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who did jackie end up with in that 70s show | Jackie Burkhart - Wikipedia
Jacqueline "Jackie '' Beulah Burkhart (born September 24, 1961) is a fictional character portrayed by Mila Kunis on the Fox Network sitcom That ' 70s Show. Jackie is one of the two female leads in the show, and a love interest of Michael Kelso.
Jackie is a self - centered, spoiled member of a wealthy family who can be rather insensitive to the needs and feelings of others, though is regarded by many as attractive and fashionable, about which she can be quite vain. She is one of the program 's most conceited characters, and can behave quite selfishly. She looks down upon those of lower status in her school and has been said to treat them unfairly, and on the occasions she has treated them with respect she has not continued to do so for very long or only did it knowing that she could be rewarded for behaving in such a manner, such as when she ran for the title of "Snow Queen '' but was utterly disappointed when she loses the election. For the most part, Jackie only cares about herself, and fashion is among one of the few other things that she is concerned about. She believes herself to be very beautiful and appealing and has been involved in romantic relationships with Michael Kelso, Steven Hyde, and Fez at different points in the series. She starts to change when she starts dating Hyde and by doing so, becomes cemented as a member of the group. Even after her break up with Hyde, they remained good friends and she continued hanging around. She also becomes less shallow and cares about others. In the season 8 episode "Fun It '', it is revealed she has had coulrophobia (an irrational fear of clowns) ever since her seventh birthday party.
Jackie 's friendships tend to be complicated. While people might be endeared to her good heart and her triumphs over major life upheavals, her habit of being condescending to others keeps them at a distance.
Although she frequently criticizes Donna 's dress, physique and feminism, she repeatedly calls herself Donna 's best friend. Even though she thinks Donna is boring and unattractive when compared to herself, she believes Donna could do much better than Eric. Despite their extremely different personalities, Donna serves as Jackie 's de facto big sister and often tries to look out for her when she feels Jackie is making a mistake, more often than not due to lack of common sense. After her father is sent to prison in the middle of season five, Jackie moves in with the Pinciottis after the Formans learn that she has secretly been living with Hyde in his basement room. Jackie is also defensive of Donna; she displays this often by insulting or kicking Eric for doing something stupid, for example Eric makes a sexist comment so Jackie kicks him in the shin in the episode "Wo n't Get Fooled Again. '' Although both girls often tease one another they show genuine friendship. In the episode "Squeeze Box '' Donna shows how much she trusts Jackie when she runs in to talk about Eric. Jackie also demonstrates her level of care for Donna when she helps pay for Donna 's wedding ring in the episode "No Quarter ''.
Of the group, Jackie and Eric seemed to dislike each other the most in the beginning, though as the series progresses, they develop a friendship. Throughout the series, the two have a clear "frenemy '' relationship. They demonstrate their annoyance with each other, but show compassion for each other many times, and through it all, are close. In the beginning of the series, Jackie admits to trusting and liking Eric, confiding in him that she might be pregnant. In "The Pill '', for example, she says to Eric 's surprise, "Look, I 've always been able to trust you -- and, God, you are such a nice guy. '' Later in the episode, once Kelso threatens to break up with Jackie, Eric yells at him, having developed protective feelings towards her. This proves that their burning of each other throughout the show is only for laughs and friendly bickering, as none of their hostility is ever serious. Eric is consistent in ignoring Jackie as an object of sexual desire, but this changes in "What Is and What Should Never Be '' where Hyde helps Eric realize that Jackie is "hot. '' After this, Eric has shown to have a sexual attraction to her, as shown in many episodes. Jackie is sometimes demeaning towards Eric due to his effeminate qualities, dorkiness and physical weakness. They have been known to occasionally help each other out. In the episode "Jackie 's Cheese Squeeze, '' Eric admits that they are "friends, '' as long as they do n't refer to each other as such in public, and in the season seven finale, Jackie calls Eric from Chicago and admits that she 's always cared for him and that he was always very special to her.
Early on, Red remarks she was the favorite of Eric 's friends for her ability to hold a flashlight on a car. Jackie has run crying into Red 's arms no fewer than three times, all of which left him baffled and uncomfortable. Red finds Jackie as annoying as everyone else, but she still loves him because he 's the closest thing she has to a father.
When the show premieres, Jackie is dating Michael Kelso, a good - looking, brainless goofball. She decides to finally lose her virginity to him when he is released from jail after being mistakenly arrested for driving a stolen car. Jackie gets on Kelso 's friends ' nerves on a daily basis and Kelso repeatedly says that he is going to break up with her. However, in the first season it is Jackie who ends the relationship - twice. First, after Kelso is caught kissing Pam Macy (they get back together in the very same episode) and again after a pregnancy scare. However, admitting that they miss each other, they get back together at the Junior Prom.
In season 2, Kelso is seduced by Eric 's promiscuous and manipulative sister, Laurie, who later on begins a physical affair with him. Later in the season, Jackie eventually discovers his repeated infidelities and breaks up with him without realizing that Kelso has told Laurie that he is done with her since he only loves Jackie. After this breakup she is openly hostile to Kelso and many things clearly remain unfinished between them. She often insults him in front of his friends to get his attention and just for the sake of bringing him up. By season 3, she does eventually warm up to him. Following Kelso 's breakup with Laurie, Kelso apologizes to Jackie for cheating on her because now he knows how it feels to be cheated on as Laurie cheated on him, except he states that what happened to him and Jackie was different because they were actually really in love. After this, Jackie begins to notice that Kelso has matured somehow, so Jackie devises a series of "tests '' for Kelso to see if they should reconcile. He passes her tests and they get back together. Kelso remains loyal to Jackie after that and stays with her throughout season four, and they enjoy a happier, more loving relationship. However, towards the end of season 4, Jackie 's father tells her that if she stays with Kelso, he will cut her off financially. She ends up choosing Kelso, and gets a job. Later, Kelso begins to spend less time with Jackie as a result of his joining a modeling agency and she is caught kissing her boss by Eric. This event spurs a period of discovery for Jackie and Kelso. After reading Cosmopolitan, Kelso realizes that the reason he cheated on Jackie with Laurie was because Jackie has always bossed him around and made him feel bad about himself. Following this revelation, he breaks up with her (true to form, the breakup does n't stick and they reunite one episode later).
In the season four finale, Jackie and Kelso both agree that they do n't want to stay broken up. So, Jackie has Kelso choose to kiss any girl at The Hub to make things even between them and they can move on and be together again. Kelso surprises Jackie when he pretends to look around the room, but ends up choosing to kiss her. Jackie decides that it 's time for Kelso to really choose her. Without warning, she brings up marriage to Kelso and decides that they 're getting married. Kelso, feeling overwhelmed, flees to California. When he returns in the beginning of season five, he (along with the others) is horrified to learn that she has begun dating Hyde. Jackie continues to date Hyde for most of the season, but when Kelso introduces Annette to the gang, Jackie finds herself clearly jealous and tells Donna that Michael is still supposed to pine over her. Later in the episode, she claims to not be jealous anymore, but the moment she sees Annette kissing Kelso, she screams, "Get off my boyfriend! '' For the rest of the season, Kelso is clearly not over Jackie and does n't realize that he 's indirectly trying to win her back. Towards the end of season five, as Jackie comforts Kelso, he states that no one understands him like she does. In the finale, Kelso and Hyde make Jackie choose between the two of them and she chooses herself. By the beginning of season six, Kelso claims that he is happy and genuinely enjoying their new friendship. He spends the rest of the season trying to move on with his life, joins the police academy and impregnates a girl named Brooke and spends the rest of season 6 and 7 taking care of the baby.
Towards the end season seven, however, Kelso drives Jackie to Chicago after her break - up with Hyde, and Jackie asks him to spend some time with her before he leaves. He is later seen entering Jackie 's hotel room in only a towel, implying that he and Jackie were about to sleep together, but runs off nude into the night when he sees that Hyde has come to the hotel to get Jackie back. In the beginning of season eight, with Hyde married to a stripper, Jackie figures out her own life. Kelso considers marrying Jackie and states that the happiest time of his life was with Jackie and claims he still loves her. When Fez tells Jackie what Kelso intends, she considers the proposal and decides that if he asks, she will accept. However, he gets offered a job out of town and realizes he can move on with his life, but Fez reveals to him that he has already told Jackie of the proposal. Kelso grows angry, and states that he loves Jackie and that he knows in the future, they will be together, but now is not the right time, but since Fez has implied that Kelso will lose all of his chances with Jackie if he does n't propose now, Kelso ends up proposing at Red and Kitty 's anniversary party, though, she turns him down giving practically the same reasons as Kelso, which is that she loves him, but he has a lot of maturing to do and she has her own life to figure out so now is not the right time for them yet. They both feel an unexpected relief, and end on good terms.
Jackie and Steven Hyde are, from the beginning of the show, polar opposites and even enemies. She is disgusted by his poverty and crass behavior, he scorns her superficiality and materialism. They strongly dislike each other during the first season, but begin to form a bond when Hyde helps Jackie cope with her breakup with Kelso in season two. This leads to a brief period in which Jackie is infatuated with Hyde, but her feelings gradually fade. It is n't until season five, when Kelso is in California, that their romance begins. After watching The Price Is Right together all summer, the two begin making out every time they have a moment alone. When their friends discover the relationship, they each insist that they are not dating and that it is purely physical, but finally give in and admit that what they have goes deeper than just sex. They date for most of season five until Jackie sees Kelso kissing Annette and yells "Get off my boyfriend! '' Hyde reacts angrily to this and grows suspicious of Jackie. When he sees Jackie holding Kelso in her arms, knowing Jackie and Kelso 's long history and on - off relationship, Hyde assumes that something must be going on between her and Kelso again. Despite her pleas that she was only comforting him and that nothing untoward happened, he does n't believe her and he takes revenge by spending the night with another woman. When he realizes that Jackie has been telling the truth, he confesses his infidelity. A heartbroken Jackie ends the relationship immediately.
In the beginning of season six, Kelso and Hyde are in competition to get Jackie back because they both still love her. She decides she needs time to think about it, leaving them to wait and agonize, but chooses Hyde in the end. Their relationship goes on until Jackie is offered a job in Chicago. She is torn between her relationship and her professional ambition, but tells Hyde that she will stay if he can gives her the merest hope that they will eventually get married. Hyde has no immediate answer, and when he finally decides, he is upset to realize that she has already gone (or so he thinks). Jackie has no way out of Point Place, and in a final attempt to get an answer out of Hyde, she goes to the basement. Hiding his hurt and anger that she "left '' him, Hyde tells her to have a good trip.
Hyde decides he still wants her, and goes to her Chicago hotel to persuade her to take him back. During his conversation with Jackie, Kelso walks into the hotel room with a towel around his waist and a bucket of ice in his hands and implying that he and Jackie were about to have sex. Hyde goes to Las Vegas. When he comes back to Point Place, he has impulsively married a stripper named Samantha and she follows him back to Wisconsin. This effectively ends his and Jackie 's relationship.
Throughout season eight, Jackie remains single. She and Hyde, no longer together, have since remained good friends. However, their friendship somewhat reverts to how it was in the earlier seasons as they sometimes bicker and tease one another. Fez tells Jackie that Kelso intends to propose to her, and she decides that she will accept, but after considering it, she turns him down claiming that though she loves Kelso, he still has a lot of maturing to do, and now is not the time for them to be together. Feeling that she is in a low point in her life, Jackie decides to find someone that would be perfect for her and writes out a list of what she wants in a man. She is surprised to find out that Fez matches everything on the list. She denies this at first, but quickly comes around to the idea and decides to wait for Fez to come to her. Fez, however, is clueless of her attraction to him and is instead seeing other women at the time, which makes it hard for her. Jackie then chooses to go to him. She kisses him and asks if they can be together because he is the one good thing in her life right now, but Fez turns her down, feeling that she is treating him as a last resort, citing how she has already dated both Kelso and Hyde. Jackie then goes to the bathroom and cries, but immediately after vows revenge on Fez. She flushes his toothbrush, microwaves his lotion, and ruins his car with graffiti. To get back at Jackie, Fez dyes her hair green, and says that now she is ugly on the outside like she is on the inside. Hurt by Fez 's words, Jackie decides to move out. However, she later learns through one of his friends that he loves her and wishes that he had never said those things. They eventually reconcile and in the final episode, Fez and Jackie finally get together and kiss atop the water tower.
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where is the tv show castle rock filmed | Castle Rock (TV series) - Wikipedia
Castle Rock is an American psychological horror anthology web television series based on characters and settings from the stories of Stephen King that premiered on July 25, 2018 on Hulu. The series, created by Sam Shaw and Dustin Thomason and starring André Holland, Melanie Lynskey, Bill Skarsgård, Jane Levy, and Sissy Spacek, intertwines characters and themes from the fictional town of Castle Rock, Maine. On August 14, 2018, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a second season.
Castle Rock combines "the mythological scale and intimate character storytelling of King 's best - loved works, weaving an epic saga of darkness and light, played out on a few square miles of Maine woodland. ''
On February 17, 2017, it was announced that Hulu, J.J. Abrams, and Stephen King were collaborating on a new series entitled Castle Rock based on King 's large canon of work. It was further reported that the series would be written by Sam Shaw and Dustin Thomason and produced by Abrams ' Bad Robot Productions and distributed by Warner Bros. Television. Four days later, Hulu further revealed that they had given the production a series order consisting of a first season of ten episodes. Additionally, it announced that executive producers would include Abrams, King, Shaw, Thomason, Ben Stephenson, and Liz Glotzer. On July 12, 2017, it was announced that Michael Uppendahl was joining the production as a co-executive producer and would direct the pilot episode.
On August 4, 2018, it was announced that Hulu had renewed the series for a second season.
On May 11, 2017, it was announced that André Holland had been cast in the series ' lead role. In June 2017, it was announced that Jane Levy, Sissy Spacek, and Melanie Lynskey had joined the main cast. On July 10, 2017, Bill Skarsgård was added to the series ' main cast. In August 2017, it was reported that Scott Glenn and Terry O'Quinn had been added as series regulars. On March 1, 2018, it was announced that Chosen Jacobs had joined the series in the recurring role of Wendell Deaver, the son of Holland 's character. On June 8, 2018, it was announced during the annual ATX Television Festival that Allison Tolman had joined the cast in the recurring role of Lynsky 's character 's sister. Five days later, it was reported that Noel Fisher had also been cast in a recurring role.
Principal photography for the first season was expected to take place in Massachusetts in locations such as Orange, Massachusetts and at New England Studios in Devens, Massachusetts. In August, production began in Devens and in Orange, where the downtown area of the town had been refitted to appear as the town of Castle Rock, and where production was expected to continue through January 2018. That month, crews also shot scenes at Vernon Hill School in Worcester, Massachusetts and at an old Victorian house in Lancaster, Massachusetts. Filming returned to Orange during the week of August 21 for production of the series ' second episode. In late September 2017, filming took place in Tewksbury, Massachusetts at The Public Health Museum on the campus of the Tewksbury State Hospital. In October 2017, filming took place at the Central Cemetery in Orange where a funeral scene was shot. The downtown area was refitted with a more modern look in November for another phase of production. From September 4, 2017 until the end of the month, production took place at the former West Virginia Penitentiary in Moundsville, West Virginia which appeared as the fictional Shawshank State Prison. On November 21, 2017, filming took place in Worcester in the lobby of the Mercantile Building which had been refitted into a boardroom. On December 18, 2017, production for the season finale began. and by January all filming in Orange was completed and the production proceeded to donate $3,500 dollars to the town. The Fire Department has received $2,500 for helping facilitate production, and the Trustees of Soldiers ' Memorial will receive another $1,000.
Simultaneously with the series announcement, Hulu released the first teaser trailer for the series. The teaser trailer mentions titles of and characters from a number of Stephen King novels, short stories, and collections including: It, Dolores Claiborne, Needful Things, ' Salem 's Lot, Dreamcatcher, Night Shift, The Green Mile, Misery, Hearts in Atlantis, The Shining, "The Mangler '', Four past Midnight, Different Seasons, Nightmares & Dreamscapes, The Dark Half, and "The Night Flier ''.
On October 8, 2017, a second teaser trailer was unveiled at the annual New York Comic Con and subsequently released online. On February 1, 2018, released a thirty - second television commercial for the series online that eventually aired three days later during Super Bowl LII. Hulu reportedly paid $5 million dollars to air the advertisement during the football game. On May 2, 2018, a third teaser trailer was released alongside the announcement of the show 's premiere date of July 25, 2018. On July 10, 2018, the first full trailer for the series was released.
On June 8, 2018, the series took part in the annual ATX Television Festival in Austin, Texas where a "first look '' at footage from the series took place. Following the premiere of the footage, a question - and - answer panel occurred with creators and executive producers Sam Shaw and Dustin Thomason. On June 19, 2018, it was announced that the series would hold its world premiere during the show 's panel at San Diego Comic Con in San Diego, California where cast members including Sissy Spacek, Bill Skarsgard, and Melanie Lynskey are set to be in attendance.
On September 7, 2018, the series will take part in the 12th annual PaleyFest Fall Television Previews which will feature a screening of the first season finale and a discussion with creator and executive producer Sam Shaw.
The series has been met with a generally positive response from critics. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an 86 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.43 out of 10 based on 59 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "A meticulously crafted mystery brimming with allusions, Castle Rock is bound to please even the pickiest of Stephen King fans -- though mileage may vary for casual viewers. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 66 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In a positive review, Collider 's Dave Trumbore praised the series saying, "Shaw, Thomason, Abrams & Co. really nail the core concepts of King 's storytelling here. Each character gets a good amount of screen time to focus on introspection... Castle Rock is a ca n't - miss series for Stephen King fans and a must - watch horror show for fans of dark, thrilling, character - focused mysteries. '' In a similarly favorable critique, Entertainment Weekly 's Kristen Baldwin gave the series a grade of "A - '' and commended it saying, "Though most characters are new (Scott Glenn 's Alan Pangborn, a sheriff who appeared in Needful Things and The Dark Half, is one exception), for King fans the world of Castle Rock will be inescapably familiar. Spending time here feels, in many ways, like coming home -- with all of the excitement and dread such a visit entails. '' In another approving criticism, Ben Travers of Indiewire gave the series a grade of "B + '' and complimented it saying, "For a show that could 've been dominated by its origins, Castle Rock sure has a good time breathing new life into them. Smart, fun scares; deeply felt, well - founded characters; layers of story to decipher, along with the references -- what more could you want in a new piece of the Stephen King library? '' In a more mixed review, Dan Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter criticized the series saying, "The actors will offer the best incentive for the King - ambivalent to tune into Castle Rock, but I 'm not sure even they will ultimately be enough to overcome the sluggish and vague story. '' In a negative review, Daniel D'Addario of Variety was even more disapproving saying, "It 's eerie - by - the - numbers, repeatedly telling us quite how scared we ought to be, without yet building characters for whom we feel sympathetic fear. ''
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who was the first president of the republic of trinidad and tobago | List of heads of state of Trinidad and Tobago - wikipedia
This is a list of the heads of state of Trinidad and Tobago, from the independence of Trinidad and Tobago in 1962 to the present day.
From 1962 to 1976 the head of state under the Trinidad and Tobago Independence Act 1962 was the Queen of Trinidad and Tobago, Elizabeth II, who was also the Monarch of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen was represented in Trinidad and Tobago by a Governor - General. Trinidad and Tobago became a republic under the Constitution of 1976 and the Monarch and Governor - General were replaced by a ceremonial President.
The succession to the throne was the same as the succession to the British throne.
The Governor - General was the representative of the Monarch in Trinidad and Tobago and exercised most of the powers of the Monarch. The Governor - General was appointed for an indefinite term, serving at the pleasure of the Monarch. After the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Governor - General was appointed solely on the advice of the Cabinet of Trinidad and Tobago without the involvement of the British government. In the event of a vacancy the Chief Justice served as Officer Administering the Government.
Under the 1976 Constitution, the constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the President replaced the Monarch as ceremonial head of state. The President was elected by Parliament for a five - year term. In the event of a vacancy the President of the Senate served as Acting President.
Royal Standard
Governor - General 's Standard
Presidential Standard
There are two living former Trinidadian Heads of State:
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which part of the earth system includes the water in the everglades | Everglades - wikipedia
The Everglades (or Pa - hay - okee) is a natural region of tropical wetlands in the southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida, comprising the southern half of a large drainage basin and part of the neotropic ecozone. The system begins near Orlando with the Kissimmee River, which discharges into the vast but shallow Lake Okeechobee. Water leaving the lake in the wet season forms a slow - moving river 60 miles (97 km) wide and over 100 miles (160 km) long, flowing southward across a limestone shelf to Florida Bay at the southern end of the state. The Everglades experience a wide range of weather patterns, from frequent flooding in the wet season to drought in the dry season. Writer Marjory Stoneman Douglas popularized the term "River of Grass '' to describe the sawgrass marshes, part of a complex system of interdependent ecosystems that include cypress swamps, the estuarine mangrove forests of the Ten Thousand Islands, tropical hardwood hammocks, pine rockland, and the marine environment of Florida Bay.
Human habitation in the southern portion of the Florida peninsula dates to 15,000 years ago. Before European colonization, the region was dominated by the native Calusa and Tequesta tribes. With Spanish colonization, both tribes declined gradually during the following two centuries. The Seminole formed from mostly Creek people who had been warring to the North; they assimilated other peoples and created a new culture. After being forced from northern Florida into the Everglades during the Seminole Wars of the early 19th century, they adapted to the region and were able to resist removal by the United States Army.
Migrants to the region who wanted to develop plantations first proposed draining the Everglades in 1848, but no work of this type was attempted until 1882. Canals were constructed throughout the first half of the 20th century, and spurred the South Florida economy, prompting land development. In 1947, Congress formed the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project, which built 1,400 miles (2,300 km) of canals, levees, and water control devices. The Miami metropolitan area grew substantially at this time and Everglades water was diverted to cities. Portions of the Everglades were transformed into farmland, where the primary crop was sugarcane. Approximately 50 percent of the original Everglades has been developed as agricultural or urban areas.
Following this period of rapid development and environmental degradation, the ecosystem began to receive notable attention from conservation groups in the 1970s. Internationally, UNESCO and the Ramsar Convention designated the Everglades a Wetland Area of Global Importance. The construction of a large airport 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Everglades National Park was blocked when an environmental study found that it would severely damage the South Florida ecosystem. With heightened awareness and appreciation of the region, restoration began in the 1980s with the removal of a canal that had straightened the Kissimmee River. However, development and sustainability concerns have remained pertinent in the region. The deterioration of the Everglades, including poor water quality in Lake Okeechobee, was linked to the diminishing quality of life in South Florida 's urban areas. In 2000 the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan was approved by Congress to combat these problems. To date, it is the most expensive and comprehensive environmental restoration attempt in history, but its implementation has faced political complications.
The first written record of the Everglades was on Spanish maps made by cartographers who had not seen the land. They named the unknown area between the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of Florida Laguna del Espíritu Santo ("Lake of the Holy Spirit ''). The area was featured on maps for decades without having been explored. Writer John Grant Forbes stated in 1811, "The Indians represent (the Southern points) as impenetrable; and the (British) surveyors, wreckers, and coasters, had not the means of exploring beyond the borders of the sea coast, and the mouths of rivers ''.
British surveyor John Gerard de Brahm, who mapped the coast of Florida in 1773, called the area "River Glades ''. Both Marjory Stoneman Douglas and linguist Wallace McMullen suggest that cartographers substituted "Ever '' for "River ''. The name "Everglades '' first appeared on a map in 1823, although it was also spelled as "Ever Glades '' as late as 1851. The Seminole call it Pa - hay - okee, meaning "Grassy Water. '' The region was labeled "Pa - hai - okee '' on an American military map from 1839, although it had earlier been called "Ever Glades '' throughout the Second Seminole War.
A 2007 survey by geographers Ary J. Lamme and Raymond K. Oldakowski found that the "Glades '' has emerged as a distinct vernacular region of Florida. It comprises the interior areas and southernmost Gulf Coast of South Florida, largely corresponding to the Everglades itself. It is one of the most sparsely populated areas of the state.
The geology of South Florida, together with a warm, wet, subtropical climate, provides conditions well - suited for a large marshland ecosystem. Layers of porous and permeable limestone create water - bearing rock and soil that affect the climate, weather, and hydrology of South Florida. The properties of the rock underneath the Everglades can be explained by the geologic history of the state. The crust underneath Florida was at one point part of the African region of the supercontinent Gondwana. About 300 million years ago, North America merged with Africa, connecting Florida with North America. Volcanic activity centered on the eastern side of Florida covered the prevalent sedimentary rock with igneous rock. Continental rifting began to separate North America from Gondwana about 180 million years ago. When Florida was part of Africa, it was initially above water, but during the cooler Jurassic Period, the Florida Platform became a shallow marine environment in which sedimentary rocks were deposited. Through the Cretaceous Period, most of Florida remained a tropical sea floor of varying depths. The peninsula has been covered by seawater at least seven times since the bedrock formed.
Fluctuating sea levels compressed numerous layers of calcium carbonate, sand, and shells. The resulting permeable limestone formations that developed between 25 million and 70 million years ago created the Floridan Aquifer, which serves as the main source of fresh water for the northern portion of Florida. However, this aquifer lies beneath thousands of feet of impermeable sedimentary rock from Lake Okeechobee to the southern tip of the peninsula.
Five geologic formations make up the southern portion of Florida: the Tamiami Formation, Caloosahatchee Formation, Anastasia Formation, Miami Limestone (or Miami Oolite), and the Fort Thompson Formation. The Tamiami Formation is a compression of highly permeable light colored fossiliferous sands and pockets of quartz, 150 feet (46 m) thick. It is named for the Tamiami Trail that follows the upper bedrock of the Big Cypress Swamp, and underlies the southern portion of the Everglades. Between the Tamiami Formation and Lake Okeechobee is the Caloosahatchee Formation, named for the river over it. Much less permeable, this formation is highly calcitic and is composed of sandy shell marl, clay, and sand. Water underneath the Caloosahatchee Formation is typically very mineralized. Both the Tamiami and Caloosahatchee Formations developed during the Pliocene Epoch.
Surrounding the southern part of Lake Okeechobee is the Fort Thompson Formation, made of dense, hard limestone, shells, and sand. Rain water is less likely to erode the limestone to form solution holes -- smaller versions of sinkholes that do not intersect with the water table. In this formation the beds are generally impermeable. Underneath the metropolitan areas of Palm Beach County is the Anastasia Formation, composed of shelly limestone, coquina, and sand representing a former mangrove or salt marsh. The Anastasia Formation is much more permeable and filled with pocks and solution holes. The Fort Thompson and Anastasia Formations, and Miami Limestone and (x), were formed during the Sangamon interglacial period.
The geologic formations that have the most influence on the Everglades are the Miami Limestone and the Fort Thompson Formation. The Miami Limestone forms the floor of the lower Everglades. The Miami Limestone is made up of ooids: tiny formations of egg - shaped concentric shells and calcium carbonate, formed around a single grain of sand. The Miami Limestone was formerly named the Miami Oolite, which comprises facies of ooids and fossilized bryozoan organisms. The unique structure was some of the first material used in housing in early 20th - century South Florida. The composition of this sedimentary formation affects the hydrology, plant life, and wildlife above it: the rock is especially porous and stores water during the dry season in the Everglades, and its chemical composition determines the vegetation prevalent in the region. The Miami Limestone also acts as a dam between Fort Lauderdale and Coot Bay.
The metropolitan areas of Miami, Fort Lauderdale, and West Palm Beach are located on a rise in elevation along the eastern coast of Florida, called the Eastern Coastal Ridge, that was formed as waves compressed ooids into a single formation. Along the western border of the Big Cypress Swamp is the Immokolee Ridge (or Immokolee Rise), a slight rise of compressed sand that divides the runoff between the Caloosahatchee River and The Big Cypress. This slight rise in elevation on both sides of the Everglades creates a basin, and forces water that overflows Lake Okeechobee to creep toward the southwest. Under both the Miami Limestone formation and the Fort Thompson limestone lies the Biscayne Aquifer, a surface aquifer that serves as the Miami metropolitan area 's fresh water source. Rainfall and stored water in the Everglades replenish the Biscayne Aquifer directly.
With the rise of sea levels that occurred during the Pleistocene approximately 17,000 years ago, the runoff of water from Lake Okeechobee slowed and created the vast marshland that is now known as the Everglades. Slower runoff also created an accumulation of almost 18 feet (5.5 m) of peat in the area. The presence of such peat deposits, dated to about 5,000 years ago, is evidence that widespread flooding had occurred by then.
The consistent Everglades flooding is fed by the extensive Kissimmee, Caloosahatchee, Myakka, and Peace Rivers in central Florida. The Kissimmee River is a broad floodplain that empties directly into Lake Okeechobee, which at 730 square miles (1,900 km) with an average depth of 9 feet (2.7 m), is a vast but shallow lake. Soil deposits in the Everglades basin indicate that peat is deposited where the land is flooded consistently throughout the year. Calcium deposits are left behind when flooding is shorter. The deposits occur in areas where water rises and falls depending on rainfall, as opposed to water being stored in the rock from one year to the next. Calcium deposits are present where more limestone is exposed.
The area from Orlando to the tip of the Florida peninsula was at one point a single drainage unit. When rainfall exceeded the capacity of Lake Okeechobee and the Kissimmee River floodplain, it spilled over and flowed in a southwestern direction to empty into Florida Bay. Prior to urban and agricultural development in Florida, the Everglades began at the southern edge of Lake Okeechobee and flowed for approximately 100 miles (160 km), emptying into the Gulf of Mexico. The limestone shelf is wide and slightly angled instead of having a narrow, deep channel characteristic of most rivers. The vertical gradient from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is about 2 inches (5.1 cm) per mile, creating an almost 60 - mile (97 km) wide expanse of river that travels about half a mile (0.8 km) a day. This slow movement of a broad, shallow river is known as sheetflow, and gives the Everglades its nickname, River of Grass. Water leaving Lake Okeechobee may require months or years to reach its final destination, Florida Bay. The sheetflow travels so slowly that water is typically stored from one wet season to the next in the porous limestone substrate. The ebb and flow of water has shaped the land and every ecosystem in South Florida throughout the Everglades ' estimated 5,000 years of existence. The motion of water defines plant communities and how animals adapt to their habitats and food sources.
The climate of South Florida is located across the broad transition zone between subtropical and tropical climates (Koppen Cfa and Aw). Like most regions with this climate type, there are two basic seasons -- a "dry season '' (winter) which runs from November through April, and a "wet season '' (summer) which runs from May through October. About 70 % of the annual rainfall in south Florida occurs in the wet season -- often as brief but intense tropical downpours. The dry season sees little rainfall and dew points and humidity are often quite low. The dry season can be severe at times, as wildfires and water restrictions are often in place.
The annual range of temperatures in south Florida and the Everglades is rather small (less than 20 ° F (11 ° C)) -- ranging from a monthly mean temperature of around 65 ° F (18 ° C) in January to 83 ° F (28 ° C) in July. High temperatures in the hot and wet season (summer) typically exceed 90 ° F (32 ° C) across inland south Florida (although coastal locations are cooled by winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean), while high temperatures in the dry winter season average from 70 to 79 ° F (21 to 26 ° C). Frost and freeze is rare across south Florida and the Everglades; annually coastal cities like Miami and Naples report zero days with frost, although a few times each decade low temperatures may fall between 30 and 40 ° F (− 1 and 4 ° C) across South Florida. Annual rainfall averages approximately 62 inches (160 cm), with the Eastern Coastal Ridge receiving the majority of precipitation and the area surrounding Lake Okeechobee receiving about 48 inches (120 cm).
Unlike any other wetland system on earth, the Everglades are sustained primarily by the atmosphere. Evapotranspiration -- the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth 's land surface to atmosphere -- associated with thunderstorms, is the key mechanism by which water leaves the region. During a year unaffected by drought, the rate may reach 40 inches (100 cm) a year. When droughts take place, the rate may peak at over 50 inches (130 cm), and exceed the amount of rainfall. As water leaves an area through evaporation from groundwater or from plant matter, activated primarily by solar energy, it is then moved by wind patterns to other areas that border or flow into the Everglades watershed system. Evapotranspiration is responsible for approximately 70 -- 90 percent of water entering undeveloped wetland regions in the Everglades.
Precipitation during the wet season is primarily caused by air mass thunderstorms and the easterly flow out of the subtropical high (Bermuda High). Intense daytime heating of the ground causes the warm moist tropical air to rise, creating the afternoon thundershowers typical of tropical climates. 2: 00 pm is the mean time of daily thundershowers across South Florida and the Everglades. Late in the wet season (August and September), precipitation levels reach their highest levels as tropical depressions and lows add to daily rainfall. Occasionally, tropical lows can become severe tropical cyclones and cause significant damage when the make landfall across south Florida. Tropical storms average one a year, and major hurricanes about once every ten years. Between 1871 and 1981, 138 tropical cyclones struck directly over or close to the Everglades. Strong winds from these storms disperse plant seeds and replenish mangrove forests, coral reefs, and other ecosystems. Dramatic fluctuations in precipitation are characteristic of the South Florida climate. Droughts, floods, and tropical cyclones are part of the natural water system in the Everglades.
The Everglades are a complex system of interdependent ecosystems. Marjory Stoneman Douglas described the area as a "River of Grass '' in 1947, though that metaphor represents only a portion of the system. The area recognized as the Everglades, prior to drainage, was a web of marshes and prairies 4,000 square miles (10,000 km) in size. Borders between ecosystems are subtle or imperceptible. These systems shift, grow and shrink, die, or reappear within years or decades. Geologic factors, climate, and the frequency of fire help to create, maintain, or replace the ecosystems in the Everglades.
Water is the dominant force in the Everglades, shaping the land, vegetation, and animal life in South Florida. Starting at the last glacial maximum, 21,000 years ago, continental ice sheets retreated and sea levels rose. This submerged portions of the Florida peninsula and caused the water table to rise. Fresh water saturated the limestone that underlies the Everglades, eroding some of it away, and created springs and sinkholes. The abundance of fresh water allowed new vegetation to take root, and formed convective thunderstorms over the land through evaporation.
As rain continued to fall, the slightly acidic rainwater dissolved the limestone. As limestone wore away, the groundwater came into contact with the land surface and created a massive wetland ecosystem. Although the region appears flat, weathering of the limestone created slight valleys and plateaus in some areas. These plateaus rise and fall only a few inches, but on the subtle South Florida topography these small variations affect both the flow of water and the types of vegetation that can take hold.
The underlying bedrock or limestone of the Everglades basin affects the hydroperiod, or how long an area within the region stays flooded throughout the year. Longer hydroperiods are possible in areas that were submerged beneath seawater for longer periods of time, while the geology of Florida was forming. More water is held within the porous ooids and limestone than older types of rock that spent more time above sea level. A hydroperiod of ten months or more fosters growth of sawgrass, whereas a shorter hydroperiod of six months or less promotes beds of periphyton, a growth of algae and other microscopic organisms. There are only two types of soil in the Everglades, peat and marl. Where there are longer hydroperiods, peat builds up over hundreds or thousands of years due to many generations of decaying plant matter. Where periphyton grows, the soil develops into marl, which is more calcitic in composition.
Initial attempts at developing agriculture near Lake Okeechobee were successful, but the nutrients in the peat were rapidly removed. In a process called soil subsidence, oxidation of peat causes loss of volume. Bacteria decompose dead sawgrass slowly underwater without oxygen. When the water was drained in the 1920s and bacteria interacted with oxygen, an aerobic reaction occurred. Microorganisms degraded the peat into carbon dioxide and water. Some of the peat was burned by settlers to clear the land. Some homes built in the areas of early farms had to have their foundations moved to stilts as the peat deteriorated; other areas lost approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) of soil depth.
Fire is an important element in the natural maintenance of the Everglades. The majority of fires are caused by lightning strikes from thunderstorms during the wet season. Their effects are largely superficial, and serve to foster specific plant growth: sawgrass will burn above water, but the roots are preserved underneath. Fire in the sawgrass marshes serves to keep out larger bushes and trees, and releases nutrients from decaying plant matter more efficiently than decomposition. Whereas in the wet season, dead plant matter and the tips of grasses and trees are burned, in the dry season the fire may be fed by organic peat and burn deeply, destroying root systems. Fires are confined by existing water and rainfall. It takes approximately 225 years for one foot (. 30 m) of peat to develop, but in some locations the peat is less dense than it should be for the 5,000 years of the Everglades ' existence. Scientists indicate fire as the cause; it is also cited as the reason for the black color of Everglades muck. Layers of charcoal have been detected in the peat in portions of the Everglades that indicate the region endured severe fires for years at a time, although this trend seems to have abated since the last occurrence in 940 BCE.
Several ecosystems are present in the Everglades, and boundaries between them are subtle or absent. The primary feature of the Everglades is the sawgrass marsh. The iconic water and sawgrass combination in the shallow river 100 miles (160 km) long and 60 miles (97 km) wide that spans from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is often referred to as the "true Everglades '' or just "the Glades ''. Prior to the first drainage attempts in 1905, the sheetflow occupied nearly a third of the lower Florida peninsula. Sawgrass thrives in the slowly moving water, but may die in unusually deep floods if oxygen is unable to reach its roots. It is particularly vulnerable immediately after a fire. The hydroperiod for the marsh is at least nine months, and can last longer. Where sawgrass grows densely, few animals or other plants live, although alligators choose these locations for nesting. Where there is more room, periphyton grows. Periphyton supports larval insects and amphibians, which in turn are consumed as food by birds, fish, and reptiles. It also absorbs calcium from water, which adds to the calcitic composition of the marl.
Sloughs, or free - flowing channels of water, develop in between sawgrass prairies. Sloughs are about 3 feet (0.91 m) deeper than sawgrass marshes, and may stay flooded for at least 11 months out of the year and sometimes multiple years in a row. Aquatic animals such as turtles, alligators, snakes, and fish thrive in sloughs; they usually feed on aquatic invertebrates. Submerged and floating plants grow here, such as bladderwort (Utricularia), waterlily (Nymphaeaceae), and spatterdock (Nuphar lutea). Major sloughs in the Everglades system include the Shark River Slough flowing out to Florida Bay, Lostmans River Slough bordering The Big Cypress, and Taylor Slough in the eastern Everglades.
Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes, but with greater plant diversity. The surface is covered in water only three to seven months of the year, and the water is, on average, shallow at only 4 inches (10 cm) deep. When flooded, the marl can support a variety of water plants. Solution holes, or deep pits where the limestone has worn away, may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry, and they support aquatic invertebrates such as crayfish and snails, and larval amphibians which feed young wading birds. These regions tend to border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes.
Alligators have created a niche in wet prairies. With their claws and snouts they dig at low spots and create ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season. Alligator holes are integral to the survival of aquatic invertebrates, turtles, fish, small mammals, and birds during extended drought periods. The alligators then feed upon some of the animals that come to the hole.
Small islands of trees growing on land raised between 1 foot (0.30 m) and 3 feet (0.91 m) above sloughs and prairies are called tropical hardwood hammocks. They may range from one (4,000 m2) to ten acres (40,000 m2) in area, and appear in freshwater sloughs, sawgrass prairies, or pineland. Hammocks are slightly elevated on limestone plateaus risen several inches above the surrounding peat, or they may grow on land that has been unharmed by deep peat fires. Hardwood hammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees, such as Southern live oak (Quercus virginiana), gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), royal palm (Roystonea), and bustic (Dipholis salicifolia) that grow in very dense clumps. Near the base, sharp saw palmettos (Serenoa repens) flourish, making the hammocks very difficult for people to penetrate, though small mammals, reptiles and amphibians find these islands an ideal habitat. Water in sloughs flows around the islands, creating moats. Though some ecosystems are maintained and promoted by fire, hammocks may take decades or centuries to recover. The moats around the hammocks protect the trees. The trees are limited in height by weather factors such as frost, lightning, and wind; the majority of trees in hammocks grow no higher than 55 feet (17 m).
Some of the driest land in the Everglades is pineland (also called pine rockland) ecosystem, located in the highest part of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod. Some floors, however, may have flooded solution holes or puddles for a few months at a time. The most significant feature of the pineland is the single species of South Florida slash pine (Pinus elliottii). Pineland communities require fire to maintain them, and the trees have several adaptations that simultaneously promote and resist fire. The sandy floor of the pine forest is covered with dry pine needles that are highly flammable. South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat. Fire eliminates competing vegetation on the forest floor, and opens pine cones to germinate seeds. A period without significant fire can turn pineland into a hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines. The understory shrubs in pine rocklands are the fire - resistant saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), and West Indian lilac (Tetrazygia bicolor). The most diverse group of plants in the pine community are the herbs, of which there are two dozen species. These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms that allow them to sprout quickly after being charred.
Prior to urban development of the South Florida region, pine rocklands covered approximately 161,660 acres (654.2 km) in Miami - Dade County. Within Everglades National Park, 19,840 acres (80.3 km) of pine forests are protected, but outside the park, 1,780 acres (7.2 km) of pine communities remained as of 1990, averaging 12.1 acres (49,000 m) in area. The misunderstanding of the role of fire also played a part in the disappearance of pine forests in the area, as natural fires were put out and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks. Prescribed fires occur in Everglades National Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years.
Cypress swamps can be found throughout the Everglades, but the largest covers most of Collier County. The Big Cypress Swamp is located to the west of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs, and it is commonly called "The Big Cypress. '' The name refers to its area rather than the height or diameter of the trees; at its most conservative estimate, the swamp measures 1,200 square miles (3,100 km), but the hydrologic boundary of The Big Cypress can be calculated at over 2,400 square miles (6,200 km). Most of The Big Cypress sits atop a bedrock covered by a thinner layer of limestone. The limestone underneath the Big Cypress contains quartz, which creates sandy soil that hosts a variety of vegetation different from what is found in other areas of the Everglades. The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches (140 cm) of water in the wet season.
Though The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in South Florida, cypress swamps can be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between Lake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods, as well as in sawgrass marshes. Cypresses are deciduous conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions, with buttressed trunks and root projections that protrude out of the water, called "knees ''. Bald cypress trees grow in formations with the tallest and thickest trunks in the center, rooted in the deepest peat. As the peat thins out, cypresses grow smaller and thinner, giving the small forest the appearance of a dome from the outside. They also grow in strands, slightly elevated on a ridge of limestone bordered on either side by sloughs. Other hardwood trees can be found in cypress domes, such as red maple, swamp bay, and pop ash. If cypresses are removed, the hardwoods take over, and the ecosystem is recategorized as a mixed swamp forest.
Eventually the water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress makes its way to the ocean. Mangrove trees are well adapted to the transitional zone of brackish water where fresh and salt water meet. The estuarine ecosystem of the Ten Thousand Islands, which is comprised almost completely of mangrove forests, covers almost 200,000 acres (810 km). In the wet season fresh water pours out into Florida Bay, and sawgrass begins to grow closer to the coastline. In the dry season, and particularly in extended periods of drought, the salt water creeps inland into the coastal prairie, an ecosystem that buffers the freshwater marshes by absorbing sea water. Mangrove trees begin to grow in fresh water ecosystems when the salt water goes far enough inland.
There are three species of trees that are considered mangroves: red (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans), and white (Laguncularia racemosa), although all are from different families. All grow in oxygen - poor soil, can survive drastic water level changes, and are tolerant of salt, brackish, and fresh water. All three mangrove species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms. Red mangroves have the farthest - reaching roots, trapping sediments that help build coastlines after and between storms. All three types of trees absorb the energy of waves and storm surges. Everglades mangroves also serve as nurseries for crustaceans and fish, and rookeries for birds. The region supports Tortugas pink shrimp (Farfantepenaeus duorarum) and stone crab (Menippe mercenaria) industries; between 80 and 90 percent of commercially harvested crustacean species in Florida 's salt waters are born or spend time near the Everglades.
Much of the coast and the inner estuaries are built of mangroves; there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay. Thus the marine ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered to be a part of the Everglades watershed and one of the ecosystems connected to and affected by the Everglades as a whole. More than 800 square miles (2,100 km) of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park, representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries. There are approximately 100 keys in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests. The fresh water coming into Florida Bay from the Everglades creates perfect conditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that are the foundation for animal life in the bay. Sea turtles and manatees eat the grass, while invertebrate animals, such as worms, clams and other mollusks eat the algae formations and microscopic plankton. Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. Sea grasses also serve to stabilize the sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves.
Humans arrived in the Florida peninsula approximately 15,000 years ago. Paleo - Indians came to Florida probably following large game that included giant sloths, saber - toothed cats, and spectacled bears. They found an arid landscape that supported plants and animals adapted for desert conditions. However, 6,500 years ago, climate changes brought a wetter landscape; large animals became extinct in Florida, and the Paleo - Indians slowly adapted and became the Archaic peoples. They conformed to the environmental changes, and created many tools with the various resources available. During the Late Archaic period, the climate became wetter again, and approximately 3000 BCE the rise of water tables allowed an increase in population and cultural activity. Florida Indians developed into three distinct but similar cultures that were named for the bodies of water near where they were located: Okeechobee, Caloosahatchee, and Glades.
From the Glades peoples, two major nations emerged in the area: the Calusa and the Tequesta. The Calusa was the largest and most powerful nation in South Florida. It controlled fifty villages located on Florida 's west coast, around Lake Okeechobee, and on the Florida Keys. Most Calusa villages were located at the mouths of rivers or on key islands. The Calusa were hunter - gatherers who lived on small game, fish, turtles, alligators, shellfish, and various plants. Most of their tools were made of bone or teeth, although sharpened reeds were also effective for hunting or war. Calusa weapons consisted of bows and arrows, atlatls, and spears. Canoes were used for transportation, and South Florida tribes often canoed through the Everglades, but rarely lived in them. Canoe trips to Cuba were also common.
Estimated numbers of Calusa at the beginning of the Spanish occupation ranged from 4,000 to 7,000. The society declined in power and population; by 1697 their number was estimated to be about 1,000. In the early 18th century, the Calusa came under attack from the Yamasee to the north. They asked the Spanish for refuge in Cuba, where almost 200 died of illness. Soon they were relocated again to the Florida Keys.
Second in power and number to the Calusa in South Florida were the Tequesta. They occupied the southeastern portion of the lower peninsula in modern - day Dade and Broward counties. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta societies centered on the mouths of rivers. Their main village was probably on the Miami River or Little River. Spanish depictions of the Tequesta state that they were greatly feared by sailors, who suspected them of torturing and killing survivors of shipwrecks. With an increasing European presence in south Florida, Native Americans from the Keys and other areas began increasing their trips to Cuba. Official permission for the immigration of Native Americans from the Florida Keys was granted by Cuban officials in 1704. Spanish priests attempted to set up missions in 1743, but noted that the Tequesta were under assault from a neighboring tribe. When only 30 members were left, they were removed to Havana. A British surveyor in 1770 described multiple deserted villages in the region where the Tequesta lived. Common descriptions of Native Americans in Florida by 1820 used only the term "Seminoles ''.
Following the demise of the Calusa and Tequesta, Native Americans in southern Florida were referred to as "Spanish Indians '' in the 1740s, probably due to their friendlier relations with Spain. The Creek invaded the Florida peninsula; they conquered and assimilated what was left of pre-Columbian societies into the Creek Confederacy. They were joined by remnant Indian groups and formed the Seminole, a new tribe, by ethnogenesis. The Seminole originally settled in the northern portion of the territory. In addition, free blacks and fugitive slaves made their way to Florida, where Spain had promised slaves freedom and arms if they converted to Catholicism and pledged loyalty to Spain. These African Americans gradually created communities near those of the Seminole, and became known as the Black Seminoles. The groups acted as allies.
In 1817, Andrew Jackson invaded Florida to hasten its annexation to the United States, in what became known as the First Seminole War. After Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821, conflicts between settlers and the Seminole increased as the former tried to acquire lands. The Second Seminole War lasted from 1835 to 1842, and afterward, the US forcibly removed about 3,000 Seminole and 800 Black Seminole to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), west of the Mississippi River. Many others died in the war. Conflict broke out again in the Third Seminole War from 1855 to 1859, when a few hundred Seminole fought off US forces from the swamps of the Everglades. The US finally decided to leave them alone, as they could not dislodge them even after this protracted and expensive warfare.
By 1913, the Seminole in the Everglades numbered no more than 325. They made a living by hunting and trading with white settlers, and raised domesticated animals. The Seminole made their villages in hardwood hammocks or pinelands, had diets of hominy and coontie roots, fish, turtles, venison, and small game. Their villages were not large, due to the limited size of the hammocks. Between the end of the last Seminole War and 1930, the people lived in relative isolation from the majority culture.
The construction of the Tamiami Trail, beginning in 1928 and spanning the region from Tampa to Miami, altered their ways of life. Some began to work in local farms, ranches, and souvenir stands. Some of the people who interacted more with European Americans began to move to reservations in the 1940s. These were their bases for reorganizing their government and they became federally recognized in 1957 as the Seminole Tribe of Florida.
People who kept more traditional ways had settlements along the Tamiami Trail and tended to speak the Mikasuki language. They later were federally recognized in 1962 as the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida. As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow, the two groups were closely associated with the Everglades. They struggled to maintain privacy while serving as tourist attractions. They earned money by wrestling alligators and selling craftworks. As of 2008, the Seminole Tribe of Florida had five reservations, and the lands of the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians were collectively considered a sixth reservation. The two tribes have each developed casino gaming on some of their properties to generate revenue for support, services and economic development.
The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood and largely unknown part of the country. An 1840 expedition into the Everglades offered the first printed account for the general public to read about the Everglades. The anonymous writer described the terrain the party was crossing:
"No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees, and expressly intended as a retreat for the rascally Indian, from which the white man would never seek to drive them ''.
The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of both wonder or hatred. During the Second Seminole War an army surgeon wrote, "It is in fact a most hideous region to live in, a perfect paradise for Indians, alligators, serpents, frogs, and every other kind of loathsome reptile. '' In 1897, explorer Hugh Willoughby spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the Harney River to the Miami River. He sent his observations to the New Orleans Times - Democrat. Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome, with numerous springs, and 10,000 alligators "more or less '' in Lake Okeechobee. The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River, "killing hundreds, but they continued to return ''. Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been explored and mapped except for this part of Florida, writing, "(w) e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa. ''
A national push for expansion and progress in the United States occurred in the later part of the 19th century, which stimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use. According to historians, "From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century, the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned. Indeed, it was considered the proper thing to do. '' Draining the Everglades was suggested as early as 1837, and a resolution in Congress was passed in 1842 that prompted Secretary of Treasury Robert J. Walker to request those with experience in the Everglades to give their opinion on the possibility of drainage. Many officers who had served in the Seminole Wars favored the idea. In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries. The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands. Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for any attempts, though the Civil War and Reconstruction halted progress until after 1877.
After the Civil War, a state agency called the Internal Improvement Fund (IIF), whose purpose was to improve Florida 's roads, canals, and rail lines, was discovered to be deeply in debt. The IIF found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disston interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture. Disston purchased 4,000,000 acres (16,000 km) of land for $1 million in 1881, and he began constructing canals near St. Cloud. At first the canals seemed to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers. They were effective in lowering the groundwater, but it became apparent that their capacity was insufficient for the wet season. Though Disston 's canals did not drain well, his purchase primed the economy of Florida. It made news and attracted tourists and land buyers. Within four years property values doubled, and the population increased significantly.
The IIF was able to invest in development projects due to Disston 's purchase, and an opportunity to improve transportation arose when oil tycoon Henry Flagler began purchasing land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida, as far south as Palm Beach in 1893. Along the way he built resort hotels, transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations. The land bordering the rail lines was developed as citrus farms. By 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay. Three months after the first train had arrived, the residents of Miami voted to incorporate the town. Miami became a prime destination for extremely wealthy people after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened.
During the 1904 gubernatorial race, the strongest candidate, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward, promoted draining the Everglades. He called the future of South Florida the "Empire of the Everglades ''. Soon after his successful election, he began work to "drain that abominable pestilence - ridden swamp '', and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands. In 1907 they established the Everglades Drainage District and began to study how to build the most effective canals, and how to fund them. Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost. Broward was paid by land developer Richard J. Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage. Elected to the Senate in 1910, Broward died before he could take office. Land in the Everglades was being sold for $15 an acre a month after Broward died. Meanwhile, Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them.
With the construction of canals, newly reclaimed Everglades land was promoted throughout the United States. Land developers sold 20,000 lots in a few months in 1912. Advertisements promised within eight weeks of arrival, a farmer could be making a living, although for many it took at least two months to clear the land. Some tried burning off the sawgrass or other vegetation, only to learn that the peat continued to burn. Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in the muck and were useless. When the muck dried, it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms. Though initially crops sprouted quickly and lushly, they just as quickly wilted and died, seemingly without reason.
The increasing population in towns near the Everglades hunted in the area. Raccoons and otters were the most widely hunted for their skins. Hunting often went unchecked; in one trip, a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters. Water birds were a particular target of plume hunting. Bird feathers were used in women 's hats in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In 1886, 5 million birds were estimated to be killed for their feathers. They were shot usually in the spring, when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting. The plumes, or aigrettes, as they were called in the millinery business, sold for $32 an ounce in 1915 -- the price of gold. Millinery was a $17 million a year industry that motivated plume harvesters to lay in watch of nests of egrets and many colored birds during the nesting season, shoot the parents with small - bore rifles, and leave the chicks to starve. Plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana, New York City, London, and Paris. Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day.
Rum - runners used the Everglades as a hiding spot during Prohibition; it was so vast there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it. The arrival of the railroad, and the discovery that adding trace elements like copper was the remedy for crops sprouting and dying quickly, soon created a population boom. New towns such as Moore Haven, Clewiston, and Belle Glade sprouted like the crops. Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in South Florida. Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables $150 million. Undeveloped land north of Miami sold for $30,600 an acre. In 1925, Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds (3.2 kg), most of it in real estate advertising. Waterfront property was the most highly valued. Mangrove trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view. Acres of South Florida slash pine were cleared. Some of the pine was for lumber, but most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development.
Two catastrophic hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused Lake Okeechobee to breach its levees, killing thousands of people. The government began to focus on the control of floods rather than drainage. The Okeechobee Flood Control District was created in 1929, financed by both state and federal funds. President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake. Between 1930 and 1937 a dike 66 miles (106 km) long was built around the southern edge of the lake. Control of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers: the United States declared legal limits of the lake to between 14 and 17 feet (4.3 and 5.2 m). A massive canal was also constructed 80 feet (24 m) wide and 6 feet (1.8 m) deep through the Caloosahatchee River; whenever the lake rose too high, the excess water left through the canal. More than $20 million was spent on the entire project. Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built. The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3,000 to 9,000 after World War II.
Immediately the effects of the Hoover Dike were seen. An extended drought occurred in the 1930s; with the wall preventing water from leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water, the Everglades became parched. Peat turned to dust. Salt ocean water intruded into Miami 's wells; when the city brought in an expert to explain why, he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area 's groundwater -- here, it appeared on the surface. In 1939, a million acres (4,000 km2) of Everglades burned, and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami. Scientists who took soil samples before draining did not take into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades make it prone to soil subsidence when it becomes dry. Naturally occurring bacteria in Everglades peat and muck assist with the process of decomposition under water, which is generally very slow, partially due to the low levels of dissolved oxygen. When water levels became so low that peat and muck were at the surface, the bacteria interacted with much higher levels of oxygen in the air, rapidly breaking down the soil. In some places, homes had to be moved to stilts and 8 feet (2.4 m) of soil was lost.
The idea of a national park for the Everglades was pitched in 1928, when a Miami land developer named Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association. It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934. It took another 13 years to be dedicated on December 6, 1947. One month before the dedication of the park, a former editor from The Miami Herald and freelance writer named Marjory Stoneman Douglas released her first book titled The Everglades: River of Grass. After researching the region for five years, she described the history and ecology of the South Florida in great detail. She characterized the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp. The last chapter was titled, "The Eleventh Hour '' and warned that the Everglades were dying, although it could be reversed.
The same year the park was dedicated, two hurricanes and the wet season caused 100 inches (250 cm) to fall on South Florida. Though there were no human casualties, agricultural interests lost approximately $59 million. In 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes (C&SF), which divided the Everglades into basins. In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas (WCAs), and the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee. In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park. Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA, and released water in dryer times or removed it and pumped it to the ocean in times of flood. The WCAs took up approximately 37 percent of the original Everglades. The C&SF constructed over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of canals, and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades. During the 1950s and 1960s the Miami metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation. Between 1940 and 1965, 6 million people moved to South Florida: 1,000 people moved to Miami every week. Developed areas between the mid-1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled. Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas.
The C&SF established 470,000 acres (1,900 km) for the Everglades Agricultural Area -- 27 percent of the Everglades prior to development. In the late 1920s, agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of manganese sulfate to Everglades muck produced a profitable harvest for vegetables. The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane, though sod, beans, lettuce, celery, and rice are also grown. Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres (160,000 m), bordered by canals on two sides, that are connected to larger canals where water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops. The fertilizers used on vegetables, along with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the byproduct of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production, were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA. The introduction of large amounts of these chemicals provided opportunities for exotic plants to take hold in the Everglades. One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient - poor environment, and the introduction of fertilizers began to alter the plant life in the region.
A turning point came for development in the Everglades at the proposition of an expanded airport after Miami International Airport outgrew its capacities. The new jetport was planned to be larger than O'Hare, Dulles, JFK, and LAX airports combined, and the chosen location was 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Everglades National Park. The first sentence of the U.S. Department of Interior study of the environmental impact of the jetport read, "Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park ''. When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4,000,000 US gallons (15,000,000 L) of raw sewage a day and 10,000 short tons (9,100 t) of jet engine pollutants a year, the project met staunch opposition. The New York Times called it a "blueprint for disaster '', and Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition: "It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment. '' Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project, and Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded at 79 years old to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it. Nixon instead established Big Cypress National Preserve, announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program.
The Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project 's final construction project was straightening the Kissimmee River, a meandering 90 - mile (140 km) - long river that was drained to make way for grazing land and agriculture. The C&SF started building the C - 38 canal in 1962 and the effects were seen almost immediately. Waterfowl, wading birds, and fish disappeared, prompting conservationists and sport fishers to demand the region be restored before the canal was finished in 1971. In general, C&SF projects had been criticized for being temporary fixes that ignored future consequences, costing billions of dollars with no end in sight. After Governor Bob Graham initiated the Save Our Everglades campaign in 1983, the first section of the canal was backfilled in 1986. Graham announced that by 2000 the Everglades would be restored as closely as possible to its pre-drainage state. The Kissimmee River Restoration project was approved by Congress in 1992. It is estimated that it will cost $578 million to convert only 22 miles (35 km) of the canal. The entire project was to be complete by 2011, yet as of 2017, the project is "more than halfway complete '' and the new completion date is 2020.
Further problems with the environment arose when a vast algal bloom appeared in one - fifth of Lake Okeechobee in 1986, the same year cattails were discovered overtaking sawgrass marshes in Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge. Scientists discovered that phosphorus, used as a fertilizer in the EAA, was flushed into canals and pumped back into the lake. When the lake drained, the phosphorus entered the water in the marshes, changing the nutrient levels. It kept periphyton from forming marl, one of two soils in the Everglades. The arrival of phosphorus allowed cattails to spread quickly. The cattails grew in dense mats -- too thick for birds or alligators to nest in. It also dissolved oxygen in the peat, promoted algae, and prohibited growth of native invertebrates on the bottom of the food chain.
At the same time mercury was found in local fish at such high levels that consumption warnings were posted for fishermen. A Florida panther was found dead with levels of mercury high enough to kill a human. Scientists found that power plants and incinerators using fossil fuels were expelling mercury into the atmosphere, and it fell as rain or dust during droughts. The naturally occurring bacteria that reduce sulfur in the Everglades ecosystem were transforming the mercury into methylmercury, and it was bioaccumulating through the food chain. Stricter emissions standards helped lower mercury coming from power plants and incinerators, which in turn lowered mercury levels found in animals, though they continue to be a concern.
The Everglades Forever Act, introduced by Governor Lawton Chiles in 1994, was an attempt to legislate the lowering of phosphorus in Everglades waterways. The act put the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) in charge of testing and enforcing low phosphorus levels: 10 parts per billion (ppb) (down from 500 ppb in the 1980s). The SFWMD built Stormwater Treatment Areas (STAs) near sugarcane fields where water leaving the EAA flows into ponds lined with lime rock and layers of peat and calcareous periphyton. Testing has shown this method to be more effective than previously anticipated, bringing levels from 80 ppb to 10 ppb.
As a center for trade and travel between the U.S., the Caribbean, and South America, South Florida is especially vulnerable to invasive species, or species of plants and animals that adapt aggressively to conditions in the Everglades, allowing them to reproduce faster and grow larger than they would naturally in their native environments. Approximately 26 % of all species of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals in South Florida are exotic -- more than in any other part of the U.S. -- and the region hosts one of the highest numbers of exotic plant species in the world. Controlling invasive species in 1,700,000 acres (6,900 km) of infested land in South Florida costs authorities about $500 million a year.
The Everglades hosts 1,392 exotic plant species actively reproducing in the region, outnumbering the 1,301 species considered native to South Florida. The melaleuca tree (Melaleuca quinquenervia) takes water in greater amounts than other trees. Melaleucas grow taller and more densely in the Everglades than in their native Australia, making them unsuitable as nesting areas for birds with wide wingspans. They also choke out native vegetation. More than $2 million has been spent on keeping them out of Everglades National Park.
Brazilian pepper, or Florida holly (Schinus terebinthifolius), has also wreaked havoc on the Everglades, exhibiting a tendency to spread rapidly and to crowd out native species of plants as well as to create inhospitable environments for native animals. It is especially difficult to eradicate and is readily propagated by birds, which eat its small red berries. The Brazilian pepper problem is not exclusive to the Everglades; neither is the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), which is a widespread problem in Florida 's waterways, a major threat to endemic species, and is difficult and costly to eradicate. The Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum) may be causing the most harm to restoration as it blankets areas thickly, making it impossible for animals to pass through. It also climbs up trees and creates "fire ladders '', allowing parts of the trees to burn that would otherwise remain unharmed.
Many pets have escaped or been released into the Everglades from the surrounding urban areas. Some find the conditions quite favorable and have established self - sustaining populations, competing for food and space with native animals. Many tropical fish have been released, but blue tilapias (Oreochromis aureus) cause damage to shallow waterways by creating large nests and consuming aquatic plants that protect native young fish.
Native to southern Asia, the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus) is a relatively new invasive species in the Everglades. This species can grow up to 20 feet (6.1 m) long, and they compete with alligators for the top of the food chain. Florida wildlife officials speculate that escaped pythons have begun reproducing in an environment for which they are well - suited. In Everglades National Park alone, agents removed more than 2,000 Burmese pythons from the park as of 2017. Federal authorities banned four species of exotic snakes, including the Burmese python, in 2012. The pythons are believed to be responsible for drastic decreases in the populations of some mammals within the park.
The invasive species that causes the most damage to bird populations is the cat (Felis catus), both domestic and feral. Cats that are let outside live close to suburban populations and have been estimated to number 640 per square mile. In such close numbers in historic migratory areas, they have devastating effects on migratory bird populations.
Though scientists made headway in decreasing mercury and phosphorus levels in water, the natural environment of South Florida continued to decline in the 1990s, and life in nearby cities reflected this downturn. To address the deterioration of the Miami metropolitan area, Governor Lawton Chiles commissioned a report on the sustainability of the area. In 1995, Chiles published the commission 's findings in a report that related the degradation of the Everglades ecosystems to the lower quality of life in urban areas. The report noted past environmental abuses that brought the state to a position to make a decision. Not acting to improve the South Florida ecosystem, the report predicted, would inevitably cause further and intolerable deterioration that would harm local tourism by 12,000 jobs and $200 million annually, and commercial fishing by 3,300 jobs and $52 million annually. Urban areas had grown beyond their capacities to sustain themselves. Crowded cities were facing problems such as high crime rates, traffic jams, severely overcrowded schools, and overtaxed public services; the report noted that water shortages were ironic, given the 53 inches (130 cm) of rain the region received annually.
In 1999, an evaluation of the C&SF was submitted to Congress as part of the Water Development Act of 1992. The seven - year report, called the "Restudy '', cited indicators of harm to the ecosystem: a 50 percent reduction in the original Everglades, diminished water storage, harmful timing of water releases from canals and pumping stations, an 85 to 90 percent decrease in wading bird populations over the past 50 years, and the decline of output from commercial fisheries. Bodies of water including Lake Okeechobee, the Caloosahatchee River, St. Lucie estuary, Lake Worth Lagoon, Biscayne Bay, Florida Bay and the Everglades reflected drastic water level changes, hypersalinity, and dramatic changes in marine and freshwater ecosystems. The Restudy noted the overall decline in water quality over the past 50 years was due to loss of wetlands that act as filters for polluted water. It predicted that without intervention the entire South Florida ecosystem would deteriorate. Water shortages would become common and some cities would have annual water restrictions.
The Restudy came with a plan to stop the declining environmental quality, and this proposal was to be the most expensive and comprehensive ecological repair project in history. The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) proposed more than 60 construction projects over 30 years to store water that was being flushed into the ocean, in reservoirs, underground aquifers, and abandoned quarries; add more Stormwater Treatment Areas to filter water that flowed into the lower Everglades; regulate water released from pumping stations into local waterways and improve water released to Everglades National Park and Water Conservation Areas; remove barriers to sheetflow by raising the Tamiami Trail and destroying the Miami Canal, and reuse wastewater for urban areas. The cost estimate for the entire plan was $7.8 billion, and in a bipartisan show of cooperation, CERP was voted through Congress with an overwhelming margin. It was signed by President Bill Clinton on December 11, 2000.
Since its signing, the State of Florida reports that it has spent more than $2 billion on the various projects. More than 36,000 acres (150 km) of Stormwater Treatment Areas have been constructed to filter 2,500 short tons (2,300 t) of phosphorus from Everglades waters. An STA spanning 17,000 acres (69 km) was constructed in 2004, making it the largest manmade wetland in the world. Fifty - five percent of the land necessary to acquire for restoration has been purchased by the State of Florida, totaling 210,167 acres (850.52 km). A plan to hasten the construction and funding of projects was put into place, named "Acceler8 '', spurring the start of six of eight large construction projects, including that of three large reservoirs. However, federal funds have not been forthcoming; CERP was signed when the U.S. government had a budget surplus, but since then deficits have renewed, and two of CERP 's major supporters in Congress retired. According to a story in The New York Times, state officials say the restoration is lost in a maze of "federal bureaucracy, a victim of ' analysis paralysis ' ''. CERP still remains controversial as the projects slated for Acceler8, environmental activists note, are those that benefit urban areas, and regions in the Everglades in desperate need of water are still being neglected, suggesting that water is being diverted to make room for more people in an already overtaxed environment.
A series of biennial reports from the U.S. National Research Council have reviewed the progress of CERP. The fourth report in the series, released in 2012, found that little progress has been made in restoring the core of the remaining Everglades ecosystem; instead, most project construction so far has occurred along its periphery. The report noted that to reverse ongoing ecosystem declines, it will be necessary to expedite restoration projects that target the central Everglades, and to improve both the quality and quantity of the water in the ecosystem. To better understand the potential implications of the current slow pace of progress, the report assessed the current status of ten Everglades ecosystem attributes, including phosphorus loads, peat depth, and populations of snail kites, birds of prey that are endangered in South Florida. Most attributes received grades ranging from C (degraded) to D (significantly degraded), but the snail kite received a grade of F (near irreversible damage). The report also assessed the future trajectory of each ecosystem attribute under three restoration scenarios: improved water quality, improved hydrology, and improvements to both water quality and hydrology, which helped highlight the urgency of restoration actions to benefit a wide range of ecosystem attributes and demonstrate the cost of inaction. Overall, the report concluded that substantial near - term progress to address both water quality and hydrology in the central Everglades is needed to reverse ongoing degradation before it is too late.
At least three airplanes have crashed in the Everglades including: Northwest Airlines Flight 705 (in 1963), Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 (1972), and ValuJet Flight 592 (1996).
In 2008, the State of Florida agreed to buy U.S. Sugar and all of its manufacturing and production facilities for an estimated $1.7 billion. Florida officials indicated they intended to allow U.S. Sugar to process for six more years before dismissing its employees and dismantling the plant. The area, which includes 187,000 acres (760 km) of land, would then be rehabilitated and water flow from Lake Okeechobee would be restored. In November 2008, the agreement was revised to offer $1.34 billion, allowing sugar mills in Clewiston to remain in production. Critics of the revised plan say that it ensures sugarcane will be grown in the Everglades for at least another decade. Further research is being done to address the continuing production of sugarcane in the Everglades to minimize phosphorus runoff.
Everglades restoration received $96 million of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. As a result of the stimulus package, a mile - long (1.6 km) bridge to replace the Tamiami Trail, a road that borders Everglades National Park to the north and has blocked water from reaching the southern Everglades, was begun by the Army Corps of Engineers in December 2009. The next month work began to reconstruct the C - 111 canal, east of the park that historically diverted water into Florida Bay. Governor Charlie Crist announced the same month that $50 million of state funds would be earmarked for Everglades restoration. In May 2010, 5.5 miles (8.9 km) of bridges were proposed to be added to the Tamiami Trail.
Coordinates: 26 ° 00 ′ N 80 ° 42 ′ W / 26.0 ° N 80.7 ° W / 26.0; - 80.7
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how often do they do a census uk | List of United Kingdom censuses - wikipedia
The census in the United Kingdom is decennial, that is, held every ten years, although there is provision in the Census Act 1920 for a census to take place at intervals of five years or more. There have only been two occasions where the census has not been decennial: There was no census in 1941 due to the war; and a mini-census using a ten percent sample of the population was conducted on 24 April 1966. There are actually three separate censuses in the United Kingdom - in England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, although they are often coordinated. From 1821 until 1911, the census included the whole of Ireland.
The census records which have been published relate to the occupants of each household on the date given below:
Because the 100 - year closure rule was established after the 1911 census, information in later censuses will not be released until the dates stated.
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which gas is responsible for depletion of ozone layer around earth | Ozone depletion - Wikipedia
Ozone depletion describes two related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth 's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth 's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric phenomena.
The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is man - made chemicals, especially man - made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam - blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone - depleting substances (ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by the winds after being emitted at the surface. Once in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O) into oxygen (O). Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased.
Ozone depletion and the ozone hole generated worldwide concern over increased cancer risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth 's atmosphere. These wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn, and cataracts, which were projected to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals. These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone - depleting chemicals.
The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover in the 2000s. Recovery is projected to continue over the next century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre-1980 levels by around 2075. The Montreal Protocol is considered the most successful international environmental agreement to date.
Three forms (or allotropes) of oxygen are involved in the ozone - oxygen cycle: oxygen atoms (O or atomic oxygen), oxygen gas (O 2 or diatomic oxygen), and ozone gas (O 3 or triatomic oxygen). Ozone is formed in the stratosphere when oxygen molecules photodissociate after intaking ultraviolet photons. This converts a single O 2 into two atomic oxygen radicals. The atomic oxygen radicals then combine with separate O 2 molecules to create two O 3 molecules. These ozone molecules absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, following which ozone splits into a molecule of O 2 and an oxygen atom. The oxygen atom then joins up with an oxygen molecule to regenerate ozone. This is a continuing process that terminates when an oxygen atom recombines with an ozone molecule to make two O 2 molecules.
O + O 3 → 2 O
The total amount of ozone in the stratosphere is determined by a balance between photochemical production and recombination.
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts; the most important are the hydroxyl radical (OH), nitric oxide radical (NO), chlorine radical (Cl) and bromine radical (Br). The dot is a notation to indicate that each species has an unpaired electron and is thus extremely reactive. All of these have both natural and man - made sources; at the present time, most of the OH and NO in the stratosphere is naturally occurring, but human activity has drastically increased the levels of chlorine and bromine. These elements are found in stable organic compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons, which can travel to the stratosphere without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are released from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light, e.g.
CFCl 3 + electromagnetic radiation → Cl + CFCl
Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that easily reduces to the more stable oxygen form with the assistance of a catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a variety of catalytic cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O 3), taking an oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen molecule (O 2). The ClO can react with a second molecule of ozone, releasing the chlorine atom and yielding two molecules of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas - phase reactions is:
The overall effect is a decrease in the amount of ozone, though the rate of these processes can be decreased by the effects of null cycles. More complicated mechanisms have also been discovered that lead to ozone destruction in the lower stratosphere.
A single chlorine atom would continuously destroy ozone (thus a catalyst) for up to two years (the time scale for transport back down to the troposphere) were it not for reactions that remove them from this cycle by forming reservoir species such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (ClONO 2). Bromine is even more efficient than chlorine at destroying ozone on a per atom basis, but there is much less bromine in the atmosphere at present. Both chlorine and bromine contribute significantly to overall ozone depletion. Laboratory studies have also shown that fluorine and iodine atoms participate in analogous catalytic cycles. However, fluorine atoms react rapidly with water and methane to form strongly bound HF in the Earth 's stratosphere, while organic molecules containing iodine react so rapidly in the lower atmosphere that they do not reach the stratosphere in significant quantities.
A single chlorine atom is able to react with an average of 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed from the catalytic cycle. This fact plus the amount of chlorine released into the atmosphere yearly by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) demonstrates the danger of CFCs and HCFCs to the environment.
The ozone hole is usually measured by reduction in the total column ozone above a point on the Earth 's surface. This is normally expressed in Dobson units; abbreviated as "DU ''. The most prominent decrease in ozone has been in the lower stratosphere. Marked decreases in column ozone in the Antarctic spring and early summer compared to the early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).
Reductions of up to 70 percent in the ozone column observed in the austral (southern hemispheric) spring over Antarctica and first reported in 1985 (Farman et al.) are continuing. Antarctic total column ozone in September and October have continued to be 40 -- 50 percent lower than pre-ozone - hole values since the 1990s. A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016. Even better news came next year when NASA announced that ozone layer had already recovered to 1988 level.
The amount lost is more variable year - to - year in the Arctic than in the Antarctic. The greatest Arctic declines are in the winter and spring, reaching up to 30 percent when the stratosphere is coldest.
Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an important role in enhancing ozone depletion. PSCs form more readily in the extreme cold of the Arctic and Antarctic stratosphere. This is why ozone holes first formed, and are deeper, over Antarctica. Early models failed to take PSCs into account and predicted a gradual global depletion, which is why the sudden Antarctic ozone hole was such a surprise to many scientists.
It is more accurate to speak of ozone depletion in middle latitudes rather than holes. Total column ozone declined below pre-1980 values between 1980 and 1996 for mid-latitudes. In the northern mid-latitudes, it then increased from the minimum value by about two percent from 1996 to 2009 as regulations took effect and the amount of chlorine in the stratosphere decreased. In the Southern Hemisphere 's mid-latitudes, total ozone remained constant over that time period. There are no significant trends in the tropics, largely because halogen - containing compounds have not had time to break down and release chlorine and bromine atoms at tropical latitudes.
Large volcanic eruptions have been shown to have substantial albeit uneven ozone - depleting effects, as observed with the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinotubo in the Philippines.
Ozone depletion also explains much of the observed reduction in stratospheric and upper tropospheric temperatures. The source of the warmth of the stratosphere is the absorption of UV radiation by ozone, hence reduced ozone leads to cooling. Some stratospheric cooling is also predicted from increases in greenhouse gases such as CO 2 and CFCs themselves; however, the ozone - induced cooling appears to be dominant.
Predictions of ozone levels remain difficult, but the precision of models ' predictions of observed values and the agreement among different modeling techniques have increased steadily. The World Meteorological Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project -- Report No. 44 comes out strongly in favor of the Montreal Protocol, but notes that a UNEP 1994 Assessment overestimated ozone loss for the 1994 -- 1997 period.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS) are mainly responsible for man - made chemical ozone depletion. The total amount of effective halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the stratosphere can be calculated and are known as the equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC).
CFCs were invented by Thomas Midgley, Jr. in the 1920s. They were used in air conditioning and cooling units, as aerosol spray propellants prior to the 1970s, and in the cleaning processes of delicate electronic equipment. They also occur as by - products of some chemical processes. No significant natural sources have ever been identified for these compounds -- their presence in the atmosphere is due almost entirely to human manufacture. As mentioned above, when such ozone - depleting chemicals reach the stratosphere, they are dissociated by ultraviolet light to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms act as a catalyst, and each can break down tens of thousands of ozone molecules before being removed from the stratosphere. Given the longevity of CFC molecules, recovery times are measured in decades. It is calculated that a CFC molecule takes an average of about five to seven years to go from the ground level up to the upper atmosphere, and it can stay there for about a century, destroying up to one hundred thousand ozone molecules during that time..
1, 1, 1 - Trichloro - 2, 2, 2 - trifluoroethane, also known as CFC - 113a, is one of four man - made chemicals newly discovered in the atmosphere by a team at the University of East Anglia. CFC - 113a is the only known CFC whose abundance in the atmosphere is still growing. Its source remains a mystery, but illegal manufacturing is suspected by some. CFC - 113a seems to have been accumulating unabated since 1960. Between 2010 and 2012, emissions of the gas jumped by 45 percent.
Scientists have attributed ozone depletion to the increase of man - made (anthropogenic) halogen compounds from CFCs by combining observational data with computer models. These complex chemistry transport models (e.g. SLIMCAT, CLaMS -- Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere) work by combining measurements of chemicals and meteorological fields with chemical reaction rate constants. They identify key chemical reactions and transport processes that bring CFC photolysis products into contact with ozone.
The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33 percent of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50 percent of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.
As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine - containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl - catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).
These polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark, consisting of 3 months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills air. Temperatures hover around or below − 80 ° C. These low temperatures form cloud particles. There are three types of PSC clouds -- nitric acid trihydrate clouds, slowly cooling water - ice clouds, and rapid cooling water - ice (nacerous) clouds -- provide surfaces for chemical reactions whose products will, in the spring lead to ozone destruction.
The photochemical processes involved are complex but well understood. The key observation is that, ordinarily, most of the chlorine in the stratosphere resides in "reservoir '' compounds, primarily chlorine nitrate (ClONO 2) as well as stable end products such as HCl. The formation of end products essentially remove Cl from the ozone depletion process. The former sequester Cl, which can be later made available via absorption of light at shorter wavelengths than 400 nm. During the Antarctic winter and spring, however, reactions on the surface of the polar stratospheric cloud particles convert these "reservoir '' compounds into reactive free radicals (Cl and ClO). The process by which the clouds remove NO 2 from the stratosphere by converting it to nitric acid in the PSC particles, which then are lost by sedimentation is called denitrification. This prevents newly formed ClO from being converted back into ClONO 2.
The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic ozone depletion is greatest during spring. During winter, even though PSCs are at their most abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive chemical reactions. During the spring, however, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive photochemical reactions and melt the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing considerable ClO, which drives the hole mechanism. Further warming temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex around mid-December. As warm, ozone and NO 2 - rich air flows in from lower latitudes, the PSCs are destroyed, the enhanced ozone depletion process shuts down, and the ozone hole closes.
Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere, in contrast to the much smaller ozone depletion through homogeneous gas phase reactions, which occurs primarily in the upper stratosphere.
Public misconceptions and misunderstandings of complex issues like the ozone depletion are common. The limited scientific knowledge of the public led to a confusion with global warming or the perception of global warming as a subset of the "ozone hole ''. In the beginning, classical green NGOs refrained from using CFC depletion for campaigning, as they assumed the topic was too complicated. They became active much later, e.g. in Greenpeace 's support for a CFC - free fridge produced by the former East German company VEB dkk Scharfenstein.
The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) are not "exact '' in the scientific sense. The "ozone hole '' is more of a depression, less "a hole in the windshield ''. The ozone does not disappear through the layer, nor is there a uniform "thinning '' of the ozone layer. However they resonated better with non-scientists and their concerns. The ozone hole was seen as a "hot issue '' and imminent risk as lay people feared severe personal consequences such as skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean 's photic zone. Not only on the policy level, ozone regulation compared to climate change fared much better in public opinion. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays before legislation was enforced, while climate change failed to achieve comparable concern and public action. The sudden recognition in 1985 that there was a substantial "hole '' was widely reported in the press. The especially rapid ozone depletion in Antarctica had previously been dismissed as a measurement error. Scientific consensus was established after regulation.
While the Antarctic ozone hole has a relatively small effect on global ozone, the hole has generated a great deal of public interest because:
Since the ozone layer absorbs UVB ultraviolet light from the sun, ozone layer depletion increases surface UVB levels (all else equal), which could lead to damage, including increase in skin cancer. This was the reason for the Montreal Protocol. Although decreases in stratospheric ozone are well - tied to CFCs and to increases in surface UVB, there is no direct observational evidence linking ozone depletion to higher incidence of skin cancer and eye damage in human beings. This is partly because UVA, which has also been implicated in some forms of skin cancer, is not absorbed by ozone, and because it is nearly impossible to control statistics for lifestyle changes over time.
Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth 's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the slant - path thickness and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth 's surface. UV - driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.
In October 2008, the Ecuadorian Space Agency published a report called HIPERION, a study of the last 28 years data from 10 satellites and dozens of ground instruments around the world among them their own, and found that the UV radiation reaching equatorial latitudes was far greater than expected, with the UV Index climbing as high as 24 in some very populated cities; the WHO considers 11 as an extreme index and a great risk to health. The report concluded that depleted ozone levels around the mid-latitudes of the planet are already endangering large populations in these areas. Later, the CONIDA, the Peruvian Space Agency, published its own study, which yielded almost the same findings as the Ecuadorian study.
The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased surface UV radiation on human health. So far, ozone depletion in most locations has been typically a few percent and, as noted above, no direct evidence of health damage is available in most latitudes. If the high levels of depletion seen in the ozone hole were to be common across the globe, the effects could be substantially more dramatic. As the ozone hole over Antarctica has in some instances grown so large as to affect parts of Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and South Africa, environmentalists have been concerned that the increase in surface UV could be significant.
Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both positive (including production of Vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts). In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.
The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well understood -- absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By combining epidemiological data with results of animal studies, scientists have estimated that every one percent decrease in long - term stratospheric ozone would increase the incidence of these cancers by two percent.
Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15 -- 20 percent of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet fully understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the effect of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One study showed that a 10 percent increase in UVB radiation was associated with a 19 percent increase in melanomas for men and 16 percent for women. A study of people in Punta Arenas, at the southern tip of Chile, showed a 56 percent increase in melanoma and a 46 percent increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer over a period of seven years, along with decreased ozone and increased UVB levels.
Epidemiological studies suggest an association between ocular cortical cataracts and UVB exposure, using crude approximations of exposure and various cataract assessment techniques. A detailed assessment of ocular exposure to UVB was carried out in a study on Chesapeake Bay Watermen, where increases in average annual ocular exposure were associated with increasing risk of cortical opacity. In this highly exposed group of predominantly white males, the evidence linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the strongest to date. Based on these results, ozone depletion is predicted to cause hundreds of thousands of additional cataracts by 2050.
Increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone. Ground - level ozone is generally recognized to be a health risk, as ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant properties. The risks are particularly high for young children, the elderly, and those with asthma or other respiratory difficulties. At this time, ozone at ground level is produced mainly by the action of UV radiation on combustion gases from vehicle exhausts.
Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet light. Thus, higher UVB exposure raises human vitamin D in those deficient in it. Recent research (primarily since the Montreal Protocol) shows that many humans have less than optimal vitamin D levels. In particular, in the U.S. population, the lowest quarter of vitamin D (< 17.8 ng / ml) were found using information from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to be associated with an increase in all - cause mortality in the general population. While blood level of Vitamin D in excess of 100 ng / ml appear to raise blood calcium excessively and to be associated with higher mortality, the body has mechanisms that prevent sunlight from producing Vitamin D in excess of the body 's requirements.
A November 2010 report by scientists at the Institute of Zoology in London found that whales off the coast of California have shown a sharp rise in sun damage, and these scientists "fear that the thinning ozone layer is to blame ''. The study photographed and took skin biopsies from over 150 whales in the Gulf of California and found "widespread evidence of epidermal damage commonly associated with acute and severe sunburn '', having cells that form when the DNA is damaged by UV radiation. The findings suggest "rising UV levels as a result of ozone depletion are to blame for the observed skin damage, in the same way that human skin cancer rates have been on the increase in recent decades. ''
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its increase. "Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair the effects of increased ultraviolet radiation, plants have a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, therefore plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation. ''
The full extent of the damage that CFCs have caused to the ozone layer is not known and will not be known for decades; however, marked decreases in column ozone have already been observed. The Montreal and Vienna conventions were installed long before a scientific consensus was established or important uncertainties in the science field were being resolved. The ozone case was understood comparably well by lay persons as e.g. Ozone shield or ozone hole were useful "easy - to - understand bridging metaphors ''. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays, resulting in a 50 percent sales loss even before legislation was enforced.
After a 1976 report by the United States National Academy of Sciences concluded that credible scientific evidence supported the ozone depletion hypothesis a few countries, including the United States, Canada, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, moved to eliminate the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans. At the time this was widely regarded as a first step towards a more comprehensive regulation policy, but progress in this direction slowed in subsequent years, due to a combination of political factors (continued resistance from the halocarbon industry and a general change in attitude towards environmental regulation during the first two years of the Reagan administration) and scientific developments (subsequent National Academy assessments that indicated that the first estimates of the magnitude of ozone depletion had been overly large). A critical DuPont manufacturing patent for Freon was set to expire in 1979. The United States banned the use of CFCs in aerosol cans in 1978. The European Community rejected proposals to ban CFCs in aerosol sprays, and in the U.S., CFCs continued to be used as refrigerants and for cleaning circuit boards. Worldwide CFC production fell sharply after the U.S. aerosol ban, but by 1986 had returned nearly to its 1976 level. In 1993, DuPont shut down its CFC facility.
The U.S. Government 's attitude began to change again in 1983, when William Ruckelshaus replaced Anne M. Burford as Administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Under Ruckelshaus and his successor, Lee Thomas, the EPA pushed for an international approach to halocarbon regulations. In 1985 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone - depleting substances. That same year, the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole was announced, causing a revival in public attention to the issue. In 1987, representatives from 43 nations signed the Montreal Protocol. Meanwhile, the halocarbon industry shifted its position and started supporting a protocol to limit CFC production. However, this shift was uneven with DuPont acting more quickly than their European counterparts. DuPont may have feared court action related to increased skin cancer especially as the EPA had published a study in 1986 claiming that an additional 40 million cases and 800,000 cancer deaths were to be expected in the U.S. in the next 88 years. The EU shifted its position as well after Germany gave up its defence of the CFC industry and started supporting moves towards regulation. Government and industry in France and the UK tried to defend their CFC producing industries even after the Montreal Protocol had been signed.
At Montreal, the participants agreed to freeze production of CFCs at 1986 levels and to reduce production by 50 percent by 1999. After a series of scientific expeditions to the Antarctic produced convincing evidence that the ozone hole was indeed caused by chlorine and bromine from manmade organohalogens, the Montreal Protocol was strengthened at a 1990 meeting in London. The participants agreed to phase out CFCs and halons entirely (aside from a very small amount marked for certain "essential '' uses, such as asthma inhalers) by 2000 in non-Article 5 countries and by 2010 in Article 5 (less developed) signatories. At a 1992 meeting in Copenhagen, the phase - out date was moved up to 1996. At the same meeting, methyl bromide (MeBr), a fumigant used primarily in agricultural production, was added to the list of controlled substances. For all substances controlled under the protocol, phaseout schedules were delayed for less developed (' Article 5 (1) ') countries, and phaseout in these countries was supported by transfers of expertise, technology, and money from non-Article 5 (1) Parties to the Protocol. Additionally, exemptions from the agreed schedules could be applied for under the Essential Use Exemption (EUE) process for substances other than methyl bromide and under the Critical Use Exemption (CUE) process for methyl bromide.
A hydrocarbon refrigerant was developed at a German technological institute, and in 1992 came to the attention of the non-governmental organization (NGO) Greenpeace. The NGO was given the patent, called it "Greenfreeze, '' and by 2013 it was being used by some 40 percent of the refrigerator market. In the U.S., however, change has been much slower. To some extent, CFCs were being replaced by the less damaging hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), although concerns remain regarding HCFCs also. In some applications, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were being used to replace CFCs. HFCs, which contain no chlorine or bromine, do not contribute at all to ozone depletion although they are potent greenhouse gases. The best known of these compounds is probably HFC - 134a (R - 134a), which in the United States has largely replaced CFC - 12 (R - 12) in automobile air conditioners. In laboratory analytics (a former "essential '' use) the ozone depleting substances can be replaced with various other solvents. The development and promotion of an ozone - safe hydrocarbon refrigerant was a breakthrough which occurred after the initiative of a non-governmental organization (NGO). Civil society including especially NGOs, in fact, played critical roles at all stages of policy development leading up to the Vienna Conference, the Montreal Protocol, and in assessing compliance afterwards. The major companies claimed that no alternatives to HFC existed. By 1992, the NGO Greenpeace had learned that a Hamburg technological institute in Germany had formulated an ozone - safe refrigerant. The rights were donated to Greenpeace, who called the refrigerant "Greenfreeze, '' and left the patent as open source. The NGO then worked successfully first with a small and struggling company to market an appliance beginning in Europe, then Asia and later Latin America, receiving a 1997 UNEP award. By 1995, Germany had already made CFC refrigerators illegal. Production spread to companies like Electrolux, Bosch, and LG, with sales reaching some 300 million refrigerators by 2008. However, the giant corporations all continued to refuse to apply the technology in Latin America. In 2003, a domestic Argentinian company began Greenfreeze production, while the giant Bosch in Brazil began a year later. Chemical companies like Du Pont, whose representatives even disparaged the green technology as "that German technology, '' maneuvered the EPA to block the technology in the U.S. until 2011. Ben & Jerry 's of Unilever and General Electric, spurred by Greenpeace, had expressed formal interest in 2008 which figured in the EPA 's final approval. Currently, more than 600 million refrigerators have been sold, making up more than 40 percent of the market. Since 2004, corporations like Coca - Cola, Carlsberg, and IKEA have been forming a coalition to promote the ozone - safe Greenfreeze units.
More recently, policy experts have advocated for efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts. Many ODS are also greenhouse gases, some thousands of times more powerful agents of radiative forcing than carbon dioxide over the short and medium term. Thus policies protecting the ozone layer have had benefits in mitigating climate change. In fact, the reduction of the radiative forcing due to ODS probably masked the true level of climate change effects of other GHGs, and was responsible for the "slow down '' of global warming from the mid-90s. Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.
The IMO has amended MARPOL Annex VI Regulation 12 regarding ozone depleting substances. As from July 1, 2010, all vessels where MARPOL Annex VI is applicable should have a list of equipment using ozone depleting substances. The list should include name of ODS, type and location of equipment, quantity in kg and date. All changes since that date should be recorded in an ODS Record book on board recording all intended or unintended releases to the atmosphere. Furthermore, new ODS supply or landing to shore facilities should be recorded as well.
Since the adoption and strengthening of the Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in the emissions of CFCs, atmospheric concentrations of the most - significant compounds have been declining. These substances are being gradually removed from the atmosphere; since peaking in 1994, the Effective Equivalent Chlorine (EECl) level in the atmosphere had dropped about 10 percent by 2008. The decrease in ozone - depleting chemicals has also been significantly affected by a decrease in bromine - containing chemicals. The data suggest that substantial natural sources exist for atmospheric methyl bromide (CH 3Br). The phase - out of CFCs means that nitrous oxide (N 2O), which is not covered by the Montreal Protocol, has become the most highly emitted ozone - depleting substance and is expected to remain so throughout the 21st century.
A 2005 IPCC review of ozone observations and model calculations concluded that the global amount of ozone has now approximately stabilized. Although considerable variability is expected from year to year, including in polar regions where depletion is largest, the ozone layer is expected to begin to recover in coming decades due to declining ozone - depleting substance concentrations, assuming full compliance with the Montreal Protocol.
The Antarctic ozone hole is expected to continue for decades. Ozone concentrations in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica will increase by 5 -- 10 percent by 2020 and return to pre-1980 levels by about 2060 -- 2075. This is 10 -- 25 years later than predicted in earlier assessments, because of revised estimates of atmospheric concentrations of ozone - depleting substances, including a larger predicted future usage in developing countries. Another factor that may prolong ozone depletion is the drawdown of nitrogen oxides from above the stratosphere due to changing wind patterns. A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016.
The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the Earth 's stratosphere were discovered by Sydney Chapman in 1930. Short - wavelength UV radiation splits an oxygen (O 2) molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone is removed when an oxygen atom and an ozone molecule "recombine '' to form two oxygen molecules, i.e. O + O 3 → 2O 2. In the 1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in particular hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination reaction, reducing the overall amount of ozone. These free radicals were known to be present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the natural balance -- it was estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it currently is.
In 1970 Paul Crutzen pointed out that emissions of nitrous oxide (N 2O), a stable, long - lived gas produced by soil bacteria, from the Earth 's surface could affect the amount of nitric oxide (NO) in the stratosphere. Crutzen showed that nitrous oxide lives long enough to reach the stratosphere, where it is converted into NO. Crutzen then noted that increasing use of fertilizers might have led to an increase in nitrous oxide emissions over the natural background, which would in turn result in an increase in the amount of NO in the stratosphere. Thus human activity could affect the stratospheric ozone layer. In the following year, Crutzen and (independently) Harold Johnston suggested that NO emissions from supersonic passenger aircraft, which would fly in the lower stratosphere, could also deplete the ozone layer. However, more recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, found that the drop in ozone would be from 1 -- 2 percent if a fleet of 500 supersonic passenger aircraft were operated. This, Fahey expressed, would not be a showstopper for advanced supersonic passenger aircraft development.
In 1974 Frank Sherwood Rowland, Chemistry Professor at the University of California at Irvine, and his postdoctoral associate Mario J. Molina suggested that long - lived organic halogen compounds, such as CFCs, might behave in a similar fashion as Crutzen had proposed for nitrous oxide. James Lovelock had recently discovered, during a cruise in the South Atlantic in 1971, that almost all of the CFC compounds manufactured since their invention in 1930 were still present in the atmosphere. Molina and Rowland concluded that, like N 2O, the CFCs would reach the stratosphere where they would be dissociated by UV light, releasing chlorine atoms. A year earlier, Richard Stolarski and Ralph Cicerone at the University of Michigan had shown that Cl is even more efficient than NO at catalyzing the destruction of ozone. Similar conclusions were reached by Michael McElroy and Steven Wofsy at Harvard University. Neither group, however, had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of stratospheric chlorine -- instead, they had been investigating the possible effects of HCl emissions from the Space Shuttle, which are very much smaller.
The Rowland -- Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The Chair of the Board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale... a load of rubbish... utter nonsense ''. Robert Abplanalp, the President of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland 's public statements. Nevertheless, within three years most of the basic assumptions made by Rowland and Molina were confirmed by laboratory measurements and by direct observation in the stratosphere. The concentrations of the source gases (CFCs and related compounds) and the chlorine reservoir species (HCl and ClONO 2) were measured throughout the stratosphere, and demonstrated that CFCs were indeed the major source of stratospheric chlorine, and that nearly all of the CFCs emitted would eventually reach the stratosphere. Even more convincing was the measurement, by James G. Anderson and collaborators, of chlorine monoxide (ClO) in the stratosphere. ClO is produced by the reaction of Cl with ozone -- its observation thus demonstrated that Cl radicals not only were present in the stratosphere but also were actually involved in destroying ozone. McElroy and Wofsy extended the work of Rowland and Molina by showing that bromine atoms were even more effective catalysts for ozone loss than chlorine atoms and argued that the brominated organic compounds known as halons, widely used in fire extinguishers, were a potentially large source of stratospheric bromine. In 1976 the United States National Academy of Sciences released a report concluding that the ozone depletion hypothesis was strongly supported by the scientific evidence. In response the United States, Canada and Norway banned the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans in 1978. Early estimates were that, if CFC production continued at 1977 levels, the total atmospheric ozone would after a century or so reach a steady state, 15 to 18 percent below normal levels. By 1984, when better evidence on the speed of critical reactions was available, this estimate was changed to 5 to 9 percent steady - state depletion.
Crutzen, Molina, and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on stratospheric ozone.
The discovery of the Antarctic "ozone hole '' by British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin (first reported in a paper in Nature in May 1985) came as a shock to the scientific community, because the observed decline in polar ozone was far larger than anyone had anticipated. Satellite measurements showing massive depletion of ozone around the south pole were becoming available at the same time. However, these were initially rejected as unreasonable by data quality control algorithms (they were filtered out as errors since the values were unexpectedly low); the ozone hole was detected only in satellite data when the raw data was reprocessed following evidence of ozone depletion in in situ observations. When the software was rerun without the flags, the ozone hole was seen as far back as 1976.
Susan Solomon, an atmospheric chemist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), proposed that chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused a massive, though localized and seasonal, increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone - destroying forms. The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low temperatures, as low as − 80 ° C, and early spring conditions. In such conditions the ice crystals of the cloud provide a suitable surface for conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily.
Moreover, the polar vortex formed over Antarctica is very tight and the reaction occurring on the surface of the cloud crystals is far different from when it occurs in atmosphere. These conditions have led to ozone hole formation in Antarctica. This hypothesis was decisively confirmed, first by laboratory measurements and subsequently by direct measurements, from the ground and from high - altitude airplanes, of very high concentrations of chlorine monoxide (ClO) in the Antarctic stratosphere.
Alternative hypotheses, which had attributed the ozone hole to variations in solar UV radiation or to changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, were also tested and shown to be untenable.
Meanwhile, analysis of ozone measurements from the worldwide network of ground - based Dobson spectrophotometers led an international panel to conclude that the ozone layer was in fact being depleted, at all latitudes outside of the tropics. These trends were confirmed by satellite measurements. As a consequence, the major halocarbon - producing nations agreed to phase out production of CFCs, halons, and related compounds, a process that was completed in 1996.
Since 1981 the United Nations Environment Programme, under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization, has sponsored a series of technical reports on the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, based on satellite measurements. The 2007 report showed that the hole in the ozone layer was recovering and the smallest it had been for about a decade. The 2010 report found, "Over the past decade, global ozone and ozone in the Arctic and Antarctic regions is no longer decreasing but is not yet increasing. The ozone layer outside the Polar regions is projected to recover to its pre-1980 levels some time before the middle of this century. In contrast, the springtime ozone hole over the Antarctic is expected to recover much later. '' In 2012, NOAA and NASA reported "Warmer air temperatures high above the Antarctic led to the second smallest season ozone hole in 20 years averaging 17.9 million square kilometres. The hole reached its maximum size for the season on Sept 22, stretching to 21.2 million square kilometres. '' A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016.
