Army, Navy and Air Force. If new Colours have been consecrated on SAF day, they are usually included in the Trooping, but if otherwise, are Trooped on a separate day. The Escorts to the Colour (No. 1 Guard) are usually formed by the Singapore Armed Forces Military Police Command, while Nos. 2 - 4 Guards are composed of personnel from the SAF National Day Parade Guard of Honour Companies. Unlike the British parade, it has supporting contingents that march past as well.
The salute is taken by the President of Singapore, the Prime Minister of Singapore, and the Chief of Defence Force, while the band in attendance is either the SAF Central Band or the SAF Ceremonial Band A (both from the Singapore Armed Forces Bands).
The No. 2 Guard is usually made up of personnel from the Singapore Army 's Best Army Unit Competition winner for the current year, typically the 1st Commando Battalion, Singapore Armed Forces Commando Formation.
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when does a new episode of dynasty come out | Dynasty (2017 TV series) - wikipedia
Dynasty is an American prime time television soap opera reboot based on the 1980s series of the same name. Developed by Josh Schwartz, Stephanie Savage, and Sallie Patrick, the new series stars Elizabeth Gillies as Fallon Carrington, Grant Show as her father Blake Carrington, Nathalie Kelley as Blake 's new wife Cristal, and James Mackay as his son Steven, with Robert Christopher Riley as chauffeur Michael Culhane, Sam Adegoke as tech billionaire Jeff Colby, Rafael de la Fuente as Sam "Sammy Jo '' Jones, Cristal 's nephew and Steven 's fiancé, and Alan Dale as Joseph Anders, the Carrington majordomo. The series later introduced Alexis Carrington (Nicollette Sheridan), Blake 's ex-wife and the estranged mother of Steven and Fallon.
The pilot, which was announced in September 2016, was ordered to series in May 2017. Dynasty premiered on October 11, 2017, on The CW in the United States, and on Netflix internationally a day later. On November 8, 2017, The CW picked up the series for a full season of 22 episodes. On April 2, 2018, The CW renewed the series for a second season, which is set to premiere on October 12, 2018.
Dynasty begins with heiress Fallon Carrington unhappy to find her billionaire father Blake engaged to Cristal, a rival employee at the family company. When Fallon 's machinations to separate the couple backfire and cost her a promotion, she allies with Blake 's nemesis and former employee, Jeff Colby, and strikes out on her own. Meanwhile, the arrival of Cristal 's opportunistic nephew Sam -- who becomes romantically involved with Fallon 's wayward brother Steven -- threatens to expose her shady past. The Carringtons form a united front in the wake of the suspicious death of Cristal 's former lover, but things at the mansion do not remain harmonious for long.
The reboot updates several elements from the 1980s original, including moving the setting from Denver, Colorado to Atlanta, Georgia; making Steven 's homosexuality a nonissue to Blake; and changing gold digger Sammy Jo from a woman to a gay man. Additionally, in the new series, both Blake 's new wife and her nephew are Hispanic, and both chauffeur Michael Culhane and the Colby family are African - American.
In September 2016, it was announced that a reboot of the 1980s prime time soap opera Dynasty was in development at The CW, co-written by Josh Schwartz, Stephanie Savage, and Sallie Patrick. Savage said, "All of us have worked on shows that owe a huge debt to Dynasty, so it 's kind of in our writing DNA to do this show. '' The trio discussed what they found unique and attractive about the original series, and how best to preserve those elements in an update. They also met with Richard and Esther Shapiro, the creators of Dynasty, who were ultimately attached as producers. Schwartz said, "We are definitely living in an age of dynasties. Whether it 's the Trumps or the Clintons or the Kardashians or the Murdochs, our news is filled with the worlds of family dynasties and that was exciting for us. '' Savage added, "When we first sat down with the Shapiros to talk about rebooting the show, they talked a lot about family. No matter the villainous things that they did, they never stopped loving each other. I think we took that core concept and then just talked about how to place the idea in the historical context of our day. '' Patrick noted that the 1980s series was progressive for its time, dealing with issues like race, women in the workplace, and gay acceptance. She said, "We 're trying to figure out how do we respect what that show was doing then and pushing it even farther in our version. '' De la Fuente said, "We 're trying to make it stand on its own and be its own thing. But we have to pay homage to the original and the classic stuff that people remember from Dynasty, like the fashion, the catfights and the opulence of it all, is of course in our show. It would n't be Dynasty otherwise. ''
The new series finds heiress Fallon Carrington facing off against her soon - to - be stepmother Cristal, a Hispanic woman. Patrick said, "It was important to me as a working woman to have two women fighting over the future of the dynasty. '' Schwartz said of the rival characters:
Even when you watch the original, Fallon is a character who feels as if she can exist in 2017. She just pops off the screen, and she can take on Krystle, who, in the original, was pure and the moral center of the show. With this new Cristal, we liked the idea of not letting her be quite as pure and raising some questions about her past and having her stir the pot -- making her more formidable. That really let us lean into this rivalry between Fallon and Cristal.
Patrick said, "We knew in our version -- 2017 -- we wanted Steven 's conflict with Blake to be not about him being gay, but about him being liberal. '' Savage noted, "With Steven Carrington out and proud, it makes sense for Sammy Jo to be a man. '' Patrick said in August 2017 that Blake 's first wife Alexis would be introduced during the first season, but that the role had yet to be cast. She noted, "We knew Alexis was coming before we even started shooting the pilot, which allowed us to pave the way for her... throughout the season, we hear Blake, Steven, and Fallon 's memories about the woman who abandoned their family. So by the time she actually enters the series, we 've established expectations about her character -- which Alexis will happily break. '' The role was cast with Nicollette Sheridan in November 2017, and she first appeared in episode 16 in March 2018.
The setting was also moved from Denver to Atlanta, in part because of Atlanta 's diversity. Schwartz called the city "a realistic location of this family to be based out of '', noting that the Shapiros had arbitrarily picked Denver for the original series and were not creatively attached to it. Patrick said of the change, "Denver was obviously chosen for a few solid reasons at the time, being one of the oil capitals... For us, Denver did n't have the vibrancy and conflict that we needed. '' She said that Atlanta is "a super diverse population and a great mixture -- where there 's conflict between old money and new money. '' Kelley said, "This modern version represents a more current picture of what 's happening in America. The diversity of the cast really represents that. '' In the update, chauffeur Michael Culhane and the Colby family are African - American. Also, Cristal 's Venezuelan origins will allow the show to explore the current geopolitics of that country.
Patrick said that episode seven, "A Taste of Your Own Medicine '', "brings to a head so many of the stories that we 've been slowly building. It hits the tone of the show perfectly. '' She added:
We loved the original Dynasty -- the camp and the big, surprising soapy twists. We also felt very strongly that we needed to earn those. It would have been hard to come out of the gate with an episode like this. You have to be with the characters long enough to start caring about them. We 're cranking up the crazy moving forward.
The episode titles are lines of dialogue from the original series. In addition to reworked characters and plotlines, the reboot contains multiple visual homages to the 1980s series, including props and wardrobe.
The pilot was filmed in Atlanta. On May 10, 2017, the Dynasty reboot received a series order at The CW. A preview trailer was released on May 18, 2017. Dynasty premiered on The CW in the United States on Wednesday, October 11, 2017, and on November 8, 2017, The CW picked up the series for a full season of 22 episodes. Sheridan 's casting was a key factor in the decision to give Dynasty a back nine order of episodes after the initial 13. On April 2, 2018, The CW renewed the series for a second season, which will premiere on October 12, 2018.
Nathalie Kelley was cast as Cristal in January 2017, followed by Elizabeth Gillies as Fallon, Sam Adegoke as playboy Jeff Colby, and Robert Christopher Riley as Blake 's chauffeur Michael Culhane in February. Next cast were Grant Show as Fallon 's father Blake Carrington, and Rafael de la Fuente as Sam Jones, a gay male version of the original series ' Sammy Jo Carrington, in March. The remaining main cast members are James Mackay as Fallon 's gay brother Steven, and Alan Dale as Carrington majordomo Anders, Additional recurring performers include Nick Wechsler as Cristal 's ex-lover Matthew Blaisdel, Brianna Brown as Matthew 's wife Claudia, and Wakeema Hollis as Jeff 's sister Monica Colby. In November 2017, Nicollette Sheridan was cast in the role of Blake 's ex-wife Alexis Carrington, and was later promoted to series regular status for season two. Other guest stars include Elena Tovar as Iris Machado, Cristal 's sister and Sam 's mother, Bill Smitrovich as Thomas Carrington, Blake 's estranged father, and Hakeem Kae - Kazim as Cesil Colby, Jeff and Monica 's father.