The hole in the Earth 's ozone layer over the South Pole has affected atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere all the way to the equator. The ozone hole has influenced atmospheric circulation all the way to the tropics and increased rainfall at low, subtropical latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.
On March 15, 2011, a record ozone layer loss was observed, with about half of the ozone present over the Arctic having been destroyed. The change was attributed to increasingly cold winters in the Arctic stratosphere at an altitude of approximately 20 km (12 mi), a change associated with global warming in a relationship that is still under investigation. By March 25, the ozone loss had become the largest compared to that observed in all previous winters with the possibility that it would become an ozone hole. This would require that the quantities of ozone to fall below 200 Dobson units, from the 250 recorded over central Siberia. It is predicted that the thinning layer would affect parts of Scandinavia and Eastern Europe on March 30 -- 31.
On March 3, 2005, the journal Nature published an article linking 2004 's unusually large Arctic ozone hole to solar wind activity.
On October 2, 2011, a study was published in the journal Nature, which said that between December 2010 and March 2011 up to 80 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere at about 20 kilometres (12 mi) above the surface was destroyed. The level of ozone depletion was severe enough that scientists said it could be compared to the ozone hole that forms over Antarctica every winter. According to the study, "for the first time, sufficient loss occurred to reasonably be described as an Arctic ozone hole. '' The study analyzed data from the Aura and CALIPSO satellites, and determined that the larger - than - normal ozone loss was due to an unusually long period of cold weather in the Arctic, some 30 days more than typical, which allowed for more ozone - destroying chlorine compounds to be created. According to Lamont Poole, a co-author of the study, cloud and aerosol particles on which the chlorine compounds are found "were abundant in the Arctic until mid March 2011 -- much later than usual -- with average amounts at some altitudes similar to those observed in the Antarctic, and dramatically larger than the near - zero values seen in March in most Arctic winters ''.
As winters that are colder are more affected, at times there is an ozone hole over Tibet. In 2006, a 2.5 million square kilometer ozone hole was detected over Tibet. Also again in 2011 an ozone hole appeared over mountainous regions of Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai and the Hindu Kush, along with an unprecedented hole over the Arctic, though the Tibet one is far less intense than the ones over the Arctic or Antarctic.
Research in 2012 showed that the same process that produces the ozone hole over Antarctica occurs over summer storm clouds in the United States, and thus may be destroying ozone there as well.
Among others, Robert Watson had a role in the science assessment and in the regulation efforts of ozone depletion and global warming. Prior to the 1980s, the EU, NASA, NAS, UNEP, WMO and the British government had dissenting scientific reports and Watson played a crucial role in the process of unified assessments. Based on the experience with the ozone case, the IPCC started to work on a unified reporting and science assessment to reach a consensus to provide the IPCC Summary for Policymakers.
There are various areas of linkage between ozone depletion and global warming science:
Since CFC molecules are heavier than air (nitrogen or oxygen), it is commonly believed that the CFC molecules can not reach the stratosphere in significant amount. However, atmospheric gases are not sorted by weight; the forces of wind can fully mix the gases in the atmosphere. Lighter CFCs are evenly distributed throughout the turbosphere and reach the upper atmosphere, although some of the heavier CFCs are not evenly distributed.
Another misconception is that "it is generally accepted that natural sources of tropospheric chlorine are four to five times larger than man - made ones. '' While strictly true, tropospheric chlorine is irrelevant; it is stratospheric chlorine that affects ozone depletion. Chlorine from ocean spray is soluble and thus is washed by rainfall before it reaches the stratosphere. CFCs, in contrast, are insoluble and long - lived, allowing them to reach the stratosphere. In the lower atmosphere, there is much more chlorine from CFCs and related haloalkanes than there is in HCl from salt spray, and in the stratosphere halocarbons are dominant. Only methyl chloride, which is one of these halocarbons, has a mainly natural source, and it is responsible for about 20 percent of the chlorine in the stratosphere; the remaining 80 percent comes from manmade sources.
Very violent volcanic eruptions can inject HCl into the stratosphere, but researchers have shown that the contribution is not significant compared to that from CFCs. A similar erroneous assertion is that soluble halogen compounds from the volcanic plume of Mount Erebus on Ross Island, Antarctica are a major contributor to the Antarctic ozone hole.
Nevertheless, the latest study showed that the role of Mount Erebus volcano in the Antarctic ozone depletion was probably underestimated. Based on the NCEP / NCAR reanalysis data over the last 35 years and by using the NOAA HYSPLIT trajectory model, researchers showed that Erebus volcano gas emissions (including hydrogen chloride (HCl)) can reach the Antarctic stratosphere via high - latitude cyclones and then the polar vortex. Depending on Erebus volcano activity, the additional annual HCl mass entering the stratosphere from Erebus varies from 1.0 to 14.3 kt.
G.M.B. Dobson (Exploring the Atmosphere, 2nd Edition, Oxford, 1968) mentioned that when springtime ozone levels in the Antarctic over Halley Bay were first measured in 1956, he was surprised to find that they were ~ 320 DU, or about 150 DU below spring Arctic levels of ~ 450 DU. These were at that time the only known Antarctic ozone values available. What Dobson describes is essentially the baseline from which the ozone hole is measured: actual ozone hole values are in the 150 -- 100 DU range.
The discrepancy between the Arctic and Antarctic noted by Dobson was primarily a matter of timing: during the Arctic spring ozone levels rose smoothly, peaking in April, whereas in the Antarctic they stayed approximately constant during early spring, rising abruptly in November when the polar vortex broke down.
The behavior seen in the Antarctic ozone hole is completely different. Instead of staying constant, early springtime ozone levels suddenly drop from their already low winter values, by as much as 50 percent, and normal values are not reached again until December.
Some people thought that the ozone hole should be above the sources of CFCs. However, CFCs are well mixed globally in the troposphere and stratosphere. The reason for occurrence of the ozone hole above Antarctica is not because there are more CFCs concentrated but because the low temperatures help form polar stratospheric clouds. In fact, there are findings of significant and localized "ozone holes '' above other parts of the earth.
In 1994, the United Nations General Assembly voted to designate September 16 as "World Ozone Day '', to commemorate the signing of the Montreal Protocol on that date in 1987.
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who sings the theme song to not going out | Not Going Out - wikipedia
Not Going Out is a British television sitcom that has aired on BBC One since 2006, currently starring Lee Mack, Sally Bretton, Finley Southby, Max Pattison and Francesca Newman. The series has previously starred Megan Dodds, Miranda Hart, Tim Vine and Katy Wix.
The recurring cast currently includes Geoffrey Whitehead, Deborah Grant, Bobby Ball, Hugh Dennis and Abigail Cruttenden. Mack and Andrew Collins were the initial writers for the show, with Paul Kerensa, Simon Evans and Daniel Peak joining the writing staff in later series. Mack is the last remaining actor from the original cast, and the only actor to appear in every episode.
The show was cancelled by the BBC in 2009, whilst the third series was still airing, but the decision was later reversed due to a combination of strong DVD sales and an online petition. This led to the show receiving a renewal for a fourth series which aired from 6 January 2011. A fifth series began airing on 13 April 2012 and ended on 18 May 2012. A sixth series began airing on 5 April 2013 and ended on 31 May 2013, with a Christmas special following later that year.
A seventh series comprising ten episodes began airing on 17 October 2014 and ended with a Christmas special on 24 December. A further Christmas special was aired on 24 December 2015. On 24 August 2016, it was confirmed that Not Going Out will return for an eighth series, which began airing on 13 January 2017 and ended on 3 March 2017. A Christmas special will follow at the end of the year, with the ninth series expected to air in early 2018.
On 14 December 2016, it was announced that the show had been re-commissioned for a ninth and tenth series.
The series focuses on Lee Mack who plays a fictional version of himself; an unambitious man in his late thirties living as a lodger in a flat in London Docklands. Originally from Chorley, Lancashire (which is approximately 20 mi from Southport, where Lee Mack originates in real life), Lee is a negligent, unmotivated layabout. Frequently between jobs, he spends most of his days on his sofa watching television or down at the local pub with his best friend, Tim Adams (Tim Vine), an accountant who owns the flat in which Lee is a lodger. He is also noted for his cheeky wit and for having a very troubled relationship with his father, with whom he shares many traits and who openly mentions that Lee was unplanned and resulted in the end of his marriage.
Very often, the only thing that can get Lee off his couch and active is his efforts to impress the girl of his dreams. In the first series, it is Kate (Megan Dodds), Lee 's feisty American landlady, with whom he frequently has conflict but has an otherwise close relationship. Kate is Tim 's ex-girlfriend, and he left her for a 23 - year - old named Emma, but Lee and Kate suggest that she looked a lot younger. and the two frequently find themselves fighting for her attention.
In the second series, after Megan Dodds left the show, Kate moves back to the United States. Lee 's affections soon turn to Tim 's sister, Lucy (Sally Bretton), who buys the flat after having spent ten years living abroad, much to Tim 's annoyance. Lucy shares Kate 's feisty nature and quick wit, and her interaction with Lee is very similar. Although his frequent laziness annoys her, Lucy appears to enjoy Lee 's presence in the flat, largely because of his company and his willingness to help her out of an awkward situation. Tim soon finds himself drawn into Lee 's many schemes to impress Lucy, most of which backfire, fail to impress her or land them in trouble. Very often, Lee finds himself confiding in his friend, Barbara (Miranda Hart), the cleaner, about his many problems.
Later on in the series, Tim forms a relationship with Daisy (Katy Wix), an incredibly dimwitted young woman. In the third series, Daisy became a regular character, with her and Barbara in the same daft league. Over the series, Lucy considers marrying an Eastern European refugee until he marries Barbara instead. Later on, Lee 's father returns to try to make amends with his son. In the midst of the fourth series, Lee continues his antics to impress Lucy. In the series finale, Lee gets hit by a car and falls into a coma. Lee 's actions to impress Lucy continue well into the fifth series, when they both think they accidentally sleep together after drinking potato hooch.
In the sixth series, after Tim Vine quit the series, Tim was written out of the show. In the opening dialogue of the series, it is explained that he has been given a work placement in Germany. Daisy continues her friendship with Lucy and Lee, and her naivety often gets them in trouble. With Tim 's absence, Lee often finds himself listening to suggestions from Daisy on how to impress Lucy, and they include acting as a test subject for her psychology course, which leads to Lee finding out that he was unplanned and held responsible for the breakdown in his parents ' marriage, and getting a girlfriend, who develops a Fatal Attraction-esque crush on him.
He comes close to admitting his feelings to Lucy several times over the course of the series, particularly at the end of "Therapy '' and "Play '', but although she is receptive, he changes his mind each time. In the seventh series, however, neighbour Toby lies to him, saying Lucy has had a date, after which Lee tells Lucy that he loves her and asks Lucy to marry him, and she agrees. They get married in finale of Series 7. In the 2015 Christmas Special, Lucy gives birth to her and Lee 's first child.
In the eighth series, Lee and Lucy have been married for eight years (the series is set seven years after the 2015 Christmas Special), they have moved out of the flat and into a house in the suburbs, and they have three children, seven - year - old Charlie and five - year old twins, Benji and Molly. Daisy is no longer socialising with Lee and Lucy, but they remain friends with Toby and Anna and are in touch with Lucy 's parents, Geoffrey and Wendy, and with Lee 's feckless father, Frank.
Most of each episode were shot on set in front of an audience at Teddington Studios. There are two main sets: the flat and the bar that Lee frequently visits. Outdoor shots and real indoor location shots have also been used on occasion. The fourth and fifth series were shot at the BBC Television Centre. The sixth and seventh series saw filming return to Teddington Studios. From Series 5 onwards, Not Going Out was produced in association with Lee Mack 's own company, Arlo Productions (named after his son). After Teddington Studios closed, a new studio has not been found for future episodes. However, the 2015 Christmas special was filmed in Wimbledon and majority in St George 's car park but this was probably just a one off as the location fitted with the episode 's plot. This episode was not filmed in front of a live studio audience. Series 8 was filmed at Elstree Studios.
The show is filmed in HDTV and, since series 4, airs simultaneously on BBC One HD. Previous to this, the show was not simulcast on BBC HD, but shown on BBC HD 30 minutes after the BBC One airing.
A lot of the humour is based on word play and double entendres delivered in a deadpan manner. This is the comedy style Lee Mack and Tim Vine have used both in stand - up and in The Sketch Show, to the extent that an occasional one - liner from their solo performances is slipped in. This is mostly one sided with Kate / Lucy typically being the victims of the joke. Sight gags are also frequently used, while gags and witticisms are incorporated into almost every line of script.
For the first series, episodes were written by Mack and Andrew Collins, with members of the cast credited for additional material. Because the eight episodes of the second season had to be written and filmed in a short space of time, Avalon Television brought in Nick Stacey, Paul Kerensa and Simon Evans to join the writing team. Mack, Collins and Stacey concentrated on writing the main body of the episodes whilst Kerensa and Evans were involved in storylining, rewriting and ' gagging up ' the episodes. The third series saw the writing team expanded, with Darin Henry, Daniel Peak and Simon Dean contributing to the main episodes (all co-written with Mack); the "gag writing '' team was also expanded, from two members to as many as eight, not counting the main writers, on a single episode with Milton Jones amongst the additional writers of the show.
In the original pilot of the series, which has not been aired, the part of Kate was played by Catherine Tate. However, due to the success of The Catherine Tate Show, her character was re-written for the American actress Megan Dodds.
The theme song is performed by Frank Sinatra impersonator Stephen Triffitt.
The flat in which Lee and Kate / Lucy lived from 2006 to 2015 is No 17. In a DVD commentary for the first series, it was mentioned that "Number 17 '' was originally considered as a title for the series, before the name "Not Going Out '' was decided on.
* Miranda Hart also appeared in an episode in Series 1, however this was not in the role of Barbara.
Lee is a juvenile and lazy slacker, who goes from one job to another, living off the good graces of his Californian landlady Kate, with whom he shares a flat in London. It is not long before they find that their friendship is changing into something more. The situation is somewhat complicated by the fact that Lee 's best friend Timothy Gladstone Adams, an accountant from Henley, is Kate 's ex-boyfriend (they broke up when he cheated on her with 23 - year - old Emma) and he wants to repair their relationship. Lee is torn between pursuing his romantic feelings for Kate and remaining loyal to his increasingly paranoid best friend.
Kate has gone back to America leaving Tim with a flat and lodger he can not afford to keep. Tim 's sister Lucy Adams, a head hunter recently back from ten years abroad, buys the flat and becomes the new landlady and flatmate to Lee. Tim also hires a cleaner, Barbara, to clean the flat. In "Gay '', the series ' second episode, 51 - year - old Guy first appears and he soon becomes Lucy 's boyfriend. Lee, now an ice - cream seller, later appears to fall for Lucy. In the last episode Tim and Lee are convinced Guy is a gangster and has been smuggling diamonds but it turns out that he was having a diamond engagement ring made for Lucy planning to propose on a romantic holiday. Lee leaves the airport thinking Lucy has said yes to Guy but she returns saying that she was too young to get married and that she had split up with Guy. There was also a Christmas Special in 2007 which introduced Tim and Lucy 's parents for the first time. In episode 6, Lee meets a woman called Daisy at speed dating, who later appeared to fall for Tim. Although at the time it seems that she will be a one - time character, she reappears in the Christmas special as Tim 's girlfriend and returns in Series Three.
The third series sees Lee trying to pursue Lucy, usually encouraged by Barbara he invariably ends up making things worse for himself. We also witness Lucy questioning her sexuality, which worries Lee. Tim 's girlfriend Daisy also becomes more of a fixture in series three. In the last episode Lucy is about to marry Pavlov Petrietskivadorski the mechanic so he can stay in the country however she realises that she 's made a mistake and Lee gets Barbara to marry Pavlov instead, the last scene is of them driving off together for their honeymoon in India. Barbara is seen back in the flat, wanting to go off with Lee 's dad, Frank, who is seen in the last episode, which was broadcast as a Christmas Special on 23 December 2009. Lucy and Lee kiss under the mistletoe.
A fourth series of six episodes was filmed from late September to early November 2010. Miranda Hart did not return as Barbara, as filming of the second series of her own sitcom Miranda was also taking place. The series began airing on 6 January 2011. The series sees Lee and Tim thrown into a drugs deal after Tim accidentally takes someone else 's coat in a nightclub, Lee and Tim discovering that either one of them could have a long - lost daughter, Lee accidentally agreeing to let a porn film be shot in his and Lucy 's flat, Lee having to organise a fireworks display and return an elderly woman to her son, and Tim and Lucy 's parents ' rough patch in their 40 - year marriage. The series finishes with a near death experience for Lee, who later organises a date with Lucy.
The fifth series, consisting of six episodes, was filmed between November and 22 December 2011 and aired on BBC One from 13 April 2012. A short Children in Need special featuring Sir Terry Wogan followed later in 2012.
The sixth series began airing on 5 April and ended on 31 May 2013. This was the first series since the departure of Tim. In this series Lucy accidentally kills two rabbits, Lee, Lucy and Daisy end up stuck in a ski lift with a heavily pregnant woman, Lee is stalked, Lucy and Lee host a children 's party, and the main characters find themselves in another of Frank 's schemes as he a deliberately sinks a boat for insurance purposes.
A Christmas special aired on 24 December 2013, with Mack 's real - life son making a cameo appearance as a ghost.
On 5 April 2013, whilst promoting the sixth series of Not Going Out on The One Show, Lee Mack confirmed that a seventh series had been commissioned. Filming for this series began 23 May 2014, and later finished on 25 July 2014.
The seventh series aired from 17 October 2014 to 24 December 2014 and consisted of 10 episodes, making it the longest series to date. Lee Mack, Sally Bretton, Katy Wix, Bobby Ball, Geoffrey Whitehead and Deborah Grant all reprise their roles as Lee, Lucy, Daisy, Frank, Geoffrey and Wendy respectively, whilst Hugh Dennis and Abigail Cruttenden join the cast as new neighbours Toby and Anna who soon struggle to share a building with Lee and Lucy.
Lee and Lucy are mugged, attend a dinner party and try to conceive a baby together. In episode 5, they go on the BBC game show, Pointless. Hosts Alexander Armstrong and Richard Osman make appearances throughout the episode.
In Episode 9, Lee finally reveals his love for Lucy and asks her to marry him. Episode 10 features their wedding day and a guest appearance from Tim Vine, and a cameo appearance by Tommy Cannon.
An outtakes episode aired 27 December 2014. Hosted by Lee Mack, Sally Bretton and Katy Wix.
Lee Mack announced on Alan Carr: Chatty Man that there would be a 2015 Christmas special and possibly another series in 2016.
Talking to BBC News, Mack gave an outline of the special; it follows on from the marriage of Lucy and Lee in "The Wedding '', the most recent episode, and involved a gun. Mack also announced that the special would not be filmed before a studio audience, unlike past episodes, and that he had written its first scenes.
The Christmas special aired on 24 December 2015, where the regular cast were involved in an armed robbery in a department store. Frank was working as an elf in the Christmas department, when Lee, Lucy and Daisy were with Toby and Anna who had sent their son away over Christmas. The two security guards were attacked by the armed robber who locked them all in the security room and Lee had a showdown with the armed robber, the episode ended with Lucy giving birth to the couple 's first child.
On 24 August 2016, it was confirmed that there would be an eighth series in 2017. It is set seven years after the events of the 2015 Christmas special and shows how Lee and Lucy cope being parents to three young children. The series began airing on 13 January 2017.
Not Going Out reached its highest ever audience in the opening episode, with a total of 5.52 million viewers.
At a press screening event for Series 8 on 14 December 2016, it was confirmed that a ninth and tenth series of Not Going Out had been ordered by the BBC.
Although filmed and broadcast in HD, no Blu - rays have been released to date. All episodes up to the end of Series 4 feature different video post-production to the broadcast versions, giving them a US - style ' filmlook ' effect, however this was dropped from the Series 5 DVD onwards. The episodes Movie and Drunk are slightly extended for DVD, featuring shots and lines cut or censored for their original BBC One transmission. Some music tracks are replaced by soundalikes for release.
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who was selected as the sports illustrated best female athlete of the twentieth century | SportsCentury - wikipedia
SportsCentury is an ESPN biography program that reviews the people and athletic events that defined sports in North America throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. Using stock footage, on - camera interviews, and photographs of their athletic lives, who grew up.
In 1999, ESPN counted down the Top 50 Athletes of the 20th Century, selected from North American athletes and voted on by a panel of sports journalists and observers, premiering a new biography highlighting each top athlete every week throughout the year. The episodes for the top two athletes, Michael Jordan and Babe Ruth, appeared on a special combined edition broadcast on Christmas Day on ABC. The top two names were announced in no particular order, and the final positioning was announced at the conclusion of the two episodes. An additional list of numbers 51 - 100 were announced on the ESPN SportsCentury website. Themed specials such as Greatest Games, Greatest Coaches, Greatest Dynasties, and Most Influential Individuals were premiered throughout the year, as well as six SportsCenter of the Decade programs.
After the initial run was complete, the episodes were rerun at various times on ESPN, ESPN2 and ESPN Classic. The original plan for the series was to expand to include # 51 through # 100. Ultimately, the series featured just over half of the athletes from # 51 to # 100, and instead expanded to include over 150 other athletes, coaches, owners, personalities, and notable moments in sports history. Acknowledgements were given to athletes that were notable for more recent accomplishments, even if they spent only a small part of their career in the 20th century (e.g., Tiger Woods, Tom Brady), or were recently deceased (e.g. Pat Tillman, Dale Earnhardt). Special subsets of episodes were created revolving around a particular event, including athletes associated with the particular sport. They would typically air in the days leading up to those events. (e.g., Winter Olympics, golf majors, Indianapolis 500, etc.)
ESPN Classic began to feature the program with host, Chris Fowler, as the highlight of its weeknight prime - time programing, airing five nights a week. After cycling through the entire series several times, and after debuting several new episodes, it was removed as a nightly program. As of 2007, reruns of the documentary series airs Monday through Friday at 4 p.m. Eastern time. The last original program was that of Shaquille O'Neal, which aired in November 2007.
The final order of choices led to debate, some of which came from the SportsCentury camp. Bob Costas, one of the series ' voters, said, "I had Babe Ruth as my number one, but I think the list they came up with was a good one. Everybody more or less deserved to be there. '' ESPN writer Bud Morgan conceded that the Secretariat pick "was kind of controversial because a lot of people took the attitude ' What is a four - legged animal doing on this list? ' ''
Tony Kornheiser, whose ballot was topped by Ruth, Muhammad Ali and Michael Jordan, said, "I ca n't conceive of how Ruth did n't finish number one. He had the greatest impact of anybody on a sport by far... Michael Jordan did n't have as many championships as Bill Russell and did n't score as many points as Wilt Chamberlain, and really did n't do anything to advance his sport, so maybe in retrospect I upgraded him a bit too much because the way he performed was so spectacular, and because of television I got to see highlights. They may have overpersuaded a lot of us... Did Jim Thorpe get the praise he deserved? Probably not, because there were n't enough people old enough to really remember him. ''
ESPN anchor Charley Steiner said "I think picking (Jordan) number one was a generational decision, not a historical one. Babe Ruth deserved it more. ''
The list was dramatically North American - centric. Only one athlete in the Top 100 list, Martina Navratilova, was born outside of the United States or Canada. Australian cricketer Donald Bradman, "considered by many to be the pre-eminent sportsman of all time '' was also omitted. Bradman scored a lifetime average far in excess of average - 4.4 standard deviations above the mean, compared to Jordan 's inferior 3.4 - leading to the statement that "no other athlete dominates an international sport to the extent that Bradman does cricket ''. No soccer player was included in the rankings despite it being the world 's most popular sport; Brazilian soccer player Pelé also scored further above average than did Jordan. Baseball player Ty Cobb, appearing at 20 on the list, also ranked objectively above Jordan on the same ground.
SportsCentury won a Peabody Award in 1999 "for overall excellence in sports broadcasting. ''
"Greatest Games '' was a top ten countdown of the best games / matches voted on from a wide variety of team and individual sports.
"Greatest Coaches '' was a top ten countdown of the best coaches voted on from a wide variety of team sports.
Another top ten countdown special, focusing on influential figures in sports during the twentieth century, namely off - the - field contributors.
Also included in the overall production was "SportsCenter of the Decade '', a series of six two - hour programs (1900 - 1949, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s). Each episode was presented as a fictional episode of SportsCenter, in the way ESPN would have covered the events at the time (styles, studio / production design, and other various pop culture references).
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who is the commissioner for health in rivers state | Rivers State Ministry of Health - wikipedia
The Rivers State Ministry of Health is a ministry of the Government of Rivers State that facilitates the provision of health services to residents and visitors in Rivers State, Nigeria. Its current headquarters is at 2nd Floor, State Secretariat Complex, Port Harcourt.
The Commissioner is in charge of overseeing the daily activities of the Ministry. The Permanent Secretary supports the general policies and priorities of the government which operates within the context of the management practices and procedures created for the government as a whole. The Permanent Secretary also sees that major projects, policy formulation and direction, sectoral strategies and development plan for the Ministry are implemented.
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where does the triangle go on a pool table | Rack (billiards) - wikipedia
A rack (sometimes called a triangle) is a piece of equipment that is used to place billiard balls in their starting positions at the beginning of a billiards game. Rack may also be used as a verb to describe the act of setting billiard balls in their starting positions (e.g. to "rack the balls ''), or as a noun to describe a set of balls that are in their starting positions (e.g. "a rack of balls '').
Traditional racks are in the form of triangular frames, usually made from wood, plastic or metal. A modern variation, called a template rack, is made from a thin material (usually 0.14 mm or less) that contains precision cut - outs to hold the balls in place. Purported benefits of template racks include a more consistent racking, and their popularity has warranted specific inclusion in profession rules. Unlike traditional racks, template racks are left on the table during the break shot and removed at the players ' earliest convenience. For this reason, template racks are almost never used for games where it is common to slow - break (i.e. not create a large spread of balls) since it is significantly more likely that the rack will interfere with slow - rolling balls.
The most common shape of a rack is that of an equilateral triangle. Triangular racks are used for eight - ball, straight pool, one - pocket, bank pool, snooker and many other games. Diamond - shaped frames are sometimes used for the game of nine - ball (although a triangular rack can also be used) and template racks come in a variety of shapes.
In eight - ball, 15 object balls are used. Under the Billiard Congress of America 's World Standardized Rules: 8 - Ball it is prescribed that:
In amateur eight - ball play, in contradistinction to the official rules, a racking variant that is often followed is:
In nine - ball, the basic principles are the same as detailed in the eight - ball section above, but only balls 1 through 9 are used; the 1 ball is always placed at the rack 's apex (because in nine - ball every legal shot, including the break, must strike the lowest numbered ball first) over the table 's foot spot, and the 9 ball is placed in the center of the rack.
Some players (most often amateurs) place the balls in numeric order but for the 9 ball; from the top of the triangle down and from left to right, i.e., the 1 on the foot spot, followed by the 2 then 3 in the second row, and so on. However, all balls other than the 1 and 9 may be randomly placed. Note that racking in numeric order in nine - ball, unlike in eight - ball, does not result in a contravention of the official rules.
In nine - ball games where a handicap is given by one player being spotted a ball, some tournament venues enforce a rule that the spotted ball must be racked as one of the two balls in the row directly behind the 1 ball.
In the initial rack in straight pool, fifteen balls are racked in a triangular rack, with the center of the apex ball placed over the foot spot; the 1 ball is placed on the rack 's right corner, and the 5 ball on left corner from the racker 's vantage point. This rule developed because the color and pattern of the 1 and 5 balls are thought to provide maximum contrast with the end rails and are the balls targeted on straight pool 's exacting standard break. All other balls are placed at random.
Straight pool is played to a specific number of points agreed on prior to the match 's start, with each pocketed ball being worth one point to the shooter. Because the game is played to a number of points normally far in excess of the fifteen points total available in the initial rack (in tournament play, one - hundred fifty points), multiple intragame racks are necessary. Intragame racking employs a separate set of rules from those in place at the game 's start.
After the initial rack, the balls are played until only the cue ball and one object ball remain on the table 's surface. At that time, the fourteen pocketed balls are racked with no apex ball, and the rack is so placed so that if the apex ball were in the rack, its center would rest directly over the table 's foot spot. Play then continues with the cue ball shot from where it rested and the fifteenth ball from where it rested prior to racking.
A number of rules have developed which detail what must be done when one or both of the cue ball and fifteenth object ball are either in the rack area at the time an intragame rack is necessary, or are in such close proximity to the intragame racking area, that the physical rack can not be used without moving the one or the other. The rules also vary depending on whether the cue ball or fifteenth ball are resting on the table 's head spot. Such rules are detailed on the following chart (note therein that the kitchen refers to the area behind the table 's head string).
In both one - pocket and bank pool all fifteen object balls are racked entirely at random, with the center of the apex ball placed directly over the foot spot.
Snooker is played on a large table (full, pro tournament size is 12 × 6 ft). It is played using a cue stick, one white ball (the cue ball), fifteen red balls and six colours: a yellow (worth two points), green (three points), brown (four points), blue (five points), pink (six points) and black ball (seven points). At one end of the table (the "baulk end '') is the so - called baulk line, which is 29 inches from the baulk end cushion. A semicircle of radius 11.5 inches, called the "D '', is drawn behind this line, centred on the middle of the line.
On the baulk line, looking up the table from the ' baulk end ', the yellow ball is located where the "D '' meets the line on the right, the green ball where the "D '' meets the line on the left, and the brown ball in the middle of the line. An easy way to remember these positions is with the mnemonic, ' God Bless You ', with the first letter of each word being the first letter of the three colours as they are racked from left to right on the baulk line. At the exact middle of the table sits the blue ball. Further up the table is the pink ball, which sits midway between the blue spot and the top cushion, followed by the red balls (one each), placed in a tightly - packed triangle behind the pink. The apex must be as close as possible to the pink ball without touching it. Finally, the black ball is placed on a spot 12.75 inches from the top cushion.
Coloured ball racking positions must be remembered with care, as each time a coloured ball is potted, it is immediately replaced to its starting position, which occurs multiple times per frame, whereas reds are not returned to the table 's surface after being potted.
If the starting position spot for a coloured ball is covered by another ball, the ball is placed on the highest available spot. If there is no available spot, it is placed as close to its own spot as possible in a direct line between that spot and the top (black end) cushion, without touching another ball. If there is no room this side of the spot, it will be placed as close to the spot as possible in a straight line towards the bottom cushion, without touching another ball.
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who laid the foundation of the ancient nalanda university | Nalanda - wikipedia
ASI No. N - BR - 43
Nalanda (IAST: Nālandā; / naːlən̪d̪aː /) was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a large Buddhist monastery in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern - day Bihar) in India. The site is located about 95 kilometres (59 mi) southeast of Patna near the town of Bihar Sharif, and was a centre of learning from the fifth century CE to c. 1200 CE. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The highly formalized methods of Vedic learning helped inspire the establishment of large teaching institutions such as Taxila, Nalanda, and Vikramashila which are often characterised as India 's early universities. Nalanda flourished under the patronage of the Gupta Empire in the 5th and 6th centuries and later under Harsha, the emperor of Kannauj. The liberal cultural traditions inherited from the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth and prosperity until the ninth century. The subsequent centuries were a time of gradual decline, a period during which the tantric developments of Buddhism became most pronounced in eastern India under the Pala Empire.
At its peak, the school attracted scholars and students from near and far with some travelling all the way from Tibet, China, Korea, and Central Asia. Archaeological evidence also notes contact with the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a monastery in the complex.
Much of our knowledge of Nalanda comes from the writings of pilgrim monks from East Asia such as Xuanzang and Yijing who travelled to the Mahavihara in the 7th century. Vincent Smith remarked that "a detailed history of Nalanda would be a history of Mahayanist Buddhism ''. Many of the names listed by Xuanzang in his travelogue as products of Nalanda are the names of those who developed the philosophy of Mahayana. All students at Nalanda studied Mahayana as well as the texts of the eighteen (Hinayana) sects of Buddhism. Their curriculum also included other subjects such as the Vedas, logic, Sanskrit grammar, medicine and Samkhya.
Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed by an army of the Mamluk Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate under Bakhtiyar Khilji in c. 1200 CE. While some sources note that the Mahavihara continued to function in a makeshift fashion for a while longer, it was eventually abandoned and forgotten until the 19th century when the site was surveyed and preliminary excavations were conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India. Systematic excavations commenced in 1915 which unearthed eleven monasteries and six brick temples neatly arranged on grounds 12 hectares (30 acres) in area. A trove of sculptures, coins, seals, and inscriptions have also been discovered in the ruins many of which are on display in the Nalanda Archaeological Museum situated nearby. Nalanda is now a notable tourist destination and a part of the Buddhist tourism circuit.
A number of theories exist about the etymology of the name, Nālandā. According to the Tang Dynasty Chinese pilgrim, Xuanzang, it comes from Na al, lllam dā meaning no end in gifts or charity without intermission. Yijing, another Chinese traveller, however, derives it from Nāga Nanda referring to the name (Nanda) of a snake (naga) in the local tank. Hiranand Sastri, an archaeologist who headed the excavation of the ruins, attributes the name to the abundance of nālas (lotus - stalks) in the area and believes that Nalanda would then represent the giver of lotus - stalks.
Nalanda was initially a prosperous village by a major trade route that ran through the nearby city of Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) which was then the capital of Magadha. It is said that the Jain thirthankara, Mahavira, spent 14 rainy seasons at Nalanda. Gautama Buddha too is said to have delivered lectures in a nearby mango grove named Pavarika and one of his two chief disciples, Shariputra, was born in the area and later attained nirvana there. This traditional association with Mahavira and Buddha tenuously dates the existence of the village to at least the 5th -- 6th century BCE.
Not much is known of Nalanda in the centuries hence. Taranatha, the 17th - century Tibetan Lama, states that the 3rd - century BCE Mauryan and Buddhist emperor, Ashoka, built a great temple at Nalanda at the site of Shariputra 's chaitya. He also places 3rd - century CE luminaries such as the Mahayana philosopher, Nagarjuna, and his disciple, Aryadeva, at Nalanda with the former also heading the institution. Taranatha also mentions a contemporary of Nagarjuna named Suvishnu building 108 temples at the location. While this could imply that there was a flourishing centre for Buddhism at Nalanda before the 3rd century, no archaeological evidence has been unearthed to support the assertion. When Faxian, an early Chinese Buddhist pilgrim to India, visited Nalo, the site of Shariputra 's parinirvana, at the turn of the 5th century CE, all he found worth mentioning was a stupa.
Nalanda 's datable history begins under the Gupta Empire and a seal identifies a monarch named Shakraditya (Śakrāditya) as its founder. Both Xuanzang and a Korean pilgrim named Prajnyavarman (Prajñāvarman) attribute the foundation of a sangharama (monastery) at the site to him. Shakraditya is identified with the 5th - century CE Gupta emperor, Kumaragupta I (r. c. 415 -- c. 455 CE --), whose coin has been discovered at Nalanda. His successors, Buddhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and Vajra, later extended and expanded the institution by building additional monasteries and temples.
The Guptas were traditionally a Brahmanical dynasty. They built a sangharama at Nalanda and also a 300 ft (91 m) high vihara with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree ''. The Chinese monk also noted that Baladitya 's son, Vajra, who commissioned a sangharama as well, "possessed a heart firm in faith ''.
The post-Gupta period saw a long succession of kings who continued building at Nalanda "using all the skill of the sculptor ''. At some point, a "king of central India '' built a high wall along with a gate around the now numerous edifices in the complex. Another monarch (possibly of the Maukhari dynasty) named Purnavarman who is described as "the last of the race of Ashoka - raja '', erected an 80 ft (24 m) high copper image of Buddha to cover which he also constructed a pavilion of six stages.
However, after the decline of the Guptas, the most notable patron of the Mahavihara was Harsha, the 7th - century emperor of Kannauj. Harsha was a converted Buddhist and considered himself a servant of the monks of Nalanda. He built a monastery of brass within the Mahavihara and remitted to it the revenues of 100 villages. He also directed 200 households in these villages to supply the institution 's monks with requisite amounts of rice, butter, and milk on a daily basis. Around a thousand monks from Nalanda were present at Harsha 's royal congregation at Kannauj.
Much of what is known of Nalanda before the 8th century is based on the travelogues of the Chinese monks, Xuanzang (Si - Yu - Ki) and Yijing (A Record of the Buddhist Religion As Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago).
Xuanzang (also known as Hiuen Tsang) travelled around India between the years of 630 and 643 CE, and visited Nalanda first in 637 and then again in 642, spending a total of around two years at the monastery. He was warmly welcomed in Nalanda where he received the Indian name of Mokshadeva and studied under the guidance of Shilabhadra, the venerable head of the institution at the time. He believed that the aim of his arduous overland journey to India had been achieved as in Shilabhadra he had at last found an incomparable teacher to instruct him in Yogachara, a school of thought that had then only partially been transmitted to China. Besides Buddhist studies, the monk also attended courses in grammar, logic, and Sanskrit, and later also lectured at the Mahavihara.
In the detailed account of his stay at Nalanda, the pilgrim describes the view out of the window of his quarters thus,
Moreover, the whole establishment is surrounded by a brick wall, which encloses the entire convent from without. One gate opens into the great college, from which are separated eight other halls standing in the middle (of the Sangharama). The richly adorned towers, and the fairy - like turrets, like pointed hill - tops are congregated together. The observatories seem to be lost in the vapours (of the morning), and the upper rooms tower above the clouds.
Xuanzang was a contemporary and an esteemed guest of Harsha and catalogued the emperor 's munificence in some detail. According to Xuanzang 's biographer, Hwui - Li, Nalanda was held in contempt by some Sthaviras for its emphasis on Mahayana philosophy. They reportedly chided King Harsha for patronising Nalanda during one of his visits to Odisha, mocking the "sky - flower '' philosophy taught there and suggesting that he might as well patronise a Kapalika temple. When this occurred, Harsha notified the chancellor of Nalanda, who sent the monks Sagaramati, Prajnyarashmi, Simharashmi, and Xuanzang to refute the views of the monks from Odisha.
Xuanzang returned to China with 657 Buddhist texts (many of them Mahayanist) and 150 relics carried by 20 horses in 520 cases, and translated 74 of the texts himself. In the thirty years following his return, no fewer than eleven travellers from China and Korea are known to have visited famed Nalanda.
Inspired by the journeys of Faxian and Xuanzang, the pilgrim, Yijing (also known as I - tsing), after studying Sanskrit in Srivijaya, arrived in India in 673 CE. He stayed there for fourteen years, ten of which he spent at the Nalanda Mahavihara. When he returned to China in 695, he had with him 400 Sanskrit texts which were subsequently translated.
Unlike his predecessor, Xuanzang, who also describes the geography and culture of 7th - century India, Yijing 's account primarily concentrates on the practice of Buddhism in the land of its origin and detailed descriptions of the customs, rules, and regulations of the monks at the monastery. In his chronicle, Yijing notes that revenues from 200 villages (as opposed to 100 in Xuanzang 's time) had been assigned toward the maintenance of Nalanda. He described there being eight halls with as many as 300 apartments. According to him, daily life at Nalanda included a series of rites that were followed by all. Each morning, a bell was rung signalling the bathing hour which led to hundreds or thousands of monks proceeding from their viharas towards a number of great pools of water in and around the campus where all of them took their bath. This was followed by another gong which signalled the ritual ablution of the image of the Buddha. The chaityavandana was conducted in the evenings which included a "three - part service '', the chanting of a prescribed set of hymns, shlokas, and selections from scriptures. While it was usually performed at a central location, Yijing states that the sheer number of residents at Nalanda made large daily assemblies difficult. This resulted in an adapted ritual which involved a priest, accompanied by lay servants and children carrying incense and flowers, travelling from one hall to the next chanting the service. The ritual was completed by twilight.
The Palas established themselves in North - eastern India in the 8th century and reigned until the 12th century. Although they were a Buddhist dynasty, Buddhism in their time was a mixture of the Mahayana practised in Nalanda and Vajrayana, a Tantra - influenced version of Mahayanist philosophy. Nalanda was a cultural legacy from the great age of the Guptas and it was prized and cherished. The Palas were prolific builders and their rule oversaw the establishment of four other Mahaviharas modelled on the Nalanda Mahavihara at Jagaddala, Odantapura, Somapura, and Vikramashila respectively. Remarkably, Odantapura was founded by Gopala, the progenitor of the royal line, only 6 miles (9.7 km) away from Nalanda.
Inscriptions at Nalanda suggest that Gopala 's son, Dharmapala, who founded the Mahavihara at Vikramshila, also appears to have been a benefactor of the ancient monastery in some form. It is however, Dharmapala 's son, the 9th century emperor and founder of the Mahavihara at Somapura, Devapala, who appears to have been Nalanda 's most distinguished patron in this age. A number of metallic figures containing references to Devapala have been found in its ruins as well as two notable inscriptions. The first, a copper plate inscription unearthed at Nalanda, details an endowment by the Shailendra King, Balaputradeva of Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra in modern - day Indonesia). This Srivijayan king, "attracted by the manifold excellences of Nalanda '' had built a monastery there and had requested Devapala to grant the revenue of five villages for its upkeep, a request which was granted. The Ghosrawan inscription is the other inscription from Devapala 's time and it mentions that he received and patronised a learned Vedic scholar named Viradeva who was later elected the head of Nalanda.
The now five different seats of Buddhist learning in eastern India formed a state - supervised network and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them. Each establishment had its own official seal with a dharmachakra flanked by a deer on either side, a motif referring to Buddha 's deer park sermon at Sarnath. Below this device was the name of the institution which in Nalanda 's case read, "Śrī - Nālandā - Mahāvihārīya - Ārya - Bhikṣusaḿghasya '' which translates to "of the Community of Venerable Monks of the Great Monastery at Nalanda ''.
While there is ample epigraphic and literary evidence to show that the Palas continued to patronise Nalanda liberally, the Mahavihara was less singularly outstanding during this period as the other Pala establishments must have drawn away a number of learned monks from Nalanda. The Vajrayana influence on Buddhism grew strong under the Palas and this appears to have also had an effect on Nalanda. What had once been a centre of liberal scholarship with a Mahayanist focus grew more fixated with Tantric doctrines and magic rites. Taranatha 's 17th - century history claims that Nalanda might have even been under the control of the head of the Vikramshila Mahavihara at some point.
While its excavated ruins today only occupy an area of around 1,600 feet (488 m) by 800 feet (244 m) or roughly 12 hectares, Nalanda Mahavihara occupied a far greater area in medieval times.
The subjects taught at Nalanda covered every field of learning, and it attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey.
Xuanzang left detailed accounts of the school in the 7th century. He described how the regularly laid - out towers, forest of pavilions, harmikas and temples seemed to "soar above the mists in the sky '' so that from their cells the monks "might witness the birth of the winds and clouds ''. The pilgrim states: "An azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full - blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade. ''
It is evident from the large numbers of texts that Yijing carried back with him after his 10 - year residence at Nalanda, that the Mahavihara must have featured a well - equipped library. Traditional Tibetan sources mention the existence of a great library at Nalanda named Dharmaganja (Piety Mart) which comprised three large multi-storeyed buildings, the Ratnasagara (Ocean of Jewels), the Ratnodadhi (Sea of Jewels), and the Ratnaranjaka (Jewel - adorned). Ratnodadhi was nine storeys high and housed the most sacred manuscripts including the Prajnyaparamita Sutra and the Guhyasamaja.
The exact number of volumes in the Nalanda library is not known. But it is estimated to have been in the hundreds of thousands. The library not only collected religious manuscripts but also had texts on such subjects as grammar, logic, literature, astrology, astronomy, and medicine. The Nalanda library must have had a classification scheme which was possibly based on a text classification scheme developed by the Sanskrit linguist, Panini. Buddhist texts were most likely divided into three classes based on the Tripitaka 's three main divisions: the Vinaya, Sutra, and the Abhidhamma.
In his biography of Xuanzang, Hwui - Li states that all the students of Nalanda studied the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) as well as the works of the eighteen (Hinayana) sects of Buddhism. In addition to these, they studied other subjects such as the Vedas, Hetuvidyā (Logic), Shabdavidya (Grammar and Philology), Chikitsavidya (Medicine), the works on magic (the Atharvaveda), and Samkhya.
Xuanzang himself studied a number of these subjects at Nalanda under Shilabhadra and others. Besides Theology and Philosophy, frequent debates and discussions necessitated competence in Logic. A student at the Mahavihara had to be well - versed in the systems of Logic associated with all the different schools of thought of the time as he was expected to defend Buddhist systems against the others. Other subjects believed to have been taught at Nalanda include law, astronomy, and city - planning.
Tibetan tradition holds that there were "four doxographies '' (Tibetan: grub - mtha ') which were taught at Nalanda:
In the 7th century, Xuanzang recorded the number of teachers at Nalanda as being around 1510. Of these, approximately 1000 were able to explain 20 collections of sutras and shastras, 500 were able to explain 30 collections, and only 10 teachers were able to explain 50 collections. Xuanzang was among the few who were able to explain 50 collections or more. At this time, only the abbot Shilabhadra had studied all the major collections of sutras and shastras at Nalanda.
The Chinese monk Yijing wrote that matters of discussion and administration at Nalanda would require assembly and consensus on decisions by all those at the assembly, as well as resident monks:
If the monks had some business, they would assemble to discuss the matter. Then they ordered the officer, Vihārpāl, to circulate and report the matter to the resident monks one by one with folded hands. With the objection of a single monk, it would not pass. There was no use of beating or thumping to announce his case. In case a monk did something without consent of all the residents, he would be forced to leave the monastery. If there was a difference of opinion on a certain issue, they would give reason to convince (the other group). No force or coercion was used to convince.
Xuanzang also noted:
The lives of all these virtuous men were naturally governed by habits of the most solemn and strictest kind. Thus in the seven hundred years of the monastery 's existence no man has ever contravened the rules of the discipline. The king showers it with the signs of his respect and veneration and has assigned the revenue from a hundred cities to pay for the maintenance of the religious.
A vast amount of what came to comprise Tibetan Buddhism, both its Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, stems from the teachers and traditions at Nalanda. Shantarakshita, who pioneered the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet in the 8th century was a scholar of Nalanda. He was invited by the Tibetan king, Khri - sron - deu - tsan, and established the monastery at Samye, serving as its first abbot. He and his disciple Kamalashila (who was also of Nalanda) essentially taught Tibetans how to do philosophy. Padmasambhava, who was also invited from Nalanda Mahavihara by the king in 747 CE, is credited as a founder of Tibetan Buddhism.
The scholar Dharmakirti (c. 7th century), one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic, as well as one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, taught at Nalanda.
Other forms of Buddhism, such as the Mahayana Buddhism followed in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan, flourished within the walls of the ancient school. A number of scholars have associated some Mahayana texts such as the Shurangama Sutra, an important sutra in East Asian Buddhism, with the Buddhist tradition at Nalanda. Ron Epstein also notes that the general doctrinal position of the sutra does indeed correspond to what is known about the Buddhist teachings at Nalanda toward the end of the Gupta period when it was translated.
Several Buddhist institutions overseas have chosen to call themselves Nalanda to acknowledge Nalanda 's influence. These include Nalanda Buddhist Society in Malaysia and Nalanda College, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Nalanda Buddhist Education Foundation, Indonesia.
Traditional sources state that Nalanda was visited by both Mahavira and the Buddha in c. 6th and 5th century BCE. It is also the place of birth and nirvana of Shariputra, one of the famous disciples of Buddha.
The decline of Nalanda is concomitant with the disappearance of Buddhism in India. When Xuanzang travelled the length and breadth of India in the 7th century, he observed that his religion was in slow decay and even had ominous premonitions of Nalanda 's forthcoming demise. Buddhism had steadily lost popularity with the laity and thrived, thanks to royal patronage, only in the monasteries of Bihar and Bengal. By the time of the Palas, the traditional Mahayana and Hinayana forms of Buddhism were imbued with Tantric practices involving secret rituals and magic. The rise of Hindu philosophies in the subcontinent and the waning of the Buddhist Pala dynasty after the 11th century meant that Buddhism was hemmed in on multiple fronts, political, philosophical, and moral. The final blow was delivered when its still - flourishing monasteries, the last visible symbols of its existence in India, were overrun during the Muslim invasion that swept across Northern India at the turn of the 13th century.
In around 1200 CE, Bakhtiyar Khilji, a Turkic chieftain out to make a name for himself, was in the service of a commander in Awadh. The Persian historian, Minhaj - i - Siraj in his Tabaqat - i Nasiri, recorded his deeds a few decades later. Khilji was assigned two villages on the border of Bihar which had become a political no - man 's land. Sensing an opportunity, he began a series of plundering raids into Bihar and was recognised and rewarded for his efforts by his superiors. Emboldened, Khilji decided to attack a fort in Bihar and was able to successfully capture it, looting it of a great booty. Minhaj - i - Siraj wrote of this attack:
Muhammad - i - Bakht - yar, by the force of his intrepidity, threw himself into the postern of the gateway of the place, and they captured the fortress, and acquired great booty. The greater number of the inhabitants of that place were Brahmans, and the whole of those Brahmans had their heads shaven; and they were all slain. There were a great number of books there; and, when all these books came under the observation of the Musalmans, they summoned a number of Hindus that they might give them information respecting the import of those books; but the whole of the Hindus had been killed. On becoming acquainted (with the contents of those books), it was found that the whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in the Hindui tongue, they call a college (مدرسه) Bihar.
This passage refers to an attack on a Buddhist monastery (the "Bihar '' or Vihara) and its monks (the shaved Brahmans). The exact date of this event is not known with scholarly estimates ranging from 1197 to 1206. While many historians believe that this monastery which was mistaken for a fort was Odantapura, some are of the opinion that it was Nalanda itself. However, considering that these two Mahaviharas were only a few kilometres apart, both very likely befell a similar fate. The other great Mahaviharas of the age such as Vikramshila and later, Jagaddala, also met their ends at the hands of the Turks at around the same time.
Another important account of the times is the biography of the Tibetan monk - pilgrim, Dharmasvamin, who journeyed to India between 1234 and 1236. When he visited Nalanda in 1235, he found it still surviving, but a ghost of its past existence. Most of the buildings had been damaged by the Muslims and had since fallen into disrepair. But two viharas, which he named Dhanaba and Ghunaba, were still in serviceable condition with a 90 - year - old teacher named Rahula Shribhadra instructing a class of about 70 students on the premises. Dharmasvamin believed that the Mahavihara had not been completely destroyed for superstitious reasons as one of the soldiers who had participated in the desecration of a Jnananatha temple in the complex had immediately fallen ill.
While he stayed there for six months under the tutelage of Rahula Shribhadra, Dharmasvamin makes no mention of the legendary library of Nalanda which possibly did not survive the initial wave of Turkic attacks. He, however, provides an eyewitness account of an attack on the derelict Mahavihara by the Muslim soldiers stationed at nearby Odantapura (now Bihar Sharif) which had been turned into a military headquarters. Only the Tibetan and his nonagenarian instructor stayed behind and hid themselves while the rest of the monks fled Nalanda. Contemporary sources end at this point. But traditional Tibetan works which were written much later suggest that Nalanda 's story might have managed to endure for a while longer even if the institution was only a pale shadow of its former glory. The Lama, Taranatha, states that the whole of Magadha fell to the Turks who destroyed many monasteries including Nalanda which suffered heavy damage. He however also notes that a king of Bengal named Chagalaraja and his queen later patronised Nalanda in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, although no major work was done there.
An 18th - century work named Pag sam jon zang recounts another Tibetan legend which states that chaityas and viharas at Nalanda were repaired once again by a Buddhist sage named Mudita Bhadra and that Kukutasiddha, a minister of the reigning king, erected a temple there. A story goes that when the structure was being inaugurated, two indignant (Brahmanical) Tirthika mendicants who had appeared there were treated with disdain by some young novice monks who threw washing water at them. In retaliation, the mendicants performed a 12 - year penance propitiating the sun, at the end of which they performed a fire - sacrifice and threw "living embers '' from the sacrificial pit into the Buddhist temples. The resulting conflagration is said to have hit Nalanda 's library. Fortunately, a miraculous stream of water gushed forth from holy manuscripts in the ninth storey of Ratnodadhi which enabled many manuscripts to be saved. The heretics perished in the very fire that they had kindled. While it is unknown when this event was supposed to have occurred, archaeological evidence (including a small heap of burnt rice) does suggest that a large fire did consume a number of structures in the complex on more than one occasion. A stone inscription notes the destruction by fire and subsequent restoration at the Mahavihara during the reign of Mahipala (r. 988 -- 1038).
The last throne - holder of Nalanda, Shakyashri Bhadra of Kashmir, fled to Tibet in 1204 at the invitation of the Tibetan translator Tropu Lotsawa (Khro - phu Lo - tsa - ba Byams - pa dpal). Some of the surviving Nalanda books were taken by fleeing monks to Tibet. He took with him several Indian masters: Sugataśrī, (an expert in Madhyamaka and Prajñāpāramitā); Jayadatta (Vinaya); Vibhūticandra (grammar and Abhidharma), Dānaśīla (logic), Saṅghaśrī (Candavyākaraṇa), Jīvagupta (books of Maitreya), Mahābodhi, (Bodhicaryāvatāra); and Kālacandra (Kālacakra).
Tibetan Buddhist tradition is regarded to be a continuation of the Nalanda tradition. The Dalai Lama states:
Tibetan Buddhism is not an invention of the Tibetans. Rather, it is quite clear that it derives from the pure lineage of the tradition of the Nalanda Monastery. The master Nagarjuna hailed from this institution, as did many other important philosophers and logicians...
The Dalai Lama refers to himself as a follower of the lineage of the seventeen Nalanda masters.
An Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra manuscript preserved at the Tsethang monastery has superbly painted and well preserved wooden covers and 139 leaves. According to its colophon it was donated by the mother of the great pandita Sri Asoka in the second year of the reign of King Surapala, at the very end of the 11th century.
After its decline, Nalanda was largely forgotten until Francis Buchanan - Hamilton surveyed the site in 1811 -- 1812 after locals in the vicinity drew his attention to a vast complex of ruins in the area. He, however, did not associate the mounds of earth and debris with famed Nalanda. That link was established by Major Markham Kittoe in 1847. Alexander Cunningham and the newly formed Archaeological Survey of India conducted an official survey in 1861 -- 1862. Systematic excavation of the ruins by the ASI did not begin until 1915 and ended in 1937. A second round of excavation and restoration took place between 1974 and 1982.
The remains of Nalanda today extend some 1,600 feet (488 m) north to south and around 800 feet (244 m) east to west. Excavations have revealed eleven monasteries and six major brick temples arranged in an ordered layout. A 100 ft (30 m) wide passage runs from north to south with the temples to its west and the monasteries to its east. Most structures show evidence of multiple periods of construction with new buildings being raised atop the ruins of old ones. Many of the buildings also display signs of damage by fire on at least one occasion.
The map give the layout of the excavated structures. Temple 3 in the south was the most imposing structure. Temple 12, 13, 14 face the monasteries and face east. With the exception of those designated 1A and 1B, the monasteries all face west with drains emptying out in the east and staircases positioned in the south - west corner of the buildings. Temple 2 was to the east.
All the monasteries at Nalanda are very similar in layout and general appearance. Their plan involves a rectangular form with a central quadrangular court which is surrounded by a verandah which, in turn, is bounded by an outer row of cells for the monks. The central cell facing the entrance leading into the court is a shrine chamber. Its strategic position means that it would have been the first thing that drew the eye when entering the edifice. With the exception of those designated 1A and 1B, the monasteries all face west with drains emptying out in the east and staircases positioned in the south - west corner of the buildings.
Monastery 1 is considered the oldest and the most important of the monastery group and shows as many as nine levels of construction. Its lower monastery is believed to be the one sponsored by Balaputradeva, the Srivijayan king, during the reign of Devapala in the 9th century (see Nalanda copper - plate of Devapala). The building was originally at least 2 storeys high and contained a colossal statue of a seated Buddha.
Temple no. 3 (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda 's structures with its multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of the stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta - era art depicting a variety of stucco figures including Buddha and the Bodhisattvas, scenes from the Jataka tales. The temple is surrounded by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed with passages from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine chamber which now only contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha must have once rested. According to Win Maung, the stupa was derived from the early Kushana type and in turn influenced Gwe Bin Tet Kon (Sri Khettara) stupa in Myanmar. In a shrine near the bottom of the staircase, a large image of Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the Museum.
Temple no. 2 notably features a dado of 211 sculptured panels depicting a variety of religious motifs such as Shiva, Parvati, Kartikeya, and Gajalakshmi, Kinnaras playing musical instruments, various representations of Makaras, as well as human couples in amorous postures, as well as scenes of art and of everyday life. It has been suggested that Temple 2 was of Brahmanical affiliation, however that is not settled. The site of Temple no. 13 features a brick - made smelting furnace with four chambers. The discovery of burnt metal and slag suggests that it was used to cast metallic objects.
To the north of Temple 13 lie the remains of Temple no. 14. An enormous image of the Buddha was discovered here. The image 's pedestal features fragments of the only surviving exhibit of mural painting at Nalanda.
To the east of Temple 2, lie the remains of Sarai Temple in the recently excavated Sarai Mound. This multi-storeyed Buddhist temple with many stupas and shrines was enclosed by a massive wall enclosure. The remains in the sanctum suggest that the Buddha statue was around eighty feet high.
Numerous sculptures, murals, copper plates, inscriptions, seals, coins, plaques, potteries and works in stone, bronze, stucco and terracotta have been unearthed within the ruins of Nalanda. The Buddhist sculptures discovered notably include those of the Buddha in different postures, Avalokiteshvara, Jambhala, Manjushri, Marichi, and Tara. Brahmanical idols of Vishnu, Shiva - Parvathi, Ganesha, Mahishasura Mardini, and Surya have also been found in the ruins.
A modern temple termed the Black Buddha temple (termed by locals as the Telia Bhairav, "tel '' refers to use of oil as a protective coating) has emerged near Temple 14 with has a ancient large black Buddha image in bhumisparha mudra. This the same temple termed Baithak Bhairab in Cunningham 's 1861 -- 62 ASI report (See "A map of Nalanda and its environs from Alexander Cunningham 's 1861 -- 62 ASI report '' above), suggesting that the Buddha image was in worship by the locals even then, suggesting a continuity of religious activity in the ruins of Nalanda. Replicas of the Black Buddha image have been installed in temples in Thailand. It is notable that the temple is outside of the ASI protected area, presumable because was in active worship before ASI took control.
In nearby villages, such as Ghosrawan, Sarilchak, Mustafpur, Jagdishpur, there are several Buddha images in active worship by the local people. Some of the statues have been stolen and some have been deliberately vandalized.
Fleeing monks took some of the Nalanda manuscripts. A few of them have survived and are preserved in collections such as those at:
A number of inscriptions were found during the excavation, which are now preserved in the Nalanda Museum. These include:
In 1951, the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (New Nalanda Mahavihara), a modern centre for Pali and Buddhism in the spirit of the ancient institution, was founded by the Government of Bihar near Nalanda 's ruins at the suggestion of Dr. Rajendra Prasad, India 's first president. It was deemed to be a university in 2006.
September 1, 2014, saw the commencement of the first academic year of a modern Nalanda University, with 15 students, in nearby Rajgir. It has been established in a bid to revive the ancient seat of learning. The university has acquired 455 acres of land for its campus and has been allotted ₹ 2727 crores (around $454 M) by the Indian government. It is also being funded by the governments of China, Singapore, Australia, Thailand, and others.
Nalanda is a popular tourist destination in the state attracting a number of Indian and overseas visitors. It is also an important stop on the Buddhist tourism circuit.
The Archaeological Survey of India maintains a museum near the ruins for the benefit of visitors. The museum exhibits the antiquities that have been unearthed at Nalanda as well as from nearby Rajgir. Out of 13,463 items, only 349 are on display in four galleries.
The Xuanzang Memorial Hall is an Indo - Chinese undertaking to honour the famed Buddhist monk and traveller. A relic, comprising a skull bone of the Chinese monk, is on display in the memorial hall.
Another museum adjoining the excavated site is the privately run Nalanda Multimedia Museum. It showcases the history of Nalanda through 3 - D animation and other multimedia presentations.
An ASI guide stone detailing the history of Nalanda.
Plaque - Stupas and Inscription - Terracotta - Gupta Period Circa 5th - 6th Cent
Stupa of Sariputta, (Temple 3)
Stupa of Sariputta, secondary shrines
Sculpted stucco panels on a tower, Stupa of Sariputta
Stucco Buddha Image at Nalanda, Stupa of Sariputta
People on second story of an excavated monastery
Monastery 4 with well and stepped platform
A post-8th century bronze statue of Buddha from Nalanda
A stone statue of the Khasarpana Lokeshvara form of Avalokisteshvara from 9th - century Nalanda
Buddha in Bhumisparsha Mudra - Bronze - ca 9th - 10th Century CE
Details on one of numerous votive stupas at the site
Vajrapani - Basalt Circa 8th Century AD
Birth of Siddhartha ca 10th Century CE
Skanda, Temple 2
Kubera
Jain Tirthankara, Bronze, from Nalanda, Bihar, dating from 10th century A.D.
Ganesha, Bronze, from Nalanda, Bihar, dating from 10th century A.D
Ancient India learning centers:
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where did the sierra leone civil war start | Sierra Leone civil war - wikipedia
Sierra Leone
United Kingdom ECOMOG Forces Executive Outcomes Supported by: Guinea United States UNAMSIL
RUF AFRC West Side Boys Liberia
Supported by: Libya
4,000 + government soldiers and militiamen (1999) ECOMOG: 700 + Nigerian soldiers
The Sierra Leone Civil War (1991 -- 2002) began on 23 March 1991 when the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), with support from the special forces of Charles Taylor 's National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), intervened in Sierra Leone in an attempt to overthrow the Joseph Momoh government. The resulting civil war lasted 11 years, enveloped the country, and left over 50,000 dead.
During the first year of the war, the RUF took control of large swathes of territory in eastern and southern Sierra Leone, which were rich in alluvial diamonds. The government 's ineffective response to the RUF, and the disruption in government diamond production, precipitated a military coup d'état in April 1992 by the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC). By the end of 1993, the Sierra Leone Army (SLA) had succeeded in pushing the RUF rebels back to the Liberian border, but the RUF recovered and fighting continued. In March 1995, Executive Outcomes (EO), a South Africa - based private military company, was hired to repel the RUF. Sierra Leone installed an elected civilian government in March 1996, and the retreating RUF signed the Abidjan Peace Accord. Under UN pressure, the government terminated its contract with EO before the accord could be implemented, and hostilities recommenced.
In May 1997 a group of disgruntled SLA officers staged a coup and established the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) as the new government of Sierra Leone. The RUF joined with the AFRC to capture Freetown with little resistance. The new government, led by Johnny Paul Koroma, declared the war over. A wave of looting, rape, and murder followed the announcement. Reflecting international dismay at the overturning of the civilian government, ECOMOG forces intervened and retook Freetown on behalf of the government, but they found the outlying regions more difficult to pacify.
In January 1999, world leaders intervened diplomatically to promote negotiations between the RUF and the government. The Lome Peace Accord, signed on 27 March 1999, was the result. Lome gave Foday Sankoh, the commander of the RUF, the vice presidency and control of Sierra Leone 's diamond mines in return for a cessation of the fighting and the deployment of a UN peacekeeping force to monitor the disarmament process. RUF compliance with the disarmament process was inconsistent and sluggish, and by May 2000, the rebels were advancing again upon Freetown. As the UN mission began to fail the United Kingdom declared its intention to intervene in the former colony and Commonwealth member in an attempt to support the weak government of President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah. With help from a renewed UN mandate and Guinean air support, the British Operation Palliser finally defeated the RUF, taking control of Freetown. On 18 January 2002, President Kabbah declared the Sierra Leone Civil War over.
In 1961, Sierra Leone gained its independence from the United Kingdom. In the years following the death of Sierra Leone 's first prime minister Sir Milton Margai in 1964, politics in the country were increasingly characterized by corruption, mismanagement, and electoral violence that led to a weak civil society, the collapse of the education system, and, by 1991, an entire generation of dissatisfied youth were attracted to the rebellious message of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) and joined the organization. Albert Margai, unlike his half - brother Milton, did not see the state as a steward of the public, but instead as a tool for personal gain and self - aggrandizement and even used the military to suppress multi-party elections that threatened to end his rule.
When Siaka Stevens entered into politics in 1968 Sierra Leone was a constitutional democracy. When he stepped down, seventeen years later, Sierra Leone was a one - party state. Stevens ' rule, sometimes called "the 17 year plague of locusts, '' saw the destruction and perversion of every state institution. Parliament was undermined, judges were bribed, and the treasury was bankrupted to finance pet projects that supported insiders. When Stevens failed to co-opt his opponents, he often resorted to state sanctioned executions or exile.
In 1985, Stevens stepped down, and handed the nation 's preeminent position to Major General Joseph Momoh, a notoriously inept leader who maintained the status quo. During his seven - year tenure, Momoh welcomed the spread of unchecked corruption and complete economic collapse. With the state unable to pay its civil servants, those desperate enough ransacked and looted government offices and property. Even in Freetown, important commodities like gasoline were scarce. But the government hit rock bottom when it could no longer pay schoolteachers and the education system collapsed. Since only wealthy families could afford to pay private tutors, the bulk of Sierra Leone 's youth during the late 1980s roamed the streets aimlessly. As infrastructure and public ethics deteriorated in tandem, much of Sierra Leone 's professional class fled the country. By 1991, Sierra Leone was ranked as one of the poorest countries in the world, even though it benefited from ample natural resources including diamonds, gold, bauxite, rutile, iron ore, fish, coffee, and cocoa.
The Eastern and Southern districts in Sierra Leone, most notably the Kono and Kenema districts, are rich in alluvial diamonds, and more importantly, are easily accessible by anyone with a shovel, sieve, and transport. Since their discovery in the early 1930s, diamonds have been critical in financing the continuing pattern of corruption and personal aggrandizement at the expense of needed public services, institutions, and infrastructure. The phenomenon whereby countries with an abundance of natural resources tend to nonetheless be characterized by lower levels of economic development is known as the "resource curse ''.
The presence of diamonds in Sierra Leone invited and led to the civil war in several ways. First, the highly unequal benefits resulting from diamond mining made ordinary Sierra Leoneans frustrated. Under the Stevens government, revenues from the National Diamond Mining Corporation (known as DIMINCO) -- a joint government / DeBeers venture -- were used for the personal enrichment of Stevens and of members of the government and business elite who were close to him. When DeBeers pulled out of the venture in 1984, the government lost direct control of the diamond mining areas. By the late 1980s, almost all of Sierra Leone 's diamonds were being smuggled and traded illicitly, with revenues going directly into the hands of private investors. In this period the diamond trade was dominated by Lebanese traders and later (after a shift in favor on the part of the Momoh government) by Israelis with connections to the international diamond markets in Antwerp. Momoh made some efforts to reduce smuggling and corruption in the diamond mining sector, but he lacked the political clout to enforce the law. Even after the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) took power in 1992, ostensibly with the goal of reducing corruption and returning revenues to the state, high - ranking members of the government sold diamonds for their personal gain and lived extravagantly off the proceeds.
Diamonds also helped to arm the Revolutionary United Front rebels. The RUF used funds harvested from the alluvial diamond mines to purchase weapons and ammunition from neighboring Guinea, Liberia, and even SLA soldiers. But the most significant connection between diamonds and war is that the presence of easily extractable diamonds provided an incentive for violence. To maintain control of important mining districts like Kono, thousands of civilians were expelled and kept away from these important economic centers.
Although diamonds were a significant motivating and sustaining factor, there were other means of profiting from the Sierra Leone Civil War. For instance, gold mining was prominent in some regions. Even more common was cash crop farming through the use of forced labor. Looting during the Sierra Leone Civil War did not just center on diamonds, but also included that of currency, household items, food, livestock, cars, and international aid shipments. For Sierra Leoneans who did not have access to arable land, joining the rebel cause was an opportunity to seize property through the use of deadly force. But the most important reason why the civil war should not be entirely attributed to conflict over the economic benefits incurred from the alluvial diamond mines is that the pre-war frustrations and grievances did not just concern that of the diamond sector. More than twenty years of poor governance, poverty, corruption and oppression created the circumstances for the rise of the RUF, as ordinary people yearned for change.
As a result of the First Liberian Civil War, 80,000 refugees fled neighboring Liberia for the Sierra Leone -- Liberian border. This displaced population, composed almost entirely of children, would prove to be an invaluable asset to the invading rebel armies because the refugee and detention centers, populated first by displaced Liberians and later by Sierra Leoneans, helped provide the manpower for the RUF 's insurgency. The RUF took advantage of the refugees, who were abandoned, starving, and in dire need of medical attention, by promising food, shelter, medical care, and looting and mining profits in return for their support. When this method of recruitment failed, as it often did for the RUF, youths were often coerced at the barrel of a gun to join the ranks of the RUF. After being forced to join, many child soldiers learned that the complete lack of law -- as a result of the civil war -- provided a unique opportunity for self - empowerment through violence and thus continued to support the rebel cause.
Muammar al - Gaddafi both trained and supported Charles Taylor. Gaddafi also helped Foday Sankoh, the founder of Revolutionary United Front.
Russian businessman Viktor Bout supplied Charles Taylor with arms for use in Sierra Leone and had meetings with him about the operations.
The initial rebellion could have easily been quelled in the first half of 1991. But the RUF -- despite being both numerically inferior and extremely brutal against civilians -- controlled two - thirds of Sierra Leone by the year 's end. The SLA 's equally poor behavior made this outcome possible. Often afraid to directly confront or unable to locate the elusive RUF, government soldiers were brutal and indiscriminate in their search for rebels or sympathizers among the civilian population. After retaking captured towns, the SLA would perform a ' mopping up ' operation in which the towns people were transported to concentration camp styled ' strategic hamlets ' far from their homes in Eastern and Southern Sierra Leone under the pretense of separating the population from the insurgents. However, in many cases, this was followed by much looting and theft after the villagers were evacuated.
The SLA 's sordid behavior inevitably led to the alienation of many civilians and pushed some Sierra Leoneans to join the rebel cause. With morale low and rations even lower, many SLA soldiers discovered that they could do better by joining with the rebels in looting civilians in the countryside instead of fighting against them. The local civilians referred to these soldiers as ' sobels ' or ' soldiers by day, rebels by night ' because of their close ties to the RUF. By mid-1993, the two opposing sides became virtually indistinguishable. For these reasons, civilians increasingly relied on an irregular force called the Kamajors for their protection.
A grassroots militia force, the Kamajors operated invisibly in familiar territory and was a significant impediment to marauding government and RUF troops. For displaced and unprotected Sierra Leonans, joining the Kamajors was a means of taking up arms to defend family and home due to the SLA 's perceived incompetence and active collusion with the rebel enemy. The Kamajors clashed with both government and RUF forces and was instrumental in countering government soldiers and rebels who were looting villages. The success of the Kamajors raised calls for its expansion, and members of street gangs and deserters were also co-opted into the organization. However, the Kamajors became corrupt and deeply involved in extortion, murder, and kidnappings by the end of the conflict.
Within one year of fighting, the RUF offensive had stalled, but it still remained in control of large territories in Eastern and Southern Sierra Leone leaving many villages unprotected while also disrupting food and government diamond production. Soon the government was unable to pay both its civil servants and the SLA. As a result, the Momoh regime lost all remaining credibility and a group of disgruntled junior officers led by Captain Valentine Strasser overthrew Momoh on 29 April 1992. Strasser justified the coup and the establishment of the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) by referencing the corrupt Momoh regime and its inability to resuscitate the economy, provide for the people of Sierra Leone, and repel the rebel invaders. The NPRC 's coup was largely popular because it promised to bring peace to Sierra Leone. But the NPRC 's promise would prove to be short lived.
In March 1993, with much help from ECOMOG troops provided by Nigeria, the SLA recaptured the Koidu and Kono diamond districts and pushed the RUF to the Sierra Leone -- Liberia border. The RUF was facing supply problems as the United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy (ULIMO) gains inside Liberia were restricting the ability of Charles Taylor 's NPFL to trade with the RUF. By the end of 1993, many observers thought that the war was over because for the first time in the conflict the Sierra Leone Army was able to establish itself in the Eastern and the Southern mining districts.
However, with senior government officials neglectful of the conditions faced by SLA soldiers, front line soldiers became resentful of their poor conditions and began helping themselves to Sierra Leone 's rich natural resources. This included alluvial diamonds as well as looting and ' sell game ', a tactic in which government forces would withdraw from a town but not before leaving arms and ammunition for the roving rebels in return for cash. Renegade SLA soldiers even clashed with Kamajor units on a number of occasions when the Kamajors intervened to halt the looting and mining. The NPRC government also had a motivation for allowing the war to continue, since as long as the country was at war the military government would not be called upon to hand over rule to a democratically elected civilian government. The war dragged on as a low intensity conflict until January 1995 when RUF forces and dissident SLA elements seized the SIEROMCO (bauxite) and Sierra Rutile (titanium dioxide) mines in the Moyamba and Bonthe districts in the country 's south west, furthering the government 's economic struggles and enabling a renewed RUF advance on the capital at Freetown.
In March 1995, with the RUF within twenty miles of Freetown, Executive Outcomes, a paramilitary group from South Africa, arrived in Sierra Leone. The government paid EO $1.8 million per month (financed primarily by the International Monetary Fund), to accomplish three goals: return the diamond and mineral mines to the government, locate and destroy the RUF 's headquarters, and operate a successful propaganda program that would encourage local Sierra Leoneans to support the government of Sierra Leone. EO 's military force consisted of 500 military advisers and 3,000 highly trained and well - equipped combat - ready soldiers, backed by tactical air support and transport. Executive Outcomes employed black Angolans and Namibians from apartheid - era South Africa 's former 32 Battalion, with an officer corps of white South Africans. Harper 's Magazine described this controversial unit as a collection of former spies, assassins, and crack bush guerrillas, most of whom had served for fifteen to twenty years in South Africa 's most notorious counter insurgency units.
As a military force, EO was extremely skilled and conducted a highly successful counter insurgency against the RUF. In just ten days of fighting, EO was able to drive the RUF forces back sixty miles into the interior of the country. EO outmatched the RUF forces in all operations. In just seven months, EO, with support from loyal SLA and the Kamajors battalions, recaptured the diamond mining districts and the Kangari Hills, a major RUF stronghold. A second offensive captured the provincial capital and the largest city in Sierra Leone and destroyed the RUF 's main base of operations near Bo, finally forcing the RUF to admit defeat and sign the Abidjan Peace Accord in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire on 30 November 1996. This period of relative peace also allowed the country to hold parliamentary and presidential elections in February and March 1996. Ahmad Tejan Kabbah (of the Sierra Leone People 's Party (SLPP)), a diplomat who had worked at the UN for more than 20 years, won the presidential election.
The Abidjan Peace Accord mandated that Executive Outcomes was to pull out within five weeks after the arrival of a neutral peacekeeping force. The main stumbling block that prevented Sankoh from signing the agreement sooner was the number and type of peacekeepers that were to monitor the ceasefire. Additionally, continued Kamajor attacks and the fear of punitive tribunals following demobilization kept many rebels in the bush despite their dire situation. However, in January 1997, the Kabbah government -- beset by demands to reduce expenditures by the International Monetary Fund -- ordered EO to leave the country, even though a neutral monitoring force had yet to arrive. The departure of EO opened up an opportunity for the RUF to regroup for renewed military attacks. The March 1997 arrest of RUF leader Foday Sankoh in Nigeria also angered RUF members, who reacted with escalated violence. By the end of March 1997, the peace accord had collapsed.
After the departure of Executive Outcomes, the credibility of the Kabbah government declined, especially among members of the SLA, who saw themselves being eclipsed by both the RUF on one side and the independent but pro-government Kamajors on the other. On 25 May 1997, a group of disgruntled SLA officers freed and armed 600 prisoners from the Pademba Road prison in Freetown. One of the prisoners, Major Johnny Paul Koroma, emerged as the leader of the coup and the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) proclaimed itself the new government of Sierra Leone. After receiving the blessing of Foday Sankoh, who was then living under house arrest in Nigeria, members of the RUF -- supposedly on its last legs -- were ordered out of the bush to participate in the coup. Without hesitation and encountering only light resistance from SLA loyalists, 5,000 rag - tag rebel fighters marched 100 miles and overran the capital. Without fear or reluctance, RUF and SLA dissidents then proceeded to parade peacefully together. Koroma then appealed to Nigeria for the release of Foday Sankoh, appointing the absent leader to the position of deputy chairman of the AFRC. The joint AFRC / RUF leadership then proclaimed that the war had been won, and a great wave of looting and reprisals against civilians in Freetown (dubbed "Operation Pay Yourself '' by some of its participants) followed. President Kabbah, surrounded only by his bodyguards, left by helicopter for exile in nearby Guinea.
The AFRC junta was opposed by members of Sierra Leone 's civil society such as student unions, journalists associations, women 's groups and others, not only because of the violence it unleashed but because of its political attacks on press freedoms and civil rights. The international response to the coup was also overwhelmingly negative. The UN and the Organization of African Unity (OAU) condemned the coup, foreign governments withdrew their diplomats and missions (and in some cases evacuated civilians) from Freetown, and Sierra Leone 's membership in the Commonwealth was suspended. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) also condemned the AFRC coup, and ECOMOG forces demanded that the new junta return power peacefully to the Kabbah government or risk sanctions and increased military presence.
ECOMOG 's intervention in Sierra Leone brought the AFRC / RUF rebels to the negotiating table where, in October 1997, they agreed to a tentative peace known as the Conakry Peace Plan. Despite having agreed to the plan, the AFRC / RUF continued to fight. In March 1998, overcoming entrenched AFRC positions, the ECOMOG forces retook the capital and reinstated the Kabbah government, but let the rebels flee without further harassment. The regions lying just beyond Freetown proved much more difficult to pacify. Thanks in part to bad road conditions, lack of support aircraft, and a revenge driven rebel force, ECOMOG 's offensive ground to a halt just outside Freetown. ECOMOG 's forces suffered from several weakness, the most important being, poor command and control, low morale, poor training in counterinsurgency, low manpower, limited air and sea capability, and poor funding.
Unable to consistently defend itself against the AFRC / RUF rebels, the Kabbah regime was forced to make serious concessions in the Lome Peace Agreement of July 1999.
Given that Nigeria was due to recall its ECOMOG forces without achieving a tactical victory over the RUF, the international community intervened diplomatically to promote negotiations between the AFRC / RUF rebels and the Kabbah regime. The Lome Peace Accord, signed on 7 July 1999, is controversial in that Sankoh was pardoned for treason, granted the position of Vice President, and made chairman of the commission that oversaw Sierra Leone 's diamond mines. In return, the RUF was ordered to demobilize and disarm its armies under the supervision of an international peacekeeping force which would initially be under the authority of both ECOMOG and the United Nations. The Lome Peace Agreement was the subject of protests both in Sierra Leone and by international human rights groups abroad, mainly because it handed over to Sankoh, the commander of the brutal RUF, the second most powerful position in the country, and control over all of Sierra Leone 's lucrative diamond mines.
Following the Lome Peace Agreement, the security situation in Sierra Leone was still unstable because many rebels refused to commit themselves to the peace process. The DDR camps were an attempt to convince the rebel forces to literally exchange their weapons for food, clothing, and shelter. During a six - week quarantine period, former combatants were taught basic skills that could be put to use in a peaceful profession after they return to society. After 2001, DDR camps became increasingly effective and by 2002 they had collected over 45,000 weapons and hosted over 70,000 former combatants.
In October 1999 the UN established the United Nations Mission to Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL). The main objective of UNAMSIL was to assist with the disarmament process and enforce the terms established under the Lome Peace Agreement. Unlike other previous neutral peacekeeping forces, UNAMSIL brought serious military power. The original multi-national force was commanded by General Vijay Jetley of India. Jetley later resigned and was replaced by Lieutenant General Daniel Opande of Kenya in November 2000. Jetley had accused Nigerian political and military officials at the top of the UN mission of "sabotaging peace '' in favor of national interests, and alleged that Nigerian army commanders illegally mined diamonds in league with RUF. The Nigerian army called for General Jetley 's resignation immediately after the report was released, saying they could no longer work with him.
UNAMSIL forces began arriving in Sierra Leone in December 1999. At that time the maximum number of troops to be deployed was set at 6,000. Only a few months later, though, in February 2000, a new UN resolution authorized the deployment of 11,000 combatants. In March 2001 that number was increased to 17,500 troops, making it at the time the largest UN force in existence, and UNAMSIL soldiers were deployed in the RUF - held diamond areas. Despite these numbers, UNAMSIL was frequently rebuffed and humiliated by RUF rebels, being subjected to attacks, obstruction and disarmament. In the most egregious example, in May 2000 over 500 UNAMSIL peacekeepers were captured by the RUF and held hostage. Using the weapons and armored personnel carriers of the captured UNAMSIL troops, the rebels advanced towards Freetown, taking over the town of Lunsar to its northeast. For over a year later, the UNAMSIL force meticulously avoided intervening in RUF controlled mining districts lest another major incident occur. After the UNAMSIL force had essentially rearmed the RUF, a call for a new military intervention was made to save the UNAMSIL hostages and the government of Sierra Leone. After Operation Palliser and Operation Khukri the situation stabilized and UNAMSIL gain control.
In late 1999, the UN Security Council asked Russia for participation in a peacekeeping mission in Sierra Leone. The Federation Council of Russia decided to send 4 Mil Mi - 24 attack helicopters with 115 crew and technical personnel into Sierra Leone. Many of them had combat experience in Afghanistan and Chechnya. The destroyed Lungi civil airfield in the suburbs of Freetown became their base of operations. A Ukrainian Detached Recovery and Restoring Battalion, and aviation team were stationed near Freetown. The two post-Soviet troop contingents got along well, and left together after the UN mandate for peacekeeping operations ended in June 2005.
Operation Khukri was a unique multinational operation launched in the United Nations Assistance Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL), involving India, Nepal, Ghana, Britain and Nigeria. The aim of the operation was to break the two - month - long siege laid by armed cadres of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) around two companies of 5 / 8 Gorkha Rifles (GR) Infantry Battalion Group at Kailahun by affecting a fighting break out and redeploying them with the main battalion at Daru. About 120 special forces operators commanded by Major (now Lt. Col.) Harinder Sood were airlifted from New Delhi to spearhead the mission to rescue 223 men of the 5 / 8 Gorkha Rifles who were surrounded and besieged by the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) rebels for over 75 days. The mission was a total success which resulted in safe rescue of all the besieged men and inflicted several hundreds of casualties on the RUF, where Indian troops were part of a multinational UN peacekeeping force.
In May 2000, the situation on the ground had deteriorated to such an extent that British Paratroopers were deployed in Operation Palliser to evacuate foreign nationals and establish order. They stabilized the situation, and were the catalyst for a ceasefire that helped end the war. The British forces, under the command of Brigadier David Richards, expanded their original mandate, which was limited to evacuating commonwealth citizens, and now aimed to save UNAMSIL from the brink of collapse. At the time of the British intervention in May 2000, half of the country remained under the RUF 's control. The 1,200 man British ground force -- supported by air and sea power -- shifted the balance of power in favor of the government and the rebel forces were easily repelled from the areas beyond Freetown.
Several factors led to the end of the civil war. First, Guinean cross-border bombing raids against villages believed to be bases used by the RUF working in conjunction with Guinean dissidents were very effective in routing the rebels. Another factor encouraging a less combative RUF was a new UN resolution that demanded that the government of Liberia expel all RUF members, end their financial support of the RUF, and halt the illicit diamond trade. Finally, the Kamajors, feeling less threatened now that the RUF was disintegrating in the face of a robust opponent, failed to incite violence like they had done in the past. With their backs against the wall and without any international support, the RUF forces signed a new peace treaty within a matter of weeks.
On 18 January 2002, President Kabbah declared the eleven - year - long Sierra Leone Civil War officially over. By most estimates, over 50,000 people had lost their lives during the war. Countless more fell victim to the reprehensible and perverse behavior of the combatants. In May 2002 President Kabbah and his party, the Sierra Leone People 's Party (SLPP), won landslide victories in the presidential and legislative elections. Kabbah was re-elected for a five - year term. The RUF 's political wing, the Revolutionary United Front Party (RUFP), failed to win a single seat in parliament. The elections were marked by irregularities and allegations of fraud, but not to a degree that significantly affected the outcome.
During the Sierra Leone Civil War numerous atrocities were committed including war rape, mutilation, and mass murder, causing many of the perpetrators to be tried in international criminal courts, and the establishment of a truth and reconciliation commission. A 2001 overview noted that there had been "serious and grotesque human rights violations '' in Sierra Leone since its civil war began in 1991. The rebels, the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), had "committed horrendous abuses. '' The report noted that "25 times as many people '' had already been killed in Sierra Leone than had been killed in Kosovo at the point when the international community decided to take action. "In fact, it has been pointed out by many that the atrocities in Sierra Leone have been worse than was seen in Kosovo. ''
These crimes included but are not limited to:
On 28 July 2002 the British withdrew a 200 - strong military contingent that had been in country since the summer of 2000, leaving behind a 140 - strong military training team with orders to professionalize the SLA and Navy. In November 2002, UNAMSIL began a gradual reduction from a peak level of 17,800 personnel. Under pressure from the British, the withdrawal slowed, so that by October 2003 the UNAMSIL contingent still stood at 12,000 men. As peaceful conditions continued through 2004, however, UNAMSIL drew down its forces to slightly over 4,100 by December 2004. The UN Security Council extended UNAMSIL 's mandate until June 2005 and again until December 2005. UNAMSIL completed the withdrawal of all troops in December 2005 and was succeeded by the United Nations Integrated Office in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL).
The Lome Peace Accord called for the establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to provide a forum for both victims and perpetrators of human rights violations during the conflict to tell their stories and facilitate healing. Subsequently, the Sierra Leonean government asked the UN to help set up a Special Court for Sierra Leone, which would try those who "bear the greatest responsibility for the commission of crimes against humanity, war crimes and serious violations of international humanitarian law, as well as crimes under relevant Sierra Leonean law within the territory of Sierra Leone since 30 November 1996. '' Both the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and the Special Court began operating in the summer of 2002.
After the war many of the children who were abducted and used in the conflict need some form of rehabilitation, debriefing and care after the conflict came to an end. Only a handful of the children could be immediately sent home after six weeks of debriefing at a center for ex-combatants. This is due to many of the children suffering from drug withdraw symptoms, brainwashing, physical and mental wounds, as well as a lack of memory of who they were or where they came from before the conflict.
There was an estimated one to two million displaced persons and refugees who wanted to or needed to be returned to their villages.
Reportedly thousands of small villages had been severely damaged due to looting, and targeted destruction of property that was held by perceived enemies. There was also heavy destruction of clinics and hospitals, leading to a concern about infrastructure stability.
The European Union (EU) sent budgetary support with the support of the IMF, the World Bank and the UK in an effort to stabilize the economy and the government. The amount; € 4, 75 million was made available by the EU from 2000 to 2001, for the government finance interalia, and social services.
Diamond revenues in Sierra Leone have increased more than tenfold since the end of the conflict, from $10 million in 2000 to about $130 million in 2004, although according to the UNAMSIL surveys of mining sites, "more than 50 per cent of diamond mining still remains unlicensed and reportedly considerable illegal smuggling of diamonds continues ''.
On 13 January 2003, a small group of armed men tried unsuccessfully to break into an armory in Freetown. Former AFRC - junta leader Koroma, after being linked to the raid, went into hiding. In March, the Special Court for Sierra Leone issued its first indictments for war crimes during the civil war. Foday Sankoh, already in custody, was indicted, along with notorious RUF field commander Sam "Mosquito '' Bockarie, Koroma, the Minister of Interior and former head of the Civil Defense Force, Samuel Hinga Norman, and several others. Norman was arrested when the indictments were announced, while Bockarie and Koroma remained at large (presumably in Liberia). On 5 May 2003, Bockarie was killed in Liberia. President Charles G. Taylor expected to be indicted by the Special Court and had feared Bockarie 's testimony. He is suspected of ordering Bockarie 's murder, although no indictments are pending.
Several weeks later, word filtered out of Liberia that Koroma had been killed as well, although his death remains unconfirmed. In June the Special Court announced Taylor 's indictment for war crimes. Sankoh died in prison in Freetown on 29 July 2003 from a pulmonary embolism. He had been ailing since a stroke the year prior.
In August 2003 President Kabbah testified before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on his role during the civil war. On 1 December 2003, Major General Tom Carew, who had been the Chief of Defence Staff for the Government of Sierra Leone and an important figure in the Sierra Leonean Army, was reassigned to civilian duties. In June 2007, the Special Court found three of the eleven people indicted -- Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu -- guilty of war crimes, including acts of terrorism, collective punishments, extermination, murder, rape, outrages upon personal dignity, conscripting or enlisting children under the age of 15 years into armed forces, enslavement and pillage.
The civil war served as the background for the 2006 movie Blood Diamond, starring Leonardo DiCaprio, Djimon Hounsou and Jennifer Connelly. During the end of the movie Lord of War, Yuri Orlov (played by Nicolas Cage) sells arms to militias during the civil war. The militias are allied with André Baptiste (Eamonn Walker), who is based on Charles Taylor.
The use of children in both the rebel (RUF) military and the government militia is depicted in Ishmael Beah 's 2007 memoir, A Long Way Gone.
In the 2012 Documentary La vita non perde valore, by Wilma Massucco, former child soldiers and some of their victims talk about the way how they feel and live, ten years after the Sierra Leone civil war ending, thanks to the personal, familiar and social rehabilitation provided to them by Father Giuseppe Berton, an Italian missionary of the Xaverian order. The documentary has been analyzed in different Universities, becoming subject of various degrees,.
Mariatu Kamara wrote about being attacked by the rebels and having her hands chopped off in her book The Bite of the Mango. Ishmael Beah wrote a foreword to Kamara 's book.
Jonathon Torgovnik wrote about eight women that he interviewed after the war had ended in his book; Girl Soldier: Life After War in Sierra Leone. In the book he describes the experiences of the eight women who were abducted during the war and forced to fight in it.
The documentary movie Sierra Leone 's Refugee All Stars tells the story of a group of refugees who fled to Guinea and created a band to ease the pain of the constant difficulty of living away from home and community after the atrocities of war and mutilation.
In 2000 the Sierra Leonean journalist, cameraman and editor, Sorious Samura released his documentary Cry Freetown. The self - funded film depicted the most brutal period of the civil war in Sierra Leone with RUF rebels capturing the capital city in the late 1990s. The film won, among other awards, an Emmy Award and a Peabody.
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how many versions of willy wonka are there | Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (franchise) - wikipedia
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a media franchise. It includes two books, two live - action theatrical films, two video games, and a ride.
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 1964 children 's book by British author Roald Dahl. The story features the adventures of young Charlie Bucket inside the chocolate factory of eccentric chocolatier Willy Wonka. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was first published in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. in 1964 and in the United Kingdom by George Allen & Unwin in 1967.
Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator is the sequel to Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, continuing the story of Charlie Bucket and Willy Wonka as they travel in the Great Glass Elevator. Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator was first published in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf in 1972, and in the United Kingdom by George Allen & Unwin in 1973.
Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory is a 1971 musical film adaptation of the 1964 novel Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl. It was directed by Mel Stuart, and starred Gene Wilder as Wonka. The film tells the story of Charlie Bucket as he receives a golden ticket and visits Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory with four other children from around the world. Filming took place in Munich in 1970, and the film was released on June 30, 1971. It received positive reviews, but it was a box office disappointment despite the fact that it recouped its budget. However, it developed into a cult film due to its repeated television airings and home video sales. In 1972, the film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score.
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 2005 film adaptation of the 1964 book of the same name by Roald Dahl. The film was directed by Tim Burton. The film stars Freddie Highmore as Charlie Bucket and Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka. The storyline concerns Charlie, who takes a tour he has won, led by Wonka, through the most magnificent chocolate factory in the world. Development for another adaptation of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, filmed previously as Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, began in 1991, 20 years after the first film version, which resulted in Warner Bros. providing the Dahl Estate with total artistic control. Prior to Burton 's involvement, directors such as Gary Ross, Rob Minkoff, Martin Scorsese and Tom Shadyac had been involved, while Warner Bros. either considered or discussed the role of Willy Wonka with Nicolas Cage, Jim Carrey, Michael Keaton, Brad Pitt, Will Smith and Adam Sandler. Burton immediately brought regular collaborators Johnny Depp and Danny Elfman aboard. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory represents the first time since The Nightmare Before Christmas that Elfman contributed to the film score using written songs and his vocals. Filming took place from June to December 2004 at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom, where Burton avoided using digital effects as much as possible. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was released to critical praise and was a box office success, grossing approximately $475 million worldwide, but received mixed to negative reviews when compared with the original 1971 film.
A direct - to - video animated crossover film adaptation starring Tom and Jerry, entitled Tom and Jerry: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, was released in 2017. It stars JP Karliak as Willy Wonka and is dedicated to Gene Wilder, who died less than a year before the release.
In October 2016 it was confirmed that Warner Bros are planning a prequel film depicting Willy Wonka 's "early adventures '' prior to the events depicted in the books and films. However, Warner Bros claims that this movie will not be an origin story. In February 2018, Paul King entered final negotiations to direct the film.
Roald Dahl 's Willy Wonka is a musical that combines elements of both Roald Dahl 's book Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and of the 1971 movie Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory with newly created material. The musical has several versions: the original version which premiered in 2004, the Junior version, the Kids version, and the Theatre for Young Audience version. All are owned by Music Theatre International, the company that owns the Willy Wonka license.
The Estate of Roald Dahl sanctioned an operatic adaptation called The Golden Ticket. It was written by composer Peter Ash and British librettist Donald Sturrock. The Golden Ticket has completely original music and was commissioned by the American Lyric Theater, Lawrence Edelson (producing artistic director), and Felicity Dahl. The opera received its world premiere at Opera Theatre of Saint Louis on 13 June 2010, in a co-production with American Lyric Theater and Wexford Festival Opera.
A musical based on the novel, titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory premiered at the West End 's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in May 2013 and officially opened on 25 June. The show is directed by Sam Mendes, with new songs by Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman, and stars Douglas Hodge as Willy Wonka. The production broke records for weekly ticket sales. Coincidentally, Hodge was also the voice of a Charlie and the Chocolate Factory audiobook, as part of a package of Roald Dahl CDs read by celebrities.
There are two Charlie and the Chocolate Factory video games, one made in 1985 and another in 2005. The games are based on the book of the same name.
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory: The Ride is a dark ride located in the Cloud Cuckoo Land area of Alton Towers theme park, Staffordshire, England. It is based upon the famous Roald Dahl book of the same name, and takes its thematic inspiration from the illustrations of Quentin Blake. The ride is split into two segments, the first being a boat ride along the chocolate river inside Willy Wonka 's Chocolate Factory. Passengers encounter all the characters from the book (going from Augustus Gloop to Veruca Salt) either as simple animatronics or CGI projections. After disembarking the boats the second segment begins with a short pre-show video (involving Mike Teevee). The video is presented as if the viewers are actually trapped within the TV set. The ride continues inside one of two ' Great Glass Elevators ' which simulate passengers taking an airborne trip through the rest of the factory. Each elevator is a static room with semi-translucent walls and ceiling on which CGI animations are projected from the outside, and only the floor trembles slightly to give the impression of movement.
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who plays woody woodpecker in the new movie | Woody Woodpecker (2017 film) - wikipedia
Woody Woodpecker is a 2017 American live - action / computer - animated family comedy film produced by Mike Elliott and directed by Alex Zamm, based on the cartoon character of the same name created by Walter Lantz and Ben Hardaway. The film stars the voice of Eric Bauza as Woody Woodpecker, and also stars Timothy Omundson as Lance Walters, a divorced attorney with a son and a new girlfriend who wants to build a dream home in a forest in the mountains of Washington, only to find out he is cutting down a tree in which the eponymous woodpecker lives. The film was first released in theaters in Brazil on October 5, 2017. It was released in the United States on DVD on February 6, 2018. While the movie itself was filmed in the English - language, it was focused on the Brazilian public, since the character is still extremely popular in the country. The film received negative reviews from critics.
In the Pine Grove forest in Washington state, Woody Woodpecker toys with two taxidermist poachers, brothers Nate and Ottis Grimes, and eventually cause them to tranquilize each other. In Seattle, Lance Walters, a real estate lawyer, gets fired after a video of him claiming wildlife conservation is unprofitable goes viral. He tells his girlfriend Vanessa that he intends to build an investment home on a large piece of property located near the Canadian border, left to him by his grandfather. Meanwhile, Lance 's ex-wife Linda leaves their son Tommy with him and Vanessa, since she needs to visit her hospitalized father in Philadelphia.
At the Pine Grove forest, Lance, Tommy, and Vanessa meet the park ranger named Samantha Bartlett. As Lance and Vanessa unpack, Tommy goes into the forest for a walk. There, he discovers and befriends Woody after he gives him peanut butter crackers. Woody visits the family at lunchtime and eats almost all of the food. Lance tries to shoo Woody away, but he accidentally wrecks the table and hits Vanessa in the face with a broom. The next morning, construction on the investment home begins, prompting an agitated Woody to cause chaos at the site. Later, in a nearby town, Tommy befriends a young musician named Jill, who persuades him to join her band in the annual Firefly Festival. Tommy is then saved from two bullies by Woody.
As days pass, Lance grows more agitated because of Woody 's constant interference with his project, and he goes to meet Samantha at the ranger station. She reveals that the woodpecker is an endangered species known as a red - crowned pileated woodpecker, which Native Americans saw as a god of mischief and chaos. Lance continues with his work, but Vanessa leaves him after Woody blows up their RV with her inside as a prank. Samantha eventually advises Lance to get along with Woody. Lance reluctantly attempts to surrender to Woody by giving him crackers, but Woody agrees to let him and the workers continue with their construction, as long as he is given crackers every day. Eventually, the investment home is completed despite excessive payment and extended scheduling.
At the town 's Firefly Festival, Tommy and Jill 's drummer Lyle comes down with indigestion, prompting Woody to take over using a homemade drum kit. The performance is a hit, and Lance is surprised to hear that Woody gave Tommy some friendly support. Realizing that having humans around again is n't a bad idea, Woody heads back to the investment home and carves a mural above the fireplace. However, as he signs his name into the carving, he accidentally burns the house down after hitting exposed wiring. Ashamed of his mistake, he flies back to his tree. Infuriated by this, Lance hires Nate and Ottis to hunt Woody down. The brothers find him and tase him unconscious. As they leave, Tommy reprimands his father and runs away. He then forms a plan to rescue Woody and heads to Grimes ' shack with Jill and Lyle, as the brothers try to sell Woody at an online black market auction.
Lance finds the mural that Woody had created. Having a change of heart, he enlists Samantha 's help and they set out to find both Tommy and Woody. However, everyone is captured by the brothers. As Nate grabs a tranquilizer, Lance tilts his cage towards Woody 's so he can free him. After beating the brothers, Woody chases them as they attempt to flee to Canada. He carves a hole in the middle of a bridge, and the brothers fall into the river below, where they are later arrested. Later, Lance apologizes to Woody for not knowing that the house fire was an accident and therefore replaces Woody 's cut - down tree with a birdhouse. Woody accepts both the gift and the group to be called his new family, much to their generosity. That night, as Lance and Tommy fall asleep in a tent, Woody carves the words "Home Sweet Home '' into the new birdhouse, only to accidentally make it topple onto the tent.
In the early 2010s, Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment planned a Woody Woodpecker feature film. John Altschuler and Dave Krinsky (King of the Hill) were in talks to develop a story, but in July 2013, Illumination canceled the project. In October 2013, Bill Kopp announced that Universal Pictures had hired him to direct an animated feature film with three interwoven stories. On July 13, 2016, Cartoon Brew reported that Universal 1440 Entertainment was filming a live - action / CG hybrid film based on Woody Woodpecker in Canada. Filming began in June 2016, and ended later in July of that year.
In December 2016, a teaser trailer for the film was leaked by Universal Pictures Brasil with the Brazilian Portuguese dub. A trailer for the original English version premiered in the US on December 13, 2017.
The film received an approval rating of 17 % on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on six reviews. Common Sense Media rated the film a 1 out of 5 stars, stating "Inanely cruel villains, an unoriginal story, ham - handed performances, and reliance on farts and burps are the low lights of this awkward effort to bring back a less - than - engaging cartoon bird. ''
As of February 22, 2018, Woody Woodpecker has grossed $13.4 million. It debuted at $1.5 million, finishing second at the Brazilian box office behind Blade Runner 2049. The movie increased by + 45.4 % in its second weekend, moving to first place to $2.1 million.
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who is featured in all of the lights | All of the Lights - wikipedia
"All of the Lights '' is a song by American rapper Kanye West, as the fourth single from his fifth studio album, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy (2010). It was produced by West and features additional vocals from several other recording artists, including John Legend, The - Dream, Elly Jackson, Alicia Keys, Fergie, Kid Cudi, Elton John, Drake, and Rihanna; the latter is the only credited feature on the single.
"All of the Lights '' was well received by music critics, who complimented its detailed production and dramatically - themed style. The single was a moderate international success, reaching number 18 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number two on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart in the United States, while it also attained respectable chartings in several other countries. It won Grammy Awards for Best Rap Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 54th Grammy Awards. As of December 2011, the song has sold over 1,561,000 digital units in the US. By August 2013, it had been certified triple platinum by the RIAA.
The song 's accompanying music video, directed by Hype Williams, featured strobe - lit images of Rihanna and West, as well as Kid Cudi. It was given a discretionary warning by Epilepsy Action, stating that the video "potentially triggers seizures for people with photosensitive epilepsy ''. West and Rihanna performed the song at the 2011 NBA All - Star Game, while it was also featured in the promo for the same event. In 2016 the song was used in a Gatorade commercial starring Serena Williams.
"All of the Lights '' was written by Kanye West, Jeff Bhasker, Malik Jones and Warren Trotter. Its production was helmed by West himself and co-produced by Bhasker. Fourteen artists lent their voices as background vocals to the song: Alicia Keys, John Legend, The - Dream, Drake, Fergie, Kid Cudi, Elton John, Ryan Leslie, Charlie Wilson, Tony Williams, Elly Jackson, Alvin Fields, Ken Lewis, and Rihanna, who also sang the song 's hook and is labeled as a featured artist on the single version. West and Rihanna previously collaborated with Jay - Z on "Run This Town '' (The Blueprint 3, 2009).
During the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards, on November 10, 2010, Rihanna was interviewed by MTV News ' staff. In the interview she explained that, West already played his album to her three months ago and that "All of the Lights '' was one of her favorite songs. About it, she further commented, "So when he asked me to come up to the studio at 2 o'clock in the morning, I had to, because I loved it, I knew it was that song. ''
In an interview for the same publication, Elly Jackson said of the song 's vocal layering, "He got me to layer up all these vocals with other people, and he just basically wanted to use his favorite vocalists from around the world to create this really unique vocal texture on his record, but it 's not the kind of thing where you can pick it out ''. Andrew Dawson, Anthony Kilhoffer, Mike Dean, HI and Noah Goldstein recorded West 's vocals at Avex Recording Studios in Honolulu, Hawaii and Electric Lady Studios in New York City. Rihanna 's vocals were recorded by Marcos Tovar at the Westlake Recording Studios in West Hollywood, California.
Even though not fully leaked, "All of the Lights '' was featured for the first time on "Runaway '' -- a 35 - minute film about West 's "true labor of love '' which was released on October 19, 2010. The song was featured in the film together with other songs from West 's then - upcoming fifth studio album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy (2010), including "Monster '', "Power '' and "Lost in the World '' among others. The song fully leaked on November 4, 2010, online.
West announced through his Twitter account that "All of the Lights '' would be the album 's fourth single. Following the album 's release, the song debuted at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100. "All of the Lights '' was released as a single on January 18, 2011 in the US and is set for a February 21, 2011 release in the UK. Rihanna was credited as a featured artist for the single when impacting radio. In the United Kingdom, it was included in BBC Radio 1 's B - Playlist.
The song was released as fourth and final single from My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. It was sent to British urban radio stations on November 25, 2010, and to Australian contemporary hit and alternative radio stations on December 13. On January 18, 2011, the song was sent to contemporary hit and rhythmic radio in the United States. On February 19, 2011, "All of the Lights '' was solicited to mainstream radio stations in the United Kingdom.
"All of the Lights '' is a hip hop song that runs for 4 minutes and 59 seconds. According to the sheet music published by Universal Music Publishing Group at Musicnotes.com, it was composed in the key of B flat minor using common time and a steady groove. Rihanna 's vocal range spans from the low note of Ab3 to the falsetto note of F5. Instrumentation is provided by drums, bass, piano and horns. The piano is played by Elton John, who also together with thirteen other vocalists provides the background vocals. American singers Fergie and Alicia Keys, sing the break - downs and Ad - libs, respectively. Alex Deney from NME called the song a "sleb - studded centrepiece ''.
"All of the Lights '' received critical acclaim. AllMusic 's Andy Kellman stated "At once, the song features one of the year 's most rugged beats while supplying enough opulent detail to make Late Registration collaborator Jon Brion 's head spin ''. Alex Denney of NME called it "the sleb - studded centrepiece '', commenting that "In anyone else 's hands it 'd be an A-list circle - jerk of horrid proportions, but through Kanye 's bar - raising vision it becomes a truly wondrous thing ''. Zach Baron of The Village Voice found the song 's lyrics relevant to the "year of economic suffering '', writing that "West interrupted his own wealthy anomie to pen ' All of the Lights, ' an incongruously star - stuffed song about a disoriented parolee trying to beat a restraining order and see his daughter, working out a brief reunion with her estranged mother: ' Public visitation, we met at Borders ' ''. Chicago Sun - Times writer Thomas Conner viewed that "as crowded as ' All of the Lights ' is (,) it maintains an almost operatic drama, telling a tale of adultery and its aftermath that winds up being quite moving ''. The Guardian 's Kitty Empire cited the song as "the album 's most magnificent high '', writing that it "backs up operatic levels of sound with great drama ''.
For the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012, "All of the Lights '' was nominated for Grammy Awards for Song of the Year, Best Rap Song, and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration. It won the latter two awards. Slant Magazine placed it atop their list of best singles of 2011.
The music video for "All of the Lights '' was filmed in January 2011 and directed by Hype Williams. It features strobe - lit images of Rihanna and West, Kid Cudi in a red leather suit, and visual references to Gaspar Noé 's 2009 film Enter the Void. The video premiered through West 's Vevo channel on February 19, 2011. After reports of the video 's images causing seizures with epileptic viewers and a public response from British organization Epilepsy Action, an alternate video was released that includes a discretionary warning that the video "potentially trigger (s) seizures for people with photosensitive epilepsy '', and removed its opening prologue and neon credits. In 2015, the video faced controversy when Gaspar Noé commented the similarities between the video and Enter the Void, especially when Hype Williams featured his name in the title and credit sequences over and over again.
An earlier version of the song 's remix was leaked in 2010, featuring a verse by Drake. On March 14, 2011, an unfinished version of the remix was leaked to the internet, featuring guest verses from Lil Wayne, Big Sean, and Drake, a different verse from the leak. However, it did not feature West himself.
Credits for "All of the Lights '' adapted from liner notes.
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what is the difference between aqiqah and baptism | Aqiqah - wikipedia
` Aqīqah (Arabic: عقيقة ), aqeeqa, or aqeeqah is the Islamic tradition of the sacrifice of an animal on the occasion of a child 's birth. It is widely performed by Muslims and it is considered sunnah to slaughter a sheep for the baby and distribute the meat to the poor. Muslims also prepare a feast for family and friends in celebration for being blessed with a child. Aqiqah is a sunnat al mu'akkadah (confirmed sunnah). If the guardian of the child is capable of slaughtering a sheep for the child, they should do it. Muhammad said: "A baby is being pledged for his aqiqah, sacrifice is made for him on the seventh day, his head is shaved, and a name is given him ''. If one can not slaughter on the seventh day, one may slaughter on the fourteenth day or on the twenty - first day. If one is not capable of doing so, then one may slaughter any time before the puberty of the child. The aqiqah is sunnah and mustahabb; it is not obligatory at all, so there is no sin on the one who does not do it, or the one who delays it and does not do it at the time that is mustahabb, although he misses out on the virtue and reward of that. (He may delay it) until he is able to do it, or he may omit it It is a tradition to do so.
Aqiqah is a type of sadaqah and it is also sunnah.
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who owns the risk of not complying with the foreign account tax compliance act (fatca) | Foreign account tax Compliance Act - Wikipedia
The Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA) is a 2010 United States federal law requiring all non-U.S. (' foreign ') financial institutions (FFIs) to search their records for customers with indicia of ' U.S. - person ' status, such as a U.S. place of birth, and to report the assets and identities of such persons to the U.S. Department of the Treasury. FATCA also requires such persons to self - report their non-U.S. financial assets annually to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) on form 8938, which is in addition to the older and further redundant requirement to self - report them annually to the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) on form 114 (also known as ' FBAR '). Like U.S. income tax law, FATCA applies to U.S. residents and also to U.S. citizens and green card holders residing in other countries.
FATCA was the revenue - raising portion of the 2010 domestic jobs stimulus bill, the Hiring Incentives to Restore Employment (HIRE) Act, and was enacted as Subtitle A (sections 501 through 541) of Title V of that law. FATCA is controversial because foreign banks have been forced to comply under threat of a 30 % withholding penalty on all their U.S. transactions. The U.S. has yet to comply with FATCA itself, because as of 2017, it has not yet provided the promised reciprocity to its partner countries and it has failed to sign up to the Common Reporting Standard (CRS). FATCA has also been criticised for its impacts on Americans living overseas, and implicated in record - breaking numbers of U.S. citizenship renunciations throughout the 2010s. Bills to repeal FATCA have been introduced in the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives, citing its unconstitutionality, particularly its breach of 4th amendment rights, as well as its high implementation costs and lack of revenue generation. A hearing on the unintended consequences of FATCA was held by the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform on 26 April 2017.
FATCA was reportedly enacted for the purpose of detecting the non-U.S. financial accounts of U.S. resident taxpayers rather than to identify non-resident U.S. citizens and enforce collections. However, although there might be thousands of resident U.S. citizens with non-U.S. assets, such as astute investors, dual citizens, or legal immigrants, FATCA also applies to the estimated 5.7 to 9 million U.S. citizens residing outside of the United States and those persons believed to be U.S. persons for tax purposes. FATCA also affects non-U.S. - person family members and business partners who share accounts with U.S. persons or who have U.S. - person signatories of accounts. This feature allows the reporting of the assets of non-U.S. corporations, volunteer organisations, and any other non-U.S. entity where a U.S. person can be identified.
FATCA is used to locate U.S. citizens (residing in the U.S. or not) and "U.S. persons for tax purposes '' and to collect and store information including total asset value and Social Security number. The law is used to detect assets, rather than income. The law does not include a provision imposing any tax. In the law, financial institutions would report the information they gather to the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS). As implemented by the intergovernmental agreements (IGAs) (discussed below) with many countries, each financial institution will send the U.S. - person 's data to the local government first. For example, according to Ukraine 's IGA, the U.S. - person data will be sent to U.S. via the Ukrainian government. Alternatively, in a non-IGA country, such as Russia, only the Russian bank will store the U.S. - person data and will send it directly to the IRS.
FATCA is used by government personnel to detect indicia of U.S. persons and their assets and to enable cross-checking where assets have been self - reported by individuals to the IRS or to the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN). U.S. persons, regardless of residence location and regardless of dual citizenship, are required to self - report their non-U.S. assets to FinCEN on an annual basis. According to qualification criteria, individuals are also required to report this information on IRS information - reporting form 8938. FATCA will allow detection of persons who have not self - reported, enabling collection of large penalties. FATCA allows government personnel to locate U.S. persons not living in the United States, so as to assess U.S. tax or penalties.
Under FATCA, non-U.S. (' foreign ') financial institutions (FFIs) are required to report asset and identify information related to suspected U.S. persons using their financial institutions.
Under U.S. tax law, U.S. persons (regardless of country of residence) are generally required to report and pay U.S. federal income tax on income from all sources. The U.S. is unique in taxing not only non-resident citizens but also non-resident "U.S. Persons for tax purposes ''. The law requires U.S. citizens living abroad to pay U.S. taxes on foreign income if the foreign tax should be less than U.S. tax ("taxing up ''), independently within each category of earned income and passive income. For this reason, the increased reporting requirements of FATCA have had extensive implications for U.S. citizens living abroad. Taxpayer identification numbers and source withholding are also now used to enforce asset reporting requirements upon non-resident U.S. citizens. For example, mandatory withholding can be required via FATCA when a U.S. payor can not confirm the non-U.S. status of a foreign payee.
The IRS previously instituted a qualified intermediary (QI) program under Internal Revenue Code § 1441, which required participating foreign financial institutions to maintain records of the U.S. or foreign status of their account holders and to report income and withhold taxes. One report included a statement of a finding that participation in the QI program was too low to have a substantive impact as an enforcement measure and was prone to abuse. An illustration of the weakness in the QI program was that UBS, a Swiss bank, had registered as a QI with the IRS in 2001 and was later forced to settle in the UBS tax evasion controversy with the U.S. Government for $780 million in 2009 over claims that it fraudulently concealed information on its U.S. person account holders. Non-resident U.S. citizens ' required self - reporting of their local assets was also found to be relatively ineffective.
The Hiring Incentives to Restore Employment Act (of which FATCA is a part) was passed on party lines: It narrowly passed the House, with no Republican members voting "yes '' and passed the Senate with only one Democrat member voting "no ''. President Obama (D) signed the bill into law.
Senator Carl Levin (D - MI) has stated that the U.S. Treasury loses as much as 100 billion USD annually to "offshore tax non-compliance '' without stating the source of the data. (Another source stated 40 - 70 billion USD without citing the source). Accurate figures on unreported income have not been supported. On March 4, 2009 the IRS Commissioner Douglas Shulman testified before the Subcommittee that there is no credible estimate of lost tax revenue from offshore tax abuse.
Supplementing the reporting regimes already in place was stated by Senator Max Baucus (D - MT) to be a means of acquiring more financial data and raising government revenue. After committee deliberation, Sen. Max Baucus and Rep. Charles Rangel (D - NY) introduced the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act of 2009 to Congress on October 27, 2009. It was later added to an appropriations bill as an amendment, sponsored by Sen. Harry Reid (D - NV), which also renamed the bill the HIRE Act. The bill was signed into law by President Obama on March 18, 2010.
A legal challenge against the constitutionality of FATCA, its IGAs, and FBAR reporting requirements was filed in a federal district court in Ohio on July 14, 2015 (see below). The case is Crawford v. U.S. Department of Treasury. Arguments for an injunction against the FATCA IGAs were held on Sept 4, 2015.
FATCA has these main provisions:
These reporting requirements are in addition to the requirement for all U.S. persons for reporting of non-U.S. financial accounts to the U.S. Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN); this most notably includes Form 114, "Report of Foreign Bank and Financial Accounts '' (FBAR) for foreign financial accounts exceeding US $10,000 required under Bank Secrecy Act regulations issued by the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network.
Banks which are performing functions according to FATCA law will be searching according to FATCA indicia, which include:
There are varying estimates of the revenues gained and likely cost of implementing the legislation.
With implementation, FATCA was estimated by the United States Congress Joint Committee on Taxation to produce approximately $8.7 billion in additional tax revenue over 11 years (average $792 million a year). A later analysis from Texas A&M includes an estimate that revenues would be less than $250 million USD per year ($2.5 billion USD total). (Jane Gravelle, a specialist in economic policy at the Congressional Research Service, has asserted that this figure is small relative to her estimate of $40 billion per year as the cost of international tax evasion.) "The actual annual tax revenue generated since 2009 from offshore voluntary disclosure initiatives and from prosecutions of individual 's tax evasion is running significantly lower than the JCT 's estimated annual average, at less than $400 million, and will probably result in less than that over the decade 2010 to 2020. '' "The IRS has claimed that over ten billion dollars in additional tax revenues will be recovered from offshore accounts over the next decade. Since the enactment of FATCA the IRS has received approximately $8.0 billion nearly entirely from FBAR penalties and not from tax collection. '' Recently, a calculation showed that $771 million of tax revenue loss from U.S. banks could nearly nullify the reported revenue gain reported by the Joint Committee.
The estimates of the costs to be incurred in the private sector, by the IRS, and by foreign revenue authorities are less precise. "FATCA as detailed today will bring huge implementation & processing costs and effort. This cost has to be borne by investors and account holders. Industry members estimated increase of cost per account around USD 20 - 50. '' What is not discussed is the cost of liability insurance since FATCA requires that, among other matters, Compliance Officers will be personally liable. "FATCA requires major initial investment within an institution, estimated at $25,000 for smaller institutions, to $100,000 to $500,000 for most institutions and $1 million for larger firms. While a boon for the financial consultancy and IT industry, it is an extra cost that institutions would rather not have. ''
Certain aspects of FATCA have been a source of controversy in the financial and general press. The Deputy Assistant Secretary for International Tax Affairs at the US Department of the Treasury stated in September 2013 that the controversies were incorrect (myths). However, in April 2017 the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, led by Congressman Mark Meadows, held a hearing on the unintended consequences of FATCA, citing its multiple breaches of constitutional rights, double standard of compliance (non-US banks have been forced to comply but US banks have not), and its enforcement of differential treatment for US citizens depending on where they live, with non-residents granted fewer protections whilst being expected to comply with much more burdensome requirements. The controversies primarily relate to the following issues:
In 2017, bills to repeal FATCA were introduced in Congress: Senator Rand Paul (R - KY) introduced S. 869 in the Senate and Representative Mark Meadows (R - NC) introduced H.R. 2054 in the House of Representatives. On 26 April 2017, the Oversight and Government Reform subcommittee on Government Operations held a hearing called ' Reviewing the Unintended Consequences of the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act ', chaired by Congressman Meadows.
On January 24, 2014, the Republican National Committee passed a resolution calling for the repeal of FATCA.
American Citizens Abroad, Inc., (ACA) a not - for - profit organization claiming to represent the interests of the millions of Americans residing outside the United States, asserts that one of FATCA 's problems is citizenship - based taxation (CBT). Originally ACA called for the U.S. to institute residence - based taxation (RBT) to bring the United States in line with all other OECD countries. Later in 2014 two ACA directors commented on the situation of Boris Johnson. In 2015, ACA decided on a more refined stance.
In March 2015 the United States Senate Committee on Finance sought public submissions to a number of Tax Reform Working Groups. Over 70 percent of all submissions to the International Taxation Working Group and close to half of all submissions to the Individual Taxation Working Group came from individual U.S. expatriates, many citing specific consequences of FATCA in their countries of residence, and nearly all calling both for residence - based taxation and the repeal of FATCA.
As reported in the Washington Times, a legal challenge has been launched by attorney James Bopp. The suit is backed by a group called Republicans Overseas (RO), based on the assertion that FATCA violates the Senate 's power with respect to treaties, an 8th Amendment Excessive Fines claim, and a 4th Amendment Search and Seizure claim. Kentucky Sen. Rand Paul is among the individuals suing the U.S. Treasury and the Internal Revenue Service. The case is Crawford v. U.S. Department of Treasury, and includes seven plaintiffs. Republicans Overseas is led by members of the rules committee of the Republican National Committee including Bruce Ash and Solomon Yue. The specific claims being advanced in the legal challenge are as follows:
An injunction is also sought against FATCA 's asset reporting requirements on Form 8966 and on the form for the report of Foreign Bank and Financial Accounts (FBAR). The plaintiffs declare that these requirements violate the constitution and that the government should not be allowed to enforce them.
On 18 August 2017 the Sixth Circuit dismissed the plaintiff 's appeal against the initial ruling that they lacked standing to bring their action.
An organization called the Alliance for The Defence of Canadian Sovereignty is challenging a Canadian law that implements FATCA. The organization claims that the Canadian law violates the Canadian Charter of Rights & Freedoms, particularly the provisions related to discrimination on the basis of citizenship or national origin. This is not technically a direct opposition to FATCA -- as the United States Congress has no legislative authority over Canada -- but is instead an opposition to the parallel Canadian federal legislation. On August 11, 2014, in an action supported by the Alliance for the Defence of Canadian Sovereignty, two Canadian citizens filed suit in the Federal Court of Canada challenging the constitutionality of the Canadian law that implements FATCA in Canada. Both of the citizens were born in the United States, with at least one Canadian parent, but they returned to Canada in childhood and have had no residential ties to the United States since that time. They state that this would result in them having U.S. indicia, and therefore being discriminated against by Canadian banks. On August 12, 2014, Canadian government spokesman Jack Aubry defended the constitutionality of the legislation, but otherwise declined to comment on the pending litigation.
A Canadian Federal Court ruling would not involve jurisdiction over the relationship of United States citizens with the United States Government, but would affect those individuals ' rights as Canadians. Such a ruling would therefore be a finding of unconstitutionality as a matter of Canadian constitutional law, as to the two litigants. It would allow a remedy under Canadian law, but would not relieve them of their responsibilities to the United States under FATCA, as United States citizens. Thus, such a ruling would not remove the effect of the provisions of FATCA on U.S. citizen - taxpayers, no matter where their bona fide non-U.S. tax home is located. However, a human rights complaint submitted to the United Nations, by members of The Isaac Brock Society and Maple Sandbox, that the U.S. system of taxation, and requirements, compliance reporting, and excessive penalties therewith, of its citizens tax resident in other countries including taxation of their income and assets in those countries, represents violation of their human rights. This complaint is suggestive that such taxation violates the IRS Taxpayer Bill of Rights provision # 10 "The Right to a Fair and Just Tax System. ''
On October 7, 2014, the legal claim by the Alliance for the Defence of Canadian Sovereignty was amended to include the allegation that the FATCA IGA and enabling legislation are in violation of both the Income Tax Act of Canada and the Canada U.S. Tax Treaty.
FATCA added 26 U.S.C. § 6038D (section 6038D of the Internal Revenue Code) which requires the reporting of any interest in foreign financial assets over $50,000 after March 18, 2010. FATCA also added 26 U.S.C. § § 1471 -- 1474 requiring U.S. payors to withhold taxes on payments to foreign financial institutions (FFI) and nonfinancial foreign entities (NFFE) that have not agreed to provide the IRS with information on U.S. accounts. FATCA also added 26 U.S.C. § 1298 (f) requiring shareholders of a passive foreign investment company (PFIC) to report certain information.
The U.S. Department of the Treasury issued temporary and proposed regulations on December 14, 2011 (26 C.F.R. 1.6038 D - 0T et seq.) for reporting foreign financial assets, requiring the filing of Form 8938 with income tax returns. The Department of the Treasury issued final regulations and guidance on reporting interest paid to nonresident aliens on April 16, 2012 (26 C.F.R. 1.6049 - 4 et seq., 26 C.F.R. 31.3406 (g) - 1). Treasury issued proposed regulations regarding information reporting by, and withholding of payments to, foreign financial institutions on February 8, 2012, and final regulations on January 17, 2013 (26 C.F.R. 1.1471 - 0 et seq.). On December 31, 2013 the IRS published temporary and proposed regulations (26 C.F.R. 1.1291 - 0T et seq.) on annual filing requirements for shareholders of PFICs. On February 20, 2014, the IRS issued temporary and proposed regulations making additions and clarifications to previously issued regulations and providing guidance to coordinate FATCA rules with preexisting requirements.
On April 2, 2014, the U.S. Department of the Treasury extended from April 25, 2014 to May 5, 2014 the deadline by which an FFI must register with the IRS in order to appear on the initial public list of "Global Intermediary Identification Numbers '' (GIINs) maintained by the IRS, also known as the "FFI List. '' In June 2014, the IRS began publishing a monthly online list of registered FFIs, intended to allow withholding agents to verify the GIINs of their payees in order to establish that withholding is not required on payments to those payees.
Implementation of FATCA may involve legal hurdles; it may be illegal in foreign jurisdictions for financial institutions to disclose the required account information. There is a controversy about the appropriateness of intergovernmental agreements (IGAs) to solve any of these problems.
France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom announced in 2012 they consented to cooperate with the U.S. on FATCA implementation, as did Switzerland, Japan and South Africa.
The deputy director general of legal affairs of the People 's Bank of China, the central bank of the People 's Republic of China, Liu Xiangmin said "China 's banking and tax laws and regulations do not allow Chinese financial institutions to comply with FATCA directly. '' The U.S. Department of the Treasury suspended negotiations with Russia in March 2014. Russia, while not ruling out an agreement, requires full reciprocity and abandonment of US extraterritoriality before signing an IGA. Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a law on June 30, 2014 that allowed Russian banks to transfer FATCA data directly to US tax authorities -- after first reporting the information to the Russian government. Russian banks are required to obtain client consent first but can deny service if that consent is not given. Bangladeshi banks, which have accounts of US taxpayers, may report to the IRS, However they need prior approval of their clients.
A 2014 Swiss referendum against the act did not come to fruition.
As passed by Congress, FATCA was meant to form the basis for a relationship between the U.S. Department of the Treasury and individual FFI 's. Personnel at some FFIs responded by asserting, however, that it was not possible for the FFIs to follow their own countries ' laws (privacy, confidentiality, discrimination, etc.) and simultaneously to comply with FATCA as is. Discussions from financial industry lobbyists resulted in the creation of Intergovernmental Agreements (IGA 's) between the Executive Branch of the United States government with foreign governments. This development resulted in foreign governments to implement the US FATCA requirements into their own legal systems, which in turn allowed those governments to change their privacy and discrimination laws to allow the identification and reporting of US persons via those governments. In an IGA, a government agrees that all of its financial institutions shall comply with FATCA (whereas without the IGA each FFI would have been able to decide if it were to comply with FATCA or not). With the IGA 's, the private data of suspected US persons would be collected and handled by the FFI 's, whereas the many governments would then collect and store that data for further transmittal. The IGA added the applicable government to the list of handlers of the data.
The United States Department of the Treasury has published model IGAs which follow two approaches. Under Model 1, financial institutions in the partner country report information about U.S. accounts to the tax authority of the partner country. That tax authority then provides the information to the United States. Model 1 comes in a reciprocal version (Model 1A), under which the United States will also share information about the partner country 's taxpayers with the partner country, and a nonreciprocal version (Model 1B). Under Model 2, partner country financial institutions report directly to the U.S. Internal Revenue Service, and the partner country agrees to lower any legal barriers to that reporting. Model 2 is available in two versions: 2A with no Tax Information Exchange Agreement (TIEA) or Double Tax Convention (DTC) required, and 2B for countries with a pre-existing TIEA or DTC. The agreements generally require parliamentary approval in the countries they are concluded with, but the United States is not pursuing ratification of this as a treaty.
In April 2014, the U.S. Department of the Treasury and IRS announced that any jurisdictions that reach "agreements in substance '' and consent to their compliance statuses being published by the July 1, 2014, deadline would be treated as having an IGA in effect through the end of 2014, ensuring no penalties would be incurred during that time while giving more jurisdictions an opportunity to finalize formal IGAs.
In India the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) said "FATCA in its current form lacks complete reciprocity from the US counterparts, and there is an asymmetry in due - diligence requirements. '' Furthermore, "Sources close to the development say the signing has been delayed because of Indian financial institutions ' unpreparedness. ''
With Canada 's agreement in February 2014, all G7 countries have signed intergovernmental agreements. As of October 2017, the following jurisdictions have concluded intergovernmental agreements with the United States regarding the implementation of FATCA, most of which have entered into force.
The following jurisdictions have also reached "agreements in substance '':
Model 1
Model 1
Model 1
Model 2
Many jurisdictions are required to have their IGAs in effect and start exchange of information by 30 September 2015. The US IRS has issued Notice 2015 - 66, which relaxes the deadline for countries which have signed Model 1 IGAs "to hand over information regarding accounts held by U.S. taxpayers '', if the jurisdiction requests more time and "provides assurance that the jurisdiction is making good faith efforts to exchange the information as soon as possible. ''
Implementation is noted as delayed in the following countries:
In 2014, the OECD introduced its Common Reporting Standard (CRS) proposed for the automatic exchange of information (AEOI) through its Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes. The G - 20 gave a mandate for this standard, and its relation to FATCA is mentioned on page 5 of the OECD 's report. Critics immediately dubbed it "GATCA '' for Global FATCA. Ironically however, so far the US has refused to sign up to CRS.
The Common Reporting Standard requires each signatory country to gather the full identifying information of each bank customer, including additional nationalities and place of birth. Prior to the implementation of CRS, there had been no other method of fully and globally identifying immigrants and emigrants and citizens by way of their identification numbers, birthplaces, and nationalities. Each participating government is tasked with collecting and storing the data of all its citizens and immigrants and of transferring the data automatically to participating countries. CRS is capable of transmitting person data according to the demands of either Residence Based Taxation or Citizenship Based Taxation (CBT) or Personhood - Based Taxation.
The number of Americans renouncing their citizenship has risen each year since the enactment of FATCA, from just 1,006 in 2010 to 3,415 in 2014, 4,279 in 2015, and 5,411 in 2016. Among those who renounced was the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, who did so after the IRS taxed the sale of his house in London. Due to the rise in applications and resulting backlog, the fee for renouncing citizenship was raised by roughly 400 percent in 2015 to $2,350. The 5,411 renunciations in 2016 were a 26 % increase from the previous record, set in 2015. The number of renunciations for the first two quarters of 2017 was 3,072, which exceeds the entire year 's total for 2013.
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where does luxury tax money go in baseball | Luxury tax (sports) - wikipedia
A luxury tax in professional sports is a surcharge put on the aggregate payroll of a team to the extent to which it exceeds a predetermined guideline level set by the league. The ostensible purpose of this "tax '' is to prevent teams in major markets with high incomes from signing almost all of the more talented players and hence destroying the competitive balance necessary for a sport to maintain fan interest. The money derived from the "tax '' is either divided among the teams that play in the smaller markets, presumably to allow them to have more revenue to devote toward the contracts of high - quality players, or in the case of Major League Baseball, used by the league for other pre-defined purposes.
In North America, Major League Baseball has implemented the luxury tax system. The National Basketball Association also has a luxury tax provision; its utility is somewhat limited by the fact that the league also has a salary cap provision. The "hard '' salary cap of the National Football League and the National Hockey League has prevented any need for a luxury tax arrangement.
In the Big 4 North American sports leagues (Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), and National Hockey League (NHL)), there are three different methods employed to limit individual teams payroll: hard salary cap, soft salary cap with luxury tax, and luxury tax.
A hard salary cap is where the league sets a maximum amount of money allowed for player salaries, and no team can exceed that limit.
A soft salary cap has a set limit to player salaries, but there are several major exceptions that allow teams to exceed the salary cap. For example, in the case of the NBA, teams can exceed the salary cap when keeping players that are already on the team.
A luxury tax system does not have a limit to how much money can be spent on player salaries. However, there is a tax levied on money spent above a threshold set by the Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) between the players union and the owners. For every dollar a team spends above the tax threshold, they must also pay some fraction to the league. This system is used to discourage teams from greatly exceeding the tax threshold, with the goal of ensuring parity between large and small market teams.
As explained by Fangraphs: "Technically called the ' Competitive Balance Tax ', the Luxury Tax is the punishment that large market teams get for spending too much money. While MLB does not have a set salary cap, the luxury tax charges teams with high payrolls a considerable amount of money, giving teams ample reason to want to keep their payrolls below that level. ''
The threshold level for the luxury tax will be $189 MM in 2014 (up from $178 MM from 2011 - 2013) and will remain at $189 MM through 2016. From 2012 through 2016, teams who exceed the threshold for the first time must pay 17.5 % of the amount they are over, 30 % for the second consecutive year over, 40 % for the third consecutive year over, and 50 % for four or more consecutive years over the cap.
Only seven teams have ever exceeded the luxury tax threshold: the San Francisco Giants, the Boston Red Sox, the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, the Detroit Tigers, the Los Angeles Dodgers, the New York Yankees and the Chicago Cubs for the very first time in 2016. Only the Red Sox, Dodgers and Yankees have exceeded it more than once. The LA Dodgers have exceed it four times. Boston has exceeded it six times. New York has exceeded it fourteen times, or, every year since it has been in enforcement. In aggregate, the Yankees have paid out some $325.00 MM, 73.78 %, of the total fines assessed since the luxury tax began.
In 2016 a record six teams were issued the luxury tax by the MLB. The Los Angeles Dodgers ($31.8 million), The New York Yankees ($27.4 million), The Boston Red Sox ($4.5 million), The Detroit Tigers ($4 million), The San Francisco Giants ($3.4 million) and the World Series champion The Chicago Cubs ($2.96 million).
The luxury tax is separate from revenue sharing, which is a system to balance out the income distribution between large and small market teams by dividing money from merchandise sales and media contracts. The money generated from the luxury tax is not distributed to the rest of the league, as is the case with the NBA, but rather is used for other purposes. The first $2,375,400 and 50 % of the remaining total are used to fund player benefits, 25 % goes to the Industry Growth Fund, and the remaining 25 % is used to defray teams ' funding obligations from player benefits.
The NBA utilizes a soft salary cap, meaning there is a salary cap but there are a variety of exceptions that allow teams to exceed that cap. For example, teams can re-sign players already on the team to an amount up to the maximum salary allowed by the league for up to five years regardless of where their payroll is relative to the cap. This provision is known as the "Larry Bird '' exception, named after the former Boston Celtics great who was retained by that team until his retirement under the provisions of this rule. The result is that the majority of teams are over the cap at any given time.
In addition to the soft cap, the NBA utilizes a luxury tax system that is applied if the team payroll exceeds a separate threshold higher than the salary cap. These teams pay a penalty for each dollar their team salary exceeds the tax level. From 2002 to 2013, if a team exceeded the luxury tax threshold, they must pay one dollar to the league for every dollar that they are over the limit. For the 2013 - 14 season and onward, teams paid an incremental rate based on their team salary. They also have to pay a repeat offender rate, which is an additional dollar for every dollar over. For 2014 - 15 teams pay the repeater rate if they also were taxpayers in all of the previous three seasons. For 2015 - 16 and all subsequent seasons, teams pay the repeater rate if they were taxpayers in at least three of the four previous seasons. The table of rates is shown below.
The resulting total is then distributed to the remaining teams that are under the tax threshold.
There was no luxury tax implemented in the 2004 - 2005 season due to insufficient BRI.
The effectiveness of the luxury tax system at limiting the growth of players salaries is in question. Although exceeding the luxury tax threshold costs the team twice as much money, it does not seem to limit teams ' willingness to spend big money on players.
The National Football League (NFL) and the National Hockey League (NHL) both have hard salary caps, making it unnecessary to utilize the luxury tax.
Several other leagues in the United States and abroad use salary caps, but the luxury tax is uncommon.
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what happened after the israelites crossed the red sea | Crossing the Red Sea - wikipedia
The Crossing of the Red Sea (Hebrew: קריעת ים סוף Kriat Yam Suph - Crossing of the Red Sea or Sea of Reeds (1)) is part of the biblical narrative of the escape of the Israelites, led by Moses, from the pursuing Egyptians in the Book of Exodus 13: 17 - 14: 29. This story is also mentioned in the Quran in Surah 26: Al - Shu'ara ' (The Poets) in verses 60 - 67.
According to the Exodus account, Moses held out his staff and the Red Sea was parted by God. The Israelites walked on the exposed dry ground and crossed the sea, followed by the Egyptian army. Moses again moved his staff once the Israelites had crossed and the sea closed again, drowning the whole Egyptian army.
God chooses Moses to lead the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and into the land of Canaan, which God has promised to them. The Egyptian pharaoh, who previously said the opposite, agrees to let them go, and they travel from Ramesses to Succoth and then to Etham on the edge of the desert, led by a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night. There God tells Moses to turn back and camp by the sea at Pi - hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, directly opposite Baal - zephon.
God causes the pharaoh to pursue the Israelites with chariots, and he overtakes them at Pi - hahiroth. When the Israelites see the Egyptian army they are afraid, but the pillar of fire and the cloud separates the Israelites and the Egyptians. At God 's command Moses holds his staff out over the water, and throughout the night a strong east wind divides the sea, and the Israelites pass through with a wall of water on either side. The Egyptians pursue, but at daybreak God clogs their chariot - wheels and throws them into a panic, and with the return of the water the pharaoh and his entire army are destroyed (see Psalm 136: 15). When the Israelites see the power of God they put their faith in God and in Moses, and sing a song of praise to the Lord for the crossing of the sea and the destruction of their enemies. (This song, at Exodus 15, is called the Song of the Sea).
The narrative contains at least three and possibly four layers. In the first layer (the oldest), God blows the sea back with a strong east wind, allowing the Israelites to cross on dry land; in the second, Moses stretches out his hand and the waters part in two walls; in the third, God clogs the chariot wheels of the Egyptians and they flee (in this version the Egyptians do not even enter the water); and in the fourth, the Song of the Sea, God casts the Egyptians into tehomat, the mythical abyss.
The Israelites ' first journey is from Ramesses to Succoth. Ramesses is generally identified with modern Qantir, the site of the 19th dynasty capital Per - Ramesses, and Succoth with Tell el - Maskhuta in Wadi Tumilat, the biblical Land of Goshen. From Sukkoth the Israelites travel to Etham "on the edge of the desert, '' then turn back to Pi - hahiroth, located between Migdol and the sea and directly opposite Baal Zephon. None of these have been identified with certainty. One theory with a wide following is that they refer collectively to the region of Lake Timsah, a salt lake north of the Gulf of Suez, and the nearest large body of water after Wadi Tumilat. Lake Timsah was connected to Pithom in Gesem at various times by a canal, and a late 1st millennium text refers to Migdol Baal Zephon as a fort on the canal.
The Hebrew term for the place of the crossing is "Yam Suph ''. Although this has traditionally been thought to refer to the salt water inlet located between Africa and the Arabian peninsula, known in English as the Red Sea, this is a mistranslation from the Greek Septuagint, and Hebrew suph never means "red '' but rather "reeds ''. (While it is not relevant to the identification of the body of water, suph also puns on the Hebrew suphah ("storm '') and soph ("end ''), referring to the events of the Exodus).
General scholarly opinion is that the Exodus story combines a number of traditions, one of them at the "Reed Sea '' (Lake Timsah, with the Egyptians defeated when the wheels of their chariots become clogged) and another at the far deeper Red Sea, allowing the more dramatic telling of events.
Reeds tolerant of salt water flourish in the shallow string of lakes extending from Suez north to the Mediterranean Sea. Kenneth Kitchen and James Hoffmeier state that these reedy lakes and marshes along the isthmus of Suez are acceptable locations for yam suf. The ancient yam suf is not confined to the modern Red Sea. Hoffmeier equates yam suf with the Egyptian term pa - tjufy (also written p3 twfy) from the Ramsside period, which refers to lakes in the eastern Nile delta. He also describes references to p3 twfy in the context of the Island of Amun, thought to be modern Tell el - Balamun. Tell el - Balamun was the most northerly city of Pharaonic Egypt about 29 km southwest of Damietta, located at 31.2586 North, 31.5714 East.
No archaeological evidence has been found that confirms the crossing of the Red Sea ever took place. Zahi Hawass, an Egyptian archaeologist and formerly Egypt 's Minister of State for Antiquities Affairs, said of the Exodus and Passover story, the Israelite 's ' biblical flight from Egypt and the 40 years of wandering the desert in search of the Promised Land, "Really, it 's a myth... Sometimes as archaeologists we have to say that never happened because there is no historical evidence. ''
The theme of Moses crossing the Red Sea was taken up by the panegyrists of Constantine the Great and applied to the battle of the Milvian Bridge (312). The theme enjoyed a vogue during the fourth century on carved sarcophagi: at least twenty - nine have survived in full or in fragments. Eusebius of Caesarea cast Maxentius, drowned in the Tiber, in the role of Pharaoh, both in his Ecclesiastical History and in his eulogistic Life of Constantine.
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what does gronkowski wear on his left arm | Rob Gronkowski - Wikipedia
Robert Gronkowski (born May 14, 1989) is an American football tight end for the New England Patriots of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Arizona, winning several awards, including being named a Sporting News and Rivals.com freshman All - American.
The Patriots drafted Gronkowski with the 42nd pick in the second round of the 2010 NFL Draft. In 2011, Gronkowski set the single - season record for touchdowns by a tight end with 17 receiving touchdowns (and 18 overall), as well as the single - season record for receiving yards by a tight end, with 1,327. That season, he became the first tight end in NFL history to lead the league in receiving touchdowns. In his first six seasons, he had 68 receiving touchdowns; only two tight ends in NFL history have had more in their entire careers. He has achieved four Pro Bowl selections and four All - Pro selections, and was a starter in the Patriots ' Super Bowl XLIX victory.
Robert Paxton Gronkowski was born in Amherst, New York on May 14, 1989 and raised in Williamsville, New York. He attended Williamsville North High School for three years. Gronkowski played football, as a tight end, and basketball, as a center, for the Spartans athletic teams. As a junior playing football, he recorded 36 receptions for 648 yards and seven touchdowns on offense, and 73 tackles and six sacks on defense. He was named an All - Western New York first - team and All - State second - team player.
In 2006, Gronkowski moved to suburban Pittsburgh, where he attended Woodland Hills High School in Churchill as a senior. Initially ruled ineligible by the Western Pennsylvania Interscholastic Athletic League, he recorded eight receptions for 152 yards and four touchdowns at Woodland Hills, after the ruling of ineligibility was overturned. He was named a SuperPrep All - American, PrepStar All - American, Associated Press Class 4 - A all - state, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette "Fabulous 22 '', Pittsburgh Post-Gazette first - team all - conference, The Patriot - News (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania) "Platinum 33 '', and a Pittsburgh Tribune - Review "Terrific 25 '' player. He was recruited by Kentucky, Arizona, Clemson, Louisville, Maryland, Ohio State, and Syracuse.
After graduating high school, Gronkowski attended the University of Arizona and played for the Arizona Wildcats football team from 2007 to 2009. As a freshman in 2007, he recorded 28 receptions for 525 yards and six touchdowns. His 18.8 yards per reception average was the best on the team and his receiving yards were a school record for a tight end. He was named The Sporting News freshman All - American, Rivals.com freshman All - American, The Sporting News freshman Pac - 10, and All - Pac - 10 honorable mention player.
Gronkowski missed the first three games of the 2008 season, but later recorded 47 receptions for 672 yards and a team - best ten touchdowns. Five of his touchdowns were scored in his first two games. He twice was named the John Mackey National Tight End of the Week, including his performance in a failed comeback bid against Oregon, when he caught 12 passes for 143 yards. He set the school records for a tight end for single - game, single - season, and career receptions, yards, and touchdowns. Gronkowski was named an Associated Press third - team All - American and All - Pac - 10 first - team tight end.
Prior to the 2009 season, Gronkowski was placed on the watchlist for the Lombardi Award, which is awarded to the most outstanding college football lineman or linebacker. He missed his junior season in 2009 due to back surgery, which caused his draft stock to fall.
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Gronkowski was drafted by the New England Patriots in the second round (42nd overall) of the 2010 NFL Draft, after a draft day trade with the Oakland Raiders; in pre-draft evaluations revealed in May 2016, Raiders scouts had rated Gronkowski as the "best all - around player in the draft. '' He signed a four - year contract on July 25, 2010. The deal was worth $4.4 million, with a $1.76 million signing bonus.
During the preseason, Gronkowski was one of three NFL players to score four touchdowns, tying Victor Cruz, a rookie wide receiver for the New York Giants, and Anthony Dixon, a running back for the San Francisco 49ers. In the Week 1 game against Cincinnati, Gronkowski caught his first regular season touchdown in the fourth quarter on a one - yard pass from Tom Brady.
In a Week 10 victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers, Gronkowski caught three touchdown passes from Brady, becoming the first rookie in Patriots history, and the youngest rookie in NFL history to accomplish the feat. (In honor of the feat, Madden NFL 12 has a "Rob Gronkowski Award '' for players who have a tight end catch three or more touchdowns in a single game.)
Visiting his home city of Buffalo in Week 16, Gronkowski caught two touchdowns against the Buffalo Bills, and added a touchdown in the season finale to give him 10 on the season; in 16 games played (11 starts), Gronkowski caught 42 passes for 546 yards. Despite missing his entire 2009 college season following back surgery, Gronkowski did not miss a single game or practice all season; he was the first rookie tight end since the NFL - AFL merger to score 10 touchdowns.
Gronkowski was nominated three times for Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Week, in Weeks 10, 14, and 17, winning twice and losing in Week 10 to Tim Tebow. Gronkowski also finished fifth in fan balloting at tight end for the 2011 Pro Bowl, and fourth overall among rookies. Gronkowski also received one writer 's vote for the Associated Press 2010 All - Pro Team (writers only vote for one tight end).
Gronkowski caught his first touchdown of the 2011 season on a 10 - yard pass from Tom Brady in the Patriots ' Week 1 victory over the Miami Dolphins; Gronkowski 's 6 catches accounted for 86 of Brady 's franchise record 517 yards. In Week 11, Gronkowski caught two touchdown passes, including a career - long 52 - yard catch and run, to equal his 2010 TD total in just ten games; he passed his reception and yardage totals from 2010 in only eight games.
Through Week 11, Gronkowski led all tight ends with 10 touchdowns; his 20 touchdowns were the most ever for a tight end in his first two seasons. His reception and receiving yardage totals both ranked second among tight ends (after Jimmy Graham of the New Orleans Saints), and in the top ten among all receivers, though they only ranked second on the Patriots, behind wide receiver Wes Welker.
Gronkowski broke the NFL record for touchdowns scored in a single season by a tight end when he had the second three - TD game of his career in the Patriots ' Week 13 victory against the Indianapolis Colts. After scoring two TDs on receptions from Tom Brady, Gronkowski scored a third touchdown from 2 yards out. Initially declared a forward pass, the pass was later ruled a lateral pass, which is recorded as a rushing attempt; it was the first rushing attempt of Gronkowski 's career, and his first rushing touchdown. It was also the first rushing touchdown by a tight end since Bo Scaife did it in 2006, and the first in Patriots history. At game 's end, Gronkowski had sole possession of the touchdown scoring record, with 14, and shared the record for receiving touchdowns, 13, with Antonio Gates and Vernon Davis.
Gronkowski took sole possession of the TE receiving record a week later against the Washington Redskins, in which he caught his 14th and 15th touchdown passes of the season; in total, he had six receptions for a career - high 160 yards. His performance also earned him his first AFC Offensive Player of the Week award, and, for the second week in a row, NFL. com 's "Hardest Working Man '' award. He ended the season with 1,327 receiving yards, breaking the previous NFL record for a tight end of 1,310 set by Jimmy Graham of the Saints earlier that same day. He also finished with 18 total touchdowns, 17 receiving -- both NFL records for tight ends. Gronkowski 's 18 touchdowns were the second - highest total in the NFL (after Philadelphia 's LeSean McCoy, who had 20), and equaled the output of the entire St. Louis Rams team. His 17 receiving touchdowns were the most of any NFL player in 2011, marking the first time in NFL history a tight end had sole possession of the league lead.
Gronkowski was voted the starting tight end for the AFC at the 2012 Pro Bowl. One of eight Patriots players voted to the Pro Bowl, he finished fan voting with 936,886 votes, more than triple the number received by the number two tight end, Gronkowski 's teammate Aaron Hernandez, and the third - highest total of any AFC player, behind teammates Tom Brady and Wes Welker. He was also voted the tight end for the AP All - Pro first team, receiving 441⁄2 of the 50 votes (44 voters voted for Gronkowski; 5 voters voted for Jimmy Graham, and one voter split a vote between the two).
In the Patriots ' first playoff game, a 45 -- 10 rout of the Denver Broncos in the Divisional round, Gronkowski tied an NFL post-season record, catching three touchdown passes as part of a 10 - catch, 145 - yard effort. Gronkowski alone had more catches than the entire Broncos offense, as quarterback Tim Tebow completed just 9 of 26 passes. For the second playoff game, a 23 -- 20 win over the Baltimore Ravens, Gronkowski suffered a high ankle sprain on a tackle by Ravens safety Bernard Pollard; the status of his ankle was one of the major story lines in the run - up to Super Bowl XLVI. But, Gronkowski still managed to finish with 5 receptions for 87 yards. In Super Bowl XLVI, the Patriots decided to start Gronkowski, but he was n't a large factor in the game. With only a few seconds left in the Super Bowl XLVI, Gronkowski had a chance on Tom Brady 's Hail Mary as time expired, but his dive for the ball came up short. Gronkowski finished the game with 2 receptions for 26 yards, which was his lowest output since early October. The Patriots lost the Super Bowl to the New York Giants, 21 -- 17. A few days after the Super Bowl, Gronkowski had an MRI of his injured ankle that revealed strained ligaments and required surgery to repair.
On June 8, 2012, Gronkowski signed a six - year, $54 million contract extension, the largest ever for an NFL tight end. The contract included an $8 million signing bonus, but otherwise left the 2012 and 2013 seasons of his rookie contract intact. Gronkowski broke his left forearm late in the fourth quarter during an extra point in the Patriots ' 59 - 24 victory in Week 11 over the Indianapolis Colts. Before doing so, however, he became the third tight end in NFL history (after Tony Gonzalez and Antonio Gates) to achieve three seasons with at least 10 touchdown receptions, and the first ever to do it in consecutive seasons. Gronkowski returned to practice in Week 15, and participated in the Week 17 game against the Miami Dolphins, scoring a touchdown. He re-injured his left arm in the first quarter of the Patriots ' first playoff game, against the Houston Texans. He required another operation, and missed the remainder of the playoff. In 11 games in the 2012 season, Gronkowski had 790 receiving yards and 11 touchdowns.
In February 2013, Gronkowski was diagnosed with an infection in his forearm. He underwent an open procedure -- the third on his forearm -- in an effort to clear the infection; he was subsequently placed on a course of antibiotics. On May 20, 2013, Gronkowski underwent a fourth surgery on his forearm to replace the hardware implanted in the second procedure and perform tissue biopsies. ESPN 's Adam Schefter reported that doctors were encouraged the infection had finally resolved. On June 18, 2013, Gronkowski underwent back surgery. He was cleared to play for the October 20, 2013, game against the New York Jets. During a game against the Cleveland Browns on December 8, 2013, Gronkowski suffered a right knee injury after a direct hit from safety T.J. Ward. Gronkowski tore his ACL and MCL, which prematurely ended his 2013 season. In 7 games (6 starts), Gronkowski produced 592 receiving yards and 4 touchdowns.
In his first game back from ACL / MCL surgery, Gronkowski managed to catch four passes for 40 yards and a touchdown against the Miami Dolphins in a losing effort, 33 -- 20. He played on limited snaps as the Patriots worked him back to full strength slowly. Against the Minnesota Vikings in Week 2, Gronkowski logged another 4 receptions for 32 yards in a 30 -- 7 win. Against the Raiders in Week 3, Gronkowski caught 3 balls for 44 yards and his second touchdown of the season, and the only touchdown scored in the Patriots ' 16 -- 9 victory. Through Week 3, Gronkowski logged 1 start, 11 receptions, 116 receiving yards, and 2 touchdowns on only 109 offensive snaps (42 % of the team 's offensive total). Gronkowski broke out in Week 8 against the Bears, catching 9 passes for 149 yards and 3 touchdowns. In week 14 against the San Diego Chargers, Gronkowski became the first tight end in NFL history to catch at least 10 touchdowns in four separate seasons. Gronkowski was a major factor in the Patriots ' 28 - 24 Super Bowl XLIX win over the Seattle Seahawks, recording 6 catches for 68 yards and a touchdown late in the second quarter. Gronkowski was fined twice this season, once for "unnecessary roughness '' against Indianapolis Colts safety Sergio Brown, and the other time occurring during Super Bowl XLIX. Gronkowski, among three others, was fined $8,628 for "striking an opponent. ''
Gronkowski was named to his third Pro Bowl and was the unanimous choice for tight end on the 2014 All - Pro Team, receiving all 50 votes. At the 2015 ESPY Awards, Gronkowski won the Comeback of the Year award for his 2014 season.
During the Patriots ' home opener on Thursday Night Football against the Pittsburgh Steelers on September 10, 2015, Gronkowski caught five passes for 94 yards, scoring three of the Patriots ' four touchdowns in their 28 -- 21 victory. The three - touchdown performance was the third in Gronkowski 's career, one shy of wide receiver Randy Moss 's team record of four. It also made Gronkowski the first player in NFL history with multiple three - touchdown - reception games against the Steelers. Through the Patriots ' first six games, all victories, Gronkowski recorded 34 receptions for 533 yards and six touchdowns. He added 113 yards and a touchdown on October 29 in a 36 -- 7 win over the Miami Dolphins. In the Patriots ' first loss of the season, on November 29, 2015, against the Denver Broncos, Gronkowski had to be carted off the field after a right knee injury in the fourth quarter. Initial reports said that the injury appeared to be less serious than it originally looked.
After missing a week, Gronkowski returned for the Patriots ' December 13 game against the Houston Texans. He caught four passes for 87 yards and a touchdown, for a total of 10 touchdowns and 1,018 yards on the season. The Patriots won, 27 -- 6, to snap a two - game losing streak.
On December 20, Gronkowski caught five passes for 54 yards and one touchdown in a 33 -- 16 win over the Tennessee Titans. He dedicated the touchdown to his friend Dana Parenteau, who had died at the age of 43 two days earlier.
In the Patriots ' 27 -- 20 win over the Kansas City Chiefs in the AFC Divisional Round, Gronkowski caught seven passes for 83 yards and two touchdowns. In the AFC Championship, a 20 -- 18 loss to the Denver Broncos, Gronkowski led all receivers with 8 catches for 144 yards and a touchdown. Gronkowski had the Patriots ' final touchdown to put the Patriots within two points, but the resulting two - point conversion was unsuccessful.
Gronkowski was selected to the Pro Bowl and to the AP All - Pro first team for the fourth time in his career; he led all non-quarterbacks in fan voting for the Pro Bowl, and received 48 of 50 All - Pro votes at tight end. He was ranked as the ninth best player on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016.
Gronkowski missed the first two games of the 2016 season due to a hamstring injury and was limited in his next two games. Against the Buffalo Bills in Week 8, Gronkowski scored the 69th regular - season touchdown of his career, which was also his 68th receiving touchdown. The touchdown broke both Patriots franchise records set by Stanley Morgan. In Week 10 against the Seattle Seahawks, he took a big hit to the chest by Earl Thomas which was initially thought to be a punctured lung but turned out to be a pulmonary contusion, keeping him out in Week 11. In Week 12 against the New York Jets, he suffered a back injury, which needed surgery to repair a herniated disk, and was out for the season. He was officially placed on injured reserve on December 3, 2016 after having surgery the previous day. He finished the season with 25 receptions on 38 targets for 540 yards and three touchdowns. His 21.6 yards per reception ranked first among NFL tight ends in 2016. Gronkowski was on injured reserve when the Patriots won Super Bowl LI on February 5, 2017. In the game, the Patriots defeated the Atlanta Falcons by a score of 34 -- 28, earning Gronkowski his second Super Bowl championship. Despite missing eight games, Gronkowski was still ranked 23rd by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017.
Gronkowski began the 2017 season healthy after missing much of the previous season on the injured reserve list. Gronkowski injured his groin during a Week 2 victory over the New Orleans Saints, leaving the game early, but the injury did not result in missing any further games. Before the injury, he had recorded six receptions for 116 yards and a touchdown. By the end of Week 4, he was occupying his familiar role as the team leader in receptions and receiving yardage, but a thigh contusion suffered in practice prior to the Thursday Night Football game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Week 5 caused him to miss that game entirely.
During Week 13 against the Buffalo Bills, Gronkowski had 9 receptions for 147 receiving yards as the Patriots won 23 -- 3. However, after Bills rookie cornerback Tre'Davious White intercepted a pass intended for Gronkowski during the fourth quarter, he responded by body slamming White, drawing a personal foul penalty and giving White a concussion. Gronkowski was upset, claiming that White should have been flagged for a pass interference penalty. On December 4, the day after the game, Gronkowski was suspended for one game for his hit on White. The next day, December 5, the NFL denied Gronkowski 's appeal of the one - game suspension. With Gronkowski suspended for the Miami Dolphins game, the Patriots lost 20 - 27. The following week in Week 15 against the Steelers, Gronkowski caught nine passes for a career - high 168 yards in a 27 - 24 win in Pittsburgh. This marked the 26th game in Gronkowski 's eight - year career that he 's totaled 100 yards receiving, as the only tight end with more 100 - yard games in a career is Tony Gonzalez with 31. He also eclipsed the 1,000 - yard mark on the season, his fourth in his career, joining Gonzalez and Jason Witten as the only NFL tight ends with four 1,000 - yard seasons.
Career statistics accurate as of week 15 of the 2017 season. Bold indicates career high,
In March 2012, Gronkowski signed a two - year deal with Dunkin ' Donuts to endorse their products and appear in radio and television spots.
In August 2012, Gronkowski became an investor and sponsor of the premium sports drink, Bodyarmor SuperDrink.
In September 2012, PLB Sports produced a frosted corn flakes cereal named Gronk Flakes that was sold in New England at Stop & Shop supermarkets. Gronk Flakes are made by the same company that produced Flutie Flakes. A portion of proceeds will benefit the Gronk Nation Youth Foundation.
In January 2015, Gronkowski teamed up with opendorse to promote a Zynga mobile application called "NFL Showdown: Football Manager ''.
In his book, It 's Good to be Gronk!, Gronkowski has written that he has n't spent any of his money he has earned through his NFL contracts and strictly lives off the earnings from his endorsement deals and appearance fees. His salary over the first five years was over $10.0 million.
In April 2016, Gronkowski launched with Monster Energy a signature "Gronk '' beverage that will be distributed by Coca - Cola.
In May 2016, EA Sports announced that Gronkowski, who finished second to New York Giants wide receiver Odell Beckham Jr. in fan voting for the cover of its Madden NFL 16, would be the cover athlete for Madden NFL 17; no vote was held.
Gronkowski is the second youngest of five brothers, all of whom played collegiate sports. The eldest, Gordie Jr., played baseball at Jacksonville University, and played several years of affiliated and independent league baseball, last appearing professionally for the Southern Illinois Miners of the Frontier League in 2011. Dan played as a tight end at Maryland and was selected in the 2009 NFL Draft, he played for five years in the NFL. Chris played football for two years at the University of Maryland before transferring to Arizona and playing for four seasons in the NFL. The youngest brother, Glenn, was also a fullback for the Patriots. Rob also played hockey until he was 14; then he started playing basketball.
Gronkowski is known for his fun - loving personality, with Patriots quarterback Tom Brady being quoted as saying "Gronk is a one of a kind person, player and friend. He is one of the most positive people I have ever been around and he loves to have fun. What you see is what you get and whether he is dancing, singing, laughing, or spiking, he is true to himself. '' Gronkowski said that partying improves his playing abilities, noting, "You go out and get refreshed, and it just makes you want to go back out on that practice field and keep going hard. ''
Gronkowski appeared as fictionalized versions of himself in the 2015 film Entourage and a 2017 episode of the 15th season of Family Guy, and has a role in the 2017 American crime - drama thriller film American Violence. Gronkowski made an appearance at WWE 's WrestleMania 33, jumping the barricade and helping real - life friend Mojo Rawley win the Andre The Giant Memorial Battle Royal.
He is of Polish origin, among with some English and some German origin. < ref > (1)
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will there be a season 2 of midnight diner | Midnight Diner (Japanese TV series) - wikipedia
Midnight Diner (深夜 食堂, Shinya shokudō) is a Japanese TV series based on the manga of the same name by Yarō Abe. The show focuses on a midnight diner, the chef, known only as "The Master '', and his involvement with his customers.
The setting of Midnight Diner is a small 12 seat Izakaya called "Meshiya '' in Shinjuku, Tokyo. Despite the restaurant 's strange opening hours, 12 am to 7 am, it is popular with the busy nightlife of Shinjuku. The Shinjuku setting, and the hours of operation, mean that much of the Midnight Diner story takes place at night.
"The Master '', the main character of the show, is a chef who runs While he has a limited range of food, (generally only pork miso soup) he always offers that he will "do the best he can '' to produce any thing that a customer may want with the ingredients he has at hand. Sometimes the customer contributes the ingredients, particularly if they are out of the ordinary. The diner is frequented by a range of people, all of whom get on, including prostitutes, Yakuza, salaryman. Only occasionally is there conflict between the characters, (e.g., in one scene two characters start fighting and the Master pours alcohol on them).
Generally, each episode deals with a drama focused on a particular customer, only rarely are the dramas about the Master himself (mainly the first movie, where the master injures his hand and ca n't cook). The plot will introduce the characters of the episode, and then detail that they are sad or challenged in some way. The Master offers help to his customers generally, and to give advice. The plot will generally offer some philosophical lesson as part of the story, be it simple or complicated. The Master himself tends to offer advice, and at least console with a good meal, but does n't personally get involved in the dramas. Some of the stories are lighthearted, others more dramatic.
Generally, the show will focus on a particular dish, (often the favorite of the character that the episode is about) which relates to the story, and show the preparation of it.
The Master character occasionally breaks the fourth wall, to speak to the viewers (e.g. in the TV series, to announce the upcoming movie). In the first movie, the master is assisted by a homeless girl, (played by Tabe Mikako) who learns some of his cooking techniques, though generally he cooks by himself.
While generally the characters are transitional, and are mainly seen in their own episodes, and perhaps as background in minor characters in one or two other episodes, a couple of characters are regular customers and reappear regularly, including the trio of gossiping old ladies, and Tadashi, the old man wearing a cap (played by Mansaku Fuwa). Occasionally seen is the cross-dressing restaurant owner Kosuzu (Toshiki Ayata), and the Yakuza boss (played by Yutaka Matsushige).
Occasionally, the stories will adopt magic realism overtones, including in one story, the depiction of a ghost. Commentary has also suggested that the Tadashi character may be a type of Japanese demon that is seen at bars.
The main character of the show is the Master. He is a somewhat mysterious figure; he is well regarded for his cooking talents, but his background is not detailed. He has a very obvious scar down the side of his face, implied in one episode to be from a sword cut from a rough past life; however, this is otherwise never explained. The Master character 's actual name is never given. He is a sympathetic character, however despite the various problems his customer has, he never gets too involved in their affairs, and is generally not involved in scenes with them, except at his restaurant. His main way of assisting is to bring comfort by making food, and to provide advice.
His character is similar to a bartender in the away that he functions as an adviser / psychiatrist, and the characters project their insecurities or issues on to him, or discuss and mull over their problems with him. He does n't engage upon in depth conversation, however what wisdom he does say seems to have an effect. Instead of getting involved in people 's issues directly, he mainly offers advice. Most of the time, he is cooking, cleaning dishes, or having a cigarette in the kitchen.
The master has a few rules for the kitchen, he has a limit of three drinks per person, and any fighting has to be taken outside.
Tadashi (played by Mansaku Fuwa) is the character in the show that most frequently appears, apart from the master. He is an older man, who is always seen wearing a flat cap or some sort of hat. He occasionally offers advice, and harmless banter. Generally the stories do n't involve him, he is just in the Izakaya to pass comment.
The Greek chorus of three office ladies, like Tadako, are generally not involved in the drama, and apart from Tadako, they are the most obvious recurring characters. They appear in the Izakaya, and offer comment on the drama, or filler dialogue between the main characters for the individual episode. They appear in all four seasons and the two movies. They are generally sympathetic to the troubled eaters in the restaurant.
The Yakuza boss is featured less in the Izakaya, his main feature is that he likes to eat childish food.
There is a police officer close by in a kōban, who sometimes features and has a less significant, but recurring role.
The show has been a success in Japan, with four seasons produced in 2009, 2011, 2014 and 2017. Also, to date, two movies were produced by TBS and MBS. The fourth season (known in the US as "Midnight Diner: Tokyo Stories '') produced in 2016 by TBS and Netflix Japan. Netflix Japan purchased streaming and production rights from the Japanese producer to produce the fourth series, which is shown on Netflix internationally.
Following the success of the original Japanese version, Korean and Chinese versions were made. The Korean version, Late Night Restaurant, was mildly successful, and one season was made. The Chinese version, also called Midnight Diner, was very similar to the Japanese version but did not translate well to the audience and was not successful.
Main cast
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what do the three germ layers give rise to | Germ layer - wikipedia
A germ layer is a primary layer of cells that form during embryogenesis. The three germ layers in vertebrates are particularly pronounced; however, all eumetazoans, (animals more complex than the sponge) produce two or three primary germ layers. Animals with radial symmetry, like cnidarians, produce two germ layers (the ectoderm and endoderm) making them diploblastic. Animals with bilateral symmetry produce a third layer (the mesoderm), between these two layers. making them triploblastic. Germ layers eventually give rise to all of an animal 's tissues and organs through the process of organogenesis.
Caspar Friedrich Wolff observed organization of the early embryo in leaf - like layers. In 1817, Heinz Christian Pander discovered three primordial germ layers while studying chick embryos. Between 1850 and 1855, Robert Remak had further refined the germ cell layer concept, and introduced into English were the terms "mesoderm '' by Huxley in 1871 and "ectoderm '' and "endoderm '' by Lankester in 1873.
Among animals, sponges show the simplest organization, having a single germ layer. Although they have differentiated cells (e.g. collar cells), they lack true tissue coordination. Diploblastic animals, Cnidaria and Ctenophora, show an increase in complexity, having two germ layers, the endoderm and ectoderm. Diploblastic animals are organized into recognisable tissues. All higher animals (from flatworms to humans) are triploblastic, possessing a mesoderm in addition to the germ layers found in Diploblasts. Triploblastic animals develop recognizable organs.
Fertilization leads to the formation of a zygote. During the next stage, cleavage, mitotic cell divisions transform the zygote into a hollow ball of cells, a blastula. This early embryonic form undergoes gastrulation, forming a gastrula with either two or three layers (the germ layers). In all vertebrates, these progenitor cells differentiate into all adult tissues and organs.
In the human embryo, after about three days, the zygote forms a solid mass of cells by mitotic division, called a morula. This then changes to a blastocyst, consisting of an outer layer called a trophoblast, and an inner cell mass called the embryoblast. Filled with uterine fluid, the blastocyst breaks out of the zona pellucida and undergoes implantation. The inner cell mass initially has two layers: the hypoblast and epiblast. At the end of the second week, a primitive streak appears. The epiblast in this region moves towards the primitive streak, dives down into it, and forms a new layer, called the endoderm, pushing the hypoblast out of the way (this goes on to form the amnion.) The epiblast keeps moving and forms a second layer, the mesoderm. The top layer is now called the ectoderm.
The endoderm is one of the germ layers formed during animal embryogenesis. Cells migrating inward along the archenteron form the inner layer of the gastrula, which develops into the endoderm.
The endoderm consists at first of flattened cells, which subsequently become columnar. It forms the epithelial lining of the whole of the digestive tract except part of the mouth and pharynx and the terminal part of the rectum (which are lined by involutions of the ectoderm). It also forms the lining cells of all the glands which open into the digestive tract, including those of the liver and pancreas; the epithelium of the auditory tube and tympanic cavity; the trachea, bronchi, and alveoli of the lungs; the bladder and part of the urethra; and the follicle lining of the thyroid gland and thymus.
The endoderm forms: the stomach, the colon, the liver, the pancreas, the bladder, the epithelial parts of trachea, the lungs, the pharynx, the thyroid, the parathyroid, and the intestines.
The mesoderm germ layer forms in the embryos of triploblastic animals. During gastrulation, some of the cells migrating inward contribute to the mesoderm, an additional layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm. The formation of a mesoderm leads to the development of a coelom. Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and develop independently of the body wall while fluid cushions and protects them from shocks.
The mesoderm has several components which develop into tissues: intermediate mesoderm, paraxial mesoderm, lateral plate mesoderm, and chorda - mesoderm. The chorda - mesoderm develops into the notochord. The intermediate mesoderm develops into kidneys and gonads. The paraxial mesoderm develops into cartilage, skeletal muscle, and dermis. The lateral plate mesoderm develops into the circulatory system (including the heart and spleen), the wall of the gut, and wall of the human body.
Through cell signaling cascades and interactions with the ectodermal and endodermal cells, the mesodermal cells begin the process of differentiation.
The mesoderm forms: muscle (smooth and striated), bone, cartilage, connective tissue, adipose tissue, circulatory system, lymphatic system, dermis, genitourinary system, serous membranes, and notochord.
The ectoderm generates the outer layer of the embryo, and it forms from the embryo 's epiblast. The ectoderm develops into the surface ectoderm, neural crest, and the neural tube.
The surface ectoderm develops into: epidermis, hair, nails, lens of the eye, sebaceous glands, cornea, tooth enamel, the epithelium of the mouth and nose.
The neural crest of the ectoderm develops into: peripheral nervous system, adrenal medulla, melanocytes, facial cartilage, dentin of teeth.
The neural tube of the ectoderm develops into: brain, spinal cord, posterior pituitary, motor neurons, retina.
Note: The anterior pituitary develops from the ectodermal tissue of Rathke 's pouch.
Because of its great importance, the neural crest is sometimes considered a fourth germ layer. It is, however, derived from the ectoderm.
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despicable me 3 release date around the world | Despicable Me 3 - wikipedia
Despicable Me 3 (stylized in marketing and onscreen as Despicable M3) is a 2017 American 3D computer - animated comedy film produced by Illumination Entertainment for Universal Pictures. It is the third main installment in the Despicable Me film series and the sequel to Despicable Me 2 (2013). The film is directed by Pierre Coffin and Kyle Balda, co-directed by Eric Guillon and written by Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio.
In the film, Gru teams up with his long - lost twin brother Dru in order to defeat a new enemy named Balthazar Bratt, a 1980s child actor who grows up to become a villain. Steve Carell, Miranda Cosgrove and Dana Gaier reprise their roles of Gru, Margo and Edith from the first two films and Julie Andrews returns as Marlena, Gru 's mother from Despicable Me (2010). Kristen Wiig and Steve Coogan return from Despicable Me 2, while Trey Parker, Jenny Slate and Nev Scharrel (replacing Elsie Fisher as Agnes) join the cast.
Despicable Me 3 premiered on June 14, 2017, at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival, and was released in the United States on June 30, 2017, by Universal Pictures in 3D, RealD 3D, Dolby Cinema, and IMAX 3D. The film received mixed reviews from critics and has grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it the third highest - grossing film of 2017, the fifth highest - grossing animated film of all time and the 28th highest - grossing overall. It is Illumination 's second film to gross over $1 billion, after Minions in 2015, becoming the first ever animated franchise to do so.
Former villain Gru is now an agent for the Anti-Villain League (AVL). He and his partner / wife Lucy are sent to foil the plans of Balthazar Bratt, a former child star turned evil. Gru manages to stop Bratt from stealing the world 's largest diamond, but is unable to capture him. As a result of failing to capture Bratt, Gru and Lucy are fired from the AVL by its unreasonable new director Valerie Da Vinci, following the retirement of Silas Ramsbottom.
Gru and Lucy reluctantly tell their children, Margo, Edith, and Agnes, of their termination, but assure them they will find new jobs. Most of Gru 's Minions leave Gru when he refuses to return to villainy despite losing his job. Meanwhile, Lucy struggles to adapt to her new role as the children 's new mom. The next morning, the family is approached by Fritz, the butler of Gru 's cheerful twin brother Dru, who lives in a distant country named Freedonia and longs to meet him. Gru is shocked to learn he has a twin. He confronts his mother, who reveals that when she and her husband divorced, they agreed to keep one child each. The family decides to travel to meet Dru, and they are surprised at his immense wealth, which Fritz attributes to their pig farm business. Meanwhile, the Minions are arrested for trespassing at a talent show set. Bratt manages to steal the diamond again, intending to use it to power a giant robot and destroy Hollywood as revenge for the cancellation of his show.
Dru reveals to Gru that their recently deceased father was a legendary supervillain, whose villainous activities are the real source of the family 's wealth. As Dru was dismissed by their father as a disgrace, he asks his brother to teach him how to be a villain. When Gru refuses to revert to his old ways, Dru takes him on a joyride around Freedonia in their father 's technologically advanced car and the siblings bond. Meanwhile, Lucy tries to balance her tasks as a mom, which she exhibits after turning away a young boy named Niko who had fallen for Margo in the midst of a traditional cheese festival, while Edith and Agnes stumble into a local tavern and learn from the bartender about a mythical unicorn which lurks in a nearby forest. Gru tries to convince Agnes that unicorns are imaginary, but decides against it to avoid hurting her feelings. The next day, Agnes and Edith set out into the woods to track the mythical horse, only to find a one - horned goat whom Agnes adopts and dubs "Lucky. '' Meanwhile, the Minions ' longing for Gru motivates them to escape from prison.
Dru convinces Gru to steal the diamond, with Gru secretly intending to bring it to the AVL, which he hopes will convince Da Vinci to rehire him. Despite several setbacks, they manage to retrieve the diamond and are rescued by Lucy after narrowly escaping. After finding out Gru 's true motives, Dru confronts his brother about his lie. In return, Gru insults him and decides to leave Freedonia. Bratt, disguised as Lucy, kidnaps the children, and once again acquires the diamond. Gru and Dru resolve their differences and pursue him.
With his robot powered by the diamond, Bratt terrorizes Hollywood, intending to send it into space with the use of superpowered gum. Lucy saves the children while Gru and Dru weaken Bratt 's robot with the weapons of their father 's car. Gru is knocked unconscious when the car is destroyed, and Dru manages to destroy the robot 's core from the inside when Bratt threatens to kill Gru. When Gru recovers, he battles Bratt in a dance fight, using it as a distraction to grab his weaponized keytar, and defeats him. Having rendezvoused with Gru, the Minions manage to destroy the gum already covering the city, and Gru and Dru reunite.
Soon afterward, Gru and Lucy are reinstated in the AVL and the newly united family celebrate in Gru 's home. Lucy is acknowledged by the children as their mother. Lured back to villainy, Dru and most of the minions steals Gru 's ship, with Gru 's emblem replaced with a "D '' graffiti. Gru and Lucy decide to give them a five - minute head - start before engaging pursuit.
Steve Burke, the NBCUniversal CEO, confirmed in September 2013 that a third film in the Despicable Me series was in development. Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio, the writers of the first two films, announced that they would return to write the screenplay for the film. On April 13, 2016, Trey Parker, co-creator of South Park, was cast as the main antagonist for the film, Balthazar Bratt.
The soundtrack for Despicable Me 3 was released on June 23, 2017. Pharrell Williams released the new song "Yellow Light '' for the soundtrack, which was made available through digital download and streaming. Some songs are unavailable on iTunes and Google Play
Notes
The film premiered on June 14, 2017, at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival. It was released in the United States on June 30, 2017. This is the first Illumination movie to be released in Dolby Vision and to be in the 2: 35.1 anamorphic widescreen format.
The first official trailer for the film was released on December 14, 2016; with the second released on March 14, 2017. A secondary trailer, designed for TV usage was released on April 21, 2017. A third trailer was released on May 24, 2017.
Despicable Me 3 will be released on DVD, Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and Ultra HD Blu - ray in the United Kingdom on November 6, 2017.
In the US, Despicable Me 3 will be released on digital download on November 21, 2017, and on DVD, Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and Ultra HD Blu - ray on December 5, 2017. The releases will also include a short film, titled The Secret Life of Kyle.
As of October 9, 2017, Despicable Me 3 has grossed $262.7 million in the United States and Canada and $762.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $1.025 billion, against a production budget of $80 million. On September 8, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the second Despicable Me film (after Minions), second non-Disney - animated film (after Minions), third film of 2017 (after Beauty and the Beast and The Fate of the Furious) to pass the mark and the fifth highest animated film worldwide of all time (after Toy Story 3, Frozen, Minions, and Finding Dory). It became the first film since The Fate of the Furious (also a Universal property) in April 2017 to make over a billion dollars.
In North America, the film opened alongside The House and Baby Driver, as well as the wide expansion of The Beguiled, and was projected to gross $85 -- 95 million in its opening weekend. It played in 4,529 theaters, setting the record for widest release of all time, beating the amount set by The Twilight Saga: Eclipse in 2010. It made $4.1 million from Thursday night previews, down slightly from the $4.7 million of the second film and $6.2 million made by Minions, and $29.2 million on its first day. It went on to debut to $72.4 million, slightly below expectations and the lowest of the series since the first film, but still topped the box office and was the 4th - best opening for Illumination. It also opened to more than the next five films did combined (Baby Driver 's $20.6 million, Transformers: The Last Knight 's $16.9 million, Wonder Woman 's $15.7 million, Cars 3 's $9.7 million and The House 's $8.7 million). In its second weekend the film grossed $33.6 million (a drop of 53.6 %, more than the previous Despicable Me films but similar to Minions), finishing second at the box office behind newcomer Spider - Man: Homecoming ($117 million).
Internationally the film was released in five markets on June 16, 2017, and grossed $9.9 million in its opening weekend. In its third week of release the film opened in 46 more markets, grossing $95.6 million.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 60 % based on 161 reviews, and an average rating of 5.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Despicable Me 3 should keep fans of the franchise consistently entertained with another round of colorful animation and zany -- albeit somewhat scattershot -- humor. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 49 out of 100 based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A − '' on an A+ to F scale.
IGN gave the film a score of 6 / 10, saying, "It 's not much, but Despicable Me 3 is at least enough for the younger fans of the franchise. '' Peter Debruge of Variety wrote, "Despicable Me 3 is unwieldy, but it mostly works, as co-directors Pierre Coffin (who also voices the Minions) and Kyle Balda never lose sight of the film 's emotional center, packing the rest with as much humor as they can manage. The jokes come so fast and furious, the movie can hardly find room for Heitor Pereira 's funky score, and though Pharrell Williams has contributed five new songs to sell soundtracks (including the sweet There 's Something Special), the movie hardly needs them. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap gave the film a mixed review, saying: "Ultimately, none of these flaws will matter to the throngs of little kids who have made the previous Despicable Me movies (and the superior Minions spin - off) into giant global hits. ''
Illumination 's CEO Chris Meledandri has said in September 2017 that a fourth Despicable Me film is in development.
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where did the title first lady come from | First Lady - wikipedia
First Lady is an unofficial title used for the wife of a non-monarchical head of state or chief executive. The term is also used to describe a woman seen to be at the top of her profession or art.
The term is often used to a non-monarchical heads of state or chief executives who do n't have that kind of style in their own country. Some countries have a title, official or unofficial, that is or can be translated as first lady. The title is not normally used for the wife of a head of government who is not also head of state.
First Gentleman is the male equivalent of the title in countries where the head of state 's spouse has been a man, such as the Philippines or Malta. While there has never been a male spouse of a U.S. President, "First Gentleman '' is used in the United States for the husband of a governor.
In the United States, collectively, the President of the United States and his spouse are known as the First Couple and, if they have children, they are usually referred to as the First Family.
The designation First Lady seems to have originated in the United States, where one of the earliest uses in print, in 1838, was in reference to Martha Washington. Other sources indicate that, in 1849, President Zachary Taylor called Dolley Madison "first lady '' at her state funeral, while reciting a eulogy written by himself; but no copy of that eulogy has been found.
The wife of the current President of Armenia is referred to as "Հայաստանի Առաջին տիկին '', which translates as (among other things) "First Lady of Armenia ''.
The wife of the current President of Azerbaijan uses the term "Birinci xanım ''.
The wife of the President of Brazil is called "Primeira - Dama ''.
The wife of the President of Bulgaria is called "Първа дама ''.
The term "Lok Chumteav '' is used.
The term "Primera Dama '' is used.
The terms Supruga Predsjednika Republike (Wife of the President of the Republic) or Suprug Predsjednice Republike (Husband of the President of the Republic) are most commonly used in Croatia, while the terms Prva dama (First Lady) and Prvi gospodin (First Gentleman) are rarely used, except by foreign sources. The current husband of the President of Croatia is Jakov Kitarović.
The wife of the Prime Minister has occasionally, in exceptionally rare cases, also been referred to as the First Lady of Croatia, however as the spouses of Prime Ministers have often maintained a low profile and have almost never been public figures, the title Supruga Predsjednika Vlade (Wife of the Prime Minister) has been used in cases when such a reference is needed. The current wife of the Prime Minister is Ana Maslać Plenković.
The term První dáma is used for wife of the President of the Czech Republic.
The current first lady is Ivana Zemanová.
Following a petition against a proposed change in her status that gathered more than 275,000 signatures, the French government announced that Brigitte Macron will not be holding the official title of "First Lady '', and will not be allocated an official budget for her activities. In an interview with French magazine Elle, she stated that a soon - to - be published transparency charter would clarify her "role and accompanying resources '', including the composition and size of her staff.
The Prime Minister of Greece is the country 's leading political figure and the active chief executive of its government; the President of Greece has a ceremonial role. As such, the term "Proti Kyria '' is unofficially used by the Press to refer to the wife of the country 's Prime Minister.
The term "First Lady '' is less frequently used in India. The term might be used at times to refer to the wife of the President of India in newspapers; however, the more widespread term in general use is "Wife of The President '' or more informally as the President 's wife / spouse / husband. The term "First Lady '' is not used to refer to the wife of the Prime Minister.
The term "Ibu Negara '' (Lady / Mother of the State) is used for wife of the President of Indonesia.
In the Republic of Ireland, the term "First Lady '' (Irish: an Chéad Bhean) is not used in official contexts, but is often used in the media to refer to the wife of the President and, less frequently, to refer to the wife of the Taoiseach (prime minister). During the first half of Bertie Ahern 's term as Taoiseach, he was separated from his wife Miriam (née Kelly) and the role of First Lady was filled by his then domestic partner, Celia Larkin.
The term "First Gentleman '' has also been used to describe the husband of a female President.
Leo Varadkar was elected Taoiseach in 2017, the first homosexual person to hold either post. However, he has said that he does n't plan for his domestic partner, Dr Matthew "Matt '' Barrett, to fulfil First Gentleman roles.
During the administration of President Kamuzu Banda, Malawi had an "Official Hostess '' who served in the same capacity as "First Lady '' because the President was unmarried. Banda was never married and therefore Cecilia Kadzamira served in this capacity for the nation.
The title First Lady of Maldives is used by the office of the president, governmental offices, and by visiting dignitaries.
The term "first lady '' is not officially used in New Zealand, but is sometimes used in the press and colloquially to refer to the wife of the Prime Minister.
The term first lady has been used intermittently for the wife of the President of Nigeria. The spouse of the President has no official title, but receives the same style as the president, Excellency. A former president Shehu Shagari was a polygamist, and none of his wives were referred to as the first lady.
In Pakistan, the term خاتون اول (Read As Khatoon - e-Awwal) is commonly used for the wife of Prime Minister of Pakistan. It has also been used for wife of President of Pakistan.
The wife of the current President of Peru uses the term Primera Dama.
The consort of the President of the Philippines bears the gender - neutral title of First Spouse (Filipino: Unang Kabiyák), and among other duties, is host (ess) of Malacañan Palace. The title is genderless as many Philippine languages lack grammatical gender, and because there have been presidential consorts of both sexes.
When the official consort is female, she is known as "First Lady '' (Unang Ginang); the title has also been applied to an immediate female relative serving in this capacity for a widowed President. There has only been one First Gentleman (Unang Ginoó) in history: José Miguel Arroyo, the husband of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, the 14th President.
The term Pierwsza Dama is used by the wife of the current President of Poland. The title of Pani Prezydentowa (the Presidential Lady) is also commonly, though informally, used.
The wife of the president is called "Yoeong - boo - in '' (영부인 / 令 夫人).
When the wife of the president is incapacitated, the role of First lady fell to the oldest daughter of the president during Park Chung - hee 's era. Park Chung - hee 's wife, Yuk Young - soo, was assassinated on August 15, 1974, and his daughter, Park Geun - hye assumed the First Lady.
The term "first lady '' is used by the wife of the President of the Republic of China.
The wife of the current president uses the term "first lady ''.
In American media, the term First Lady is often applied to the wife of a head of state in any country, irrespective of whether a different appellation (or none) is used in that country. For example, in 1902, the U.S. publication Munsey 's Magazine said of the wife of Canadian Governor General the Earl of Minto: "As the first lady in the land, she has done much to weld together the heterogeneous components of a colonial society which includes peoples of different races and of antagonistic religions. '' The term was also used by Munsey 's to refer to the wife of Mexico 's leader, President Porfirio Díaz: In an 1896 piece about "The Daughters of Mexico '', author Jeannie Marshall said of Carmen Romero Rubio de Díaz: "She is still a young woman, though she has filled the position of ' first lady of the land ' for many years, with marked success. '' The U.S. Spanish - language newspaper La Prensa also called her "primera dama '' when writing about her activities.
In the early days of the United States, there was no generally accepted title for the wife of the president. Many early first ladies expressed their own preference for how they were addressed, including the use of such titles as Lady. One of the earliest uses of the term "first lady '' was applied to Martha Washington in a profile by Mrs. C.H. Sigourney in 1838: Mrs. Sigourney, discussing how Martha Washington had not changed, even after her husband George became president, wrote that "The first lady of the nation still preserved the habits of early life. Indulging in no indolence, she left the pillow at dawn, and after breakfast, retired to her chamber for an hour for the study of the scriptures and devotion ''. However, the term "first lady '' would not come into common use until the late 1800s.
Harriet Lane, niece of bachelor President James Buchanan, was the first woman to be called first lady while actually serving in that position. The phrase appeared in Frank Leslie 's Illustrated Monthly in 1860, when he wrote, "The Lady of the White House, and by courtesy, the First Lady of the Land. '' Once Harriet Lane was called first lady, the term was applied retrospectively to her predecessors.
The title first gained nationwide recognition in 1877, when Mary C. Ames wrote an article in the New York City newspaper The Independent describing the inauguration of President Rutherford B. Hayes. She used the term to describe his wife, Lucy Webb Hayes.
While historically the term has generally been used to refer to the wife of a president, there were occasions when another woman, such as the President 's daughter, has filled the duties of First Lady as hostess in the White House, if the President 's wife was unwilling, unable, or if the President was a widower or bachelor.
As of 2018, the First Lady of the United States is Melania Trump, wife of Donald Trump.
The entire family of the head of state may be known familiarly as the "First Family ''.
The spouse of the second - in - command (such as a Vice President) may be known as the "Second Lady '', or Vice-First Lady. Less frequently, the family would be known as the "Second Family ''.
The spouse of a governor of a U.S. state is commonly referred to as the First Lady or First Gentleman of that state, for example "First Lady Tonette Marie Walker of Wisconsin ''. The practice is less common for spouses of mayors but is nevertheless used for some, particularly in large cities; example: "First Lady Amy Rule of Chicago '' or "First Lady Kris Barrett of Milwaukee. '' Mike Gregoire, husband of former Washington state governor Chris Gregoire, preferred to use his name instead of a common noun, calling himself "First Mike ''.
"First Lady '' is also used to refer, less formally, to wives of college and university presidents. It has even been used in reference to female spouses of men who were chairmen of major corporations.
First Lady of Ukraine is the unofficial title given by the society to the wife of the President of Ukraine. Since Ukraine gained independence in 1991, the post has been highly ceremonial and has rarely played a role in social activism. However, the recent years have witnessed some changes as Marina Poroshenko, the First Lady since 2014, is engaged in various social initiatives, particularly the movement for inclusive education and rights of persons with disabilities
In some situations, the title is bestowed upon a non-spouse. This includes terms like "First Family '', "First Daughter '', and "First Son ''.
In the past, occasionally another woman, such as the President 's daughter, has filled the duties of First Lady as hostess in the White House, if the President 's wife was unwilling, unable, or if the President was a widower or bachelor. Harriet Lane, niece of bachelor President James Buchanan was the first non-spouse to be called First Lady.
South Korean President Park Geun - hye has been referred to as First Lady to former President Park Chung - hee, who is her father. The title was bestowed upon her after her mother 's assassination.
The title was also officially bestowed on Victoria Quirino - Delgado, the daughter of widower Elpidio Quirino (1948 -- 53), sixth President of the Philippines. Victoria 's mother, Alicia Quirino née Syquía, had been killed by occupying Japanese troops towards the end of the Second World War. While President Corazón Aquino (1986 -- 92) was also widowed, the title was not given to her older children who would assist her in official duties. These included her son (and later President) Benigno Aquino III, who was a sort of de facto First Gentleman; his four sisters, as under their mother 's presidency, now unofficially share the duties of the First Spouse. The current President, Rodrigo Duterte 's marriage was annulled, and his common - law wife is not qualified to take the title as they are not married yet. Instead, he named his daughter, Davao City Mayor Sara Duterte, as First Lady.
In 1994, Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori officially named his daughter Keiko "First Lady '', after he had separated from his wife Susana Higuchi.
After taking office as Puerto Rico 's first female governor, Governor Sila Maria Calderón appointed her two daughters, Sila María González Calderón and María Elena González Calderón, to serve as First Ladies.
Evo Morales, the president of Bolivia, is single, so his sister, Esther Morales Ayma, fulfills the role of First Lady.
Following the leadership spill which installed Julia Gillard as the first female Prime Minister of Australia on 24 June 2010, some news media referred to her de facto partner, Tim Mathieson, as the "First Bloke ''.
It has become commonplace in the United States for the title of "First Lady '' to be bestowed on women, as a term of endearment, who have proven themselves to be of exceptional talent or unique notoriety in non-political areas. The phrase is often, but not always, used when the person in question is either the wife or "female equivalent '' of a well - known man (or men) in a similar field. For example, the term has been applied in the entertainment field to denote the "First Lady of Television '' (Lucille Ball), the "First Lady of Song '' (Ella Fitzgerald), the "First Lady of Country Music '' (Tammy Wynette, although Loretta Lynn was also known by the title), the "First Lady of Star Trek '' (actor / producer Majel Barrett), the "First Lady of American Soul '' (Aretha Franklin), the "First Lady of the Grand Ole Opry '' (Loretta Lynn), and the "First Lady of the American Stage '' (Helen Hayes).
The term "first lady '' is also used to denote a woman who occupies the foremost social position within a particular locality, in this sense being particularly popular in Africa, where the pre-eminent female noble in some chieftaincy hierarchies, such as those of the Yoruba people, is often referred to by the title.
In recent years, the term has also been used to refer to the wife of the pastor of a church, especially in predominantly black churches.
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university of san carlos vice president for administration | List of University of San Carlos alumni - wikipedia
This is a list of alumni notable in their own right of the University of San Carlos in Cebu City, Philippines.
Espina - Leading and foremost architects in Cebu, principal architects and partners of Espina, Perez - Espina & Associates, Architects which is among the well respected architectural firms in the country with major projects in Luzon and Visayas involving commercial establishments, universities, schools & colleges, malls, condominium & hotels, medical center buildings and residences in plush subdivisions. Both of them were involved with academe as assistant professors and deans of the USC School of Architecture, Fine Arts & Design. They have master 's degree in Urban & Regional Planning at UP Diliman and are fellows of the United Architects of the Phils., Phil. Institute of Civil Engineers and Phil. Institute of Environmental Planners.
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where in the world is carmen sandiego 2011 video game | Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? (2011 video game) - Wikipedia
Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? was a Learning Company Facebook puzzle game released in 2011. It was an adaption of the 80 's and 90 's Carmen Sandiego games of the same title. The game, which was released along with another "blast from the past '' The Oregon Trail, was developed by Blue Fang Games and released by The Learning Company.
This version, a remake of the first Carmen Sandiego game, was announced via a trailer on YouTube and was released on the social network site Facebook on February 9, 2011. The game was taken down in 2012.
Dubbin, one of the developers, explained that he originally wrote a spec for Blue Fang, "with the kind of clues I might do and the sort of material you might get ''. He played the original game numerous times and put together a series of sample clues. Because of the scale involved (each of the 66 cities had many clues about them), a team was assembled to write them.
Players began the game in the Chief 's office in the ACME headquarters in San Francisco, where they could check which cases were available to choose. After accepting one of the available cases, players started by the traveling to the first crime scene. Much like in the original games, players could travel through the city to search for and collect clues; the city clue hinted at the next geographic location to fly to, and the ID clue at the identity of the thief for that case. Important information was collected and listed in the clue log. The player could open up the map and fly to the next destination. If in the new location people gave you additional clues, the player was in the right place; if they did n't know anything, the player was in the wrong location and had to backtrack. The suspect list was narrowed down until only one option remained, and a warrant could be issued for the suspect 's arrest. Without a correct warrant, one could not pass the case. Players had a certain number in - game days to complete the case, which were defined by the distance traveled between two geographic locations, not by real - time. Shortcuts could be bought by spending Facebook Credits. If players missed the deadline, the suspect would escape and the case would be closed without a reward being issued.
This version included 86 world cities that players could visit:
The game has received generally positive reviews.
Matthew Booth of Avault gave the game a rating of 3 / 5 stars. He notes that "it might not possess all of the characteristics of a AAA game, but it 's entertaining and a good option if you 're at work and need to kill a few minutes. '' He comments that "if you find yourself stuck on a clue, you can cheat like I did and enlist the help of Google, or you can request help from your friends. '' His closing comments are "it 's free and you 're already wasting time on FB, so what 's to lose? But do n't expect anything worth the hype... now if Carmen Sandiego had zombies, maybe then I 'd stay interested ''. Out of the options "Skip it '', "Play it '' or "Buy it '', he suggested "Play it ''.
Dan Zuccarelli of Gamezebo gave the game rating of 4 1 / 2 stars out of 5. He comments that "the great news is that the game 's transition to Facebook does n't detract from it in any way. Quite the opposite actually. Jet setting, clue solving, and criminal catching is as fun as ever ''. He adds that playing on the social medium allows players to ask their friends for help or even get them to take part in your cases. However, he also says that in the pre-internet era of Carmen Sandiego games, players were equipped with a "big desk reference book '' that allowed them to search for answers to clues they were given throughout the cases. However now with Google and Wikipedia "only a browser tab away '', it is hard to resist the temptation of getting the correct answer immediately. He said that he was addicted to the game and kept saying "just one more case! ''. His closing comments were that "Carmen Sandiego 's engaging and educational gameplay is just as good now as it was way back when ''. While the pros were its engaging and educational gameplay, and great presentation, the cons were it having not enough visual variety.
On Common Sense Media, the game is rated 2 / 5 for positive messages, 2 / 5 for positive role models, 3 / 5 for ease of play and 2 / 5 for consumerism. The review notes that "the game does not push its premium currency on the player as aggressively as other titles, and the game is perfectly enjoyable without needing it ''. It gave the game an overall rating of 5 / 5 stars, arguing that the game is "essentially the same game as its PC counterpart '', as opposed to its Oregon Trail counterpart which "resulted in a highly commercial and arguably less fun experience ''. It adds that "cases seem to be randomly generated and there are more than a dozen suspects, so replay value is very good ''. The site advises that the game is for ages 13 and up.
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what are the main components of a crm system | Customer relationship management - wikipedia
Customer relationship management (CRM) is an approach to manage a company 's interaction with current and potential customers. It uses data analysis about customers ' history with a company to improve business relationships with customers, specifically focusing on customer retention and ultimately driving sales growth.
One important aspect of the CRM approach is the systems of CRM that compile data from a range of different communication channels, including a company 's website, telephone, email, live chat, marketing materials, and more recently, social media. Through the CRM approach and the systems used to facilitate it, businesses learn more about their target audiences and how to best cater to their needs.
The concept of customer relationship management started in the early 1970s, when customer satisfaction was evaluated using annual surveys or by front - line asking. At that time, businesses had to rely on standalone mainframe systems to automate sales, but the extent of technology allowed them to categorize customers in spreadsheets and lists. In 1982, Kate and Robert Kestnbaum introduced the concept of Database marketing, namely applying statistical methods to analyze and gather customer data. By 1986, Pat Sullivan and Mike Muhney released a customer evaluation system called ACT! based on the principle of digital rolodex, which offered a contact management service for the first time.
The trend was followed by numerous developers trying to maximize leads ' potential, including Tom Siebel, who signed the first CRM product Siebel Systems in 1993. Nevertheless, customer relationship management popularized in 1997, due to the work of Siebel, Gartner, and IBM. Between 1997 and 2000, leading CRM products were enriched with enterprise resource planning functions, and shipping and marketing capabilities. Siebel introduced the first mobile CRM app called Siebel Sales Handheld in 1999. The idea of a cloud - hosted and moveable customer bases was soon adopted by other leading providers at the time, including PeopleSoft, Oracle, and SAP.