In June 2018, Kelley told E! News that she would not be returning for season two. The CW announced in August 2018 that Ana Brenda Contreras had been cast as "the real Cristal Flores '' for the second season. Maddison Brown was also cast as Anders ' daughter, Kirby. A May 2018 press release teased that the show would introduce Blake 's half - sister Dominique Deveraux, Jeff and Monica 's mother, in season two.
The pilot includes a flashback of a young Steven playing the original Dynasty theme by Bill Conti on piano. An updated, 15 - second version debuted as an opening credits sequence in the 1980s - themed third episode, "Guilt is for Insecure People '', but is only used in some episodes. Composer Paul Leonard - Morgan worked with Troy Nõka to get "an ' 80s - rock vibe '' for the song, to match Leonard - Morgan 's soundtrack for the series. The new theme was recorded with an orchestra at Capitol Records in Hollywood, featuring Los Angeles Philharmonic lead trumpet player Tom Hooten.
Dynasty premiered on The CW in the United States on Wednesday, October 11, 2017, with the season 2 premiere of Riverdale as its lead - in. Netflix acquired the exclusive international broadcast rights to Dynasty, making it available as an original series on the platform less than a day after their original U.S. broadcast. The series moved to Fridays starting with the fourteenth episode. Season two will begin airing on October 12, 2018.
Leslie Moonves, the head of CBS Corporation, said in 2017, "We own 100 percent of (Dynasty), and we 've already licensed it to Netflix in 188 countries... So this means Dynasty is profitable before it even hits the air. '' The CW 's president Mark Pedowitz said in January 2018, "I 'm disappointed in the ratings, I wanted it to do more, but I 'm happy with the production values that Josh, Steph and Sallie are doing. There are changes coming, I 'm thrilled to have Nicollette (Sheridan)... I 'm looking forward to Nicollette and Liz (Gillies) really going at it as a mother - daughter situation, and I think that will add some juice to the show. ''
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 53 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.59 / 10 based on 40 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Dynasty 's revival retains enough of its predecessor 's over-the - top allure to offer a glamorous guilty pleasure in its first season, even if it never quite recaptures the magic of the original. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 52 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Chris Harnick of E! Online called the pilot "soapy and fun '', adding that the series is "a worthy heir to the original show and Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage 's previous offering Gossip Girl and The O.C. ''. Adweek called the pilot inferior to Gossip Girl and the original Dynasty, but suggested that its pairing with Riverdale "could provide audiences a guilty - pleasure double - feature ''.
Tierney Bricker of E! Online dubbed Kelley "this season 's breakout star '', with Gillies "hot on her Louboutin heels ''.
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who has run unsuccessfully for president of the united states the most number of times | Perennial candidate - wikipedia
A perennial candidate is a political candidate who frequently runs for an elected office but seldom wins. The term is not generally applied to incumbent politicians who successfully defend their seats repeatedly.
Perennial candidates can vary widely in nature. Some are independents who lack the support of the major political parties in an area or are members of alternative parties (such as "third parties '' in the United States). Others may be mainstream candidates who can consistently win a party 's nomination, but because their district is gerrymandered or a natural safe seat for another party, the candidate likewise never gets elected (thus these types are often paper candidates). Still others may typically run in primary elections for a party 's nomination and lose repeatedly. Numerous perennial candidates, although not all, run with the full knowledge of their inability to win elections and instead use their candidacy for satire, to advance non-mainstream political platforms, or to take advantage of benefits afforded political candidates (such as campaign financing and television advertising benefits).
Due to the complex and intricate political system in Brazil concerning political parties, there are more than 30 political parties. In this scenario, it is very useful to have hopeless candidates who can make a good number of votes and beef up the overall votes count of a party (or alliance). As a consequence, there are thousands of small perennial candidates for local elections around the country, whose sole purpose is helping others get elected, then ask for a job in the elected government structure.
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what are the features of windows nt operating system | Windows NT - wikipedia
Windows NT is a family of operating systems produced by Microsoft, the first version of which was released in July 1993. It is a processor - independent, multiprocessing, multi-user operating system.
The first version of Windows NT was Windows NT 3.1 and was produced for workstations and server computers. It was intended to complement consumer versions of Windows that were based on MS - DOS (including Windows 1.0 through Windows 3.1 x). Gradually, the Windows NT family was expanded into Microsoft 's general - purpose operating system product line for all personal computers, deprecating the Windows 9x family.
"NT '' formerly expanded to "New Technology '' but no longer carries any specific meaning. Starting with Windows 2000, "NT '' was removed from the product name and is only included in the product version string.
NT was the first purely 32 - bit version of Windows, whereas its consumer - oriented counterparts, Windows 3.1 x and Windows 9x, were 16 - bit / 32 - bit hybrids. It is a multi-architecture operating system. Initially, it supported several instruction set architectures, including IA - 32, MIPS, DEC Alpha, PowerPC and later Itanium. The latest versions support x86 (more specifically IA - 32 and x64) and ARM. Major features of the Windows NT family include Windows Shell, Windows API, Native API, Active Directory, Group Policy, Hardware Abstraction Layer, NTFS, BitLocker, Windows Store, Windows Update, and Hyper - V.
It has been suggested that Dave Cutler intended the initialism "WNT '' as a play on VMS, incrementing each letter by one. However, the project was originally intended as a follow - on to OS / 2 and was referred to as "NT OS / 2 '' before receiving the Windows brand. One of the original NT developers, Mark Lucovsky, states that the name was taken from the original target processor -- the Intel i860, code - named N10 ("N - Ten ''). A 1998 question - and - answer session with Bill Gates, reveal that the letters were previously expanded to "New Technology '' but no longer carry any specific meaning. The letters were dropped from the names of releases from Windows 2000 and later, though Microsoft described that product as being "Built on NT Technology ''.
A main design goal of NT was hardware and software portability. Various versions of NT family operating systems have been released for a variety of processor architectures, initially IA - 32, MIPS, and DEC Alpha, with PowerPC, Itanium, x86 - 64 and ARM supported in later releases. The idea was to have a common code base with a custom Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL) for each platform. However, support for MIPS, Alpha, and PowerPC was later dropped in Windows 2000. Broad software compatibility was achieved with support for several API "personalities '', including Windows API, POSIX, and OS / 2 APIs -- the latter two were phased out starting with Windows XP. Partial MS - DOS compatibility was achieved via an integrated DOS Virtual Machine -- although this feature is being phased out in the x86 - 64 architecture. NT supported per - object (file, function, and role) access control lists allowing a rich set of security permissions to be applied to systems and services. NT supported Windows network protocols, inheriting the previous OS / 2 LAN Manager networking, as well as TCP / IP networking (for which Microsoft would implement a TCP / IP stack derived at first from a STREAMS - based stack from Spider Systems, then later rewritten in - house).
Windows NT 3.1 was the first version of Windows to use 32 - bit flat virtual memory addressing on 32 - bit processors. Its companion product, Windows 3.1, used segmented addressing and switches from 16 - bit to 32 - bit addressing in pages.
Windows NT 3.1 featured a core kernel providing a system API, running in supervisor mode (ring 0 in x86; referred to in Windows NT as "kernel mode '' on all platforms), and a set of user - space environments with their own APIs which included the new Win32 environment, an OS / 2 1.3 text - mode environment and a POSIX environment. The full preemptive multitasking kernel could interrupt running tasks to schedule other tasks, without relying on user programs to voluntarily give up control of the CPU, as in Windows 3.1 Windows applications (although MS - DOS applications were preemptively multitasked in Windows starting with Windows / 386).
Notably, in Windows NT 3. x, several I / O driver subsystems, such as video and printing, were user - mode subsystems. In Windows NT 4, the video, server, and printer spooler subsystems were moved into kernel mode. Windows NT 's first GUI was strongly influenced by (and programmatically compatible with) that from Windows 3.1; Windows NT 4 's interface was redesigned to match that of the brand new Windows 95, moving from the Program Manager to the Windows shell design.
NTFS, a journaled, secure file system, was created for NT. Windows NT also allows for other installable file systems; starting with versions 3.1, NT could be installed on FAT or HPFS file systems.
Windows NT introduced its own driver model, the Windows NT driver model, and is incompatible with older driver frameworks. With Windows 2000, the Windows NT driver model was enhanced to become the Windows Driver Model, which was first introduced with Windows 98, but was based on the NT driver model. Windows Vista added native support for the Windows Driver Foundation, which is also available for Windows XP, Windows Server 2003 and to an extent, Windows 2000.
Microsoft decided to create a portable operating system, compatible with OS / 2 and POSIX and supporting multiprocessing, in October 1988. When development started in November 1989, Windows NT was to be known as OS / 2 3.0, the third version of the operating system developed jointly by Microsoft and IBM. To ensure portability, initial development was targeted at the Intel i860 XR RISC processor, switching to the MIPS R3000 in late 1989, and then the Intel i386 in 1990. Microsoft also continued parallel development of the DOS - based and less resource - demanding Windows environment, resulting in the release of Windows 3.0 in May 1990. Windows 3 was eventually so successful that Microsoft decided to change the primary application programming interface for the still unreleased NT OS / 2 (as it was then known) from an extended OS / 2 API to an extended Windows API. This decision caused tension between Microsoft and IBM and the collaboration ultimately fell apart. IBM continued OS / 2 development alone while Microsoft continued work on the newly renamed Windows NT. Though neither operating system would immediately be as popular as Microsoft 's MS - DOS or Windows products, Windows NT would eventually be far more successful than OS / 2.
Microsoft hired a group of developers from Digital Equipment Corporation led by Dave Cutler to build Windows NT, and many elements of the design reflect earlier DEC experience with Cutler 's VMS and RSX - 11, but also an unreleased object - based operating system developed by Dave Cutler for DEC Prism. The team was joined by selected members of the disbanded OS / 2 team, including Moshe Dunie. The operating system was designed to run on multiple instruction set architectures and multiple hardware platforms within each architecture. The platform dependencies are largely hidden from the rest of the system by a kernel mode module called the HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer).
Windows NT 's kernel mode code further distinguishes between the "kernel '', whose primary purpose is to implement processor - and architecture - dependent functions, and the "executive ''. This was designed as a modified microkernel, as the Windows NT kernel was influenced by the Mach microkernel developed at Carnegie Mellon University, but does not meet all of the criteria of a pure microkernel. Both the kernel and the executive are linked together into the single loaded module ntoskrnl. exe; from outside this module there is little distinction between the kernel and the executive. Routines from each are directly accessible, as for example from kernel - mode device drivers.
API sets in the Windows NT family are implemented as subsystems atop the publicly undocumented "native '' API; this allowed the late adoption of the Windows API (into the Win32 subsystem). Windows NT was one of the earliest operating systems to use Unicode internally.
Windows NT 3.1 to 3.51 incorporated the Program Manager and File Manager from the Windows 3.1 x series. Windows NT 4.0 onwards replaced those programs with Windows Explorer (including a taskbar and Start menu), which originally appeared in Windows 95.
The first release was given version number 3.1 to match the contemporary 16 - bit Windows; magazines of that era claimed the number was also used to make that version seem more reliable than a ``. 0 '' release. Also the Novell IPX protocol was apparently licensed only to 3.1 versions of Windows software.
The NT version number is not now generally used for marketing purposes, but is still used internally, and said to reflect the degree of changes to the core of the operating system. However, for application compatibility reasons, Microsoft kept the major version number as 6 in releases following Vista, but changed it later to 10 in Windows 10. The build number is an internal identifier used by Microsoft 's developers and beta testers.
Windows NT is written in C and C++, with a very small amount written in assembly language. C is mostly used for the kernel code while C++ is mostly used for user - mode code. Assembly language is avoided where possible because it would impede portability.
In order to prevent Intel x86 - specific code from slipping into the operating system by developers used to developing on x86 chips, Windows NT 3.1 was initially developed using non-x86 development systems and then ported to the x86 architecture. This work was initially based on the Intel i860 - based Dazzle system and, later, the MIPS R4000 - based Jazz platform. Both systems were designed internally at Microsoft.
Windows NT 3.1 was released for Intel x86 PC compatible, PC - 98, DEC Alpha, and ARC - compliant MIPS platforms. Windows NT 3.51 added support for the PowerPC processor in 1995, specifically PReP - compliant systems such as the IBM Power Series desktops / laptops and Motorola PowerStack series; but despite meetings between Michael Spindler and Bill Gates, not on the Power Macintosh as the PReP compliant Power Macintosh project failed to ship.
Intergraph Corporation ported Windows NT to its Clipper architecture and later announced intention to port Windows NT 3.51 to Sun Microsystems ' SPARC architecture, but neither version was sold to the public as a retail product.
Only two of the Windows NT 4.0 variants (IA - 32 and Alpha) have a full set of service packs available. All of the other ports done by third parties (Motorola, Intergraph, etc.) have few, if any, publicly available updates.
Windows NT 4.0 was the last major release to support Alpha, MIPS, or PowerPC, though development of Windows 2000 for Alpha continued until August 1999, when Compaq stopped support for Windows NT on that architecture; and then three days later Microsoft also canceled their AlphaNT program, even though the Alpha NT 5 (Windows 2000) release had reached RC1 status.
Microsoft announced on January 5, 2011 that the next major version of the Windows NT family will include support for the ARM architecture. Microsoft demonstrated a preliminary version of Windows (version 6.2. 7867) running on an ARM - based computer at the 2011 Consumer Electronics Show. This eventually led to the commercial release of the Windows 8 - derived Windows RT on October 26, 2012, and the implementation of NT over CE on Windows Phone 8.
According to Microsoft, it is a common misconception that the Xbox and Xbox 360 use a modified Windows 2000 kernel, for the Xbox operating system was built from scratch but implements a subset of Windows APIs.
The 64 - bit versions of Windows NT were originally intended to run on Itanium and DEC Alpha; the latter was used internally at Microsoft during early development of 64 - bit Windows. This continued for some time after Microsoft publicly announced that it was cancelling plans to ship 64 - bit Windows for Alpha. Because of this, Alpha versions of Windows NT are 32 - bit only.
While Windows 2000 only supports Intel IA - 32 (32 - bit), Windows XP, Server 2003, Server 2008 and Server 2008 R2 each have one edition dedicated to Itanium - based systems. In comparison with Itanium, Microsoft adopted x64 on a greater scale: every version of Windows since Windows XP (which has a dedicated x64 edition), has x64 editions.
The minimum hardware specification required to run each release of the professional workstation version of Windows NT has been fairly slow - moving until the 6.0 Vista release, which requires a minimum of 15 GB of free disk space, a 10-fold increase in free disk space alone over the previous version.
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what does joint tenancy mean in real estate | Concurrent estate - wikipedia
A concurrent estate or co-tenancy is a concept in property law which describes the various ways in which property is owned by more than one person at a time. If more than one person owns the same property, they are referred to as co-owners. If more than one person leases the same property, they are called co-tenants or joint tenants. Most common law jurisdictions recognize tenancies in common and joint tenancies, and some also recognize tenancies by the entirety. Many jurisdictions refer to a joint tenancy as a joint tenancy with right of survivorship, and a few U.S. states treat the phrase joint tenancy as synonymous with a tenancy in common.
The type of ownership determines the rights of the parties to sell their interest in the property to others, to will the property to their devisees, or to sever their joint ownership of the property. Just as each of these affords a different set of rights and responsibilities to the co-owners of property, each requires a different set of conditions to exist.
Law can vary from place to place, and the following general discussion will not be applicable in its entirety to all jurisdictions.