The first open - source CRM system was developed by SugarCRM in 2004. During this period, CRM was rapidly migrating to cloud, as a result of which it became accessible to sole entrepreneurs and small teams, and underwent a huge wave of price reduction. Around 2009, developers began considering the options to profit from social media 's momentum, and designed tools to help companies become accessible on all users ' favorite networks. Many startups at the time benefited from this trend to provide exclusively social CRM solutions, including Base and Nutshell. The same year, Gartner organized and held the first Customer Relationship Management Summit, and summarized the features systems should offer to be classified as CRM solutions. In 2013 and 2014, most of the popular CRM products were linked to business intelligence systems and communication software to improve corporate communication and end - users ' experience. The leading trend is to replace standardized CRM solutions with industry - specific ones, or to make them customizable enough to meet the needs of every business.
In November 2016, Forrester released a report where it "identified the nine most significant CRM suites from eight prominent vendors, '' among them companies such as Infor, Microsoft, and NetSuite.
Strategic CRM is focused upon the development of a customer - centric business culture.
The primary goal of customer relationship management systems is to integrate and automate sales, marketing, and customer support. Therefore, these systems typically have a dashboard that gives an overall view of the three functions on a single customer view, a single page for each customer that a company may have. The dashboard may provide client information, past sales, previous marketing efforts, and more, summarizing all of the relationships between the customer and the firm. Operational CRM is made up of 3 main components: sales force automation, marketing automation, and service automation.
The role of analytical CRM systems is to analyze customer data collected through multiple sources, and present it so that business managers can make more informed decisions. Analytical CRM systems use techniques such as data mining, correlation, and pattern recognition to analyze the customer data. These analytics help improve customer service by finding small problems which can be solved, perhaps, by marketing to different parts of a consumer audience differently. For example, through the analysis of a customer base 's buying behavior, a company might see that this customer base has not been buying a lot of products recently. After scanning through this data, the company might think to market to this subset of consumers differently, in order to best communicate how this company 's products might benefit this group specifically.
The third primary aim of CRM systems is to incorporate external stakeholders such as suppliers, vendors, and distributors, and share customer information across organizations. For example, feedback can be collected from technical support calls, which could help provide direction for marketing products and services to that particular customer in the future.
A customer data platform (CDP) is a computer system used by marketing departments that assembles data about individual people from various sources into one database, with which other software systems can interact. As of February 2017 there were about twenty companies selling such systems and revenue for them was around US $300 million.
The main components of CRM are building and managing customer relationships through marketing, observing relationships as they mature through distinct phases, managing these relationships at each stage and recognizing that the distribution of value of a relationship to the firm is not homogenous. When building and managing customer relationships through marketing, firms might benefit from using a variety of tools to help organizational design, incentive schemes, customer structures, and more to optimize the reach of its marketing campaigns. Through the acknowledgement of the distinct phases of CRM, businesses will be able to benefit from seeing the interaction of multiple relationships as connected transactions. The final factor of CRM highlights the importance of CRM through accounting for the profitability of customer relationships. Through studying the particular spending habits of customers, a firm may be able to dedicate different resources and amounts of attention to different types of consumers.
Relational Intelligence, or awareness of the variety of relationships a customer can have with a firm, is an important component to the main phases of CRM. Companies may be good at capturing demographic data, such as gender, age, income, and education, and connecting them with purchasing information to categorize customers into profitability tiers, but this is only a firm 's mechanical view of customer relationships. This therefore is a sign that firms believe that customers are still resources that can be used for up - sell or cross-sell opportunities, rather than humans looking for interesting and personalized interactions.
CRM systems include:
Customer satisfaction has important implications for the economic performance of firms because it has the ability to increase customer loyalty and usage behavior and reduce customer complaints and the likelihood of customer defection. The implementation of a CRM approach is likely to have an effect on customer satisfaction and customer knowledge for a variety of different reasons.
Firstly, firms are able to customize their offerings for each customer. By accumulating information across customer interactions and processing this information to discover hidden patterns, CRM applications help firms customize their offerings to suit the individual tastes of their customers. This customization enhances the perceived quality of products and services from a customer 's viewpoint, and because perceived quality is a determinant of customer satisfaction, it follows that CRM applications indirectly affect customer satisfaction. CRM applications also enable firms to provide timely, accurate processing of customer orders and requests and the ongoing management of customer accounts. For example, Piccoli and Applegate discuss how Wyndham uses IT tools to deliver a consistent service experience across its various properties to a customer. Both an improved ability to customize and a reduced variability of the consumption experience enhance perceived quality, which in turn positively affects customer satisfaction. Furthermore, CRM applications also help firms manage customer relationships more effectively across the stages of relationship initiation, maintenance, and termination.
With CRM systems customers are served better on day to day process and with more reliable information their demand of self service from companies will decrease. If there is less need to interact with the company for different problems, customer satisfaction level increases. These central benefits of CRM will be connected hypothetically to the three kinds of equity that are relationship, value and brand, and in the end to customer equity. Eight benefits were recognized to provide value drivers.
In 2012, after reviewing the previous studies, someone selected some of those benefits which are more significant in customer 's satisfaction and summarized them into the following cases:
Research has found a 5 % increase in customer retention boosts lifetime customer profits by 50 % on average across multiple industries, as well as a boost of up to 90 % within specific industries such as insurance. Companies that have mastered customer relationship strategies have the most successful CRM programs. For example, MBNA Europe has had a 75 % annual profit growth since 1995. The firm heavily invests in screening potential cardholders. Once proper clients are identified, the firm retains 97 % of its profitable customers. They implement CRM by marketing the right products to the right customers. The firm 's customers ' card usage is 52 % above industry norm, and the average expenditure is 30 % more per transaction. Also 10 % of their account holders ask for more information on cross-sale products.
Amazon has also seen great success through its customer proposition. The firm implemented personal greetings, collaborative filtering, and more for the customer. They also used CRM training for the employees to see up to 80 % of customers repeat.
Consultants, such as Bain & Company, argue that it is important for companies establishing strong CRM systems to improve their relational intelligence. According to this argument, a company must recognize that people have many different types of relationships with different brands. One research study analyzed relationships between consumers in China, Germany, Spain, and the United States, with over 200 brands in 11 industries including airlines, cars and media. This information is valuable as it provides demographic, behavioral, and value - based customer segmentation. These types of relationships can be both positive and negative. Some customers view themselves as friends of the brands, while others as enemies, and some are mixed with a love - hate relationship with the brand. Some relationships are distant, intimate or anything in between.
Managers must understand the different reasons for the types of relationships, and provide the customer with what they are looking for. Companies can collect this information by using surveys, interviews, and more, with current customers. For example, Frito - Lay conducted many ethnographic interviews with customers to try and understand the relationships they wanted with the companies and the brands. They found that most customers were adults who used the product to feel more playful. They may have enjoyed the company 's bright orange color, messiness and shape.
Companies must also improve their relational intelligence of their CRM systems. These days, companies store and receive huge amounts of data through emails, online chat sessions, phone calls, and more. Many companies do not properly make use of this great amount of data, however. All of these are signs of what types of relationships the customer wants with the firm, and therefore companies may consider investing more time and effort in building out their relational intelligence. Companies can use data mining technologies and web searches to understand relational signals. Social media such as Facebook, Twitter, blogs, etc. is also a very important factor in picking up and analyzing information. Understanding the customer and capturing this data allows companies to convert customer 's signals into information and knowledge that the firm can use to understand a potential customer 's desired relations with a brand.
It is also very important to analyze all of this information to determine which relationships prove the most valuable. This helps convert data into profits for the firm. Stronger bonds contribute to building market share. By managing different portfolios for different segments of the customer base, the firm can achieve strategic goals.
Many firms have also implemented training programs to teach employees how to recognize and effectively create strong customer - brand relationships. For example, Harley Davidson sent its employees on the road with customers, who were motorcycle enthusiasts, to help solidify relationships. Other employees have also been trained in social psychology and the social sciences to help bolster strong customer relationships. Customer service representatives must be educated to value customer relationships, and trained to understand existing customer profiles. Even the finance and legal departments should understand how to manage and build relationships with customers.
Applying new technologies while using CRM systems requires changes in infrastructure of the organization as well as deployment of new technologies such as business rules, databases and information technology.
Contact center CRM providers are popular for small and mid-market businesses. These systems codify the interactions between company and customers by using analytics and key performance indicators to give the users information on where to focus their marketing and customer service. This allows agents to have access to a caller 's history to provide personalized customer communication. The intention is to maximize average revenue per user, decrease churn rate and decrease idle and unproductive contact with the customers.
Growing in popularity is the idea of gamifying, or using game design elements and game principles in a non-game environment such as customer service environments. The gamification of customer service environments includes providing elements found in games like rewards and bonus points to customer service representatives as a method of feedback for a job well done. Gamification tools can motivate agents by tapping into their desire for rewards, recognition, achievements, and competition.
Contact center automation, the practice of having an integrated system that coordinates contacts between an organization and the public, is designed to reduce the repetitive and tedious parts of a contact center agent 's job. Automation prevents this by having pre-recorded audio messages that help customers solve their problems. For example, an automated contact center may be able to re-route a customer through a series of commands asking him or her to select a certain number in order to speak with a particular contact center agent who specializes in the field in which the customer has a question. Software tools can also integrate with the agent 's desktop tools to handle customer questions and requests. This also saves time on behalf of the employees.
Social CRM involves the use of social media and technology to engage and learn from consumers. Because the public, especially young people, are increasingly using social networking sites, companies use these sites to draw attention to their products, services and brands, with the aim of building up customer relationships to increase demand.
Some CRM systems integrate social media sites like Twitter, LinkedIn and Facebook to track and communicate with customers. These customers also share their own opinions and experiences with a company 's products and services, giving these firms more insight. Therefore, these firms can both share their own opinions and also track the opinions of their customers.
Enterprise feedback management software platforms, such as Confirmit, Medallia, and Satmetrix, combine internal survey data with trends identified through social media to allow businesses to make more accurate decisions on which products to supply.
CRM systems can also include technologies that create geographic marketing campaigns. The systems take in information based on a customer 's physical location and sometimes integrates it with popular location - based GPS applications. It can be used for networking or contact management as well to help increase sales based on location.
Despite the general notion that CRM systems were created for the customer - centric businesses, they can also be applied to B2B environments to streamline and improve customer management conditions. For the best level of CRM operation in a B2B environment, the software must be personalized and delivered at individual levels.
The main differences between business - to - consumer (B2C) and business - to - business CRM systems concern aspects like sizing of contact databases and length of relationships. Business - to - business companies tend to have smaller contact databases than business - to - consumer, the volume of sales in business - to - business is relatively small. There are fewer figure propositions in business - to - business, but in some cases, they cost a lot more than business - to - consumer items and relationships in business - to - business environment are built over a longer period of time. Furthermore, business - to - business CRM must be easily integrated with products from other companies. Such integration enables the creation of forecasts about customer behavior based on their buying history, bills, business success, etc. An application for a business - to - business company must have a function to connect all the contacts, processes and deals among the customers segment and then prepare a paper. Automation of sales process is an important requirement for business - to - business products. It should effectively manage the deal and progress it through all the phases towards signing. Finally, a crucial point is personalization. It helps the business - to - business company to create and maintain strong and long - lasting relationship with the customer.
The overall CRM market grew by 12.3 percent in 2015. The following table lists the top vendors in 2012 - 2015 (figures in millions of US dollars) published in Gartner studies.
The four largest vendors with CRM system offerings are Salesforce, SAP, Oracle, and Microsoft, which represented 42 percent of the market in 2015. Other providers also are popular for small and mid market businesses. Splitting CRM providers into nine different categories (Enterprise CRM Suite, Midmarket CRM Suite, Small - Business CRM Suite, sales force automation, incentive management, marketing solutions, business intelligence, data quality, consultancies), each category has a different market leader. Additionally, applications often focus on professional fields such as healthcare, manufacturing, and other areas with branch - specific requirements.
In the Gartner CRM Summit 2010 challenges like "system tries to capture data from social networking traffic like Twitter, handles Facebook page addresses or other online social networking sites '' were discussed and solutions were provided that would help in bringing more clientele. Many CRM vendors offer subscription - based web tools (cloud computing) and SaaS. Some CRM systems are equipped with mobile capabilities, making information accessible to remote sales staff.Salesforce.com was the first company to provide enterprise applications through a web browser, and has maintained its leadership position.
Traditional providers have recently moved into the cloud - based market via acquisitions of smaller providers: Oracle purchased RightNow in October 2011 and SAP acquired SuccessFactors in December 2011.
The era of the "social customer '' refers to the use of social media (Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, Google Plus, Pinterest, Instagram, Yelp, customer reviews in Amazon, etc.) by customers. CRM philosophy and strategy has shifted to encompass social networks and user communities.
Sales forces also play an important role in CRM, as maximizing sales effectiveness and increasing sales productivity is a driving force behind the adoption of CRM. Empowering sales managers was listed as one of the top 5 CRM trends in 2013.
Another related development is vendor relationship management (VRM), which provide tools and services that allow customers to manage their individual relationship with vendors. VRM development has grown out of efforts by ProjectVRM at Harvard 's Berkman Center for Internet & Society and Identity Commons ' Internet Identity Workshops, as well as by a growing number of startups and established companies. VRM was the subject of a cover story in the May 2010 issue of CRM Magazine.
Pharmaceutical companies were some of the first investors in sales force automation (SFA) and some are on their third - or fourth - generation implementations. However, until recently, the deployments did not extend beyond SFA -- limiting their scope and interest to Gartner analysts.
Another trend worth noting is the rise of Customer Success as a discipline within companies. More and more companies establish Customer Success teams as separate from the traditional Sales team and task them with managing existing customer relations. This trend fuels demand for additional capabilities for more holistic understanding of the customer health, which is a limitation for many existing vendors in the space. As a result, a growing number of new entrants enter the market, while existing vendors add capabilities in this area to their suites. In 2017, artificial intelligence and predictive analytics were identified as the newest trends in CRM.
Companies face large challenges when trying to implement CRM systems. Consumer companies frequently manage their customer relationships haphazardly and unprofitably. They may not effectively or adequately use their connections with their customers, due to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of a CRM system 's analysis. Clients who want to be treated more like a friend may be treated like just a party for exchange, rather than a unique individual, due to, occasionally, a lack of a bridge between the CRM data and the CRM analysis output. Many studies show that customers are frequently frustrated by a company 's inability to meet their relationship expectations, and on the other side, companies do not always know how to translate the data they have gained from CRM software into a feasible action plan. In 2003, a Gartner report estimated that more than $2 billion had been spent on software that was not being used. According to CSO Insights, less than 40 percent of 1,275 participating companies had end - user adoption rates above 90 percent. Many corporations only use CRM systems on a partial or fragmented basis. In a 2007 survey from the UK, four - fifths of senior executives reported that their biggest challenge is getting their staff to use the systems they had installed. 43 percent of respondents said they use less than half the functionality of their existing systems. However, market research regarding consumers ' preferences may increase the adoption of CRM among the developing countries ' consumers.
Collection of customer data such as personally identifiable information must strictly obey customer privacy laws, which often requires extra expenditures on legal support.
Part of the paradox with CRM stems from the challenge of determining exactly what CRM is and what it can do for a company. The CRM paradox, also referred to as the "Dark side of CRM '', may entail favoritism and differential treatment of some customers.
CRM technologies can easily become ineffective if there is no proper management, and they are not implemented correctly. The data sets must also be connected, distributed, and organized properly, so that the users can access the information that they need quickly and easily. Research studies also show that customers are increasingly becoming dissatisfied with contact center experiences due to lags and wait times. They also request and demand multiple channels of communications with a company, and these channels must transfer information seamlessly. Therefore, it is increasingly important for companies to deliver a cross-channel customer experience that can be both consistent as well as reliable.
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what factors contributed to the creation of the time period we call the middle ages | Middle Ages - wikipedia
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.
Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, which had begun in Late Antiquity, continued in the Early Middle Ages. The large - scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East -- once part of the Byzantine Empire -- came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, an Islamic empire, after conquest by Muhammad 's successors. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still - sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power. The empire 's law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or "Code of Justinian '', was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th century. It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions -- Vikings from the north, Hungarians from the east, and Saracens from the south.
During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and the Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase. Manorialism, the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles, and feudalism, the political structure whereby knights and lower - status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors, were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages. The Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified Christendom more distant. Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. The theology of Thomas Aquinas, the paintings of Giotto, the poetry of Dante and Chaucer, the travels of Marco Polo, and the Gothic architecture of cathedrals such as Chartres are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages.
The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period.
The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history: classical civilisation, or Antiquity; the Middle Ages; and the Modern Period.
Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the "Six Ages '' or the "Four Empires '', and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world. When referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being "modern ''. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (or "ancient '') and to the Christian period as nova (or "new ''). Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People (1442). Bruni and later historians argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarch 's time, and therefore added a third period to Petrarch 's two. The "Middle Ages '' first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or "middle season ''. In early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or "middle age '', first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or "middle ages '', first recorded in 1625. The alternative term "medieval '' (or occasionally "mediaeval '' or "mediæval '') derives from medium aevum. Tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th - century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern.
The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, first used by Bruni. For Europe as a whole, 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. Depending on the context, events such as Christopher Columbus 's first voyage to the Americas in 1492, the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, or the Protestant Reformation in 1517 are sometimes used. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period. For Spain, dates commonly used are the death of King Ferdinand II in 1516, the death of Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1504, or the conquest of Granada in 1492. Historians from Romance - speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "High '' and later "Low '' period. English - speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals: "Early '', "High '', and "Late ''. In the 19th century, the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the "Dark Ages '', but with the adoption of these subdivisions, use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages, at least among historians.
The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the second century AD; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories. Economic issues, including inflation, and external pressure on the frontiers combined to create the Crisis of the Third Century, with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers. Military expenses increased steadily during the third century, mainly in response to the war with the Sasanian Empire, which revived in the middle of the third century. The army doubled in size, and cavalry and smaller units replaced the Roman legion as the main tactical unit. The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the curial, or landowning, class, and decreasing numbers of them willing to shoulder the burdens of holding office in their native towns. More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army, which led to complaints from civilians that there were more tax - collectors in the empire than tax - payers.
The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284 -- 305) split the empire into separately administered eastern and western halves in 286; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers, as legal and administrative promulgations in one division were considered valid in the other. In 330, after a period of civil war, Constantine the Great (r. 306 -- 337) refounded the city of Byzantium as the newly renamed eastern capital, Constantinople. Diocletian 's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy, reformed taxation, and strengthened the army, which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing: excessive taxation, a declining birthrate, and pressures on its frontiers, among others. Civil war between rival emperors became common in the middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire 's frontier forces and allowing invaders to encroach. For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier classical period, with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns. Another change was the Christianisation, or conversion of the empire to Christianity, a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries.
In 376, the Goths, fleeing from the Huns, received permission from Emperor Valens (r. 364 -- 378) to settle in the Roman province of Thracia in the Balkans. The settlement did not go smoothly, and when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder. Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople on 9 August 378. As well as the threat from such tribal confederacies from the north, internal divisions within the empire, especially within the Christian Church, caused problems. In 400, the Visigoths invaded the Western Roman Empire and, although briefly forced back from Italy, in 410 sacked the city of Rome. In 406 the Alans, Vandals, and Suevi crossed into Gaul; over the next three years they spread across Gaul and in 409 crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into modern - day Spain. The Migration Period began, when various peoples, initially largely Germanic peoples, moved across Europe. The Franks, Alemanni, and the Burgundians all ended up in northern Gaul while the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes settled in Britain, and the Vandals went on to cross the strait of Gibraltar after which they conquered the province of Africa. In the 430s the Huns began invading the empire; their king Attila (r. 434 -- 453) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452. The Hunnic threat remained until Attila 's death in 453, when the Hunnic confederation he led fell apart. These invasions by the tribes completely changed the political and demographic nature of what had been the Western Roman Empire.
By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century. The deposition of the last emperor of the west, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire. By 493 the Italian peninsula was conquered by the Ostrogoths. The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory, but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the Italian Peninsula (Gothic War) in the reign of Justinian (r. 527 -- 565) was the sole, and temporary, exception.
The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire. Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as "invasions '', they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into the empire. Such movements were aided by the refusal of the Western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration. The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as Stilicho (d. 408), Aetius (d. 454), Aspar (d. 471), Ricimer (d. 472), or Gundobad (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman background. When the line of Western emperors ceased, many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background. Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common. This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state. Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects. Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions. An important difference was the gradual loss of tax revenue by the new polities. Many of the new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rents. This meant there was less need for large tax revenues and so the taxation systems decayed. Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms. Slavery declined as the supply weakened, and society became more rural.
Between the 5th and 8th centuries, new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by Roman centralised government. The Ostrogoths, a Gothic tribe, settled in Roman Italy in the late fifth century under Theoderic the Great (d. 526) and set up a kingdom marked by its co-operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths, at least until the last years of Theodoric 's reign. The Burgundians settled in Gaul, and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436 formed a new kingdom in the 440s. Between today 's Geneva and Lyon, it grew to become the realm of Burgundy in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and Celtic Britons set up small polities. Francia was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is Childeric I (d. 481). His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its grave goods, which included weapons and a large quantity of gold.
Under Childeric 's son Clovis I (r. 509 -- 511), the founder of the Merovingian dynasty, the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. The Britons, related to the natives of Britannia -- modern - day Great Britain -- settled in what is now Brittany. Other monarchies were established by the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula, the Suebi in northwestern Iberia, and the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. In the sixth century, the Lombards settled in Northern Italy, replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of duchies that occasionally selected a king to rule over them all. By the late sixth century, this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy, the Kingdom of the Lombards.
The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe, although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others. In Gaul for instance, the invaders settled much more extensively in the north - east than in the south - west. Slavs settled in Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula. The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages. The Latin of the Western Roman Empire was gradually replaced by languages based on, but distinct from, Latin, collectively known as Romance languages. These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but the migrations of the Slavs added Slavic languages to Eastern Europe.
As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms, the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century. There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire; most occurred in the Balkans. Peace with the Sasanian Empire, the traditional enemy of Rome, lasted throughout most of the 5th century. The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church, with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of Roman law; the first effort -- the Codex Theodosianus -- was completed in 438. Under Emperor Justinian (r. 527 -- 565), another compilation took place -- the Corpus Juris Civilis. Justinian also oversaw the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths, under Belisarius (d. 565). The conquest of Italy was not complete, as a deadly outbreak of plague in 542 led to the rest of Justinian 's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests.
At the Emperor 's death, the Byzantines had control of most of Italy, North Africa, and a small foothold in southern Spain. Justinian 's reconquests have been criticised by historians for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the early Muslim conquests, but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian 's successors were due not just to over-taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire, which made raising troops difficult.
In the Eastern Empire the slow infiltration of the Balkans by the Slavs added a further difficulty for Justinian 's successors. It began gradually, but by the late 540s Slavic tribes were in Thrace and Illyrium, and had defeated an imperial army near Adrianople in 551. In the 560s the Avars began to expand from their base on the north bank of the Danube; by the end of the 6th century they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force the Eastern emperors to pay tribute. They remained a strong power until 796.
An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor Maurice (r. 582 -- 602) in Persian politics when he intervened in a succession dispute. This led to a period of peace, but when Maurice was overthrown, the Persians invaded and during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610 -- 641) controlled large chunks of the empire, including Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia until Heraclius ' successful counterattack. In 628 the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered all of its lost territories.
In Western Europe, some of the older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with ecclesiastical than secular affairs. Values attached to Latin scholarship and education mostly disappeared, and while literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than a sign of elite status. In the 4th century, Jerome (d. 420) dreamed that God rebuked him for spending more time reading Cicero than the Bible. By the 6th century, Gregory of Tours (d. 594) had a similar dream, but instead of being chastised for reading Cicero, he was chastised for learning shorthand. By the late 6th century, the principal means of religious instruction in the Church had become music and art rather than the book. Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some original works were created, along with now - lost oral compositions. The writings of Sidonius Apollinaris (d. 489), Cassiodorus (d. c. 585), and Boethius (d.c. 525) were typical of the age.
Changes also took place among laymen, as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits. Clothing for the elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold. Lords and kings supported entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces. Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society, examples of which included those related by Gregory of Tours that took place in Merovingian Gaul. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some sort of compensation. Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul. In Anglo - Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by abbesses of monasteries. Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under the protection and control of a male relative.
Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility. Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from archaeology; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century. Most of the descriptions of the lower classes come from either law codes or writers from the upper classes. Landholding patterns in the West were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns, but in other areas large contiguous blocks of land were the norm. These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having a great deal of autonomy. Land settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants. Others lived in small groups of a few families and still others lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside. There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more of those systems. Unlike in the late Roman period, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and it was possible for a free peasant 's family to rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to a powerful lord.
Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages. Although Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size. Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century. Roman temples were converted into Christian churches and city walls remained in use. In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for the towns chosen as capitals. Although there had been Jewish communities in many Roman cities, the Jews suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. Officially they were tolerated, if subject to conversion efforts, and at times were even encouraged to settle in new areas.
Religious beliefs in the Eastern Empire and Iran were in flux during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. Judaism was an active proselytising faith, and at least one Arab political leader converted to it. Christianity had active missions competing with the Persians ' Zoroastrianism in seeking converts, especially among residents of the Arabian Peninsula. All these strands came together with the emergence of Islam in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad (d. 632). After his death, Islamic forces conquered much of the Eastern Empire and Persia, starting with Syria in 634 -- 635 and reaching Egypt in 640 -- 641, Persia between 637 and 642, North Africa in the later seventh century, and the Iberian Peninsula in 711. By 714, Islamic forces controlled much of the peninsula in a region they called Al - Andalus.
The Islamic conquests reached their peak in the mid-eighth century. The defeat of Muslim forces at the Battle of Tours in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate and its replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasids moved their capital to Baghdad and were more concerned with the Middle East than Europe, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands. Umayyad descendants took over the Iberian Peninsula, the Aghlabids controlled North Africa, and the Tulunids became rulers of Egypt. By the middle of the 8th century, new trading patterns were emerging in the Mediterranean; trade between the Franks and the Arabs replaced the old Roman economy. Franks traded timber, furs, swords and slaves in return for silks and other fabrics, spices, and precious metals from the Arabs.
The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean. African goods stopped being imported into Europe, first disappearing from the interior and by the 7th century found only in a few cities such as Rome or Naples. By the end of the 7th century, under the impact of the Muslim conquests, African products were no longer found in Western Europe. The replacement of goods from long - range trade with local products was a trend throughout the old Roman lands that happened in the Early Middle Ages. This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean, such as northern Gaul or Britain. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods. In the northern parts of Europe, not only were the trade networks local, but the goods carried were simple, with little pottery or other complex products. Around the Mediterranean, pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium - range networks, not just produced locally.
The various Germanic states in the west all had coinages that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms. Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century, when it was replaced by silver coins. The basic Frankish silver coin was the denarius or denier, while the Anglo - Saxon version was called a penny. From these areas, the denier or penny spread throughout Europe during the centuries from 700 to 1000. Copper or bronze coins were not struck, nor were gold except in Southern Europe. No silver coins denominated in multiple units were minted.
Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests, but the conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas. Increasingly the Byzantine Church differed in language, practices, and liturgy from the Western Church. The Eastern Church used Greek instead of the Western Latin. Theological and political differences emerged, and by the early and middle 8th century issues such as iconoclasm, clerical marriage, and state control of the Church had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were greater than the similarities. The formal break, known as the East -- West Schism, came in 1054, when the papacy and the patriarchy of Constantinople clashed over papal supremacy and excommunicated each other, which led to the division of Christianity into two Churches -- the Western branch became the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern branch the Eastern Orthodox Church.
The ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the west mostly intact, but the papacy was little regarded, and few of the Western bishops looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership. Many of the popes prior to 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and Eastern theological controversies. The register, or archived copies of the letters, of Pope Gregory the Great (pope 590 -- 604) survived, and of those more than 850 letters, the vast majority were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory had sent the Gregorian mission in 597 to convert the Anglo - Saxons to Christianity. Irish missionaries were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries, going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent. Under such monks as Columba (d. 597) and Columbanus (d. 615), they founded monasteries, taught in Latin and Greek, and authored secular and religious works.
The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of monasticism in the West. The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with the Desert Fathers of Egypt and Syria. Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life, called cenobitism, which was pioneered by Pachomius (d. 348) in the 4th century. Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through hagiographical literature such as the Life of Anthony. Benedict of Nursia (d. 547) wrote the Benedictine Rule for Western monasticism during the 6th century, detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an abbot. Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages, in various cases acting as land trusts for powerful families, centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions, and bases for missions and proselytisation. They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin classics were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages. Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as Bede (d. 735), a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries.
The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy during the 6th and 7th centuries, all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, who were descended from Clovis. The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria. Such warfare was exploited by Pippin (d. 640), the Mayor of the Palace for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne. Later members of his family inherited the office, acting as advisers and regents. One of his descendants, Charles Martel (d. 741), won the Battle of Poitiers in 732, halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees. Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, and East Anglia, which were descended from the Anglo - Saxon invaders. Smaller kingdoms in present - day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and Picts. Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, usually known as tribal kingdoms, under the control of kings. There were perhaps as many as 150 local kings in Ireland, of varying importance.
The Carolingian dynasty, as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by Pippin III (r. 752 -- 768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought, and gained, authority for this coup from Pope Stephen II (pope 752 -- 757). Pippin 's takeover was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family 's great piety. At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r. 768 -- 814) and Carloman (r. 768 -- 771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman 's young son and installed himself as the king of the united Austrasia and Neustria. Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or Charlemagne, embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern - day France, northern Italy, and Saxony. In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land. In 774, Charlemagne conquered the Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the Papal States.
The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history, marking a return of the Western Roman Empire, since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors. It also marks a change in Charlemagne 's relationship with the Byzantine Empire, as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state. There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire. The Frankish lands were rural in character, with only a few small cities. Most of the people were peasants settled on small farms. Little trade existed and much of that was with the British Isles and Scandinavia, in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean. The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called counts, who administered the counties the empire had been divided into. Clergy and local bishops served as officials, as well as the imperial officials called missi dominici, who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters.
Charlemagne 's court in Aachen was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the "Carolingian Renaissance ''. Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk Alcuin (d. 804) was invited to Aachen and brought the education available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne 's chancery -- or writing office -- made use of a new script today known as Carolingian minuscule, allowing a common writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy, imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced. Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the Classical Latin of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the Church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical that it was later called Medieval Latin.
Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs, but was unable to do so as only one son, Louis the Pious (r. 814 -- 840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Louis 's reign of 26 years was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son Lothair I (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy. Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and Charles the Bald (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took East Francia, comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles West Francia with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. Louis the German (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the suzerainty of his elder brother. The division was disputed. Pepin II of Aquitaine (d. after 864), the emperor 's grandson, rebelled in a contest for Aquitaine, while Louis the German tried to annex all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos.
A three - year civil war followed his death. By the Treaty of Verdun (843), a kingdom between the Rhine and Rhone rivers was created for Lothair to go with his lands in Italy, and his imperial title was recognised. Louis the German was in control of Bavaria and the eastern lands in modern - day Germany. Charles the Bald received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern - day France. Charlemagne 's grandsons and great - grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost. In 987 the Carolingian dynasty was replaced in the western lands, with the crowning of Hugh Capet (r. 987 -- 996) as king. In the eastern lands the dynasty had died out earlier, in 911, with the death of Louis the Child, and the selection of the unrelated Conrad I (r. 911 -- 918) as king.
The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also raided the British Isles and settled there as well as in Iceland. In 911, the Viking chieftain Rollo (d.c. 931) received permission from the Frankish King Charles the Simple (r. 898 -- 922) to settle in what became Normandy. The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual Magyar assault until the invader 's defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. The breakup of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states, some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily, as well as over the Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms.
Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities. In Anglo - Saxon England, King Alfred the Great (r. 871 -- 899) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century, resulting in Danish settlements in Northumbria, Mercia, and parts of East Anglia. By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred 's successors had conquered Northumbria, and restored English control over most of the southern part of Great Britain. In northern Britain, Kenneth MacAlpin (d.c. 860) united the Picts and the Scots into the Kingdom of Alba. In the early 10th century, the Ottonian dynasty had established itself in Germany, and was engaged in driving back the Magyars. Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of Otto I (r. 936 -- 973) as Holy Roman Emperor. In 972, he secured recognition of his title by the Byzantine Empire, which he sealed with the marriage of his son Otto II (r. 967 -- 983) to Theophanu (d. 991), daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor Romanos II (r. 959 -- 963). By the late 10th century Italy had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability; Otto III (r. 996 -- 1002) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom. The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented, and although kings remained nominally in charge, much of the political power devolved to the local lords.
Missionary efforts to Scandinavia during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, which gained power and territory. Some kings converted to Christianity, although not all by 1000. Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe. Besides the settlements in Ireland, England, and Normandy, further settlement took place in what became Russia and in Iceland. Swedish traders and raiders ranged down the rivers of the Russian steppe, and even attempted to seize Constantinople in 860 and 907. Christian Spain, initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north, expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries, establishing the kingdoms of Asturias and León.
In Eastern Europe, Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor Basil I (r. 867 -- 886) and his successors Leo VI (r. 886 -- 912) and Constantine VII (r. 913 -- 959), members of the Macedonian dynasty. Commerce revived and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors John I (r. 969 -- 976) and Basil II (r. 976 -- 1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the Macedonian Renaissance. Writers such as John Geometres (fl. early 10th century) composed new hymns, poems, and other works. Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the Moravians, Bulgars, Bohemians, Poles, Magyars, and Slavic inhabitants of the Kievan Rus '. These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples -- the states of Moravia, Bulgaria, Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kievan Rus '. Bulgaria, which was founded around 680, at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea. By 1018, the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire.
Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian basilicas of the 4th century and the 8th century, although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries. By the beginning of the 8th century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture. One feature of the basilica is the use of a transept, or the "arms '' of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long nave. Other new features of religious architecture include the crossing tower and a monumental entrance to the church, usually at the west end of the building.
Carolingian art was produced for a small group of figures around the court, and the monasteries and churches they supported. It was dominated by efforts to regain the dignity and classicism of imperial Roman and Byzantine art, but was also influenced by the Insular art of the British Isles. Insular art integrated the energy of Irish Celtic and Anglo - Saxon Germanic styles of ornament with Mediterranean forms such as the book, and established many characteristics of art for the rest of the medieval period. Surviving religious works from the Early Middle Ages are mostly illuminated manuscripts and carved ivories, originally made for metalwork that has since been melted down. Objects in precious metals were the most prestigious form of art, but almost all are lost except for a few crosses such as the Cross of Lothair, several reliquaries, and finds such as the Anglo - Saxon burial at Sutton Hoo and the hoards of Gourdon from Merovingian France, Guarrazar from Visigothic Spain and Nagyszentmiklós near Byzantine territory. There are survivals from the large brooches in fibula or penannular form that were a key piece of personal adornment for elites, including the Irish Tara Brooch. Highly decorated books were mostly Gospel Books and these have survived in larger numbers, including the Insular Book of Kells, the Book of Lindisfarne, and the imperial Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, which is one of the few to retain its "treasure binding '' of gold encrusted with jewels. Charlemagne 's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative monumental sculpture in Christian art, and by the end of the period near life - sized figures such as the Gero Cross were common in important churches.
During the later Roman Empire, the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force as well as the continued development of highly specialised types of troops. The creation of heavily armoured cataphract - type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the 5th - century Roman military. The various invading tribes had differing emphasis on types of soldiers -- ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo - Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths, who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies. During the early invasion period, the stirrup had not been introduced into warfare, which limited the usefulness of cavalry as shock troops because it was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider. The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic composite bow in place of the earlier, and weaker, Scythian composite bow. Another development was the increasing use of longswords and the progressive replacement of scale armour by mail armour and lamellar armour.
The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry. The use of militia - type levies of the free population declined over the Carolingian period. Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted, a large proportion during the early period appear to have been mounted infantry, rather than true cavalry. One exception was Anglo - Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as the fyrd, which were led by the local elites. In military technology, one of the main changes was the return of the crossbow, which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages. Another change was the introduction of the stirrup, which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops. A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the horseshoe, which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.
The High Middle Ages was a period of tremendous expansion of population. The estimated population of Europe grew from 35 to 80 million between 1000 and 1347, although the exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, the decline of slaveholding, a more clement climate and the lack of invasion have all been suggested. As much as 90 per cent of the European population remained rural peasants. Many were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into small communities, usually known as manors or villages. These peasants were often subject to noble overlords and owed them rents and other services, in a system known as manorialism. There remained a few free peasants throughout this period and beyond, with more of them in the regions of Southern Europe than in the north. The practice of assarting, or bringing new lands into production by offering incentives to the peasants who settled them, also contributed to the expansion of population.
Other sections of society included the nobility, clergy, and townsmen. Nobles, both the titled nobility and simple knights, exploited the manors and the peasants, although they did not own lands outright but were granted rights to the income from a manor or other lands by an overlord through the system of feudalism. During the 11th and 12th centuries, these lands, or fiefs, came to be considered hereditary, and in most areas they were no longer divisible between all the heirs as had been the case in the early medieval period. Instead, most fiefs and lands went to the eldest son. The dominance of the nobility was built upon its control of the land, its military service as heavy cavalry, control of castles, and various immunities from taxes or other impositions. Castles, initially in wood but later in stone, began to be constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries in response to the disorder of the time, and provided protection from invaders as well as allowing lords defence from rivals. Control of castles allowed the nobles to defy kings or other overlords. Nobles were stratified; kings and the highest - ranking nobility controlled large numbers of commoners and large tracts of land, as well as other nobles. Beneath them, lesser nobles had authority over smaller areas of land and fewer people. Knights were the lowest level of nobility; they controlled but did not own land, and had to serve other nobles.
The clergy was divided into two types: the secular clergy, who lived out in the world, and the regular clergy, who lived under a religious rule and were usually monks. Throughout the period monks remained a very small proportion of the population, usually less than one per cent. Most of the regular clergy were drawn from the nobility, the same social class that served as the recruiting ground for the upper levels of the secular clergy. The local parish priests were often drawn from the peasant class. Townsmen were in a somewhat unusual position, as they did not fit into the traditional three-fold division of society into nobles, clergy, and peasants. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the ranks of the townsmen expanded greatly as existing towns grew and new population centres were founded. But throughout the Middle Ages the population of the towns probably never exceeded 10 per cent of the total population.
Jews also spread across Europe during the period. Communities were established in Germany and England in the 11th and 12th centuries, but Spanish Jews, long settled in Spain under the Muslims, came under Christian rule and increasing pressure to convert to Christianity. Most Jews were confined to the cities, as they were not allowed to own land or be peasants. Besides the Jews, there were other non-Christians on the edges of Europe -- pagan Slavs in Eastern Europe and Muslims in Southern Europe.
Women in the Middle Ages were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman. Widows, who were often allowed much control over their own lives, were still restricted legally. Women 's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks. Peasant women were usually responsible for taking care of the household, child - care, as well as gardening and animal husbandry near the house. They could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home. At harvest - time, they were also expected to help with field - work. Townswomen, like peasant women, were responsible for the household, and could also engage in trade. What trades were open to women varied by country and period. Noblewomen were responsible for running a household, and could occasionally be expected to handle estates in the absence of male relatives, but they were usually restricted from participation in military or government affairs. The only role open to women in the Church was that of nuns, as they were unable to become priests.
In central and northern Italy and in Flanders, the rise of towns that were to a degree self - governing stimulated economic growth and created an environment for new types of trade associations. Commercial cities on the shores of the Baltic entered into agreements known as the Hanseatic League, and the Italian Maritime republics such as Venice, Genoa, and Pisa expanded their trade throughout the Mediterranean. Great trading fairs were established and flourished in northern France during the period, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with each other as well as local merchants. In the late 13th century new land and sea routes to the Far East were pioneered, famously described in The Travels of Marco Polo written by one of the traders, Marco Polo (d. 1324). Besides new trading opportunities, agricultural and technological improvements enabled an increase in crop yields, which in turn allowed the trade networks to expand. Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first in Italy and later in France and other countries. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared among merchants. Accounting methods improved, partly through the use of double - entry bookkeeping; letters of credit also appeared, allowing easy transmission of money.
The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state. Kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power, and set up lasting governing institutions. New kingdoms such as Hungary and Poland, after their conversion to Christianity, became Central European powers. The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King Árpád (d.c. 907) after a series of invasions in the 9th century. The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world; the Papal Monarchy reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of Innocent III (pope 1198 -- 1216). Northern Crusades and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously pagan regions in the Baltic and Finnic north - east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture.
During the early High Middle Ages, Germany was ruled by the Ottonian dynasty, which struggled to control the powerful dukes ruling over territorial duchies tracing back to the Migration period. In 1024, they were replaced by the Salian dynasty, who famously clashed with the papacy under Emperor Henry IV (r. 1084 -- 1105) over Church appointments as part of the Investiture Controversy. His successors continued to struggle against the papacy as well as the German nobility. A period of instability followed the death of Emperor Henry V (r. 1111 -- 25), who died without heirs, until Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1155 -- 90) took the imperial throne. Although he ruled effectively, the basic problems remained, and his successors continued to struggle into the 13th century. Barbarossa 's grandson Frederick II (r. 1220 -- 1250), who was also heir to the throne of Sicily through his mother, clashed repeatedly with the papacy. His court was famous for its scholars and he was often accused of heresy. He and his successors faced many difficulties, including the invasion of the Mongols into Europe in the mid-13th century. Mongols first shattered the Kievan Rus ' principalities and then invaded Eastern Europe in 1241, 1259, and 1287.
Under the Capetian dynasty the French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility, growing out of the Île - de-France to exert control over more of the country in the 11th and 12th centuries. They faced a powerful rival in the Dukes of Normandy, who in 1066 under William the Conqueror (duke 1035 -- 1087), conquered England (r. 1066 -- 87) and created a cross-channel empire that lasted, in various forms, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. Normans also settled in Sicily and southern Italy, when Robert Guiscard (d. 1085) landed there in 1059 and established a duchy that later became the Kingdom of Sicily. Under the Angevin dynasty of Henry II (r. 1154 -- 89) and his son Richard I (r. 1189 -- 99), the kings of England ruled over England and large areas of France, brought to the family by Henry II 's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine (d. 1204), heiress to much of southern France. Richard 's younger brother John (r. 1199 -- 1216) lost Normandy and the rest of the northern French possessions in 1204 to the French King Philip II Augustus (r. 1180 -- 1223). This led to dissension among the English nobility, while John 's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led in 1215 to Magna Carta, a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. Under Henry III (r. 1216 -- 72), John 's son, further concessions were made to the nobility, and royal power was diminished. The French monarchy continued to make gains against the nobility during the late 12th and 13th centuries, bringing more territories within the kingdom under the king 's personal rule and centralising the royal administration. Under Louis IX (r. 1226 -- 70), royal prestige rose to new heights as Louis served as a mediator for most of Europe.
In Iberia, the Christian states, which had been confined to the north - western part of the peninsula, began to push back against the Islamic states in the south, a period known as the Reconquista. By about 1150, the Christian north had coalesced into the five major kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Southern Iberia remained under control of Islamic states, initially under the Caliphate of Córdoba, which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as taifas, who fought with the Christians until the Almohad Caliphate re-established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1170s. Christian forces advanced again in the early 13th century, culminating in the capture of Seville in 1248.
In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks took over much of the Middle East, occupying Persia during the 1040s, Armenia in the 1060s, and Jerusalem in 1070. In 1071, the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert and captured the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV (r. 1068 -- 71). The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor, which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland. Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat, they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive. The Turks also had difficulties, losing control of Jerusalem to the Fatimids of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars. The Byzantines also faced a revived Bulgaria, which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans.
The crusades were intended to seize Jerusalem from Muslim control. The First Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II (pope 1088 -- 99) at the Council of Clermont in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081 -- 1118) for aid against further Muslim advances. Urban promised indulgence to anyone who took part. Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099. One feature of the crusades was the pogroms against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East. These were especially brutal during the First Crusade, when the Jewish communities in Cologne, Mainz, and Worms were destroyed, and other communities in cities between the rivers Seine and Rhine suffered destruction. Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order, the military orders of the Templars and Hospitallers, which fused monastic life with military service.
The crusaders consolidated their conquests into crusader states. During the 12th and 13th centuries, there were a series of conflicts between those states and the surrounding Islamic states. Appeals from those states to the papacy led to further crusades, such as the Third Crusade, called to try to regain Jerusalem, which had been captured by Saladin (d. 1193) in 1187. In 1203, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204, setting up a Latin Empire of Constantinople and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261, but never regained their former strength. By 1291 all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland, although a titular Kingdom of Jerusalem survived on the island of Cyprus for several years afterwards.
Popes called for crusades to take place elsewhere besides the Holy Land: in Spain, southern France, and along the Baltic. The Spanish crusades became fused with the Reconquista of Spain from the Muslims. Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades, similar Spanish military religious orders were founded, most of which had become part of the two main orders of Calatrava and Santiago by the beginning of the 12th century. Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later, and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries. These crusades also spawned a military order, the Order of the Sword Brothers. Another order, the Teutonic Knights, although founded in the crusader states, focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225, and in 1309 moved its headquarters to Marienburg in Prussia.
During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was debate between the realists and the nominalists over the concept of "universals ''. Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of Aristotle and his emphasis on empiricism and rationalism. Scholars such as Peter Abelard (d. 1142) and Peter Lombard (d. 1164) introduced Aristotelian logic into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries cathedral schools spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns. Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the universities established in major European cities. Philosophy and theology fused in scholasticism, an attempt by 12th - and 13th - century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason and culminated in the thought of Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), who wrote the Summa Theologica, or Summary of Theology.
Chivalry and the ethos of courtly love developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the vernacular languages rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by troubadours, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the chansons de geste, or "songs of great deeds '', such as The Song of Roland or The Song of Hildebrand. Secular and religious histories were also produced. Geoffrey of Monmouth (d.c. 1155) composed his Historia Regum Britanniae, a collection of stories and legends about Arthur. Other works were more clearly history, such as Otto von Freising 's (d. 1158) Gesta Friderici Imperatoris detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or William of Malmesbury 's (d.c. 1143) Gesta Regum on the kings of England.
Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and canon law, or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was advanced greatly by the discovery of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 11th century, and by 1100 Roman law was being taught at Bologna. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140 a monk named Gratian (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law -- the Decretum.
Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of Ptolemy 's Almagest from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno.
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe produced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Major technological advances included the invention of the windmill, the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of distilled spirits, and the use of the astrolabe. Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.
The development of a three - field rotation system for planting crops increased the usage of land from one half in use each year under the old two - field system to two - thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production. The development of the heavy plough allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the horse collar, which led to the use of draught horses in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three - field system.
The construction of cathedrals and castles advanced building technology, leading to the development of large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and tithe barns. Shipbuilding improved with the use of the rib and plank method rather than the old Roman system of mortise and tenon. Other improvements to ships included the use of lateen sails and the stern - post rudder, both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.
In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still - dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen, as well as sappers and engineers. Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries. The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed - face helmets, heavy body armour, as well as horse armour. Gunpowder was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304, although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. Cannon were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand - held guns were in use by the 1360s.
In the 10th century the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque '' is derived. Where available, Roman brick and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the First Romanesque, the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000 there was a great wave of building stone churches all over Europe. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults. The large portal with coloured sculpture in high relief became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the capitals of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals. According to art historian C.R. Dodwell, "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall - paintings '', of which few survive. Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed, and became crucial to politics and warfare.
Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art, in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège, contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary Gloucester Candlestick. Large illuminated bibles and psalters were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall - painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a Last Judgement on the west wall, a Christ in Majesty at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at Saint - Savin - sur - Gartempe, on the barrel - vaulted roof.
From the early 12th century, French builders developed the Gothic style, marked by the use of rib vaults, pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large stained glass windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals, and continued in use until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include Chartres Cathedral and Reims Cathedral in France as well as Salisbury Cathedral in England. Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall - paintings, now almost all lost.
During this period the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to Janetta Benton "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops '', and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay - people. Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses. In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio, followed by the Trecento master Giotto (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco. Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many carved ivory objects such as gaming - pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.
Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. Cluny Abbey, founded in the Mâcon region of France in 909, was established as part of the Cluniac Reforms, a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear. Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.
Monastic reform inspired change in the secular Church. The ideals that it was based upon were brought to the papacy by Pope Leo IX (pope 1049 -- 1054), and provided the ideology of the clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073 -- 85) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of investiture, clerical marriage, and simony. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands, but the papacy insisted on the Church 's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the Concordat of Worms. The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to lay authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.
The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the Carthusians and the Cistercians. The latter especially expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who along with those wishing to enter the religious life wanted a return to the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an Apostolic life. Religious pilgrimages were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence.
In the 13th century mendicant orders -- the Franciscans and the Dominicans -- who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy. Religious groups such as the Waldensians and the Humiliati also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, but they were condemned as heretical by the papacy. Others joined the Cathars, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the Albigensian Crusade, which in combination with the medieval Inquisition, eliminated them.
The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the Great Famine of 1315 -- 17. The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age, which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures. The years 1313 -- 14 and 1317 -- 21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures. The climate change -- which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century -- was accompanied by an economic downturn.
These troubles were followed in 1347 by the Black Death, a pandemic that spread throughout Europe during the following three years. The death toll was probably about 35 million people in Europe, about one - third of the population. Towns were especially hard - hit because of their crowded conditions. Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited, and in some places fields were left unworked. Wages rose as landlords sought to entice the reduced number of available workers to their fields. Further problems were lower rents and lower demand for food, both of which cut into agricultural income. Urban workers also felt that they had a right to greater earnings, and popular uprisings broke out across Europe. Among the uprisings were the jacquerie in France, the Peasants ' Revolt in England, and revolts in the cities of Florence in Italy and Ghent and Bruges in Flanders. The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe, manifested by the foundation of new charities, the self - mortification of the flagellants, and the scapegoating of Jews. Conditions were further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century; it continued to strike Europe periodically during the rest of the Middle Ages.
Society throughout Europe was disturbed by the dislocations caused by the Black Death. Lands that had been marginally productive were abandoned, as the survivors were able to acquire more fertile areas. Although serfdom declined in Western Europe it became more common in Eastern Europe, as landlords imposed it on those of their tenants who had previously been free. Most peasants in Western Europe managed to change the work they had previously owed to their landlords into cash rents. The percentage of serfs amongst the peasantry declined from a high of 90 to closer to 50 per cent by the end of the period. Landlords also became more conscious of common interests with other landholders, and they joined together to extort privileges from their governments. Partly at the urging of landlords, governments attempted to legislate a return to the economic conditions that existed before the Black Death. Non-clergy became increasingly literate, and urban populations began to imitate the nobility 's interest in chivalry.
Jewish communities were expelled from England in 1290 and from France in 1306. Although some were allowed back into France, most were not, and many Jews emigrated eastwards, settling in Poland and Hungary. The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, and dispersed to Turkey, France, Italy, and Holland. The rise of banking in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century, fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms. Many banking firms loaned money to royalty, at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.
Strong, royalty - based nation states rose throughout Europe in the Late Middle Ages, particularly in England, France, and the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula: Aragon, Castile, and Portugal. The long conflicts of the period strengthened royal control over their kingdoms and were extremely hard on the peasantry. Kings profited from warfare that extended royal legislation and increased the lands they directly controlled. Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient, and the rate of taxation often increased. The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the English Parliament and the French Estates General to gain power and authority.
Throughout the 14th century, French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility. They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France, leading to the Hundred Years ' War, waged from 1337 to 1453. Early in the war the English under Edward III (r. 1327 -- 77) and his son Edward, the Black Prince (d. 1376), won the battles of Crécy and Poitiers, captured the city of Calais, and won control of much of France. The resulting stresses almost caused the disintegration of the French kingdom during the early years of the war. In the early 15th century, France again came close to dissolving, but in the late 1420s the military successes of Joan of Arc (d. 1431) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453. The price was high, as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict. Conversely, the Wars had a positive effect on English national identity, doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal. The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture, which had previously been the dominant influence. The dominance of the English longbow began during early stages of the Hundred Years ' War, and cannon appeared on the battlefield at Crécy in 1346.
In modern - day Germany, the Holy Roman Empire continued to rule, but the elective nature of the imperial crown meant there was no enduring dynasty around which a strong state could form. Further east, the kingdoms of Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia grew powerful. In Iberia, the Christian kingdoms continued to gain land from the Muslim kingdoms of the peninsula; Portugal concentrated on expanding overseas during the 15th century, while the other kingdoms were riven by difficulties over royal succession and other concerns. After losing the Hundred Years ' War, England went on to suffer a long civil war known as the Wars of the Roses, which lasted into the 1490s and only ended when Henry Tudor (r. 1485 -- 1509 as Henry VII) became king and consolidated power with his victory over Richard III (r. 1483 -- 85) at Bosworth in 1485. In Scandinavia, Margaret I of Denmark (r. in Denmark 1387 -- 1412) consolidated Norway, Denmark, and Sweden in the Union of Kalmar, which continued until 1523. The major power around the Baltic Sea was the Hanseatic League, a commercial confederation of city states that traded from Western Europe to Russia. Scotland emerged from English domination under Robert the Bruce (r. 1306 -- 29), who secured papal recognition of his kingship in 1328.
Although the Palaeologi emperors recaptured Constantinople from the Western Europeans in 1261, they were never able to regain control of much of the former imperial lands. They usually controlled only a small section of the Balkan Peninsula near Constantinople, the city itself, and some coastal lands on the Black Sea and around the Aegean Sea. The former Byzantine lands in the Balkans were divided between the new Kingdom of Serbia, the Second Bulgarian Empire and the city - state of Venice. The power of the Byzantine emperors was threatened by a new Turkish tribe, the Ottomans, who established themselves in Anatolia in the 13th century and steadily expanded throughout the 14th century. The Ottomans expanded into Europe, reducing Bulgaria to a vassal state by 1366 and taking over Serbia after its defeat at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Western Europeans rallied to the plight of the Christians in the Balkans and declared a new crusade in 1396; a great army was sent to the Balkans, where it was defeated at the Battle of Nicopolis. Constantinople was finally captured by the Ottomans in 1453.
During the tumultuous 14th century, disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the Avignon Papacy of 1309 -- 76, also called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy '' (a reference to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews), and then to the Great Schism, lasting from 1378 to 1418, when there were two and later three rival popes, each supported by several states. Ecclesiastical officials convened at the Council of Constance in 1414, and in the following year the council deposed one of the rival popes, leaving only two claimants. Further depositions followed, and in November 1417 the council elected Martin V (pope 1417 -- 31) as pope.
Besides the schism, the Western Church was riven by theological controversies, some of which turned into heresies. John Wycliffe (d. 1384), an English theologian, was condemned as a heretic in 1415 for teaching that the laity should have access to the text of the Bible as well as for holding views on the Eucharist that were contrary to Church doctrine. Wycliffe 's teachings influenced two of the major heretical movements of the later Middle Ages: Lollardy in England and Hussitism in Bohemia. The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of Jan Hus, who was burned at the stake in 1415 after being condemned as a heretic by the Council of Constance. The Hussite Church, although the target of a crusade, survived beyond the Middle Ages. Other heresies were manufactured, such as the accusations against the Knights Templar that resulted in their suppression in 1312 and the division of their great wealth between the French King Philip IV (r. 1285 -- 1314) and the Hospitallers.
The papacy further refined the practice in the Mass in the Late Middle Ages, holding that the clergy alone was allowed to partake of the wine in the Eucharist. This further distanced the secular laity from the clergy. The laity continued the practices of pilgrimages, veneration of relics, and belief in the power of the Devil. Mystics such as Meister Eckhart (d. 1327) and Thomas à Kempis (d. 1471) wrote works that taught the laity to focus on their inner spiritual life, which laid the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Besides mysticism, belief in witches and witchcraft became widespread, and by the late 15th century the Church had begun to lend credence to populist fears of witchcraft with its condemnation of witches in 1484 and the publication in 1486 of the Malleus Maleficarum, the most popular handbook for witch - hunters.
During the Later Middle Ages, theologians such as John Duns Scotus (d. 1308) and William of Ockham (d.c. 1348), led a reaction against scholasticism, objecting to the application of reason to faith. Their efforts undermined the prevailing Platonic idea of "universals ''. Ockham 's insistence that reason operates independently of faith allowed science to be separated from theology and philosophy. Legal studies were marked by the steady advance of Roman law into areas of jurisprudence previously governed by customary law. The lone exception to this trend was in England, where the common law remained pre-eminent. Other countries codified their laws; legal codes were promulgated in Castile, Poland, and Lithuania.
Education remained mostly focused on the training of future clergy. The basic learning of the letters and numbers remained the province of the family or a village priest, but the secondary subjects of the trivium -- grammar, rhetoric, logic -- were studied in cathedral schools or in schools provided by cities. Commercial secondary schools spread, and some Italian towns had more than one such enterprise. Universities also spread throughout Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Lay literacy rates rose, but were still low; one estimate gave a literacy rate of ten per cent of males and one per cent of females in 1500.
The publication of vernacular literature increased, with Dante (d. 1321), Petrarch (d. 1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (d. 1375) in 14th - century Italy, Geoffrey Chaucer (d. 1400) and William Langland (d.c. 1386) in England, and François Villon (d. 1464) and Christine de Pizan (d.c. 1430) in France. Much literature remained religious in character, and although a great deal of it continued to be written in Latin, a new demand developed for saints ' lives and other devotional tracts in the vernacular languages. This was fed by the growth of the Devotio Moderna movement, most prominently in the formation of the Brethren of the Common Life, but also in the works of German mystics such as Meister Eckhart and Johannes Tauler (d. 1361). Theatre also developed in the guise of miracle plays put on by the Church. At the end of the period, the development of the printing press in about 1450 led to the establishment of publishing houses throughout Europe by 1500.
In the early 15th century, the countries of the Iberian peninsula began to sponsor exploration beyond the boundaries of Europe. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal (d. 1460) sent expeditions that discovered the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape Verde during his lifetime. After his death, exploration continued; Bartolomeu Dias (d. 1500) went around the Cape of Good Hope in 1486 and Vasco da Gama (d. 1524) sailed around Africa to India in 1498. The combined Spanish monarchies of Castile and Aragon sponsored the voyage of exploration by Christopher Columbus (d. 1506) in 1492 that discovered the Americas. The English crown under Henry VII sponsored the voyage of John Cabot (d. 1498) in 1497, which landed on Cape Breton Island.
One of the major developments in the military sphere during the Late Middle Ages was the increased use of infantry and light cavalry. The English also employed longbowmen, but other countries were unable to create similar forces with the same success. Armour continued to advance, spurred by the increasing power of crossbows, and plate armour was developed to protect soldiers from crossbows as well as the hand - held guns that were developed. Pole arms reached new prominence with the development of the Flemish and Swiss infantry armed with pikes and other long spears.
In agriculture, the increased usage of sheep with long - fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun. In addition, the spinning wheel replaced the traditional distaff for spinning wool, tripling production. A less technological refinement that still greatly affected daily life was the use of buttons as closures for garments, which allowed for better fitting without having to lace clothing on the wearer. Windmills were refined with the creation of the tower mill, allowing the upper part of the windmill to be spun around to face the direction from which the wind was blowing. The blast furnace appeared around 1350 in Sweden, increasing the quantity of iron produced and improving its quality. The first patent law in 1447 in Venice protected the rights of inventors to their inventions.
The Late Middle Ages in Europe as a whole correspond to the Trecento and Early Renaissance cultural periods in Italy. Northern Europe and Spain continued to use Gothic styles, which became increasingly elaborate in the 15th century, until almost the end of the period. International Gothic was a courtly style that reached much of Europe in the decades around 1400, producing masterpieces such as the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. All over Europe secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality, and in the 15th century the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons, commissioning small portraits of themselves in oils as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, ivory caskets, cassone chests, and maiolica pottery. These objects also included the Hispano - Moresque ware produced by mostly Mudéjar potters in Spain. Although royalty owned huge collections of plate, little survives except for the Royal Gold Cup. Italian silk manufacture developed, so that Western churches and elites no longer needed to rely on imports from Byzantium or the Islamic world. In France and Flanders tapestry weaving of sets like The Lady and the Unicorn became a major luxury industry.
The large external sculptural schemes of Early Gothic churches gave way to more sculpture inside the building, as tombs became more elaborate and other features such as pulpits were sometimes lavishly carved, as in the Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant'Andrea. Painted or carved wooden relief altarpieces became common, especially as churches created many side - chapels. Early Netherlandish painting by artists such as Jan van Eyck (d. 1441) and Rogier van der Weyden (d. 1464) rivalled that of Italy, as did northern illuminated manuscripts, which in the 15th century began to be collected on a large scale by secular elites, who also commissioned secular books, especially histories. From about 1450 printed books rapidly became popular, though still expensive. There were around 30,000 different editions of incunabula, or works printed before 1500, by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others. Very small woodcuts, nearly all religious, were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century. More expensive engravings supplied a wealthier market with a variety of images.
The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a "time of ignorance and superstition '' that placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity. '' This is a legacy from both the Renaissance and Enlightenment, when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world; Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.
Others argue that reason was generally held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian Edward Grant writes, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed (in the 18th century), they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities ''. Also, contrary to common belief, David Lindberg writes, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the Church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led ''.
The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century and still very common, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat. This is untrue, as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere. Lindberg and Ronald Numbers, another scholar of the period, state that there "was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge (Earth 's) sphericity and even know its approximate circumference ''. Other misconceptions such as "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages '', "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science '', or "the medieval Christian Church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy '', are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth, although they are not supported by current historical research.
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where is the first dollar bill ever made | United States one - dollar bill - Wikipedia
The United States one - dollar bill ($1) is a denomination of United States currency. The first U.S. President (1789 -- 97), George Washington, painted by Gilbert Stuart, is currently featured on the obverse (front), and the Great Seal of the United States is featured on the reverse (back). The one - dollar bill has the oldest design of all U.S. currency currently being produced. The design seen today debuted in 1963 when it was first issued as a Federal Reserve Note (previously, one dollar bills were Silver Certificates).
The inclusion of the motto, "In God We Trust, '' on all currency was required by law in 1955, and first appeared on paper money in 1957.
An individual dollar bill is also less formally known as a one, a single, a buck, a bone, and a bill.
The Federal Reserve says the average life of a $1 bill in circulation is 5.8 years before it is replaced because of wear. Approximately 42 % of all U.S. currency produced in 2009 were one - dollar bills.
(approximately 73⁄8 × 31⁄8 in ≅ 187 × 79 mm -- see also IBM punched cards)
(6.14 length × 2.61 width × 0.0043 in thickness = 156 × 66.3 × 0.11 mm)
In 1929, all currency was changed to the size with which we are familiar today. The first one - dollar bills were issued as silver certificates under Series of 1928. The treasury seal and serial numbers were dark blue. The obverse was nearly identical to the Series of 1923 $1 Silver Certificate, but the treasury seal featured spikes around it and a large gray ONE replaced the blue "1 DOLLAR. '' The reverse, too, had the same border design as the Series of 1923 $1 bill, but the center featured a large ornate ONE superimposed by ONE DOLLAR. These are commonly known as "Funnybacks '' due to the rather odd - looking "ONE '' on the reverse. These $1 Silver Certificates were issued until 1934.
In 1933, Series of 1928 $1 United States Notes were issued to supplement the supply of $1 Silver Certificates. Its treasury seal and serial numbers were red and there was different wording on the obverse of the note. However, a month after their production, it was realized that there would be no real need for these notes and production was stopped. A small number of these $1 bills entered circulation and the rest were kept in treasury vaults until 1949 when they were issued in Puerto Rico.
In 1934, the design of the $1 Silver Certificate was changed. This occurred with that year 's passage of the Silver Purchase Act, which led to a large increase in dollar bills backed by that metal. Under Washington 's portrait, ONE SILVER DOLLAR was changed to ONE DOLLAR. The treasury seal was moved to the right and superimposed over ONE, and a blue numeral 1 was added to the left. The reverse remained the same.
A year later, in 1935, the design of the one - dollar bill was changed again. On the obverse, the blue numeral 1 was changed to gray and made smaller, the gray ONE to the right was removed, the treasury seal was made smaller and superimposed by WASHINGTON D.C., and a stylized ONE DOLLAR was added over the treasury seal. The reverse was also changed to its current design, except for the absence of IN GOD WE TRUST.
World War II brought about special issues of one - dollar bills in 1942. Special $1 Silver Certificates were issued for Hawaii in case of a Japanese invasion. HAWAII was printed vertically on the left and right side of the obverse and also horizontally across the reverse. The seal and serial numbers were changed to brown. Special Silver Certificates were also issued as payment for Allied troops in North Africa about to begin their assault into Europe. The only difference on these one - dollar bills was a yellow instead of blue seal. Both of these types of notes could be declared worthless if they fell into enemy hands.
The next change came in 1957 when the $1 bill became the first piece of paper U.S. currency to bear the motto IN GOD WE TRUST; it was added over the word ONE on the reverse. Initially the BEP began printing the motto on notes printed with the new 32 note press, but soon Series of 1935G bills printed on a 18 note press featured the motto.
The final production of $1 Silver Certificates occurred in late 1963. In 1964, the redemption of Silver Certificates for silver coin ended and in 1968 the redemption of Silver Certificates for silver bullion ended.
Production of one - dollar Federal Reserve Notes was undertaken in late 1963 to replace the soon - to - be obsolete $1 Silver Certificate. The design on the reverse remained the same, but the border design on the obverse underwent considerable modification, as the mostly abstract filigrees were replaced with designs that were mostly botanical in nature. In addition, the word "one, '' which appeared eight times around the border in small type, was eliminated. The serial numbers and treasury seal were printed in green ink. This was the first time the one - dollar bill was printed as a Federal Reserve Note.
The $1 bill became the first denomination printed at the new Western Currency Facility in February 1991, when a shipment of 3.2 million star notes from the Dallas FRB was produced.
Though bill denominations of $5 and higher have been redesigned twice since 1995 as part of ongoing anti-counterfeiting efforts, there are currently no plans to redesign the $1 or $2 bills.
Since 1933, the one - dollar bill has been the exclusive experimental denomination amongst circulating US currency, however, an exception was made in August 1981 for several Richmond $10 notes produced on Natick test paper. The first experiment was conducted in January and February of that year to assess the effects of using different ratios of cotton to linen in the make - up of the bills. Series 1928A and 1928B $1 Silver Certificates with serial number block letters X-B and Y-B were used as the experimental group; the Z-B block was used as the control group. The results of the experiment were inconclusive.
In 1937, another test was conducted, similar in style to the 1933 experiment. This test used Series 1935 one - dollar bills. The particular notes used in this experiment can be identified by their serial numbers. Notes ranging from A00000001B -- A06180000B and B00000001B -- B03300000B were the experimental group and notes ranging from C00000001B -- C03300000B were part of the control group. No conclusive results were found.
A more well - known test was done in 1942 during World War II to test alternative types of paper; this was a precautionary measure in case the current type of paper supply could not be maintained. Series 1935A notes made of the special paper and were printed with a red "S '' to the right of the treasury seal, while notes of the control group were printed with a red R. Fake red S 's and R 's have been applied to regular Series 1935A notes to try and pass them at a higher value; checking a note 's serial numbers can prevent this. Serial numbers of the R group range from S70884001C -- S72068000C and serial numbers of the S group range from S73884001C -- S75068000C.
Sometime in the early to mid 1960s, the BEP experimented with a new firm, the Gilbert Paper Company, to see if they could duplicate the usual paper production. The BEP selected a series of notes printed by the Philadelphia FRB as the test subjects. Serial numbers for this group range from C60800001A -- C61440000A.
One - dollar bills were again the subject of experimentation in May 1992, when the BEP began to test a web - fed Intaglio printing press. Because of a need for greater quantities of $1 FRN 's, the BEP sent out a REQUEST FOR PROPOSALS (RFP) (year 1985) NO. BEP - 85 - 73 to procure a web - fed intaglio printing press to dramatically increase the production of currency notes within the confines of their current (1985) 14th & C street facility. Instead of printing one side of a square sheet of 32 notes at a time, the web - fed press used 96 engraved images or plate - cylinder to print the back of the note, then another 96 image engraved plate - cylinder to print the front of the note. Both sides of notes were printed from a continuous roll of paper. The Alexander - Hamilton intaglio Web press printed both sides of intaglio at the same time. The web - press was actually designed as a full - blown production press as opposed to an experimental press. The notes were issued in Series 1988A, 1993, and 1995. Because of mechanical problems, operator error, as well as the sometimes poor quality of the notes, production was ended in July 1996. Web notes can be identified by the back plate number next to IN GOD WE TRUST and the removal of face check letters and quadrant numbers.
The portrait of George Washington is displayed in the center of the obverse of the one - dollar bill, as it has been since the 1869 design. The oval containing George Washington is propped up by bunches of Bay Laurel leaves.
To the left of George Washington is the Federal Reserve District Seal. The name of the Federal Reserve Bank that issued the note encircles a capital letter, (A-L), identifying it among the twelve Federal Reserve Banks. The sequential number of the bank, (1: A, 2: B, etc.), is also displayed in the four corners of the open space on the bill. Until the redesign of the higher denominations of currency beginning in 1996, this seal was found on all denominations of Federal Reserve Notes. Since then it is only present on the $1 and $2 notes, with the higher denominations only displaying a universal Federal Reserve System seal, and the bank letter and number beneath the upper left serial number.
To the right of George Washington is the Treasury Department seal. The balancing scales represent justice. The chevron with thirteen stars represents the original thirteen colonies. The key below the chevron represents authority and trust; 1789 is the year that the Department of the Treasury was established. The series 1969 dollar bills were the first to use a simplified Treasury Seal, with the wording in English instead of Latin.
Below the FRD seal (to the left of George Washington) is the signature of the Treasurer of the U.S., which occasionally varies, and below the USDT Seal (right side) is the Secretary of the Treasury 's signature. To the left of the Secretary 's signature is the series date. A new series date, or addition or change of a sequential letter under a date, results from a change in the Secretary of the Treasury, the Treasurer of the United States, and / or a change to the note 's appearance such as a new currency design.
On the edges are olive branches entwined around the 1 's. A small plate serial number - letter combination is on the lower right, and a small plate position (check) letter is on the upper left corner of the note. If an "FW '' appears before the lower right plate number it indicates that the bill was produced at the satellite Bureau of Engraving and Printing facility in Fort Worth, Texas. Currency has been printed here since 1990. No "FW '' means the bill was made at the main plant in Washington, D.C..
The reverse of the one - dollar bill has an ornate design that incorporates both sides of the Great Seal of the United States to the left and right of the word ONE. This word appears prominently in the white space at the center of the bill in a capitalized, shadowed, and seriffed typeface. A smaller image of the word "ONE '' is superimposed over the numeral "1 '' in each of the four corners of the bill.
"THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA '' spans the top of the bill, "ONE DOLLAR '' is emblazoned along the bottom, and above the central "ONE '' are the words "IN GOD WE TRUST, '' which became the official motto of the United States in 1956 by an Act of Congress. Below the reverse of the Great Seal on the left side of the bill are the words "THE GREAT SEAL, '' and below the obverse on the right side are the words "OF THE UNITED STATES. ''
The Great Seal, originally designed in 1782 and added to the dollar bill 's design in 1935, is surrounded by an elaborate floral design. The renderings used were the typical official government versions used since the 1880s.
The reverse of the seal on the left features a barren landscape dominated by an unfinished pyramid of 13 steps, topped by the Eye of Providence within a triangle. At the base of the pyramid are engraved the Roman numerals MDCCLXXVI (1776), the date of American independence from Britain. At the top of the seal stands a Latin phrase, "ANNUIT COEPTIS, '' meaning "He favors our undertaking. '' At the bottom of the seal is a semicircular banner proclaiming "NOVUS ORDO SECLORUM '' meaning "New Order of the Ages '' that is a reference to the new American era. To the left of this seal, a string of 13 pearls extends toward the edge of the bill.
The obverse of the seal on the right features a bald eagle, the national bird and symbol of the United States. Above the eagle is a radiant cluster of 13 stars arranged in a six - pointed star. The eagle 's breast is covered by a heraldic shield with 13 stripes that resemble those on the American flag. As on the first US flag, the stars and stripes stand for the 13 original states of the union. The eagle holds a ribbon in its beak reading "E PLURIBUS UNUM, '' a Latin phrase meaning "Out of many (states), one (nation), '' a de facto motto of the United States (and the only one until 1956). In its left talons the eagle holds 13 arrows, and in its right talons it holds an olive branch with 13 leaves and 13 olives, representing, respectively, the powers of war and peace. To the right of this seal, a string of 13 pearls extends toward the edge of the bill. A plate position (check) number is normally found to the left of the eagle.
Except for significant errors, and series 1988A web notes printed in small batches for some of the Federal Reserve districts (those from others are more common), green seal dollars are of little collector value. However two notes have generated public interest, although neither are scarce.
In 1963 dollar bills were produced for the Eleventh Federal Reserve District, headquartered in Dallas. Since the FRD jurisdictions are sequentially numbered, notes received the corresponding letter "K '', for the 11th letter of the alphabet. People noticed that the 1963 Dallas note, with the number "11 '' and a "K '' surrounded by a black seal, appeared about the time President John Kennedy was shot in Dallas in November, 1963. The bill was not a commemorative issue and there was no connection between it and the shooting.
In 1968 - 69 Joseph W. Barr was Secretary of the Treasury for only 31 days and his signature appeared solely on the 1969B dollar bill. It was thought that his brief tenure might make these notes valuable, but use of their plates continued for some time afterwards and over 400 million were printed. Thus they are very common.
In modern times, most Americans currently use the one dollar bill rather than the dollar coin, despite the U.S. Government 's efforts to promote the latter. There are organizations specifically aimed at either preventing (Save the Greenback) or advocating (Coin Coalition) the complete elimination of the one dollar bill in favor of the dollar coin.
On November 29, 2012, a House subcommittee met to consider replacing the dollar bill. This action took place after the seventh Government Accountability Office report on the subject. The latest report claimed that switching to dollar coins would save $4.4 billion over thirty years. However, according to polls, few Americans want to give up dollar bills. Recent budgets passed by Congress have included provisions to prevent the Treasury Department from spending any of its funds to redesign the one dollar bill, largely because of potential cost impacts on the vending machine industry.
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who is the father of christina yangs baby | Cristina Yang - wikipedia
Chief Medical Officer at Klausman Institute for Medical Research Smith College, BA. Stanford MD, first of her class. Berkeley, Phd. Biochemistry (S02E20, Band - Aid Covers The Bullet Hole)
Cristina Yang, M.D., Ph. D., is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, which has aired for over 14 years on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, and is portrayed by actress Sandra Oh. Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, Yang worked her way up to resident level, eventually becoming a cardiothoracic surgical fellow, while her relationships with colleagues Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) formed a focal point of the series. Yang earlier in the series got engaged to Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington), in the past had a relationship with renowned surgeon and mentor Colin Marlow, and wed but later divorced Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd).
Oh originally auditioned for the role of Miranda Bailey, although Chandra Wilson was ultimately cast in the part. Oh has received generally positive reviews for her portrayal, with Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considering her friendship with Meredith to be "the secret core of Grey 's ''. Oh has also garnered numerous awards and nominations for her role as Yang, including Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award wins in 2006. She was additionally nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series each year, from 2005 to 2009. Characterizing the character, ABC noted her competitiveness, ambition, and intelligence as her main traits, while her aggressive, and tactless attitude was highlighted as her main weakness. In May 2012, E! Online reported that Oh had signed on for two more years, along with her fellow cast members. Oh left the show after season 10, and her character Cristina Yang was written out of the storyline as a main cast member.
Cristina Yang is introduced as a graduate from Smith College and a fellow surgical intern to Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight), and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers); the five of them working under Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). An atheistic competitive intern of Korean - American ancestry, she first desired to become a doctor after a childhood car accident which killed her biological father. Yang also suffers from dyslexia, and was raised in Beverly Hills, California by her mother and supportive Jewish stepfather. She has BA from Smith College, an MD from Stanford University and a PhD from University of California, Berkeley, making her a "double doctor ''. While her emotional pragmatism, competitive perfectionism, and logical nature lead many to view her as a cutthroat "robot '', Cristina hits it off with Meredith on their first day and the pair soon become best friends and each other 's "person '', sharing the same "dark and twisty '' sense of humor.
During her internship, Cristina has an on - off relationship with the chief of cardiothoracic surgery Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington) that leads to an accidental pregnancy. Yang schedules an abortion without telling him about the pregnancy due to Burke 's behavior towards their lack of relationship status. However, Yang experiences an ectopic pregnancy and Burke discovers the pregnancy after Yang collapses from a burst fallopian tube. Burke and Yang begin a relationship in the aftermath of her miscarriage. After Burke is shot in the arm and develops a hand tremor, Yang helps him cover it up by developing a covert partnership wherein she performs most of his surgeries. Yang initially denies involvement during a confrontation, but then confesses everything to Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.), the chief of surgery. Yang 's actions jeopardize Burke 's chances of becoming chief, which he sees as a huge betrayal. After a short breakup, Yang breaks the silence and Burke proposes marriage, which Yang accepts after eight days of hesitation. Burke calls off the wedding, leaving Yang at the altar. She goes on her honeymoon to Hawaii with Meredith to recover, returning to discover that Burke has disappeared from her life and transferred to a different hospital.
Burke is replaced by Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), who immediately dislikes Yang for her trend of having affairs with famous surgeons, such as Burke, going so far as refusing to let her scrub in on cardiac surgeries. Eventually, Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) moves in with Yang, and she still tries to earn Hahn 's approval. Hahn reveals that she dislikes Yang because she reminds her of an early version of herself and continues to cut Yang out of cardio surgeries and neglects to teach her, before eventually quitting the hospital and leaving Seattle Grace without a head of cardio. Without a teacher, Yang begins to seriously doubt the purpose of remaining in her place at Seattle Grace when the program falls to twelfth on a list of the best teaching hospitals, and Burke wins the Harper - Avery award without mentioning her at all, despite her saving his career. Yang tells the Chief that her current existence in the hospital is "unbearable '' and that she has turned into a ghost.
Yang meets Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), an army trauma surgeon, when he patches her up from being stabbed in the stomach by a falling icicle. The pair are immediately attracted to each other and share a brief kiss. After Owen Hunt is honorably discharged, he is hired as Seattle Grace 's chief of trauma surgery and he and Yang begin a flirtation. Yang grows emotionally when she decides to support Meredith in her relationship with Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), despite her logical misgivings about their staying power, and begins to be more emotionally open towards Hunt. However, Hunt has repressed memories of his time in Iraq and PTSD which causes Hunt to behave erratically, and attack and strangle her while asleep. Yang attempts to be emotionally supportive, but ends their relationship as she is afraid of sleeping next to him. Cristina loses her shot at being the first resident to perform a solo surgery despite being unanimously chosen by the attending surgeons, having been disciplined from failing to report the irresponsible behavior of the new interns. Meredith and Cristina have a fight during the intern scandal, and Cristina chooses Alex to be her replacement. They eventually reconcile. When Izzie Stevens discovers her life - threatening cancer, Yang is the one she confides in over her other friends due to Yang 's ability to remain emotionally distant. Yang saves Izzie 's life by coming up with a treatment plan and forcing Izzie to tell their friends of her diagnosis. Hunt begins seeing a therapist, and Yang confesses her love for him. The pair begin a tentative relationship, hampered by Hunt 's therapeutic progress and his hot and cold professional behavior, wherein he frequently ignores or penalizes Yang to avoid the appearance of favoritism.
Hunt hires ex-colleague from the Army, Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), to become the chief of cardio - thoracic surgery as a "gift '' for Yang, after she breaks down over having no new head of cardio. Yang is unimpressed with Altman, neither published nor famous, but her calm proficiency and belief in Yang 's skills win her over. A conflict arises in the trio due to Altman and Hunt 's repressed feelings for each other. Altman chooses to resign her place as temporary head of cardio because of her feelings for Hunt. Devastated by the blow to her education and the depressing potential of returning to her previous directionless state, Yang begs Altman to stay and teach her, offering Hunt to Altman in exchange. Altman intellectually understands Yang choosing her gift over a man and their relationship is repaired, but Hunt is very hurt that Yang would trade him away. Hunt subconsciously tries to sabotage Yang 's education and the two break up again after Hunt is unable to decide between the two women. Cristina saves Derek 's life with a gun to her head after he is shot by Gary Clarke, a grieving widow who commits mass murder at the hospital. Hunt is injured by the same shooter after he chooses to return for Yang over Altman, and Grey treats him as Yang saves Grey 's husband. Following the attack on the hospital, Hunt and Yang impulsively decide to get married. Yang is suffering from severe PTSD and is unable to bear being alone, making marriage to Hunt, who understands what she 's going through, attractive. Yang spends the early days of her marriage in shock and hiding at Meredith 's.
Due to having severe PTSD and being unable to do her job correctly anymore, Cristina quits and begins bartending and eventually throws a housewarming party. Derek helps Cristina emotionally and she ultimately decides to go to work after helping the victim of a school shooting. Yang discovers she is pregnant with Hunt 's child, and decides to get an abortion. Though Hunt accompanies her to the abortion, he is extremely angry with her decision. Yang then operates on Henry Burton (Scott Foley), Altman 's husband, unknown of his identity. When the surgery fails and he dies, Yang is guilt stricken upon learning of her patient 's identity. Altman forgives Yang and forces Yang to realize that she did everything possible. Altman 's mentorship of Yang is punishing at times, and Altman brutally emphasizes that Yang must learn patience, compassion, and the basics over the flashy surgeries Yang prefers. Altman 's tutelage is successful, and Yang evolves into an aware and well - rounded surgeon because of it. Altman allows Yang to come up with a wish list of dream surgeries to fulfill before Altman resigns and moves on.
Yang and Hunt distance themselves from each other as they keep fighting over the abortion, despite attending marriage counselling. Hunt has a one - night stand with a patient 's friend, leaving Yang heartbroken. She decides to move on, unsure of her future with him. As the end of the fifth year of residency is near, the surgical residents, including Yang, prepare for their medical boards and for the different fellowships they plan on joining. After she passes her exams, Yang reconciles with Hunt and tells him she is leaving Seattle for the Mayo Clinic, Minnesota. Afterward, Yang, Meredith, Shepherd, Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), and Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) are involved in an aviation accident while on the way to Boise, Idaho to perform surgery on conjoined twins. Lexie dies, and Mark later succumbs to his injuries after they are rescued and dies. Following their rescue, Yang, traumatized, suffers from brief reactive psychosis which provokes violent outbursts and makes her unresponsive. Yang leaves Seattle to become a cardiothoracic surgical fellow and goes, as planned, to the Mayo Clinic, but has difficulties adapting to her new colleagues ' way of working. While in Minnesota, Yang develops a friendship with a near - retirement cardio surgeon, Craig Thomas (William Daniels). She mainly teases him with comments regarding his old age. She also begins an affair with the head of surgery Dr. Parker (Steven Culp) who has issues with Thomas. After Thomas dies from a heart attack, Yang returns to Seattle.
Cristina is re-hired and Owen asks for a divorce once Cristina wants to reconcile. Shocked, Cristina agrees, but later finds out that the potential conflict of interest regarding the plane crash lawsuit was a key motive behind Owen 's request and confronts him. Owen tells her that he ' feels responsible ' and was worried as he thought she was dead. They have a sexual relationship after divorcing. The hospital is sued and found guilty of negligence. The surviving doctors, including Yang, must receive $15 million of compensation each, which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurers refuse to pay. Yang, Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez), and the other surviving doctors buy the hospital with the help of the Harper - Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing, and each become members of the new directing board. After buying the hospital, Yang realizes that she was made for the O.R. and breaks things off with Owen because he still wants kids and she still does n't.
After breaking up with Owen, Cristina continues to excel at surgery and becomes de facto chief of cardio. Although supportive of Meredith 's choice to become a mother, Cristina points out the fact that it has hurt Meredith 's career and clinical judgement. This causes a wedge in their friendship. Grey attempts to catch up professionally with a research trial, but the divide widens when Cristina 's trial overshadows Grey 's and steals Grey 's resources. When Dr. Shane Ross, a second - year resident, stands up to Meredith for her, Cristina gives Shane a kiss. Later, she begins sleeping with him, as well as becoming his mentor and passing on the skills learned from Altman. Cristina 's project is immensely successful and she is informed that she could be considered for the Harper Avery award from her 3 - D printing of a heart conduit. Grey and Yang reconcile when Grey acknowledges that Yang is correct, she has surpassed Grey, and that Grey is jealous of Yang 's professional freedom and success, while her own is hampered by her family.
Cristina is nominated for the Harper Avery award and is a strong candidate, however she is passed over due to her relationship with the Harper - Avery Foundation that co-owns the hospital. Cristina goes to speak at a hospital in Zurich, Switzerland, orchestrated by Preston Burke who built his own hospital following his winning of the Harper Avery. He offers Cristina his job as the head of the hospital so that he can spend more time with his wife and kids.
Cristina accepts the offer and interviews candidates for her replacement position at the hospital, including Maggie Pierce for new chief of cardio. Cristina transfers her hospital shares to Alex Karev and recommends he take over her seat on the board.
At the end of season 10, she says goodbye to her fellow co-workers she has come to know and love including Owen and Meredith. Cristina and Meredith share special moments together reminiscing about all the horrors they went through and dancing it out one last time. Cristina leaves for Zurich with surgical intern Shane Ross, who chooses to leave in order to study under her in Switzerland.
On the creation of Yang, Shonda Rhimes said the character contained "a little bit of (her) personality ''. Speaking with talk show host Oprah Winfrey, Rhimes said: "Cristina was second, simply because she 's the kind of woman I know really well, and I like her. There 's something interesting about a person who is that driven, a little bit emotionally disconnected but still a caring, sweet, and smart individual you could be friends with. '' Sandra Oh, initially auditioned for the character of Bailey, adding: "Thank God I did not get that part '', explaining the show would not be the same without fellow cast member, Wilson. Discussing casting Oh as Yang, Rhimes said: "She brought this energy that felt very fresh. From the beginning, I 've been shaping Cristina around Sandra a little bit. One of my favorite things to do is take as much of her dialogue out of a scene as possible because she does so much nonverbally. Then I just watch what she manages to do without having a word to say. ''
The character of Yang was not originally supposed to be of Asian descent. Oh said her character was "a pert little blonde and the thing is the woman who runs the show, Shonda Rhimes, is a black woman, which makes a big (expletive) difference. '' In 2009, when asked why Oh signed on for Grey 's Anatomy, Oh said:
The American Broadcasting Company (ABC) characterized Yang as "competitive '', "ambitious '', and "intelligent '', while also noting her weaknesses: "bossy '', "aggressive '', and "tactless ''. Oh said of her character: "I 've always tried to play Cristina with a tremendous amount of focus and ambition -- which is the reality for a female surgeon. I mean, in real life there are n't many of them. But the ones you encounter are at the very top of their game. You have to have a kind of ascetic personality to survive. '' James Pickens, Jr. who portrays Dr. Webber said: "That character itself set a bar in terms of how we look at millennial women: independent yet vulnerable, seriously competitive yet caring. '' Rhimes referred to Yang 's relationship with Burke by the portmanteau "Burktina '', citing "Losing My Religion '' as one of her favorite episodes featuring them because it shows their evolution from the beginning of the second season to its end.
Rhimes commented, "(We see) her struggle to suppress all of her humanity in pursuit of perfection. And in my mind, what we realize is that she is not cold. She is terrified. Scared that if she lets her emotions out, they will overtake her and she will be hurt. And you ca n't hate her. Because it 's so incredibly human and understandable. '' Yang 's friendship with Meredith has been looked upon as "sisterhood '', and Yang has repeatedly referred to the former as "her person ''. This led to the two being dubbed "the twisted sisters ''. At the conclusion of season three, the duo went on a "honeymoon '' together, and Rhimes called it her favorite detail of the finale.
New York magazine wrote of the character: "There 's probably no woman on TV right now more single - mindedly dedicated to her career than Cristina. It has long been her defining characteristic. If it occasionally makes her into a caricature, it has also unquestionably established that she would have an abortion in this circumstance. '' Talking about Yang 's abortion in the eighth season, Rhimes explained she intended Yang to have an abortion already in the second season but changed it with an ectopic pregnancy at the suggestion of one of her writers because "that was so much more interesting, story-wise ''. As for the abortion in the eighth season, Rhimes commented: "I really wanted Cristina Yang to stay true to who Cristina Yang is. And I feel like that is a character who has never really wanted to be a mother. The idea that this woman would have a child that she did not want and resented for ruining her career and resented Owen for making her have (it) would have been hideous. (The abortion) made sense for the character. ''
Discussing his onscreen relationship with Yang, McKidd said: "It 's not going to be easy for them. What I read when I read the season premiere, and this is just my take on it, is that it was very much two very analytical people, Owen and Cristina. They 're very similar in a way, I think, as people. Two analytical people see each other over a crowded ER room and their eyes meet. '' On the topic of Yang 's triumphs and challenges in the eighth season, Oh said: "It has been an extremely challenging year that has had a lot of ups and downs, both challenging and exhilarating. We would shoot all our scenes for a day or two straight, and that was extremely challenging because emotionally and physically it becomes really exhausting. ''
Oh said of Yang 's expressions of emotions during season eight: "You see her express her emotions with only two people: her best friend Meredith and her husband Owen. To see someone being pulled apart so intensely, which honestly most everyone goes through in their life in some ways, if you 're lucky you 're completely pulled apart and then you have to pull yourself together, which hopefully will be the exploration within hopefully the next season. '' Although the characters ' marriage is tested, McKidd reported to The Hollywood Reporter: "I think they 're meant for each other. I hold out faith in Cristina and Owen, even though they go to the darkest places out of all the couples on the show. It 's going to get worse but it 's going to get better soon. ''
The character was well received by the critics at the time of its inception and as the series went on the reviews became increasingly positive and Cristina went on the become an iconic character not just for Grey 's but for television itself. Kelli Catana of The Huffington Post named Yang "the best damn character '' of the series. Yang appeared in Comcast 's list of TV 's Most Intriguing Characters, with the website commenting that she is "an engaging yet comedic factor for the prime - time soap Grey 's Anatomy. '' Philadelphia Magazine included Yang in its list of the "10 Best Doctors on Television ''. However, the same periodical listed her as one of "The 12 Most Annoying Women on TV ''. Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considers her friendship with Meredith to be "the secret core of Grey 's and perhaps creator Shonda Rhimes ' greatest contribution to prime time. '' The Huffington Post 's writer Kelli Catana agreed, saying: "the Meredith / Yang relationship is probably the most true friendship on network television. '' Their friendship was listed in AOL TV 's "Top 20: TV 's Best BFFs '' and in Entertainment Weekly 's "30 Best TV Bromances / Gal Pals ''. Yahoo! Voices also put Yang on their list of "The Most Loyal TV Best Friends of All Time ''. Television Without Pity writer Lauren Shotwell claimed Yang is "the only one of these five (residents) that regularly acts like an actual doctor ''.
Yang 's relationship with Burke was positively received; it was considered as "one of the most interesting relationships on the show ''. Similarly, The Orange County Register wrote that their romance became "one of the most touching and funny attractions of Grey 's Anatomy. '' Christopher Monfette of IGN was critical of their wedding planning in the third season, saying: "The will - they 's and wo n't - they 's fly and fall like hobbled pigeons until the season finale when the show solves both its personal and professional problems in the most obvious and least compelling of ways. '' UGO.com placed their break - up on its list of the most horrible TV breakups. In 2009, Monfette said of Yang 's relationship with Owen: "(Hunt 's) interactions with Cristina were perfectly balanced for optimum drama, never together and never apart for so long that the back - and - forth became frustrating. Viewers could clearly see a softening of the typically hard - edged Cristina, a pleasant change for what had become something of a one - note character. ''
Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly also praised the pairing, especially in "Elevator Love Letter '', saying: "As good as they 've been at amping up the romance crackling between Owen and Cristina, Kevin McKidd and Sandra Oh brought the Emmy consideration tonight from scene 1. '' She also added: "I loved seeing Cristina at least try to stand by her man. '' Of Yang and Owen 's wedding, Armstrong said: "Glad we made a clean disposal of the Teddy - Owen - Cristina love triangle, though, when he quipped to Teddy, "I heard there 's a guy, '' and she said she was happy for him. '' She also praised Owen 's proposal scene, giving it an "A ''. Later, she praised their marriage, saying: "I am absolutely loving the stronger - than - ever lady - bond between these two this season. Is it because they 're both married now? Just growing up? Whatever, it 's the opposite of Blair and Serena 's annoyingly fickle frenemy status on Gossip Girl, and I ca n't get enough. ''
New York Magazine praised the abortion storyline, saying that the show "was brave enough to do what almost no other series will: show this one particular, totally legal medical procedure on TV '' and that the abortion was "the only plausible resolution '' for Yang 's pregnancy. Tanner Stransky, also of Entertainment Weekly, said of Yang 's actions after Owen 's affair: "It alternately seems silly and not silly, when you really think about it. '' Robert Bianco of USA Today praised Yang 's storylines in the eighth season, saying: "Their stories are effectively tied into that of a patient whose ability to move forward is complicated by a complex response to a hideous past. '' HitFix writer Liane Bonin Starr applauded Yang 's brief departure from Seattle Grace to Mayo Clinic in the ninth season, which was "interesting '' as "it showed us a new side of her -- and after so many seasons, that was some welcome insight. ''
The relation between Meredith and Cristina has been acclaimed and been a highlight of the show. Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered the friendship to be "the secret core of Grey 's ''. Aisha Harris of Slate called their relation The Best Female Friendship on TV adding that "With those two characters, showrunner Shonda Rhimes and her team of writers created one of the most nuanced and realistic portrayals of female friendship on television. '' Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly called Cristina and Meredith the best female friends on TV because "they do n't try to be ''. There 's nothing fake about them, which is a rarity in how female friends are portrayed on television. She further went on to call them ' soulmates ', "And even though they 'd never dare get sappy enough to say it, they 're soul mates. Margaret Lyons of Vulture (magazine) called the friendship "dream BFF relationship. '' and the primary focus of the show, "One of the series ' calling cards has been its depiction of female friendship and particularly the primacy that friendship enjoyed over romantic relationships. ''
E! at the time of Sandra Oh 's exit wrote, "In Grey 's Anatomy 's 10 - year history, the doctor duo has been through a lot together: weddings, deaths, plane crashes, bomb threats, shooting, you name it, they 've lived (and danced) through it. '' and added, "And with the three words, "You 're my person. '' Cristina Yang and Meredith Grey solidified their status as the small screen 's best best friends ever. ''
Oh has received numerous awards and nominations for her portrayal of Yang. In 2005, she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, which she was nominated for every year until 2009. Also in 2005, she was nominated for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 10th Satellite Awards. The next year, the cast won the Satellite Award for Best Cast -- Television Series. In 2006, Oh won the award for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards. In 2006, the cast was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series, which they won in 2007, and were nominated for again the following year. Also at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Oh won the award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series. In 2010, Oh was nominated for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series at the 41st NAACP Image Awards, which she was nominated for again in 2012, and in 2011, she was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series at the 42nd NAACP Image Awards. In 2011, Oh was nominated for Favorite TV Drama Actress and Favorite TV Doctor at the 37th People 's Choice Awards an award she was nominated again for three years later at the 40th People 's Choice Awards and also the subsequent year at the 41st People 's Choice Awards. She was also nominated alongside Pompeo for the Favorite TV Gal Pals category.
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fleetwood mac the chain selections from 25 years | 25 years -- the Chain - wikipedia
25 Years -- The Chain is a boxed set by British - American rock band Fleetwood Mac originally released in 1992. It consists of four CDs, covering the history of the band from its formation in 1967 to 1992. The set features several previously unreleased studio tracks, new mixes, live recordings, and a different version of the international hit single "Tusk ''.
The extended version of Stevie Nicks ' "Gypsy '' was also included for the first time on a commercial release, and this collection also marked the first time Nicks ' "Silver Springs '' had appeared on a full - length Fleetwood Mac album. It was originally intended for inclusion on the international multi-million selling album Rumours, however, it was removed from the track listing at the last minute. It was issued in 1976 as the B - side to the single "Go Your Own Way '' but the song had never been released commercially since. The inclusion of "Silver Springs '' on this collection marked Nicks ' first departure from the band, when Mick Fleetwood refused to allow the track to appear on Nicks ' retrospective compilation Timespace: The Best of Stevie Nicks, instead intending it for 25 Years -- The Chain. The disagreement was ultimately resolved and the song itself was eventually released as a single five years later in 1997, taken from the album The Dance after a live performance from the sell - out tour of the same name.
A condensed 2 - CD version of the compilation was also available containing highlights from the 4 - CD set. The popular hit single "Hold Me '' was only available on this format as was the track "Bermuda Triangle ''. The new track "Love Shines '' was released as a single in the UK, whereas the track "Paper Doll '' was released in the US instead.
On 11 June 2012, the 4 - disc version of The Chain was re-released in the UK, now at a budget price. It peaked at number 9 on the UK album charts the same week, and has since been certified Gold by the BPI. The album reached # 1 in New Zealand where it has since been certified 2xPlatinum.
* Originally from Stevie Nicks ' album The Wild Heart (1983), performed by Fleetwood Mac during the Tango in the Night Tour on 12 Dec. 1987 at The Cow Palace, Daly City, CA.
Previously unreleased songs "String - A-Long '' was a track from Jeremy Spencer 's first solo album Jeremy Spencer, with backing from Fleetwood, Kirwan, Green and John McVie.
Condensed version of the box set, featuring selected tracks. Note the inclusion of "Hold Me '' and "Bermuda Triangle '' which are excluded from the 4 - CD set.
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who wrote the story the three little pigs | The three Little pigs - wikipedia
The Three Little Pigs is a fable about three pigs who build three houses of different materials. A big bad wolf blows down the first two pigs ' houses, made of straw and sticks respectively, but is unable to destroy the third pig 's house, made of bricks. Printed versions date back to the 1840s, but the story itself is thought to be much older. The phrases used in the story, and the various morals drawn from it, have become embedded in Western culture. Many versions of The Three Little Pigs have been recreated or have been modified over the years, sometimes making the wolf a kind character. It is a type 124 folktale in the Aarne -- Thompson classification system.