Under the common law, Co-owners share a number of rights by default:
Co-owners generally do not have any obligation to contribute to any costs of improving the property. If one co-owner adds a feature that enhances the value of the property, that co-owner has no right to demand that any others share the cost of adding that feature -- even if other co-owners reap greater profits from the property because of it. However, at partition, a co-owner is entitled to recover the value added by his or her improvements of the property if the "improvements '' resulted in an increase in property value. Conversely, if the co-owner's "improvements '' decrease the value of the property, the co-owner is responsible for the decrease. In an Australian case, the High Court said that the costs of repairing by one co-owner must be taken into account on the partition or final distribution (i.e. sale) of the property.
Furthermore, each co-owner can independently encumber the co-owner's own share in the property by taking out a mortgage on that share (although this may effectively convert a joint tenancy to a tenancy in common, as described below); other co-owners have no obligation to help pay a mortgage that only runs to another owner 's share of the property, and the mortgagee can only foreclose on that mortgagor 's share. Bank loans secured by mortgages on individual shares of co-owned property are one of the most rapidly expanding areas in the mortgage lending industry.
Finally, co-owners owe one another a duty of fair dealing. Because of this, any co-owner who acquires a mortgage claim against the property must give his co-owners a reasonable opportunity to purchase proportionate shares in that claim.
Tenancy in common is a form of concurrent estate in which each owner, referred to as a tenant in common, is regarded by the law as owning separate and distinct shares of the same property. By default, all co-owners own equal shares, but their interests may differ in size.
TIC owners own percentages in an undivided property rather than particular units or apartments, and their deeds show only their ownership percentages. The right of a particular TIC owner to use a particular dwelling comes from a written contract signed by all co-owners (often called a "Tenancy In Common Agreement ''), not from a deed, map or other document recorded in county records. This form of ownership is most common where the co-owners are not married or have contributed different amounts to the purchase of the property. The assets of a joint commercial partnership might be held as a tenancy in common.
Tenants in common have no right of survivorship, meaning that if one tenant in common dies, that tenant 's interest in the property will be part of his or her estate and pass by inheritance to that owner 's devisees or heirs, either by will, or by intestate succession. Also, as each tenant in common has an interest in the property, they may, in the absence of any restriction agreed to between all the tenants in common, sell or otherwise deal with the interest in the property (e.g. mortgage it) during their lifetime, like any other property interest.
Where any party to a tenancy in common wishes to terminate (usually termed "destroy '') the joint interest, he or she may obtain a partition of the property. This is a division of the land into distinctly owned lots, if such division is legally permitted under zoning and other local land use restrictions. Where such division is not permitted, a forced sale of the property is the only alternative, followed by a division of the proceeds. (This paragraph is not the case in the law of England and Wales)
If the parties are unable to agree to a partition, any or all of them may seek the ruling of a court to determine how the land should be divided -- physically division between the joint owners (partition in kind), leaving each with ownership of a portion of the property representing their share. Courts may also order a partition by sale in which the property is sold and the proceeds are distributed to the owners. Where local law does not permit physical division, the court must order a partition by sale.
Each co-owner is entitled to partition as a matter of right, meaning that the court will order a partition at the request of any of the co-owners. The only exception to this general rule is where the co-owners have agreed, either expressly or impliedly, to waive the right of partition. The right may be waived either permanently, for a specific period of time, or under certain conditions. The court, however, will likely not enforce this waiver because it is a restraint on the alienability of property.
A joint tenancy or joint tenancy with right of survivorship (JTROS, JTWROS or JT TEN WROS) is a type of concurrent estate in which co-owners have a right of survivorship, meaning that if one owner dies, that owner 's interest in the property will pass to the surviving owner or owners by operation of law, and avoiding probate. The deceased owner 's interest in the property simply evaporates and can not be inherited by his or her heirs. Under this type of ownership, the last owner living owns all the property, and on his or her death the property will form part of their estate. Unlike a tenancy in common, where co-owners may have unequal interests in a property, joint co-owners have an equal share in the property.
It is important to note, however, that creditors ' claims against the deceased owner 's estate may, under certain circumstances, be satisfied by the portion of ownership previously owned by the deceased, but now owned by the survivor or survivors. In other words, the deceased 's liabilities can sometimes remain attached to the property.
This form of ownership is common between wife and husband, and parent and child, and in any other situation where parties want ownership to pass immediately and automatically to the survivor. For bank and brokerage accounts held in this fashion, the acronym JTWROS is commonly appended to the account name as evidence of the owners ' intent.
To create a joint tenancy, clear language indicating that intent must be used -- e.g. "to AB and CD as joint tenants with right of survivorship, and not as tenants in common ''. This long form of wording may be especially appropriate in those jurisdictions which use the phrase "joint tenancy '' as synonymous with a tenancy in common. Shorter forms such as "to AB and CD as joint tenants '' or "to AB and CD jointly '' can be used in most jurisdictions. Words to that effect may be used by the parties in the deed of conveyance or other instrument of transfer of title, or by a testator in a will, or in an inter vivos trust deed.
If a testator leaves property in a will to several beneficiaries "jointly '' and one or more of those named beneficiaries dies before the will takes effect, then the survivors of those named beneficiaries will inherit the whole property on a joint tenancy basis. But if these named beneficiaries had been bequeathed the property on a tenancy in common basis, but died before the will took effect, then those beneficiaries ' heirs would in turn inherit their share immediately (the named beneficiary being deceased).
To create a joint tenancy, the co-owners must share "four unities '':
If any of these elements is missing, the joint tenancy is ineffective, and the joint tenancy will be treated as a tenancy in common in equal shares.
If any joint co-owner deals in any way with a property inconsistent with a joint tenancy, that co-owner will be treated as having terminated (sometimes called "breaking '') the joint tenancy. The remaining co-owners maintain joint ownership of the remaining interest. The dealing may be a conveyance or sale of the co-owner's share in the property. The position in relation to a mortgage is more doubtful (see below). For example, if one of three joint co-owners conveys his or her share in the property to a third party, the third party owns a 1 / 3 share on a tenancy in common basis, while the other two original joint co-owners continue to hold the remaining 2 / 3s on a joint tenancy basis. This result arises because the "unity of time '' is broken: that is, because on the transfer the timing of the new interest is different from the original one. If it is desired to continue to maintain a joint tenancy, then the three original joint co-owners would need to transfer, in the one instrument, the joint interest to the two remaining joint co-owners and the new joint co-owner.
A joint co-owner may break a joint tenancy and maintain an interest in the property. Most jurisdictions permit a joint owner to break a joint tenancy by the execution of a document to that effect. In those jurisdictions which retain the old common law requirements, an actual exchange with a straw man is required. This requires another person to "buy '' the property from the joint co-owner for some nominal consideration, followed immediately by a sale - back to the co-owner at the same price. In either case, the joint tenancy will revert to a tenancy in common as to that owner 's interest in the property.
A significant issue can arise with the simple document execution method. In the straw man approach, there are witnesses to the transfer. With the document, there may not be witnesses. With either method, as soon as the break occurs, it works both ways. Because there may not be witnesses, the party with the document could take advantage of that fact and hide the document when the other party dies.
If one joint co-owner takes out a mortgage on jointly owned property, in some jurisdictions this may terminate the joint tenancy. Jurisdictions which use a title theory in this situation treat a mortgage as an actual conveyance of title until the mortgage is repaid, if not permanently. In such jurisdictions, the taking of a mortgage by one owner terminates the joint tenancy as to that co-owner. There are exceptions, and the law in the State of Georgia is a notable exception.
In Georgia, joint tenancy is commonly conveyed in a deed as "Joint Tenants with Rights of Survivorship ''. The legal effect of this type of tenancy is a "life estate '' with a "contingent remainder ''. Translated, this means that the interest of each joint tenant can be thought of in two parts: the "present '' interest while the parties are both alive and what happens in the "future '' when one of the tenants dies. Viewed separately, the interest of each independent co-tenant is only "temporary '' interest while they both co-tenants are alive and neither owns a "full '' interest. The "full '' interest is determined by who outlives the other and vests automatically in the survivor at, and only at, the time of death. In the case of a mortgage executed by only one of the living joint tenants, the mortgage does not sever the tenancy. Instead, the mortgage is interpreted as conveying whatever interest the debtor holds. In this example, that would be the debtor 's life (or "temporary '') estate only, since both parties are still living, but the lender would also be entitled to the full estate, but only if the debtor were to outlive the other joint - tenant. Consequently, if the debtor dies first, the co-tenant, who is not party to the mortgage, would take full ownership interest of the property free and clear of the mortgage. However, just because a surviving co-tenant is n't liable on the mortgage does not mean that the mortgage is extinguished or that the property is not subject to foreclosure if the mortgage is n't paid. The Georgia Supreme Court decision of Manders v. King, 284 Ga. 338, 339, 667 S.E. 2d 59, 60 (2008) is instructive. "Georgia is one of several states adhering to the common - law doctrine of exoneration, which provides that, unless a will specifically provides otherwise, an heir or devisee of real property may look to the decedent 's personal property for satisfaction of liens on devised real property, at the expense of the residuary legatees or distributees of the decedent 's personal estate. J. Kraut, Annotation, Right of Heir or Devisee to Have Realty Exonerated from Lien Thereon at Expense of Personal Estate, 4 A.L.R. 3d 1023, § 3. See Raines v. Shipley, 197 Ga. 448, 458, 29 S.E. 2d 588 (1944) ("(U) nder the general law it was the duty of the executors to discharge this particular mortgage debt (on devised real property) from the personal property of the testatrix, if any she had... ''). See also Killingsworth v. First Nat. Bank of Columbus, 237 Ga. 544, 546, 228 S.E. 2d 901 (1976) (estate required to exonerate devised real property by paying balance of mortgage liens so long as the liens were debts of the testator and not an assumption of debts of a predecessor in title). Id. In Manders, the Court held "a surviving joint tenant does not qualify for exoneration of a mortgage on joint tenancy property unless there is language in the decedent 's will clearly expressing an intention that the mortgage debt be paid. '' In re Estate of Young, supra; In re Estate of Dolley, supra, 265 Cal. App. 2d at 72.2. In short, if there is a mortgage on a property that was executed by only one joint - tenant and that joint - tenant dies, unless there is a specific provision in the Will of the deceased joint - tenant that estate assets should be used to pay the outstanding mortgage, then surviving joint - tenant is not exonerated from the mortgage and the property is subject to foreclosure if the mortgage goes into default.
In sum, under Georgia law, execution of a mortgage (called a "Deed to Secure Debt '' or "Security Deed '') by one co-tenant does not sever the joint tenancy.
However, in jurisdictions which use the lien theory, the mortgage merely places a lien on the property, leaving the joint tenancy undisturbed. As a lien is not enough to terminate a joint tenancy, if the debtor dies before the creditor sues, the creditor is left with no claim against the property, as the debtor 's interest in the property evaporates and automatically vests in the other surviving co-owners.
A co-owner of a joint tenancy with rights of survivorship deed may sever the joint tenancy by filing a petition to partition. A petition to partition is a legal right, so usually there is no way to stop such an action. When a court grants a partition action for a joint tenants with rights of survivorship deed, the property is either physically broken into parts and each owner is given a part of equal value OR the property is sold and the proceeds are distributed equally between the co-owners regardless of contribution to purchase price. No credits would be issued to any tenant who may have made a superior contribution toward purchase price.
Some states allow a co-owner the option of buying out the other co-owners to avoid a public sale of the property. Some states also allow multiple co-owners to join their shares together to claim a majority ownership to avoid public sale of the property and to have the property awarded to the majority owners. If the property is sold publicly, the usual method is a public auction.
During a partition process, credits may be granted to co-tenants who have paid property expenses in excess of their share, such as utilities and property maintenance. Credit may be given for improvements done to the property if the improvements have increased the value of the property. No credit would be given for excess contribution to purchase price, as joint tenancy with rights of survivorship deeds are taken in equal shares as a matter of law.
Pennsylvania partition case example: In D'Arcy v. Buckley, 71 Bucks Co. L. Rep. 167 (August 21, 1998), two persons purchased property as joint tenants with right of survivorship. The Plaintiff contributed five times more than the Defendant toward the purchase price. In a partition action, the Plaintiff sought credit for the full amount of his superior contributions. The Court held that, in the absence of fraud, the working of the deed operated to convey a one - half interest to each of the two joint tenants. The decision relies the authorities of Masgai v. Masgai, 460 Pa. 453, 333 A. 2d 861 (1975) and DeLoatch v. Murphy, 369 Pa. Super. 255, 535 A. 2d 146 (1987). The Plaintiff argued, to no avail, that he did not intend to make a lifetime gift to defendant.
A tenancy by the entirety (sometimes called a tenancy by the entireties) is a type of concurrent estate formerly available only to married couples, where ownership of property is treated as though the couple were a single legal person. (In the State of Hawaii, the option of Tenants by the Entirety ownership is also available to domestic partners in a registered "Reciprocal Beneficiary Relationship ''; Vermont 's Civil Union statute qualifies parties to a civil union for tenancy by the entirety.) Like a Joint Tenancy with Rights of Survivorship, the tenancy by the entirety also encompasses a right of survivorship, so if one spouse dies, the entire interest in the property is said to "ripen '' in the survivor so that sole control of the property ripens, or passes in the ordinary sense, to the surviving spouse without going through probate.
In some jurisdictions, to create a tenancy by the entirety the parties must specify in the deed that the property is being conveyed to the couple "as tenants by the entirety, '' while in others, a conveyance to a married couple is presumed to create a tenancy by the entirety unless the deed specifies otherwise. (see also Sociedad de gananciales) Also, besides sharing the four unities necessary to create a joint tenancy with right of survivorship -- time, title, interest, and possession -- there must also be the fifth unity of marriage. However, unlike a JTWROS, neither party in a tenancy by the entirety has a unilateral right to sever the tenancy. The termination of the tenancy or any dealing with any part of the property requires the consent of both spouses. A divorce breaks the unity of marriage, leaving the default tenancy, which may be a tenancy in common in equal shares. Many US jurisdictions no longer recognize tenancies by the entirety. Where it is recognized, benefits can include the ability to shield the property from creditors of only one spouse, as well as the ability to partially shield the property where only one spouse is filing a petition for bankruptcy relief. If a non-debtor spouse in a tenancy by the entirety survives a debtor spouse, the lien can never be enforced against the property. On the other hand, if a debtor spouse survives a non-debtor spouse, the lien may be enforced against the whole property, not merely the debtor spouse 's original half - interest.
In many states, tenancy by the entireties is recognized as a valid form of ownership for bank accounts and financial assets. One must be careful to ensure that the tenancy by the entireties designation is chosen as opposed to other forms of joint ownership such as joint tenancy with rights of survivorship, so that the benefits of tenancy by the entireties status is not lost. For example, under Florida law, if a bank account titling document allows for tenancy by the entireties and joint tenancy with rights of survivorship, if the account is opened as a joint tenancy with rights of survivorship account, the benefits of tenancy by entireties will not attach.
Kurtz, Hovenkamp. Cases and Materials on American Property Law, Fifth Edition. Chapter 5: Concurrent Estates.
Note that every country and every state in the United States has at least minor variations on the law as applied to joint ownership of property. These links generally discuss the law as applied in the state from which they originate:
IRS Revenue Procedure 2002 - 20, which covers the finer details controlling what constitutes a Tenant in Common for federal tax purposes.
Tenant in Common Association
Comprehensive Tenancy in Common Resource Database
Detailed Info on San Francisco Tenancy in Common Rules
Tenancy By the Entirety in Massachusetts.
For a good discussion on this misunderstood estate see Coraccio v. Lowell Five Cents Savings Bank, 415 Mass. 145, 612 N.E. 2d 650.
There is nothing in the laws of Massachusetts, or New York as stated in Coraccio, to prevent one tenant by the entirety from conveying her own or his own interest in the property, subject to the continuing rights of the other. While it is generally believed that one tenant by the entirety can not convey their interest because the tenancy can not be severed, rather it is the survivorship rights of the other that can not be severed. Thus, if a husband conveyed his interest in the property held as tenants by the entirety to his brother, the husband no longer owns an interest in the property. The brother takes his (the husband 's) place within the tenancy. Here is the tricky part: if the wife dies then the husband 's brother acquires all interest in the real estate. If the husband dies before the wife then it all goes to her free and clear and the husband 's brother has nothing. Some conveyancers have treated deeds by one tenant by the entirety as null. However, such a deed conveys the interest of the grantor in the property subject to the survivorship rights of the other co-tenant.