The Three Little Pigs was included in The Nursery Rhymes of England (London and New York, c. 1886), by James Halliwell - Phillipps. The story in its arguably best - known form appeared in English Fairy Tales by Joseph Jacobs, first published in 1890 and crediting Halliwell as his source. The story begins with the title characters being sent out into the world by their mother, to "seek out their fortune ''. The first little pig builds a house of straw, but a wolf blows it down and devours him. The second little pig builds a house of sticks, which the wolf also blows down, and the second little pig is also devoured. Each exchange between wolf and pig features ringing proverbial phrases, namely:
"Little pig, little pig, let me come in. '' "No, no, not by the hair on my chinny chin chin. '' "Then I 'll huff, and I 'll puff, and I 'll blow your house down. ''
The third little pig builds a house of bricks. The wolf fails to blow down the house. He then attempts to trick the pig out of the house by asking to meet him at various places, but he is outwitted each time. Finally, the wolf resolves to come down the chimney, whereupon the pig catches the wolf in a cauldron of boiling water, slams the lid on, then cooks and eats him. In some versions, the first and second little pigs are not eaten by the wolf after he demolishes their homes, but instead run to their brother 's house, and after the wolf goes down the chimney he either dies like in the original, or runs away and never returns to eat the three little pigs, who all survive in either case.
The story uses the literary rule of three, expressed in this case as a "contrasting three '', as the third pig 's brick house turns out to be the only one which is adequate to withstand the wolf. Variations of the tale appeared in Uncle Remus: His Songs and Sayings in 1881. The story also made an appearance in Nights with Uncle Remus in 1883, both by Joel Chandler Harris, in which the pigs were replaced by Brer Rabbit. Andrew Lang included it in The Green Fairy Book, published in 1892, but did not cite his source. In contrast to Jacobs 's version, which left the pigs nameless, Lang 's retelling cast the pigs as Browny, Whitey, and Blacky. It also set itself apart by exploring each pig 's character and detailing interaction between them. The antagonist of this version is a fox, not a wolf. The pigs ' houses are made either of mud, cabbage, or brick. Blacky, the third pig, rescues his brother and sister from the fox 's den after the fox has been defeated.
The most well - known version of the story is an award - winning 1933 Silly Symphony cartoon, which was produced by Walt Disney. The production cast the title characters as Fifer Pig, Fiddler Pig, and Practical Pig. The first two are depicted as both frivolous and arrogant. The story has been somewhat softened. The first two pigs still get their houses blown down, but escape from the wolf. Also, the wolf is not boiled to death but simply burns his behind and runs away. Three sequels soon followed in 1934, 1936 and 1939 respectively.
Fifer Pig, Fiddler Pig, Practical Pig and the Big Bad Wolf appeared in the 2001 series Disney 's House of Mouse in many episodes, and again in Mickey 's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse. The three pigs can be seen in Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as greetable characters.
In 1942, there was a Merrie Melodies version made that was a serious musical treatment, plus the usual Friz Freleng visual humor. It parodies both the Disney version, and Fantasia itself.
Other versions of the tale were also made. One was an MGM Tex Avery cartoon named Blitz Wolf, a 1942 wartime version with the Wolf as a Nazi. Another animated spoof was a 1952 Warner Brothers cartoon called The Turn - Tale Wolf, directed by Robert McKimson. This cartoon tells the story from the wolf 's point of view and makes the pigs out to be the villains. Another Warner Brothers spoof was Friz Freleng 's The Three Little Bops (1957), which depicts the three little pigs as jazz musicians who refuse to let the wolf join their band.
In 1953, Tex Avery did a Droopy cartoon, "The Three Little Pups ''. In it, the wolf is a Southern - speaking dog catcher (voiced by Daws Butler) trying to catch Droopy and his brothers, Snoopy and Loopy, to put in the dog pound. Though first successful in blowing the first two houses down, he meets his match when he fails to blow Droopy 's house of bricks. The dog catcher makes several failed attempts to destroy the house and catch the pups. His last attempt ended with him inside the television set where he is a cowboy.
The 1989 parody, The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs!, is presented as a first - person narrative by the wolf, who portrays the entire incident as a misunderstanding; he had gone to the pigs to borrow some sugar, had destroyed their houses in a sneezing fit, ate the first two pigs to not waste food (since they 'd died in the house collapse anyway), and was caught attacking the third pig 's house after the pig had continually insulted him.
The 1992 Green Jellö song, Three Little Pigs (and its claymation music video) sets the story in Los Angeles. The wolf drives a Harley Davidson motorcycle, the first little pig is an aspiring guitarist, the second is a cannabis smoking, dumpster diving evangelist and the third holds a Master of Architecture degree from Harvard University. In the end, with all three pigs barricaded in the brick house, the third pig calls 9 - 1 - 1. John Rambo is dispatched to the scene, and kills the wolf with a machine gun.
The 1993 children 's book The Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pig inverts the cast and makes a few changes to the plot: the wolves build a brick house, then a concrete house, then a steel house, and finally a house of flowers. The pig is unable to blow the houses down, destroying them by other means, but eventually gives up his wicked ways when he smells the scent of the flower house, and becomes friends with the wolves.
The three pigs and the wolf appear in the four Shrek films, and the specials Shrek the Halls and Scared Shrekless.
In 2003 the Flemish company Studio 100 created a musical called Three Little Pigs (Dutch: De 3 Biggetjes), which follows the three daughters of the pig with the house of stone with new original songs, introducing a completely new story loosely based on the original story. The musical was specially written for the band K3, who play the three little pigs, Pirky, Parky and Porky (Dutch: Knirri, Knarri and Knorri).
In 2014 Peter Lund let the three little pigs live together in a village in the musical Grimm with Little Red Riding Hood and other fairy tale characters.
In 2015 Saturn Animation Studio, Canada, has produced an interactive adaptation of Three Little Pigs for all mobile devices.
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what do you know about the extent of the peninsular plateau | Deccan plateau - Wikipedia
The Deccan Plateau is a large plateau in southern India. It rises to 100 metres (330 ft) in the north, and to more than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) in the south, forming a raised triangle within the downward - pointing triangle of the Indian subcontinent 's coastline.
It extends over eight Indian states and encompasses a wide range of habitats, covering most of central and southern India.
The plateau is located between two mountain ranges, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, each of which rises from its respective nearby coastal plain, and almost converge at the southern tip of India. It is separated from the Gangetic plain to the north by the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges, which form its northern boundary. The Deccan produced some of the major dynasties in Indian history Pallavas, Satavahana, Vakataka, Chalukya, and Rashtrakuta dynasties; the Western Chalukya, Kakatiya Empire, Vijayanagara and Maratha empires; and the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate, Deccan Sultanate, and the Nizam of Hyderabad.
The name Deccan is an anglicised form of the Prakrit word dakkhin, itself derived from the Sanskrit word dákṣiṇa (meaning "southern ''), as the Deccan Plateau is located in southern part of subcontinent.
The Deccan region has historically lacked an enduring geo - political centre, and has been defined in various ways. Geographers have attempted to define it using indices such as rainfall, vegetation, soil type or physical features. When considering physical features, it is taken to be the area bounded by the Narmada River, the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats. The 16th century historian Firishta defined Deccan as the territory inhabited by the native speakers of Kannada, Marathi, and Telugu languages. Richard M. Eaton (2005) also settled on this linguistic definition.
The Western Ghats mountain range is very tall and blocks the moisture from the southwest monsoon from reaching the Deccan Plateau, so the region receives very little rainfall. The eastern Deccan Plateau is at a lower elevation spanning the southeastern coast of India. Its forests are also relatively dry but serve to retain the rain to form streams that feed into rivers that flow into basins and then into the Bay of Bengal.
Most Deccan plateau rivers flow south. Most of the northern part of the plateau is drained by the Godavari River and its tributaries, including the Indravati River, starting from the Western Ghats and flowing east towards the Bay of Bengal. Most of the central plateau is drained by the Tungabhadra River, Krishna River and its tributaries, including the Bhima River, which also run east. The southernmost part of the plateau is drained by the Kaveri River, which rises in the Western Ghats of Karnataka and bends south to break through the Nilgiri Hills at the island town of Shivanasamudra and then falls into Tamil Nadu at Hogenakal Falls before flowing into the Stanley Reservoir and the Mettur Dam that created the reservoir, and finally emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
The climate of the region varies from semi-arid in the north to tropical in most of the region with distinct wet and dry seasons. Rain falls during the monsoon season from about June to October. March to June can be very dry and hot, with temperatures regularly exceeding 40 ° C. The Deccan plateau is a topographically variegated region located south of the Gangetic plains - the portion lying between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal - and includes a substantial area to the north of the Satpura Range, which has popularly been regarded as the divide between northern India and the Deccan. The name derives from the Sanskrit daksina ("south ''). The plateau is bounded on the east and west by the Ghats, while its northern extremity is the Vindhya Range. The Deccan 's average elevation is about 2,000 feet (600 m), sloping generally eastward; its principal rivers, the Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery, flow from the Western Ghats eastward to the Bay of Bengal. The plateau 's climate is drier than that on the coasts and is arid in places. Although sometimes used to mean all of India south of the Narmada River, the word Deccan relates more specifically to that area of rich volcanic soils and lava - covered plateaus in the northern part of the peninsula between the Narmada and Krishna rivers.
Having once constituted a segment of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland, this land is the oldest and most stable in India. The Deccan plateau consists of dry tropical forests that experiences only seasonal rainfall
On the western edge of the plateau lie the Sahyadri, the Nilgiri, the Anaimalai and the Elamalai Hills, commonly known as Western Ghats. The average height of the Western Ghats, which run along the Arabian Sea, goes on increasing towards the south. Anaimudi Peak in Kerala, with a height of 2,695 m above sea level, is the highest peak of peninsular India. In the Nilgiris lie Ootacamund, the well - known hill station of southern India. The western coastal plain is uneven and swift rivers flow through it that forms beautiful lagoons and backwaters, examples of which can be found in the state of Kerala. The east coast is wide with deltas formed by the rivers Godavari, Mahanadi and Kaveri. Flanking the Indian peninsula on the western side are the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea and on the eastern side lies the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.
The eastern Deccan plateau, called Telangana, is made of vast sheets of massive granite rock, which effectively traps rainwater. Under the thin surface layer of soil is the impervious gray granite bedrock. It rains here only during some months.
Comprising the northeastern part of the Deccan Plateau, the Telangana Plateau has an area of about 148,000 km, a north - south length of about 770 km, and an east - west width of about 515 km.
The plateau is drained by the Godavari River taking a southeasterly course; by the Krishna River, which divides the peneplain into two regions; and by the Pennai Aaru River flowing in a northerly direction. The plateau 's forests are moist deciduous, dry deciduous, and tropical thorn.
Most of the population of the region is engaged in agriculture; cereals, oilseeds, cotton, and pulses (legumes) are the major crops. There are multipurpose irrigation and hydroelectric - power projects, including the Pochampad, Bhaira Vanitippa, and Upper Pennai Aaru. Industries (located in Hyderabad, Warangal, and Kurnool) produce cotton textiles, sugar, foodstuffs, tobacco, paper, machine tools, and pharmaceuticals. Cottage industries are forest - based (timber, firewood, charcoal, bamboo products) and mineral - based (asbestos, coal, chromite, iron ore, mica, and kyanite).
The northwestern part of the plateau is made up of lava flows or igneous rocks known as the Deccan Traps. The rocks are spread over the whole of Maharashtra and parts of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, thereby making it one of the largest volcanic provinces in the world. It consists of more than 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) of flat - lying basalt lava flows and covers an area of nearly 500,000 square kilometres (190,000 sq mi) in west - central India. Estimates of the original area covered by the lava flows are as high as 1,500,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi). The volume of basalt is estimated to be 511,000 cubic km. The thick dark soil (called regur) found here is suitable for cotton cultivation.
The volcanic basalt beds of the Deccan were laid down in the massive Deccan Traps eruption, which occurred towards the end of the Cretaceous period between 67 and 66 million years ago. Some paleontologists speculate that this eruption may have accelerated the extinction of the dinosaurs. Layer after layer was formed by the volcanic activity that lasted many thousands of years, and when the volcanoes became extinct, they left a region of highlands with typically vast stretches of flat areas on top like a table. The volcanic hotspot that produced the Deccan traps is hypothesized to lie under the present day island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean.
Typically the Deccan Plateau is made up of basalt extending up to Bhor Ghat near Karjat. This is an extrusive igneous rock. Also in certain sections of the region, we can find granite, which is an intrusive igneous rock. The difference between these two rock types is: basalt rock forms on eruption of lava, that is, on the surface (either out of a volcano, or through massive fissures -- as in the Deccan basalts -- in the ground), while granite forms deep within the Earth. Granite is a felsic rock, meaning it is rich in potassium feldspar and quartz. This composition is continental in origin (meaning it is the primary composition of the continental crust). Since it cooled relatively slowly, it has large visible crystals. Basalt, on the other hand, is mafic in composition -- meaning it is rich in pyroxene and, in some cases, olivine, both of which are Mg - Fe rich minerals. Basalt is similar in composition to mantle rocks, indicating that it came from the mantle and did not mix with continental rocks. Basalt forms in areas that are spreading, whereas granite forms mostly in areas that are colliding. Since both rocks are found in the Deccan Plateau, it indicates two different environments of formation.
The Deccan is rich in minerals. Primary mineral ores found in this region are mica and iron ore in the Chhota Nagpur region, and diamonds, gold and other metals in the Golconda region.
The large areas of remaining forest on the plateau are still home to a variety of grazing animals from the four - horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), chinkara (Gazella bennettii), and blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) to the large gaur and wild water buffalo (Bubalus arena).
The Deccan is home to many languages and people. Bhil and Gond people live in the hills along the northern and northeastern edges of the plateau, and speak various languages that belong to both the Indo - European and Dravidian families of languages. Marathi, and Indo - Aryan language, is the main language of the north - western Deccan in the state of Maharashtra. Speakers of Telugu and Kannada, the predominant languages of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka respectively, occupy those states ' portions of the plateau. The city of Hyderabad is an important center of the Urdu language in the Deccan; its surrounding areas also host a notable population of Urdu speakers. The Urdu dialect spoken in this region is also known as Dakhini or as Deccani, named after the region itself. North of Andhra is the state of Odisha. People speak the language Oriya here.
The chief crop is cotton; also common are sugarcane, rice, and other crops.
Apart from the states already mentioned, the state of Chhattisgarh is found in the northeast corner of the plateau. The large cities in the Deccan are Hyderabad, the capital of Telangana, Bangalore, the capital of Karnataka and Pune, the cultural hub of Maharashtra. Other major cities include Mysore, Gulbarga and Bellary in Karnataka; Nagpur, Amravati, Kolhapur, Latur and Aurangabad in Maharashtra; Vijayawada, Guntur, Kakinada, Eluru, Rajahmundry in Andhra Pradesh; and Warangal, Karimnagar, Ramagundam, Nizamabad, Mahbubnagar in Telangana.
The Deccan produced some of the most significant dynasties in Indian History like the Chola dynasty, Satavahana dynasty, Vakataka dynasty, Chalukya dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukya Empire, Vijayanagara Empire and Maratha Empire. Of the early history, the main facts established are the growth of the Mauryan empire (300 BC) and after that the Deccan was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty which protected the Deccan against the Scythian invaders, the Western Satraps. Prominent dynasties of this time include the Cholas (3rd century BC to 12th century AD), Chalukyas (6th to 12th centuries), Rashtrakutas (753 -- 982), Hoysalas (10th to 14th centuries), Kakatiya (1083 to 1323 AD) and Vijayanagara Empire (1336 -- 1646). Ahir Kings once ruled over the Deccan. A cave inscription at Nasik refers to the reign of an Abhira prince named Ishwarsena, son of Shivadatta. After the collapse of the Satavahana dynasty the Deccan was ruled by the Vakataka dynasty from the 3rd century to 5th century.
From the 6th to 8th century the Deccan was ruled by the Chalukya dynasty which produced great rulers like Pulakesi II who defeated the north India Emperor Harsha or Vikramaditya II whose general defeated the Arab invaders in the 8th century. From the 8th to 10th century the Rashtrakuta dynasty ruled this region. It led successful military campaigns into northern India and was described by Arab scholars as one of the four great empires of the world. In the 10th century the Western Chalukya Empire was established which produced scholars like the social reformer Basava, Vijñāneśvara, the mathematician Bhāskara II and Someshwara III who wrote the text Manasollasa. From the early 11th century to the 12th century the Deccan Plateau was dominated by the Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola dynasty. Several battles were fought between the Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola dynasty in the Deccan Plateau during the reigns of Raja Raja Chola I, Rajendra Chola I, Jayasimha II, Someshvara I and Vikramaditya VI and Kulottunga I.
In 1294, Alauddin Khalji, emperor of Delhi, invaded the Deccan, stormed Devagiri, and reduced the Yadava rajas of Maharashtra to the position of tributary princes (see Daulatabad), then proceeding southward to conquer the Telangana and Carnatic. In 1307, a fresh series of Muslim incursions led by Malik Kafur began in response to unpaid tributes, resulting in the final ruin of the Yadava power; and in 1338 the conquest of the Deccan was completed by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq. The imperial hegemony was brief, as soon Telingana and Karnataka reverted to their former masters. These defections by the Hindu states was soon followed by a general revolt of the Muslim governors, resulting in the establishment in 1347 of the independent Muslim dynasty of Bahmani. The power of the Delhi sultanate evaporated south of the Narmada River. The southern Deccan came under the rule of the famous Vijayanagara Empire which reached its zenith during the reign of Emperor Krishnadevaraya.
In the power struggles which ensued, the Hindu kingdom of Telingana fell bit by bit to the Bahamani dynasty, who advanced their frontier to Golkonda in 1373, to Warangal in 1421, and to the Bay of Bengal in 1472. Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power after which the Bahmani Sultanate collapsed. When the Bahmani empire dissolved in 1518, its dominions were distributed into the five Muslim states of Golkonda, Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Bidar and Berar, giving rise to the Deccan sultanates. South of these, the Hindu state of Carnatic or Vijayanagar still survived; but this, too, was defeated, at the Battle of Talikota (1565) by a league of the Muslim powers. Berar had already been annexed by Ahmednagar in 1572, and Bidar was absorbed by Bijapur in 1619. Mughal interest in the Deccan also rose at this time; Ahmadnagar was partially incorporated in the Empire in 1598 and as fully in 1636, Bijapur in 1686, and Golkonda in 1688.
In 1674, Shivaji laid the foundation of the Maratha Empire which within 75 years of his death covered territory of over 250 million acres (1 million km2) or one - third of the Indian sub-continent. Marathas under Shivaji directly challenged the foreign rule of the Bijapur Sultanate and ultimately the mighty Mughal empire. Once the Bijapur Sultanate stopped being a threat to the Maratha Empire, Marathas became much more aggressive and began to frequently raid Mughal territory. The Marathas had conquered part of central and western India by Shivaji 's death in 1680. After Shivaji, Sambhaji defended the Maratha empire from the Mughal onslaught led by Aurangzeb. Marathas defeated Mughals in the prolonged war. After 1707, the Marathas acquired the right to levy tribute in southern India. After the death of Chhatrapati Shahu, the Peshwas became the de facto leaders of the Empire from 1749 to 1761, while Shivaji 's successors continued as nominal rulers from their base in Satara. The Marathas kept the British at bay during the 18th century. By 1760, with the defeat of the Nizam in the Deccan, Maratha power had reached its zenith. However, dissension between the Peshwa and their sardars (army commanders) saw a gradual downfall of the Empire leading to its eventual annexation by the British East India Company in 1818 after the three Anglo - Maratha wars.
A few years later, the Aurangzeb 's viceroy in Ahmednagar, Nizam - ul - Mulk, established the seat of an independent government at Hyderabad in 1724. Mysore was ruled by Hyder Ali. During the contests for power which ensued from about the middle of the 18th century between the powers on the plateau, the French and British took opposite sides. After a brief course of triumph, the interests of France declined, and a new empire in India was established by the British. Mysore formed one of their earliest conquests in the Deccan. Tanjore and the Carnatic were soon annexed to their dominions, followed by the Peshwa territories in 1818.
In British India, the plateau was largely divided between the presidencies of Bombay and Madras. The two largest native states at that time were Hyderabad and Mysore; many smaller states existed at the time, including Kolhapur, and Sawantwari.
After independence in 1947, almost all native states were incorporated into the Republic of India. Hyderabad refused to join, and was annexed by the Indian Army in Operation Polo in 1948. In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act reorganized states along linguistic lines, leading to the states currently found on the plateau.
The Deccan plateau is very rich in minerals and precious stones. The plateau 's mineral wealth led many lowland rulers, including those of the Mauryan (4th -- 2nd century BCE) and Gupta (4th -- 6th century CE) dynasties, to fight over it. Major minerals found here include coal, iron ore, asbestos, chromite, mica, and kyanite. Since March 2011, large deposits of uranium have been discovered in the Tummalapalle belt and in the Bhima basin at Gogi in Karnataka. The Tummalapalle belt uranium reserve promises to be one of the top 20 uranium reserve discoveries of the world.
Low rainfall made farming difficult until the introduction of irrigation. Currently, the area under cultivation is quite low, ranging from 60 % in Maharastra to about 10 % in Western Ghats. Except in developed areas of certain river valleys, double - cropping is rare. Rice is the predominant crop in high - rainfall areas and sorghum in low - rainfall areas. Other crops of significance include cotton, tobacco, oilseeds, and sugar cane. Coffee, tea, coconuts, areca, pepper, rubber, cashew nuts, tapioca, and cardamom are widely grown on plantations in the Nilgiri Hills and on the western slopes of the Western Ghats. Cultivation of Jatropha has recently received more attention due to the Jatropha incentives in India.
Deccan style
Calligraphic emblem of sculpted sandstone -- 16th century
Nimmatnama - i Nasiruddin - Shahi (the Book of Recipes)
Coordinates: 17 ° N 77 ° E / 17 ° N 77 ° E / 17; 77
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touch me in the morning diana ross album | Touch Me in the Morning (album) - wikipedia
Touch Me in the Morning is a 1973 album released by American singer Diana Ross on the Motown Records. It reached # 5 in the USA (# 1 R&B). The arrangements were by Gene Page, Tom Baird, Michael Randall, James Anthony Carmichael, Deke Richards, Gil Askey and Diana Ross.
The album contained the hit title track, which became Diana Ross ' second # 1 single on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, and helped the album peak at # 5 on the US Billboard 200 albums chart.
In the UK the title track and "All of My Life '' were both Top Ten singles, and the album reached # 7 and was certified Gold for sales in excess of 100,000 copies.
It includes the first tracks Diana would personally produce on one of her albums, "Imagine '' and "Medley: Brown Baby / Save the Children ''. Several cuts here, including the closing Medley and "My Baby (My Baby, My Own) '' were originally intended for the abandoned To the Baby album Diana also worked on in this period. The production was clean and uncluttered, if slightly, unadventurous and straight forward. Diana would also begin working with her brother / songwriter, Arthur "T - Boy '' Ross during these sessions as he co-wrote songs she would eventually record and release.
Touch Me in the Morning: Expanded Edition, released in January 2010, includes a newly remastered version of the original album plus previously unreleased mixes, and a pair of alternate versions of "Touch Me in the Morning ''. Disc two of the expanded edition contains the entire To the Baby album, which includes previously unreleased covers of Michael Jackson 's "Got to Be There '' and Roberta Flack 's "First Time Ever I Saw Your Face '', as well as the original title tune, written by Diana 's brother Arthur "T - Boy '' Ross. The original medley, "Imagine / Save the Children '', two songs that were split for the original album, plus alternate original mixes of songs intended for "To the Baby '' that ended up on "Touch Me in the Morning '', and an alternate mix of "Young Mothers '', which previously had been issued in 1983. Also included are two songs recorded during the same timeline: "Kewpie Doll '', written and co-produced by Smokey Robinson, and "When We Grow Up '', from Marlo Thomas ' 1972 album Free to Be... You and Me.
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what is the difference between pelorus and azimuth circle | Pelorus (instrument) - wikipedia
In marine navigation, a pelorus is a reference tool for maintaining bearing of a vessel at sea. It is a "dumb compass '' without a directive element, suitably mounted and provided with vanes to permit observation of relative bearings.
In appearance and use, a pelorus resembles a compass or compass repeater, with sighting vanes or a sighting telescope attached, but it has no directive properties. That is, it remains at any relative direction to which it is set. It is generally used by setting 000 ° at the lubber 's line. Relative bearings are then observed. They can be converted to bearings true, magnetic, grid, etc., by adding the appropriate heading. The direct use of relative bearings is sometimes of value. A pelorus is useful, for instance, in determining the moment at which an aid to navigation is broad on the beam. It is also useful in measuring pairs of relative bearings which can be used to determine distance off and distance abeam of a navigational aid.
If the true heading is set at the lubber 's line, true bearings are observed directly. Similarly, compass bearings can be observed if the compass heading is set at the lubber 's line, etc. However, the vessel must be on the heading to which the pelorus is set if accurate results are to be obtained, or else a correction must be applied to the observed results. Perhaps the easiest way of avoiding error is to have the steersman indicate when the vessel is on course. This is usually done by calling out "mark, mark, mark '' as long as the vessel is within a specified fraction of a degree of the desired heading. The observer, who is watching a distant object across the pelorus, selects an instant when the vessel is steady and is on course. An alternative method is to have the observer call out "mark '' when the relative bearing is steady, and the steersman note the heading. If the compass is swinging at the moment of observation, the observation should be rejected. The number of degrees between the desired and actual headings is added if the vessel is to the right of the course, and subtracted if to the left. Thus, if the course is 060 ° and the heading is 062 ° at the moment of observation, a correction of 2 ° is added to the bearing.
The instrument was named for one Pelorus, said to have been the pilot for Hannibal, circa 203 BC.
Harold Gatty described the use of a pelorus by Polynesians before the use of a compass. In equatorial waters the nightly course of stars overhead is nearly uniform during the year. This regularity simplified navigation for the Polynesians using a pelorus, or dummy compass:
(Arabs) divided the horizon into 32 points. These points were derived from fifteen stars which rose at approximately equally spaced points of the eastern horizon. The setting points of these stars on the western horizon gave them another fifteen points and north and south brought the total to thirty two. These accomplished navigators (Polynesians) had names for one hundred and fifty stars. They knew the point on the horizon where each of these rose, and the time at which it did so. They knew the islands which each passed over. Many of the peoples in the Pacific used the thirty two point dummy compass... I consider this... proof of the Indo - Malayan origin of the Polynesians.
Reading from North to South, in their rising and setting positions, these stars are:
The true position of these stars is only approximate to their theoretical equidistant rhumbs on the sidereal compass. Over time, the elaboration of the pelorus points led to the modern compass rose.
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when did the uk convert to the metric system | Metrication in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Metrication in the United Kingdom, the process of introducing the metric system of measurement in place of imperial units, has made steady progress since the mid 20th century but today remains equivocal and varies by context. Most of government, industry and commerce use metric units, but imperial units are officially used to specify journey distances, vehicle speeds and the sizes of returnable milk containers, beer and cider glasses (though fresh milk is often still sold in multiples of pints, with the metric equivalent also marked). Imperial units are also often used to describe body measurements and vehicle fuel economy. In schools metric units are taught and used as the norm and imperial units that remain in common usage in the UK must also be taught.
Adopting the metric system was discussed in Parliament as early as 1818 and some industries and even some government agencies had metricated, or were in the process of metricating by the mid 1960s. A formal government policy to support metrication was agreed by 1965. This policy, initiated in response to requests from industry, was to support voluntary metrication, with costs picked up where they fell. In 1969 the government created the Metrication Board as a quango to promote and coordinate metrication. In 1978, after some carpet retailers reverted to pricing by the square yard rather than the square metre, government policy shifted, and they started issuing orders making metrication mandatory in certain sectors. In 1980 government policy shifted again to prefer voluntary metrication, and the Metrication Board was abolished. By the time the Metrication Board was wound up, all the economic sectors that fell within its remit except road signage and parts of the retail trade sector had metricated.
The treaty of accession to the European Economic Community (EEC), which the United Kingdom joined in 1973, obliged the United Kingdom to incorporate into domestic law all EEC directives, including the use of a prescribed SI - based set of units for many purposes within five years. By 1980 most pre-packaged goods were sold using the prescribed units. Mandatory use of prescribed units for retail sales took effect in 1995 for packaged goods and in 2000 for goods sold loose by weight. The use of "supplementary indications '' or alternative units (generally the traditional imperial units formerly used) was originally to have been permitted for only a limited period. That period being extended a number of times due to public resistance, until in 2009 the requirement to ultimately cease use of traditional units alongside metric units was finally removed.
British scientists, philosophers and engineers have been at the forefront of the development of metrication -- in 1668 John Wilkins first proposed a coherent system of units of measure, in 1861 a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science (BAAS), including William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), James Clerk Maxwell and Joule among its members, defined various electrical units in terms of metric rather than imperial units, and in the 1870s Johnson, Matthey & Co manufactured the international prototype metre and kilogram.
When James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne in 1603, England and Scotland had different systems of measure. Superficially the English and the Scots units of measure were similar -- many had the same names -- but there were differences in their sizes: in particular the Scots pint and gallon were more than twice the size of their English counterparts. In 1707, under the Act of Union, the Parliaments of England and Scotland were merged and the English units of measurement became the standard for the whole new Kingdom of Great Britain. The practical effect of this was that both systems were used in Scotland, and the Scottish measures remained in common use until the Weights and Measures Act 1824 outlawed them.
This period marked the Age of Enlightenment, when people started using the power of reason to reform society and advance knowledge. Britons played their role in the realm of measurement, laying down practical and philosophical foundations for a decimal system of measurement which were ultimately to provide the building blocks of the metric system.
One of the earliest decimal measuring devices, developed in 1620 by the English clergyman and mathematician Edmund Gunter, introduced two new units of measure -- the chain and the link -- and a new measuring device: Gunter 's chain. Gunter 's chain was one chain (one tenth of a furlong) in length and consisted of 100 links, making each link 0.001 furlongs. The decimal nature of these units and of the device made it easy to calculate the area of a rectangle of land in acres and decimal fractions of an acre.
In 1670, John Wilkins, the first president of the Royal Society, published his proposal for a decimal system of measure, in his work An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language. His proposal envisaged a system of units in which the base unit of length was defined by a pendulum that had a period of one second, and the base unit of mass was defined by a cube of rainwater having sides equal to the base unit of length. He recycled the existing names of units of measure, so that there were 10 lines in an inch, 10 inches in a foot, and so on. A century later, his concept of defining unit mass in terms of a cube of water with edges of unit length was one of the fundamental concepts of the metric system.
Having difficulties in communicating with German scientists, the Scottish inventor James Watt, in 1783, called for the creation of a global decimal measurement system. A letter of invitation, in 1790, from the French National Assembly to the British Parliament to help create such a system using the length of a pendulum as the base unit of length received the support of the British Parliament, championed by John Riggs Miller, but when the French overthrew their monarchy and decided to use the meridional definition of the metre as their base unit, Britain withdrew support. The French continued alone and created the foundations of what is now called the Système International d'Unités and is the measurement system for most of the world.
In 1799, the French created, and started to use, a new system with the metre and the kilogram as the units of length and mass. As use of this new system, originally called the "Decimal System '', spread through Europe, there were some calls in the United Kingdom for decimalisation. The issue of decimalisation of measurement was intertwined in the United Kingdom with decimalisation of currency. The idea was first discussed by a Royal Commission that reported in 1818, and again in Parliament by Sir John Wrottesley in 1824. Another Royal Commission was set up 1838 by Chancellor of the Exchequer Thomas Spring Rice and it reported in 1841 that decimal coinage was required first. A third commission in 1853 advocated decimal coinage in the form £ 1: 10 florins: 100 cents: 1000 mils. The first florins (one tenth of a pound sterling) were struck in 1849 as silver coins weighing 11.3 grams (0.40 ounces) and having a diameter of 28 millimetres (1.1 inches).
An early supporter of the Decimal Association was the mathematician Augustus de Morgan whose articles supporting the metric system had been published in the Penny Cyclopeadia (1833) and The Companion to the Almanac (1841). A few days later Wrottesley met with Gladstone, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, but was unable to win him over to the idea. The inherent problems associated with handling multiple currencies and systems of units encountered in the Great Exhibition of 1851 triggered calls for a standardisation of units across Europe with the metric system being suggested as the natural choice. In 1854, de Morgan was influential in setting up the "Decimal Association '' to lobby for decimalisation of both measurement and coinage. In 1862, the Select Committee on Weights and Measures favoured the introduction of decimalisation to accompany the introduction of metric weights and measures. A further Royal Commission "on the question of the introduction of metric system of weights and measures '' also reported in 1869
In 1863, a bill which would have mandated the use of the metric system throughout the British Empire, and which had passed its first and second readings in the House of Commons, was rejected at its Commons Committee stage as impractical, and so did not pass into law. The following year, after pressure from the astronomers George Airy and Sir John Herschel, the bill was watered down to merely legalise the use of the metric system in contracts. It was presented and passed as a Private Member 's Bill. Ambiguous wording in the 1864 Act meant that traders who possessed metric weights and measures were still liable to arrest under the Weights and Measures Act 1835 5 ° & 6 ° William IV. Cap. 63.
While the politicians were discussing whether or not to adopt the metric system, British scientists were in the forefront in developing the system. In 1845, a paper by James Prescott Joule proved the equivalence of mechanical and thermal energy, a concept that is vital to the metric system -- in SI, power is measured in watts and energy in joules regardless of whether it is mechanical, electrical or thermal.
In 1861, a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science (BAAS) including William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), James Clerk Maxwell and Joule among its members was tasked with investigating the "Standards of Electrical Resistance ''. In their first report (1862), they laid the ground rules for their work -- the metric system was to be used and measures of electrical energy must have the same units as measures of mechanical energy. In the second report (1863), they introduced the concept of a coherent system of units whereby units of length, mass and time were identified as "fundamental units '' (now known as base units). All other units of measure could be derived (hence derived units) from these base units.
In 1873, another committee of the BAAS that also counted Maxwell and Thomson among its members and was tasked with "the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units ''. They recommended the CGS (centimetre - gram - second) system of units. The committee also recommended the names "dyne '' and "erg '' for the CGS units of force and energy. The CGS system became the basis for scientific work for the next seventy years.
In 1875, a British delegation was one of twenty national delegations to a convention in Paris that resulted in seventeen of the nations signing the Metre Convention on 20 May 1875, and the establishment of three bodies, the CGPM, CIPM and BIPM, that were charged with overseeing weights and measures on behalf of the international community. The United Kingdom was one of the countries that declined to sign the convention. In 1882 the British firm Johnson, Matthey & Co secured an agreement with the French government to supply 30 standard metres and 40 standard kilograms. Two years later the United Kingdom signed the treaty and the following year it was found that the standard yard which had been in use since 1855 had been shrinking at the rate of one part per million every twenty years. In 1889, one of the standard metres and one of the standard kilograms that had been cast by Johnson, Matthey & Co were selected at random as the reference standard and the other standards, having been cross-correlated with each other, were distributed to the signatory nations of the treaty.
In 1896, Parliament passed the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act, legalising metric units for all purposes but not making them compulsory.
The situation was clarified in 1897 following another Select Committee which also recommended that metrication become compulsory by 1899. In 1902, an Empire conference decided that metrication should be compulsory across the British Empire. In 1904, scientist Lord Kelvin led a campaign for metrication and collected 8 million signatures of British subjects. On the opposition side, 1904 saw the establishment of the British Weights and Measures Association for "the purpose of defending and, where practicable, improving the present system of weights and measures ''. At this time 45 % of British exports were to metricated countries. Parliament voted to set up a Select Committee on the matter.
This Select Committee reported in 1907 and a bill was drafted proposing compulsory metrication by 1910, including decimalisation of coinage.
The matter was dropped in the face of wars and depression, and would not be again raised until the White Paper of 1951, the result of the Hodgson Committee Report of 1949 which unanimously recommended compulsory metrication and currency decimalisation within ten years. The report said "The real problem facing Great Britain is not whether to adhere either to the Imperial or to the metric system, but whether to maintain two legal systems or to abolish the Imperial. '' The report also recommended that any change should be implemented in concert with the Commonwealth (former Empire) and the USA, that the United Kingdom adopt a decimal currency and that the United Kingdom and United States harmonise their respective definitions of the yard using the metre as a reference. The Hodgson Report was originally rejected by British industry, but in 1959 the United Kingdom and United States redefined their respective yards to be 0.9144 m exactly.
The introduction of the metric system was a topic at the Fifth Commonwealth Standards Conference that was held in Sydney in 1962. The following year a poll by the British Standards Institute (BSI) revealed that the majority of its members favoured a transition to the metric system and two years later (1965), after taking a poll of its members, the Confederation of British Industry informed the government that they favoured the adoption of the metric system, though some sectors emphasised the need for a voluntary system of adoption.
In 1966 the Government announced the adoption in 1971 of a decimal currency.
In 1965, the then Federation of British Industry informed the British Government that its members favoured the adoption of the metric system. The Board of Trade, on behalf of the Government, agreed to support a ten - year metrication programme There would be minimal legislation as the programme was to be voluntary and costs were to be borne where they fell.
Work on adapting specifications started almost as soon as the government first gave its approval in 1965. The BSI took the lead in coordinating the efforts of industry, and where appropriate working with the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), CEE, CEN and CENELEC while the Royal Society liaised with professional societies, schools and the like. Initially the BSI targeted 1200 basic standards which were converted to metric units by 1970. Most of the remaining 4000 standards were converted in the ensuing five years.
There were three principal ways in which metrication was implemented:
In July 1968, following the publication of a report from the Standing Joint Committee on Metrication, the government announced that an advisory metrication board would be set up as soon as possible, to oversee the metrication process, with a target completion date of the end of 1975. The report favoured the board being made up of part - time members drawn from commerce and industry, with government, education and consumer interests also being represented. In December 1968 the government announced the set up of the Metrication Board to coordinate the metrication programme, with Lord Ritchie - Calder being appointed as chairman. By this time much of the groundwork, especially rewriting of many British Standards using metric units, had been done and many of the industries that stood to benefit from metrication had already metricated, or had a metrication programme in progress.
The general election of 18 June 1970 resulted in a change of government and four months later, on 27 October 1970, following an anti-metrication motion being tabled calling on the new government not to continue with the previous government 's metrication commitments, the government announced that a White Paper would be produced to examine the cost, savings, advantages and disadvantages of a change to the metric system. During the debate when the announcement was made, Conservative MPs complained that metrication was being introduced by stealth.
The White Paper was published in February 1972, and it set out the case for metrication and refuted the charge of metrication by stealth as metric units had been lawful for most purposes since 1897. It also reported that metrication would be necessary for the UK to join the European Common Market and that as British industry was exporting to all parts of the world they would benefit. It also reiterated the previous government 's policy that metrication should be voluntary and hoped metrication would be mostly complete within ten years. The expectation was also expressed that with both the imperial and metric systems coexisting for many years, that consumers would gradually become familiar and comfortable with the metric system.
Shortly after the publication of the White Paper, the Minister of Transport announced postponement of the metrication of speed limits, which had been scheduled for 1973. The rest of the metrication programme continued, with the following completion dates:
Yet the target of completion by 1975 "in concert with the Commonwealth '' was not achieved; Australia, New Zealand and South Africa all completed their metrication processes by 1980.
There was no single approach to the metrication of the engineering industry: in some areas soft metrication was applied and in others hard metrication. In certain branches metrication was achieved by adopting the equivalent European or international standard, but this was not always possible as certain standards, such as BS 1363 which defined electric plugs were peculiarly British while the petrochemical industry had standardised on API and ANSI standards.
An example of a hard metrication changeover was the threaded fastener industry (nuts and bolts) where 21 "first choice '' BSW, BSF and BA series thread in the range 0 BA to 1 inch plus another 20 UNC and UNF fasteners were replaced by just seven metric sizes. This resulted in considerable cost savings, not only due to the reduction in inventories, but also the numbers of taps, dies, tapping and clearance drills that workshops held.
An example of soft conversion was within the construction products industry (metricated 1969 and 1972) where certain products continue to be produced to with reference to Imperial trade names but made using metric dimensions in the factory; for example, a 13 mm thick plasterboard is still often called ' half - inch ', even though the measurement is rounded to a convenient metric size and so is now only approximately half an inch thick. The construction industry itself (which included civil engineering projects) was one of the leaders in the metrication programme, having drawn up a detailed plan in 1967 and completing the phase - over by the end 1972.
The BSI, after consultations with the engineering industry, had set a target of 75 % of the industry being metric by the end of 1975. This target was not reached, one of the principal reasons being that other sectors, especially the retail sector, were lagging in reaching their targets.
In England and Wales, unlike Scotland, education was controlled at county council level rather than at national level. In 1967 the Department for Education alerted all local education authorities to the need to adapt to the metric system. In 1968 all bodies that had an interest in the examination system were invited to contribute to the discussion of both metrication and decimalisation in education. In science subjects, this meant a conversion from the cgs system to SI, in geography from the imperial system to SI while in mathematics it meant discarding the teaching of mixed unit arithmetic, a topic that took up a significant part of the time allocated in primary schools to arithmetic / mathematics and 7 % of total time allocated to all subjects.
In Scotland, virtually all examinations set from 1973 onwards used SI, especially those connected with science and engineering. In England, each examination board had its own timetable -- the Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations, for example, announced a change to SI in 1968, with examinations in science and mathematics using SI by 1972, Geography in 1973 and Home Economics and various craft subjects being converted by the end of 1976. report. Pupils were hampered by a revolution in teaching methods that was taking place at the same time and a lack of coordination at the national level. According to a report in 1982, children were taught the relationship between decimal counting, decimal money and metric measurements, with time being the only quantity whose units were manipulated in a mixed - unit manner.
The year 1988 saw the introduction of the National Curriculum, in which SI is the principal system of measurement and calculation. Following devolution, there are now separate but similar curricula for state schools in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. They provide for pupils to be taught to measure, calculate and solve problems using the metric system, but also to be cognisant of the Imperial measurements still in common use and their approximate metric equivalents.
The National Curriculum makes no mention of the manipulation of imperial units, an activity that Workman, when writing his book "The Tutorial Arithmetic '' in 1902, bemoaned as "... half a year of school life... entirely wasted for every English boy in learning the arithmetical devices necessary for managing the "weights and measures '' previously explained. '' In 1995, educationalist Jenny Houssart wrote "For years there was a feeling that the metric system was something teachers pretended existed, although inhabitants of the real world knew better. '' Lord Howe of Aberavon, speaking in the House of Lords, asserted that the United Kingdom 's policy came close to recreating "Disraeli 's two nations -- divided between, on the one hand, a metrically literate elite and, on the other, a rudderless and bewildered majority. ''
The retail industry proved difficult for the Metrication Board. The sector saw little benefit in metrication -- competition was fierce and margins low. The opinions of the trade organisations with which the Metrication Board could negotiate were fragmented.
Many sectors of the industry did agree to a programme coordinated by the Metrication Board, with metrication of pre-packaged goods being introduced on a commodity by commodity basis. In 1977 when a carpet retailing chain reneged on an industry - wide agreement to use metric units (carpeting at £ 8.36 per square yard being much more appealing to the customer than carpeting at £ 10.00 per square metre), it became necessary for the first time to use legislation to enforce metrication rather than to rely on a voluntary adoption of the system.
Much of the retail industry was metricated during 1977 and 1978 by means of statutory orders.
By the beginning of 1980, 95 % of the "basic shopping basket '' of foods were sold in metric quantities, with only a few products not being sold in prescribed metric quantities. The final report of the Metrication Board catalogues dried vegetables, dried fruit, flour and flour products, oat products, cocoa and chocolate powder, margarine, instant coffee, pasta, biscuits, bread, sugar, corn flakes, salt, white fats, dripping and shredded suet as being sold by prescribed metric quantities while no agreement had been reached with the industry regarding jam, marmalade, honey, jelly preserves, syrup, cereal grain and starches.
When the Metrication Board was abolished in 1980, agreement had been reached with the EEC regarding the use of certain imperial measures until the end of 1989, a date that was subsequently extended to 1999. By this date most pre-packaged goods were sold in metric quantities with loose goods and goods weighed in front of the customer continuing to be sold in imperial quantities. In 1999, when the British Government allowed the derogation for the use of imperial units to lapse, all goods (apart from beer, cider and milk in returnable containers) had to be priced in metric units.
The changeover to selling of petrol by the litre rather than by the gallon took place after the Board was wound up. It was prompted by a technical shortcoming of petrol pump design: pumps (which were electro - mechanical) had been designed to be switchable between metric and imperial units, but had no provisions for prices above £ 1.999 per unit of fuel. Once the price of petrol rose above £ 1 per gallon, the industry requested that they be permitted to sell fuel by the litre rather than the gallon, enabling them to reduce the unit price by a factor of about 4.5 and so to extend the lives of existing pumps.
In the United Kingdom, draught beer and cider are the only goods that may not be sold in metric units; the only legal measures for these are ⁄ pint (190 ml) (rarely encountered), ⁄ pint (283 ml) and multiples of the pint. Other alcoholic drinks for consumption on the premises are sold by metric measure: the ⁄, ⁄ and ⁄ gill measures for spirits (whisky, gin, rum and vodka) were replaced by 25 ml and 35 ml measures on 1 January 1995 and since 1995 wine may only be sold in 125 ml, 175 ml or 250 ml glasses. (Prior to 1995, the size of wine glasses was unregulated.)
Before the Hodgson Committee, the metrication process was already in operation. One example was the Ordnance Survey, the national mapping agency for Great Britain, which initiated the Retriangulation of Great Britain in 1936, using metric measures. A metric National Grid was then used as the basis for maps published by the Ordnance Survey from World War II onwards, the War Office maps having had a metric grid since 1920. The Ordnance Survey decided on full metrication in 1964. The best - selling 1 inch to the mile range of maps started being replaced with the 1: 50000 range in 1969. The metrication of Admiralty Charts began in 1967 as part of a modernisation programme. As of 2013, road and street maps with primary scales in inches per mile were still being produced by the company Geographers ' A -- Z Street Atlas. (1) (2)
Another example was the Met Office who, in 1962, started publishing temperatures in both Celsius and Fahrenheit, dropping the use of Fahrenheit from their official reports in 1970.
Many other sectors metricated their operations in the late 1960s or early 1970s, invisibly to the general public, though their use of metric units can be seen in the financial pages of the leading newspapers. Such sectors included the principal London commodity markets (apart from the oil industry) the London Metal Exchange, and the various agricultural markets.
The basic features of the British metrication programme as announced in 1966 was a voluntary adoption of the metric programme with the costs being absorbed where they fell. As a result, the costs and savings of metrication in the United Kingdom have not been comprehensively determined and studies have tended to focus on specific programmes. The impact of a voluntary programme meant that industry was free to take the most cost - efficient approach, which in many cases has meant installing equipment calibrated in metric units as part of an ongoing maintenance cycle rather than as part of a specific metrication programme. Such an approach was taken by the gas industry where all newly installed meters record usage in cubic metres, but many older installations will measure in cubic feet.
A 1970s study by the United Kingdom chemical industry estimated costs at £ 6m over seven years, or 0.25 % of expected capital investment over the change period. Other estimates ranged from 0.04 % of a large company 's turnover spread over seven years to 2 % of a small company 's turnover for a single year. Many companies reported recouping their costs within a year as a result of improved production. Some 90 % of United Kingdom exports go to metric countries (as only Liberia, Burma and the United States have not adopted the International System of Units), and there are costs to business of maintaining two production lines (one for exports to the US in US customary units, and the other for domestic sales and exports to the rest of the world in metric). These have been estimated at 3 % of annual turnover by the Institute of Production Engineers, and at £ 1.1 billion (1980) per annum by the CBI. Regardless of United Kingdom metrication, goods produced in the United Kingdom for export to the United States would have still been labelled in non-metric units to comply with the US Fair Packaging and Labelling Act.
In 1978 the cost of converting road signs from miles to kilometres in the United Kingdom was estimated to be between £ 71⁄2 and £ 81⁄2 million (1978 prices). A 2005 report pointed to the metrication of the United Kingdom 's two million road signs as the major cost of completing the United Kingdom 's metrication programme. The Department for Transport (DfT) costed the replacement of all of the United Kingdom 's road signs in a short period of time at between £ 565 million and £ 644 million. In 2008 -- 09, before the outcome of the consultations that led to the EU directive 2009 / 3 / EC was known, the DfT had a contingency of £ 746 million for the metrication of roads signs. In contrast, the United Kingdom Metrication Association, in a report published in 2006, and using a model based on the Irish road sign metrication programme, estimated the cost of converting road signs to be £ 80 million, spread over 5 years (or about 0.25 % of the annual roads budget).
Traditionally, weights and measures legislation in the United Kingdom only applied to trade, but when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community, it had to align its legislation with EEC directives that were in place. These directives included EEC directive 71 / 354 / EEC which related to weights and measures and which required the United Kingdom to formally define in law a number of units of measure, hitherto formally undefined in law including those for electric current (ampere), electric potential difference (volt), temperature (degree Celsius and kelvin), pressure (pascal), energy (joule) and power (watt).
Due to public opposition to metrication (in 1979, 46 % were opposed to the programme), the programme stalled. In the late 1970s, the United Kingdom government asked the EEC to postpone the deadlines for the introduction of metric units. The result was the repeal of directive 71 / 354 / EEC and the introduction of directive 80 / 181 / EEC. This new directive contained a derogation allowing for the continued use in the United Kingdom, until the end of 1989 (subsequently extended to 1995), of many imperial units then in use for trade. The directive should have been transposed into United Kingdom law by 30 June 1981, but this transposition only occurred with the enactment of The Weights and Measures Act 1985, which also removed from the statute book a large number of imperial units of measure that had fallen into disuse as a result of the completed elements of the metrication programme.
At the end of 1988, the derogation was extended generally to the end of 1994, and to the end of 1999 for the sale of loose goods. This amendment was transposed into United Kingdom law by the Units of Measurement Regulations 1994. At the same time, regulations were passed prescribing metric quantities by which the remaining pre-packaged retail commodities not yet defined in metric terms could be sold. From the beginning of 1995, pre-packed coffee, coffee mixtures and coffee bags had to be sold in the prescribed quantities of 57 grams (2 oz), 75 grams (2.6 oz), 113 grams (4 oz) 125 grams (4.4 oz), 227 grams (8 oz), 250 grams (8.8 oz), 340 grams (12 oz), 454 grams (1 lb), 500 grams (1.1 lb), 680 grams (1.50 lb), 750 grams (1.65 lb) or a multiple of 454 grams (1 lb) or of 500 grams (1.1 lb); and honey, jam and marmalade other than diabetic jam or marmalade, jelly preserves and molasses, syrup and treacle in 57 grams (2 oz), 113 grams (4 oz), 227 grams (8 oz), 340 grams (12 oz), 454 grams (1 lb), 680 grams (1.50 lb) or a multiple of 454 grams (1 lb).
The number of units of measure to which derogations applied was reduced with effect from 1 October 1995 and reduced further with effect from 1 January 2000. A direct result of the changes that were effective from 1 January 2000 was the requirement that most loose goods sold by weight, volume or length (for example, potatoes or tomatoes that were sold loose, or cheese or meat that was cut or weighed in front of the customer) must be priced and measured using metric units.
After 1 January 2000, the remaining non-metric units, allowed by United Kingdom law without supplementary indicators for economic, public health, public safety or administrative use, are limited to:
Goods and services sold by a description, as opposed to a price per unit quantity, are not covered by weights and measures legislation; thus, a fence panel sold as "6 foot by 6 foot '' is legal, as is a 6 x 4 inch photograph frame, but a pole sold as "50 pence per linear foot '', with no accompanying metric price, would be illegal.
In response to the specific requirements of the United Kingdom and of Ireland, both of which were in the process of converting to the metric system Directive 80 / 181 / EEC incorporated a provision that any unit of measure could be followed by a "supplementary indicator '', provided that the supplementary indicator was not the dominant unit and that it was "... expressed in characters no larger than those of the corresponding indication... ''. Initially this provision was to have expired in 1989, but it was extended firstly to 1999 and then to 2009. During the 2007 consultations on the revision of the directive, strong representations were made to retain this provision as its removal would impede trade with the United States. When the directive was revised in 2009, the "sunset clause '' was removed from the text.
The EU directive gives no guidance as to what units may or may not be used as supplementary indicators but British legislation has restricted the unit that may be used in this way for purposes of trade to specified imperial units only.
Furthermore, in the United Kingdom it is still common to see imperial packaging sizes marked with metric units. For example, most jars of jam, packs of sausages and tins of golden syrup are marked 454 g.
There are no restrictions on the units that consumers can use when asking for goods, and the use of supplementary indicators and dual - measure weighing scales (provided these have been calibrated in metric) means that it is possible for a consumer to see an imperial price, request an imperial quantity and be supplied with the imperial quantity, provided that the seller legally weighs out and sells the metric equivalent.
In its initial form, the scope of directive 80 / 181 / EEC was restricted to "economic, public health, public safety and administrative '' purposes only. An outcome of the 2007 consultations was a proposal by the EU Commission to extend the scope of the directive to include "consumer protection '' and "environmental issues ''. This was implemented by removing the phrase limiting the scope of the directive, thereby extending it to all matters that come under the ambit of the Internal Market Chapter of the EU Treaty.
The directive specifically excluded units of measurement used in international treaties relating to rail traffic, aviation and shipping such as expressing aircraft altitude in feet.
The United Kingdom 's legislation of 2009 that implemented these changes made no reference to the extension of the directive 's scope.
During the 1990s, a series of statutory instruments relating to weighing devices and to the sale of pre-packaged goods were passed to ensure that United Kingdom law on metrology was harmonised with that of its EEC partners. In line with EEC practice, the meaning of weights displayed on pre-packaged goods was changed in 1980 to show the average weight of each item in the batch rather than the guaranteed minimum weight of each individual item. The EU Measuring Instruments Directive (Directive 2004 / 22 / EU) which intends to create a common market for measuring instruments across the 27 countries of the EU came into force on 30 October 2006 with a ten - year transition period.
The EU non-automatic weighing instrument directive (directive 2009 / 23 / EEC), which came into force in 2009 codified existing regulations regarding the harmonisation of non-automatic weighing devices used for trade, medical purposes or in the preparation of evidence to be heard in court. The directive identified four classes of weighing device ranging from Class I (having a minimum accuracy of 1 part in 50,000) to class IIII (having a minimum accuracy of 1 part in 100). Devices that fall within the scope of the directive are required to be recalibrated at regular intervals and to have an output showing SI units, except for those used for weighing precious metals or stones. Secondary indications may be shown, provided that they can not be mistaken for primary indications.
The impact of this directive in the United Kingdom is that most traders can not legally use weighing devices calibrated in units other than SI units. In 2000, after the deadline for the cessation of selling loose produce by imperial units had passed, some traders continued to sell produce from their market stalls using imperial - only scales. They were variously prosecuted for using unlawful scales, giving short measure and failing to display unit price per kilogram. Five traders, who became known as the Metric Martyrs, appealed unsuccessfully to the High Court, were refused appeal to the House of Lords, and appealed unsuccessfully to the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR).
A LACORS report published in March 2010 highlighting widescale use of inappropriate scales in hospitals, sometimes of domestic quality, recommended that on safety grounds NHS hospitals should use Class III (or better) metric - only scales. A Department of Health alert was subsequently sent to all NHS trusts endorsing these recommendations.
Following the publication of the UK government 's White Paper on metrication in February 1972, the journal New Scientist, reported the lack of urgency in the minister 's handling of the issue and described how the government refused to use its purchasing power to advance the metrication process. It quoted one (unnamed) metricationalist as saying "(The White Paper) is not firming things up at all. It will turn us into a dual country ''.
Studies of the British metrication programme included two by US government agencies -- NASA in October 1976 and the National Bureau of Standards in April 1979. Both reports noted that the British metrication programme lacked leadership from government. This manifest itself in many ways including:
These sentiments were echoed in the final report of the Metrication Board.
The involvement of the European Commission led metrication to be linked in public debate with Euroscepticism, and traditionally Eurosceptic parts of the British press often exaggerating or inventing the extent of enforced metrication. Example stories include the Daily Star, which on 17 January 2001 claimed that beer would soon have to be sold by the litre in pubs, something not demanded in any EU directive.
Reaction to the UK Metric Association report A Very British Mess (2004), the executive summary of which was published in Science in Parliament, was mixed -- the Daily Telegraph, put forward the proposition that the UKMA 's assertion of hostility or indifference by the British public to the metric system was due to the lack of cultural empathy rather than it being "Foreign or European '' while the Economist said that retreat (to the imperial system) was impossible and the current impasse costly ".
An Ipsos MORI telephone survey conducted in September 2007 for The Sun newspaper, entitled "Northern Rock, Metric Measurements And The EU Constitutional Treaty '' found significant opposition to metrication in the sample questioned when asked "How strongly would you support and oppose Britain switching to use entirely metric measurements, rather than continuing to use traditional units? '': The opinion breakdown showed that the greatest variation in opinion was between tabloid and broadsheet readers rather than age, social class or voting intention.
In its final report (1980), the Metrication Board wrote "Today metric units are used in many important areas of British life -- including education; agriculture; construction; industrial materials; much of manufacturing; the wholesaling of petrol, milk, cheese and textiles; fatstock markets and many port fish auctions, nearly all the principal prepacked foods; posts and telecommunications: most freight and customs tariffs; all new and revised Ordnance Survey maps; and athletics. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, Britain is far from being wholly metric. '' The report major identified areas that had not yet been metricated as being the retail petrol trade (metricated in 1984), retail sale of loose goods (metricated in 2000) and roads signs (not metricated).
The report did not address issues related to the media such as news reports and advertising.
The regulations that came into force on 1 January 2000 regarding the sale of loose goods effectively made it mandatory to use metric units in the retail industry for most products though supplementary indicators using certain imperial units were still permitted under United Kingdom law. Various price - marking orders prescribed the sizes in which products could be marketed. Some of these restrictions, such as wine being sold in 750 ml bottles, were derived from EU directives, while others, such as the production of bread in 400 g or 800 g loaves, were applicable to the United Kingdom only. The principle of the Internal Market, backed up by a judgment of the European Court of Justice, required that any product that was legally produced anywhere in the European Union could, in most cases, be sold anywhere in the EU. Thus a 500 g packet of rye bread, legally manufactured in Germany, could be sold in the United Kingdom even though it was not lawful under British law for a British baker to produce an identical 500 g packet of bread.
A consultation by the EU aimed at bypassing this impasse was launched in 2004. The outcome was Directive 2007 / 45 / EC which deregulated prescribed packaging of most products, leaving only wines and liqueurs subject to prescribed EU - wide pre-packaging legislation. While this effectively undid much of the work done by the Metrication Board by deregulating prescribed sizing for over 40 products, the law relating to labelling of products has remained unchanged.
The principal channels for dissemination of information are word of mouth, television and radio, newspapers and magazines and the World Wide Web. The compilers of the information vary from private individuals to employees of private companies and the civil service. The unit systems used in the information from the different channels varies considerably. There are no laws controlling the unit systems that private individuals use when compiling information, whereas company employees and civil servants might be constrained by standards and procedures which dictate the measures to be used.
The civil service is bound by law to follow EU directives relating to public administration. Government disseminators of information include the Office for National Statistics and the Ordnance Survey office both of whom, being government departments, use metric units in their work.
Newspaper styles vary.
These rules of style have led to inconsistencies between administrative documents and the resulting news reports. Examples include:
Standards pertaining to transport infrastructure were metricated using soft conversions, as part of the general metrication of the engineering industry -- the standard railway track gauges fixed at 4 ft 81⁄2 in in 1845 was redefined as 1.435 m -- a decrease of 0.1 mm but well within the engineering tolerances. Motorway marker posts used by road maintenance teams and emergency services demarcate locations in multiples of 100 m. Standards relating to the design and building of new road and rail vehicles have been metric since the engineering changeover in the 1970s. Imperial units have been retained for both road and railway signage except on new railways such as the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, and the Tyne and Wear Metro and London Tramlink which along with all other modern British tram systems also operate in metric. The Cambrian Line has also changed to metric units with the change to ERMTS signalling. London Underground has converted to using metric units for distances but not for speeds.
Apart from the sale of petrol, which was metricated in the 1980s, motorists have seen little metrication. Speedometers and mandatory information on car advertisements such as fuel consumption are given in both metric and imperial units. The 1994 TSRGD permitted the use of metric units alongside imperial units for width and height warning signs and dual metric / imperial signs became mandatory from March 2015. Distances and speed restrictions are shown only in imperial units. (Post-Metrication Board innovations such as distances on driver location signs and CO emission figures which have never been expressed in imperial units are, for the purpose of this article, seen as post-metrication developments rather than part of the metrication process.)
The UK Metric Association (UKMA) commissioned YouGov to carry out a survey to investigate "public understanding and use of metric and imperial units and of public support for completing the metric changeover ''. The UKMA executive summary of results of the September and November 2013 survey, published in 2014, presents the following points as the key results:
The sample size was 1978 adults in September and 1878 in November. The results were weighted and are said by YouGov to be representative of all GB adults (aged 18 +).
A number of advocacy groups exist to promote either the metric or the imperial system. The groups include:
"White Paper on Metrication (1972) -- Summary and Conclusions '' (PDF). London: Department of Trade and Industry Consumer and Competition Policy Directorate.
"Final Report of the Metrication Board (1980) '' (PDF). London: Department of Trade and Industry Consumer and Competition Policy Directorate.
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what is the name of my internet service provider | Internet service provider - wikipedia
An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides services for accessing, using, or participating in the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community - owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.
Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation.
The Internet was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities. By the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. The remaining restrictions were removed by 1995, 4 years after the introduction of the World Wide Web.
In 1989, the first ISPs were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US. Its first customer was served in November 1989.
On 23 April 2014, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was reported to be considering a new rule that will permit ISPs to offer content providers a faster track to send content, thus reversing their earlier net neutrality position. A possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 15 May 2014, the FCC decided to consider two options regarding Internet services: first, permit fast and slow broadband lanes, thereby compromising net neutrality; and second, reclassify broadband as a telecommunication service, thereby preserving net neutrality. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 16 January 2015, Republicans presented legislation, in the form of a U.S. Congress H.R. discussion draft bill, that makes concessions to net neutrality but prohibits the FCC from accomplishing the goal or enacting any further regulation affecting Internet service providers. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying ("with some caveats '') Title II (common carrier) of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, ensure net neutrality. The FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times.
On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II (common carrier) of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, "This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to regulate free speech. They both stand for the same concept. '' On 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the final rule on its new "Net Neutrality '' regulations. These rules went into effect on 12 June 2015.
Upon becoming FCC chairman in April 2017, Ajit Pai proposed an end to net neutrality, awaiting votes from the commission. On 21 November 2017, Pai announced that a vote will be held by FCC members on 14 December on whether to repeal the policy.
Access provider ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network. Available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable (CATV), Wi - Fi, and fiber optics.
For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial - up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), cable modem or Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) (typically basic rate interface). Using fiber - optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names.
For customers with more demanding requirements (such as medium - to - large businesses, or other ISPs) can use higher - speed DSL (such as single - pair high - speed digital subscriber line), Ethernet, metropolitan Ethernet, gigabit Ethernet, Frame Relay, ISDN Primary Rate Interface, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and synchronous optical networking (SONET).
Wireless access is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access.
A mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, and store email for end users or other organizations.
Many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not (e.g., Gmail, Yahoo! Mail, Outlook.com, AOL Mail, Po box). The definition given in RFC 6650 covers email hosting services, as well as the relevant department of companies, universities, organizations, groups, and individuals that manage their mail servers themselves. The task is typically accomplished by implementing Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and possibly providing access to messages through Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), the Post Office Protocol, Webmail, or a proprietary protocol.
Internet hosting services provide email, web - hosting, or online storage services. Other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation.
Just as their customers pay them for Internet access, ISPs themselves pay upstream ISPs for Internet access. An upstream ISP usually has a larger network than the contracting ISP or is able to provide the contracting ISP with access to parts of the Internet the contracting ISP by itself has no access to.
In the simplest case, a single connection is established to an upstream ISP and is used to transmit data to or from areas of the Internet beyond the home network; this mode of interconnection is often cascaded multiple times until reaching a tier 1 carrier. In reality, the situation is often more complex. ISPs with more than one point of presence (PoP) may have separate connections to an upstream ISP at multiple PoPs, or they may be customers of multiple upstream ISPs and may have connections to each one of them at one or more point of presence. Transit ISPs provide large amounts of bandwidth for connecting hosting ISPs and access ISPs.
A virtual ISP (VISP) is an operation that purchases services from another ISP, sometimes called a wholesale ISP in this context, which allow the VISP 's customers to access the Internet using services and infrastructure owned and operated by the wholesale ISP. VISPs resemble mobile virtual network operators and competitive local exchange carriers for voice communications.
Free ISPs are Internet service providers that provide service free of charge. Many free ISPs display advertisements while the user is connected; like commercial television, in a sense they are selling the user 's attention to the advertiser. Other free ISPs, sometimes called freenets, are run on a nonprofit basis, usually with volunteer staff.
A wireless Internet service provider (WISP) is an Internet service provider with a network based on wireless networking. Technology may include commonplace Wi - Fi wireless mesh networking, or proprietary equipment designed to operate over open 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 4.9, 5.2, 5.4, 5.7, and 5.8 GHz bands or licensed frequencies such as 2.5 GHz (EBS / BRS), 3.65 GHz (NN) and in the UHF band (including the MMDS frequency band) and LMDS.
ISPs may engage in peering, where multiple ISPs interconnect at peering points or Internet exchange points (IXs), allowing routing of data between each network, without charging one another for the data transmitted -- data that would otherwise have passed through a third upstream ISP, incurring charges from the upstream ISP.
ISPs requiring no upstream and having only customers (end customers or peer ISPs) are called Tier 1 ISPs.
Network hardware, software and specifications, as well as the expertise of network management personnel are important in ensuring that data follows the most efficient route, and upstream connections work reliably. A tradeoff between cost and efficiency is possible.
Internet service providers in many countries are legally required (e.g., via Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) in the U.S.) to allow law enforcement agencies to monitor some or all of the information transmitted by the ISP, or even store the browsing history of users to allow government access if needed (e.g. via the Investigatory Powers Act 2016 in the United Kingdom). Furthermore, in some countries ISPs are subject to monitoring by intelligence agencies. In the U.S., a controversial National Security Agency program known as PRISM provides for broad monitoring of Internet users traffic and has raised concerns about potential violation of the privacy protections in the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Modern ISPs integrate a wide array of surveillance and packet sniffing equipment into their networks, which then feeds the data to law - enforcement / intelligence networks (such as DCSNet in the United States, or SORM in Russia) allowing monitoring of Internet traffic in real time.
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when was three cheers for sweet revenge released | Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge - wikipedia
Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge is the second studio album by American rock band My Chemical Romance, released on June 8, 2004. It is My Chemical Romance 's first release through Reprise. Their first and previous album, I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love, was released through Eyeball Records. It is the band 's final release to feature drummer Matt Pelissier, who would later be replaced by Bob Bryar. The album was certified platinum in less than a year from its release. The album has sold over one million copies in the United States.
In Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge, My Chemical Romance produced a cleaner sound than that of I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love. The album was a success for both the band and the label, although it did meet with mixed reception. The album lifted the popularity for My Chemical Romance more than I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love had. Gerard Way has described the album as a "pseudo-conceptual horror story ''. The album 's concept is described as "A story of a man, a woman, and the corpses of 1000 evil men '' on the back cover of the album. Way has stated that "The concept for the record Three Cheers For Sweet Revenge, was the story of a man and a woman who are separated by death in a gunfight and he goes to hell only to realize by the devil telling him that she 's still alive. The devil says he can be with her again if he brings the devil the souls of a thousand evil men and the man agrees to do it, and so the devil hands him a gun. That was the idea behind the concept, the record ended up being much more about loss and real life than anything, so I would say it 's a good split. ''
The four released singles from the record included "I 'm Not Okay (I Promise) '', "Helena '', "The Ghost of You '', and in the United Kingdom, "Thank You for the Venom ''. The non-single tracks on the album have been praised as some of the album 's "bests '' as well, such as "Hang ' Em High '' and "The Jetset Life is Gonna Kill You ''.
Gerard Way, the lead singer of the band, drew the album 's cover artwork himself.
While I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love was considered "a particularly strident entry in that shifty genre of bands tortuously slamming together elements of emo, hardcore, and even metal '', Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge "both showcased their songwriting skills and gave them much - deserved attention ''. Moving away from the "screamo parts '' and "the more complicated structures '' of their first record in favor of a sound that "skirts the line between pop punk and edgy, theatrical, emo '' while being "strongly influenced by hardcore punk ''. Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge has been variously compared to The Misfits, AFI, and Thursday.
Lead singer Gerard Way has referred to the first single "I 'm Not Okay (I Promise) '' as a "self help pop song '' while also being called "a surging piece of emo - pop with a hook as ridiculously catchy as it was ridiculous '' and a "moving anthem for the young and depressed '' by Allmusic and Rolling Stone respectively. This single went on to be nominated for the Kerrang! award for best single and reached # 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100.
The album opener "Helena '' has been referred to as an "album highlight and smash hit ''. Gerard has claimed that the song "shaped what the album is about '' and "revealed their darkside '' in comparison to the first single. Its lyrics mourn the loss of Gerard and Mikey 's grandmother, Elena Lee Rush, and was their first entry into the top 40.
Johnny Loftus of AllMusic wrote that "with the aid of production major - leaguer Howard Benson, they 've edited the slight rookie excesses of I Brought You My Bullets You Brought Me Your Love, resulting in a rewarding, pretty damn relentless product. '' Andy Greenwald of Blender noted Way 's integration of elements of his life into the songs on the album and remarked that his "gulping, gasping whine turns stompers like ' I 'm Not Okay (I Promise) ' into after - school poetry ''. Ian Mathers of Stylus Magazine felt that the album contained "twelve near - flawless songs and an interlude in thirty - nine minutes '' and that "even when it lets up, (it) does n't let up '', while Kirk Miller of Rolling Stone described it as "a hell of a good time. '' IGN critic JR was more reserved in his praise, calling Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge "a good album '' that nonetheless "is n't nearly as varied or daring as it could have been ''. In The Village Voice, Robert Christgau gave it a "dud '' rating.
NME listed the album as one of "20 Emo Albums That Have Resolutely Stood The Test Of Time ''. The album was ranked at number 260 on Spin 's "The 300 Best Albums of the Past 30 Years (1985 -- 2014) '' list. Rock Sound wrote that the album is "an era - defining release '', striking "a nerve both musically and emotionally with millions around the world. ''
In 2016 Rolling Stone declared Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge the tenth greatest Emo Album out of 40, saying that "Three Cheers was n't just a concept record, it was a concept sequel, expanding the small - screen story of 2002 's I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love into a big - budget production, complete with ruminations on life and death ('' Helena ") biting kiss - offs ('' I 'm Not Okay ") and a series of dramatic music videos that made them MTV darlings. ''
Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge has sold over one million copies to date in the United States and has been certified platinum by the RIAA. By February 2006, the album had sold over 1,356,000 copies in the U.S. It has also been certified Double Platinum in Canada, Platinum in the UK and Gold in Ireland, Chile and Argentina.
All tracks written by My Chemical Romance.
My Chemical Romance
Additional musicians
Production
Footnotes
Citations
Sources
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venice the city of canals is famous for its boats called | Venice - wikipedia
Venice (/ ˈvɛnɪs / VEN - iss; Italian: Venezia, (veˈnɛtsːja) (listen); Venetian: Venesia, (veˈnɛsja)) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by bridges, of which there are 400. The islands are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, and artwork. The lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site.
In 2014, 264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, of whom around 55,000 live in the historic city of Venice (Centro storico). Together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua - Treviso - Venice Metropolitan Area (PATREVE), with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is only a statistical metropolitan area.
The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC. The city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the "La Dominante, '' "Serenissima, '' "Queen of the Adriatic, '' "City of Water, '' "City of Masks, '' "City of Bridges, '' "The Floating City, '' and "City of Canals. ''
The Republic of Venice was a major financial and maritime power during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and a staging area for the Crusades and the Battle of Lepanto, as well as a very important center of commerce (especially silk, grain, and spice) and art in the 13th century up to the end of the 17th century. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century. This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history.
It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period. After the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna, the Republic was annexed by the Austrian Empire, until it became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1866, following a referendum held as a result of the Third Italian War of Independence. Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016. The city is facing some major challenges, however, including financial difficulties, erosion, pollution, subsidence and an excessive number of tourists in peak periods.
The name of the city, deriving from Latin forms Venetia and Venetiae, is most likely taken from "Venetia et Histria '', the Roman name of Regio X of Roman Italy, but applied to the coastal part of the region that remained under Roman Empire outside of Gothic, Lombard, and Frankish control. The name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Astonio (Ἐνετοί). The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo - European tribes with similar - sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo - European root * wen ("love ''), so that * wenetoi would mean "beloved '', "lovable '', or "friendly ''. A connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color ' sea - blue ', is also possible. Supposed connections of Venetia with the Latin verb venire (to come), such as Marin Sanudo 's veni etiam ("Yet, I have come! ''), the supposed cry of the first refugees to the Venetian lagoon from the mainland, or even with venia ("forgiveness '') are fanciful. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia (viˈnɛːdʒa); (Venetian: Venèxia (veˈnɛzja); Latin: Venetiae; Slovene: Benetke).
Kingdom of Odoacer 476 -- 493 Ostrogothic Kingdom 493 -- 553 Eastern Roman Empire 553 -- 584 Exarchate of Ravenna 584 -- 697 Republic of Venice 697 -- 1797 Habsburg Monarchy 1797 -- 1805 Kingdom of Italy 1805 -- 1815 Kingdom of Lombardy -- Venetia 1815 -- 1866 Republic of San Marco 1848 -- 1849 Kingdom of Lombardy -- Venetia 1849 -- 1866 Kingdom of Italy 1866 -- 1946
Although no surviving historical records deal directly with the founding of Venice, tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees from Roman cities near Venice such as Padua, Aquileia, Treviso, Altino and Concordia (modern Portogruaro) and from the undefended countryside, who were fleeing successive waves of Germanic and Hun invasions. This is further supported by the documentation on the so - called ' apostolic families ', the twelve founding families of Venice who elected the first doge, who in most cases trace their lineage back to Roman families. Some late Roman sources also reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae ("lagoon dwellers ''). The traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto (Rivoalto, "High Shore '') -- said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421 (the Feast of the Annunciation).
Beginning as early as AD 166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the main center in the area, the current Oderzo. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, by the Huns led by Attila. The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula, that of the Lombards in 568, left the Eastern Roman Empire a small strip of coast in the current Veneto, including Venice. The Roman / Byzantine territory was organized as the Exarchate of Ravenna, administered from that ancient port and overseen by a viceroy (the Exarch) appointed by the Emperor in Constantinople, but Ravenna and Venice were connected only by sea routes; and with the Venetians ' isolated position came increasing autonomy. New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, dated from c. 568.
The traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto (Anafestus Paulicius), was elected in 697, as written in the oldest chronicle by John, deacon of Venice in ca. 1008. Some modern historians claim Paolo Lucio Anafesto was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Paul 's magister militum (General: literally, "Master of Soldiers ''). In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the iconoclastic controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II. The Exarch, held responsible for the acts of his master Byzantine Emperor Leo III, was murdered and many officials put to flight in the chaos. At about this time, the people of the lagoon elected their own independent leader for the first time, although the relationship of this to the uprisings is not clear. Ursus was the first of 117 "doges '' (doge is the Venetian dialect development of the Latin dux ("leader ''); the corresponding word in English is duke, in standard Italian duce.) Whatever his original views, Ursus supported Emperor Leo III 's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna, sending both men and ships. In recognition of this, Venice was "granted numerous privileges and concessions '' and Ursus, who had personally taken the field, was confirmed by Leo as dux and given the added title of hypatus (Greek for "Consul ''.)
In 751 the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna, leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost. During this period, the seat of the local Byzantine governor (the "duke / dux '', later "doge ''), was situated in Malamocco. Settlement on the islands in the lagoon probably increased with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories, as refugees sought asylum there. In 775 / 6 the episcopal seat of Olivolo (San Pietro di Castello; Helipolis) was created. During the reign of duke Agnello Particiaco (811 -- 827) the ducal seat moved from Malamocco to the highly protected Rialto, the current location of Venice. The monastery of St Zachary and the first ducal palace and basilica of St. Mark, as well as a walled defense (civitatis murus) between Olivolo and Rialto, were subsequently built here.
Charlemagne sought to subdue the city to his own rule. He ordered the Pope to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis along the Adriatic coast, and Charlemagne 's own son Pepin of Italy, king of the Lombards under the authority of his father, embarked on a siege of Venice itself. This, however, proved a costly failure. The siege lasted six months, with Pepin 's army ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw (810). A few months later, Pepin himself died, apparently as a result of a disease contracted there. In the aftermath, an agreement between Charlemagne and the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast.
In 828 the new city 's prestige increased with the acquisition of the claimed relics of St Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria, which were placed in the new basilica. (Winged lions, visible throughout Venice, symbolise St Mark.) The patriarchal seat also moved to Rialto. As the community continued to develop and as Byzantine power waned, its autonomy grew, leading to eventual independence.
From the 9th to the 12th century, Venice developed into a city state (an Italian thalassocracy or Repubblica Marinara: the other three of these were Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi). Its strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable. With the elimination of pirates along the Dalmatian coast, the city became a flourishing trade center between Western Europe and the rest of the world (especially the Byzantine Empire and Asia) with a naval power protecting sea routes from piracy.
The Republic of Venice seized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, because pirates based there were a menace to trade. The Doge already carried the titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria. Later mainland possessions, which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River, were known as the "Terraferma '', and were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours, partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat, on which the city depended. In building its maritime commercial empire, the Republic dominated the trade in salt, acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean, including Cyprus and Crete, and became a major power - broker in the Near East. By the standards of the time, Venice 's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo, Brescia and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it was threatened by invaders.
Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople, being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire, through the so - called Golden Bulls or "chrysobulls '' in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions. In the first chrysobull, Venice acknowledged its homage to the Empire; but not in the second, reflecting the decline of Byzantium and the rise of Venice 's power.
Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade, which, having veered off course, culminated in 1204 by capturing and sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire. As a result of this conquest, considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice. This plunder included the gilt bronze horses from the Hippodrome of Constantinople, which were originally placed above the entrance to the cathedral of Venice, St Mark 's Basilica, although the originals have been replaced with replicas and are now stored within the basilica. After the fall of Constantinople, the former Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians. Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago, and captured Crete.
The seizure of Constantinople proved as decisive a factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of the Anatolian themes after Manzikert. Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half - century later, the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened, and existed as a ghost of its old self until Sultan Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453.
Situated on the Adriatic Sea, Venice always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world. By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. Venice 's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. The city was governed by the Great Council, which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals. Since this group was too large for efficient administration, a Council of Ten (also called the Ducal Council or the Signoria), controlled much of the administration of the city. One member of the great council was elected "Doge '', or duke, the chief executive, who usually held the title until his death; although several Doges were forced by pressure from their oligarchical peers to resign and retire into monastic seclusion when they were felt to have been discredited by political failure.
The Venetian government structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome, with an elected chief executive (the Doge), a senate - like assembly of nobles, and a mass of citizens with limited political power, who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected Doge. Church and various private properties were tied to military service, although there was no knight tenure within the city itself. The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice, and no citizen could accept or join a foreign order without the government 's consent. Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period, and politics and the military were kept separate, except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military. War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means (hence, the city 's early production of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere, and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when the ruling class was preoccupied with commerce).
Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics, the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism and executed nobody for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation. This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice 's frequent conflicts with the Papacy. In this context, the writings of the Anglican divine William Bedell are particularly illuminating. Venice was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions, and twice suffered its imposition. The second, most noted, occasion was in 1606, by order of Pope Paul V.
Venetian ambassadors sent home still - extant secret reports of the politics and rumours of European courts, providing fascinating information to modern historians.
The newly invented German printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century, and Venice was quick to adopt it. By 1482, Venice was the printing capital of the world, and the leading printer was Aldus Manutius, who invented paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag. His Aldine Editions included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era.
Venice 's long decline started in the 15th century, when it first made an unsuccessful attempt to hold Thessalonica against the Ottomans (1423 -- 1430). It also sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks (1453). After Constantinople fell to Sultan Mehmet II, he declared war on Venice. The war lasted thirty years and cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions. Next, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World in 1492. Then Vasco da Gama of Portugal found a sea route to India by rounding the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage of 1497 -- 99, destroying Venice 's land route monopoly. France, England and the Dutch Republic followed. Venice 's oared galleys were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing the great oceans, and therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies.
The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348 and once again between 1575 and 1577. In three years, the plague killed some 50,000 people. In 1630, the Italian plague of 1629 -- 31 killed a third of Venice 's 150,000 citizens. Venice began to lose its position as a center of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe 's principal intermediary in the trade with the East, striking at the very foundation of Venice 's great wealth; while France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in the Italian Wars, marginalising its political influence. However, the Venetian empire was a major exporter of agricultural products, and until the mid-18th century, a significant manufacturing center.
During the 18th century, Venice became perhaps the most elegant and refined city in Europe, greatly influencing art, architecture and literature. But the Republic lost its independence when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during the War of the First Coalition. Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city 's Jewish population, although it can be argued they had lived with fewer restrictions in Venice. He removed the gates of the Ghetto and ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city.
Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on 12 October 1797. The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798. But Venice was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon 's Kingdom of Italy; however it was returned to Austria following Napoleon 's defeat in 1814, when it became part of the Austrian - held Kingdom of Lombardy - Venetia. In 1848 -- 9, a revolt briefly re-established the Venetian Republic under Daniele Manin. In 1866, after the Third Italian War of Independence, Venice, along with the rest of the Veneto, became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy.
During the Second World War, the historic city was largely free from attack, the only aggressive effort of note being Operation Bowler, a successful Royal Air Force precision strike on the German naval operations in the city in March 1945. The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage inflicted on the city itself. However the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua, Trieste and Trento were repeatedly bombed. On 29 April 1945, New Zealand troops under Freyberg of the Eighth Army reached Venice and relieved the city and the mainland, which were already in partisan hands.
Subsidence, the gradual lowering of the surface of Venice, has led to the seasonal Acqua alta when much of the city 's surface is occasionally covered at high tide.
The buildings of Venice are constructed on closely spaced wooden piles. Most of these piles are still intact after centuries of submersion. The foundations rest on plates of Istrian limestone placed on top of the piles, and buildings of brick or stone sit above these footings. The piles penetrate a softer layer of sand and mud until they reach a much harder layer of compressed clay.
Submerged by water, in oxygen - poor conditions, wood does not decay as rapidly as on the surface.
Most of these piles were made from trunks of alder trees, a wood noted for its water resistance. The alder came from the westernmost part of today 's Slovenia (resulting in the barren land of the Kras region), in two regions of Croatia, Lika and Gorski kotar (resulting in the barren slopes of Velebit) and south of Montenegro.
The city is often threatened by flood tides pushing in from the Adriatic between autumn and early spring. Six hundred years ago, Venetians protected themselves from land - based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city. This created an ever - deeper lagoon environment.
In 1604, to defray the cost of flood relief, Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a ' stamp tax '. When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608, Venice introduced paper with the superscription ' AQ ' and imprinted instructions, which was to be used for ' letters to officials '. At first, this was to be a temporary tax, but it remained in effect until the fall of the Republic in 1797. Shortly after the introduction of the tax, Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes, and the practice spread to other countries.
During the 20th century, when many artesian wells were sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry, Venice began to subside. It was realised that extraction of water from the aquifer was the cause. The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s. However, the city is still threatened by more frequent low - level floods (called Acqua alta, "high water '') that creep to a height of several centimetres over its quays, regularly following certain tides. In many old houses, the former staircases used to unload goods are now flooded, rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable.
Studies indicate that the city continues sinking at a relatively slow rate of 1 - 2mm per annum; therefore, the state of alert has not been revoked. In May 2003, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE project (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates; the idea is to fix a series of 78 hollow pontoons to the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres, the pontoons will be filled with air, causing them to float and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work is due to be completed by 2018.
The project is not guaranteed to be successful and the cost has been very high, according to a spokesman for the FAI (similar to a National Trust). "Mose is a pharaonic project that should have cost € 800m (£ 675m) but will cost at least € 7bn (£ 6bn). If the barriers are closed at only 90cm of high water, most of St Mark 's will be flooded anyway; but if closed at very high levels only, then people will wonder at the logic of spending such sums on something that did n't solve the problem. And pressure will come from the cruise ships to keep the gates open. '' Approximately € 2 billion of the cost has been lost to corruption.
The whole pensolon (municipality) is divided into 6 boroughs. One of these (the historic city) is divided into six areas called sestieri: Cannaregio, San Polo, Dorsoduro (including the isla)) and Sacca Fisola), Santa Croce, San Marco (including San Giorgio Maggiore) and Castello (including San Pietro di Castello and Sant'Elena). Each sestiere was administered by a procurator and his staff. Now, each sestiere is a statistical and historical area without any degree of autonomy. The six fingers or phalanges of the ferro on the bow of a gondola represent the six sestieri.
The sestieri are divided into parishes -- initially 70 in 1033, but reduced under Napoleon and now numbering just 38. These parishes predate the sestieri, which were created in about 1170. Each parish exhibited unique characteristics but also belonged to an integrated network. The community chose its own patron saint, staged its own festivals, congregated around its own market center, constructed its own bell towers and developed its own customs.
Other islands of the Venetian Lagoon do not form part of any of the sestieri, having historically enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy.
Each sestiere has its own house numbering system. Each house has a unique number in the district, from one to several thousand, generally numbered from one corner of the area to another, but not usually in a readily understandable manner.
According to the Köppen climate classification, Venice has a Humid subtropical climate (Cfa), with cool winters and very warm summers. The 24 - hour average in January is 3.3 ° C (37.9 ° F), and for July this figure is 23.0 ° C (73.4 ° F). Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year, and averages 748 millimetres (29.4 in).
The 6 boroughs of the whole comune of Venice
The whole comune (red) in the Metropolitan City of Venice
Ca ' Loredan, Venice 's City Hall
The legislative body of the municipality is the City Council (Consiglio Comunale), which is composed of 45 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, contextually to the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Committee (Giunta Comunale), composed of 12 assessors nominated and presided over by a directly elected Mayor.
Venice was governed by center - left parties from the 1990s until the 2010s, when the mayor started to be elected directly. This is remarkable because Veneto has long been a conservative stronghold, with the coalition between the regionalist Lega Nord and the center - right Forza Italia winning absolute majorities of the electorate in many elections at communal, national, and regional levels.
After a corruption scandal that forced the center - left mayor Giorgio Orsoni to resign, Venice voted for the first time in June 2015 for a conservative directly elected mayor: the center - right businessman Luigi Brugnaro won the election in the second round of voting with the 53 % of the votes against the leftist magistrate and member of the Italian Senate Felice Casson, who led in the first round with 38 % of the votes.
The municipality of Venice is subdivided into six administrative Boroughs (Municipalità). Each Borough is governed by a Council (Consiglio) and a President, elected contextually to the city Mayor. The urban organization is governed by the Italian Constitution (art. 114). The Boroughs have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics (environment, construction, public health, local markets) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council; in addition they are supplied with autonomous funding to finance local activities. The Boroughs are:
Lagoon area:
Mainland (terraferma), annexed with a Royal Decree, in 1926, to the municipality of Venezia:
After the 2015 elections, five of the six boroughs are governed by the Democratic Party and its allies, and one by the center - right mayoral majority.
Venice 's economy has changed throughout history. Although there is little specific information about the earliest years, it is likely that an important source of the city 's prosperity was the trade in slaves, captured in central Europe and sold to North Africa and the Levant. Venice 's location at the head of the Adriatic, and directly south of the terminus of the Brenner Pass over the Alps, would have given it a distinct advantage as a middleman in this important trade. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Venice was a major center for commerce and trade, as it controlled a vast sea - empire, and became an extremely wealthy European city, a leader in political and economic affairs and a centre for trade and commerce. From the 11th century until the 15th century, pilgrimages to the Holy Land were offered in Venice. Other ports such as Genoa, Pisa, Marseille, Ancona and Dubrovnik were hardly able to make any competition to the well organized transportation of pilgrims from Venice.
This all changed by the 17th century, when Venice 's trade empire was taken over by other countries such as Portugal, and its naval importance was reduced. In the 18th century, then, it became a major agricultural and industrial exporter. The 18th century 's biggest industrial complex was the Venice Arsenal, and the Italian Army still uses it today (even though some space has been used for major theatrical and cultural productions, and spaces for art). Since World War II many Venetians have moved to Mestre and Marghera seeking employment as well as affordable housing.
Today, Venice 's economy is mainly based on tourism, shipbuilding (mainly done in the neighboring cities of Mestre and Porto Marghera), services, trade and industrial exports. Murano glass production in Murano and lace production in Burano are also highly important to the economy.
The city is facing financial challenges. In late 2016, it had a major deficit in its budget and debts in excess of € 400 million. "In effect, the place is bankrupt '', according to a report by The Guardian. Many locals are leaving the historic center due to rapidly increasing rental costs. The declining native population affects the character of the city as an October 2016 National Geographic article pointed out in its subtitle: "Residents are abandoning the city, which is in danger of becoming an overpriced theme park ''.
In June 2017, Italy was required to bail out two banks in Venice to prevent bankruptcies of the Banca Popolare di Vicenza and Veneto Banca. Both companies will be wound down and their assets with value will be taken over by another Italian bank, Intesa Sanpaolo which received € 5.2 billion as compensation. The Italian government will be responsible for losses from any uncollectible loans from the now closed banks. The cost may be as high as € 5.2 billion but the guarantees to cover bad loans total € 12 billion.
Venice is an important tourist destination for its celebrated art and architecture. The city gets up to 60,000 tourists per day (2017 estimate). Estimates as to the annual number of tourists vary from 22 million to 30 million. This creates overcrowding and environmental problems in its canal ecosystem. By 2017, UNESCO was considering the addition of Venice to its "In - Danger '' list which includes historical ruins in war - torn countries. To reduce the number of visitors that are causing irreversible changes in Venice, the agency supports limiting the number of cruise ships as well as creating a full strategy for a more sustainable tourism.
Tourism has been a major sector of Venetian industry since the 18th century, when it was a major center for the Grand Tour, with its beautiful cityscape, uniqueness, and rich musical and artistic cultural heritage. In the 19th century, it became a fashionable centre for the "rich and famous '', often staying or dining at luxury establishments such as the Danieli Hotel and the Caffè Florian. It continued being a fashionable city in vogue right into the early 20th century. In the 1980s, the Carnival of Venice was revived and the city has become a major centre of international conferences and festivals, such as the prestigious Venice Biennale and the Venice Film Festival, which attract visitors from all over the world for their theatrical, cultural, cinematic, artistic, and musical productions.
Today, there are numerous attractions in Venice, such as St Mark 's Basilica, the Doge 's Palace, the Grand Canal, and the Piazza San Marco. The Lido di Venezia is also a popular international luxury destination, attracting thousands of actors, critics, celebrities, and mainly people in the cinematic industry. The city also relies heavily on the cruise business. The Cruise Venice Committee has estimated that cruise ship passengers spend more than 150 million euros (US $193 million) annually in the city according to a 2015 report. Other reports, however, point out that such day trippers spend relatively little in the few hours of their visits to the city.
Venice is regarded by some as a tourist trap, and by others as a "living museum ''. Unlike most other places in Western Europe, and the world, Venice has become widely known for its element of elegant decay. The competition for foreigners to buy homes in Venice has made prices rise so high that numerous inhabitants are forced to move to more affordable areas of Veneto and Italy, the most notable being Mestre.
The need to balance cruise tourism revenues with the protection of the city 's fragile canals has seen the Italian Transport Ministry attempt to introduce a ban on large cruise ships visiting the city. The ban would have allowed only cruise ships smaller than 40,000 - gross tons to enter Venice 's Giudecca Canal and St Mark 's basin. In January, a regional court scrapped the ban, but global cruise lines indicated that they would continue to respect it until a long - term solution for the protection of Venice is found. The city considered a ban on wheeled suitcases, but settled on banning hard wheels for cargo from May 2015. P&O Cruises has removed Venice from its summer schedule, Holland America moved one of its ships from this area to Alaska and Cunard is reducing (in 2017 and further in 2018) the number of visits by its ships. As a result, the Venice Port Authority estimates an 11.4 percent drop in cruise ships arriving in 2017 versus 2016, leading to a similar reduction in income for Venice.
In addition to accelerating erosion of the ancient city 's foundations and creating some pollution in the lagoon, cruise ships dropping an excessive number of day trippers can make St. Marks Square and other popular attractions too crowded to walk through during the peak season. Having failed in its bid to ban oversized cruise ships, the city decided in mid 2017 to ban the creation of any additional hotels; currently there are over 24,000 hotel rooms. (The ban does not affect short term rentals in the historic center which is causing an increase in rent for the native residents of Venice.) The city had already banned any additional fast food "take - away '' outlets to retain the historic character of the city; this is another reason for freezing the number of hotel rooms. Less than half the millions of annual visitors stay overnight, however. Some locals are more aggressively lobbying for methods that would reduce the number of cruise ship passengers; their estimate indicates that there are up to 30,000 such sightseers per day at peak periods, while other concentrate their effort on promoting a more responsible way of visiting the city.
An unofficial referendum to ban the huge cruise ships was held in June 2017. More than 18,000 people voted at 60 polling booths set up by activists and 17,874 chose to favor the ban the ships from the lagoon. The population of Venice is around 55,000. The organizers of the referendum back a plan to build a new cruise ship terminal at one of the three entrances to the Venetian Lagoon. Passenger would be transferred to smaller boats to take them to Venice proper.
Venice is built on an archipelago of 118 islands formed by 177 canals in a shallow lagoon, connected by 409 bridges. In the old centre, the canals serve the function of roads, and almost every form of transport is on water or on foot. In the 19th century, a causeway to the mainland brought the Venezia Santa Lucia railway station to Venice, and the Ponte della Libertà road causeway and parking facilities (in Tronchetto island and in piazzale Roma) were built during the 20th century. Beyond the road and rail land entrances at the northern edge of the city, transportation within the city remains (as it was in centuries past) entirely on water or on foot. Venice is Europe 's largest urban car - free area. Venice is unique in Europe, in having remained a sizable functioning city in the 21st century entirely without motorcars or trucks.
The classical Venetian boat is the gondola, (plural: gondole) although it is now mostly used for tourists, or for weddings, funerals, or other ceremonies, or as ' traghetti ' (sing.: traghetto) to cross the Canale Grande in the absence of a nearby bridge. The traghetti are operated by two oarsmen; for some years there were seven such boats but by 2017, only three remained.
There are approximately 400 licensed gondoliers in Venice in their distinctive regalia and a similar number of the boats, down from 10,000 that travelled the canals two centuries ago. Many gondolas are lushly appointed with crushed velvet seats and Persian rugs. Less well - known is the smaller sandolo. At the front of each gondola that works in the city, there is a large piece of metal called the fèro (iron). Its shape has evolved through the centuries, as documented in many well - known paintings. Its form, topped by a likeness of the Doge 's hat, became gradually standardized, and was then fixed by local law. It consists of six bars pointing forward representing the Sestieri of the city, and one that points backward representing the Giudecca.
Venice is a city of small islands, enhanced during the Middle Ages by the dredging of soils to raise the marshy ground above the tides. The resulting canals encouraged the flourishing of a nautical culture which proved central to the economy of the city. Today those canals still provide the means for transport of goods and people within the city.
The maze of canals threaded through the city requires the use of more than 400 bridges to permit the flow of foot traffic. In 2011, the city opened Ponte della Costituzione, the fourth bridge across the Grand Canal, connecting the Piazzale Roma bus terminal area with the Stazione Ferroviaria (train station), the others being the original Ponte di Rialto, the Ponte dell'Accademia, and the Ponte degli Scalzi.
Azienda del Consorzio Trasporti Veneziano (ACTV) is a public company responsible for public transportation in Venice.
The main public transportation means are motorised waterbuses (vaporetti) which ply regular routes along the Grand Canal and between the city 's islands. The only gondole still in common use by Venetians are the traghetti, foot passenger ferries crossing the Grand Canal at certain points without bridges. Other gondole target tourists on an hourly basis.
The Venice People Mover (managed by ASM) is a cable - operated public transit system connecting Tronchetto island with Piazzale Roma. Water taxis are also active.
Lido and Pellestrina are two islands forming a barrier between the southern Venetian Lagoon and the Adriatic Sea. In those islands, road traffic is allowed. There are bus services on islands and waterbus services linking islands with other islands (Venice, Murano, Burano) and with the peninsula of Cavallino - Treporti.
The mainland of Venice is composed of 5 boroughs: Mestre - Carpenedo, Marghera, Chirignago - Zelarino and Favaro Veneto. Mestre is the center and the most populated urban area of the mainland of Venice. There are several bus routes and two Translohr tramway lines. Several bus routes and one of the above tramway lines link the mainland with Piazzale Roma, the main bus station in Venice, via Ponte della Libertà, a road bridge connecting the mainland with the group of islands that comprise the historic center of Venice. The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Venice, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 52 min. 12.2 % of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 10 min, while 17.6 % of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 7 km, while 12 % travel for over 12 km in a single direction.
Vaporetti (water buses) provide the primary means of transportation
People Mover in Venice
Bus in Mestre
Tram in Venice leaving Piazzale Roma
Venice has regional and national trains, including trains to Rome (3.5 hours) and Milan (2.5 hours). Treviso is 35 minutes away. Florence and Padua are two of the stops between Rome and Venice. There are two main stations:
Both stations are managed by Grandi Stazioni; they are linked by the Ponte della Libertà (Liberty Bridge) between the mainland and the islands.
Others small stations in the municipality are: Venezia Porto Marghera, Venezia Carpenedo, Venezia Mestre Ospedale, Venezia Mestre Porta Ovest.
The Port of Venice (Italian: Porto di Venezia) is the eighth - busiest commercial port in Italy and is one of the most important in the Mediterranean concerning the cruise sector, as a major hub for cruise ships. It is one of the major Italian ports and is included in the list of the leading European ports which are located on the strategic nodes of trans - European networks. In 2006, 30,936,931 tonnes passed through the port, of which 14,541,961 was the commercial sector, and saw 1,453,513 passengers. In 2002, the port handled 262,337 containers.