Tenancy By the Entirety at Common Law / effect of a conveyance by one:
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where does the ndp sit on the political spectrum | New Democratic party - Wikipedia
The New Democratic Party (NDP; French: Nouveau Parti démocratique, NPD) is a social democratic political party in Canada. The leader of the federal wing of the NDP is Jagmeet Singh, who won the 2017 leadership election.
The NDP was founded in 1961 out of the merger of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) with the Canadian Labour Congress (CLC).
The federal and provincial (or territorial) level NDPs are more integrated than other political parties in Canada, and have shared membership.
The NDP has often been Canada 's third - or fourth - largest party in Parliament, at times aligning itself with the Liberal Party of Canada, as it did during the minority government of Lester B. Pearson from 1963 to 1968, Pierre Trudeau from 1972 to 1974, and Paul Martin from 2004 to 2006. Following the 1993 federal election the NDP was reduced to fourth place behind the Bloc Québécois, a position it would maintain for most of the next two decades. In the 2011 federal election under the leadership of Jack Layton, the NDP won the second-most seats in the House of Commons, gaining the position of Official Opposition for the first time in the party 's history. The NDP then lost 59 seats during the 2015 federal election and fell to third place in Parliament, though it is their second best seat count to date.
In 1956, after the birth of the Canadian Labour Congress (CLC) by a merger of two previous labour congresses, negotiations began between the CLC and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) to bring about an alliance between organized labour and the political left in Canada. In 1958 a joint CCF - CLC committee, the National Committee for the New Party (NCNP), was formed to create a "new '' social - democratic political party, with ten members from each group. The NCNP spent the next three years laying down the foundations of the New Party. During this process, a large number of New Party Clubs were established to allow like - minded Canadians to join in its founding, and six representatives from New Party Clubs were added to the National Committee. In 1961, at the end of a five - day long Founding Convention which established its principles, policies and structures, the New Democratic Party was born and Tommy Douglas, the long - time CCF Premier of Saskatchewan, was elected its first leader. In 1960, before the NDP was founded, one candidate, Walter Pitman, won a by - election under the New Party banner.
The influence of organized labour on the party is still reflected in the party 's conventions as affiliated trade unions send delegates on a formula based on their number of members. Since approximately one - quarter of the convention delegates have recently been from affiliated labour groups, after the party changed to an one member, one vote method of electing leaders in leadership races, labour delegate votes are scaled to 25 % of the total number of ballots cast for leader.
At the 1971 leadership convention, an activist group called The Waffle tried to take control of the party, but were defeated by David Lewis with the help of trade union members. The following year, most of The Waffle split from the NDP and formed their own party. The NDP itself supported the minority government formed by the Pierre Trudeau -- led Liberals from 1972 to 1974, although the two parties never entered into a coalition. Together they succeeded in passing several socially progressive initiatives into law such as pension indexing and the creation of the crown corporation Petro - Canada.
In 1974, the NDP worked with the Progressive Conservatives to pass a motion of non-confidence, forcing an election. However, it backfired as Trudeau 's Liberals regained a majority government, mostly at the expense of the NDP, which lost half its seats. Lewis lost his own riding and resigned as leader the following year.
Under the leadership of Ed Broadbent (1975 -- 1989), the NDP attempted to find a more populist image to contrast with the governing parties, focusing on more pocketbook issues than on ideological fervor. The party played a critical role during Joe Clark 's minority government of 1979 -- 1980, moving the non-confidence motion on John Crosbie 's budget that brought down the Progressive Conservative government, and forced the election that brought Trudeau 's Liberal Party back to power.
The result in 1980 created two unexpected results for the party: The first was an offer by Trudeau to form a coalition government to allow for greater Western representation in Cabinet and a "united front '' regarding the upcoming Quebec referendum. Broadbent, aware that the NDP would have no ability to hold the balance of power and thus no leverage in the government, declined out of fear the party would be subsumed.
The second was Trudeau 's Canada Bill to patriate the Constitution of Canada unilaterally and to bring about what would become the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Broadbent endorsed the initiative, which was directly opposed by the NDP government of Saskatchewan and many of the party 's Western parties and members, creating severe internal tension. Broadbent would act as a moderating influence on Trudeau during the debates, and the eventual compromise that brought about the Constitution Act, 1982 was partially authored by Saskatchewan NDP Attorney General and future premier Roy Romanow.
In the 1984 election, which saw the Progressive Conservatives win the most seats in Canadian history, the NDP won 30 seats, while the governing Liberals fell to 40 seats. Struggles within the governing Conservatives and opposition Liberals would see dramatic rise in the NDP 's polling fortunes.
The NDP set a then - record of 43 Members of Parliament (MPs) elected to the house in the election of 1988. The Liberals, however, had reaped most of the benefits of opposing free trade to emerge as the dominant alternative to the ruling government. In 1989, Broadbent stepped down after 14 years as federal leader of the NDP.
At the party 's leadership convention in 1989, former B.C. Premier Dave Barrett and Yukon MP Audrey McLaughlin were the main contenders for the leadership. During the campaign, Barrett argued that the party should be concerned with western alienation, rather than focusing its attention on Quebec. The Quebec wing of the NDP strongly opposed Barrett 's candidacy, with Phil Edmonston, the party 's main spokesman in Quebec, threatening to resign from the party if Barrett won. McLaughlin ran on a more traditional approach, and became the first woman to lead a major Federal political party in Canada.
Although enjoying strong support among organized labour and rural voters in the Prairies, McLaughlin tried to expand their support into Quebec without much success. In 1989, the New Democratic Party of Quebec adopted a sovereigntist platform and severed its ties with the federal NDP. Under McLaughlin, the party did manage to win an election in Quebec for the first time when Edmonston won a 1990 by - election.
The NDP chose to align itself with the Progressive Conservatives and Liberals on the "yes '' side of the Charlottetown Accord referendum in 1992. Barrett reluctantly endorsed it to comply with party policy (he opposed the Meech Lake Accord in 1987), but later referred to the NDP 's support for the Accord as a mistake. Edmonston, a Quebec nationalist, frequently clashed with his own party over this position on Canadian federalism, and did not run for re-election.
McLaughlin and the NDP were routed in the 1993 election, where the party won only nine seats, three seats short of official party status in the House of Commons. The loss was blamed on the unpopularity of NDP provincial governments under Bob Rae in Ontario and Mike Harcourt in British Columbia and the loss of a significant portion of Western vote to the Reform Party, which promised a more decentralized and democratic federation along with right - wing economic reforms.
McLaughlin resigned in 1995 and was succeeded by Alexa McDonough, the former leader of the Nova Scotia NDP. In contrast to traditional but diminishing Canadian practice, where an MP for a safe seat stands down to allow a newly elected leader a chance to enter Parliament via a by - election, McDonough opted to wait until the next election to enter Parliament.
The party recovered somewhat in the 1997 election, electing 21 members. The NDP made a breakthrough in Atlantic Canada, a region where they had been practically nonexistent at the federal level. Before 1997, they had won only three seats in the Atlantic in their entire history. However, in 1997 they won eight seats in that region, in the process unseating Liberal ministers David Dingwall and Doug Young. The party was able to harness the discontent of voters in the Atlantic, who were upset over cuts to employment insurance and other social programs.
Afterwards, McDonough was widely perceived as trying to move the party toward the centre of the political spectrum, in the Third Way mould of British Prime Minister Tony Blair. Union leaders were lukewarm in their support, often threatening to break away from the NDP, while Canadian Auto Workers head Buzz Hargrove called for her resignation. MPs Rick Laliberté and Angela Vautour crossed the floor to other parties during this term, to the Liberals and Progressive Conservatives respectively, reducing the NDP caucus to 19 seats.
In the November 2000 election, the NDP campaigned primarily on the issue of Medicare but lost significant support. The governing Liberals ran an effective campaign on their economic record and managed to recapture some of the Atlantic ridings lost to the NDP in the 1997 election. The initial high electoral prospects of the Canadian Alliance under new leader Stockwell Day also hurt the NDP as many supporters strategically voted Liberal to keep the Alliance from winning. The NDP finished with 13 MPs -- just barely over the threshold for official party status.
The party embarked on a renewal process starting in 2000. A general convention in Winnipeg in November 2001 made significant alterations to party structures, and reaffirmed its commitment to the left. In the May 2002 by - elections, Brian Masse won the riding of Windsor West, Ontario, previously held for decades by a Liberal, former Deputy Prime Minister Herb Gray.
McDonough announced her resignation as party leader for family reasons in June 2002 (effective upon her successor 's election), and was succeeded by Jack Layton in January 2003. A Toronto city councillor and recent President of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities, Layton was elected at the party 's leadership election in Toronto on January 5, 2003, defeating his nearest rival, longtime Winnipeg - area MP Bill Blaikie, on the first ballot with 53.5 % of the vote.
Layton had run unsuccessfully for the Commons three times in Toronto - area ridings. Like McDonough before him, Layton did not contest a seat in Parliament until the 2004 election. In the interim, he appointed Blaikie as deputy leader and made him parliamentary leader of the NDP.
The 2004 election produced mixed results for the NDP. It increased its total vote by more than a million votes; however, despite Layton 's optimistic predictions of reaching 40 seats, the NDP only gained five seats in the election, for a total of 19. The party was disappointed to see its two Saskatchewan incumbents defeated in close races by the new Conservative Party (created by merger of the Alliance and PC parties), perhaps because of the unpopularity of the NDP provincial government. Those losses caused the federal NDP to be shut out in Saskatchewan for the first time since the 1965 election, despite obtaining 23 % of the vote in the province.
Exit polls indicated that many NDP supporters voted Liberal to keep the new Conservative Party of Canada from winning. The Liberals had recruited several prominent NDP members, most notably former British Columbia Premier Ujjal Dosanjh, to run as Liberals as part of a drive to convince NDP voters that a reunited Conservative Party could sneak up the middle in the event of a split in the centre - left vote.
The NDP campaign also experienced controversy after Layton suggested the removal of the Clarity Act, considered by some to be vital to keeping Quebec in Canada and by others as undemocratic, and promised to recognize any declaration of independence by Quebec after a referendum. Although this position was consistent with NDP policy, some high - profile party members, such as NDP House Leader Bill Blaikie, publicly indicated that they did not share this view. (Layton would later reverse his position and support the Act in 2006.)
The Liberals were re-elected, though this time as a minority government. Combined, the Liberals and NDP had 154 seats -- one short of the total needed for the balance of power. As has been the case with Liberal minorities in the past, the NDP were in a position to make gains on the party 's priorities, such as fighting health care privatization, fulfilling Canada 's obligation to the Kyoto Protocol, and electoral reform.
The party used Liberal Prime Minister Paul Martin 's politically precarious position caused by the sponsorship scandal to force investment in several federal programs, agreeing not to help topple the government provided that some major concessions in the federal budget were made. The governing Liberals agreed to support the changes in exchange for NDP support on confidence votes. On May 19, 2005, by Speaker Peter Milliken 's tie - breaking vote, the House of Commons voted for second reading on major NDP amendments to the federal budget, preempting about $4.5 billion in corporate tax cuts and funding social, educational and environmental programs instead. NDP supporters and Conservative opponents of the measures branded it Canada 's first "NDP budget ''. In late June, the amendments passed final reading and many political pundits concluded that the NDP had gained credibility and clout on the national scene.
On November 9, 2005, after the findings of the Gomery Inquiry were released, Layton notified the Liberal government that continued NDP support would require a ban on private healthcare. When the Liberals refused, Layton announced that he would introduce a motion on November 24 that would ask Martin to call a federal election in February to allow for several pieces of legislation to be passed. The Liberals turned down this offer. On November 28, 2005, Conservative leader Stephen Harper 's motion of no confidence was seconded by Layton and it was passed by all three opposition parties, forcing an election. Columnist Andrew Coyne has suggested that the NDP was unlikely to receive much credit for continuing to further prop up the Liberals, so they ended their support for the Martin government.
During the election, the NDP focused their attacks on the Liberal party, in order to counter Liberal appeals for strategic voting. A key point in the campaign was when Judy Wasylycia - Leis had asked the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) to launch a criminal investigation into the leaking of the income trust announcement. The criminal probe seriously damaged the Liberal campaign and prevented them from making their key policy announcements, as well as bringing Liberal corruption back into the spotlight. After the election, the RCMP announced the conclusion of the income trust investigation and laid a charge of ' Breach of Trust ' against Serge Nadeau, an official in the Department of Finance, while Liberal Finance Minister Ralph Goodale was cleared of wrongdoing.
The NDP campaign strategy put them at odds with Canadian Auto Workers (CAW), which had supported an NDP - backed Liberal minority government and which was only backing NDP candidates that had a chance of winning. After the campaign, the Ontario NDP expelled CAW leader Buzz Hargrove from the party (which has a common membership both federally and provincially, see below) for his support of the Liberals.
On January 23, the NDP won 29 seats, a significant increase of 10 seats from the 19 won in 2004. It was the fourth - best performance in party history, approaching the level of popular support enjoyed in the 1980s. The NDP kept all of the 18 seats it held at the dissolution of Parliament (Paul Dewar retained the riding of Ottawa Centre vacated by Broadbent). Bev Desjarlais, an NDP MP since 1997, unsuccessfully ran as an independent in her Churchill riding after losing the NDP nomination. While the party gained no seats in Atlantic Canada, Quebec, or the Prairie Provinces, it gained five seats in British Columbia, five more in Ontario and the Western Arctic riding of the Northwest Territories.
The Conservatives won a minority government in the 2006 election, and initially the NDP was the only party that would not be able to pass legislation with the Conservatives. However, following a series of floor crossings, the NDP also came to hold the balance of power.
The NDP voted against the government in all four confidence votes in the 39th parliament, the only party to do so. These were votes on the United States - Canada softwood lumber dispute, extending the mission to Afghanistan, the 2006 Canadian federal budget and 2007 federal budget. However, it worked with the Conservatives on other issues. After forcing the Conservatives to agree to certain revisions, the NDP helped pass the Accountability Act. After the NDP fiercely criticized the initial Conservative attempt at a Clean Air Act, the Conservatives agreed to work with the NDP and other parties to revise the legislation. The NDP also supported the government in introducing regulations on income trusts, fearing that trends toward mass trust conversions by large corporations to avoid Canadian income taxes would cause the loss of billions of dollars in budget revenue to support health care, pensions and other federal programs. At the same time, the NDP was also wary of the threat of investor losses from income trusts ' exaggerated performance expectations.
Since that election, the NDP caucus rose to 30 members following the victory of NDP candidate Thomas Mulcair in a by - election in Outremont. This marked the second time ever (and first time in seventeen years) that the NDP won a riding in Quebec. The party won 37 seats in the 2008 federal election, the best performance since the 1988 federal election total of 43.
In the 2011 federal election the NDP won a record 103 seats, becoming the Official Opposition for the first time in the party 's history. The party had a historic breakthrough in Quebec, where they won 59 out of 75 seats. This meant that a majority of the party 's MPs now came from a province where they had only ever had two candidates elected in the party 's history (Thomas Mulcair and Phil Edmonston, and not concurrently) and had not been fully organized since 1990 (see below). The NDP 's success in Quebec was mirrored by the collapse of the Bloc Québécois, which lost all but four of its 47 seats, and the collapse of the Liberal Party nationally, which was cut down to just 34 seats, its worst - ever result. This also marked the first time in history where the Liberal Party was neither the government nor the Official Opposition, as the NDP had taken over the latter 's role.
Jack Layton 's performance on the French - language talk show Tout le monde en parle on April 3 was credited for improving his party 's standing among francophone voters; it is the most widely watched TV show in Quebec. He was also perceived to have performed well in the televised French - language party leaders ' debate on April 13.
The NDP held or won seats in every province but Saskatchewan and Prince Edward Island, and also held the Western Arctic riding coextensive with the Northwest Territories. It got more than the 10 % threshold required for reimbursement of campaign expenses in all but two ridings in the country, an unprecedented result for it.