Venice is served by the Marco Polo International Airport (Aeroporto di Venezia Marco Polo), named in honor of its noted citizen. The airport is on the mainland and was rebuilt away from the coast. Public transport from the airport takes one to:
Some airlines market Treviso Airport in Treviso, 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Venice, as a Venice gateway. Some simply advertise flights to "Venice '', while naming the actual airport only in small print. There are public buses from this airport to Venice.
Venezia - Lido "Giovanni Nicelli '', a public airport suitable for smaller aircraft, is at the NE end of Lido di Venezia. It has a 994 - metre grass runway.
The most Venetian sport is probably the "Voga alla Veneta '', also commonly called, "Voga Veneta ''. The Venetian Rowing is a technique invented in the Venetian Lagoon which has the particularity to see the rower (s), one or more, rowing standing looking forward. Today, the Voga alla Veneta is not only the way the Gondolier row tourists around Venice but also the way Venetians row for pleasure and sport. Many races called regata (e) happen throughought the year. The culminating event of the rowing season is the day of the "Regata Storica '', happening on the first Sunday of September each year.
The main football club in the city is Venezia F.C., founded in 1907, which currently plays in the Serie B. Their ground, the Stadio Pierluigi Penzo situated in Sant'Elena, is one of the oldest venues in Italy.
The local basketball club is Reyer Venezia Mestre, founded in 1872 as gymnastics club Società Sportiva Costantino Reyer, and in 1907 as basketball club. Reyer currently plays in the Lega Basket Serie A. The men 's team won the Italian Championships in 1942, 1943 and 2017. Their arena is the Palasport Giuseppe Taliercio situated in Mestre. Luigi Brugnaro is both the president of the club and the mayor of the city.
Venice is a major international centre for higher education. The city hosts the Ca ' Foscari University of Venice, founded in 1868; the IUAV University of Venice, founded in 1926; the Venice International University, an international research center, founded in 1995 and located on the island of San Servolo; and the EIUC - European Inter-University Centre for Human Rights and Democratisation, located on the island of Lido di Venezia.
Other Venetian institutions of higher education are: the "Accademia di Belle Arti '' (Academy of Fine Arts), established in 1750, whose first Chairman was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta; and the Benedetto Marcello Conservatory of Music, which, established in 1876 as High School and Musical Society, later (1915) became "Liceo Musicale '' and finally (1940), when its Director was Gian Francesco Malipiero, State Conservatory of Music.
The city was one of the largest in Europe in the High Middle Ages, with a population of 60,000 in AD 1000; 80,000 in 1200; and rising up to 110,000 -- 180,000 in 1300. In the mid 1500s the city 's population was 170,000, and by 1600 almost 200,000.
In 2009, there were 270,098 people residing in Venice 's comune (the population estimate of 272,000 inhabitants includes the population of the whole Comune of Venezia; around 60,000 in the historic city of Venice (Centro storico); 176,000 in Terraferma (the Mainland); and 31,000 live on other islands in the lagoon), of whom 47.4 % were male and 52.6 % were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) were 14.36 % of the population compared to pensioners who numbered 25.7 %. This compared with the Italian average of 18.06 % (minors) and 19.94 % (pensioners). The average age of Venice residents was 46 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Venice declined by 0.2 %, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.85 %. The population in the historic old city declined much faster: from about 120,000 in 1980 to about 60,000 in 2009, and to below 55,000 in 2016.
As of 2009, 91 % of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant group came from other European nations: (Romanians, the largest group: 3 %, South Asia: 1.3 %, and East Asia: 0.9 %).
Venice is predominantly Roman Catholic (92.7 % of resident population in the area of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Venice in 2012), but because of the long - standing relationship with Constantinople, there is also a noticeable Orthodox presence, and as a result of immigration, there are now some Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist inhabitants. There is also a historic Jewish community in Venice. The Venetian Ghetto was the area in which Jews were compelled to live under the Venetian Republic. The word ghetto, originally Venetian, is now used in many languages. Shakespeare 's play The Merchant of Venice, written in the late 16th century, features Shylock, a Venetian Jew. The first complete and uncensored printed edition of the Talmud was printed in Venice by Daniel Bomberg in 1523. In more modern times, Venice has an eruv, used by the Jewish community.
Venice has been the setting or chosen location of numerous films, games, works of fine art and literature (including essays, fiction, non-fiction, and poems), music videos, television shows, and other cultural references.
Examples of films set or at least partially filmed in Venice include:
The city is the setting for parts of such video games as Assassin 's Creed II and Tomb Raider II. It has also served as inspiration for the fictional city of Altissia, in Final Fantasy XV. The city also serves as a setting for The House of the Dead 2.
The city is a particularly popular setting for essays, novels, and other works of fictional or non-fictional literature. Examples of these include:
Additionally, Thomas Mann 's novella, Death in Venice (1912), was the basis for Benjamin Britten 's eponymous opera.
The city has been the setting for music videos of such songs as Madonna 's "Like a Virgin '' and Siouxsie and the Banshees ' "Dear Prudence ''.
Venice has a rich and diverse architectural style, the most prominent of which is the Gothic style. Venetian Gothic architecture is a term given to a Venetian building style combining use of the Gothic lancet arch with Byzantine and Ottoman influences. The style originated in 14th - century Venice, where the confluence of Byzantine style from Constantinople met Arab influence from Islamic Spain. Chief examples of the style are the Doge 's Palace and the Ca ' d'Oro in the city. The city also has several Renaissance and Baroque buildings, including the Ca ' Pesaro and the Ca ' Rezzonico.
The city of Venice in Italy has played an important role in the development of the music of Italy. The Venetian state -- i.e., the medieval Maritime Republic of Venice -- was often popularly called the "Republic of Music '', and an anonymous Frenchman of the 17th century is said to have remarked that "In every home, someone is playing a musical instrument or singing. There is music everywhere. ''
During the 16th century, Venice became one of the most important musical centers of Europe, marked by a characteristic style of composition (the Venetian school) and the development of the Venetian polychoral style under composers such as Adrian Willaert, who worked at St Mark 's Basilica. Venice was the early center of music printing; Ottaviano Petrucci began publishing music almost as soon as this technology was available, and his publishing enterprise helped to attract composers from all over Europe, especially from France and Flanders. By the end of the century, Venice was known for the splendor of its music, as exemplified in the "colossal style '' of Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, which used multiple choruses and instrumental groups. Venice was also the home of many noted composers during the baroque period, such as Antonio Vivaldi, Ippolito Ciera, Giovanni Picchi, and Girolamo Dalla Casa, to name but a few.
Its splendid architecture, artworks, landscapes, gondolas, the alternance of high and low tides, the reflections of light and colors, and the unusual daily scenes in a city living on water, make of Venice and its islands a paradise for photographers both professionals and amateurs. Fulvio Roiter has probably been the pioneer in artistic photography in Venice, followed by a number of authors whose works are often reproduced on postcards, thus reaching a widest international popular exposure.
It can be argued that Venice produced the best and most refined rococo designs. At the time, Venice was in trouble. It had lost most of its maritime power, was lagging behind its rivals in political importance, and society had become decadent, with nobles wasting their money in gambling and partying. But Venice remained Italy 's fashion capital, and was a serious contender to Paris in terms of wealth, architecture, luxury, taste, sophistication, trade, decoration, style, and design. Venetian rococo was well known as rich and luxurious, with usually very extravagant designs. Unique Venetian furniture pieces included the divani da portego, and long rococo couches and pozzetti, objects meant to be placed against the wall. Bedrooms of rich Venetians were usually sumptuous and grand, with rich damask, velvet, and silk drapery and curtains, and beautifully carved rococo beds with statues of putti, flowers and angels. Venice was especially known for its beautiful girandole mirrors, which remained among, if not the, finest in Europe. Chandeliers were usually very colourful, using Murano glass to make them look more vibrant and stand out from others, and precious stones and materials from abroad were used, since Venice still held a vast trade empire. Lacquer was very common, and many items of furniture were covered with it, the most noted being lacca povera (poor lacquer), in which allegories and images of social life were painted. Lacquerwork and Chinoiserie were particularly common in bureau cabinets.
In the 14th century, many young Venetian men began wearing tight - fitting multicoloured hose, the designs on which indicated the Compagnie della Calza ("Trouser Club '') to which they belonged. The Venetian Senate passed sumptuary laws, but these merely resulted in changes in fashion in order to circumvent the law. Dull garments were worn over colourful ones, which then were cut to show the hidden colours resulting in the wide spread of men 's "slashed '' fashions in the 15th century.
Today, Venice is a major fashion and shopping centre, not as important as Milan, Florence, and Rome, but on a par with Verona, Turin, Vicenza, Naples, and Genoa. Roberta di Camerino is the only major Italian fashion brand to be based in Venice. Founded in 1945, it is renowned for its innovative handbags featuring hardware by Venetian artisans and often covered in locally woven velvet, and has been credited with creating the concept of the easily recognisable status bag. Many of the fashion boutiques and jewelry shops in the city are located on or near the Rialto Bridge and in the Piazza San Marco. There are Louis Vuitton and Ermenegildo Zegna flagship stores in the city. If shopping for venetian and Italian food specialties and wine you can head to Mascari or Casa del Parmigiano near Rialto and I Tre Mercanti flagship store near Piazza San Marco.
Venice has always been a city of merchants. Consequently, most of the Venetians working in Venice still own or work at a shop. If the pride of the Republic of Venice was the extreme diversity and quality of goods and services which could be found in Venice, these days, however, mass tourism led Venice to be populated with many shops selling low - quality souvenirs. The quality local shops are suffering a lot from this situation and it is not easy to identify them within the crowd of shops selling harmful, mass - produced, imported goods.
Buying from the authentic local businesses has never been more important as it is essential to the future of the Venetians and is also the only guarantee for you to get a quality product. It is not easy, though. Thankfully, there is a social enterprise based in Venice, which works closely with the Venetian business owners, shops, restaurants, and bars included. They have a certification process where the local artisan shops attest and commit to being selling products both authentic and sustainable as well as to give a 10 % discount to the customers carrying a "Venezia Autentica Friends ' Pass '' (buyable online for only 10 euros). The shops which are part of the program are easy to spot thanks to a sticker on their door.
Venetian cuisine is characterized by seafood, but also includes garden products from the islands of the lagoon, rice from the mainland, game, and polenta. Venice is not known for a peculiar cuisine of its own: it combines local traditions with influences stemming from age - old contacts with distant countries. These include sarde in saór (sardines marinated to preserve them for long voyages); bacalà mantecato (a recipe based on Norwegian stockfish and extra-virgin olive oil); bisàto (marinated eel); risi e bisi, rice, peas and (not smoked) bacon; fegato alla veneziana, Venetian - style veal liver; risòto col néro de sépe (risotto with cuttlefish, blackened by their ink); cichéti, refined and delicious tidbits (akin to tapas); antipasti (appetizers); and prosecco, an effervescent, mildly sweet wine.
In addition, Venice is known for the golden, oval - shaped cookies called baìcoli, and for other types of sweets, such as: pan del pescaór (bread of the fisherman); cookies with almonds and pistachio nuts; cookies with fried Venetian cream, or the bussolài (butter biscuits and shortbread made in the shape of a ring or of an "S '') from the island of Burano; the galàni or cróstoli (angel wings); the frìtole (fried spherical doughnuts); the fregolòtta (a crumbly cake with almonds); a milk pudding called rosàda; and cookies called zaléti, whose ingredients include yellow maize flour.
The dessert tiramisù is generally thought to have been invented in Treviso in the 1970s, and is popular in the Veneto area.
Venice has long been a source of inspiration for authors, playwrights, and poets, and at the forefront of the technological development of printing and publishing.
Two of the most noted Venetian writers were Marco Polo in the Middle Ages and later Giacomo Casanova. Polo (1254 -- 1324) was a merchant who voyaged to the Orient. His series of books, co-written by Rustichello da Pisa and titled Il Milione provided important knowledge of the lands east of Europe, from the Middle East to China, Japan, and Russia. Giacomo Casanova (1725 -- 1798) was a prolific writer and adventurer best remembered for his autobiography, Histoire De Ma Vie (Story of My Life), which links his colourful lifestyle to the city of Venice.
Venetian playwrights followed the old Italian theatre tradition of Commedia dell'arte. Ruzante (1502 -- 1542), Carlo Goldoni (1707 -- 1793), and Carlo Gozzi (1720 -- 1806) used the Venetian dialect extensively in their comedies.
Venice has also inspired writers from abroad. Shakespeare set Othello and The Merchant of Venice in the city, as did Thomas Mann with his novel, Death in Venice (1912). The French writer Philippe Sollers spent most of his life in Venice and published A Dictionary For Lovers Of Venice in 2004.
The city features prominently in Henry James ' The Aspern Papers and The Wings of the Dove. It is also visited in Evelyn Waugh 's Brideshead Revisited and Marcel Proust 's In Search of Lost Time. Perhaps the most known children 's book set in Venice is The Thief Lord, written by the German author Cornelia Funke.
The poet Ugo Foscolo (1778 -- 1827), born in Zante, an island that at the time belonged to the Republic of Venice, was also a revolutionary who wanted to see a free republic established in Venice following its fall to Napoleon.
Venice also inspired the poetry of Ezra Pound, who wrote his first literary work in the city. Pound died in 1972, and his remains are buried in Venice 's cemetery island of San Michele.
Venice is also linked to the technological aspects of writing. The city was the location of one of Italy 's earliest printing presses, established by Aldus Manutius (1449 -- 1515). From this beginning Venice developed as an important typographic center and even as late as the 18th century was responsible for printing half of Italy 's published books.
Venice, especially during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and Baroque periods, was a major centre of art and developed a unique style known as the Venetian School. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Venice, along with Florence and Rome, became one of the most important centres of art in Europe, and numerous wealthy Venetians became patrons of the arts. Venice at the time was a rich and prosperous Maritime Republic, which controlled a vast sea and trade empire.
By the end of the 15th century, Venice had become the European capital of printing, being one of the first cities in Italy (after Subiaco and Rome) to have a printing press after those established in Germany, having 417 printers by 1500. The most important printing office was the Aldine Press of Aldus Manutius, which in 1499 printed the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, considered the most beautiful book of the Renaissance, and established modern punctuation, the page format and italic type, and the first printed work of Aristotle.
In the 16th century, Venetian painting was developed through influences from the Paduan School and Antonello da Messina, who introduced the oil painting technique of the Van Eyck brothers. It is signified by a warm colour scale and a picturesque use of colour. Early masters were the Bellini and Vivarini families, followed by Giorgione and Titian, then Tintoretto and Veronese. In the early 16th century, there was rivalry in Venetian painting between the disegno and colorito techniques.
Canvases (the common painting surface) originated in Venice during the early Renaissance. These early canvases were generally rough.
In the 18th century, Venetian painting had a revival with Giovanni Battista Pittoni, Tiepolo 's decorative painting and Canaletto 's and Guardi 's panoramic views. In the 19th century with Antonio Rotta.
Venice is known for its ornate glass - work, known as Venetian glass. It is world - renowned for being colourful, elaborate, and skilfully made.
Many of the important characteristics of these objects had been developed by the 13th century. Toward the end of that century, the center of the Venetian glass industry moved to Murano, an offshore island in Venice. The glass made there is known as Murano glass.
Byzantine craftsmen played an important role in the development of Venetian glass, an art form for which the city is well known. When Constantinople was sacked in the Fourth Crusade in 1204, some fleeing artisans came to Venice. This happened again when the Ottomans took Constantinople in 1453, supplying Venice with still more glassworkers. By the 16th century, Venetian artisans had gained even greater control over the color and transparency of their glass, and had mastered a variety of decorative techniques.
Despite efforts to keep Venetian glassmaking techniques within Venice, they became known elsewhere, and Venetian - style glassware was produced in other Italian cities and other countries of Europe.
Some of the most important brands of glass in the world today are still produced in the historical glass factories on Murano. They are: Venini, Barovier & Toso, Pauly, Millevetri, Seguso. Barovier & Toso is considered one of the 100 oldest companies in the world, formed in 1295.
The Carnival of Venice is held annually in the city, It lasts for around two weeks and ends on Shrove Tuesday. Venetian masks are worn.
The Venice Biennale is one of the most important events in the arts calendar. In 1895 an Esposizione biennale artistica nazionale (biennial exhibition of Italian art) was inaugurated. The activities of the Biennale were interrupted by the war in September 1942, but resumed in 1948.
The Festa del Redentore is held in mid July. It began as a feast to give thanks for the end of the plague of 1576. A bridge of barges is built connecting Giudecca to the rest of Venice, and fireworks play an important role.
The Venice Film Festival (Italian Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia) is the oldest film festival in the world. Founded by Count Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata in 1932 as the Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica, the festival has since taken place every year in late August or early September on the island of the Lido. Screenings take place in the historic Palazzo del Cinema on the Lungomare Marconi. It is one of the world 's most prestigious film festivals and is part of the Venice Biennale.
Some words with a Venetian etymology include arsenal, ciao, ghetto, gondola, imbroglio, lagoon, lazaret, lido, Montenegro, and regatta. The name "Venezuela '' is a Spanish diminutive of Venice (Veneziola). Many additional places around the world are named after Venice, e.g., Venice, Los Angeles, home of Venice Beach; Venice, Alberta in Canada; Venice, Florida, a city in Sarasota County; Venice, New York.
For people from Venice, see Category: People from Venice. Others closely associated with the city include:
The City of Venice and the Central Association of Cities and Communities of Greece (KEDKE) established, in January 2000, in pursuance of the EC Regulations n. 2137 / 85, the European Economic Interest Grouping (E.E.I.G.) Marco Polo System to promote and realise European projects within transnational cultural and tourist field, particularly referred to the artistic and architectural heritage preservation and safeguard.
Venice is twinned with:
In 2013, Venice ended the sister city relationship with St. Petersburg in opposition to laws Russia had passed against homosexuals and those who support gay rights.
Venice has cooperation agreements with the Greek city of Thessaloniki, the German city of Nuremberg, signed on 25 September 1999, and the Turkish city of Istanbul, signed on 4 March 1993, within the framework of the 1991 Istanbul Declaration. It is also a Science and Technology Partnership City with Qingdao, China.
L'Aquila, Abruzzo Aosta, Aosta Valley Bari, Apulia Potenza, Basilicata
Catanzaro, Calabria Naples, Campania Bologna, Emilia - Romagna Trieste, Friuli - Venezia Giulia
Rome, Lazio Genoa, Liguria Milan, Lombardy Ancona, Marche
Campobasso, Molise Turin, Piedmont Cagliari, Sardinia Palermo, Sicily
Trento, Trentino - Alto Adige / Südtirol Florence, Tuscany Perugia, Umbria Venice, Veneto
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final vote on civil rights act of 1964 | Civil Rights Act of 1964 - wikipedia
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88 -- 352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools, employment, and public accommodations.
Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment and its duty to protect voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment.
The legislation had been proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but opposed by filibuster in the Senate. Thereafter, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward, which in its final form was passed in the U.S. Congress by a Senate vote of 73 -- 27 and House vote of 289 -- 126. The Act was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964, at the White House.
The bill was called for by President John F. Kennedy in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights of June 11, 1963, in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public -- hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments '', as well as "greater protection for the right to vote ''. Kennedy delivered this speech following the immediate aftermath of the Birmingham campaign and the growing number of demonstrations and protests throughout the southern United States. Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963.
Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Kennedy 's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations, and to enable the U.S. Attorney General to join in lawsuits against state governments which operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. However, it did not include a number of provisions deemed essential by civil rights leaders including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, or granting the Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits.
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president 's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative ''. The president 's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler 's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III '' that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights.
Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October, 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963, and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and avid segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely.
The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy 's successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy 's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long. ''
Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many congressmen who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed.
After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee.
Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell, Sr. of the NAACP.
Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that the bill would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastland 's firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Having initially waived a second reading of the bill, which would have led to it being immediately referred to Judiciary, Mansfield gave the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, and then proposed, in the absence of precedent for instances when a second reading did not immediately follow the first, that the bill bypass the Judiciary Committee and immediately be sent to the Senate floor for debate.
When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc '' of 18 southern Democratic Senators and one Republican Senator led by Richard Russell (D - GA) launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Said Russell: "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our (Southern) states. ''
Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond (D - SC): "This so - called Civil Rights Proposals, which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil - rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress. ''
After 54 days of filibuster, Senators Hubert Humphrey (D - MN), Mike Mansfield (D - MT), Everett Dirksen (R - IL), and Thomas Kuchel (R - CA), introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would attract enough Republican swing votes in addition to the core liberal Democrats behind the legislation to end the filibuster. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version in regard to government power to regulate the conduct of private business, but it was not so weak as to cause the House to reconsider the legislation.
On the morning of June 10, 1964, Senator Robert Byrd (D-W.Va.) completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. A day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bill 's manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four - vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill. And only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure.
On June 19, the substitute (compromise) bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73 -- 27, and quickly passed through the House -- Senate conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill. The conference bill was passed by both houses of Congress, and was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964.
Totals are in "Yea -- Nay '' format:
The original House version:
Cloture in the Senate:
The Senate version:
The Senate version, voted on by the House:
Note: "Southern '', as used in this section, refers to members of Congress from the eleven states that made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. "Northern '' refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of the geographic location of those states.
The original House version:
The Senate version:
Just one year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and who strongly opposed the legislation. Smith 's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate Smith 's motivation, whether it was a cynical attempt to defeat the bill by someone opposed to civil rights both for blacks and women, or an attempt to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party 's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because the clause was opposed by labor unions. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later claimed, "Smith did n't give a damn about women 's rights... he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who did n't favor women 's rights, '' and the Congressional Record records that Smith was greeted by laughter when he introduced the amendment.
Smith asserted that he was not joking; he sincerely supported the amendment and, indeed, along with Rep. Martha Griffiths, he was the chief spokesperson for the amendment. For twenty years Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. He for decades had been close to the National Woman 's Party and its leader Alice Paul, who was also the leader in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, the author of the first Equal Rights Amendment, and a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category. Now was the moment. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that was unfair to white women. Furthermore, she argued that the laws "protecting '' women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist explained in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives... the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act 's prohibition against discrimination based on ' sex. ' ''
One of the most damaging arguments by the bill 's opponents was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Senator Hubert Humphrey (D - MN) wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation (of the Constitution), because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race. '' While Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself, '' two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.
The bill divided and engendered a long - term change in the demographic support of both parties. President Johnson realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South 's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose the South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway. '' Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election ''. Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s.
Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona voted against the bill, remarking, "You ca n't legislate morality. '' Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states ' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 83 - day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D - TN) and J. William Fulbright (D - AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D - WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight.
(The full text of the Act is available online.)
Barred unequal application of voter registration requirements.
Title I did not eliminate literacy tests, which were one of the main methods used to exclude Black voters, other racial minorities, and poor Whites in the South, nor did it address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification '', that is to say, it accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but rather might have to meet some standard beyond citizenship. It was the Voting Rights Act, enacted one year later in 1965, that directly addressed and eliminated most voting qualifications beyond citizenship.
Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private ''.
Prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion or national origin.
Encouraged the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act.
Expanded the Civil Rights Commission established by the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1957 with additional powers, rules and procedures.
Prevents discrimination by government agencies that receive federal funds. If an agency is found in violation of Title VI, that agency may lose its federal funding.
General
This title declares it to be the policy of the United States that discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin shall not occur in connection with programs and activities receiving Federal financial assistance and authorizes and directs the appropriate Federal departments and agencies to take action to carry out this policy. This title is not intended to apply to foreign assistance programs. Section 601 -- This section states the general principle that no person in the United States shall be excluded from participation in or otherwise discriminated against on the ground of race, color, or national origin under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.
Section 602 directs each Federal agency administering a program of Federal financial assistance by way of grant, contract, or loan to take action pursuant to rule, regulation, or order of general applicability to effectuate the principle of section 601 in a manner consistent with the achievement of the objectives of the statute authorizing the assistance. In seeking the effect compliance with its requirements imposed under this section, an agency is authorized to terminate or to refuse to grant or to continue assistance under a program to any recipient as to whom there has been an express finding pursuant to a hearing of a failure to comply with the requirements under that program, and it may also employ any other means authorized by law. However, each agency is directed first to seek compliance with its requirements by voluntary means.
Section 603 provides that any agency action taken pursuant to section 602 shall be subject to such judicial review as would be available for similar actions by that agency on other grounds. Where the agency action consists of terminating or refusing to grant or to continue financial assistance because of a finding of a failure of the recipient to comply with the agency 's requirements imposed under section 602, and the agency action would not otherwise be subject to judicial review under existing law, judicial review shall nevertheless be available to any person aggrieved as provided in section 10 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. § 1009). The section also states explicitly that in the latter situation such agency action shall not be deemed committed to unreviewable agency discretion within the meaning of section 10. The purpose of this provision is to obviate the possible argument that although section 603 provides for review in accordance with section 10, section 10 itself has an exception for action "committed to agency discretion, '' which might otherwise be carried over into section 603. It is not the purpose of this provision of section 603, however, otherwise to alter the scope of judicial review as presently provided in section 10 (e) of the Administrative Procedure Act.
Title VII of the Act, codified as Subchapter VI of Chapter 21 of title 42 of the United States Code, prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 2). Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year '' as written in the Definitions section under 42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b). Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of his or her association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as by an interracial marriage. The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (See Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).
In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence '' or "central mission of the employer 's business '', and there is no less - restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991) 111 S. Ct. 1196). The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S. Ct. 2720). An employer or customer 's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School -- Bishop Estate, 990 F. 2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)).
Title VII allows for any employer, labor organization, joint labor - management committee, or employment agency to bypass the "unlawful employment practice '' for any person involved with the Communist Party of the United States or of any other organization required to register as a Communist - action or Communist - front organization by final order of the Subversive Activities Control Board pursuant to the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950.
There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs) enforce Title VII (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 4). The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on behalf of employees. Where a state law is contradicted by a federal law, it is overridden. Every state, except Arkansas and Mississippi, maintains a state FEPA (see EEOC and state FEPA directory). Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. An individual must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or the individual may lose the right to file a lawsuit. Title VII only applies to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year (42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b)).
In the early 1980s, the EEOC and some federal courts began holding that sexual harassment is also prohibited under the Act. In 1986, the Supreme Court held in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986), that sexual harassment is sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII. This case filed by plaintiff Mechelle Vinson was the first in the history of the court to recognize sexual harassment as actionable. Following 1986, court cases in which the plaintiff suffers no economic loss can potentially argue for a violation of Title VII if the discrimination resulted in a hostile work environment. Same - sex sexual harassment has also been held in a unanimous decision written by Justice Scalia to be prohibited by Title VII (Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998), 118 S. Ct. 998).
In 2012, the EEOC ruled that employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity or transgender status is prohibited under Title VII. The decision held that discrimination on the basis of gender identity qualified as discrimination on the basis of sex whether the discrimination was due to sex stereotyping, discomfort with the fact of an individual 's transition, or discrimination due to a perceived change in the individual 's sex. In 2014, the EEOC initiated two lawsuits against private companies for discrimination on the basis of gender identity, with additional litigation under consideration. As of November 2014, Commissioner Chai Feldblum is making an active effort to increase awareness of Title VII remedies for individuals discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.
On December 15, 2014, under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder, the United States Department of Justice (DoJ) took a position that aligned with the EEOC, namely the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status. DoJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees.
In October 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions issued a directive that withdrew the Holder memorandum. According to a copy of the directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News, Sessions stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between "men and women ''. Attorney General Session stated as a matter of law, "Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se. '' Devin O'Malley, speaking on behalf of the DoJ, stated "the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle (that the Department of Justice can not expand the law beyond what Congress has provided), which necessitated today 's action. '' Sharon McGowan, a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DoJ, rejected that argument, saying "(T) his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is -- it 's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were '' and "The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court. ''
On December 11, 2017, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal in Evans v. Georgia Regional Hospital, in which a lower court ruled against the plaintiff, who had argued Title VII protections applied to sexual orientation. The 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals stated in its earlier ruling that only the Supreme Court could determine if Title VII applied.
Required compilation of voter - registration and voting data in geographic areas specified by the Commission on Civil Rights.
Title IX made it easier to move civil rights cases from state courts to federal court. This was of crucial importance to civil rights activists who contended that they could not get fair trials in state courts.
Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 should not be confused with Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities.
Established the Community Relations Service, tasked with assisting in community disputes involving claims of discrimination.
Title XI gives a defendant accused of certain categories of criminal contempt in a matter arising under title II, III, IV, V, VI, or VII of the Act the right to a jury trial. If convicted, the defendant can be fined an amount not to exceed $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than six months.
There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question... is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers ''. Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process ''. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution 's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston 's claims.
Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground, especially in the South. When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre. '' Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black - white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision.
Between 1965 and 1972, Title VII lacked any strong enforcement provisions. Instead, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was authorized only to investigate external claims of discrimination. The EEOC could then refer cases to the Justice Department for litigation if reasonable cause was found. The EEOC documented the nature and magnitude of discriminatory employment practices, the first study of this kind done.
In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. The Act amended Title VII and gave EEOC authority to initiate its own enforcement litigation. The EEOC now played a major role in guiding judicial interpretations of civil rights legislation. The commission was also permitted for the first time to define "discrimination, '' a term excluded from the 1964 Act.
The Constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was, at the time, in some dispute as it applied to the private sector. In the landmark Civil Rights Cases the United States Supreme Court had ruled, in 1883, that Congress did not have the power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by members of the United States Supreme Court to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality.
In the 1930s, during the New Deal, the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the commerce clause, thus paving the way for the Federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, the Supreme Court upheld the law 's application to the private sector, on the grounds that Congress has the power to regulate commerce between the States. The landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States established the constitutionality of the law, but it did not settle all of the legal questions surrounding the law.
In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool - age child unless they did the same with potential male employees. A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to. In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the United States Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women was illegal, which ended that practice among the country 's newspapers. The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice among federal jobs which designated them "women only '' or "men only ''.
In 1974, the Supreme Court also ruled that the San Francisco school district was violating non-English speaking students ' rights under the 1964 act by placing them in regular classes rather than providing some sort of accommodation for them.
In 1975, a federal civil rights agency warned a Phoenix, Arizona school that its end - of - year father - son and mother - daughter baseball games were illegal according to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. President Gerald Ford intervened, and the games were allowed to continue.
In 1977, the Supreme Court struck down state minimum height requirements for police officers as violating the Act; women usually could not meet these requirements.
On April 4, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago, sitting en banc, ruled that Title VII of the Act forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation by a vote of 8 -- 3. Over the prior month, panels of both the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in Atlanta and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in New York City had reached the opposite conclusion, finding that Title VII sex discrimination does not include claims based on sexual orientation.
Despite its lack of influence during its time, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had considerable impact on later civil rights legislation in the United States. It paved the way for future legislation that was not limited to African American civil rights. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 -- which has been called "the most important piece of federal legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 '' -- was influenced both by the structure and substance of the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was arguably of equal importance, and "draws substantially from the structure of that landmark legislation (Civil Rights Act of 1964) ''. The Americans With Disabilities Act paralleled its landmark predecessor structurally, drawing upon many of the same titles and statutes. For example, "Title I of the ADA, which bans employment discrimination by private employers on the basis of disability, parallels Title VII of the Act ''. Similarly, Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, "which proscribes discrimination on the basis of disability in public accommodations, tracks Title II of the 1964 Act while expanding upon the list of public accommodations covered. '' The Americans with Disabilities Act extended "the principle of nondiscrimination to people with disabilities '', an idea unsought in the United States before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act also influenced later civil rights legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, aiding not only African Americans, but also women.
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why are there robot animals in horizon zero dawn | Horizon Zero Dawn - wikipedia
Horizon Zero Dawn is an action role - playing video game developed by Guerrilla Games and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment. It was released for the PlayStation 4 in early 2017. The plot follows Aloy, a hunter in a world overrun by machines, who sets out to uncover her past. The player uses ranged weapons, a spear and stealth to combat mechanised creatures and loot their remains. A skill tree provides the player with new abilities and bonuses. The player can explore the open world to discover side quests.
Horizon Zero Dawn is Guerilla 's first intellectual property (IP) since Killzone in 2004 and also its first role - playing game. Development began in 2011 after the completion of Killzone 3, with director Mathijs de Jonge considering it the riskiest idea pitched at the time. The game engine, Decima, was developed for Killzone Shadow Fall and altered for Horizon Zero Dawn. Anthropologists were consulted to authenticate the world 's decay over a millennium. The soundtrack, led by composer Joris de Man, contains experimental instrumentation.
Horizon Zero Dawn won numerous awards, and critics praised its open world, story, visuals, combat, characterisation, and the performance of voice actress Ashly Burch. The dialogue, melee combat and character models received criticism. It had sold over seven million copies by February 2018, making it one of the best - selling PlayStation 4 games and the bestselling original IP on the PlayStation 4. An expansion, The Frozen Wilds, was released in November 2017.
Horizon Zero Dawn is an action role - playing game played from a third - person view. Players take control of Aloy, a hunter who ventures through a post-apocalyptic land ruled by robotic creatures. Aloy can kill enemies in a variety of ways: setting traps like tripwires using the Tripcaster, shooting them with arrows, using explosives, and a spear. Machine components, including electricity and the metal they are composed of, are vital to Aloy 's survival; she can loot their remains for crafting resources. Ammo, resource satchels, pouches, quivers; resistance, antidotes, health potions, and traps can all be crafted.
Weapons have modification slots for dealing more damage. Aloy wears a Focus, a small head piece that scans machines to determine their susceptibilities, identify their location, their level, and the nature of loot they will drop. One machine, the Stalker, can enable cloaking technology to avert the gaze of Aloy 's Focus scan. Machines attack with defensive and offensive measures, and will in either case react to a perceived threat by charging at it with brute force or projectiles. Exhibiting the behaviour of wild animals, some machines are inclined to move in herds and others, with the ability to fly, do so in flocks. Unless hacked with the Override Tool, machines will not exert aggressive force against each other. Aloy engages in battle with the cult known as the Eclipse. She can dodge, sprint, slide, or roll to evade her enemies ' advances. Hiding in foliage to ambush nearby enemies can ensure immediate takedowns. Swimming may reach enemies stealthily or places otherwise unreachable on foot. She is able to hack a selection of machines with the Override Tool, some of which can be turned into makeshift mounts. Explorable ruins called Cauldrons exist to unlock additional machines to override. There are three categories in the skill tree: "Prowler '' concerns stealth, "Brave '' improves combat, and "Forager '' increases healing and gathering capabilities. To level up, Aloy attains experience points from individual kills and completing quests. Upgrades in each category result in more adept use of the skills learned, with "Prowler '' leading to silent takedowns, "Brave '' to aiming a bow in slow motion, and "Forager '' to an enlarged medicine pouch. The Frozen Wilds added "Traveller '', which unlocks the ability to jump off a mount to attack enemies. The game features an open world environment with a day - night cycle and dynamic weather system which can be seamlessly explored.
The map is composed of forest, jungle, desert, and snowy mountain regions. Mountainous terrain is traversed with the employment of parkour, and aided by the use of zip - lines installed throughout the world. Corruption Zones constitute areas that heighten difficulty and are populated by corrupted machines that behave with more aggression. To uncover more of the map, one must scale large giraffe - like machines known as Tallnecks. Twenty - five robotic creature designs are present in the game. Save points and fast travel can be accessed by interacting with campfires, once discovered. The quest structure unfolds to accommodate the exploration of tribes, while the main story covers the entire world. Side quests involve Aloy completing tasks, like gathering materials, coming to the aid of individuals in danger of being killed, solving mysteries, assuming control of bandit camps, eliminating criminals and more difficult machines, accomplishing various challenges at any of the five Hunting Grounds, and obtaining an ancient armour that makes Aloy almost impervious to damage. A dialogue wheel is used to communicate with non-player characters. Collectibles include vantages that offer visual information of the Old World, metal flowers that contain poetry, and old relics, such as ancient mugs and tribal artefacts.
The story is set in the 31st century, in a world where humans have regressed to primitive tribal societies as a result of some unspecified calamity. Their technologically advanced predecessors are vaguely remembered as the "Old Ones. '' Large robotic creatures known merely as "machines '' now dominate the Earth. For the most part, they peacefully coexist with humans, who occasionally hunt them for parts. However, a phenomenon known as the "Derangement '' has caused machines to become more aggressive towards humans, and larger and deadlier machines have begun to appear. There are three tribes that are prominently featured: the Nora, the Carja, and the Oseram. The Nora are fierce hunter - gatherers who live in the mountains and worship nature as the "All - Mother. '' The Carja are desert - dwelling city builders who worship the Sun. The Oseram are tinkerers known for their metalworking, brewing, and arguing.
Aloy was cast out from the Nora tribe at birth, raised by an outcast named Rost (JB Blanc). As a child, she obtained a Focus, a small augmented reality device that gives her special perceptive abilities. After coming of age, Aloy (Ashly Burch) enters a competition called the Proving to win the right to become a Nora Brave, and by extension, a member of the Nora tribe. Aloy wins the competition, but the Nora are suddenly attacked by cultists. Aloy is almost killed by their leader Helis (Crispin Freeman), but is saved by Rost, who sacrifices himself to save her. When Aloy awakes, a Matriarch explains that the cultists had gained control of corrupted machines. Aloy also learns that as an infant, she was found at the foot of a sealed door. Oseram foreigner Olin (Chook Sibtain) informs Aloy that the cultists are part of a group called the Eclipse, and indicates that Aloy was targeted due to her resemblance to an Old World scientist named Dr. Elisabet Sobeck (also voiced by Burch). Aloy locates the remnants of the company Faro Automated Solutions and discovers that the old world was destroyed nearly 1,000 years ago after Faro lost control of its automated "peacekeeper '' military robots. The robots, which could self - replicate and consumed biomass as fuel, overran the planet and consumed the biosphere, stripping Earth of all life. Project Zero Dawn, a top secret project spearheaded by Dr. Sobeck, was a plan to create an automated terraforming system to eventually shut the robots down and restore life to Earth.
Aloy is then contacted by Sylens (Lance Reddick), a secretive figure interested in uncovering what happened to the "Old Ones ''. Aloy eventually learns that Dr. Sobeck was sent to an Orbital Launch Base to complete Zero Dawn and Sylens reveals that the base is located under the Citadel, the centre of Eclipse power. Aloy heads for the base and inside, she finds out that Zero Dawn was a vast underground system of databases, factories, and cloning facilities controlled by a single artificial intelligence, GAIA (Lesley Ewen). Once all life had been extinguished, GAIA developed a countermeasure to deactivate all of the Faro robots and then build its own robots to restore the Earth 's biosphere. Once the planet was habitable again, GAIA reseeded life on Earth based on stored DNA and taught the first human clones not to repeat their predecessors ' past mistakes. However, APOLLO, the system designed to teach the new humans, was sabotaged by Faro in a fit of nihilism, and the Cradle - born humans were therefore reduced to a tribal, subsistence society. HADES was one of GAIA 's subsystems designed to enact controlled extinction if the outcome of Zero Dawn was not favourable for human existence. Reaching Dr. Sobeck 's office, Aloy downloads a registry to give her access to the door from which she was born. However, she is captured by Helis and sentenced to death at the Citadel, but escapes with the help of Sylens. Aloy helps the Nora tribe fight off the Eclipse and ends up at the door beneath the Nora mountain.
She finds a recording left behind by GAIA, revealing that a signal of unknown origin caused HADES to activate and seize control of her functions. As a last resort, GAIA self - destructed in order to stop HADES. Without GAIA to maintain the terraforming process, the entire system began to break down. As a contingency plan, GAIA created a clone of Dr. Sobeck in the form of Aloy, in the hope that she would find GAIA 's message, destroy HADES, and restore GAIA 's functions. Aloy learns that Dr. Sobeck sacrificed her life to ensure the Faro robot swarm would not find GAIA. Aloy manages to obtain the System Override necessary to destroy HADES. Sylens admits that he was the original founder of the Eclipse, originally tempted by HADES ' promises of knowledge. With Sylens 's help, Aloy surmises that HADES means to send a signal to reactivate the Faro robots to once again extinguish all life on Earth. Aloy kills Helis and helps fight off waves of corrupted machines, before stabbing HADES with Sylens ' lance, ending the war. She journeys to Dr. Sobeck 's old home, finding her corpse, and has a moment of mourning for her predecessor. In a post-credits scene, HADES is shown to still be alive, but trapped by Sylens, who intends to interrogate HADES to find out who sent the signal that activated it in the first place.
Aloy travels to The Cut, the home of the Banuk Tribe after hearing word of dangerous machines appearing and a mountain belching smoke. There, she learns from a local chieftain named Aratak that the Banuk have been attempting to battle a Daemon on the mountain, "Thunder 's Drum '', which is apparently the cause of the machines in the area attacking the Banuk. However, their first attack had been a failure, and their shaman, Ourea, had disappeared afterwards. Aloy searches for Ourea, coming across strange robotic towers which corrupt any nearby machines.
She finds Ourea in an Old World facility that had been converted into a Banuk shrine, and is housing an artificial intelligence called the Spirit, which she believes is a machine spirit. Aloy is able to establish communications with the Spirit, which warns Ourea that the Daemon is blocking its transmissions before being cut off. Aloy and Ourea agree to work together to save the Spirit. However, Aloy must first oust Aratak and replace him as chieftain, since he refuses to let Ourea go to Thunder 's Drum. It is also revealed that Ourea and Aratak are siblings.
Aloy challenges Aratak, but daemonic machines ambush them in the final stretch of the challenge. They both team up to fight off the machines, and impressed by Aloy 's skills, Aratak concedes leadership to her. Aloy, Ourea, and Aratak head for Thunder 's Drum. They infiltrate the Old World facility built inside the mountain where Aloy discovers that the Spirit is actually CYAN, an AI designed to prevent the Yellowstone Caldera from erupting. Traveling further inside, they discover that the Daemon has already overtaken much of the facility, but CYAN suggests using lava from the caldera to destroy the infected areas while preserving the facility. It is also revealed that the Daemon is in fact HEPHAESTUS, another of GAIA 's subsystems.
The group fights through HEPHAESTUS ' defenses and Ourea sacrifices herself to override CYAN 's core, allowing it to transfer to an auxiliary data center and initiate destruction of the facility. Aloy and Aratak are able to narrowly escape. Aloy returns to the Banuk Shrine, where CYAN has transferred herself to, and CYAN provides additional information about the Old World but warns that HEPHAESTUS is still active somewhere, and will continue to build machines designed specifically to kill humans, which is why it tried to seize control of CYAN and its facilities. Aratak thanks Aloy for all of the help she has provided to the Banuk, and Aloy puts him back in charge of his people before parting ways.
Guerrilla Games began developing Horizon Zero Dawn in 2011, following the release of Killzone 3. When conceiving the idea for a new game, about 40 concepts were pitched. Among these was Horizon Zero Dawn, which game director Mathijs de Jonge considered "the most risky '' of the concepts and was first pitched in 2010 by art director Jan - Bart van Beek. When this concept was chosen, a team of 10 -- 20 began building prototypes of the game. Approximately 20 different stories were written for the game, exploring varying concepts for the game, such as different player characters. John Gonzalez, who previously acted as lead writer for Fallout: New Vegas (2010), was hired to write the game 's story as narrative director, with Ben McCaw as lead writer. The main elements of the story and the character of Aloy remained intact since early development. Upon the completion of Killzone Shadow Fall in late 2013, the remainder of the staff began working on Horizon Zero Dawn. Guerrilla also cancelled another game to allow the entire team to focus on the development of Horizon. Sony would later admit to being reluctant about having the main character be female and conducted focus testing to see if such a decision was marketable. It had an estimated budget of over € 45 million.
The game 's concept explores the juxtaposition between the danger and beauty of the world, particularly analysing the concept of humanity not being the dominant species. The team aimed to emphasise the game 's exploration element by featuring a quest system, as well as including items throughout the world that can be used to craft or replenish health. The team wished for the game to have a simple user interface design, specifically avoiding complicated menus for crafting, and considered the game to be a technical challenge. They felt that the game engine, Decima, which was designed for games such as the Killzone series and was previously used for Killzone Shadow Fall, was difficult to alter for Horizon, in terms of draw distance and loading. To discover how some game elements work differently in open world games, the team sought help from talent in the design, art and technical fields. In extrapolating the game world, Guerrilla turned to anthropologists and researched the formation of tribal cultures as well as how building materials would decay over a millennium. The game 's quest system and narrative design took inspiration from other role - playing video games, ranging from the "Relaxed '' quest design of RPG Maker games to the "Strict '' quest design of hack and slash games. They defined "Relaxed '' quest design as having few centralised systems for managing quest progression, and "Strict '' quest design as having a rigid structure and predefined elements, with the team deciding the latter.
The involvement of Lance Reddick and Ashly Burch was revealed in January 2017. Burch voiced Aloy, whose likeness was portrayed by Hannah Hoekstra and motion capture was performed by Amanda Piery in London. Following an auditioning process in 2014, Burch was called in to do the E3 2015 trailer and worked on the game for two years, providing facial motion capture as well. Her work was done in Los Angeles, with the Dutch developer brought in via Skype.
The game 's soundtrack was composed by Joris de Man, The Flight, Niels van der Leest, and Jonathan Williams, with vocalist Julie Elven serving as the primary performer. Lucas van Tol, music supervisor and senior sound designer, provided the composers with a game design document, insisting on an intimate sound for the score. For the tribal theme, they experimented with bows on piano wire and resonator guitars (with layered tracks of harmonicas on top of the latter) and playing cellos with plectrums or the back of a bow to convey how contemporary instruments would be played by someone to whom the instruments were unknown; de Man also used a contrabass flute and made synth pads from blowing on a Thai bamboo flute, noting "distant pads and ambiences, and wide, spread out chords seemed to work well ''. Circuit - bent synthesizers and percussive loops, run through impulse responses of metal and iron being beaten, were devoted to making a thematic identifier for the machines based on technology and metal. Van Tol required that the music be supplied in stems so that different pieces could be combined. The positive response to the first E3 trailer 's main theme led it to be included in the main menu. The composers also did the motion capture for diegetic music vignettes, portraying in - game tribal musicians. The 4 - hour score was released across digital music platforms on 10 March 2017.
The concept art as well as the game 's codename, Horizon, were leaked in September 2014. Horizon Zero Dawn was officially announced during Sony 's E3 2015 press conference. The game was featured as the cover story in the September 2015 issue of Edge and the October 2016 issue of Game Informer. At E3 2016, Sony had a life - sized cosplay version of one of the machines greet the trade show attendees. Originally set to be released in 2016, the game was delayed to February 2017 so as to give additional time for the development team to polish the game. It was released to manufacturing in late January 2017, and launched to North American markets on 28 February 2017, in Europe, Australia and New Zealand on 1 March and Asia on 2 March for the PlayStation 4. Horizon Zero Dawn is forward compatible with the PS4 Pro, allowing it to run up to 4K resolution. In April 2017, a making - of documentary was released on Dutch public television. By March 2017, a story expansion had already been set in motion. New Game Plus, an Ultra Hard difficulty mode, additional trophies and aesthetic features were introduced with a patch released in July 2017. The expansion, The Frozen Wilds, was released on 7 November 2017. Horizon Zero Dawn: Complete Edition, which contains the base game, The Frozen Wilds, and all additional downloadable content, was released on 5 December 2017. A tabletop game based on Horizon Zero Dawn is being developed by Steamforged Games.
Horizon Zero Dawn received "generally favorable '' reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. The open world exploration, the story 's depth, the visual aesthetics, the challenging combat, the character development of Aloy and voice actress Ashly Burch 's performance were acclaimed by reviewers, while contradicting dialogue, aspects of the melee combat and character models faced the most reproval.
Destructoid 's Chris Carter commended Ashly Burch and Lance Reddick for their performances, with the character of Aloy receiving credit for maintaining a "captivating '' and "interesting '' consistency in the narrative and action sequences. Carter also lauded the focus on exploration and discovery, which he said grew more effective as he traversed more of the land. The game world itself was subject to compliment for its "beautiful '' day - night cycle and weather system. According to Carter, the challenging nature of the machines and varied methods with which to battle them brought a real sense of fun to the combat. Matt Buchholtz of EGMNow likewise praised Burch as well as the game world, which he found to be mesmerising. Considered the most powerful part of the game, the Focus feature gained approval for complementing the combat in a way that "forces you to become a hunter ''. Writing for Game Informer, Jeff Marchiafava opined that, unlike with other open world video games, searching for audio logs and emails provided the plot with a "remarkable sense of discovery ''. He was thankful that story - based missions dominated the overall experience, arguing that they worked to detail the game world and inspired variation in the gameplay.
Peter Brown at GameSpot reflected on Aloy 's character development with amazement, adding that the process matured Aloy and grew her confidence. One constant thrill to Brown came from combating the machines, which he said took the spotlight and never lost its flair. He appreciated also that the main quests encouraged one to explore the environment. Zoe Delahunty - Light, writing for GamesRadar+, was fascinated with the intricacies of the game world and found integral value in the lore scattered among the ruins. She echoed Brown 's view that fighting machines maintained excitement throughout. Giant Bomb 's Jeff Gerstmann declared Horizon Zero Dawn as "a near - perfect story '' with a satisfying conclusion, and emphasised that it contained substantial depth. Lucy O'Brien at IGN admired its weight in meaning, while welcoming the charm of the protagonist 's personality. A considerable impression was made with the combat, which was stated as the game 's most compelling accomplishment. Writing for Polygon, Philip Kollar applauded the game as what he dubbed the "refutation '' of Guerrilla Games ' past work, a change of pace he described as "refreshing ''. Aloy was observed to be perfectly coupled with the story in that she offered the curiosity to seek out its many mysteries. Kollar perceived the Focus as "key to combat '' and the machines as engaging foes in battle. Colm Ahern of VideoGamer.com wrote in his verdict, "Destroying large robot beasts while frantically switching between weapons is intoxicating, but the strength of Horizon Zero Dawn is in Aloy 's engaging quest to find out who she really is ''.
Conversely, Carter saw the characters beyond Aloy and Sylens as uninteresting and bland in their designs. He also disparaged the human artificial intelligence as being worse than that of the machines. To Buchholtz, the weapon system in relation to ammunition appeared convoluted; the ability to only purchase one item at a time "a massive oversight ''; and Aloy 's ability to only grab marked ledges was confusing for a "parkour master ''. Marchiafava 's only major criticism was that it held too familiar roots with established open world formula. Although Brown drew enjoyment from other aspects of combat, he disparaged the melee for its ineffectiveness and simplicity. Delahunty - Light concurred that the melee fell short of its potential, and also took issue with the jumping mechanic. O'Brien felt the dialogue occasionally contradicted the otherwise intelligent narrative. Kollar bemoaned the character models as Horizon Zero Dawn 's one visual shortcoming.
Japanese game director Yoko Taro listed Horizon Zero Dawn as one of his favourite PlayStation 4 games. Entertainment Weekly ranked it as the fourth best game of 2017, GamesRadar+ ranked it second on their list of the 25 Best Games of 2017, and Eurogamer ranked it 31st on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017 ''. The Verge named Horizon Zero Dawn as one of the 15 Best Games of 2017. In Game Informer 's Reader 's Choice Best of 2017 Awards, it took the lead for "Best Sony Game '', coming up in second place for both "Best Action Game '' and "Game of the Year ''. Game Informer also awarded it "Best Sony Exclusive '' in their Best of 2017 Awards, and also gave it the awards for "Best Story '' and "Best Character '' (Aloy) in their 2017 Action Game of the Year Awards. EGMNow ranked the game third in their list of 25 Best Games of 2017, while Polygon ranked it eighth on their list of the 50 best games of 2017. The game won the Gold Prize and Users Choice Prize at the 2017 PlayStation Awards. It was nominated for "Best PS4 Game '' at Destructoid 's Game of the Year Awards 2017. It also won the awards for "Best PlayStation 4 Game '' and "Best Graphics '' at IGN 's Best of 2017 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for "Game of the Year '', "Best Action - Adventure Game '', and "Best Art Direction ''. It was nominated for "Best Looking Game '' at Giant Bomb 's 2017 Game of the Year Awards. In 2018, it won the awards for Best PS4 Game, Best Performance for Ashly Burch, Best Art Direction, Best Soundtrack, Best Story, Best Post-Release Content, Best PlayStation Console Exclusive, and Best Use of PS4 Pro at PlayStation Blog 's Game of the Year Awards.
Horizon Zero Dawn was the best - selling game during its release week in the UK. It surpassed No Man 's Sky as the biggest launch of a new intellectual property on the PlayStation 4 and was the most successful launch of any kind on the PlayStation 4 since Uncharted 4: A Thief 's End, as well as Guerrilla Games ' biggest debut to date. The game sold close to 117,000 copies in its first week in Japan, becoming the second best - selling game that week. Horizon Zero Dawn was the second most downloaded game on the American PlayStation 4 store for February. Because its launch day occurred on the last day of February, only one day of sales was counted. It was the best - selling game in its week of release in Australia. In March 2017, it was the second best - selling game in the United Kingdom and the highest - selling PlayStation 4 game. Horizon Zero Dawn was also the best - selling game on PlayStation Store that month. It was ranked number one in the UK sales chart in April 2017, and eighth place in the Japanese chart of the same time period. By February 2018, over 7.6 million copies had been sold worldwide.
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what rights do i have as a minor | Children 's rights - wikipedia
Children 's rights are the human rights of children with particular attention to the rights of special protection and care afforded to minors. The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) defines a child as "any human being below the age of eighteen years, unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. '' Children 's rights includes their right to association with both parents, human identity as well as the basic needs for physical protection, food, universal state - paid education, health care, and criminal laws appropriate for the age and development of the child, equal protection of the child 's civil rights, and freedom from discrimination on the basis of the child 's race, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, religion, disability, color, ethnicity, or other characteristics. Interpretations of children 's rights range from allowing children the capacity for autonomous action to the enforcement of children being physically, mentally and emotionally free from abuse, though what constitutes "abuse '' is a matter of debate. Other definitions include the rights to care and nurturing. There are no definitions of other terms used to describe young people such as "adolescents '', "teenagers '', or "youth '' in international law, but the children 's rights movement is considered distinct from the youth rights movement. The field of children 's rights spans the fields of law, politics, religion, and morality.
(There) is a mass of human rights law, both treaty and ' soft law ', both general and child - specific, which recognises the distinct status and particular requirements of children. (Children), owing to their particular vulnerability and their significance as the future generation, are entitled to special treatment generally, and, in situations of danger, to priority in the receipt of assistance and protection.
As minors by law, children do not have autonomy or the right to make decisions on their own for themselves in any known jurisdiction of the world. Instead their adult caregivers, including parents, social workers, teachers, youth workers, and others, are vested with that authority, depending on the circumstances. Some believe that this state of affairs gives children insufficient control over their own lives and causes them to be vulnerable. Louis Althusser has gone so far as to describe this legal machinery, as it applies to children, as "repressive state apparatuses ''.
Structures such as government policy have been held by some commentators to mask the ways adults abuse and exploit children, resulting in child poverty, lack of educational opportunities, and child labour. On this view, children are to be regarded as a minority group towards whom society needs to reconsider the way it behaves.
Researchers have identified children as needing to be recognized as participants in society whose rights and responsibilities need to be recognized at all ages.
Sir William Blackstone (1765 - 9) recognized three parental duties to the child: maintenance, protection, and education. In modern language, the child has a right to receive these from the parent.
The League of Nations adopted the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1924), which enunciated the child 's right to receive the requirements for normal development, the right of the hungry child to be fed, the right of the sick child to receive health care, the right of the backward child to be reclaimed, the right of orphans to shelter, and the right to protection from exploitation.
The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) in Article 25 (2) recognized the need of motherhood and childhood to "special protection and assistance '' and the right of all children to "social protection. ''
The United Nations General Assembly adopted the United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1959), which enunciated ten principles for the protection of children 's rights, including the universality of rights, the right to special protection, and the right to protection from discrimination, among other rights.
Consensus on defining children 's rights has become clearer in the last fifty years. A 1973 publication by Hillary Clinton (then an attorney) stated that children 's rights were a "slogan in need of a definition ''. According to some researchers, the notion of children 's rights is still not well defined, with at least one proposing that there is no singularly accepted definition or theory of the rights held by children.
Children 's rights law is defined as the point where the law intersects with a child 's life. That includes juvenile delinquency, due process for children involved in the criminal justice system, appropriate representation, and effective rehabilitative services; care and protection for children in state care; ensuring education for all children regardless of their race, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, religion, disability, color, ethnicity, or other characteristics, and; health care and advocacy.
Children have two types of human rights under international human rights law. They have the same fundamental general human rights as adults, although some human rights, such as the right to marry, are dormant until they are of age, Secondly, they have special human rights that are necessary to protect them during their minority. General rights operative in childhood include the right to security of the person, to freedom from inhuman, cruel, or degrading treatment, and the right to special protection during childhood. Particular human rights of children include, among other rights, the right to life, the right to a name, the right to express his views in matters concerning the child, the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, the right to health care, the right to protection from economic and sexual exploitation, and the right to education.
Children 's rights are defined in numerous ways, including a wide spectrum of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. Rights tend to be of two general types: those advocating for children as autonomous persons under the law and those placing a claim on society for protection from harms perpetrated on children because of their dependency. These have been labeled as the right of empowerment and as the right to protection.
United Nations educational guides for children classify the rights outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child as the "3 Ps '': Provision, Protection, and Participation. They may be elaborated as follows:
In a similar fashion, the Child Rights International Network (CRIN) categorizes rights into two groups:
Amnesty International openly advocates four particular children 's rights, including the end to juvenile incarceration without parole, an end to the recruitment of military use of children, ending the death penalty for people under 21, and raising awareness of human rights in the classroom. Human Rights Watch, an international advocacy organization, includes child labor, juvenile justice, orphans and abandoned children, refugees, street children and corporal punishment.
Scholarly study generally focuses children 's rights by identifying individual rights. The following rights "allow children to grow up healthy and free '':
A report by the Committee on Social Affairs, Health, and Sustainable Development of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe identified several areas the Committee was concerned about, including procedures such as "female genital mutilation, the circumcision of young boys for religious reasons, early childhood medical interventions in the case of intersex children and the submission to or coercion of children into piercings, tattoos or plastic surgery ''. The Assembly adopted a non-binding resolution in 2013 that calls on its 47 member - states to take numerous actions to promote the physical integrity of children.
Article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child enjoins parties to "take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation ''. The Committee on the Rights of the Child interprets article 19 as prohibiting corporal punishment, commenting on the "obligation of all States Party to move quickly to prohibit and eliminate all corporal punishment. '' The United Nations Human Rights Committee has also interpreted Article 7 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights prohibiting "cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment '' to extend to children, including corporal punishment of children.
Newell (1993) argued that "... pressure for protection of children 's physical integrity should be an integral part of pressure for all children 's rights. ''
The Committee on Bioethics of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) (1997), citing the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), asserts that "every child should have the opportunity to grow and develop free from preventable illness or injury. ''
Other issues affecting children 's rights include the military use of children, sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography.
"In the majority of jurisdictions, for instance, children are not allowed to vote, to marry, to buy alcohol, to have sex, or to engage in paid employment. '' Within the youth rights movement, it is believed that the key difference between children 's rights and youth rights is that children 's rights supporters generally advocate the establishment and enforcement of protection for children and youths, while youth rights (a far smaller movement) generally advocates the expansion of freedom for children and / or youths and of rights such as suffrage.
Parent are given sufficient powers to fulfill their duties to the child.
Parents affect the lives of children in a unique way, and as such their role in children 's rights has to be distinguished in a particular way. Particular issues in the child - parent relationship include child neglect, child abuse, freedom of choice, corporal punishment and child custody. There have been theories offered that provide parents with rights - based practices that resolve the tension between "commonsense parenting '' and children 's rights. The issue is particularly relevant in legal proceedings that affect the potential emancipation of minors, and in cases where children sue their parents.
A child 's rights to a relationship with both their parents is increasingly recognized as an important factor for determining the best interests of the child in divorce and child custody proceedings. Some governments have enacted laws creating a rebuttable presumption that shared parenting is in the best interests of children.
Parents do not have absolute power over their children. Parents are subject to criminal laws against abandonment, abuse, and neglect of children. International human rights law provides that manifestation of one 's religion may be limited in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.
Courts have placed other limits on parental powers and acts. The United States Supreme Court, in the case of Prince v. Massachusetts, ruled that a parent 's religion does not permit a child to be placed at risk. The Lords of Appeal in Ordinary ruled, in the case of Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority and another, that parental rights diminish with the increasing age and competency of the child, but do not vanish completely until the child reaches majority. Parental rights are derived from the parent 's duties to the child. In the absence of duty, no parental right exists. The Supreme Court of Canada ruled, in the case of E. (Mrs.) v. Eve, that parents may not grant surrogate consent for non-therapeutic sterilization. The Supreme Court of Canada has ruled, in the case of B. (R.) v. Children 's Aid Society of Metropolitan Toronto:
"While children undeniably benefit from the Charter, most notably in its protection of their rights to life and to the security of their person, they are unable to assert these rights, and our society accordingly presumes that parents will exercise their freedom of choice in a manner that does not offend the rights of their children. ''
Adler (2013) argues that parents are not empowered to grant surrogate consent for non-therapeutic circumcision of children.
The 1796 publication of Thomas Spence 's Rights of Infants is among the earliest English - language assertions of the rights of children. Throughout the 20th century, children 's rights activists organized for homeless children 's rights and public education. The 1927 publication of The Child 's Right to Respect by Janusz Korczak strengthened the literature surrounding the field, and today dozens of international organizations are working around the world to promote children 's rights. In the UK the formation of a community of educationalists, teachers, youth justice workers, politicians and cultural contributors called the New Ideals in Education Conferences (1914 -- 37) stood for the value of ' liberating the child ' and helped to define the ' good ' primary school in England until the 80s. Their conferences inspired the UNESCO organisation, the New Education Fellowship.
A.S. Neill 's 1915 book A Dominie 's Log (1915), a diary of a headteacher changing his school to one based on the liberation and happiness of the child, can be seen as a cultural product that celebrates the heroes of this movement.
The opposition to children 's rights long predates any current trend in society, with recorded statements against the rights of children dating to the 13th century and earlier. Opponents to children 's rights believe that young people need to be protected from the adultcentric world, including the decisions and responsibilities of that world. In a dominantly adult society, childhood is idealized as a time of innocence, a time free of responsibility and conflict, and a time dominated by play. The majority of opposition stems from concerns related to national sovereignty, states ' rights, the parent - child relationship. Financial constraints and the "undercurrent of traditional values in opposition to children 's rights '' are cited, as well. The concept of children 's rights has received little attention in the United States.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is seen as a basis for all international legal standards for children 's rights today. There are several conventions and laws that address children 's rights around the world. A number of current and historical documents affect those rights, including the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, drafted by Eglantyne Jebb in 1923, endorsed by the League of Nations in 1924 and reaffirmed in 1934. A slightly expanded version was adopted by the United Nations in 1946, followed by a much expanded version adopted by the General Assembly in 1959. It later served as the basis for the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
The United Nations adopted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in 1966. The ICCPR is a multilateral international covenant that has been ratified or acceded to by nearly all nations on Earth. Nations which have become state - parties to the Covenant are required to honor and enforce the rights enunciated by the Covenant. The treaty came into effect on 23 March 1976. The rights codified by the ICCPR are universal, so they apply to everyone without exception and this includes children. Although children have all rights, some rights such as the right to marry and the right to vote come into effect only after the child reaches maturity.
Some general rights applicable to children include:
Article 24 codifies the right of the child to special protection due to his minority, the right to a name, and the right to a nationality.
The United Nations ' 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, or CRC, is the first legally binding international instrument to incorporate the full range of human rights -- civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. Its implementation is monitored by the Committee on the Rights of the Child. National governments that ratify it commit themselves to protecting and ensuring children 's rights, and agree to hold themselves accountable for this commitment before the international community. The CRC is the most widely ratified human rights treaty with 196 ratifications; the United States is the only country not to have ratified it.
The CRC is based on four core principles: the principle of non-discrimination; the best interests of the child; the right to life, survival and development; and considering the views of the child in decisions that affect them, according to their age and maturity. The CRC, along with international criminal accountability mechanisms such as the International Criminal Court, the Yugoslavia and Rwanda Tribunals, and the Special Court for Sierra Leone, is said to have significantly increased the profile of children 's rights worldwide.
The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action urges, at Section II para 47, all nations to undertake measures to the maximum extent of their available resources, with the support of international cooperation, to achieve the goals in the World Summit Plan of Action. And calls on States to integrate the Convention on the Rights of the Child into their national action plans. By means of these national action plans and through international efforts, particular priority should be placed on reducing infant and maternal mortality rates, reducing malnutrition and illiteracy rates and providing access to safe drinking water and basic education. Whenever so called for, national plans of action should be devised to combat devastating emergencies resulting from natural disasters and armed conflicts and the equally grave problem of children in extreme poverty. Further, para 48 urges all states, with the support of international cooperation, to address the acute problem of children under especially difficult circumstances. Exploitation and abuse of children should be actively combated, including by addressing their root causes. Effective measures are required against female infanticide, harmful child labour, sale of children and organs, child prostitution, child pornography, and other forms of sexual abuse. This influenced the adoptions of Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict and Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography.
A variety of enforcement organizations and mechanisms exist to ensure children 's rights. They include the Child Rights Caucus for the United Nations General Assembly Special Session on Children. It was set up to promote full implementation and compliance with the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and to ensure that child rights were given priority during the UN General Assembly Special Session on Children and its Preparatory process. The United Nations Human Rights Council was created "with the hope that it could be more objective, credible and efficient in denouncing human rights violations worldwide than the highly politicized Commission on Human Rights. '' The NGO Group for the Convention on the Rights of the Child is a coalition of international non-governmental organisations originally formed in 1983 to facilitate the implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Many countries around the world have children 's rights ombudspeople or children 's commissioners whose official, governmental duty is to represent the interests of the public by investigating and addressing complaints reported by individual citizens regarding children 's rights. Children 's ombudspeople can also work for a corporation, a newspaper, an NGO, or even for the general public.
The United States has signed but not ratified the CRC. As a result, children 's rights have not been systematically implemented in the U.S.
Children are generally afforded the basic rights embodied by the Constitution, as enshrined by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Equal Protection Clause of that amendment is to apply to children, born within a marriage or not, but excludes children not yet born. This was reinforced by the landmark US Supreme Court decision of In re Gault (1967). In this trial 15 - year - old Gerald Gault of Arizona was taken into custody by local police after being accused of making an obscene telephone call. He was detained and committed to the Arizona State Industrial School until he reached the age of 21 for making an obscene phone call to an adult neighbor. In an 8 -- 1 decision, the Court ruled that in hearings which could result in commitment to an institution, people under the age of 18 have the right to notice and counsel, to question witnesses, and to protection against self - incrimination. The Court found that the procedures used in Gault 's hearing met none of these requirements.
The United States Supreme Court ruled in the case of Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969) that students in school have Constitutional rights.
The United States Supreme Court has ruled in the case of Roper v. Simmons that persons may not be executed for crimes committed when below the age of eighteen. It ruled that such executions are cruel and unusual punishment, so they are a violation of the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
There are other concerns in the United States regarding children 's rights. The American Academy of Adoption Attorneys is concerned with children 's rights to a safe, supportive and stable family structure. Their position on children 's rights in adoption cases states that, "children have a constitutionally based liberty interest in the protection of their established families, rights which are at least equal to, and we believe outweigh, the rights of others who would claim a ' possessory ' interest in these children. '' Other issues raised in American children 's rights advocacy include children 's rights to inheritance in same - sex marriages and particular rights for youth.
A report filed by the President of the INGO Conference of the Council of Europe, Annelise Oeschger finds that children and their parents are subject to United Nations, European Union and UNICEF human rights violations. Of particular concern is the German (and Austrian) agency, Jugendamt (German: Youth office) that often unfairly allows for unchecked government control of the parent - child relationship, which have resulted in harm including torture, degrading, cruel treatment and has led to children 's death. The problem is complicated by the nearly "unlimited power '' of the Jugendamt officers, with no processes to review or resolve inappropriate or harmful treatment. By German law, Jugendamt officers are protected against prosecution. Jugendamt (JA) officers span of control is seen in cases that go to family court where experts testimony may be overturned by lesser educated or experienced JA officers; In more than 90 % of the cases the JA officer 's recommendation is accepted by family court. Officers have also disregarded family court decisions, such as when to return children to their parents, without repercussions. Germany has not recognized related child - welfare decisions made by the European Parliamentary Court that have sought to protect or resolve children and parental rights violations.
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most goals scored by a premier league player | List of Premier League players with 100 or more goals - wikipedia
Since the Premier League 's formation at the start of the 1992 -- 93 season, 28 players have managed to accrue 100 or more goals in the competition.
During the 1995 -- 96 season, Alan Shearer became the first player to score 100 Premier League goals, and holds the record for the fewest games taken to reach 100, doing so in 124 appearances. He also holds the record for most goals scored in the Premier League. After Shearer, Harry Kane is the second - fastest to 100 goals, doing so in 141 games.
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when did kingdom hearts 1 come out in america | Kingdom Hearts - Wikipedia
Kingdom Hearts (Japanese: キングダム ハーツ, Hepburn: Kingudamu Hātsu) is a series of crossover action role - playing games owned by Disney Interactive Studios and developed and published by Square Enix (originally by Square). It is a collaboration between Disney Interactive and Square Enix, and is under the direction of Tetsuya Nomura, a longtime Square Enix character designer.
Kingdom Hearts is a crossover of various Disney settings based in a universe made specifically for the series. The series primarily centers on the main character Sora and his journey and experiences with various Disney, Final Fantasy and The World Ends with You characters, whilst stopping the various incarnations of the primary antagonist Xehanort throughout the series. All characters original to the Kingdom Hearts franchise are owned by The Walt Disney Company.
The series consists of eight games across multiple platforms, and future titles are planned. Most of the games in the series have been both positively received and commercially successful. As of October 2013, the Kingdom Hearts series has sold more than 25 million copies worldwide. A wide variety of related merchandise has been released along with the games, including soundtracks, figurines, companion books, novels and manga series.
Though Kingdom Hearts III will be the end of the "Dark Seeker Saga '' centered on Xehanort, it has already been decided where certain characters will end up, in order to potentially continue their story in future games.
Both Square Enix and Disney have released a wide variety of Kingdom Hearts merchandise including toys, figurines, clothing, and jewelry. Two of the games, Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II, had a soundtrack released to coincide with the video games. These were followed by a nine CD complete set which featured both soundtracks and unreleased tracks. Kingdom Hearts has been adapted as a trading card game by the Tomy corporation of Japan. An English version of the game was released in November 2007 by Fantasy Flight Games. The video games have also been adapted into manga and novel series.
Like the Final Fantasy games, a series of "Ultimania '' books were released in Japan for many of the games. These books include game walkthroughs, interviews, and extra information from the developers. Kingdom Hearts - Another Report - was released along with Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+ and features game information, visuals by Shiro Amano, and a director interview. In North America, Brady Games released strategy guides for each game. For Kingdom Hearts II, they released two versions, a standard version and a limited edition version. The limited edition was available in four different covers and included a copy of Jiminy 's Journal along with 400 stickers.
A manga based on the Kingdom Hearts storyline has been released in Japan and the United States. The story and art are done by Shiro Amano, who is also known for his manga adaptation of the Legend of Mana video game. The story follows the events that took place in the video games with differences to account for the loss of interactivity a video game provides. The manga was originally serialized in Japan by Square Enix 's Monthly Shōnen Gangan and eventually released in tankōbon format. The first tankōbon was released in Japan in October 2003. The manga was released in the USA by Tokyopop two years later in October 2005. Yen Press now holds the rights to publish the books for the USA market. The first series, Kingdom Hearts, consists of four volumes, while the second series, Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, has two volumes. The third series, Kingdom Hearts II, has had five volumes published and is currently on hiatus. A fourth series based on Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days is being serialized. The games have also been adapted as a light novel series, written by Tomoco Kanemaki and illustrated by Shiro Amano. Like the manga series, it is divided into separate series based on the games. Kingdom Hearts is divided into two volumes; "The First Door '' and "Darkness Within ''. Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories is divided into two volumes. Kingdom Hearts II is divided into four volumes; "Roxas -- Seven Days '', "The Destruction of Hollow Bastion '', "Tears of Nobody '', and "Anthem -- Meet Again / Axel Last Stand ''.
Kingdom Hearts features a mixture of familiar Disney, Pixar and Square Enix characters, as well as several new characters designed and created by Nomura. In addition to original locations, the Kingdom Hearts series features many worlds from Disney films. Sora must visit these worlds and interact with various Disney characters to protect them from enemies. Often, his actions in these worlds closely follow the storylines of their respective Disney films. The main characters try not to interfere with the affairs of other worlds, as it could negatively affect the universe 's order. Moogles, small creatures from the Final Fantasy series, are another common element in the games. They provide the player with a synthesis shop in order to create and purchase items used in the game. The main cast from The World Ends with You also makes an appearance in the series in Dream Drop Distance, and the upcoming Kingdom Hearts III will feature characters from Pixar 's Toy Story series.
The series starts with Kingdom Hearts, where a 14 - year - old boy named Sora is separated from his friends Riku and Kairi when their world, Destiny Islands, is invaded by creatures known as the Heartless. During the invasion, Sora obtains a weapon called the Keyblade that allows him to fight the Heartless. He soon arrives in another world, Traverse Town, where he meets Donald Duck and Goofy, two emissaries from Disney Castle sent to find the Keyblade wielder under orders from their missing king, Mickey Mouse. The three band together and travel to different Disney - themed worlds, sealing the hearts of the worlds to prevent more Heartless from devouring the hearts of those worlds as they search for their companions. Along the way, they encounter a group of Disney villains led by Maleficent, who are controlling the Heartless to capture seven maidens called the Princesses of Heart, and use their power to open the door to Kingdom Hearts, the heart of all worlds. Though they eventually defeat Maleficent, the three discover a sentient Heartless named Ansem to be the true orchestrator of the worlds ' destruction. The three defeat Ansem and seal the door to Kingdom Hearts, but remain separated from Riku and King Mickey while Kairi remains home to await her friends ' return.
In Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, Sora, Donald and Goofy 's search for Riku and Mickey leads them to Castle Oblivion, a fortress controlled by a mysterious group of non-existent "Nobodies '' called Organization XIII, who use the power of a girl named Naminé to manipulate the trio 's memories. After defeating the Organization, the three are put to sleep for a year by Naminé to allow them to regain their memories, though they must lose the memories of their experience in Castle Oblivion. Meanwhile, Riku arrives in the basement of the castle and ascends to the surface with the aid of Mickey. Discovering Sora 's sleeping state, Riku helps Naminé keep him safe until he is awoken. In Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days, a snag in the plan over the year forces Riku to capture Roxas -- Sora 's Nobody, who is born when Sora briefly becomes a Heartless in the first game -- in order to enable Sora 's reawakening.
In Kingdom Hearts II, Sora and friends awaken from their sleep and resume their search for Riku and King Mickey, learning of the Nobodies and becoming re-familiarized with Organization XIII. Sora once again travels to many Disney - themed worlds and resolves issues caused by the Heartless and Nobodies, and Maleficent 's servant Pete. They reunite with King Mickey and encounter Xemnas, the leader of Organization XIII and Nobody of Xehanort, revealed to be the human form of the Heartless Ansem. The Organization 's plan is also revealed: they seek to regain their lost hearts by creating their own version of Kingdom Hearts from the sum of all the hearts released from the Heartless slain by Sora 's Keyblade. The three arrive at the headquarters of Organization XIII and team up with their friends. Ansem the Wise uses a device that dissipates some of Kingdom Hearts ' power, but it self - destructs, engulfing Ansem. At the top of the Castle that Never Was, Sora and his friends battle Xemnas. After Sora and Riku defeat Xemnas, they get trapped in the realm of darkness, but a letter from Kairi summons a gateway for them, and the two are reunited with their friends at their home.
Sometime later, Sora, Riku, and Kairi receive a letter from King Mickey. The letter, which was discovered by Mickey during the events of Kingdom Hearts Coded, describes the parts of their past that Naminé learned while restoring Sora 's memory. As they read the letter, they learn about the fates of three Keyblade wielders at the hands of Xehanort during the events of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep (a decade before Kingdom Hearts): Terra is possessed by Xehanort; Ventus, whom Xehanort attempts to turn into the legendary χ - blade, sacrifices his heart to stop him and hides it within a four - year - old Sora 's; and new Keyblade Master Aqua ends up trapped in the realm of darkness after sacrificing herself to save Terra. King Mickey also discovers that the destruction of "Ansem '' and Xemnas has led to the reconstruction of Xehanort. To combat the new threat Xehanort poses, Sora and Riku take an exam to attain the Mark of Mastery that will allow them to become Keyblade Masters themselves.
During the test in Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance, Sora and Riku enter the realm of sleep, where they encounter a young version of Xehanort with the ability to travel through time. The two Keyblade wielders also learn of Xehanort 's true goal: assembling thirteen vessels and incarnations of himself (Organization XIII) and pitting them against seven hearts of pure light (the Princesses of Heart) in an ultimate battle to recreate the χ - blade. Sora is narrowly saved from becoming Xehanort 's final vessel, and Riku learns about data Ansem the Wise had implanted within Sora during his year - long sleep, which may be used to save those connected to Sora. At the end of the exam, Riku is declared a Keyblade Master, and Sora embarks on a new journey alone to train. In the meantime, to defend the Princesses of Heart from Xehanort, Yen Sid assembles any available Keyblade users to combat Xehanort 's thirteen vessels in the upcoming final battle.
The Kingdom Hearts games contain elements of action role - playing video games with hack - and - slash elements. The games are driven by a linear progression from one story event to the next, usually shown in the form of a cutscene, though there are numerous side quests available that provide bonus benefits to the characters. In most games, the player primarily controls the principal protagonist of the series, Sora. Sora is usually accompanied by Donald Duck and Goofy, who are artificial intelligence - controlled non-playable characters that aid Sora in battle. In the first and third game, their behavior can be altered to suit different combat objectives. The games feature real - time combat that incorporates physical attacks, magic, and summonings, though each game handles battles differently. The game also allows for items to be used on the field of battle to heal oneself or one 's party members.
Gummi Ships are another common element of the series, which serve as the main mode of transportation between worlds in the games. The gameplay for the Gummi Ship sections is more akin to a rail shooter. Because it received negative criticism in the first game, it was modified in the third title. Most games also feature a journal which is accessible from the main menu. This journal keeps track of information regarding the story, characters, enemies, and locations. In the first three games, the journal is kept by Jiminy Cricket, who was appointed by Queen Minnie as the royal chronicler. In 358 / 2 Days, Birth by Sleep and Dream Drop Distance, the main characters write their own journal entries.
The games are influenced by their parent franchise, Final Fantasy, and carry its gameplay elements over into their own action - based, hack - and - slash system. Like many traditional role - playing games, Kingdom Hearts features an experience point system which determines character development. As enemies are defeated, the player gains experience which culminates in a "level - up '', where the characters grow stronger and gain access to new abilities. The amount of experience is shared with all party members and each character grows stronger as experience is gained.
The music for the series has been primarily composed by Yoko Shimomura. Kaoru Wada works as the arranger for orchestral music, including orchestral renditions of the main vocal themes and the ending themes. The orchestral music was performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra and the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra. Soundtracks were released for the first and third installments following the release of their respective games. A compilation soundtrack was later released that included soundtracks for the entire series, including reworked tracks for the re-released Kingdom Hearts Re: Chain of Memories.
While the themes for some of the Disney - based worlds are taken directly from their Disney film counterparts, most of them are given entirely original musical scores. In addition to each world having unique background music, each is given its own battle theme rather than having a common theme to cover all fights. Several of the main characters have themes, and the final boss of each game has several themes played in the various phases of those fights. The fights with Sephiroth feature a modified version of Nobuo Uematsu 's "One - Winged Angel '' from Final Fantasy VII.
The main theme songs for the Kingdom Hearts games were written and performed by Japanese pop star, Hikaru Utada. The two main themes are "Hikari '', from Kingdom Hearts and Chain of Memories, and "Passion '', from Kingdom Hearts II. Each song has an English counterpart, "Simple and Clean '' and "Sanctuary '' respectively, for the North American and European releases. Utada was the only singer Tetsuya Nomura had in mind for the first Kingdom Hearts theme song. This marked the first time Utada had produced a song for a video game. Both theme songs reached notable popularity in Japan. On weekly Oricon charts, "Hikari '' reached No. 1 in 2002 and "Passion '' reached No. 4 in 2005.
The initial idea for Kingdom Hearts began with a discussion between Shinji Hashimoto and Hironobu Sakaguchi about Super Mario 64. They were planning to make a game with freedom of movement in three dimensions like Super Mario 64 but lamented that only characters as popular as Disney 's could rival a Mario game. Tetsuya Nomura, overhearing their conversation, volunteered to lead the project and the two producers agreed to let him direct. A chance meeting between Hashimoto and a Disney executive in an elevator -- Square and Disney had previously worked in the same building in Japan -- allowed Hashimoto to pitch the idea directly to Disney. Development began in February 2000 with Nomura as director and Hashimoto as producer. While Nomura had done previous work in the Final Fantasy series as monster designer and graphic director, he did not gain widespread recognition until he was the lead character designer for Final Fantasy VII. Kingdom Hearts marked his transition into a directorial position, though he also served as the game 's character designer. Scenarios were provided by Kazushige Nojima who was a scenario writer for Square from Final Fantasy VII until he left in 2003. Originally the development focused on the gameplay with a simple story to appeal to Disney 's target age range. After Kingdom Hearts executive producer Hironobu Sakaguchi told Nomura the game would be a failure if it did not aim for the same level as the Final Fantasy series, he began to develop the story further. In June 2013, Nomura stated the name of the game came from him thinking about Disney Theme Parks, especially Animal Kingdom. However, Nomura could not get the IP with just "Kingdom '', so the development team began to think about "heart '' as a core part of the story, so they decided to combine the two to form "Kingdom Hearts ''.
Nomura placed a secret trailer in Kingdom Hearts in hopes that fans would want a sequel. He was unsure if fans would want a sequel and felt that if they did not, then it would be best to leave certain events in the first game unexplained. After Kingdom Hearts Final Mix was completed, development for Kingdom Hearts II began. There were several obstacles to clear before development could begin on a sequel. One was the development team 's desire to showcase Mickey Mouse more; Mickey 's inclusion in the first game was restricted to a very small role. Nomura had planned for the sequel to take place a year after the first and originally intended for the events of that year to be left unexplained. To bridge the gap between the two games, Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories was developed. Nomura was hesitant about releasing a game on the Game Boy Advance because he felt the 3D graphics of the original game would not translate well into 2D. He changed his position after hearing that children wanted to play Kingdom Hearts on the handheld system.
Though Disney gave Nomura freedom in the characters and worlds used for the games, he and his staff tried to stay within the established roles of characters and boundaries of the worlds. Nomura has stated that though many of the Disney characters are not normally dark and serious, there were not many challenges making them so for the story, and despite this, their personalities shine because they maintain their own characteristics. He also felt managing and keeping multiple worlds was problematic. When deciding which worlds to include in the game, the development staff tried to take into account worlds with Disney characters that would be interesting and made an effort to minimize any overlap in the overall look and feel of each world.
The inclusion of specific Final Fantasy characters was based on the opinions of both fans and staff. Another criterion for inclusion was whether the staff felt the characters would fit into the storyline and in the Kingdom Hearts universe. Initially, Nomura was hesitant to use characters he did not design, because he was unfamiliar with the backstory of such characters. For Kingdom Hearts II, he changed his mind after receiving pressure from his staff. Throughout the development of the games, Nomura has often left certain events and connections between characters unexplained until the release of future games. Nomura does this because he feels that games should have room for fans to speculate and use their imagination. He has stated that with speculation, even though a game gets old, people can still be happy with it.
The first Kingdom Hearts was announced at E3 in May 2001. Initial details were that it would be a collaboration between Square and Disney Interactive, and would feature worlds developed by both companies and Disney characters. New characters were designed by Nomura and include Sora, Riku, Kairi, and the Heartless. On May 14, 2002, a press release announced a list of the English voice actors. The list included Haley Joel Osment, David Gallagher, and Hayden Panettiere as the three new characters introduced into the game. It was also announced that many of the Disney characters would be voiced by the official voice actors from their respective Disney films.
A secret trailer in the first Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts Final Mix hinted at the possibility of a sequel. Rumors for a sequel on the PlayStation 2 were spurred in Japan when a Japanese video game site, Quiter, stated that "an internal (and anonymous) source at Square Japan '' confirmed that development of Kingdom Hearts II had begun. It was not until Kingdom Hearts II was announced, along with Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2003 that rumors were confirmed. Initial details were that it would take place some time after Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, which takes place directly after the first game. Other details included the return of Sora, Donald, and Goofy, as well as new costumes. At the 2004 Square Enix E3 press conference, the producer, Shinji Hashimoto, stated that many mysteries of the first game would be answered.
To help market the games, websites were set up for each game and demos were on display at gaming events. Each game in the main series was also re-released in Japan with additional content and served as canonical updates to the series. The additional content foreshadowed later plot elements in the series. The rereleases of the main series games had the term "Final Mix '' added after the title, while Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories and Kingdom Hearts Coded were re-released as Kingdom Hearts Re: Chain of Memories and Kingdom Hearts Re: coded and released on the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo DS, respectively, with 3D graphics, voice overs during some cutscenes, and new game content.
The Kingdom Hearts series has been critically and commercially successful. As of March 2014, the series has sold over 20 million copies worldwide. The three main games in the series all met with positive sales at the time of their releases. In the first two months since the North American release of Kingdom Hearts, it was one of the top three highest - selling video games. Chain of Memories sold 104,000 units in 48 hours in Japan, a record for a Game Boy Advance title at the time. Its positive debut sales placed it in the top spot of sales charts in Japan. In the first month of its North American release, it was ranked 1st on GameSpot 's ChartSpot for portable systems and 6th for all consoles. Within three days of the Kingdom Hearts II release in Japan, it shipped 1 million copies, selling through within a month. By the end of March 2006, the NPD Group reported that Kingdom Hearts II was the highest - selling console game in North America, with 614,000 copies. In the month after its release in North America, Kingdom Hearts II sold an estimated 1 million copies.
The games have also received high ratings and positive comments from reviewers. All of the main games in the series have scored a 36 out of 40 or higher from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu, known for its harsh grading. All six games have been praised for their visuals. Game Informer considers the series the eleventh "must - play PlayStation 2 '' series. The individual games have also won several awards. GameSpot commented that the concept of mixing the serious elements of Final Fantasy with the lighter elements of Disney seemed impossible, but was pulled off quite well. Because of that they awarded Kingdom Hearts "Best Crossover Since Capcom vs. SNK '' in their 2002 Best and Worst of the Year awards. IGN named Kingdom Hearts "Best Art Style / Direction '' in their 2003 list of "Best Looking Games on PS2 ''. G4 awarded it "Best Story '' at their 2003 G - Phoria awards show. Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded Kingdom Hearts II "Best Sequel '' of 2006. It tied with Resident Evil 4 as Famitsu 's Game of the Year 2005. The manga series has also been well received. Several of the manga volumes were listed on USA Today 's "Top 150 best sellers ''. The highest ranked volume was Kingdom Hearts volume 4 at # 73. Every volume listed stayed on the list for at least two weeks; Kingdom Hearts volume 4 stayed the longest at four weeks.
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where is area code 203 located in california | Area codes 203 and 475 - wikipedia
Area code 203 is a North American telephone area code that is assigned to the southwestern part of Connecticut, and is overlaid with area code 475. The numbering plan area (NPA) 203 originally covered the entire state of Connecticut when the North American Numbering Plan was created in 1947. Today the numbering plan area stretches from Connecticut 's western border, along its southern coast, to Madison, and north to Meriden. The region encompassed by 203 and 475 is mostly coextensive with the Connecticut side of the New York metropolitan area.
On August 28, 1995 the original numbering plan area was split with the rest of Connecticut being served with area code 860, which was overlaid with 959 on August 30, 2014.
The counties included in numbering plan area 203 / 475 are:
Cities and towns served by 203 / 475:
The city of Meriden is notable as the only place in Connecticut from where one can call towns in either the Hartford or New Haven exchanges toll - free from a landline telephone.
The Connecticut Department of Public Utility Control, in August 1999, proposed an area code overlay for the 203 area code. Area code 475 went into effect on December 12, 2009. Even though area code 475 overlays only 203, all callers in Connecticut (including those in area code 860) had to dial all calls with ten digits, effective November 14, 2009; this was in preparation for the overlay of area code 959 on area code 860 that was implemented in 2014.
The first range of available numbers made available in Connecticut 's third area code was (475) 882 - 4xxx, in the Huntington section of Shelton.
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alvin and the chipmunks with the chipettes movie | The Chipmunk Adventure - wikipedia
The Chipmunk Adventure is a 1987 American animated musical fantasy adventure comedy film featuring the characters from NBC 's Saturday morning cartoon Alvin and the Chipmunks.
The film, directed by Janice Karman and written by Karman and Ross Bagdasarian, stars the voices of Karman, Bagdasarian, and Dody Goodman, and follows the Chipmunks and the Chipettes as they go on a hot air balloon race around the world that is the cover for a diamond smuggling ring.
When David Seville goes off to Europe on a business trip, the Chipmunks, Alvin, Simon and Theodore are left at home with their babysitter, Miss Beatrice Miller. While the three are playing an arcade game of Around the World in Thirty Days with the Chipettes, Alvin and Brittany argue over which would win an actual race around the world, since Brittany beat Alvin in the video game. Diamond smugglers Claudia and Klaus Furschtein overhear the conversation and approach the children, telling them that they will provide them with the means for a real race around the world by hot air balloon, with the winner receiving $100,000.
After tricking Miss Miller that Dave wants the Chipmunks meet him in Europe, the Chipmunks and Chipettes meet at the Furschtein ' mansion and are given dolls for the competition. In reality, the dolls being dropped off are filled with diamonds, and the dolls received are filled with cash, given to them by the buyers. The Chipmunks and Chipettes are unaware what inside the dolls. Also, the chipmunks are chased by two agents sent by Inspector Jamal of Interpol. Both teams begin their travels; while the Chipmunks go to Mexico City, the Chipettes are caught in a storm and Brittany comes very close to becoming eaten by a shark in Bermuda. Both teams eventually meet up in Athens, where Alvin and Brittany begin bickering. What ensues is a large - scale musical number ("The Girls of Rock and Roll '') set at the Acropolis before they part ways in their separate balloons.
The Chipettes then travel on to Egypt, where they are captured and brought to a young Arabian prince. The girls eventually grab the dolls and escape just as Eleanor arrives carrying a small cooler. After learning that the cooler contains a baby penguin, they head to Antarctica and sing the song "My Mother ''. As the girls deliver the young penguin to its parents, they are attacked by Claudia 's henchmen. Afterwards, they notice the torn Chipette doll lying on the floor of the balloon; Jeanette picks it up and diamonds fall out of it. Opening a Chipmunk doll, they find it full of dollar bills, and realize that the whole race was just a set - up to deliver the stolen diamonds. Realizing that the Chipmunks are likely in danger as well, they head off to find them.
Meanwhile, the Chipmunks are camping in a jungle near a native village while taking a shortcut. However, after Theodore goes missing, Alvin and Simon are taken captive by some local natives. They soon learn that Theodore is being worshipped as the natives ' "Prince of Plenty ''. Alvin and Simon are quickly forced to wear loincloths and are made into Theodore 's obedient slaves. After learning that they would become sacrificed, the Chipmunks are tied to stakes by the natives, hanging precariously above a pit full of crocodiles. In a desperate attempt to delay their own deaths, they sing "Wooly Bully, '' which pleases the natives and lasts just long enough for the Chipettes to rescue them.
The Chipmunks and Chipettes return to Los Angeles, where they are met at the airport by Claudia and Klaus. The two groups are forced into a car under the false threat of Miss Miller being kidnapped. Dave is arriving home to the airport at the same time, and hears Alvin 's cries for help. Inspector Jamal runs up, identifying himself, and he and Dave begin to make a chase. While it at first appears that Claudia and Klaus will escape, they are accidentally run off the road by Miss Miller as she is heading to the airport to pick Dave up, who happens to drive up the wrong way towards them by accident. The diamond smugglers are arrested, and Brittany and Alvin argue over who really won the race, but Dave breaks up the argument and guides them to Miss Miller 's car. Dave tells Alvin that he and the Chipmunks and the Chipettes have a lot of explaining to do. Alvin repeatedly attempts to explain the adventure, causing Dave to yell "ALVIN! '' as the film ends.
After the success of his animated cartoon series on NBC, Ross Bagdasarian, Jr. began developing a concept for a full - length feature film. Fortunately for Bagdasarian Productions, the box - office failure of Disney 's The Black Cauldron in 1985 had led to the layoff of a number of Disney animators (such as Glen Keane, Dan Haskett and Dave Pruiksma), whom Bagdasarian promptly hired to work on his film. The result was extremely high - caliber animation. The film was planned for a Christmas 1986 release and was to be distributed by Paramount Pictures.
Bagdasarian and his wife Janice Karman decided to finance the project themselves, having generated so much revenue from the Alvin and the Chipmunks TV series. Their decision to work with several overseas studios led to major production delays which in turn caused Paramount to drop the distribution deal. By late 1986, production had fallen far behind schedule, and a shortage of time and money resulted in major cuts being made to the film. One deleted scene had the Chipmunks go to Russia.
The soundtrack of The Chipmunk Adventure was composed by Randy Edelman and performed by The Chipmunks and The Chipettes; Edelman also contributed songs to the film. Several songs throughout the film were performed by both the Chipmunks and the Chipettes. On April 1, 2008, the soundtrack was re-released as a bonus CD with the film 's DVD.
The film was promoted one year before its release, at the 1986 Cannes Film Festival.
Though initially scheduled for Christmas 1986, The Chipmunk Adventure opened on May 22, 1987 through The Samuel Goldwyn Company and Bagdasarian Productions. With an opening weekend take of $2,584,720, it ultimately grossed $6,804,312 in North America alone.
In The New York Times, Janet Maslin commentated that the film is enjoyable for both parents and children. In his Family Guide to Movies on Video, Henry Herx deemed the film a "charming, lighthearted diversion for the younger set '', and remarked that it resembled "a musical revue of pop tunes ''. Johanna Steinmetz of Chicago Tribune gave the film three stars out of four, stating that the inclusion of the minor characters (especially the villains) would "(keep) an adult viewer from insulin crisis. '' In a critical review for the Los Angeles Times, Charles Solomon commented "listening to six little characters talk and sing in speeded - up falsetto voices for 76 minutes becomes a real test of the viewer 's endurance. '' Solomon also said that the villains resembled those from a Ralph Bakshi film and did not fit with the world of the Chipmunks.
In Siskel & Ebert & The Movies, Roger Ebert commented that the animation is slightly better than the TV series, but criticized the film 's "dumb and predictable '' story while Gene Siskel criticized the plot for being right out of a Saturday morning cartoon, especially through the film 's introduction of the Chipettes. Both Ebert and Siskel also criticized the plot and the Chipmunks ' voices, with Ebert comparing them to "fingernails on the blackboard ''. Siskel and Ebert ultimately gave the film two thumbs down.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 75 % based on 8 reviews, and an average rating of 6.6 / 10.
The film was released on VHS by Lorimar Home Video in 1988, Warner Home Video in 1992, and Universal Studios Home Video in 1998. On May 23, 2006, the film was released on DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment digitally remastered from the original 35mm film and presented with 5.1 surround sound. A special edition DVD re-release of the film with a bonus CD (which is the same soundtrack disc) was released on April 1, 2008, which matches that of the live - action / computer - animated Alvin and the Chipmunks and another DVD volume of Alvin and the Chipmunks Go to the Movies. On March 25, 2014, the film was released on Blu - ray for the first time.
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is there a children's day in america | Children 's Day - wikipedia
Children 's Day is a day recognised to celebrate children. The day is celebrated on various calendar dates in different countries.
Children 's Day began on the second Sunday of June in 1857 by Reverend Dr. Charles Leonard, pastor of the Universalist Church of the Redeemer in Chelsea, Massachusetts: Dr. Leonard held a special service dedicated to, and for the children. Dr. Leonard named the day Rose Day, though it was later named Flower Sunday, and then Children 's Day.
Children 's Day was first officially declared a national holiday by the Republic of Turkey in 1929 with the set date of 23 April. Children 's Day has been celebrated nationally since 1923 with the government and the newspapers of the time declaring it a day for the children. However, it was decided that an official declaration was needed to clarify and justify this celebration and the official declaration was made nationally in 1931 by the founder and the President of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
The International Day for Protection of Children is observed in many countries as Children 's Day on 1 June since 1950. It was established by the Women 's International Democratic Federation on its congress in Moscow (4 November 1949). Major global variants include a Universal Children 's Holiday on 20 November, by United Nations recommendation.
Eventhough Children 's Day is celebrated globally by most of the countries in the world (almost 50 countries) on 01 June. But, Universal Children 's Day takes place annually on 20 November. First proclaimed by the United Kingdom in 1954, it was established to encourage all countries to institute a day, firstly to promote mutual exchange and understanding among children and secondly to initiate action to benefit and promote the welfare of the world 's children.
That is observed to promote the objectives outlined in the Charter and for the welfare of children. On 20 November 1959 the United Nations adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child. The United Nations adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child on 20 November 1989 and can be found on the Council of Europe website.
In 2000, the Millennium Development Goals outlined by world leaders in order to stop the spread of HIV / AIDS by 2015. Albeit this applies to all people, the main objective is with regard to children. UNICEF is dedicated to meeting the six of eight goals that apply to the needs of children so that they are all entitled to basic rights written in the 1989 international human rights treaty. UNICEF delivers vaccines, works with policymakers for good health care and education and works exclusively to help children and protect their rights.
In September 2012, the Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon of the United Nations led the initiative for the education of children. He firstly wants every child to be able to attend school, a goal by 2015. Secondly, to improve the skill set acquired in these schools. Finally, implementing policies regarding education to promote peace, respect and environmental concern. Universal Children 's Day is not just a day to celebrate children for who they are, but to bring awareness to children around the globe that have experienced violence in forms of abuse, exploitation and discrimination. Children are used as labourers in some countries, immersed in armed conflict, living on the streets, suffering by differences be it religion, minority issues, or disabilities. Children feeling the effects of war can be displaced because of the armed conflict and may suffer physical and psychological trauma. The following violations are described in the term "children and armed conflict '': recruitment and child soldiers, killing / maiming of children, abduction of children, attacks on schools / hospitals and not allowing humanitarian access to children. Currently there are about 153 million children between the ages of 5 and 14 who are forced into child labour. The International Labour Organization in 1999 adopted the Prohibition and Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour including slavery, child prostitution and child pornography.