In July 2011, Layton announced that he was suffering from a new cancer and would take a leave of absence, projected to last until the resumption of Parliament in September. He would retain his position of NDP Leader and Leader of the Opposition. The party confirmed his suggestion of Hull -- Aylmer MP Nycole Turmel to carry out the functions of party leader in his absence. Layton died from his cancer on August 22, 2011. In his final letter, Layton called for a leadership election to be held in early 2012 to choose his successor, which was held on March 24, 2012, and elected new leader Thomas Mulcair.
Despite early campaign polls which showed an NDP lead, the party lost 59 seats on election night and fell back to third place in Parliament. By winning 44 seats Mulcair was able to secure the second best showing in the party 's history, winning one more seat than Ed Broadbent managed in the 1988 election, but with a smaller share of the popular vote. During the election campaign, Mulcair 's stance on the niqab issue contributed to a decline in the party 's support in Quebec; NDP seat gains in Saskatchewan and British Columbia were offset by numerical losses in almost every other region, while in Alberta and Manitoba the party simply held on to its existing seats without gaining or losing. The party was locked out of the Atlantic Region and the Territories, and lost over half of its seats in Ontario including all of its seats in Toronto. In Quebec the NDP lost seats to all three of the other major parties, namely the Liberals, Conservatives, and Bloc Québécois, though it managed to place second in both vote share (25.4 %) and seats (16) behind the Liberals, who formed a majority government. Mulcair 's leadership faced criticism following the election, particularly due to a moderate platform that the party was running on and Mulcair 's promise to balance the federal budget while Liberal leader Justin Trudeau was promising to run a budget deficit in order to fund stimulus programs and higher social spending, a position which was perceived as allowing the Liberals to outflank the NDP on the left. Mulcair lost a leadership review vote held at the NDP 's policy convention in Edmonton, Alberta on April 10, 2016. Consequently, his successor was to be chosen at a leadership election to be held no later than October 2017 (but Mulcair chose to remain as interim leader until then). On October 1, 2017 Jagmeet Singh won the leadership vote to head the party.
The NDP evolved in 1961 from a merger of the Canadian Labour Congress (CLC) and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF). The CCF grew from populist, agrarian and socialist roots into a modern social democratic party. Although the CCF was part of the Christian left and the Social Gospel movement, the NDP is secular and pluralistic. It has broadened to include concerns of the New Left, and advocates issues such as LGBT rights, international peace, and environmental stewardship.
New Democrats today advocate, among other things:
The federal NDP is widely portrayed as having voted to distance itself from a description of its politics as "socialist ''. Its most recent statement on this matter, however, as contained in the preamble to the party 's constitution as amended on 14 April 2013, gives the most prominent place to the "social democratic '' tradition as a basis for the party 's orientation. This version of the preamble does not exclude the importance of other ideological influences upon the party over the course of its history.
Specific inclusion of the party 's history as the continuation of the more radical Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, and specific identification of the "democratic socialist '' tradition as a continuing influence on the party are part of the language of the preamble to the party 's constitution:
New Democrats are proud of our political and activist heritage, and our long record of visionary, practical, and successful governments. That heritage and that record have distinguished and inspired our party since the creation of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation in 1933 and the founding of the New Democratic Party in 1961.
New Democrats seek a future that brings together the best of the insights and objectives of Canadians who, within the social democratic and democratic socialist traditions, have worked through farmer, labour, co-operative, feminist, human rights and environmental movements, and with First Nations, Métis and Inuit peoples, to build a more just, equal, and sustainable Canada within a global community dedicated to the same goals.
The NDP has never formed the federal government. It formed the Official Opposition for the first time in the 41st Canadian Parliament.
Before 2011, the party had been a stable presence in the Canadian parliament, and was the third largest political party from 1961 to 1993, when the party lost official status. The NDP 's peak period of policy influence in those periods was during the minority Liberal governments of Lester B. Pearson (1963 -- 68) and Pierre Trudeau (1972 -- 74). After reattaining official party status in 1997, the NDP played a similar role in the Liberal and Conservative minority governments of 2004 -- 2006 and 2006 - 2011, respectively.
Provincial New Democratic parties, which are organizationally sections of the federal party, have governed in six of the ten provinces and a territory. The NDP governs the provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, forms the Official Opposition in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Ontario, and have sitting members in every provincial legislature except those of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. The NDP has previously formed the government in the provinces of Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Nova Scotia and the Yukon Territory.
While members of the party are active municipally, the party does not organize at that level. For example, though former Toronto mayor David Miller was an NDP member during his successful 2003 and 2006 mayoral campaigns, his campaigns were not affiliated with the NDP.
The NDP was affiliated with the Socialist International until 2018. It is currently affiliated with the Progressive Alliance.
Unlike most other Canadian parties, the NDP is integrated with its provincial and territorial parties. Membership lists are maintained by the provinces and territories. Holding membership of a provincial or territorial section of the NDP includes automatic membership in the federal party. This precludes a person from supporting different parties at the federal and provincial levels. (This was illustrated by the case of Buzz Hargrove, who was expelled from the Ontario New Democratic Party after he backed Liberal leader Paul Martin in the 2006 federal election.)
There have been three exceptions: Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, and Quebec. In Nunavut and in the Northwest Territories, whose territorial legislatures have non-partisan consensus governments, the federal NDP is promoted by its riding associations, since each territory is composed of only one federal riding.
In Quebec, the New Democratic Party of Quebec and the federal NDP agreed in 1989 to sever their structural ties after the Quebec party adopted the sovereigntist platform. From that time the federal NDP was not integrated with a provincial party in that province; instead, it had a section, the Nouveau Parti démocratique - Section Québec / New Democratic Party Quebec Section, whose activities in the province were limited to the federal level, whereas on the provincial level its members were individually free to support or adhere to any party. However, following the 2011 election, it was announced the NDP planned on recreating a provincial party in Quebec in time for the next Quebec general election. While the party was registered with the Chief Electoral Officer of Quebec, it failed to nominate any candidates. The federal NDP restarted the Quebec party before the 2014 general election; the modern party was registered on January 30, 2014, as ' Nouveau Parti démocratique du Québec. '
(Provincial / territorial wings of the NDP form a government are in bold)
From 1963 to 1994 there was a New Democratic Party of Quebec, which split from the party over issues of Quebec sovereignty and after several mergers with other left - wing parties formed Québec solidaire in 2006.
The most successful provincial section of the party has been the Saskatchewan New Democratic Party, which first came to power in 1944 as the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation under Tommy Douglas and has won most of the province 's elections since then. In Canada, Douglas is often cited as the Father of Medicare since, as Saskatchewan Premier, he introduced Canada 's first publicly funded, universal healthcare system to the province. Despite the historic success of the Saskatchewan branch of the party, the NDP was shut out of Saskatchewan for the 2004, 2006, 2008, and 2011 federal elections, before winning three seats there in the 2015 federal election.
The New Democratic Party has also formed government in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and in Yukon.
The 2011 federal election gave the NDP 103 seats. Following the death of Jack Layton and the defection of Saint - Maurice -- Champlain MP Lise St - Denis to the Liberal Party, they were reduced to 101; Craig Scott 's victory in the by - election to succeed Layton brought the party caucus back to 102 members, but they returned to 101 with the decision of Thunder Bay -- Superior North MP Bruce Hyer to sit as an independent. On February 28, 2013, Claude Patry of Jonquière -- Alma defected to the Bloc Québécois bringing seats held to 100 members. Olivia Chow, MP for Trinity -- Spadina, resigned her seat on March 12, 2014 to run for mayor of Toronto. Manon Perreault became an independent. Sana Hassainia left the party to sit as an independent on August 20, 2014, citing a policy dispute over the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict. Jean - François Larose left the party to form the political party, Strength in Democracy, with former Bloc Québécois MP Jean - Francois Fortin.
Only two NDP incumbents who ran for re-election were defeated: Jim Maloway in Elmwood -- Transcona (MB), and Tony Martin in Sault Ste. Marie (ON). Bill Siksay in Burnaby -- Douglas (BC) chose not to run again, but Kennedy Stewart retained the seat for the NDP.
For a list of NDP MPs and their critic portfolios, see New Democratic Party Shadow Cabinet.
The party president is the administrative chairperson of the party, chairing party conventions, councils and executive meetings.
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