A summary of the rights under the Convention on the Rights of the Child can be found on the UNICEF website.
Canada co-chaired the World Summit for children in 1990 and in 2002 the United Nations reaffirmed the commitment to complete the agenda of the 1990 World Summit. This added to the UN Secretary - General 's report We the Children: End - of Decade review of the follow - up to the World Summit for Children.
The United Nations children 's agency released a study referencing the population increase of children will make up 90 per cent of the next billion people.
The officially recognized date of Children 's Day varies from country to country. This section lists some significant examples, in order of date of observance.
First Friday of January
Jan 5, 2018 Jan 4, 2019
Bahamas
11 January
Tunisia
Second Saturday of January
Jan 14, 2017 Jan 13, 2018 Jan 12, 2019
Thailand
Second Sunday of February
Feb 12, 2017 Feb 11, 2018 Feb 10, 2019
Cook Islands Nauru Niue Tokelau Cayman Islands
13 February
Myanmar
First Sunday of March
March 5, 2017 March 4, 2018 March 3, 2019
New Zealand
17 March
Bangladesh
4 April
Taiwan Hong Kong
5 April
Palestine
12 April
Bolivia Haiti
Last Saturday of April
Apr 29, 2017 Apr 28, 2018 Apr 27, 2019
Colombia
23 April
Turkey
30 April
Mexico
5 May
South Korea Japan
Second Sunday of May
May 14, 2017 May 13, 2018 May 12, 2019
Spain United Kingdom
10 May
Maldives
17 May
Norway
27 May
Nigeria
Last Sunday of May
May 28, 2017 May 27, 2018 May 26, 2019
Hungary
Ascension Day
May 25, 2017 May 10, 2018 May 30, 2019
American Samoa Falkland Islands Solomon Islands
1 June
Albania Algeria Angola Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Benin Bulgaria Bosnia and Herzegovina
People 's Republic of China Cambodia Czech Republic East Timor Ecuador Estonia Ethiopia Georgia
Guinea - Bissau Kazakhstan Kosovo Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia Lebanon Lithuania Macedonia Macau
Moldova Mongolia Montenegro Mozambique Myanmar Nicaragua Poland
Portugal Romania Russia São Tomé and Príncipe Serbia Slovakia Slovenia
Tajikistan Tanzania Turkmenistan Ukraine Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen
2 June
North Korea
Second Sunday of June
Jun 11, 2017 Jun 10, 2018 Jun 9, 2019
United States
20 Oct 2013
19 Oct 2014
19 Oct 15 ~ 17
1 July
Islamic Republic of Pakistan
Third Sunday of July
Jul 16, 2017 Jul 15, 2018 Jul 21, 2019
Cuba Panama Venezuela
23 July
Indonesia
29 July
Colombia
Aug 6, 2017 Aug 5, 2018 Aug 4, 2019
Uruguay
16 August
Paraguay
Third Sunday of August
Aug 20, 2017 Aug 19, 2018 Aug 18, 2019
Argentina Peru
9 September
Costa Rica
10 September
Honduras
Bhadra 29
Nepal
20 September
Austria
Germany
1 October
El Salvador Guatemala Sri Lanka
First Friday of October
Oct 6, 2017 Oct 5, 2018 Oct 4, 2019
Singapore
First Wednesday of October (Children 's Day recognition and assignation) Second Sunday of August (Children 's Day observance)
Oct 4, 2017 Oct 3, 2018 Oct 2, 2019
Chile
8 October
Iran
12 October
Brazil
Fourth Saturday of October
Oct 28, 2017 Oct 27, 2018 Oct 26, 2019
Malaysia
Oct 25, 2017
First Saturday of November
Nov 4, 2017 Nov 3, 2018 Nov 2, 2019
South Africa
11 November
Croatia
14 November
India
20 November
Arab World Azerbaijan Canada Croatia Cyprus Egypt Ethiopia Finland France Greece Ireland Israel
Kenya Malaysia Macedonia Netherlands Philippines Serbia Slovenia South Africa Spain Sweden Switzerland United Arab Emirates Trinidad and Tobago
5 December
Suriname
23 December
South Sudan Sudan
25 December
Congo Congo DR Cameroon
Equatorial Guinea Gabon Chad Central African Republic
In Albania, Children 's Day (Festa e femijeve) is celebrated on 1 June.
In Argentina, Children 's Day (Día del Niño) is celebrated on the third Sunday of August.
In Armenia, Children 's Day is celebrated on June 1.
Children 's Week is an annual event celebrated in Australia during the fourth week in October, from the Saturday before Universal Children 's Day to the following Sunday. It was established as a holiday in 1954. Until 1977 Child Care Week was held in various Australian states and territories focusing on children in care or those in institutions. It was held at different times. In 1984 it was decided to coordinate a national week to include all children.
In Bangladesh, Children 's Day is celebrated on 17 March. It is also the birthday of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Since 2009 the JAAGO Foundation has been celebrating this day throughout its primary education and child well - being campaigns countrywide on 20 November.
In Bolivia, Children 's Day (Día del Niño) is celebrated on 12 April. It was established as a holiday in 1955.
In Bosnia & Herzegovina, Children 's Day was established as a holiday in 1993.
In Brazil, Children 's Day (In Portuguese: Dia das Crianças) is celebrated on 12 October, coinciding with Our Lady of Aparecida 's day, the country 's Patron Saint holiday. It is also the day of the discovery of America (Columbus Day), in reference to the "New Continent ''. In Brazil Children 's day is celebrated by kids receiving presents from their parents.
In Bulgaria, Children 's day (Ден на детето) is celebrated on 1 June. Traditionally kids receive very special attention from their family, including Birthday - like presents. In the past all drivers were expected to drive with their lights on all day long to demonstrate extra vigilance over children 's safety. Now it is compulsory to drive with the lights on every day of the year. It was established as a holiday in 1925.
In Cameroon, Children 's Day was established as a holiday in 1990.
National Child Day has been proclaimed across Canada since 1993 to commemorate the United Nations ' adoption of two documents centered on children 's rights: the United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child on 20 November 1959, and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child on 20 November 1989. The "Child Day Act '' outlines human rights to which children, under the age of 18, are entitled by law. This Act promotes awareness and teaches children that they have rights, like adults do, under the law. The date of celebration is 20 November.
In Congo, Congo DR, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Chad, Central African Republic, Children 's Day is celebrated on 25 December to honor all the children there.
In Chile, Children 's Day is officially recognized, and assigned to the first Wednesday of October. However, it is observed on the second Sunday of August. It retains none of the international flavor as a day to recognize the needs of or rights of children, but is observed merely as a commercial holiday dedicated to buying toys for children.
In the People 's Republic of China, Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 June and is formally known as "the June 1 International Children 's Day '' (Chinese: 六 一 国际 儿童 节; pinyin: Liù Yī Guójì Értóng Jié). When the People 's Republic of China was first established in 1949, the State Council (Cabinet) designated a half - day holiday for all primary schools on 1 June. This was later made into a full day 's break in 1956 with The Announcement by the State Council to make 1 June Children 's Day a One - Day Holiday. Schools usually hold activities such as children 's performances, camping trips, or free movies on Children 's Day or the day before to allow students to have fun. Children of civil servants might also receive small gifts from the government until they are fourteen, and Civil servants who have children sometimes have a half - day holiday on 1 June to spend more time with their children. Entrance and set out ceremonies of the Young Pioneers of China are usually held on 1 June as well. Entrance of children under 14 into the Forbidden City is free on 1 June, while each accompanying adult gets 100 % off, i.e. CNY30.
In Colombia, Children 's Day is celebrated in the last Saturday of April. It was established as a holiday in 2001.
In Costa Rica, Children 's Day is celebrated on 9 September.
In Croatia, Children 's Day is celebrated on 11 November.
In Cuba, Children 's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of July.
In Czech Republic, Children 's Day (Mezinárodní den dětí) is celebrated on 1 June.
In Ecuador, Children 's Day (Día del Niño) is celebrated on 1 June. Generally, kids up to 12 years old receive presents.
In Egypt, Children 's Day is celebrated every 20 November with festivals and games for children.
In Finland, Children 's Day is known as Day of Children 's Rights and is celebrated on 20 November.
In Russia, as well as other former Soviet Union states, including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, other former or current communist states, Albania, Angola, Benin, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ethiopia, East Germany, Kosovo, Laos, Republic of Macedonia, Mongolia, Montenegro, Mozambique, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Tanzania and Yemen, Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 June.
This list includes 25 countries which regained independence from USSR, seceded from Yugoslavia Federation, as well as Czechoslovakia and Ethiopia after their respective splits.
In Germany, during the Cold War, Children 's Day (Kindertag) was handled quite differently in West Germany and East Germany. While East Germany (GDR) celebrated International Children 's Day (Internationaler Kindertag) on 1 June, West Germany (FRG) celebrated Universal Children 's Day (Weltkindertag) on 20 September.
The customs of Children 's Day were also significantly different in West and East Germany. In East Germany, the holiday was introduced in 1950, and was from then held on a yearly basis for the children. On this day of the year, children would typically be congratulated and would receive presents from their parents and did special activities in school, such as field trips and the like.
In West Germany, Children 's Day Universal Children 's Day laid its emphasis not on games and presents, but more on political efforts to strengthen children 's rights. (See Jugendamt.)
After the reunification of East and West Germany occurred in 1990, Universal Children 's Day has become official for whole Germany. This, however, was not accepted by large parts of the East German population. Most parents still celebrate Children 's Day on the former date of 1 June, and public events pertaining to Children 's Day take place on 20 September (Weltkindertag).
In Greece, Children 's Day was established as a holiday in 1989.
In Guatemala, Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 October. It was established as a holiday around 1990.
In Honduras, Children 's Day is celebrated on 10 September.
Children 's Week began in Hungary in 1931. Since 1950 it has been reduced to Children 's Day, taking place on the last Sunday in May.
In Haiti, Children 's Day is celebrated on June 12.
Children 's Day (Chinese: 兒童 節; Jyutping: ji4 tung4 zit3) is celebrated on 4 April.
In Indonesia, Children 's Day is celebrated on July 23. It was established as a holiday in 1984.
In India, Children 's Day is celebrated on 14 November, on the birthday of the first Prime Minister of independent India, who was fondly called Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru) or Chachaji (Uncle), and who emphasized the importance of giving love and affection to children, to give him tribute. After the death of Jawaharlal Nehru in May 27, 1964, it was unanimously decided to celebrate his birthday as Bal Diwas or Children 's Day in India.
In Ireland, Universal Children 's Day is celebrated on 20 November.
Japan 's Children 's Day (こども の 日, kodomo no hi) is celebrated on 5 May, a National Holiday since 1948, to celebrate the happiness of all children and to express gratitude toward mothers. There is a long tradition, from the 8th century, to celebrate children 's day twice a year; 3 March for girls and on 5 May for boys. On 3 March, also known as the Doll Festival, Japanese people decorate their households with traditional Heian Period doll sets and plum blossom, and drink Amazake. On 5 May, also known as 端午 の 節句 (tango - no sekku), they fly carp streamers outside, display Samurai dolls, and eat chimaki.
There were some who argued in 1948 that 3 March should also be a National Holiday.
The International Children 's Day is celebrated annually on 1 June and is established as a national holiday for children. Over 3 million children across Kazakhstan celebrate the holiday with special children 's events.
North Korean Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 June as the International Children 's Day (국제 아동 절). Before 1945, it was celebrated on 1 May. There is also a day called 조선 소년단 창립 절 (Festival for establishment of Young Pioneer Corps) on 6 June.
In South Korea, May 5 is officially recognized as Children 's Day (어린이 날). Parents often give presents to their children, as well as spend time with them. The children are taken on excursions to zoos, museums, and various venues of children - oriented entertainment.
Children 's Day was first conceived by innovative Korean students and social leaders on the basis of the March 1st Movement to achieve Korean independence from Japanese colonialism. From Jinju, many people gathered to promote and improve the social status of children and encourage adults to teach awareness of their deprived sovereignty. In 1923, several groups of students studying in Tokyo agreed to designate 1 May as Children 's Day. A predominant intellectual figure, Bang Jeong - hwan, greatly contributed to the popularization of the holiday. Because it overlapped with Laborer 's Day, Children 's Day was moved to 5 May. Bang Jeong - hwan first coined the modern Korean word for children, eorini (어린이), replacing the previous words aenom (애놈) and esaekki (애새끼). Until 1939, Japanese authorities based in Seoul oppressed the movement to stop Korean social activists congregating for the festival. After independence in 1945, the movement to respect children was revived. The children 's welfare law written in the constitution officially designated 5 May as Children 's Day in 1961. And by ' the law of holiday of government office ', Children 's day became a holiday in Korea in 1970.
In Liberia, Children 's day was established as a holiday in 1991.
In Laos, Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 June.
In Maldives, Children 's Day is celebrated on 10 May. On this day all the school children go to school to the event to celebrate Children 's Day. The schools that are involved would also organize numerous activities for their pupils.
In Mauritius, Children 's Day was established in 1991, as the International Day of the African Child.
In Myanmar, Children 's Day is celebrated on 13 February.
In Mexico, Children 's Day ("Día Del Niño '') is celebrated 30 April. On this day teachers in schools organize the day for their children. In some schools, lessons are suspended for the day. They organize games, music, and the children bring in their favorite foods to share with others. Some families also have a day out with their children. There are special activities for the children in parks and sports centers. Sometimes, also, the children will be given presents by their families. This is the day when children are honored in Mexico. As it is spring, children wear many bright colors to celebrate their youth and the coming of Spring.
Children 's Day in Mexico started in 1925. This celebrarion had its origins during Álvaro Obregón 's presidential period after the country joined the Geneva Conventions and looking after the wellness of the vulnerable children affected by World War I. Later, the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child was adopted on 26 November 1924 by the League of Nations recognizing that children are the most affected by war events.
United Nations recommended 20 November to celebrate Children 's Day throughout the world, but that day coincides with Revolution Day (Mexico). Also, 30 April was selected in order to avoid 1 May (Labor Day) and the celebrations of Cinco de Mayo (The Day of the Battle of Puebla).
Traditionally on 1 Oct. But nowadays it 's also being celebrated on 20 November (following international children 's day).
In Moldova, International Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 June. From 2016, the day has been declared a public holiday.
In Mongolia, the International Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 June. It is also known as "Эх үрсийн баяр ''.
In Mozambique, the International Children 's Day is also celebrated on 1 June.
In Nepal, Children 's Day (बाल दिवस) is celebrated on Bhadra 29 according to the Nepali Calendar (August -- September) after signing the child rights agreement with UN. Earlier during the Shah Rule, Nepal used to observe Children 's day on Bhadra 4 on the birthday of H.M. Queen Mother Ratna Rajya Laxmi Devi Shah. It is celebrated by conducting various programme on various institutions around Nepal. It was established as a holiday in 1990.
In New Zealand, Children 's Day is typically celebrated on the first Sunday in March. It honours children as a taonga (Maori for treasure), and is a day families can relax and share in activities to honour their children. In 2012, the focus was on peace and aroha (Maori for ' love '). New Zealand has high rates of child abuse and family violence. The Government of New Zealand has recognised this as one of the most important issues for New Zealanders, with an event such as Children 's Day helping to focus on the practice of sharing, loving and caring as well as honouring tamariki (Maori for ' children ').
Children 's Day is celebrated on 27 May in Nigeria. It was established as a holiday in 1964. It is a public holiday for Primary and Secondary school children. Due to the large size of the country, only few group of children (schools or any other organization) are selected to march past in a parade. The children are usually given treats such as an outing or doing jobs that adults would normally do. In some situations, primary and secondary school children compete in military parades format for a prize which will be given at the end of the competition. Religious groups in Nigeria also celebrate children 's day in grand style. Many private and public organizations usually put together children 's party for privileged and less privileged children in a bid to give them a sense of belonging. It is also a day media organizations analyze the plight of children in the society and efforts government and non government agencies make to better the lot of children.
In Nicaragua the International Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 June.
Children 's Day in Norway is held on 17 May, the same day as Norwegian Constitution Day, with many children 's parades simultaneously celebrating both events and thereby emphasizing the importance of children in Norwegian society.
In Pakistan, The National Assembly on 16 December 2015 passed a unanimous resolution expressing deep grief and sadness over the martyrdom of more than 150 students including Kazzy and Yazzy and teachers of Army Public School Peshawar on 16 December 2014. The NA recommended that 16 December should be observed as Pakistan Children Day in memory of the martyrs.
Earlier Children 's Day was celebrated on 1 July.In Punjab the Child Rights Cell of Department of Social Welfare Punjab collaborates with UNICEF to celebrate this day. Whereas, The NGO, Voice of Children Islamabad, also celebrates Children 's day and arranges activities for children and parents on that day. The EPO and SFB also celebrate Children 's day and arrange fun and interactive sessions for children and parents.
For Children 's Day, there are many festivals and events organised by schools and organisations, that focus on having fun and lively activities that kids and their families can enjoy. Most charitable organisations also partake in the festivities, by holding functions or partnering with bigger organisations. Thus, everyone joins in to make this day a memorable event each year in Pakistan.
Children day is celebrated in the Palestinian territories on 5 April.
In Panama, Children 's Day or Kid 's Day was formerly held on 1 November, but was changed by Vivian Fernandez de Torrijos, the wife of President Martin Torrijos (2004 -- 2009), to the third Sunday of July.
In Paraguay, Children 's Day is celebrated on 16 August, day of the Battle of Acosta Ñu, where it is said that 20,000 men from the Triple Alliance were awaited by a Paraguayan force made up of 3,500 children ages six to fifteen, ordered to hold the Alliance forces while the president Solano Lopez could escape. Even though Paraguay had been already completely defeated, it is said that Lopez forced them to stay and face the enemy, others sources claim that the children volunteered to fight against the Allied forces after their families had been killed by the advancing allied forces (see more in Paraguayan War). Children 's Day is a national holiday, used to remember the event, which happened during the five - year war.
According to Peruvian law in Peru, Children 's Day (Día del Niño Peruano (Ley No 27666), literally Peruvian Child 's Day (Law No 27666)) is celebrated every second Sunday of April. There is a second celebration every third Sunday of August promoted as the "International Children 's Day ''. On this day of the year, Peruvian children would typically be congratulated and would receive presents from their parents. Since it is celebrated on Sunday, all special activities in school, such as field trips and the like are done the previous Friday. All major stores offer special discounts on toys, appliances, electronics, clothes, etc.
In the Philippines, Children 's Day was established on 20 November as a holiday in 1992.
In Poland, Children 's Day (Dzień Dziecka) is celebrated on 1 June. The International Children 's Day was introduced in Poland in 1952. It coincides with the beginning of meteorological summer and it is usually treated as a special day, free from lessons, as it takes place near the end of the school year. Schools usually organize special activities for the pupils to celebrate the day, and during the first week of June, is a time of festivities organized in parks and entertainment centres for children.
In Portugal (and also at some of its former colonies such as Guinea - Bissau, Macau, Cape Verde, East Timor, Angola, Mozambique and São Tomé and Príncipe), Children 's Day (Dia da Criança) is celebrated on 1 June.
In Romania, Children 's Day (Romanian: "Ziua Copilului '') is celebrated on 1 June. Children often receive presents from parents and other family members. Various events are also organized.
On 1 June 2012, International Children 's Day was celebrated by the Romanian Government at the Ministry of Labour, Family and Social Protection. Almost 100 children in attendance received a Minister of Children diploma celebrating with parents and grandparents.
According to the Law 220 / 2016, starting with 2017, Children 's Day is officially a public holiday.
In Russia, Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 June. It was established as a holiday in 1949.
Traditionally, 1 October is the day which Singapore officially celebrates Children 's Day. A similar event celebrated every year is Youth Day, which is celebrated on the first Sunday of July every year. Kindergarten and primary school children in Singapore do not have to attend school on this day. From 2011, Children 's Day was celebrated on the first Friday of October.
In South Africa, Children 's Day is on the first Saturday of November but not really celebrated in any significant way.
In South Sudan, Children 's Day is celebrated on 23 December, the birthday of South Sudan 's "greatest child '' according to tribal mythology. 4
In Slovakia, the day is called International Children 's Day (Medzinárodný deň detí) and is celebrated on 1 June. Children get a free entrance to some attractions like zoos..
In Spain, this date is celebrated on the 2nd Sunday of May, and it is called "Día del niño ''.
In Sri Lanka, Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 October.
In Sudan, Children 's Day is celebrated on 23 December, the birthday of North Sudan 's "greatest child '' according to tribal mythology.
In Suriname, Children 's Day or Kinderdag is celebrated on 5 December. Generally, children up to 12 years old receive presents from their parents.
In Sweden, Children 's Day is celebrated on the first Monday of October. It was Gustav Rosén who is credited with starting a Children 's Day in Umeå in northern Sweden in 1905.
In Switzerland, Children 's day was established as a holiday in 1925.
The Republic of China on Taiwan designated 4 April as Children 's Day (Chinese: 兒童 節; pinyin: Értóng Jié), pursuant to Article 5 of the Order to Implement Commemoration Days and Holidays. The holiday dates back to 1931 and since then schools often hold special activities in order to celebrate the occasion. Because of pressure from parents demanding to accompany their children in the celebration, Taiwan celebrated Women 's Day together with Children 's Day on 4 April 1991. Since then, 4 April has been known as "The Combined Holidays of Women 's Day and Children 's Day '' (Chinese: 婦女 節 、 兒童 節 合併 假期). It has been a public holiday of Taiwan, ROC since 2011.
In 1931, Kong Xiangxi initiated the establishment of the China Association for Charity and Children 's Association to propose April 4 as Children 's Day. The Executive Yuan stipulated in Article 5 of the "Memorial Day and Festival Implementation Measures '' that on April 4, Children 's Day, relevant organs, groups, and schools held celebration activities (2). A one - day holiday was merged with Women 's Day from 1991 to 1997 (formally known as "Women 's Day, Children 's Day Merger Holiday ''). After 1998, the holiday was cancelled and it was incorporated into the week off holiday. In 1998, two days before the rest of the week, the children of elementary and junior high school students had a day off. Since 2011, it has returned to the national holiday and the country has a holiday for one day. In 2012, if the law is revised again, if it meets the same day as the Ching Ming Festival, it will be on April 3 of the previous day, and if it is on Thursday, it will be on the following day.
Thailand National Children 's Day (Thai: วัน เด็ก แห่ง ชาติ) is celebrated on the second Saturday in January. Known as "Wan Dek '' in Thailand, Children 's Day is celebrated to give children the opportunity to have fun and to create awareness about their significant role towards the development of the country. It was established as a holiday in 1955.
Usually, His Majesty the King gives advice addressing the children while the Supreme Monarch Patriarch of Thailand gives a moral teaching. The Prime Minister also usually gives each Children 's Day a theme and a slogan.
Many Government offices are open to children and their family; this includes the Government House, the Parliament House Complex and various Military installations. These events may include a guided tour and an exhibition. A notable example is the guided tour at the Government House, where children have an opportunity to view the Prime Minister 's office and sit at the bureau. The Royal Thai Air Force usually invites children to go and explore the aircraft and the Bangkok Bank distributes stationery, such as pens, pencils and books to every child that enters the bank as a community service. Many organizations from both government and commercial sectors have celebration activities for children. Children can enter zoos or ride buses for free.
There is a Thai saying that states, "Children are the future of the nation, if the children are intelligent, the country will be prosperous. ''
International Men 's Day on 19 November and do not celebrate Children 's Day in Trinidad and Tobago.
Children 's Day in Tunisia is celebrated on 11 January every year. It was established as a holiday in 1995. It is a day in which Tunisians observe the rights of children and remind themselves that children are the future builders and developers of the country and the world.
The Grand National Assembly of Turkey was established on 1920, 23 April, and to commemorate the event, 23 April was proclaimed a national holiday in 1921. Since 1927 it has also become Children 's Day (Turkish: Ulusal Egemenlik ve Çocuk Bayramı, literally "The Holiday of National Sovereignty and Children ''), an official holiday dedicated to the children of Turkey and (from 1979 on) the world.
In addition to holding many domestic celebratory events such as stadium performances, Turkey also houses TRT International April 23 Children 's Festival, where groups of children from other countries are invited to participate in the festivities while staying at Turkish families ' homes.
The first Monday in August is National Children 's Day in Tuvalu. This public holiday is called in Tuvalu Aso Tamaliki.
Children 's Day (Ukrainian: День захисту дітей, Den zakhystu ditey, literally "day of children 's protection '') is celebrated on 1 June. In Ukraine Children 's Day is set in accordance with the presidential decree of Ukraine from 30 May 1998 No 568 / 98.
Children 's Day was established in the United Kingdom in 1954 by the United Nations General Assembly, so as to create "a day of worldwide fraternity and understanding between children. '' The next UK Children 's Day will occur on Sunday, May 13 2018. According to the National Children 's Day UK website, Children 's Day in the UK is not celebrated on the United Nation 's nominated date of November 20, so as to allow children the chance to go outside during summer on the day they are celebrated.
Children 's Day observations in the United States predate both Mother 's and Father 's Day, though a permanent annual single Children 's Day observation is not made at the national level.
In 1856, Rev. Charles H. Leonard, D.D., then pastor of the First Universalist Church of Chelsea, Mass., set apart a Sunday for the dedication of children to the Christian life, and for the re-dedication of parents and guardians to bringing - up their children in Christian nurture. This service was first observed the second Sunday in June.
The Universalist Convention at Baltimore in September 1867, passed a resolution commending churches to set apart one Sunday in each year as Children 's Day.
The Methodist Episcopal Church at the Methodist Conference of 1868 recommended that second Sunday in June be annually observed as Children 's Day.
The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in 1883 designated "the second Sabbath in June as Children 's Day. ''
Also in 1883, the National Council of Congregational Churches and nearly all the state bodies of that denomination in the United States passed resolutions commending the observance of the day. About this time many other denominations adopted similar recommendations.
Chase 's Calendar of Events cites Children 's Sunday and notes that The Commonwealth of Massachusetts issues an annual proclamation for the second Sunday in June.
Numerous churches and denominations currently observe the second Sunday in June including the African Methodist Episcopal Church, African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church.
Children & Youth Day in Hawaii started in 1994 when the Hawaii Legislature became the first to pass a law to recognize the first Sunday in October as "Children 's Day ''. In 1997, the Legislature passed another landmark law designating the entire month of October as "Children and Youth Month ''.
In 1996, author Pat Mora, after learning about the annual Mexican tradition of celebrating 30 April as El día del niño, the Day of the Child, proposed an annual celebration in the U.S. of El día de los niños, El día de los libros / Children 's Day, Book Day, thus honoring children and connecting them to literacy, essential in a democracy. Assistance starting this community - based, family literacy initiative was provided by REFORMA, the National Association to Promote Library & Information Services to Latinos and the Spanish Speaking. Often known as Día, because it is both a daily commitment and an annual April celebration, Children 's Day, Book Day, has grown to link all children to books, languages and cultures. A major partner is the Association for Library Services to Children (ALSC), a division of the American Library Association (ALA). Every year, across the country, hundreds of libraries, schools, and community organizations, etc. hold culminating April Children 's Day, Book Day celebrations that unite communities, creating an annual tradition much like Mother 's Day and Father 's Day.
Children 's Day was proclaimed by President Bill Clinton to be held on 11 October 1998, in response to a letter written by an eight - year - old girl, Kierstin Gonzales inquiring if he would make a Children 's Day to celebrate youth. "National Child 's Day '' was proclaimed by President George W. Bush as 3 June 2001, and in subsequent years on the first Sunday in June.
Since 2009, Illinois Governor Pat Quinn has issued proclamations proclaiming the second Sunday in June as Children 's Day as had the previous governor in 2007 and 2008. The mayors of Aurora and Batavia, Illinois, also have issued proclamations.
On 23 April 2011, Executive of King County, WA declared 23 April as the International Children 's Day.
Children 's Day celebrations of Turkish Community in California lead to State of California recognizing the last Saturday of April as the Children 's Day.
2015: 2 August
2016: 15 August
2017: 30 June
2018: 26 June
2019: 11 June
2020: 16 September
Children 's Day in Uruguay is the second Sunday in August. 6 January is Epiphany (Reyes), also celebrated as Children 's day.
In Vanuatu, Children 's Day is celebrated on 24 July. The two main themes of the holiday are "Stop violence against children '' and "Give a child the chance to express their opinion today ''. After the march there are speeches and activities organized by schools, including a dance. Then, after midday, children return home to spend time with their parents for the rest of the day. Children 's Day is a public holiday, set up following a recommendation of the Committee on the Rights of the Child. A group of people in the United Nations monitor and protect children 's rights. A committee, with both adult and child members, organizes activities. In the past, a committee of adults has chosen the theme -- but in the future children may help choose it.
Children 's Day originally took place only in the capital of Vanuatu, but it has now been extended to all 6 provinces. Schools, churches, local governments of the provinces and other local organizations all organize activities. Save the Children supports one Children 's Day activity in each province, selecting it from the many requests they receive for support. In 2008, one of the activities supported by Save the Children was a sports day between many different schools.
Parents and caretakers have been supportive of Children 's Day activities. Many parents come to activities with children. For example, in one province, children and parents from 5 different schools came together for a shared lunch. Some parents give their children presents for Children 's Day -- however, Save the Children try to spread the message that it does n't matter if a parent ca n't afford to buy their child a present, as the real aim of Children 's Day is for parents and children to spend the day together, and work together to reconcile their problems.
In Venezuela, Children 's Day is celebrated the third Sunday of July.
In Vietnam, Children 's Day is celebrated on 1 June as ICD and on the full moon of the 8th lunar month during the Mid-Autumn Festival.
Children 's Day was established as a holiday in Zimbabwe in 1991 (Day of the African Child).
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let it go sequence performed by idina menzel - youtube | Let It Go (Disney song) - Wikipedia
"Let It Go '' is a song from Disney 's 2013 animated feature film Frozen, whose music and lyrics were composed by husband - and - wife songwriting team Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez. The song was performed in its original show - tune version in the film by American actress and singer Idina Menzel in her vocal role as Queen Elsa. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez also composed a simplified pop version (with shorter lyrics and background chorus) which was performed by actress and singer Demi Lovato over the start of the film 's closing credits. A music video was separately released for the pop version.
The song presents the ostracized Queen Elsa, who abandons her kingdom when her magical ability to create and control ice and snow is discovered by the public. Up in the mountains, away from confused and suspicious onlookers, Elsa realizes that she no longer needs to hide her abilities, and so declares herself free from the restrictions she has had to endure since childhood. She rejoices in being able to use her power without fear or limit, to let her past go, and manipulate snow to create a living snowman and a magnificent ice castle for herself. The song also includes discarding items, most notably her glove which her parents gave her to hold back her powers, and taking her tiara off her head and throwing it over her shoulder, afterwards unraveling her braided hairstyle.
"Let It Go '' reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and won both the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2014 and the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media in 2015. The song gained international recognition, becoming one of the most globally recorded Disney songs, with numerous covers being recorded in different languages.
According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, "Let It Go '' sold 10.9 million copies in 2014, becoming the year 's fifth best - selling song.
The Daily Telegraph explained that instead of the villain originally envisioned by the producers, the songwriters saw Elsa as "a scared girl struggling to control and come to terms with her gift. '' When interviewed in January 2014 by John August and Aline Brosh McKenna, Frozen director Jennifer Lee gave her recollection of the song 's conception: "Bobby and Kristen said they were walking in Prospect Park and they just started talking about what would it feel like (to be Elsa). Forget villain. Just what it would feel like. And this concept of letting out who she is (,) that she 's kept to herself for so long (,) and she 's alone and free, but then the sadness of the fact (sic) that the last moment is she 's alone. It 's not a perfect thing, but it 's powerful. ''
"Let It Go '' was the first song written by Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez for the film that made it in, since songs composed earlier were eventually cut. The story outline they were given had a place reserved for "Elsa 's Badass Song '', which was what they were trying to write. The duo took inspiration from the songs of the Disney Renaissance such as The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast and various artists including Adele, Aimee Mann, Avril Lavigne (whose 2002 debut album was titled Let Go), Lady Gaga, and Carole King. The song finally began to gel one day as the couple walked together from their home in Park Slope to nearby Prospect Park while they were "thinking from an emo kind of place. '' Anderson - Lopez explained what happened next: "We went for a walk in Prospect Park and threw phrases at each other. What does it feel like to be the perfect exalted person, but only because you 've held back this secret? Bobby came up with ' kingdom of isolation, ' and it worked. '' Lopez was able to improvise the song 's first four lines on the spot. Back at their home studio, they composed the rest of the song by alternating between improvising melodies on a piano and brainstorming lyrics on a whiteboard, and finished it within a single day.
"Let It Go '' is a power ballad in the key of A-flat major overall, but begins in the relative minor (F minor). The song is in quadruple meter, and has a fast tempo of around 137 beats per minute (allegro). The song 's vocal range spans from F to E ♭. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez specifically wrote the song for Idina Menzel, referring to her as "one of the most glorious voices of Broadway and an icon in musical theater. '' Menzel 's vocal range was taken under consideration during the music 's composition.
For each song they created, including "Let It Go '', Anderson - Lopez and Lopez recorded a demo in their studio, then emailed it to the Disney Animation production team in Burbank for discussion at their next videoconference. After the film 's release, Anderson - Lopez was shown an "explicitly honest '' fan version of the song with very colorful lyrics, and in response, she noted that in the videoconferences she herself had used similarly candid language to describe Elsa 's mindset at that point in the plot: "After a while, Chris Montan, the head of music at Disney, would be like, ' Whoa, language! ' '' She also disclosed that Disney Animation 's Chief Creative Officer John Lasseter (who served as executive producer for Frozen) was so taken with "Let It Go '' that he played her original demo of the song in his car for months.
Once approved, the song 's piano - vocal score, along with the rest of their work for Frozen, was eventually forwarded to arranger Dave Metzger at his home studio in Salem, Oregon, who orchestrated their work into a lush sound suitable for recording by a full orchestra at the Eastwood Scoring Stage on the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank at the end of July 2013. The song 's vocal track was recorded separately prior to orchestration at Sunset Sound in Hollywood, with the piano track from the demo playing into Menzel 's headphones. That piano track, played by Lopez himself, was not re-recorded by a session musician at the orchestral recording session; it is the same piano track heard in the final mix of the song.
Although unintentional, the song 's composition was pivotal in the film 's characterization of Elsa. Although Elsa was originally written as a villain, co-directors Chris Buck and Lee gradually rewrote Elsa into one of the film 's protagonists after "Let It Go '' was composed. About that, Lee later explained, "the minute we heard the song the first time, I knew that I had to rewrite the whole movie. '' Buck further clarified: "Jen had to go back and rewrite some pages in the first act to build up to that scene... You have to set it up well enough in advance so that when the song comes, the audience is ready for it and there 's an emotional payoff. ''
When it came to animating Elsa 's scenes for the song, Lopez and Anderson - Lopez insisted on the particular detail that Elsa should slam the palace doors on the audience at the song 's end, which they acknowledged was similar to the ending of the Broadway musical Sweeney Todd. Lopez explained that they wanted that feeling of how "this character does n't need us anymore, '' because he had always loved that feeling "when a character just kind of malevolently looks at you and slams a door in your face, '' although in the final version, Elsa 's facial expression ended up as more of a "sly smile ''. According to Lopez, it was the last line at the end, "the cold never bothered me anyway, '' that was "our little Avril Lavigne line ''.
On December 6, 2013, Walt Disney Animation Studios released a video of the entire "Let It Go '' sequence as seen in the movie, which has over 600 million views as of December 2017 on YouTube. On January 30, 2014, a sing - along version of the sequence was released and has received more than 1.3 billion views on YouTube as of December 2017.
Besides the original English version, Disney Character Voices International arranged for Frozen to be dubbed into another 47 languages and dialects worldwide. A major challenge was to find sopranos capable of matching Menzel 's warm vocal tone and vocal range in their native languages. Rick Dempsey, senior executive at Disney Character Voices International regarded the process as "exceptionally challenging '', explaining, "It 's a difficult juggling act to get the right intent of the lyrics and also have it match rhythmically to the music. And then you have to go back and adjust for lip sync! (It)... requires a lot of patience and precision. ''
On January 22, 2014, Disney released a multi-language version of the "Let It Go '' musical sequence, which featured vocal performances of 25 different voice actresses who portrayed Elsa in their respective dubbing versions of the film. At the annual meeting of the shareholders of the Walt Disney Company on March 18, 2014 in Portland, Oregon, chairman and chief executive officer Bob Iger praised the team who did "an incredible job casting fantastic international talent so that Frozen truly belongs to the world, '' then showed the entire multi-language video clip of "Let It Go '' to the assembled shareholders. On March 31, 2014, an in - studio multi-language video of the song was released, showing singers of 25 different languages recording their versions of "Let It Go ''. On April 15, 2014 a studio recording of the multi-language version was released via digital download.
In 2015, a Hindi and an Indonesian version of the movie were aired on Disney Channel. The Indonesian version features a translated pop version of "Let It Go '', sung by the ensemble of Indonesian singers Anggun, Chilla Kiana, Regina Ivanova (id), Nowela and Cindy Bernadette. The pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia (id).
On April 15, 2014, Walt Disney Records released a compilation album titled Let It Go: The Complete Set, with all 42 foreign - language film versions of "Let It Go '' and nine end credit versions.
In South Korea, the pop version of the song by Hyolyn reached number six on the Gaon Music Chart in February, followed by the film version performed by Hye Na Park (ko) charting at number 80 in March. The Japanese versions of the song, performed in the film by Takako Matsu and in the end roll by May J., reached number 2 and 8 respectively on the Japan Hot 100 after the film 's Japanese release in March 2014. Matsu 's version was certified million for digital downloads in Japan in May 2014, and May J. 's version platinum for 250,000 downloads. May J. recorded a rearranged version of the song on her album Heartful Song Covers, which was released on March 26, 2014.
Since 2013, some local TV stations have been dubbing the movie in their local languages. Namely: Albanian, Arabic, Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog.
Anggun, Chilla Kiana, Regina Ivanova (id), Nowela and Cindy Bernadette (credits)
"Let It Go '' received widespread acclaim from film critics, music critics, and audiences, with some comparing it favorably to "Defying Gravity '' (also performed by Idina Menzel) from the Broadway musical Wicked. The Rochester City Newspaper called it the best song of the film 's soundtrack, writing; "Performed with belty gusto by Idina Menzel, it 's got every element needed to be a lasting favorite. (...) Menzel should be credited for providing as much power and passion to this performance as she did in her most famous role. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Snetiker described the song as "an incredible anthem of liberation '' while Joe Dziemianowicz of New York Daily News called it "a stirring tribute to girl power and the need to ' let go ' of fear and shame ''.
On the other hand, Jim DeRogatis and Greg Kot of the radio show Sound Opinions criticized the song; DeRogatis labeled it "schlock '', and Kot described it as a "clichéd piece of fluff that you would have heard on a Broadway soundtrack from maybe the fifties or the sixties ''.
By spring 2014, many journalists had observed that after watching Frozen, numerous young children in the United States were becoming unusually obsessed with the film 's music, and with "Let It Go '' in particular. Columnist Yvonne Abraham of The Boston Globe called the song "musical crack '' which "sends kids into altered states. '' A similar phenomenon was described in the United Kingdom, where Lorraine Candy, editor - in - chief of Elle UK, wrote of a "musical epidemic sweeping the nation, relentlessly gathering up every child... in its cult - like grip ''.
Passenger, the singer - songwriter who rose to fame with the 2012 hit single "Let Her Go '', admitted in an August 2016 interview on The Project that his single is frequently confused with "Let It Go. '' As a result, he "always '' receives song requests for the latter, even though it is not his song.
In November 2017, Chilean pop singer Jaime Ciero sued Disney, Idina Menzel, and Demi Lovato, claiming that "Let It Go '' was extremely similar to his 2008 song "Volar ''.
Some viewers outside the film industry, including one evangelical pastor and commentators, believe that the film is a promotion for the normalization of homosexuality, while others have argued that the character of Elsa is a representation of positive LGBT youth and the song is a metaphor for coming out. The LGBT community, however, had a mixed reaction to these claims. When Frozen co-director Jennifer Lee was asked about the purported gay undertones, she stated that the film 's meaning was open to interpretation "I feel like once we hand the film over, it belongs to the world, so I do n't like to say anything, and let the fans talk. I think it 's up to them. '' Lee added that the film 's meaning was also inevitably going to be interpreted within the cultural context of being made in the year 2013.
Another interpretation for the song is that it promotes self - affirmation for people on the autism spectrum. Co-writer Kristen Andersen - Lopez has stated that her younger brother has autistic traits and that inspired the song insofar as it deals with the concept of having a "special sibling. ''
"Let It Go '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 86th Academy Awards, where a shortened rendition of the show - tune version was performed live by Menzel; with the award, Robert Lopez became the 12th person, and by far the quickest (10 years), to win an Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony in their career.
The decision to release a single for "Let It Go '' was made after the song was written and was presented to Disney. Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez selected American singer and former Disney Channel star Demi Lovato, who also appears on Disney 's Hollywood Records roster, to cover the song on the soundtrack album. It was included in the deluxe edition of Demi. The Demi Lovato version was officially covered in nine other languages, eight of which are included into "Let It Go the Complete Set '': French, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Malaysian, Mandarin Chinese (China 's version), Spanish (Latin American version) and Russian. The Indonesian pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia (id).
Anderson - Lopez said that Lovato was chosen because of the singer 's own personal life; "She had a past that she 's pretty open about that is similar to Elsa 's journey of letting a dark past and fear behind and moving forward with your power. '' Lovato indeed identified herself with the song 's context, stating "It 's so relatable. Elsa is finding her identity; she 's growing into who she is and she 's finally accepting her own strength and magical powers. Instead of hiding it, like she 's done all her life, she 's letting it go and embracing it. ''
Lovato 's cover version was released as a single by Walt Disney Records on October 21, 2013. While Menzel 's version is performed in the key of A-flat major and a tempo of 137 beats per minute, Lovato 's version is performed in the key of G major and a tempo of 140 beats per minute, with her vocal range spanning between G and E. In this version, the line "Let the storm rage on '' is omitted from the chorus, along with its unusual accompanying chord progression, and an extra "Let it go '' is substituted in its place.
The music video was released on November 1, 2013. It was directed by Declan Whitebloom. The video opens with Lovato sitting on the floor of an abandoned mansion lined with marble floors and dotted with furniture covered with white sheets. During the video she is wearing a black period - inspired cloak dress. She can then be seen playing a grand piano. The scenes inside the mansion are interwoven with images and clips from Frozen. Towards the end of the song, Lovato re-emerges wearing a cream - colored gown and the room seems to be new again, with the sheets thrown away revealing brightly embellished furniture.
Lovato performed the song on several occasions. Lovato first performed the track at the 2013 Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade. On November 13, 2014, she performed the song at the 2014 Royal Variety Performance. The song was also a part of Lovato 's setlist for The Neon Lights Tour and the Demi World Tour. On May 2015, she performed the song for 2nd Indonesian Choice Awards.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Menzel 's version was a single release, being promoted to adult contemporary radio by Walt Disney Records in January 2014. Disney 's music division planned to release Lovato 's version of the song before Menzel 's, as they did not consider Menzel 's version a traditional pop song.
It is the first song from a Disney animated musical to reach the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 since 1995, when Vanessa L. Williams ' "Colors of the Wind '' from Pocahontas peaked at number four on the chart. The song is also Menzel 's first single to reach the top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, making her the first Tony Award winner for acting to ever reach the top 10. The song was the ninth best - selling song of 2014 in the United States with 3.37 million copies sold in that year. As of December 2014, the song has sold 3.5 million copies in the US. It is now the biggest - selling foreign song from any original soundtrack in South Korea as of March 12, 2014.
A remix EP was released digitally by Walt Disney Records on May 19, 2014. The EP features four remixes by Dave Audé, Papercha $ er, DJ Escape & Tony Coluccio and Corbin Hayes. Armin van Buuren produced another remix of the song for the remix album, Dconstructed.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Many cover versions have been recorded internationally. In February 2014, Alex Boyé recorded a light Africanized tribal cover of the song, featuring the One Voice Children 's Choir and Lexi Walker as Elsa.
The Piano Guys ' cover version mixes parts of Antonio Vivaldi 's Concerto No. 4 in F minor, Op. 8, RV 297, "L'inverno '' (Winter) from The Four Seasons into the original. The music videos of both covers were filmed in the ice castles in Midway, Utah.
In March 2014, Brian Hull recorded a cover of the song while impersonating various Disney characters such as Winnie the Pooh, Tigger, Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse and Goofy.
Norwegian YouTube singer Per Fredrik Pellek Asly or "PelleK '', covered a power metal version of the Lovato version of the song on December 16, 2013, collecting more than 4 million views.
In February 2014, a parody YouTuber by the name of Malinda Kathleen Reese used Google Translate to translate the song 's lyrics from multiple languages to English, revealing expected humorous mistranslations, with lines such as "Let us very angry '' and "Give up, tune in, slam the door. ''
It has been alleged by some commentators that one of the promotional songs for the 2022 Winter Olympics, "The Snow and Ice Dance, '' has suspicious similarities with "Let It Go. '' A Chinese media outlet cited technical analysis of the two songs: Both songs employ a piano as the major instrument, have similar prelude chords and an eight - beat introduction, and they run at almost exactly the same tempo.
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what type of bomb was used in london | 30 St Mary Axe - Wikipedia
30 St Mary Axe (informally known as the Gherkin and previously as the Swiss Re Building) is a commercial skyscraper in London 's primary financial district, the City of London. It was completed in December 2003 and opened in April 2004. With 41 stories it is 180 metres (591 ft) tall and stands on the former sites of the Baltic Exchange and Chamber of Shipping, which were extensively damaged in 1992 by the explosion of a bomb placed by the Provisional IRA in St Mary Axe, the street from which the tower takes its name.
After plans to build the 92 - storey Millennium Tower were dropped, 30 St Mary Axe was designed by Norman Foster and Arup Group and it was erected by Skanska, with construction commencing in 2001.
The building has become a recognisable feature of London and is one of the city 's most widely recognised examples of contemporary architecture.
The building stands on the former sites of the Baltic Exchange (24 - 28 St Mary Axe), which was the headquarters of a global marketplace for ship sales and shipping information, and the Chamber of Shipping (30 - 32 St Mary Axe). On 10 April 1992, the Provisional IRA detonated a bomb close to the Exchange, causing extensive damage to the historic building and neighbouring structures.
The United Kingdom government 's statutory adviser on the historic environment, English Heritage, and the City of London 's governing body, the City of London Corporation, were keen that any redevelopment must restore the Baltic Exchange 's old façade onto St Mary Axe. The Exchange Hall was a celebrated fixture of the ship trading market.
After English Heritage later discovered the damage was far more severe than initially thought, they stopped insisting on full restoration, albeit over the objections of the architectural conservationists who favoured reconstruction. The Baltic Exchange and the Chamber of Shipping sold the land to Trafalgar House in 1995. Most of the remaining structures on Baltic Exchange site were then carefully dismantled, the interior of Exchange Hall and the façade were preserved, hoping for a reconstruction of the building in the future. The salvaged material was eventually sold for £ 800,000 and moved to Tallinn, Estonia, where it awaits reconstruction as the centrepiece of the city 's commercial sector.
In 1996, Trafalgar House submitted plans for the Millennium Tower, a 386 - metre (1,266 ft) building with more than 140,000 m (1,500,000 sq ft) of office space, apartments, shops, restaurants and gardens. This plan was dropped after objections for being totally out - of - scale with the City of London and anticipated disruption to flight paths for both London City and London Heathrow airports; the revised plan for a lower tower was accepted.
The tower 's topmost panoramic dome, known as the "lens '', recalls the iconic glass dome that covered part of the ground floor of the Baltic Exchange and much of which is now displayed at the National Maritime Museum.
The Gherkin nickname was applied to the current building at least as long ago as 1999, referring to that plan 's highly unorthodox layout and appearance.
On 23 August 2000, Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott granted planning permission to construct a building much larger than the old Exchange on the site. The site was special because it needed development, was not on any of the "sight lines '' (planning guidance requires that new buildings do not obstruct or detract from the view of St Paul 's dome when viewed from a number of locations around London), and it had housed the Baltic Exchange.
The plan for the site was to reconstruct the Baltic Exchange. GMW Architects proposed a new rectangular building surrounding a restored exchange: the square shape would have the type of large floor plan that banks liked. Eventually, the planners realised that the exchange was not recoverable, forcing them to relax their building constraints; they hinted that an "architecturally significant '' building might obtain a favourable reception from city authorities. This gave the architect a free hand in the design; it eliminated the restrictive demands for a large, capital - efficient, money - making building, whose design was per the client 's desire.
Swiss Re 's low level plan met the planning authority 's desire to maintain London 's traditional streetscape with its relatively narrow streets. The mass of the Swiss Re tower was not too imposing. Like Barclays Bank 's former City headquarters in Lombard Street, the idea was that the passer - by in neighbouring streets would be nearly oblivious to the tower 's existence until directly underneath it.
The building was constructed by Skanska, completed in December 2003 and opened on 28 April 2004. The primary occupant of the building is Swiss Re, a global reinsurance company, which had the building commissioned as the head office for its UK operation. The tower is thus sometimes known as the Swiss Re Building, although this name has never been official and has more recently fallen out of favour, since the company 's main headquarters is in Zurich and the Gherkin name has become more popular.
The building uses energy - saving methods, which allow it to use half the power that a similar tower would typically consume. Gaps in each floor create six shafts that serve as a natural ventilation system for the entire building, even though required firebreaks on every sixth floor interrupt the "chimney ''. The shafts create a giant double glazing effect; air is sandwiched between two layers of glazing and insulates the office space inside.
Architects promote double glazing in residential houses, which avoids the inefficient convection of heat across the relatively narrow gap between the panes, but the tower exploits this effect. The shafts pull warm air out of the building during the summer and warm the building in the winter using passive solar heating. The shafts also allow sunlight to pass through the building, making the work environment more pleasing, and keeping the lighting costs down.
The primary methods for controlling wind - excited sways are to increase the stiffness, or increase damping with tuned / active mass dampers. To a design by Arup, its fully triangulated perimeter structure makes the building sufficiently stiff without any extra reinforcements. Despite its overall curved glass shape, there is only one piece of curved glass on the building, the lens - shaped cap at the apex.
On the building 's top level (the 40th floor), there is a bar for tenants and their guests, featuring a panoramic view of London. A restaurant operates on the 39th floor, and private dining rooms on the 38th. Whereas most buildings have extensive lift equipment on the roof of the building, this was not possible for the Gherkin, since a bar had been planned for the 40th floor. The architects dealt with this by having the main lift only reach the 34th floor, and then having a push - from - below lift to the 39th floor. There is a marble stairwell and a disabled persons ' lift, which leads the visitor up to the bar in the dome.
The building is visible over long distances: From the north, for instance, it can be seen from the M11 motorway, some 32 kilometres (20 mi) away, while to the west it can be seen from the statue of George III in Windsor Great Park.
In April 2005, the press reported that a glass panel, two thirds up the tower, had fallen to the plaza beneath. The plaza was sealed off, but the building remained open. A temporary covered walkway, extending across the plaza to the building 's reception, was erected to protect visitors. Engineers examined the other 744 glass panels on the building. The cost of repair was covered by main contractor Skanska and curtain - wall supplier Schmidlin (now called Schmidlin - TSK AG).
Since its completion, the building has won a number of awards for architecture. In October 2004, the architect was awarded the 2004 RIBA Stirling Prize. For the first time in the prize 's history, the judges were unanimous. In December 2005, a survey of the world 's largest firms of architects published in 2006 BD World Architecture 200 voted the tower as the most admired new building in the world. However, Ken Shuttleworth, who worked for Foster and Partners on the design of the building, said in 2011 that he believed the style was now out - moded: "I was looking at the glass all around and (thought), ' Why on earth did we do that? ' Now we would do things differently ''. The building featured in recent films such as Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince, Russell Crowe 's A Good Year, Sharon Stone 's Basic Instinct 2, and Woody Allen 's Match Point and, rechristened the Spirit of London, became the spaceship centrepiece of Keith Mansfield 's 2008 novel Johnny Mackintosh and the Spirit of London.
In September 2006, the building was put up for sale with a price tag of £ 600 million. Potential buyers included British Land, Land Securities, Prudential, ING, and the Abu Dhabi royal family. On 21 February 2007, IVG Immobilien AG and UK investment firm Evans Randall completed their joint purchase of the building for £ 630 million, making it Britain 's most expensive office building. Swiss Re booked a gain of more than £ 300 million from the sale. The new owners are seeking compensation from four of their former managers on the deal, in which about £ 620 million was paid for a building with a build cost of about £ 200 million, giving the previous owners a clear £ 300 million profit.
Since February 2010, Sky News has broadcast its flagship business programme, Jeff Randall Live, from a studio in the building. In addition the top two floors of tower are now available on a private hire basis for events.
Deloitte announced in April 2014 that the building was again being put up for sale, with an expected price of £ 550 million. The current owners could not afford to make loan repayments, citing differences in the value of the multi-currency loan and the British pound, high interest rates and general financing structure. In November 2014, the Gherkin was purchased for £ 700 million by the Safra Group, controlled by the Brazilian billionaire Joseph Safra.
As of January 2015, current occupiers of the building include the following:
Additionally, retailers and restaurants operate from the site, such as The Sterling and Bridge 's Newsagent.
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how many years after the signing of the versailles treaty was this cartoon published | Treaty of Versailles - wikipedia
The Treaty of Versailles (French: Traité de Versailles) was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties. Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919.
Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required "Germany (to) accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage '' during the war (the other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles). This article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty forced Germany to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers. In 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks (then $31.4 billion or £ 6.6 billion, roughly equivalent to US $442 billion or UK £ 284 billion in 2017). At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes (a British delegate to the Paris Peace Conference), predicted that the treaty was too harsh -- a "Carthaginian peace '' -- and said the reparations figure was excessive and counter-productive, views that, since then, have been the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists from several countries. On the other hand, prominent figures on the Allied side such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently.
The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one content: Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European powers, and the re-negotiation of the reparation system resulting in the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the indefinite postponement of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932.
Although it is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference '', only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. Most of the negotiations were in Paris, with the "Big Four '' meetings taking place generally at the Quai d'Orsay.
The First World War (1914 -- 1918) was fought across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia. Countries beyond the war zones were also affected by the disruption of international trade, finance and diplomatic pressures from the belligerents. In 1917, two revolutions occurred within the Russian Empire, which led to the collapse of the Imperial Government and the rise of the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Lenin.
On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war against the Central Powers due to German submarine warfare against merchant ships trading with France and Britain, which led to the sinking of the RMS Lusitania and the loss of 128 American lives, as well as the interception of the Zimmerman Telegram, sent by the Empire of Germany to Mexico, urging for a declaration of war against the United States. The American war aim was to detach the war from nationalistic disputes and ambitions after the Bolshevik disclosure of secret treaties between the Allies. The existence of these treaties tended to discredit Allied claims that Germany was the sole power with aggressive ambitions.
On 8 January 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points. This speech outlined a policy of free trade, open agreements, democracy and self - determination. It also called for a diplomatic end to the war, international disarmament, the withdrawal of the Central Powers from occupied territories, the creation of a Polish state, the redrawing of Europe 's borders along ethnic lines, and the formation of a League of Nations to afford "mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike ''. Wilson 's speech also responded to Vladimir Lenin 's Decree on Peace of November 1917, which proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war and called for a just and democratic peace uncompromised by territorial annexations. The Fourteen Points were based on the research of the Inquiry, a team of about 150 advisors led by foreign - policy advisor Edward M. House, into the topics likely to arise in the anticipated peace conference. Europeans generally welcomed Wilson 's intervention, but Allied colleagues Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy were sceptical of Wilsonian idealism.
After the Central Powers launched Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front, the new Soviet Government of Russia signed the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk with Germany on 3 March 1918. This treaty ended the war between Russia and the Central powers and annexed 1,300,000 square miles (3,400,000 km) of territory and 62 million people. This loss equated to a third of the Russian population, a quarter of its territory, around a third of the country 's arable land, three - quarters of its coal and iron, a third of its factories (totalling 54 percent of the nation 's industrial capacity), and a quarter of its railroads.
During the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse. Desertion rates within the German army began to increase, and civilian strikes drastically reduced war production. On the Western Front, the Allied forces launched the Hundred Days Offensive and decisively defeated the German western armies. Sailors of the Imperial German Navy at Kiel mutinied, which prompted uprisings in Germany, which became known as the German Revolution. The German government tried to obtain a peace settlement based on the Fourteen Points, and maintained it was on this basis that they surrendered. Following negotiations, the Allied powers and Germany signed an armistice, which came into effect on 11 November while German forces were still positioned in France and Belgium.
The terms of the armistice called for an immediate evacuation of German troops from occupied Belgium, France, and Luxembourg within fifteen days. In addition, it established that Allied forces would occupy the Rhineland. In late 1918, Allied troops entered Germany and began the occupation.
Both the German Empire and Great Britain were dependent on imports of food and raw materials, primarily from the Americas, which had to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. The Blockade of Germany (1914 -- 1919) was a naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers to stop the supply of raw materials and foodstuffs reaching the Central Powers. The German Kaiserliche Marine was mainly restricted to the German Bight and used commerce raiders and unrestricted submarine warfare for a counter-blockade. The German Board of Public Health in December 1918 stated that 763,000 German civilians had died during the Allied blockade, although an academic study in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000 people.
In late 1918, a Polish government was formed and an independent Poland proclaimed. In December, Poles launched an uprising within the German province of Posen. Fighting lasted until February, when an armistice was signed that left the province in Polish hands, but technically still a German possession.
Negotiations between the Allied powers started on 18 January in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. Initially, 70 delegates from 27 nations participated in the negotiations. The defeated nations of Germany, Austria, and Hungary were excluded from the negotiations. Russia was also excluded because it had negotiated a separate peace (the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk) with Germany in 1918. The terms of this treaty awarded Germany a large proportion of Russia 's land and resources. Its terms were extremely harsh, as the negotiators at Versailles later pointed out.
At first a "Council of Ten '' comprising two delegates each from Britain, France, the United States, Italy and Japan met officially to decide the peace terms. It became the "Big Four '' when Japan dropped out and the top person from each of the other four nations met in 145 closed sessions to make all the major decisions to be ratified by the entire assembly. Apart from Italian issues, the main conditions were determined at personal meetings among the leaders of the "Big Three '' nations: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, and American President Woodrow Wilson.
The minor nations attended a weekly "Plenary Conference '' that discussed issues in a general forum, but made no decisions. These members formed over 50 commissions that made various recommendations, many of which were incorporated into the final treaty.
As the only major allied power sharing a land border with Germany, France was chiefly concerned with weakening Germany as much as possible. The French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau described France 's position best by telling Wilson: "America is far away, protected by the ocean. Not even Napoleon himself could touch England. You are both sheltered; we are not. '' Clemenceau and his colleagues hoped at the very least to have Allied troops occupy bridges over the Rhine and proposed a plan to create a buffer state in the Rhineland in order to create a barrier between a revitalized Germany and France. However, their demands would not be met by the treaty. Instead, France obtained the demilitarization of the Rhineland, a mandate over the Saar and promises of Anglo - American support in case of a new German aggression (a commitment that could not be relied on after the United States failed to ratify the treaty). Clemenceau 's inability to procure the Rhineland state led to fierce criticism of him in France and contributed to his subsequent fall from power.
British economist John Maynard Keynes argued,
So far as possible, therefore, it was the policy of France to set the clock back and undo what, since 1870, the progress of Germany had accomplished. By loss of territory and other measures her population was to be curtailed; but chiefly the economic system, upon which she depended for her new strength, the vast fabric built upon iron, coal, and transport must be destroyed. If France could seize, even in part, what Germany was compelled to drop, the inequality of strength between the two rivals for European hegemony might be remedied for generations.
France, which suffered significant destruction in its northern territories (the worst damage sustained in areas that formed a so - called Red Zone) and the second heaviest (after the Russian empire) human losses among allies (see main article World War I casualties), was adamant on the payment of reparations. The failure of the government of the Weimar Republic to pay these reparations led to the Occupation of the Ruhr by French and Belgian forces.
Britain had suffered little land devastation during the war and Prime Minister David Lloyd George supported reparations to a lesser extent than the French. Britain began to look on a restored Germany as an important trading partner and worried about the effect of reparations on the British economy.
Before the end of the war, President Woodrow Wilson put forward his Fourteen Points, which represented the liberal position at the Conference and helped shape world opinion. Wilson was concerned with rebuilding the European economy, encouraging self - determination, promoting free trade, creating appropriate mandates for former colonies, and above all, creating a powerful League of Nations that would ensure the peace. He opposed harsh treatment of Germany but was outmanoeuvered by Britain and France. He brought along top intellectuals as advisors, but his refusal to include prominent Republicans in the American delegation made his efforts seem partisan, and it contributed to a risk of political defeat at home.
In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including Articles 227, 230 and 231. In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would have to accept the treaty or face an invasion of Allied forces across the Rhine within 24 hours. On 23 June, Bauer capitulated and sent a second telegram with a confirmation that a German delegation would arrive shortly to sign the treaty. On 28 June 1919, the fifth anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the immediate impetus for the war), the peace treaty was signed. The treaty had clauses ranging from war crimes, the prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations, freedom of navigation on major European rivers, to the returning of a Koran to the king of Hedjaz.
The treaty stripped Germany of 25,000 square miles (65,000 km) of territory and 7 million people. It also required Germany to give up the gains made via the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk and grant independence to the protectorates that had been established. In Western Europe Germany was required to recognize Belgian sovereignty over Moresnet and cede control of the Eupen - Malmedy area. Within six months of the transfer, Belgium was required to conduct a plebiscite on whether the citizens of the region wanted to remain under Belgian sovereignty or return to German control, communicate the results to the League of Nations and abide by the League 's decision. To compensate for the destruction of French coal mines, Germany was to cede the output of the Saar coalmines to France and control of the Saar to the League of Nations for 15 years; a plebiscite would then be held to decide sovereignty. The treaty "restored '' the provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to France by rescinding the treaties of Versailles and Frankfurt of 1871 as they pertained to this issue. The sovereignty of Schleswig - Holstein was to be resolved by a plebiscite to be held at a future time (see Schleswig Plebiscites).
In Eastern Europe, Germany was to recognize the independence of Czechoslovakia and cede parts of the province of Upper Silesia. Germany had to recognize the independence of Poland and renounce "all rights and title over the territory ''. Portions of Upper Silesia were to be ceded to Poland, with the future of the rest of the province to be decided by plebiscite. The border would be fixed with regard to the vote and to the geographical and economic conditions of each locality. The province of Posen (now Poznan), which had come under Polish control during the Greater Poland Uprising, was also to be ceded to Poland. Pomerelia (Eastern Pomerania), on historical and ethnic grounds, was transferred to Poland so that the new state could have access to the sea and became known as the Polish Corridor. The sovereignty of part of southern East Prussia was to be decided via plebiscite while the East Prussian Soldau area, which was astride the rail line between Warsaw and Danzig, was transferred to Poland outright without plebiscite. An area of 51,800 square kilometres (20,000 square miles) was granted to Poland at the expense of Germany. Memel was to be ceded to the Allied and Associated powers, for disposal according to their wishes. Germany was to cede the city of Danzig and its hinterland, including the delta of the Vistula River on the Baltic Sea, for the League of Nations to establish the Free City of Danzig.
Article 119 of the treaty required Germany to renounce sovereignty over former colonies and Article 22 converted the territories into League of Nations mandates under the control of Allied states. Togoland and German Kamerun (Cameroon) were transferred to France. Ruanda and Urundi were allocated to Belgium, whereas German South - West Africa went to South Africa and the United Kingdom obtained German East Africa. As compensation for the German invasion of Portuguese Africa, Portugal was granted the Kionga Triangle, a sliver of German East Africa in northern Mozambique. Article 156 of the treaty transferred German concessions in Shandong, China, to Japan, not to China. Japan was granted all German possessions in the Pacific north of the equator and those south of the equator went to Australia, except for German Samoa, which was taken by New Zealand.
The treaty was comprehensive and complex in the restrictions imposed upon the post-war German armed forces (the Reichswehr). The provisions were intended to make the Reichswehr incapable of offensive action and to encourage international disarmament. Germany was to demobilize sufficient soldiers by 31 March 1920 to leave an army of no more than 100,000 men in a maximum of seven infantry and three cavalry divisions. The treaty laid down the organisation of the divisions and support units, and the General Staff was to be dissolved. Military schools for officer training were limited to three, one school per arm, and conscription was abolished. Private soldiers and Non-commissioned officers were to be retained for at least twelve years and officers for a minimum of 25 years, with former officers being forbidden to attend military exercises. To prevent Germany from building up a large cadre of trained men, the number of men allowed to leave early was limited.
The number of civilian staff supporting the army was reduced and the police force was reduced to its pre-war size, with increases limited to population increases; paramilitary forces were forbidden. The Rhineland was to be demilitarized, all fortifications in the Rhineland and 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of the river were to be demolished and new construction was forbidden. Military structures and fortifications on the islands of Heligoland and Düne were to be destroyed. Germany was prohibited from the arms trade, limits were imposed on the type and quantity of weapons and prohibited from the manufacture or stockpile of chemical weapons, armoured cars, tanks and military aircraft. The German navy was allowed six pre-dreadnought battleships and was limited to a maximum of six light cruisers (not exceeding 6,000 long tons (6,100 t)), twelve destroyers (not exceeding 800 long tons (810 t)) and twelve torpedo boats (not exceeding 200 long tons (200 t)) and was forbidden submarines. The manpower of the navy was not to exceed 15,000 men, including manning for the fleet, coast defences, signal stations, administration, other land services, officers and men of all grades and corps. The number of officers and warrant officers was not allowed to exceed 1,500 men. Germany surrendered eight battleships, eight light cruisers, forty - two destroyers, and fifty torpedo boats for decommissioning. Thirty - two auxiliary ships were to be disarmed and converted to merchant use. Article 198 prohibited Germany from having an air force, including naval air forces, and required Germany to hand over all aerial related materials. In conjunction, Germany was forbidden to manufacture or import aircraft or related material for a period of six months following the signing of the treaty.
In Article 231 Germany accepted responsibility for the losses and damages caused by the war "as a consequence of the... aggression of Germany and her allies. '' The treaty required Germany to compensate the Allied powers, and it also established an Allied "Reparation Commission '' to determine the exact amount which Germany would pay and the form that such payment would take. The commission was required to "give to the German Government a just opportunity to be heard '', and to submit its conclusions by 1 May 1921. In the interim, the treaty required Germany to pay an equivalent of 20 billion gold marks ($5 billion) in gold, commodities, ships, securities or other forms. The money would help to pay for Allied occupation costs and buy food and raw materials for Germany.
To ensure compliance, the Rhineland and bridgeheads east of the Rhine were to be occupied by Allied troops for fifteen years. If Germany had not committed aggression, a staged withdrawal would take place; after five years, the Cologne bridgehead and the territory north of a line along the Ruhr would be evacuated. After ten years, the bridgehead at Coblenz and the territories to the north would be evacuated and after fifteen years remaining Allied forces would be withdrawn. If Germany reneged on the treaty obligations, the bridgeheads would be reoccupied immediately.
Part I of the treaty, as per all the treaties signed during the Paris Peace Conference, was the Covenant of the League of Nations, which provided for the creation of the League, an organization for the arbitration of international disputes. Part XIII organized the establishment of the International Labour Officer, to regulate hours of work, including a maximum working day and week; the regulation of the labour supply; the prevention of unemployment; the provision of a living wage; the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment; the protection of children, young persons and women; provision for old age and injury; protection of the interests of workers when employed abroad; recognition of the principle of freedom of association; the organization of vocational and technical education and other measures. The treaty also called for the signatories to sign or ratify the International Opium Convention.
The surrender of the German High Seas Fleet following the Armistice and its internment (and eventual scuttling) in Scapa Flow meant that Britain had already accomplished her primary war goal even before the Paris Peace Conference opened. With the German naval threat removed, Britain began focusing on Germany as a bulwark against the threat posed by the new Soviet Union.
Thus, British policy towards Germany began diverging from France 's almost from the moment the guns fell silent. British officials at the conference declared French policy to be "greedy '' and "vindictive, '' with Ramsay MacDonald later announcing, after Hitler 's re-militarisation of the Rhineland in 1936, that he was "pleased '' that the treaty was "vanishing '', expressing his hope that the French had been taught a "severe lesson ''. In 1938, Lloyd George published a massive two - volume memoir titled The Truth About the Peace Treaties, in which he effectively repudiated the terms of the treaty that bore his signature.
France signed the treaty and was active in the League. The French people rejoiced that Alsace and Lorraine had been returned to France and that Germany had agreed to pay reparations. But the perception that Clemenceau had failed to achieve all of France 's demands damaged him politically. When he stood for election as President of France in January 1920, he was defeated. Through much of the 1920s, France was the most vigorous of the wartime Allies in seeking to enforce the treaty 's harsher terms, especially with regard to reparations. Without strong British support, however, she was largely unsuccessful. French Marshal Ferdinand Foch -- who felt the restrictions on Germany were too lenient -- prophetically predicted that "this (treaty) is not peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years. ''
Reaction in Italy to the treaty was extremely negative. The country had suffered high casualties, yet failed to achieve most of its major war goals, notably gaining control of the Dalmatian coast and Fiume. President Wilson rejected Italy 's claims on the basis of "national self - determination. '' For their part, Britain and France -- who had been forced in the war 's latter stages to divert their own troops to the Italian front to stave off collapse -- were disinclined to support Italy 's position at the peace conference. Differences in negotiating strategy between Premier Vittorio Orlando and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino further undermined Italy 's position at the conference. A furious Vittorio Orlando suffered a nervous collapse and at one point walked out of the conference (though he later returned). He lost his position as prime minister just a week before the treaty was scheduled to be signed, effectively ending his active political career. Anger and dismay over the treaty 's provisions helped pave the way for the establishment of Benito Mussolini 's dictatorship three years later.
Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in 1916 primarily to ensure the security of its African colonies, which were threatened with seizure by both Britain and Germany. To this extent, she succeeded in her war aims. The treaty recognized Portuguese sovereignty over these areas and awarded her small portions of Germany 's bordering overseas colonies. Otherwise, however, Portugal obtained little at the peace conference. Her promised share of German reparations never materialized, and a seat she coveted on the executive council of the new League of Nations went instead to Spain -- which had remained neutral in the war. In the end, Portugal ratified the treaty, but got little out of the war, which cost more than 8,000 Portuguese troops and as many as 100,000 of her African colonial subjects their lives.
After the Versailles conference, Democratic President Woodrow Wilson claimed that "at last the world knows America as the savior of the world! '' However, the Republican Party, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, controlled the US Senate after the election of 1918, and the senators were divided into multiple positions on the Versailles question. It proved possible to build a majority coalition, but impossible to build a two - thirds coalition that was needed to pass a treaty.
A discontent bloc of 12 -- 18 "Irreconcilables '', mostly Republicans but also representatives of the Irish and German Democrats, fiercely opposed the treaty. One block of Democrats strongly supported the Versailles Treaty, even with reservations added by Lodge. A second group of Democrats supported the treaty but followed Wilson in opposing any amendments or reservations. The largest bloc, led by Senator Lodge, comprised a majority of the Republicans. They wanted a treaty with reservations, especially on Article 10, which involved the power of the League of Nations to make war without a vote by the US Congress. All of the Irreconcilables were bitter enemies of President Wilson, and he launched a nationwide speaking tour in the summer of 1919 to refute them. However, Wilson collapsed midway with a serious stroke that effectively ruined his leadership skills.
The closest the treaty came to passage was on 19 November 1919, as Lodge and his Republicans formed a coalition with the pro-Treaty Democrats, and were close to a two - thirds majority for a Treaty with reservations, but Wilson rejected this compromise and enough Democrats followed his lead to permanently end the chances for ratification. Among the American public as a whole, the Irish Catholics and the German Americans were intensely opposed to the treaty, saying it favored the British.
After Wilson 's presidency, his successor Republican President Warren G. Harding continued American opposition to the formation of the League of Nations. Congress subsequently passed the Knox -- Porter Resolution bringing a formal end to hostilities between the United States and the Central Powers. It was signed into law by President Harding on 2 July 1921. Soon after, the US -- German Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Berlin on 25 August 1921, the US -- Austrian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Vienna on 24 August 1921, and the US -- Hungarian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Budapest on 29 August 1921.
China felt betrayed as the German territory in China was handed to Japan. The sense of betrayal led to great demonstrations in China and the fall of the nascent Chinese Republic 's government and poisoned relations with the West.
Wilson 's former friend Edward Mandell House, present at the negotiations, wrote in his diary on 29 June 1919:
I am leaving Paris, after eight fateful months, with conflicting emotions. Looking at the conference in retrospect, there is much to approve and yet much to regret. It is easy to say what should have been done, but more difficult to have found a way of doing it. To those who are saying that the treaty is bad and should never have been made and that it will involve Europe in infinite difficulties in its enforcement, I feel like admitting it. But I would also say in reply that empires can not be shattered, and new states raised upon their ruins without disturbance. To create new boundaries is to create new troubles. The one follows the other. While I should have preferred a different peace, I doubt very much whether it could have been made, for the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris.
On 29 April, the German delegation under the leadership of the Foreign Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff - Rantzau arrived in Versailles. On 7 May, when faced with the conditions dictated by the victors, including the so - called "War Guilt Clause '', von Brockdorff - Rantzau replied to Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George: "We know the full brunt of hate that confronts us here. You demand from us to confess we were the only guilty party of war; such a confession in my mouth would be a lie. '' Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a protest against what it considered to be unfair demands, and a "violation of honour '', soon afterwards withdrawing from the proceedings of the peace conference.
Germans of all political shades denounced the treaty -- particularly the provision that blamed Germany for starting the war -- as an insult to the nation 's honor. They referred to the treaty as "the Diktat '' since its terms were presented to Germany on a take - it - or - leave - it basis. Germany ′ s first democratically elected head of government, Philipp Scheidemann, resigned rather than sign the treaty. In a passionate speech before the National Assembly on 21 March 1919, he called the treaty a "murderous plan '' and exclaimed,
Which hand, trying to put us in chains like these, would not wither? The treaty is unacceptable.
After Scheidemann ′ s resignation, a new coalition government was formed under Gustav Bauer. President Friedrich Ebert knew that Germany was in an impossible situation. Although he shared his countrymen 's disgust with the treaty, he was sober enough to consider the possibility that the government would not be in a position to reject it. He believed that if Germany refused to sign the treaty, the Allies would invade Germany from the west -- and there was no guarantee that the army would be able to make a stand in the event of an invasion. With this in mind, he asked Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg if the army was capable of any meaningful resistance in the event the Allies resumed the war. If there was even the slightest chance that the army could hold out, Ebert intended to recommend against ratifying the treaty. Hindenburg -- after prodding from his chief of staff, Wilhelm Groener -- concluded the army could not resume the war even on a limited scale. However, rather than inform Ebert himself, he had Groener inform the government that the army would be in an untenable position in the event of renewed hostilities. Upon receiving this, the new government recommended signing the treaty. The National Assembly voted in favour of signing the treaty by 237 to 138, with five abstentions (there were 421 delegates in total). This result was wired to Clemenceau just hours before the deadline. Foreign minister Hermann Müller and colonial minister Johannes Bell travelled to Versailles to sign the treaty on behalf of Germany. The treaty was signed on 28 June 1919 and ratified by the National Assembly on 9 July by a vote of 209 to 116.
Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders condemned the treaty. Politicians of the Weimar Republic who supported the treaty, socialists, communists, and Jews were viewed with suspicion as persons of questionable loyalty. It was rumored that Jews had not supported the war and had played a role in selling Germany out to its enemies. Those who seemed to benefit from a weakened Germany and the newly formed Weimar Republic were regarded as having "stabbed Germany in the back ''. Those who instigated unrest and strikes in the critical military industries on the home front or who opposed German nationalism were seen to have contributed to Germany 's defeat. These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still on French and Belgian territory. Furthermore, on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won the war against Russia and concluded the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk. In the West, Germany had seemed to have come close to winning the war with the Spring Offensive earlier in 1918. Its failure was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers with an inadequate supply of materiel. The strikes were regarded by nationalists as having been instigated by traitors, with the Jews taking most of the blame.
The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in hard currency. Nonetheless, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (132 billion gold marks) still placed a significant burden on the German economy. Although the causes of the devastating post-war hyperinflation are complex and disputed, Germans blamed the near - collapse of their economy on the treaty, and some economists estimated that the reparations accounted for as much as one - third of the hyper - inflation.
In March 1921, French and Belgian troops occupied Duisburg, which formed part of the demilitarized Rhineland, according to the Treaty of Versailles. In January 1923, French and Belgian forces occupied the rest of the Ruhr area as a reprisal after Germany failed to fulfill reparation payments demanded by the Versailles Treaty. The German government answered with "passive resistance '', which meant that coal miners and railway workers refused to obey any instructions by the occupation forces. Production and transportation came to a standstill, but the financial consequences contributed to German hyperinflation and completely ruined public finances in Germany. Consequently, passive resistance was called off in late 1923. The end of passive resistance in the Ruhr allowed Germany to undertake a currency reform and to negotiate the Dawes Plan, which led to the withdrawal of French and Belgian troops from the Ruhr Area in 1925.
Some significant violations of the provisions of the treaty were:
According to David Stevenson, since the opening of French archives, most commentators have remarked on French restraint and reasonableness at the conference, though Stevenson notes that "(t) he jury is still out '', and that "there have been signs that the pendulum of judgement is swinging back the other way. ''
In his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, John Maynard Keynes referred to the Treaty of Versailles as a "Carthaginian peace '', a misguided attempt to destroy Germany on behalf of French revanchism, rather than to follow the fairer principles for a lasting peace set out in President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points, which Germany had accepted at the armistice. He stated: "I believe that the campaign for securing out of Germany the general costs of the war was one of the most serious acts of political unwisdom for which our statesmen have ever been responsible. '' Keynes had been the principal representative of the British Treasury at the Paris Peace Conference, and used in his passionate book arguments that he and others (including some US officials) had used at Paris. He believed the sums being asked of Germany in reparations were many times more than it was possible for Germany to pay, and that these would produce drastic instability.
French economist Étienne Mantoux disputed that analysis. During the 1940s, Mantoux wrote a posthumously published book titled The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes in an attempt to rebut Keynes ' claims. More recently economists have argued that the restriction of Germany to a small army saved it so much money it could afford the reparations payments.
It has been argued (for instance by historian Gerhard Weinberg in his book A World At Arms) that the treaty was in fact quite advantageous to Germany. The Bismarckian Reich was maintained as a political unit instead of being broken up, and Germany largely escaped post-war military occupation (in contrast to the situation following World War II). In a 1995 essay, Weinberg noted that with the disappearance of Austria - Hungary and with Russia withdrawn from Europe, that Germany was now the dominant power in Eastern Europe.
The British military historian Correlli Barnett claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms that Germany herself, when she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies ''. Furthermore, he claimed, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist '' when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russia in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia 's population (albeit of non-Russian ethnicity), one - half of Russia 's industrial undertakings and nine - tenths of Russia 's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six billion marks. Eventually, even under the "cruel '' terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ′ s economy had been restored to its pre-war status.
Barnett also claims that, in strategic terms, Germany was in fact in a superior position following the Treaty than she had been in 1914. Germany ′ s eastern frontiers faced Russia and Austria, who had both in the past balanced German power. Barnett asserts that its post-war eastern borders were safer, because the former Austrian Empire fractured after the war into smaller, weaker states, Russia was wracked by revolution and civil war, and the newly restored Poland was no match for even a defeated Germany. In the West, Germany was balanced only by France and Belgium, both of which were smaller in population and less economically vibrant than Germany. Barnett concludes by saying that instead of weakening Germany, the treaty "much enhanced '' German power. Britain and France should have (according to Barnett) "divided and permanently weakened '' Germany by undoing Bismarck 's work and partitioning Germany into smaller, weaker states so it could never have disrupted the peace of Europe again. By failing to do this and therefore not solving the problem of German power and restoring the equilibrium of Europe, Britain "had failed in her main purpose in taking part in the Great War ''.
The British historian of modern Germany, Richard J. Evans, wrote that during the war the German right was committed to an annexationist program which aimed at Germany annexing most of Europe and Africa. Consequently, any peace treaty that did not leave Germany as the conqueror would be unacceptable to them. Short of allowing Germany to keep all the conquests of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, Evans argued that there was nothing that could have been done to persuade the German right to accept Versailles. Evans further noted that the parties of the Weimar Coalition, namely the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the social liberal German Democratic Party (DDP) and the Christian democratic Centre Party, were all equally opposed to Versailles, and it is false to claim as some historians have that opposition to Versailles also equalled opposition to the Weimar Republic. Finally, Evans argued that it is untrue that Versailles caused the premature end of the Republic, instead contending that it was the Great Depression of the early 1930s that put an end to German democracy. He also argued that Versailles was not the "main cause '' of National Socialism and the German economy was "only marginally influenced by the impact of reparations ''.
Ewa Thompson points out that the treaty allowed numerous nations in Central and Eastern Europe to liberate themselves from oppressive German rule, a fact that is often neglected by Western historiography, more interested in understanding the German point of view. In nations that found themselves free as the result of the treaty -- such as Poles or Czechs -- it is seen as a symbol of recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by their much larger aggressive neighbours.
Regardless of modern strategic or economic analysis, resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the Nazi Party. The German historian Detlev Peukert wrote that Versailles was far from the impossible peace that most Germans claimed it was during the interwar period, and though not without flaws was actually quite reasonable to Germany. Rather, Peukert argued that it was widely believed in Germany that Versailles was a totally unreasonable treaty, and it was this "perception '' rather than the "reality '' of the Versailles treaty that mattered. Peukert noted that because of the "millenarian hopes '' created in Germany during World War I when for a time it appeared that Germany was on the verge of conquering all of Europe, any peace treaty the Allies of World War I imposed on the defeated German Reich were bound to create a nationalist backlash, and there was nothing the Allies could have done to avoid that backlash. Having noted that much, Peukert commented that the policy of rapprochement with the Western powers that Gustav Stresemann carried out between 1923 and 1929 were constructive policies that might have allowed Germany to play a more positive role in Europe, and that it was not true that German democracy was doomed to die in 1919 because of Versailles. Finally, Peukert argued that it was the Great Depression and the turn to a nationalist policy of autarky within Germany at the same time that finished off the Weimar Republic, not the Treaty of Versailles.
French historian Raymond Cartier states that millions of Germans in the Sudetenland and in Posen - West Prussia were placed under foreign rule in a hostile environment, where harassment and violation of rights by authorities are documented. Cartier asserts that, out of 1,058,000 Germans in Posen - West Prussia in 1921, 758,867 fled their homelands within five years due to Polish harassment. In 1926, the Polish Ministry of the Interior estimated the remaining number of Germans at fewer than 300,000. These sharpening ethnic conflicts would lead to public demands to reattach the annexed territory in 1938 and become a pretext for Hitler ′ s annexations of Czechoslovakia and parts of Poland.
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never ending love for you delaney & bonnie | Never Ending song of Love - Wikipedia
"Never Ending Song of Love '' is a song written by Delaney Bramlett, and, according to some sources, by his wife Bonnie Bramlett. It was originally recorded with his band, Delaney & Bonnie & Friends, in 1971 on the album Motel Shot. Released as a single by Atco Records the same year, "Never Ending Song of Love '' became Delaney & Bonnie 's greatest hit on the pop charts, reaching a peak of # 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number eight Easy Listening. It reached # 16 in Australia.
"Never Ending Song of Love '' has been prominently covered several times. A cover version by The New Seekers was a major hit in the British Isles in 1971. It spent a few weeks at no. 2 in the UK charts, reached no. 1 in the Irish charts, and was the title track on Never Ending Song of Love (album).
On the country music charts, at least three versions have become hits: Dickey Lee recorded a version at the same time as Delaney & Bonnie 's original, which reached # 8 on Billboard 's country charts. Eleven years later, the Osmond Brothers had a minor hit with the song, which reached # 43 on the country charts in 1982. Crystal Gayle 's last U.S. chart hit was a cover of the song, which reached # 72 on the country chart in 1990. As of 2008, it had been covered by over 100 artists.
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who led the attack on european club at pahar thali in chittagong | Pritilata Waddedar - Wikipedia
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Pritilata Waddedar (5 May 1911 -- 23 September 1932) was a Bengali revolutionary nationalist who was influential in the Indian independence movement. After completing her education in Chittagong and Dhaka, she attended Bethune College in Kolkata. Pritilata graduated in philosophy with distinction.
After a brief stint as a school teacher, Pritilata joined a revolutionary group headed by Surya Sen. She led a team of fifteen revolutionaries in 1932 attack on the Pahartali European Club, which had a sign board that read "Dogs and Indians not allowed ''. The revolutionaries torched the club and were later caught by the British police. To avoid of getting arrested, Pritilata consumed cyanide and died.
Pritilata was born in a middle - class Vaidya - Brahmin (Baidya) family on 5 May 1911 in Dhalghat village in Patiya upazila of Chittagong (now in Bangladesh).. Waddedar was a title conferred to an ancestor of the family who originally had the surname Dasgupta. Her father Jagabandhu Waddedar was a clerk in the Chittagong Municipality. Her mother Pratibhamayi Devi was a housewife. The couple had six children -- Madhusduan, Pritilata, Kanaklata, Shantilata, Ashalata and Santosh. Pritilata was nicknamed Rani..
Jagabandhu tried to arrange best possible education for their children. He got Pritilata admitted in Dr. Khastagir Government Girls ' School of Chittagong. Pritilata was a meritorious student. A teacher in the school, whom students affectionately used called Usha Di, used stories of Rani Lakshmibai to inspire nationalism in her students. Kalpana Datta, a classmate of Pritilata, writes in the biography Chittagong Armoury Raiders -- "We had no clear idea in our school days about our future. Then the Rani of Jhansi fired our imagination with her example. Sometimes we used to think of ourselves as fearless... ''. Arts and literature were Pritilata 's favourite subjects. She passed out of Dr. Khastagir Government Girls ' School in 1928 and in 1929, got admitted to the Eden College, Dhaka. In the Intermediate examinations, she stood first among all students who appeared in that year 's examination from the Dhaka Board. As a student in Eden College, she participated in various social activities. She joined the group Sree Sangha, headed by Leela Nag, under the banner Deepali Sangha (Dipali Sangha).
To pursue higher education, Pritilata went to Calcutta (now Kolkata) and got admitted to the Bethune College. Two years later, she graduated in Philosophy from the college with a distinction. However, her degree was withheld by British authorities at Calcutta University. In 2012, she (and Bina Das) were conferred their certificates of merit posthumously.
After completing her education in Calcutta, Pritilata returned to Chittagong. In Chittagong, she took up the job of headmistress at a local English medium secondary school called Nandankanan Aparnacharan School.
Binod Bihari Chowdhury, a contemporary revolutionary
Pritilata decided to join the Indian independence movement. Surya Sen had heard about her and wanted her to join their revolutionary group. On 13 June 1932, Pritilata met Surya Sen and Nirmal Sen in their Dhalghat camp. A contemporary revolutionary, Binod Bihari Chowdhury, objected that they did not allow women to join their group. However, Pritalata was allowed to join the group because the revolutionaries reasoned that women transporting weapons would not attract as much suspicion as men.
Surya Sen and his revolutionary group decided to kill Mr. Craig, Inspector General of Chittagong. Ramakrishna Biswas and Kalipada Chakravarty were assigned for this task. But they mistakenly killed SP of Chandpur and Traini Mukherjee instead of Craig. Ramakrishna Biswas and Kalipada Chakravarty were arrested on 2 December 1931. After the trial Biswas was ordered to be hanged till death and Chakravarty to be exiled to Cellular Jail.
The family and friends lacked the amount of money required to travel to Chittagong to Alipore Jail of Calcutta. Since at that time Pritilata was staying in Kolkata, she was asked to go to Alipore Jail and meet Ramkrishna Biswas.
Along with the revolutionary group of Surya Sen, Pritilata took part in many raids like attacks on the Telephone & Telegraph offices and the capture of the reserve police line. In the Jalalabad battle, she took the responsibility to supply explosives to the revolutionaries.
In 1932, Surya Sen planned to attack the Pahartali European Club which had a signboard that read "Dogs and Indians not allowed ''. Surya Sen decided to appoint a woman leader for this mission. Kalpana Datta was arrested seven days before the event. Because of this, Pritilata was assigned the leadership of the attack. Pritilata went to Kotowali Sea Side for arms training and made the plan of their attack there.
They decided to attack the club on 23 September 1932. The members of the group were given potassium cyanide and were told to swallow it if they were caught.
On the day of the attack, Pritilata dressed herself as a Punjabi male. Her associates Kalishankar Dey, Bireshwar Roy, Prafulla Das, Shanti Chakraborty wore dhoti and shirt. Mahendra Chowdhury, Sushil Dey and Panna Sen wore lungi and shirt.
They reached the club at around 10: 45 PM and launched their attack. There were around 40 people inside the club then. The revolutionaries divided themselves into three separate groups for the attack. In the club, a few police officers who had revolvers started shooting. Pritilata incurred a single bullet wound. According to the police report, in this attack, one woman with a surname of Sullivan died and four men and seven women were injured.
An injured Pritilata was trapped by the British police. She swallowed cyanide to avoid getting arrested. The next day, the police found her body and identified her. On searching her dead body, the police found a few leaflets, photograph of Ramkrishna Biswas, bullets, whistle and the draft of their plan of attack. During the post-mortem it was found that the bullet injury was not very serious and that cyanide poisoning was the cause of her death.
The chief secretary of Bengal sent a report to British authorities in London. In the report it was written --
Pritilata had been closely associated with, if not actually the mistress of, the freedom fighter Biswas who was hanged for the murder of Inspector Tarini Mukherjee, and some reports indicate that she was the wife of Nirmal Sen who was killed while attempting to evade arrest of Dhalghat, where Captain Cameron fell.
Bangladeshi writer Selina Hossain calls Pritilata an ideal for every woman. A trust named Birkannya Pritilata Trust (Brave lady Pritilata Trust) has been founded in her memory. Pritilata 's birthday is celebrated by the trust in different places of Bangladesh and India every year. The trust considers her to be "a beacon of light for women ''. The last end of Sahid Abdus Sabur Road to Mukunda Ram Hat of Boalkhali upazila in Chittagong has been named as Pritilata Waddedar Road. In 2012, a bronze sculpture of Pritilata Waddedar was erected in front of the Pahartali Railway School, adjacent to the historical European Club.
Waddedar 's great - great - niece is British journalist and academic, Ash Sarkar.
Statue at Maidan, Kolkata
Bust of Pritilata
Pritilata Shohid Minar
Pritilata Hall, University of Chittagong
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who has won the most medals of honor | Medal of Honor - Wikipedia
The Medal of Honor is the United States of America 's highest and most prestigious personal military decoration that may be awarded to recognize U.S. military service members who distinguished themselves by acts of valor. The medal is normally awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U.S. Congress. There are three versions of the medal, one for the Army, one for the Navy, and one for the Air Force. Personnel of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard receive the Navy version. U.S. awards, including the Medal of Honor, do not have post-nominal titles, and while there is no official abbreviation, the most common abbreviations are "MOH '' and "MH ''. The Medal of Honor is the oldest continuously issued combat decoration of the United States armed forces.
The Medal of Honor was created as a Navy version in 1861 named the "Medal of Valor '', and an Army version of the medal named the "Medal of Honor '' was established in 1862 to give recognition to men who distinguished themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity '' in combat with an enemy of the United States. Because the medal is presented "in the name of Congress '', it is often referred to as the "Congressional Medal of Honor ''. However, the official name is "Medal of Honor '', which began with the U.S. Army 's version. Within United States Code the medal is referred to as the "Medal of Honor '', and less frequently as "Congressional Medal of Honor ''.
The President normally presents the Medal of Honor at a formal ceremony in Washington, D.C. which is intended to represent the gratitude of the American people, with posthumous presentations made to the primary next of kin. According to the Medal of Honor Historical Society of the United States, there have been 3,516 Medals of Honor awarded to the nation 's soldiers, sailors, airmen, Marines, and Coast Guardsmen since the decoration 's creation, with just less than half of them awarded for actions during the four years of the American Civil War.
In 1990, Congress designated March 25 annually as "National Medal of Honor Day ''. Due to its prestige and status, the Medal of Honor is afforded special protection under U.S. law against any unauthorized adornment, sale, or manufacture, which includes any associated ribbon or badge.
1780: The Fidelity Medallion was a small medal worn on a chain around the neck, similar to a religious medal, that was awarded only to three militiamen from New York state, for the capture of John André, a British officer and spy connected directly to General Benedict Arnold during the American Revolutionary War. The capture saved the fort of West Point from the British Army.
1782: Badge of Military Merit: The first formal system for rewarding acts of individual gallantry by American soldiers was established by George Washington when he issued a field order on August 7, 1782, for a Badge of Military Merit to recognize those members of the Continental Army who performed "any singular meritorious action ''. This decoration is America 's first combat decoration and was preceded only by the Fidelity Medallion, the Congressional medal for Henry Lee awarded in September 1779 in recognition of his attack on the British at Paulus Hook, the Congressional medal for General Horatio Gates awarded in November 1777 in recognition of his victory over the British at Saratoga, and the Congressional medal for George Washington awarded in March 1776. Although the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse after the American Revolutionary War, the concept of a military award for individual gallantry by members of the U.S. Armed Forces had been established.
1847: Certificate of Merit: After the outbreak of the Mexican - American War (1846 -- 1848) a Certificate of Merit (Meritorious Service Citation Certificate) was established by Act of Congress on March 3, 1847 "to any private soldier who had distinguished himself by gallantry performed in the presence of the enemy ''. 539 Certificates were approved for this period. The certificate was discontinued and reintroduced in 1876 effective from June 22, 1874 to February 10, 1892 when it was awarded for extraordinary gallantry by private soldiers in the presence of the enemy. From February 11, 1892 through July 9, 1918 (Certificate of Merit disestablished) it could be awarded to members of the Army for distinguished service in combat or noncombat; from January 11, 1905 through July 9, 1918 the certificate was granted medal status as the Certificate of Merit Medal (first awarded to a soldier who was awarded the Certificate of Merit for combat action on August 13, 1898). This medal was later replaced by the Army Distinguished Service Medal which was established on January 2, 1918 (the Navy Distinguished Service Medal was established in 1919). Those Army members who held the Distinguished Service Medal in place of the Certificate of Merit could apply for the Army Distinguished Service Cross (established 1918) effective March 5, 1934.
The only military award or medal at the beginning of the Civil War (1861 -- 1865) was the Certificate of Merit, which was awarded for the Mexican - American War. In the fall of 1861, a proposal for a battlefield decoration for valor was submitted to Winfield Scott, the general - in - chief of the army, by Lt. Colonel Edward D. Townsend, an assistant adjutant at the War Department and Scott 's chief of staff. Scott, however, was strictly against medals being awarded, which was the European tradition. After Scott retired in October 1861, the Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, adopted the idea of a decoration to recognize and honor distinguished naval service. On 9 December 1861, U.S. Senator (Iowa) James W. Grimes, Chairman on the Committee on Naval Affairs, proposed Public Resolution Number 82 (Bill 82: 37th Congress, Second Session, 12 Stat. 329) "to promote the efficiency of the Navy '' which included a provision for a Navy Medal of Valor which was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on December 21, 1861 (Medal of Honor had been established for the Navy), "to be bestowed upon such petty officers, seamen, landsmen, and marines as shall most distinguish themselves by their gallantry and other seamen - like qualities during the present war. '' Secretary Wells directed the Philadelphia Mint to design the new military decoration. On May 15, 1862, the United States Navy Department ordered 175 medals ($1.85 each) with the words "Personal Valor '' on the back from the U.S. Mint in Philadelphia.
Senator Henry Wilson, the chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs, introduced a resolution on February 15, 1862 for an Army Medal of Honor. The resolution (37th Congress, Second Session, 12 Stat. 623) was approved by Congress and signed into law on July 12, 1862 ("Medals of Honor '' were established for enlisted men of the Army). This measure provided for awarding a medal of honor "to such non-commissioned officers and privates as shall most distinguish themselves by their gallantry in action and other soldier - like qualities during the present insurrection. '' During the war, Townsend would have some medals delivered to some recipients with a letter requesting acknowledgement of the "Medal of Honor ''. The letter written and signed by Townsend on behalf of the Secretary of War, stated that the resolution was "to provide for the presentation of medals of honor to the enlisted men of the army and volunteer forces who have distinguished or may distinguish themselves in battle during the present rebellion. '' By mid-November the War Department contracted with Philadelphia silversmith William Wilson and Son, who had been responsible for the Navy design, to prepare 2,000 Army medals ($2.00 each) to be cast at the mint. The Army version had "The Congress to '' written on the back of the medal. Both versions were made of copper and coated with bronze, which "gave them a reddish tint ''.
1863: Congress made the Medal of Honor a permanent decoration. On March 3, Medals of Honor were authorized for officers of the Army (37th Congress, Third Session, 12 Stat. 751). The Secretary of War first presented the Medal of Honor to six Union Army volunteers on March 25, 1863 in his office.
1890: On April 23, the Medal of Honor Legion is established in Washington, D.C.
1896: The ribbon of the Army version Medal of Honor was redesigned with all stripes being vertical.
1904: The planchet of the Army version of the Medal of Honor was redesigned by General George Lewis Gillespie. The purpose of the redesign was to help distinguish the Medal of Honor from other medals, particularly the membership insignia issued by the Grand Army of the Republic.
1915: On March 3, Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard officers became eligible for the Medal of Honor.
1963: A separate Coast Guard medal was authorized in 1963, but not yet designed or awarded.
1965: A separate design for a version of the medal for the U.S. Air Force was created in 1956, authorized in 1960, and officially adopted on April 14, 1965. Previously, members of the U.S. Army Air Corps, U.S. Army Air Forces, and the U.S. Air Force received the Army version of the medal.
There are three versions of the Medal of Honor, one for each of the military departments of the Department of Defense: Army, Navy, and Air Force. Members of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard are eligible to receive the Navy version. Each is constructed differently and the components are made from gilding metals and red brass alloys with some gold plating, enamel, and bronze pieces. The United States Congress considered a bill in 2004 which would require the Medal of Honor to be made with 90 % gold, the same composition as the lesser - known Congressional Gold Medal, but the measure was dropped.
The Army version is described by the Institute of Heraldry as "a gold five pointed star, each point tipped with trefoils, 1 ⁄ inches (3.8 cm) wide, surrounded by a green laurel wreath and suspended from a gold bar inscribed VALOR, surmounted by an eagle. In the center of the star, Minerva 's head surrounded by the words UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. On each ray of the star is a green oak leaf. On the reverse is a bar engraved THE CONGRESS TO with a space for engraving the name of the recipient. '' The pendant and suspension bar are made of gilding metal, with the eye, jump rings, and suspension ring made of red brass. The finish on the pendant and suspension bar is hard enameled, gold plated, and rose gold plated, with polished highlights.
The Navy version is described as "a five - pointed bronze star, tipped with trefoils containing a crown of laurel and oak. In the center is Minerva, personifying the United States, standing with left hand resting on fasces and right hand holding a shield blazoned with the shield from the coat of arms of the United States. She repulses Discord, represented by snakes. The medal is suspended from the flukes of an anchor. '' It is made of solid red brass, oxidized and buffed.
The Air Force version is described as "within a wreath of green laurel, a gold five - pointed star, one point down, tipped with trefoils and each point containing a crown of laurel and oak on a green background. Centered on the star, an annulet of 34 stars is a representation of the head of the Statue of Liberty. The star is suspended from a bar inscribed with the word VALOR above an adaptation of the thunderbolt from the Air Force Coat of Arms. '' The pendant is made of gilding metal. The connecting bar, hinge, and pin are made of bronze. The finish on the pendant and suspension bar is hard enameled, gold plated, and rose gold plated, with buffed relief.
Since 1944, the Medal of Honor has been attached to a light blue colored moiré silk Neck ribbon that is 1 ⁄ in (30 mm) in width and 21 ⁄ in (550 mm) in length. The center of the ribbon displays thirteen white stars in the form of three chevron. Both the top and middle chevrons are made up of 5 stars, with the bottom chevron made of 3 stars. The Medal of Honor is one of only two United States military awards suspended from a neck ribbon. The other is the Commander 's Degree of the Legion of Merit, and is usually awarded to individuals serving foreign governments.
On May 2, 1896, Congress authorized a "ribbon to be worn with the medal and (a) rosette or knot to be worn in lieu of the medal. '' The service ribbon is light blue with five white stars in the form of an "M ''. It is placed first in the top position in the order of precedence and is worn for situations other than full - dress military uniform. The lapel button is a ⁄ - inch (13 mm), six - sided light blue bowknot rosette with thirteen white stars and may be worn on appropriate civilian clothing on the left lapel.
In 2011, Department of Defense instructions were amended to read "for each succeeding act that would otherwise justify award of the Medal of Honor, the individual receiving the subsequent award is authorized to wear an additional Medal of Honor ribbon and / or a ' V ' device on the Medal of Honor suspension ribbon '' (the "V '' device is a ⁄ - inch - high (6.4 mm) bronze miniature letter "V '' with serifs that denotes valor). The Medal of Honor was the only decoration authorized the use of the "V '' device (none were ever issued) to designate subsequent awards in such fashion. Nineteen individuals, all now deceased, were double Medal of Honor recipients. This was discontinued in July 2014 and changed to read, "A separate MOH is presented to an individual for each succeeding act that justified award. '' As of 2014, no devices are authorized for the Medal of Honor.
The Medal of Honor has evolved in appearance over time. The upside - down star design of the Navy version 's pendant adopted in early 1862 has not changed since its inception. The Army 1862 version followed and was identical to the Navy version except an eagle perched atop cannons was used instead of an anchor to connect the pendant to the suspension ribbon. In 1896, the Army version changed the ribbon 's design and colors due to misuse and imitation by nonmilitary organizations. In 1904, the Army "Gillespie '' version introduced a smaller redesigned star and the ribbon was changed to the light blue pattern with white stars seen today. In 1913, the Navy version adopted the same ribbon pattern.
After World War I, the Navy decided to separate the Medal of Honor into two versions, one for combat and one for non-combat. The original upside - down star was designated as the non-combat version and a new pattern of the medal pendant, in cross form, was designed by the Tiffany Company in 1919. It was to be presented to a sailor or Marine who "in action involving actual conflict with the enemy, distinguish (es) himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty '' Despite the "actual conflict '' guidelines -- the Tiffany Cross was awarded to Navy CDR (later RADM) Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett for arctic exploration. The Tiffany Cross itself was not popular. In 1942, the Navy returned to using only the original 1862 inverted 5 - point star design, and ceased issuing the award for non-combat action.
In 1944, the suspension ribbons for both the Army and Navy version were replaced with the now familiar neck ribbon. When the Air Force version was designed in 1956, it incorporated similar elements and design from the Army version. It used a larger star with the Statue of Liberty image in place of Minerva on the medal and changed the connecting device from an eagle to an heraldic thunderbolt flanked with wings as found on the service seal.
1862 -- 95 Army version
1896 -- 1903 Army version
1904 -- 44 Army version
Post 1944 Army version
1862 -- 1912 Navy version
1913 -- 42 Navy version
1919 -- 42 Navy "Tiffany Cross '' version
Post 1942 Navy version
On October 23, 2002, Pub. L. 107 -- 248 was enacted, modifying 36 U.S.C. § 903, authorizing a Medal of Honor flag to be presented to each person whom a Medal of Honor is awarded. In the case of a posthumous award, the flag will be presented to whom the Medal of Honor is presented to, which in most cases will be the primary next of kin of the deceased awardee.
The flag was based on a concept by retired U.S. Army Special Forces First Sergeant Bill Kendall of Jefferson, Iowa, who in 2001, designed a flag to honor Medal of Honor recipient Captain Darrell Lindsey, a B - 26 pilot from Jefferson who was killed in action during World War II. Kendall 's design of a light blue field emblazoned with 13 white five - pointed stars was nearly identical to that of Sarah LeClerc 's of the Institute of Heraldry. LeClerc 's gold fringed flag, ultimately accepted as the official flag, does not include the words "Medal of Honor '' as written on Kendall 's flag. The color of the field and the 13 white stars, arranged in the form of a three bar chevron, consisting of two chevrons of five stars and one chevron of three stars, emulate the suspension ribbon of the Medal of Honor. The flag has no set proportions.
The first Medal of Honor flag recipient was U.S. Army Sergeant First Class Paul R. Smith, who was presented the flag posthumously. President George W. Bush presented the Medal of Honor and flag to the family of Smith during the award ceremony for him in the White House on April 4, 2005.
A special Medal of Honor Flag presentation ceremony was held for over 60 living Medal of Honor recipients on board the USS Constitution in September, 2006.
There are two distinct protocols for awarding the Medal of Honor. The first and most common is nomination and approval through the chain of command of the service member. The second method is nomination by a member of the U.S. Congress, generally at the request of a constituent. In both cases, if the proposal is outside the time limits for the recommendation, approval to waive the time limit requires a special Act of Congress. The Medal of Honor is presented by the President on behalf of, and in the name of, the Congress. Since 1980, nearly all Medal of Honor recipients -- or in the case of posthumous awards, the next of kin -- have been personally decorated by the Commander - in - Chief. Since 1941, more than half of the Medals of Honor have been awarded posthumously.
Congress drew the three permutations of combat from President Kennedy 's executive order of April 25, 1962, which previously added the same criteria to the Purple Heart. On August 24, Kennedy added similar criteria for the Bronze Star Medal. The amendment was necessary because Cold War armed conflicts did not qualify for consideration under previous statutes such as the 1918 Army Medal of Honor Statute that required valor "in action involving actual conflict with an enemy '', since the United States has not formally declared war since World War II as a result of the provisions of the United Nations Charter. According to congressional testimony by the Army 's Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, the services were seeking authority to award the Medal of Honor and other valor awards retroactive to July 1, 1958, in areas such as Berlin, Lebanon, Quemoy and Matsu Islands, Taiwan Straits, Congo, Laos, Vietnam, and Cuba.
The four specific authorizing statutes amended July 25, 1963:
The President may award, and present in the name of Congress, a medal of honor of appropriate design, with ribbons and appurtenances, to a person who while a member of the Army (naval service; Navy and Marine Corps) (Air Force) (Coast Guard), distinguished himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty.
The Medal of Honor confers special privileges on its recipients. By law, recipients have several benefits:
The Supreme Court 's decision did not specifically address the constitutionality of the older portion of the statute which prohibits the unauthorized wearing, manufacturing, or sale of military medals or decorations. Under the law, the unauthorized wearing, manufacturing, or sale of the Medal of Honor is punishable by a fine of up to $100,000 and imprisonment of up to one year.
A number of veteran support organizations and private companies devote themselves to exposing those who falsely claim to have received the Medal of Honor.
Medal of Honor recipients may apply in writing to the headquarters of the service branch of the medal awarded for a replacement or display Medal of Honor, ribbon, and appurtenance (Medal of Honor flag) without charge. Primary next of kin may also do the same and have any questions answered in regard to the Medal of Honor that was awarded.
The Medal of Honor has been awarded to 3,496 different persons. Of the 19 men who have been awarded the Medal of Honor twice, 14 received two separate medals for two separate actions, while five received both the Navy and Army Medals of Honor for the same action. As of June 2011, since the beginning of World War II, 851 Medals of Honor have been awarded, 523 (61.45 %) posthumously.
The 1917 Medal of Honor Board deleted 911 awards, but only 910 names from the Army Medal of Honor Roll, including awards to Dr. Mary Edwards Walker, William F. "Buffalo Bill '' Cody and the first of two awards issued February 10, 1887, to George W. Midil, who retained his award issued October 25, 1893. None of the 910 "deleted '' recipients were ordered to return their medals, although on the question of whether the recipients could continue to wear their medals, the Judge Advocate General advised the Medal of Honor Board the Army was not obligated to police the matter. Walker continued to wear her medal until her death. President Jimmy Carter formally restored her medal posthumously in 1977. As noted above the medals of Buffalo Bill and 4 other scouts were restored in 1989, and even when revoked the award remained in his family 's possession.
While the governing statute for the Army Medal of Honor (10 U.S.C. § 6241), beginning in 1918, explicitly stated that a recipient must be "an officer or enlisted man of the Army '', "distinguish himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty '', and perform an act of valor "in action involving actual conflict with an enemy '', exceptions have been made:
Nineteen men have been awarded the Medal of Honor twice. The first two - time Medal of Honor recipient was Thomas Custer (brother of George Armstrong Custer) for two separate actions that took place several days apart during the American Civil War.
Five "double recipients '' were awarded both the Army and Navy Medal of Honor for the same action; all five of these occurrences took place during World War I. Since February 1919, no single individual can be awarded more than one Medal of Honor for the same action, although a member of one branch of the armed forces can receive the Medal of Honor from another branch if the actions for which it was awarded occurred under the authority of the second branch.
To date, the maximum number of Medals of Honor earned by any service member has been two. The last individual to be awarded two Medals of Honor was John J. Kelly in 1918; the last individual to receive two Medals of Honor for two different actions was Smedley Butler, in 1914 and 1915.
Arthur MacArthur, Jr. and Douglas MacArthur are the first father and son to be awarded the Medal of Honor. The only other such pairing is Theodore Roosevelt (awarded in 2001) and Theodore Roosevelt, Jr.
Five pairs of brothers have received the Medal of Honor:
Another notable pair of related recipients are Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher (rear admiral at the time of award) and his nephew, Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher (lieutenant at the time of award), both awarded for actions during the United States occupation of Veracruz.
Since 1979, 85 belated Medal of Honor decorations were presented to recognize actions from the Civil War to the Vietnam War. In addition, five recipients whose names were not included on the Army Medal of Honor Roll in 1917 had their awards restored.
A 1993 study commissioned by the U.S. Army investigated "racial disparity '' in the awarding of medals. At the time, no Medals of Honor had been awarded to American soldiers of African descent who served in World War II. After an exhaustive review, the study recommended that ten Distinguished Service Cross recipients be awarded the Medal of Honor. On January 13, 1997, President Bill Clinton presented the Medal of Honor to seven of these World War II veterans, six of them posthumously and one to former Second Lieutenant Vernon Baker.
In 1998, a similar study of Asian Americans resulted in President Bill Clinton presenting 22 Medals of Honor in 2000. Twenty of these medals went to American soldiers of Japanese descent of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team (442nd RCT) who served in the European Theater of Operations during World War II. One of these Medal of Honor recipients was Senator Daniel Inouye, a former U.S. Army officer in the 442nd RCT.
In 2005, President George W. Bush presented the Medal of Honor to Tibor Rubin, a Hungarian - born American Jew who was a Holocaust survivor of World War II and enlisted U.S. infantryman and prisoner of war in the Korean War, whom many believed to have been overlooked because of his religion.
On April 11, 2013, President Obama presented the Medal of Honor posthumously to Army chaplain Captain Emil Kapaun for his actions as a prisoner of war during the Korean War. This follows other awards to Army Sergeant Leslie H. Sabo, Jr. for conspicuous gallantry in action on May 10, 1970, near Se San, Cambodia, during the Vietnam War and to Army Private First Class Henry Svehla and Army Private First Class Anthony T. Kahoʻohanohano for their heroic actions during the Korean War.
As a result of a Congressionally mandated review to ensure brave acts were not overlooked due to prejudice or discrimination, on March 18, 2014 President Obama upgraded Distinguished Service Crosses to Medals of Honor for 24 Hispanic, Jewish, and African American individuals -- the "Valor 24 '' -- for their actions in World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War. Three were still living at the time of the ceremony.
During the Civil War, Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton promised a Medal of Honor to every man in the 27th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment who extended his enlistment beyond the agreed - upon date. The Battle of Gettysburg was imminent, and 311 men of the regiment volunteered to serve until the battle was resolved. The remaining men returned to Maine, but with the Union victory at Gettysburg the 311 volunteers soon followed. The volunteers arrived back in Maine in time to be discharged with the men who had earlier returned. Since there seemed to be no official list of the 311 volunteers, the War Department exacerbated the situation by forwarding 864 medals to the commanding officer of the regiment. The commanding officer only issued the medals to the volunteers who stayed behind and retained the others on the grounds that, if he returned the remainder to the War Department, the War Department would try to reissue the medals.
In 1916, a board of five Army generals on the retired list convened under act of law to review every Army Medal of Honor awarded. The board was to report on any Medals of Honor awarded or issued for any cause other than distinguished service. The commission, led by Nelson A. Miles, identified 911 awards for causes other than distinguished service. This included the 864 medals awarded to members of the 27th Maine regiment; 29 servicemen who served as Abraham Lincoln 's funeral guard; six civilians, including Mary Edwards Walker and Buffalo Bill Cody; and 12 others. Walker 's medal was restored by President Jimmy Carter in 1977. Cody and four other civilian scouts who rendered distinguished service in action, and who were therefore considered by the board to have fully earned their medals, had theirs restored in 1989. The report was endorsed by the Judge Advocate General, who also advised that the War Department should not seek the return of the revoked medals from the recipients identified by the board. In the case of recipients who continued to wear the medal, the War Department was advised to take no action to enforce the statute.
The following decorations, in one degree or another, bear similar names to the Medal of Honor, but are entirely separate awards with different criteria for issuance:
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how did the automobile transform the american landscape and society | 1950s American automobile culture - wikipedia
1950s American automobile culture has had an enduring influence on the culture of the United States, as reflected in popular music, major trends from the 1950s and mainstream acceptance of the "hot rod '' culture. The American manufacturing economy switched from producing war - related items to consumer goods at the end of World War II, and by the end of the 1950s, one in six working Americans were employed either directly or indirectly in the automotive industry. The United States became the world 's largest manufacturer of automobiles, and Henry Ford 's goal of 30 years earlier -- that any man with a good job should be able to afford an automobile -- was achieved. A new generation of service businesses focusing on customers with their automobiles sprang up during the decade, including drive - through or drive - in restaurants and more drive - in theaters (cinemas).
The decade began with 25 million registered automobiles on the road, most of which predated World War II and were in poor condition; no automobiles or parts were produced during the war owing to rationing and restrictions. By 1950, most factories had made the transition to a consumer - based economy, and more than 8 million cars were produced that year alone. By 1958, there were more than 67 million cars registered in the United States, more than twice the number at the start of the decade.
As part of the U.S. national defenses, to support military transport, the National Highway System was expanded with Interstate highways, beginning in 1955, across many parts of the United States. The wider, multi-lane highways allowed traffic to move at faster speeds, with few or no stoplights on the way. The wide - open spaces along the highways became a basis for numerous billboards showing advertisements.
The dawning of the Space Age and Space Race were reflected in contemporary American automotive styling. Large tailfins, flowing designs reminiscent of rockets, and radio antennas that imitated Sputnik 1 were common, owing to the efforts of design pioneers such as Harley Earl.
The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways (commonly called the Interstate system or simply the Interstate) is a network of freeways that forms a part of the National Highway System of the United States. While serving as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe during World War II, Eisenhower had gained an appreciation of the German Autobahn network as an essential component of a national defense system, providing transport routes for military supplies and troop deployments. Construction was authorized by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, and the original portion was completed 35 years later. The system has contributed in shaping the United States into a world economic superpower and a highly industrialized nation.
The Interstate grew quickly, along with the automobile industry, allowing a new - found mobility that permeated ways of American life and culture. The automobile and the Interstate became the American symbol of individuality and freedom, and, for the first time, automobile buyers accepted that the automobile they drove indicated their social standing and level of affluence. It became a statement of their personality and an extension of their self - concepts.
The United States ' investment in infrastructure such as highways and bridges coincided with the increasing availability of cars more suited to the higher speeds that better roads made possible, allowing people to live beyond the confines of major cities, and instead commute to and from work.
After World War II, land developers began to buy land just outside the city limits of larger cities to build mass quantities of inexpensive tract houses. One of the first examples of planned suburbanization is Levittown, Pennsylvania, which was developed by William Levitt beginning in 1951 as a suburb of Philadelphia. The promise of their own single - family home on their own land, together with a free college education and low - interest loans given to returning soldiers to purchase homes under the G.I. Bill, drove demand for new homes to an unprecedented level. Additionally, 4 million babies were born every year during the 1950s. By the end of the baby boom era in 1964, almost 77 million "baby boomers '' had been born, fueling the need for more suburban housing, and automobiles to commute them to and from the city centers for work and shopping.
By the end of the 1950s, one - third of Americans lived in the suburbs. Eleven of the United States 's twelve largest cities recorded a declining population during the decade, with a consequent loss in tax revenues and city culture. Only Los Angeles, a center for the car culture, gained population. Economist Richard Porter commented that "The automobile made suburbia possible, and the suburbs made the automobile essential. ''
More people joined the middle class in the 1950s, with more money to spend, and the availability of consumer goods expanded along with the economy, including the automobile. Americans were spending more time in their automobiles and viewing them as an extension of their identity, which helped to fuel a boom in automobile sales. Most businesses directly or indirectly related to the auto industry saw tremendous growth during the decade. New designs and innovations appealed to a generation tuned into fashion and glamour, and the new - found freedom and way of life in the suburbs had several unforeseen consequences for the inner cities. The 1950s saw the beginning of white flight and urban sprawl, driven by increasing automobile ownership. Many local and national transportation laws encouraged suburbanization, which in time ended up damaging the cities economically.
As more middle - class and affluent people fled the city to the relative quiet and open spaces of the suburbs, the urban centers deteriorated and lost population. At the same time that cities were experiencing a lower tax base due to the flight of higher income earners, pressures from The New Deal forced them to offer pensions and other benefits, increasing the average cost of benefits per employee by 1,629 percent. This was in addition to hiring an average of 20 percent more employees to serve the ever shrinking cities. More Americans were driving cars and fewer were using public transportation, and it was not practical to extend to the suburbs. At the same time, the number of surface roads exploded to serve the ever - increasing numbers of individually owned cars, further burdening city and country resources. During this time, the perception of using public transportation turned more negative. In what is arguably the most extreme example, Detroit, the fifth largest city in the United States in 1950 with 1,849,568 residents, had shrunk to 706,585 by 2010, a reduction of 62 percent.
In some instances, the automotive industry and others were directly responsible for the decline of public transportation. The Great American streetcar scandal saw GM, Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, Phillips Petroleum, Mack Trucks and other companies purchase a number of streetcars and electric trains in the 1930s and 1940s, such that 90 percent of city trolleys had been dismantled by 1950. It was argued that this was a deliberate destruction of streetcars as part of a larger strategy to push the United States into automobile dependency. In United States v. National City Lines, Inc., many were found guilty of antitrust violations. The story has been explored several times in print, film and other media, for example in Who Framed Roger Rabbit, Taken for a Ride and The End of Suburbia.
The automobile unions played a leading role in advancing the cause of women 's rights. In 1955, the United Auto Workers Union (UAW) organized the UAW Women 's Department to strengthen women 's role in the union and encourage participation in the union 's elected bodies. In a move that was met with some hostility by Teamsters leaders, the U.S. Division of Transport Personnel had in 1943 instructed Teamsters Union officials that women should be allowed full employment as truck drivers. That proved to be only a temporary wartime measure, but a change of heart among Teamsters leadership by the mid-1950s led to the Equal Pay Act of 1963. Women in the auto industry were considered leaders in the movement for women 's rights.
The increasing popularity of hot rodding cars (modifying them to increase performance) is reflected in part by the creation of special - interest magazines catering to this culture. Hot Rod is the oldest such magazine, with first editor Wally Parks, and founded by Robert E. Petersen in 1948, with original publication by his Petersen Publishing Company. Hot Rod has licensed affiliation with Universal Technical Institute.
The relative abundance and inexpensive nature of the Ford Model T and other cars from the 1920s to 1940s helped fuel the hot rod culture that developed, which was focused on getting the most linear speed out of these older automobiles. The origin of the term "hot rod '' is unclear, but the culture blossomed in the post-war culture of the 1950s.
Hot Rod magazine 's November 1950 cover announced the first hot rod to exceed 200 mph. The hand - crafted car used an Edelbrock - built Mercury flathead V8 and set the record at the Bonneville Salt Flats. This 30,000 - acre (47 sq mi) region has been called the "Holy Grail of American Hot Rodding '', and is often used for land speed racing, a tradition that grew rapidly in the 1950s and continues today.
Hot rodding was about more than raw power. Kustom Kulture started in the 1950s, when artists such as Von Dutch transformed automobile pin striping from a seldom - used accent that followed the lines of the car into a freestyle art form. Von Dutch was as famous for his "flying eyeball '' as he was for his intricate spider - web designs. As the decade began, hand - drawn pin striping was almost unheard of, but by 1958 it had become a popular method of customizing the looks of the hot rod. As the decade progressed, hot rodding became a popular hobby for a growing number of teenagers as the sport literally came to Main Street.
Drag racing has existed since the first cars, but it was not until the 1950s that it started to become mainstream, beginning with Santa Ana Drags, the first drag strip in the United States. The strip was founded by C.J. "Pappy '' Hart, Creighton Hunter and Frank Stillwell at the Orange County Airport auxiliary runway in southern California, and was operational from 1950 until June 21, 1959.
Hot Rod editor Wally Parks created the National Hot Rod Association in 1951, and it is still the largest governing body in the popular sport. As of October 2012, there are at least 139 professional drag strips operational in the United States. One of the most powerful racing fuels ever developed is nitromethane, which dramatically debuted as a racing fuel in 1950, and continues as the primary component used in Top Fuel drag racing today.
The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) is the second most popular spectator sports in the United States behind the National Football League (NFL). It was incorporated on February 21, 1948, by Bill France, Sr. and built its roots in the 1950s. Two years later in 1950 the first asphalt "superspeedway '', Darlington Speedway, was opened in South Carolina, and the sport saw dramatic growth during the 1950s. Because of the tremendous success of Darlington, construction began of a 2.5 - mile, high - banked superspeedway near Daytona Beach, which is still in use.
The Cup Series was started in 1949, with Jim Roper winning the first series. By 2008, the most prestigious race in the series, the Daytona 500 had attracted more than 17 million television viewers. Dynasties were born in the 1950s with racers like Lee Petty (father of Richard Petty, grandfather of Kyle Petty) and Buck Baker (father of Buddy Baker).
NASCAR, and stock car racing in general, has its roots in bootlegging during Prohibition. Junior Johnson was one of many bootleggers who took part in the sport during the 1950s, equally well known for his arrest in 1955 for operating his father 's moonshine still as he is for his racing success. He ended up spending a year in an Ohio prison, but soon returned to the sport before retiring as a driver in 1966.
As more Americans began driving cars, entirely new categories of businesses came into being to allow them to enjoy their products and services without having to leave their cars. This includes the drive - in restaurant, and later the drive - through window. Even into the 2010s, the Sonic Drive - In restaurant chain has provided primarily drive - in service by carhop in 3,561 restaurants within 43 U.S. states, serving approximately 3 million customers per day. Known for its use of carhops on roller skates, the company annually hosts a competition to determine the top skating carhop in its system.
A number of other successful "drive up '' businesses have their roots in the 1950s, including McDonald 's (expanded c. 1955), which had no dine - in facilities, requiring customers to park and walk up to the window, taking their order "to go ''. Automation and the lack of dining facilities allowed McDonald 's to sell burgers for 15 cents each, instead of the typical 35 cents, and people were buying them by the bagful. By 1948, they had fired their carhops, installed larger grills, reduced their menu and radically changed the industry by introducing assembly - line methods of food production, similar to the auto industry, dubbing it the "Speedee Service System ''. They redesigned their sign specifically to make it easier to see from the road, creating the now familiar yellow double - arch structure. Businessman Ray Kroc joined McDonald 's as a franchise agent in 1955. He subsequently purchased the chain from the McDonald brothers and oversaw its worldwide growth.
Other chains were created to serve the increasingly mobile patron. Carl Karcher opened his first Carl 's Jr. in 1956, and rapidly expanded, locating his restaurants near California 's new freeway off - ramps. These restaurant models initially relied on the new and ubiquitous ownership of automobiles, and the willingness of patrons to dine in their automobiles. As of 2013, drive - through service account for 65 percent of their profits.
The drive - in theater is a form of cinema structure consisting of a large outdoor movie screen, a projection booth, a concession stand and a large parking area for automobiles, where patrons view the movie from the comfort of their cars and listen via an electric speaker placed at each parking spot.
Although drive - in movies first appeared in 1933, it was not until well after the post-war era that they became popular, enjoying their greatest success in the 1950s, reaching a peak of more than 4,000 theaters in the United States alone. Drive - in theaters have been romanticized in popular culture with the movie American Graffiti and Grease and the television series Happy Days. They developed a reputation for showing B movies, typically monster or horror films, and as "passion pits '', a place for teenagers to make out. While drive - in theaters are rarer today with only 366 remaining and no longer unique to America, they are still associated as part of the 1950s ' American car culture. Drive - in movies have seen somewhat of a resurgence in popularity in the 21st century, due in part to baby boomer nostalgia.
Robert Schuller started the nation 's first drive - in church in 1955 in Garden Grove, California. After his regular 9: 30 am service in the chapel four miles away, he would travel to the drive - in for a second Sunday service. Worshipers listened to his sermon from the comfort of their cars, using the movie theater 's speaker boxes.
The first modern shopping malls were built in the 1950s, such as Bergen Mall, which was the first to use the term "mall '' to describe the business model. Other early malls moved retailing away from the dense, commercial downtowns into the largely residential suburbs. Northgate in Seattle is credited as being the first modern mall design, with two rows of businesses facing each other and a walkway separating them. It opened in 1950. Shopper 's World in Framingham, Massachusetts, was the two - story mall, and opened a year later. The design was modified again in 1954 when Northland Center in Detroit, Michigan, used a centralized design with an anchor store in the middle of the mall, ringed by other stores. This was the first mall to have the parking lot completely surrounding the shopping center, and to provide central heat and air - conditioning.
In 1956, Southdale Center opened in Edina, Minnesota, just outside Minneapolis. It was the first to combine all these modern elements, being enclosed with a two - story design, central heat and air - conditioning plus a comfortable common area. It also featured two large department stores as anchors. Most industry professionals consider Southdale Center to be the first modern regional mall.
This formula (enclosed space with stores attached, away from downtown and accessible only by automobile) became a popular way to build retail across the world. Victor Gruen, one of the pioneers in mall design, came to abhor this effect of his new design; he decried the creation of enormous "land wasting seas of parking '' and the spread of suburban sprawl.
The 1950s jump started an industry of aftermarket add - ons for cars that continues today. The oldest aftermarket wheel company, American Racing, started in 1956 and still builds "mag wheels '' (alloy wheels) for almost every car made. Holley introduced the first modular four - barrel carburetor, which Ford offered in the 1957 Ford Thunderbird, and versions are still used by performance enthusiasts. Edelbrock started during the Great Depression and expanded after the war. They provided a variety of high performance parts for the new hot rodders, which was popular equipment for setting speed records at Bonneville Salt Flats. Owners were no longer restricted to the original equipment provided by manufacturers, helping not only create the hot rod culture but also the foundation for cosmetic modifications. The creation and rapid expansion of the aftermarket made it possible for enthusiasts to personalize their automobiles.
Most new cars were sold through automobile dealerships in the 1950s, but Crosley automobiles were still on sale at any number of appliance or department stores, and Allstate (a rebadged Henry J) could be ordered at any Sears and Roebuck in 1952 and 1953. By mid-decade, these outlets had vanished and the automobile dealer became the sole source of new automobiles.
Starting in the mid-1950s, new car introductions in the fall once again became an anticipated event, as all dealers would reveal the models for the upcoming year each October. In this era before the popularization of computerization, the primary source of information on new models was the dealer. The idea was originally suggested in the 1930s by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression, as a way of stimulating the economy by creating demand. The idea was reintroduced by President Dwight Eisenhower for the same reasons, and this method of introducing next year 's models in the preceding autumn lasted well into the 1990s.
During the decade, many smaller manufacturers could not compete with the Big Three and either went out of business or merged. In 1954, American Motors was formed when Hudson merged with Nash - Kelvinator Corporation in a deal worth almost $200 million, the largest corporate merger in United States history at that time.
The muscle - car era is deeply rooted in the 1950s, although there is some debate as to the exact beginning. The 1949 Oldsmobile Rocket 88, created in response to public interest in speed and power, is often cited as the first muscle car. It featured America 's first high - compression overhead valve V8 in the smaller, lighter Oldsmobile 76 / Chevy body for six - cylinder engines (as opposed to bigger Olds 98 luxury body). Old Cars Weekly claims it started with the introduction of the original Chrysler "Firepower '' hemi V8 engine in 1951, while others such as Hot Rod magazine consider the first overhead valve engine by Chevrolet, the 265 cid V8, as the "heir apparent to Ford flathead 's position as the staple of racing '', in 1955. The "small block Chevy '' itself developed its own subculture that exists today. Other contenders include the 1949 Oldsmobile V8 engine, the first in a long line of such powerful V8 engines, as well as the Cadillac V8 of the same year.
Regardless how it is credited, the horsepower race centered around the V8 engine and the muscle - car era lasted until new smog regulations forced dramatic changes in OEM engine design in the early 1970s. This in turn opened up new opportunities for aftermarket manufacturers like Edelbrock. Each year brought larger engines and / or increases in horsepower, providing a catalyst for customers to upgrade to newer models. Automobile executives also deliberately updated the body designs yearly, in the name of "planned obsolescence '' and added newly developed or improved features such as automatic transmissions, power steering, power brakes and cruise control, in an effort to make the previous models seem outdated and facilitate the long drive from the suburbs. Record sales made the decade arguably the "golden era '' of automobile manufacturing.
Harley Earl and Bill France Sr. popularized the saying "Race on Sunday, sell on Monday '', a mantra still heard today in motorsports, particularly within NASCAR. During the muscle - car era, manufacturers not only sponsored the drivers, but designed stock cars specifically to compete in the fast - growing and highly popular sport.
As the automobile became more and more an extension of the individual, it was natural for this to be reflected in popular culture. America 's love affair with the automobile was most evident in the music of the era.
Other songs recorded during the decade also reflect the automobile 's place in American culture, such as "Brand New Cadillac '', Sonny Burgess 's "Thunderbird '' and Bo Diddley 's "Cadillac ''. A 1955 Oldsmobile was celebrated in the nostalgic "Ol ' ' 55 '' by Tom Waits (1973).
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who stole the crown jewels from the tower of london | Thomas Blood - wikipedia
Colonel Thomas Blood (1618 -- 24 August 1680) was an Anglo - Irish officer and self - styled colonel best known for his attempt to steal the Crown Jewels of England from the Tower of London in 1671. Described in an American source as a "noted bravo and desperado, '' he was known for his attempt to kidnap and, later, to kill, his enemy, the Duke of Ormonde. He had switched allegiances from Royalist to Roundhead during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, and despite his subsequent notoriety received a Royal free pardon and found favour at the court of King Charles II.
Sources suggest that Blood was born in County Clare, in the Kingdom of Ireland, the son of a successful land - owning blacksmith of English descent, and was partly raised at Sarney, near Dunboyne, in County Meath. He was apparently a Presbyterian. His family was respectable and prosperous (by the standards of the time); his father held lands in the Counties Clare, Meath and Wicklow. His grandfather was a member of the Irish Parliament, and had lived at Kilnaboy Castle (also in County Clare). He received his education in Lancashire, England. At the age of 20, he married Maria Holcroft, the daughter of John Holcroft, a gentleman from Golborne, Lancashire, and returned to Ireland.
At the outbreak of the First English Civil War in 1642, Blood returned to England and initially took up arms with the Royalist forces loyal to Charles I. As the conflict progressed he switched sides and became a lieutenant in Oliver Cromwell 's Roundheads. In 1653 at the cessation of hostilities Cromwell awarded Blood land grants as payment for his service and appointed him a justice of the peace. Following the Restoration of King Charles II to the Crowns of the Three Kingdoms in 1660, Blood fled with his family to Ireland. The confiscations and restitutions under the Act of Settlement 1662 (which sought to cancel and annul some of the grants of land and real properties allocated as reward to new holders being Cromwellians under the Act of Settlement 1652) brought Blood to financial ruin, and in return Blood sought to unite his fellow Cromwellians in Ireland to cause insurrection.
As part of the expression of discontent, Blood conspired to storm Dublin Castle, usurp the government, and kidnap James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, for ransom. On the eve of the attempt, the plot was foiled. Blood managed to evade the authorities by hiding with his countrymen in the mountains, and ultimately managed to escape to the United Dutch Provinces in the Low Country. A few of Blood 's collaborators were captured and executed. As a result, some historians speculated that Blood swore vengeance against Ormonde.
While in the Dutch Republic, Blood gained the favour of Admiral de Ruyter, an opponent of the English forces in the Anglo - Dutch Wars, and was implicated in the Scottish Pentland Rising of 1666 by the Scottish Presbyterian Covenanters. At some point during this period, Blood became associated with the wealthy George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, who 19th - century commentators believed used Blood as a means to punish his own political and social adversaries, since his own class ranking did not allow him to meet them "in the field ''.
In 1670, despite his status as a wanted man, Blood returned to England and is believed to have taken the name Ayloffe and practised as a doctor or an apothecary in Romford Market, east of London. A second attempt, this time on the life of the Duke of Ormonde, followed.
Since Ormonde 's return to England, he had taken up residence at Clarendon House. Blood had followed Ormonde 's movements and noted that he frequently returned late in the evening accompanied by a small number of footmen. On the night of 6 December 1670, Blood and his accomplices attacked Ormonde while the latter travelled St James 's Street. Ormonde was dragged from his coach, bound to one of Blood 's henchmen, and taken on horseback along Piccadilly with the intention of hanging him at Tyburn. The gang pinned a paper to Ormonde 's chest spelling out their reasons for his capture and murder. With one of his servants who had given chase on horseback, Ormonde succeeded in freeing himself and escaped. The plot 's secrecy meant that Blood was not suspected of the crime, despite a reward being offered for the capture of the attempted assassins. In the King 's presence, James 's son, Thomas Butler, accused the Duke of Buckingham of being behind the crime. Thomas threatened to shoot Buckingham dead in revenge, if his father, James, was murdered.
Blood did not lie low for long, and within six months he made his notorious attempt to steal the Crown Jewels. In April or May 1671 he visited the Tower of London dressed as a parson and accompanied by a female companion pretending to be his wife. The Crown Jewels could be viewed by the payment of a fee to the custodian. While viewing the Crown Jewels, Blood 's "wife '' feigned a stomach complaint and begged the newly appointed Master of the Jewel House, 77 - year - old Talbot Edwards, to fetch her some spirits. Given the proximity of the jewel keeper 's domestic quarters to the site of the commotion, Edwards ' wife invited them upstairs to their apartment to recover, after which Blood and his wife thanked the Edwardses and left.
Over the following days Blood returned to the Tower to visit the Edwardses and presented Mrs Edwards with four pairs of white gloves as a gesture of thanks. As Blood became ingratiated with the family, an offer was made for a fictitious nephew of Blood 's to marry the Edwardses ' daughter, who, Blood alleged, would be eligible, by virtue of the marriage, to an income of several hundred pounds.
On 9 May 1671, in furtherance of the deception, Blood convinced Edwards to show the jewels to him, his supposed nephew, and two of his friends while they waited for a dinner that Mrs Edwards was to put on for Blood and his companions. The jewel keeper 's apartment was in Martin Tower above a basement where the jewels were kept behind a metal grille. Reports suggest that Blood 's accomplices carried canes that concealed rapier blades, daggers, and pocket pistols. In entering the Jewel House, one of the men made a pretence of standing watch outside while the others joined Edwards and Blood. The door was closed and a cloak thrown over Edwards, who was struck with a mallet, knocked to the floor, bound, gagged and stabbed to subdue him.
After removing the grille, Blood used the mallet to flatten St. Edward 's Crown so that he could hide it beneath his clerical coat. Another conspirator, Blood 's brother - in - law Hunt, filed the Sceptre with the Cross in two (as it did not fit in their bag), while the third man, Perrot, stuffed the Sovereign 's Orb down his trousers. Meanwhile Edwards refused to stay subdued and fought against his bindings. Accounts vary as to whether Edwards ' struggle caused sufficient disturbance to raise the alarm or whether the attempt was foiled in more fortuitous circumstances.
Popular reports describe Edwards ' son, Wythe, returning from military service in Flanders, happening upon the attempted theft. At the door of the Jewel House, Wythe was met by the impromptu guard, who challenged him, before the young Edwards entered and went upstairs. The "guard '' then alerted his fellow gang members. At around the same time, the elder Edwards managed to free his gag, and raised the alarm shouting, "Treason! Murder! The crown is stolen! ''
As Blood and his gang fled to their horses waiting at St Catherine 's Gate, they dropped the sceptre and fired on the warders who attempted to stop them, wounding one. One drawbridge guard was struck with fear and failed to discharge his musket. As they ran along the Tower wharf it is said they joined the calls for alarm to confuse the guards until they were chased down by Captain Beckman, brother - in - law of the younger Edwards. Although Blood shot at him, he missed and was captured before reaching the Iron Gate. Having fallen from his cloak, the crown was found while Blood refused to give up, struggling with his captors and declaring, "It was a gallant attempt, however unsuccessful! It was for a crown! '' The globe and orb were recovered although several stones were missing and others were loose. Hunt and Perrot were also taken, but not punished.
Following his capture, Blood refused to answer to anyone but the King and was consequently taken to the palace in chains, where he was questioned by King Charles, Prince Rupert, and others. King Charles asked Blood, "What if I should give you your life? '', and Blood replied, "I would endeavour to deserve it, Sire! '' To the disgust of Ormonde, Blood was not only pardoned but also given land in Ireland worth £ 500 a year. In contrast, Edwards ' family was awarded less than £ 300 by the King, a sum which was never paid in full, and he returned to his duties at the Tower regaling visitors with his tales of the attempted theft. He died in 1674 and his tomb rests in the chapel of St Peter 's Ad Vincula, at the Tower of London.
The reasons for the King 's pardon are unknown. Some historians have speculated that the King may have feared an uprising in revenge by followers of Blood, who were thought to have taken an oath to their leader. Others speculate that the King had a fondness for audacious scoundrels such as Blood, and that he was amused by the Irishman 's claim that the jewels were worth only £ 6,000 as opposed to the £ 100,000 at which the Crown had valued them.
There is also a suggestion that the King was flattered and amused by Blood 's revelation that he had previously intended to kill him while he was bathing in the Thames but had been swayed otherwise, having found himself in "awe of majesty. '' It has also been suggested that his actions may have had the connivance of the king, because the King was very short of money at the time.
Following his pardon, Blood became a familiar figure around London and made frequent appearances at Court, where he was employed to advocate in the claims of suitors to the Crown. In John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester 's History of Insipids, he wrote of Blood:
Blood, that wears treason in his face, Villain complete in parson 's gown, How much he is at court in grace For stealing Ormond and the crown! Since loyalty does no man good, Let 's steal the King, and outdo Blood!
In 1679 Blood fell into dispute with the Duke of Buckingham, his former patron, and Buckingham sued Blood for £ 10,000, for insulting remarks Blood had made about his character. In the proceedings that followed, Blood was convicted by the King 's Bench in 1680 and granted bail, although he never paid the damages.
Blood was released from prison in July 1680 but had fallen into a coma by 22 August. He died on 24 August at his home in Bowling Alley, Westminster. His body was buried in the churchyard of St Margaret 's Church (now Christchurch Gardens) near St. James 's Park. It is believed that his body was exhumed by the authorities for confirmation: such was his reputation for trickery, it was suspected he might have faked his death and funeral to avoid paying his debt to Buckingham. Blood 's epitaph read:
Here lies the man who boldly hath run through More villainies than England ever knew; And ne'er to any friend he had was true. Here let him then by all unpitied lie, And let 's rejoice his time was come to die.
Blood 's son Holcroft Blood became a distinguished military engineer rising to the rank of Brigadier - General; he commanded the Duke of Marlborough 's artillery at the Battle of Blenheim. Descendants including Bindon Blood, Maurice Petherick, and Brian Inglis, had distinguished careers in British and Irish society.
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what type of church was most commonly constructed in the byzantine empire | Byzantine architecture - Wikipedia
Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Later Roman or Eastern Roman Empire. Byzantine architecture was mostly influenced by Roman and Greek architecture. It began with Constantine the Great when he rebuilt the city of Byzantium and named it Constantinople and continued with his building of churches and the forum of Constantine. This terminology is used by modern historians to designate the medieval Roman Empire as it evolved as a distinct artistic and cultural entity centered on the new capital of Constantinople rather than the city of Rome and environs. The empire endured for more than a millennium. Its architecture dramatically influenced the later medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and became the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse.
Early Byzantine architecture drew upon earlier elements of Roman architecture. Stylistic drift, technological advancement, and political and territorial changes meant that a distinct style gradually resulted in the Greek cross plan in church architecture.
Buildings increased in geometric complexity, brick and plaster were used in addition to stone in the decoration of important public structures, classical orders were used more freely, mosaics replaced carved decoration, complex domes rested upon massive piers, and windows filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to softly illuminate interiors. Most of the surviving structures are sacred in nature, with secular buildings mostly known only through contemporaneous descriptions.
Prime examples of early Byzantine architecture date from the Emperor Justinian I 's reign and survive in Ravenna and Istanbul, as well as in Sofia (the Church of St Sophia). One of the great breakthroughs in the history of Western architecture occurred when Justinian 's architects invented a complex system providing for a smooth transition from a square plan of the church to a circular dome (or domes) by means of pendentives.
In Ravenna, the longitudinal basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, and the octagonal, centralized structure of the church of San Vitale, commissioned by Emperor Justinian but never seen by him, was built. Justinian 's monuments in Istanbul include the domed churches of Hagia Sophia and Hagia Irene, but there is also an earlier, smaller church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (locally referred to as "Little Hagia Sophia ''), which might have served as a model for both in that it combined the elements of a longitudinal basilica with those of a centralized building.
Secular structures include the ruins of the Great Palace of Constantinople, the innovative walls of Constantinople (with 192 towers) and Basilica Cistern (with hundreds of recycled classical columns). A frieze in the Ostrogothic palace in Ravenna depicts an early Byzantine palace.
Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki, Saint Catherine 's Monastery on Mount Sinai, Jvari Monastery in present - day Georgia, and three Armenian churches of Echmiadzin all date primarily from the 7th century and provide a glimpse on architectural developments in the Byzantine provinces following the age of Justinian.
Remarkable engineering feats include the 430 m long Sangarius Bridge and the pointed arch of Karamagara Bridge.
The period of the Macedonian dynasty, traditionally considered the epitome of Byzantine art, has not left a lasting legacy in architecture. It is presumed that Basil I 's votive church of the Theotokos of the Pharos and the Nea Ekklesia (both no longer existent) served as a model for most cross-in - square sanctuaries of the period, including the Cattolica di Stilo in southern Italy (9th century), the monastery church of Hosios Lukas in Greece (c. 1000), Nea Moni of Chios (a pet project of Constantine IX), and the Daphni Monastery near Athens (c. 1050).
The cross-in - square type also became predominant in the Slavic countries which were Christianized by Salonikas missionaries during the Macedonian period. The Hagia Sophia church in Ochrid (present - day Macedonia) and the eponymous cathedral in Kiev (present - day Ukraine) testify to a vogue for multiple subsidiary domes set on drums, which would gain in height and narrowness with the progress of time.
In Istanbul and Asia Minor the architecture of the Komnenian period is almost non-existent, with the notable exceptions of the Elmali Kilise and other rock sanctuaries of Cappadocia, and of the Churches of the Pantokrator and of the Theotokos Kyriotissa in Istanbul. Most examples of this architectural style and many of the other older Byzantine styles only survive on the outskirts of the Byzantine world, as most of the most significant and ancient churches / buildings were in Asia Minor, but unfortunately in World War I almost all churches that ended up within Turkish borders were destroyed, converted into mosques, or abandoned in the Greek and Christian genocides spanning from 1915 -- 1923. Only national forms of architecture can be found in abundance due to this. Those styles can be found in many Transcaucasian countries; such as Russia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia and other Slavic lands; and also in Sicily (Cappella Palatina) and Veneto (St Mark 's Basilica, Torcello Cathedral).
The Paleologan period is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notably St Saviour at Chora and St Mary Pammakaristos. Unlike their Slavic counterparts, the Paleologan architects never accented the vertical thrust of structures. As a result, there is little grandeur in the late medieval architecture of Byzantium (barring the Hagia Sophia of Trebizond).
The Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki) is often cited as an archetypal structure of the late period, when the exterior walls were intricately decorated with complex brickwork patterns or with glazed ceramics. Other churches from the years immediately predating the fall of Constantinople survive on Mount Athos and in Mistra (e.g. Brontochion Monastery).
As early as the building of Constantine 's churches in Palestine there were two chief types of plan in use: the basilican, or axial, type, represented by the basilica at the Holy Sepulchre, and the circular, or central, type, represented by the great octagonal church once at Antioch. Those of the latter type we must suppose were nearly always vaulted, for a central dome would seem to furnish their very raison d'etre. The central space was sometimes surrounded by a very thick wall, in which deep recesses, to the interior, were formed, as at the noble Church of Saint George, Thessaloniki (5th century), or by a vaulted aisle, as at Santa Costanza, Rome (4th century); or annexes were thrown out from the central space in such a way as to form a cross, in which these additions helped to counterpoise the central vault, as at the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna (5th century). The most famous church of this type was that of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople. Vaults appear to have been early applied to the basilican type of plan; for instance, at Hagia Irene, Constantinople (6th century), the long body of the church is covered by two domes.
At Saint Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to the octagon. Finally, at Hagia Sophia (6th century) a combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning ever contrived. A central space of 100 ft (30 m) square is increased to 200 ft (60 m) in length by adding two hemicycles to it to the east and the west; these are again extended by pushing out three minor apses eastward, and two others, one on either side of a straight extension, to the west. This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above the conchs of the small apses rise the two great semi-domes which cover the hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the central square. On the two sides, to the north and south of the dome, it is supported by vaulted aisles in two storeys which bring the exterior form to a general square.
At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest. After the 6th century there were no churches built which in any way competed in scale with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more or less tended to approximate to one type. The central area covered by the dome was included in a considerably larger square, of which the four divisions, to the east, west, north and south, were carried up higher in the vaulting and roof system than the four corners, forming in this way a sort of nave and transepts. Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion.
If we draw a square and divide each side into three so that the middle parts are greater than the others, and then divide the area into nine from these points, we approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time. Now add three apses on the east side opening from the three divisions, and opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch running right across the front. Still in front put a square court. The court is the atrium and usually has a fountain in the middle under a canopy resting on pillars. The entrance porch is the narthex. Directly under the center of the dome is the ambo, from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers. Across the eastern side of the central square was a screen which divided off the bema, where the altar was situated, from the body of the church; this screen, bearing images, is the iconostasis. The altar was protected by a canopy or ciborium resting on pillars. Rows of rising seats around the curve of the apse with the patriarch 's throne at the middle eastern point formed the synthronon. The two smaller compartments and apses at the sides of the bema were sacristies, the diaconicon and prothesis. The ambo and bema were connected by the solea, a raised walkway enclosed by a railing or low wall.
The continuous influence from the East is strangely shown in the fashion of decorating external brick walls of churches built about the 12th century, in which bricks roughly carved into form are set up so as to make bands of ornamentation which it is quite clear are imitated from Cufic writing. This fashion was associated with the disposition of the exterior brick and stone work generally into many varieties of pattern, zig - zags, key - patterns etc.; and, as similar decoration is found in many Persian buildings, it is probable that this custom also was derived from the East. The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with lead or with tiling of the Roman variety. The window and door frames were of marble. The interior surfaces were adorned all over by mosaics or frescoes in the higher parts of the edifice, and below with incrustations of marble slabs, which were frequently of very beautiful varieties, and disposed so that, although in one surface, the coloring formed a series of large panels. The better marbles were opened out so that the two surfaces produced by the division formed a symmetrical pattern resembling somewhat the marking of skins of beasts.
Ultimately, Byzantine architecture in the West gave a way to Carolingian, Romanesque, and Gothic architecture. But a great part of current Italy used to belong to the Byzantine Empire before that. Great examples of Byzantine architecture are still visible in Ravenna (for example Basilica di San Vitale which architecture influenced the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne).
In the East, Byzantine architectural tradition exerted a profound influence on early Islamic architecture. During the Umayyad Caliphate era (661 - 750), as far as the Byzantine impact on early Islamic architecture is concerned, the Byzantine artistic heritage formed a fundamental source to the new Islamic art, especially in Syria and Palestine. There are considerable Byzantine influences which can be detected in the distinctive early Islamic monuments in Syria and Palestine, as on the Dome of the Rock (691) at Jerusalem, the Umayyad Mosque (709 -- 715) at Damascus. While the Dome of the Rock gives clear reference in plan - and partially in decoration - to Byzantine art, the plan of the Umayyad Mosque has also a remarkable similarity with 6th - and 7th - century Christian basilicas, but it has been modified and expanded on the transversal axis and not on the normal longitudinal axis as in the Christian basilicas. This modification serves better the liturgy for the Islamic prayer. The original mihrab of the mosque is located almost in the middle of the eastern part of the qibla wall and not in its middle, a feature which can be explained by the fact that the architect might have tried to avoid the impression of a Christian apse which would result from the placement of the mihrab in the middle of the transept. The tile work, geometric patterns, multiple arches, domes, and polychrome brick and stone work that characterize Islamic and Moorish architecture were influenced to some extent by Byzantine architecture.
In Bulgaria, Russia, Romania, Serbia, Belarus, Georgia, Ukraine, Macedonia, and other Orthodox countries the Byzantine architecture persisted even longer, from the 16th up to the 18th centuries, giving birth to local post-Byzantine schools of architecture.
Neo-Byzantine architecture had a small following in the wake of the 19th - century Gothic revival, resulting in such jewels as Westminster Cathedral in London, and in Bristol from about 1850 to 1880 a related style known as Bristol Byzantine was popular for industrial buildings which combined elements of the Byzantine style with Moorish architecture. It was developed on a wide - scale basis in Russia during the reign of Alexander II by Grigory Gagarin and his followers who designed St Volodymyr 's Cathedral in Kiev, St Nicholas Naval Cathedral in Kronstadt, Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia, Saint Mark 's church in Belgrade and the New Athos Monastery in New Athos near Sukhumi. The largest Neo-Byzantine project of the 20th century was the Temple of Saint Sava in Belgrade.
Interior of St. Sophia 's Church, Sofia, Bulgaria (6th century)
Mosaic above the entrance portal of the Euphrasian Basilica in Poreč, Croatia (6th century)
Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki (8th century)
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who played hey girl on have gun will travel | Have Gun -- Will Travel - Wikipedia
Have Gun -- Will Travel is an American Western television series that aired on CBS from 1957 through 1963. It was rated number three or number four in the Nielsen ratings every year of its first four seasons. The show was one of the most successful shows in television history. It was one of the few television shows to spawn a successful radio version. The radio series debuted November 23, 1958.
Have Gun -- Will Travel was created by Sam Rolfe and Herb Meadow and produced by Frank Pierson, Don Ingalls, Robert Sparks, and Julian Claman. Of the 225 episodes of the television series, 24 were written by Gene Roddenberry. Other major contributors included Bruce Geller, Harry Julian Fink, Don Brinkley, and Irving Wallace. Andrew V. McLaglen directed 101 episodes, and 19 were directed by series star Richard Boone.
This series follows the adventures of a man calling himself "Paladin '' (played by Richard Boone on television and voiced by John Dehner on radio), taking his name from that of the foremost knight warriors in Charlemagne 's court. He is a gentleman gunfighter who travels around the Old West working as a mercenary gunfighter for people who hire him to solve their problems.
Although Paladin charges steep fees to clients who can afford to hire him, typically US $1000 per job, he provides his services for free to poor people who need his help. Like many Westerns, the television show was set during a nebulous period after the Civil War. The radio show explicitly states the year in the opening of every episode with the introduction:
San Francisco, 1875. The Carlton Hotel, headquarters of the man called... Paladin!
The season 5 television episode, "A Drop of Blood '', gives the specific date (converting from the Jewish calendar) of July 3rd, 1879.
The title was a variation ("snowclone '') on a catchphrase used in personal advertisements in newspapers like The Times, indicating that the advertiser was ready for anything. It was used this way from the early 20th century.
A trope common in theatrical advertising was "Have tux, will travel '', and CBS claimed this was the inspiration for the writer Herb Meadow. The television show popularized the phrase in the 1960s, and many variations were used as titles for other works, but was antedated by Have Space Suit -- Will Travel by Robert A. Heinlein.
Paladin prefers to settle without violence the difficulties brought his way by clients when possible, but this almost never happens. When forced, he excels in fisticuffs. Under his real name, which is never revealed, he was a dueling champion of some renown. Paladin is a former Union cavalry officer, a graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point, and a veteran of the American Civil War.
His permanent place of residence is the Hotel Carlton in San Francisco, where he lives the life of a successful businessman and bon vivant, wearing elegant custom - made suits, consuming fine wine, playing the piano, and attending the opera and other cultural events. He is an expert chess player, poker player, and swordsman. He is skilled in Chinese martial arts and is seen in several episodes receiving instruction and training with a Kung Fu master in San Francisco. He is highly educated, able to quote classic literature, philosophy, and case law, and speaks several languages. He is also president of the San Francisco Stock Exchange Club.
While at work on the frontier, Paladin changes into all - black Western - style clothing. His primary weapon is a custom - made, first - generation. 45 caliber Colt Single Action Army Cavalry Model revolver with an unusual rifled barrel, carried in a black leather holster (with a platinum chess knight symbol facing the rear), hanging from a black leather gunbelt. He also carries a lever action Marlin rifle strapped to his saddle, and a Remington derringer concealed under his belt.
Paladin gives out a business card imprinted with "Have Gun Will Travel '' and a drawing of a knight chess piece. A closeup of this card is used as a title card between scenes in the program.
The one other major semiregular character in the show was the Chinese bellhop at the Carlton Hotel, known as Hey Boy (real name Kim Chan or Kim Chang: in the first season in the episode called "Hey Boy 's Revenge '', the character Hey Boy is sought by Paladin under the name Kim Chan which is written on a piece of paper and shown on screen. As the episode continues, Hey Boy is referred to (verbally) five times as Kim Chan and then on the sixth incident Paladin states Hey Boy 's name as Kim Chang and thereafter he is referred to as Kim Chang every time. No explanation is given for the name change). Hey Boy was played by Kam Tong. According to author and historian Martin Grams, Jr., Hey Boy was featured in all but the fourth of the show 's six seasons, with the character of Hey Girl, played by Lisa Lu, replacing Hey Boy for season four while Kam Tong worked on the Mr. Garlund television series.
Guest stars included Jack Lord, Charles Bronson, Victor McLaglen, Vincent Price, James Coburn, Ben Johnson, George Kennedy, John Carradine, Angie Dickinson, Buddy Ebsen, Denver Pyle, June Lockhart, Harry Morgan, Jack Elam, Dan Blocker, Pernell Roberts, DeForest Kelley, Lon Chaney, Jr., Warren Oates, Martin Balsam, Sydney Pollack, William Conrad, Dyan Cannon, Robert Blake, Suzanne Pleshette, Albert Salmi, Werner Klemperer and Odetta.
Originally, each show opened with the same 45 - second visual. Over a slow four - note - repeat backbeat score, a tight shot of Paladin 's chess knight emblem centered in a black background is seen, before the view widens to show the emblem affixed to Paladin 's holster, with Paladin in his trademark costume seen from waist level in profile. Then as he draws his revolver from the holster, the four - note - repeat backbeat fades to a light, almost harp - like strumming. He cocks the hammer, and then rotates the gun to point the barrel at the viewer for 10 seconds, while delivering a line of dialogue from the coming episode, after which the pistol is uncocked and holstered briskly. As the weapon is reholstered and the view tightens to show only the chess knight, again, the four - note - repeat backbeat returns.
As only the chess knight emblem in a black background is back, the name "RICHARD BOONE '' appears across the screen for about 5 seconds. The name fades out and immediately the words "in HAVE GUN -- WILL TRAVEL '' fade in, again for about 5 seconds. Boone 's name and the show 's title is accompanied by a four - note "stinger '' that overshadows the four - note - repeat. The "stinger '' is roughly the same as that heard when Paladin 's business card is flashed on screen (in almost every episode). The words fade away after those 5 seconds leaving only the chess knight emblem against the black background, and the four - note - repeat fades out. This opening then fades out and the show fades in on its opening scene.
In a later version of the opening sequence, there is a long - range shot, with Paladin in a full - body profile silhouette, and he fast - draws the revolver, dropping into a slight crouch as he turns, pointing at the camera. After the dubbed - over line, he straightens as he shoves the firearm into his holster. This silhouette visual remained for the run of the series. In later episodes, the teaser line was dropped; as seen in many of the episodes of the final two seasons ' opening titles, when Paladin crouches and points his gun at the camera, first "RICHARD BOONE '', and then "HAVE GUN -- WILL TRAVEL '' would appear as before, and Boone would reholster his gun as the words faded out. (Due to the networks not always airing episodes in the order they were filmed, the omission of the voice - over dialogue was inconsistent for some of the episodes, as seen in the opening titles. Season 6 did have the most opening titles without the voice - over dialogue, especially as the season progressed, again as seen when the episodes opened.)
Unlike many westerns, entire episodes were filmed outdoors and away from the Old West street set on Irving Street just below Melrose Avenue, the home of Filmaster television production company. Filmaster was located across the street from, later becoming part of, Paramount Studios ' backlot. The area is now enclosed in the independent Kingsley Productions studio lot encompassing a city block. Beginning in season four, filming locations were often given in the closing credits. Locations included Bishop and Lone Pine, California; an area now known as Paladin Estates between Bend and Sisters, Oregon; and the Abbott Ranch near Prineville, Oregon.
The program 's opening was a four - note motif composed and conducted by Bernard Herrmann.
For the opening theme, Herrmann reused a short sequence he had previously composed for the 1951 movie On Dangerous Ground, starring Robert Ryan and Ida Lupino. The "Have Gun -- Will Travel '' theme (and fragments of incidental music also used in the television series) are featured in a chase scene across snowy fields; at the 35: 25 mark of the film, the actual "Have Gun -- Will Travel '' opening theme is played in recognizable form, although the scoring is slightly different than that heard in the better - known television version.
The show 's closing song, "The Ballad of Paladin '', was written by Johnny Western, Richard Boone, and program creator Sam Rolfe, and was performed by Western. In the first season the closing song was a reprise of the opening theme. In syndication, the first (premise) episode concludes with the Johnny Western ballad. The rest of the run of the first - season episodes play a reprise of the opening theme.
In the second season the song was the only closing music. In the third season a new lyric was added to the five line "The Ballad of Paladin '' making it six lines long. In 1962 -- 1963, the final season, the song 's lyrics were cut to four lines, the original fourth and added sixth being dropped. This occurred because the production credits for writer, producer and director were pulled from the closing credits to appear over the opening sequences. However, in the episode "Sweet Lady in the Moon '' (1963), the ballad was played complete over the closing credits.
Johnny Western has sung a fully recorded version, opening with the refrain and including a second verse never heard on the television series.
September 1957 -- April 1963: Saturdays at 9: 30 p.m.
The television show was nominated for three Emmy Awards. These were for Best Actor in a Leading Role (Continuing Character) in a Dramatic Series, for Richard Boone (1959); Best Western Series (1959); and Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Series (Lead or Support), for Richard Boone (1960).
In 1957, Gene Roddenberry received the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Script for the episode "Helen of Abajinian ''.
Many of the writers who worked on Have Gun -- Will Travel went on to gain fame elsewhere. Gene Roddenberry created Star Trek, Bruce Geller created Mission: Impossible, Samuel A. Peeples created The Tall Man, Custer, and Lancer, and Harold Jack Bloom created Boone 's later series Hec Ramsey and the 1970s medical - adventure series Emergency! Harry Julian Fink is one of the writers who created Dirty Harry (the opening title and theme scene of the 1973 Dirty Harry sequel Magnum Force features s Paladin - like sequence of a handgun being slowly cocked and then finally pointed toward the camera, with a potent line of dialogue). Sam Peckinpah wrote one episode, "The Singer, '' which aired in 1958. Other notable writers who contributed an episode include Gene L. Coon, Richard Matheson, Charles Beaumont, Laurence Heath, and Fred Freiberger. Both Star Trek and Mission: Impossible were produced by Desilu Productions and later Paramount Television, which also now owns the rights to Have Gun -- Will Travel through its successor company, CBS Television Distribution.
The Have Gun -- Will Travel radio show broadcast 106 episodes on the CBS Radio Network between November 23, 1958, and November 27, 1960. It was one of the last radio dramas featuring continuing characters and the only significant American radio adaptation of a television series. John Dehner (a regular on the radio series version of Gunsmoke) played Paladin, and Ben Wright usually (but not always) played Hey Boy. Virginia Gregg played Miss Wong, Hey Boy 's girlfriend, before the television series featured the character of Hey Girl. Unlike the small - screen version, in this medium there was usually a tag scene at the Carlton at both the beginning and the end of the episode. Initially, the episodes were adaptations of the television program as broadcast earlier the same week, but eventually original stories were produced, including a finale ("Goodbye, Paladin '') in which Paladin leaves San Francisco, apparently forever, to claim an inheritance back east. The radio version was written by producer / writer Roy Winsor.
There were three novels based on the television show, all with the title of the show. The first was a hardback written for children, published by Whitman in 1959 in a series of novelizations of television shows. It was written by Barlow Meyers and illustrated by Nichols S. Firfires. The second was a 1960 paperback original, written for adults by Noel Lomis. The last book, A Man Called Paladin, written by Frank C. Robertson and published in 1963 by Collier - Macmillan in hardback and paperback, is based on the television episode "Genesis '' by Frank Rolfe.
This novel is the only source wherein a name is given to the Paladin character, Clay Alexander, but fans of the series do not consider this name canonical. Dell Comics published a number of comic books with original stories based on the television series. In 2001, a trade paperback book titled The Have Gun -- Will Travel Companion was published, documenting the history of the radio and television series. The 500 - page book was authored by Martin Grams, Jr. and Les Rayburn.
In 1997, it was announced that a movie version of the television series would be made. John Travolta was named as a possible star in the Warner Bros. production, which was scripted by Larry Ferguson and to be directed by The Fugitive director Andrew Davis. However, the film was never made.
In 2006, it was announced that a Have Gun -- Will Travel movie starring rapper Eminem is in production. However, the film currently does not hold an official confirmed release date. Paramount Pictures extended an 18 - month option on the television series and planned to transform the character of Paladin into a modern - day bounty hunter. Eminem was expected to work on the soundtrack.
In August 2012, it was announced in several venues that David Mamet was developing a reboot of the television series for CBS.
In the television series Maverick, season 2, episode 16, "Gun Shy '', Marshal Mort Dooley, the marshal of Elwood, Kansas, comments that a lot of strange people have been passing through his town lately, specifically referring to "that gunslinger who handed out business cards. '' This could be no one other than Paladin, and obviously was a gentle dig at another TV Western.
All of the episodes were released on VHS by Columbia House. CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released all six seasons of Have Gun -- Will Travel on DVD in Region 1. Season 6, Volumes 1 & 2 were first released on May 7, 2013.
On May 10, 2016, CBS DVD was to release Have Gun, Will Travel -- The Complete series on DVD in Region 1.
In the second - season DVD, two episodes are mislabeled. On disk three, the episode titled "Treasure Trail '' is actually "Hunt the Man Down '', and on disk four, "Hunt the Man Down '' is "Treasure Trail ''; the "Wire Paladin '' in each case refers to the other episode.
In 1974, a rodeo performer named Victor De Costa won a federal court judgment against CBS for trademark infringement, successfully arguing that he had created the Paladin character and the ideas used in the show, and that CBS had used them without permission. For example, at his rodeo appearances he always dressed in black, he called himself the "Paladin '', he handed out hundreds of business cards with a chess piece logo and the phrase "Have gun will travel '', and he carried a concealed derringer. A year later, an appellate court overturned the lower court ruling on the basis that the plaintiff had failed to prove that there had been likelihood of confusion in the minds of the public -- a necessary requirement for a suit over trademark infringement. However, De Costa kept pursuing his legal options, and in 1991 -- more than 30 years after his first lawsuit was originally filed -- he was awarded more than US $3 million. Mr. De Costa died at the age of 83 before he could receive the award.
In 1991, on the basis of De Costa 's established claims, a Rhode Island federal judge blocked the redistribution of the Paladin show by Viacom.
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what years did they make the volkswagen thing | Volkswagen 181 - wikipedia
The Volkswagen Type 181 is a two - wheel drive, four - door, convertible, manufactured and marketed by Volkswagen from 1968 to 1983. Originally developed for the West German Army, the Type 181 was also sold to the public, as the Kurierwagen in West Germany, the Trekker (RHD Type 182) in the United Kingdom, the Thing in the United States (1973 -- 74), the Safari in Mexico and South America, and Pescaccia in Italy. Civilian sales ended after model year 1980.
Manufactured in Wolfsburg, West Germany (1968 -- 74), Hannover, West Germany (1974 -- 83), Puebla, Mexico (1970 -- 80), and Jakarta, Indonesia (1973 -- 80), the Type 181 shared its mechanicals with Volkswagen 's Type 1 (Beetle) and the pre-1968 Volkswagen Microbus, its floor pan with the Type 1 Karmann Ghia, and its concept with the company 's Kübelwagen, which had been used by the German military during World War II.
During the 1960s, several European governments began cooperating on development of a vehicle known as the Europa Jeep, a lightweight, amphibious four - wheel drive vehicle that could be mass - produced for use by various national military and government groups. Development of the vehicle proved time - consuming, however, and the West German government was in need of a limited number of light, inexpensive, durable transport vehicles that could fulfill their basic needs while the Europa Jeep was being developed and put into production.
Although Volkswagen had been approached during the 1950s about building such a vehicle, and had subsequently passed on the proposition, the then - current management of the company saw the project as having some amount of potential as a consumer vehicle; Mexican customers were asking for something that could handle rural roads better than the Type 1, which was a large seller in Mexico at the time, and the popularity of VW - based dune buggies within the U.S. made executives think that a durable, fun, off - road - capable vehicle would become attractive to many buyers. VW could keep cost to a minimum and thus maximize profitability by using existing parts.
Like the World War II era Type 82 Kübelwagen, the Type 181 used mechanical parts and a rear - engine platform, manual transmission and a flat - 4 engine derived from that of the Type 1.
The floorpans came from the Type 1 Karmann Ghia, which had a wider floorpan than the Beetle. Rear swing axle suspension with reduction gearing from the discontinued split - screen Volkswagen Transporter was used until 1973, when it was replaced with double - jointed axles used by Porsche and IRS semi-trailing arm setup as used on the 1303 and US - spec Beetles.
Civilian sales began in mainland Europe and Mexico during 1971; in the U.S. in 1972; and briefly in Britain in 1975, where it failed to sell well and was dropped fairly quickly.
The model was dropped from the American lineup for 1975 as it failed to meet new, stricter US safety standards. The Type 181 was reclassified as a passenger vehicle, and thus subject to stricter safety standards. The Windshield Intrusion Rule of the 1975 DOT standard called for a greater distance between the front seat occupants and the front window glass.
The Europa Jeep was the result of a NATO plan to have a vehicle whereby each European NATO makers all combined to build a light - duty patrol vehicle.
The Volkswagen 181 was only supposed to fill in, until the time that the Europa Jeep was ready. From 1968 until 1979, over 50,000 Type 181s were delivered to the NATO forces. By 1979 the Europa Jeep project had fallen apart completely and was abandoned, and the West German government began supplementing their consumption of 181s with the new front - engined Type 183 Iltis.
Despite the West German government 's switch to the Type 183, European and Mexican sales of the civilian 181 continued through 1980, and several organizations, including NATO, continued to purchase military - spec Type 181 units through 1983, finding their reliability and low purchase and maintenance costs attractive.
Military 181s attain a higher ride height and lower effective gearing by using reduction boxes, a form of portal axles. 181s without reduction boxes feature a transmission similar to the Beetle but with a slower gearing by use of different ring and pinion gears and have stronger, more flexible CV axles. Most mechanical parts are interchangeable with those of other VW models. Optional dual oil bath air cleaners increased filtering ability in dusty environments, and low noise ignition systems were fitted to military cars to be used for radio communication.
The engine is a 4 - cylinder rear mounted petrol engine.
TV show Rizzoli & Isles, Season 5, Episode 14 "Foot Loose ''
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who is the female in lady antebellum married to | Hillary Scott - wikipedia
Hillary Dawn Scott - Tyrrell (born April 1, 1986), known professionally as Hillary Scott, is an American singer and songwriter. She is the co-lead singer of Lady Antebellum, a country music group that was formed in 2006, and is signed to Capitol Nashville. With her family, she released the top 10 album, Love Remains, in 2016.
Scott was born in Nashville, Tennessee, to country music artist Linda Davis and Lang Scott, a musician and entrepreneur. Her family is Scottish - Native American. She has a younger sister named Rylee Jean (2000). Scott was homeschooled on the road for kindergarten. She attended elementary school and high school at Donelson Christian Academy where she graduated in 2004. She lived with her grandparents during that time while her parents were on the road touring. After joining her mom on stage for a Christmas show, she was convinced to pursue a music career. Scott decided at age 14 to become a country singer, and her sister, Rylee, is 14 years younger than her; so she has a tattoo of the number 14 in honor of those two things.
After high school she attended Middle Tennessee State University to help her music career grow and to also improve it. During her time at MTSU, Scott worked with singer - songwriter Victoria Shaw and earned some publicity, but was unable to secure a contract with a major label. She auditioned for American Idol twice, but failed to make it through to the judges round in both cases. Then she met future bandmates Charles Kelley and later, Dave Haywood, in May 2006. She ran into Kelley at a Nashville bar and recognized him from his MySpace page, where she had been listening to his music. She introduced herself to Kelley and complimented him on his music, which led to his deciding that they should get together with Haywood and write songs. The first song they wrote was "All We 'd Ever Need ''. The song was originally written for her to perform; she convinced Kelley it should be a duet, which led to the forming of Lady Antebellum. The group first performed together in August 2006 and signed a record deal with Capitol Nashville in 2007. Scott claims that being lead singer of Lady Antebellum, as opposed to being a solo artist, lessens the pressure on her on stage.
Scott formed the country music group Lady Antebellum in 2006 with co-lead singer Charles Kelley and backup singer Dave Haywood. They released their debut single, "Love Do n't Live Here '', on October 2, 2007, it entered Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart that year, peaking at No. 3 in early 2008. Their self - titled debut album was released on April 15, 2008, and debuted at No. 1 on the Top Country Albums chart. It consisted of eleven songs, ten of which were either written or co-written by the members of the trio, and was produced by Paul Worley and Victoria Shaw. The trio released their second single, "Lookin ' for a Good Time '', in mid-2008, it peaked at No. 11 in December of that year. Their third single, "I Run to You '', became their first number one hit on the Hot Country Songs chart in July 2009. The album was certified platinum by the RIAA three months later, in October 2009.
In August 2009, Lady Antebellum released "Need You Now '' as the lead single off their sophomore album of the same name. The song topped the Hot Country Songs chart for five weeks in late 2009 before peaking at No. 1 and No. 2 on the Adult Contemporary and Hot 100 charts, respectively, in early 2010. Need You Now was released on January 26, 2010, and debuted at No. 1 on Billboard 's Top 200 Albums chart with first - week sales of almost 481,000 copies. The album consisted of eleven songs, eight of which were co-written by the members of the trio, and showcased production by both the trio and Worley. The next two singles from the album, "American Honey '' and "Our Kind of Love '', reached No. 1 on the country charts in April 2010 and September 2010, respectively. The album was certified triple platinum by the RIAA in October 2010. Its fourth and final single, "Hello World '', peaked at No. 6 on the country charts in April 2011.
In May 2011, Lady Antebellum released "Just a Kiss '' as the first single from their third studio album, Own the Night, which was released on September 13, 2011, and became their fifth number one hit. "Just a Kiss '' was 2x certified Platinum by the RIAA. It stayed on the Hot 100 for forty - two weeks. The second single "We Owned the Night '' also became a number one hit and was certified Gold. The third single "Dancin ' Away with My Heart '' was also certified Gold and peaked at number two. "Wanted You More '' was released as the fourth and final single from the album. It was their first single since "Lookin ' For a Good Time '' to miss the Top Ten. The band supported the album with their second headlining tour, the Own the Night Tour which was also their first arena and world tour.
On October 22, 2012, On This Winter 's Night, the band first Christmas album was released. One of the tracks on the album "A Holly Jolly Christmas '' was released to Country radio and AC radio. A music video for the single was made.
Shortly after the release of On This Winter 's Night, Lady Antebellum started working on their fifth studio. Golden was released on May 7, 2013. "Downtown '' was the album 's first single and peaked at number two on Country radio and number one on the US Country Airplay chart. It was certified platinum by the RIAA. The second single was "Goodbye Town ''. In late 2013, the deluxe edition re-issue of Golden was released which included the third single "Compass ''. "Compass '' was met with positive reviews and went number one on the Country Airplay chart. Throughout 2014, the band toured the album on the Take Me Downtown Tour.
In May 2014, "Bartender '' was released as the first single off their sixth studio album. "Bartender '' became their third number on the Country Airplay chart and is certified Platinum. 747 was released on September 30, 2014. "Freestyle '' and "Long Stretch of Love '' are the second and third singles off 747 respectively.
In October 2015, Lady Antebellum appeared on Good Morning America to announce that they would be taking some down time after their Wheels Up Tour finishes. Throughout 2016 they continued to play some shows together.
In January 2017, Lady Antebellum released "You Look Good '' which is the lead single off their upcoming seventh studio album Heart Break. The album was released on June 9, 2017, and will support it on the You Look Good Tour.
In November 2015, it was reported that Scott was working on a gospel album. On April 22, 2016, she posted a handwritten note online about the project. In the note she expressed her excitement about it, announced the album 's title, Love Remains and formally introduced "Hillary Scott & the Scott Family ''. On why making a gospel album she explains, "Well, I wanted to make this album to share more of who I am. These songs, and many like them are the cry of my heart. I have been singing songs like this my whole my life whether it be in church, with family and friends gathered around with guitars on my screened porch, rocking my baby girl to sleep or while holding the hand of a dying loved one. '' It features her parents Linda Davis and Lang Scott, and her little sister Rylee. The lead single "Thy Will '' was released on April 22, 2016. It will feature original material and gospel standards. Scott penned the newer material with her family, and Ricky Skaggs will be the producer for the album. Love Remains won Best Contemporary Christian Album and "Thy Will '' won Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance / Song.
Scott 's other works include singing background vocals on Luke Bryan 's song, "Do I '', which fellow Lady Antebellum bandmates, Charles Kelley and Dave Haywood, wrote alongside Bryan. The song was released to radio in April 2009 and peaked at No. 2 on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart in December of that year.
Scott has recorded a duet with Dave Barnes called "Christmas Tonight '' and was featured with Kelley and Haywood, as Lady Antebellum, on Maroon 5 's "Out of Goodbyes ''. "Christmas Tonight '' was a single off Barnes ' 2010 holiday album, Very Merry Christmas, and peaked at No. 9 on the Adult Contemporary chart on New Year 's Day, 2011. "Out of Goodbyes '' was included on Maroon 5 's 2010 album, Hands All Over, but was never released as a single.
In addition, Scott has co-written songs for other country artists, including Sara Evans ' "A Little Bit Stronger '' and Blake Shelton 's "Suffocating ''. "A Little Bit Stronger '' featured Scott on harmony vocals and was released in September 2010 as the lead off single to Evans ' sixth studio album, Stronger. The song was widely used in the 2010 film, Country Strong, and topped the Hot Country Songs chart in May 2011 for two weeks, becoming Scott 's first - ever Number One hit recorded by another artist. "Suffocating '' was written by Scott with Shelton 's ex-wife, Miranda Lambert, and recorded by Shelton for his 2010 EP, All About Tonight.
Scott appeared on season 4 of The Voice as a mentor for "Team Adam ''. In 2016, she presented Gospel Hour for BBC Radio 2 Country.
Scott married Nashville - based drummer Chris Tyrrell on January 7, 2012. The two first met in college and reconnected when Lady Antebellum and fellow country music band Love and Theft, in which Tyrrell was the drummer at the time, both served as opening acts on Tim McGraw 's Southern Voice tour in early 2010. They began dating in July 2010. After their relationship began, Tyrrell filled in for Lady Antebellum 's drummer for a month in August 2010.
When Lady Antebellum released "Just a Kiss '' in May 2011, Scott hinted that the song was inspired by her relationship with Tyrrell, saying, "We love writing songs from personal experience, and this is definitely one of those songs. There is so much excitement at the beginning of a new relationship... all the butterflies and that optimistic feeling that this person could be ' the one. ' This song is about one of those times when your brain kicks in and tells your heart ' good things are worth waiting for. ' '' Tyrrell proposed to Scott on July 2, 2011, during a family vacation in east Tennessee, and the couple wed in upstate New York on January 7, 2012. No wedding date had been announced, and on January 8, the couple posted a video on Lady Antebellum 's website announcing that they were married. In October 2011, Tyrrell became a full - time member of Lady Antebellum 's band as their new drummer.
Scott has two tattoos, a music note on her right foot and the number 14 on her right wrist. The 14 has two meanings. It represents the age at which she decided music is what she wanted to do for a living and the age difference between her and her younger sister Rylee Jean Scott.
In August 2012, Scott and Tyrrell purchased their first home together, a 7,600 - square - foot (710 m), 6 - bedroom and 8 - bathroom home with a pool in Brentwood, Tennessee. Scott announced on December 7, 2012, that she and her husband were expecting their first child. In an interview with Broadway 's Electric Barnyard, Scott said that the baby 's heartbeat might be heard in the group 's latest album, Golden. On July 22, 2013, they welcomed a daughter named Eisele Kaye Tyrrell (pronounced: eyes - lee) in Nashville, Tennessee. In September 2015, she miscarried her second child, which inspired her single "Thy Will '' on the album Love Remains. Scott and Tyrell welcomed their twin daughters, Betsy Mack and Emory JoAnn Tyrell on January 29, 2018.
Since 2008, Scott and Lady Antebellum have been awarded many top awards in the music industry. Some of the top accolades include nine Grammy awards, seven ACM awards, six CMA awards, one Billboard Music Award and CMT Artists of the Year honorees in 2010 and 2011. Scott was also named SESAC songwriter of the year in 2008, 2010, and 2011. In 2011, her publishing company, Hillary Dawn Songs, shared publisher of the year with EMI Foray Music at the SESAC awards. She also has three Academy of Country Music awards, as producer of the album Need You Now, as producer of the single "Need You Now '', and as songwriter for "Need You Now ''.
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do german citizens need a visa for india | Visa requirements for German citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for German citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Germany. As of 1 January 2017, German citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 176 countries and territories, ranking the German passport 1st in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley visa restrictions index. Additionally, the World Tourism Organization also published a report on 15 January 2016 ranking the German passport 1st in the world (tied with Denmark, Finland, Italy, Luxembourg, Singapore and the United Kingdom) in terms of travel freedom, with the mobility index of 160 (out of 215 with no visa weighted by 1, visa on arrival weighted by 0.7, eVisa by 0.5 and traditional visa weighted by 0).
Recently visa requirements for German citizens were lifted by Belarus (February 2017), Solomon Islands (October 2016), Tuvalu (July 2016), Marshall Islands (June 2016), Palau (December 2015), Tonga (November 2015), Sao Tome and Principe (August 2015), Vietnam (July 2015 - June 30, 2018), Indonesia (June 2015), United Arab Emirates, Timor - Leste, Samoa (May 2015), Kazakhstan (July 2014 - December 2017), Mongolia (September 2013) and Kyrgyzstan (July 2012).
German citizens were made eligible for eVisas recently by Azerbaijan (January 2017), Tajikistan (June 2016), India (e-Tourist visa from November 2014), and Myanmar (September 2014).
Turkish "Blue Card '' (Mavi Kart): Freedom of movement.
Visa requirements for German citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination. Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Many countries require passport validity of no less than 6 months and one or two blank pages.
Countries requiring passport validity of at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Bhutan, Botswana, Brunei, Cambodia, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Fiji, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra - 3 months and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah - on arrival), Israel, Kenya, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Timor - Leste, Thailand, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, countries requiring passport validity of at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia, Zambia, countries requiring passport validity of at least 3 months on arrival include Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Moldova, Nauru, Panama, United Arab Emirates and countries requiring passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand, South Africa. Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or passport valid throughout the period of intended stay.
Israel, subject to the Arab League boycott, does not stamp passports anymore. Instead, it issues ID cards to visitors. Previously, it was possible to get the stamp on a separate piece of paper. Iran, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with evidence of travel to Israel, or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa.
However, similar conflicts exist between other countries. Visitors with passport stamp of such countries may have trouble to enter the other countries. Germany allows its citizens to hold several German passports (two or three, in extreme cases up to ten) to circumvent such travel restrictions. However, these additional passports are valid only for a maximum of six years, even if the "main passport '' is valid for ten years. Holding a German passport and a foreign passport at the same time, that is, dual citizenship, is restricted under the current German nationality law. Germany allows dual citizenship with other EU countries and Switzerland; dual citizenship with other countries is possible with special permission or if obtained at birth. Dual citizenship is also routinely granted when the other citizenship can not be renounced or renunciation would be practically impossible.
Several countries including Afghanistan, Argentina, Burundi, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Japan, Kenya, Malaysia, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and the United States demand all passengers to be fingerprinted on arrival. Countries capturing other biometric data like iris pattern include Jordan, Oman and United Arab Emirates.
When in a non-EU country where there is no German embassy, German citizens as EU citizens have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country.
Currently (2017), Germany manages 226 diplomatic missions worldwide. There are also 354 unpaid honorary consuls. See also List of diplomatic missions of Germany.
Currently, there are no German diplomatic missions (but in some cases honorary consuls) in
Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bhutan, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Cook Islands, Comores, Dominica, East Timor, Fiji, The Gambia, Grenada, Guinea - Bissau, Guyana, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Maledives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Monaco, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Salomon Islands, Samoa, San Marino, São Tomé and Príncipe, Seychelles, Somalia, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Swaziland, Syria, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
Germany regularly publishes travel warnings on the website of the Auswärtiges Amt (Federal Foreign Office) to its citizens. The Office allows German citizens to register online in a special list, the Krisenvorsorgeliste ("Crisis - Prevention List '') before they travel abroad (Elektronische Erfassung von Deutschen im Ausland (ELEFAND) Electronic Registration of Germans Being Abroad). With a password, the registered persons can changed or update their data. The registration is voluntary and free of charge. It can be used for longer stays (longer than 6 months), but also for a vacation of only two weeks. The earliest date of registration is 10 days before the planned trip.
Holders of various categories of official German passports have additional visa - free access to the following countries - Algeria (diplomatic passports), Ghana (diplomatic, official, or service passports), India (diplomatic passports), Kazakhstan (diplomatic passports), Pakistan (diplomatic passports), Russia (diplomatic passports) and Vietnam (diplomatic passports). Holders of diplomatic or service passports of any country have visa - free access to Cape Verde, Ethiopia, Mali and Zimbabwe.
Notes:
References
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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who played trent in big momma's house | Big Momma 's house - wikipedia
Big Momma 's House is a 2000 American action comedy film directed by Raja Gosnell, written by Darryl Quarles and Don Rhymer, and starring Martin Lawrence as FBI agent Malcolm Turner. The majority of the film took place in Cartersville, Georgia, but the film was shot on location in California. The prime shooting spots were Los Angeles and Orange County. The film is also notable for being one of only four titles to be released on the EVD video format.
The film begins in an illegal underground dog - fighting arena in Korea, where an undercover FBI agent, John Patterson, has been identified and is later ordered by a Korean mob boss to be killed. However, John is eventually rescued by his undercover partner and master of disguise, Malcolm Turner.
Meanwhile, a criminal named Lester Vesco, who was originally serving a life sentence in prison for murder and armed robbery, escapes from his cell by killing a doctor and stealing his car. The FBI assigns Malcolm and John to capture Lester by sending them to small - town Cartersville, Georgia to stake out the house of an overweight, elderly African American woman named Hattie Mae Pierce, whom her friends call her Big Momma. Big Momma is the estranged Southern grandmother of Lester 's ex-girlfriend, Sherry Pierce, a bank employee who supposedly aided Lester in his robbery by giving him the key to the vault. After Big Momma unexpectedly leaves town for two weeks to help an ill friend, Malcolm and John sneak into her house to plant security cameras and tap the phones. Sherry calls Big Momma 's house, and Malcolm disguises his voice as Big Momma in order to lure Sherry to the house and possibly obtain a confession. The plan works, and Malcolm and John work together on a Big Momma disguise costume before Sherry 's arrival.
The next day, Sherry arrives at Big Momma 's house with her 10 - year - old son, Trent. However, Malcolm 's behaviour and sudden inexperience with cooking confuses Sherry. Malcolm also has to deal with Big Momma 's lecherous boyfriend, Ben Rawley; act as midwife for a woman named Ritha, who has gone into labor; and attend self - defense classes under Ritha 's older brother, a dim - witted security guard named Nolan, whom Malcolm handily defeats. After Malcolm almost damages the suit while sleeping, he tries to sneak back to the safe house where he and John are staying. However, Sherry captures Malcolm on the porch and he poses as Big Momma 's handyman. Malcolm and John repair the suit. When Malcolm leaves with Sherry, John searches Trent and Sherry 's belongings for clues, but to no avail. Malcolm bonds with Trent when he defends him against the two older boys who bullied Trent and kicked him off a basketball court so they could play. Malcolm and Trent eventually beat the boys at basketball, amazing Nolan and Trent. Malcolm also begins to bond with Sherry and Trent when he accompanies them on a fishing trip as himself. That night, Nolan discovers Malcolm and John 's undercover operation and is reluctantly recruited to help them after he insists.
Malcolm accompanies Sherry and Trent to church, where the Reverend calls on Malcolm to give his testimony. Malcolm attempts to influence Sherry and Trent by giving them his testimony about the importance of not keeping secrets. When Malcolm, Sherry, and Trent return to Big Momma 's house, they discover a surprise birthday party for Big Momma. During the party, the real Big Momma returns home prematurely, whom John tries to stall her. Malcolm accidentally finds the stolen money hidden in Trent 's footlocker. Sherry tells Malcolm the real story: Lester had wooed Sherry so he could steal her keys to gain access to the bank vault; Sherry did not tell anyone about her stolen keys out of fear of getting fired. John quietly tells Nolan that the real Big Momma is back, at which point Nolan accidentally locks Malcolm out of the house, believing he is the real Big Momma. When Lester arrives after tracking down Sherry, Malcolm breaks through the window and fights Lester, causing confusion among the partygoers as they see two Big Mommas at once. Lester shoots John in his right shoulder and rips Malcolm 's mask during a fistfight, which reveals his identity. Nonetheless, Malcolm subdues Lester by knocking him out through the window. Sherry and Trent are heartbroken to realize that Malcolm was an FBI agent all along, and they refuse to speak to him. The police arrest Lester and paramedics takes John to the hospital to heal his right shoulder.
On Sunday morning, Malcolm goes to church to testify Sherry, Trent, and Big Momma. Malcolm delivers his confession and heartfelt speech to Sherry and Trent, and later admits that he genuinely loves them. Big Momma forgives Malcolm, and the crowd cheers as Malcolm and Sherry kiss. The crowd celebrates as Big Momma and the choir sings "Oh Happy Day '' during the film 's closing credits.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 30 % based on 81 reviews and an average rating of 4.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Big Momma 's House is funny in some parts, but it is essentially a one - joke movie. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 33 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
The film, and the series as a whole, have been derided as typical of "representations of the big black woman that have appeared in mass marketed comedies '' which at the same time devalue the women by casting "male actors wearing Latex fat suits ''. One review of the third film sarcastically comments, "Believe it or not, the Big Momma 's House series rigidly follows the classic Hollywood trilogy structure ''. By the third film, the series was derided for its unnecessary rehashing of the cross-dressing gimmick.
The film was released on 2 June 2000, and was a surprise hit as it opened as the number two movie in North America, and almost overtook Mission: Impossible 2 for the top spot that weekend. Big Momma 's House went on to gross over $117 million at the US box office, and with a worldwide total just under $174 million. Each installment in the series declined from the box office realized by the original:
A soundtrack containing hip hop music was released on May 30, 2000 by So So Def Records. The film 's theme song was "Bounce with Me '' by Lil Bow Wow. The soundtrack was also a moderate success and has been certified gold since its release. Other than Lil Bow Wow, the soundtrack featured artists such as Jermaine Dupri, Da Brat, and Black Dave, whose single Go Big Girl can be heard briefly in the film. It peaked at 41 on the Billboard 200 and 12 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums and spawned two hit singles, "Bounce with Me '' and "I 've Got to Have It ''.
This was the only Big Momma film to have an official soundtrack. However, the third film spawned one single, "Imma Do It Big '', by T - Pain, Brandon T. Jackson, and One Chance.
Big Momma 's House spawned 2 sequels: Big Momma 's House 2 (2006) and Big Mommas: Like Father, Like Son (2011). Both sequels are notable for being lighter and family - friendlier than the original. The sequels included some, but not all, of the same crew members, characters, and actors from the original:
The film is one of very few titles to be released on EVD as well as DVD and VHS. The film was re-released on Blu - ray and DVD.
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who sings the new version of santa baby | List of popular Christmas Singles in the United States - wikipedia
The following is a list of popular Christmas songs recorded by various artists, many of which have hit on various charts mostly in the United States (some only released in the artist 's home country). A year indicates the original year of release for that artist 's recorded version of the single or track, which may not necessarily be the first year the artist 's version charted on one or more popular music charts by various music trade publications. However, many tracks were re-released as singles in subsequent years.
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where is the sinai peninsula located on a map | Sinai Peninsula - wikipedia
The Sinai Peninsula or simply Sinai (/ ˈsaɪnaɪ /; Arabic: سيناء Sīnāʼ; Egyptian Arabic: سينا Sīna, IPA: (ˈsiːnæ); Hebrew: סִינַי Sinai; Coptic: ⲥⲓⲛⲁ) is a peninsula in Egypt, the only part of the country located in Asia. It is situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, and is a land bridge between Asia and Africa. Sinai has a land area of about 60,000 km (23,000 sq mi) and a population of approximately 1,400,000 people. Administratively, the Sinai Peninsula is divided into two governorates: the South Sinai Governorate and the North Sinai Governorate. Three other governorates span the Suez Canal, crossing into African Egypt: Suez Governorate on the southern end of the Suez Canal, Ismailia Governorate in the center, and Port Said Governorate in the north.
The Sinai Peninsula has been a part of Egypt from the First Dynasty of ancient Egypt (c. 3100 BC). This comes in stark contrast to the region north of it, the Levant (present - day territories of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and Palestine), which, due largely to its strategic geopolitical location and cultural convergences, has historically been the centre of conflict between Egypt and various states of Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. In periods of foreign occupation, the Sinai was, like the rest of Egypt, also occupied and controlled by foreign empires, in more recent history the Ottoman Empire (1517 -- 1867) and the United Kingdom (1882 -- 1956). Israel invaded and occupied Sinai during the Suez Crisis (known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression due to the simultaneous coordinated attack by the UK, France and Israel) of 1956, and during the Six - Day War of 1967. On 6 October 1973, Egypt launched the Yom Kippur War to retake the peninsula, which was the site of fierce fighting between Egyptian and Israeli forces. By 1982, as a result of the Israel -- Egypt Peace Treaty of 1979, Israel had withdrawn from all of the Sinai Peninsula except the contentious territory of Taba, which was returned after a ruling by a commission of arbitration in 1989.
Today, Sinai has become a tourist destination due to its natural setting, rich coral reefs, and biblical history. Mount Sinai is one of the most religiously significant places in the Abrahamic faiths.
The name Sinai may have been derived from the ancient moon - god Sin or from the Hebrew word Seneh (Hebrew: סֶ֫נֶּה Senneh) The peninsula acquired the name due to the assumption that a mountain near Saint Catherine 's Monastery is the Biblical Mount Sinai. However this assumption is contested.
In addition to its formal name, Egyptians also refer to it as Arḍ ul - Fairūz (أرض الفيروز "the land of turquoise ''). The ancient Egyptians called it Ta Mefkat, or "land of turquoise ''.
Sinai is triangular in shape, with northern shore lying on the southern Mediterranean Sea, and southwest and southeast shores on Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba of the Red Sea. It is linked to the African continent by the Isthmus of Suez, 125 kilometres (78 mi) wide strip of land, containing the Suez Canal. The eastern isthmus, linking it to the Asian mainland, is around 200 kilometres (120 mi) wide. The peninsula 's eastern shore separates the Arabian plate from the African plate.
The southernmost tip is the Ras Muhammad National Park.
Most of the Sinai Peninsula is divided among the two governorates of Egypt: South Sinai (Ganub Sina) and North Sinai (Shamal Sina). Together, they comprise around 60,000 square kilometres (23,000 sq mi) and have a population (January 2013) of 597,000. Three more governates span the Suez Canal, crossing into African Egypt: Suez (el - Sewais) is on the southern end of the Suez Canal, Ismailia (el - Isma'ileyyah) in the centre, and Port Said in the north.
The largest city of Sinai is Arish, capital of the North Sinai, with around 160,000 residents. Other larger settlements include Sharm el - Sheikh and El - Tor, on the southern coast. Inland Sinai is arid, mountainous and sparsely populated, the largest settlements being Saint Catherine and Nekhel.
Sinai is one of the coldest provinces in Egypt because of its high altitudes and mountainous topographies. Winter temperatures in some of Sinai 's cities and towns reach − 16 ° C (3 ° F).
Sinai was called Mafkat or "country of turquoise '' by the ancient Egyptians From the time of the First Dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai at two locations, now called by their Egyptian Arabic names Wadi Magharah and Serabit El Khadim. The mines were worked intermittently and on a seasonal basis for thousands of years. Modern attempts to exploit the deposits have been unprofitable. These may be the first historically attested mines.
At the end of the time of Darius I, the Great (521 -- 486 BCE) Sinai was part of the Persian province of Abar - Nahra, which means "beyond the river (Euphrates).
Cambyses successfully managed the crossing of the hostile Sinai Desert, traditionally Egypt 's first and strongest line of defence, and brought the Egyptians under Psamtik III, son and successor of Ahmose, to battle at Pelusium. The Egyptians lost and retired to Memphis; the city fell to the Persian control and the Pharaoh was carried off in captivity to Susa in mainland Persia.
After the death of the last Nabatean king, Rabbel II Soter, in 106, the Roman emperor Trajan faced practically no resistance and conquered the kingdom on 22 March 106. With this conquest, the Roman Empire went on to control all shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The Sinai Peninsula became part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea.
Saint Catherine 's Monastery on the foot of Mount Sinai was constructed by order of the Emperor Justinian between 527 and 565. Most of the Sinai Peninsula became part of the province of Palaestina Salutaris in the 6th century.
During the Crusades it was under control of Fatimid Caliphate. Later, Saladin abolished the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and took this region under his control too. It was the military route from Cairo to Damascus during the Crusades.
The peninsula was governed as part of Egypt under the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt from 1260 until 1517, when the Ottoman Sultan, Selim the Grim, defeated the Egyptians at the Battles of Marj Dabiq and al - Raydaniyya, and incorporated Egypt into the Ottoman Empire. From then until 1906, Sinai was administered by the Ottoman provincial government of the Pashalik of Egypt, even following the establishment of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty 's rule over the rest of Egypt in 1805.
In 1906, the Ottoman Porte formally transferred administration of Sinai to the Egyptian government, which essentially meant that it fell under the control of the United Kingdom, who had occupied and largely controlled Egypt since 1882. The border imposed by the British runs in an almost straight line from Rafah on the Mediterranean shore to Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba. This line has served as the eastern border of Egypt ever since.
At the beginning of the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War, Egyptian forces entered the former British Mandate of Palestine from Sinai to support Palestinian and other Arab forces against the newly declared State of Israel. For a period during the war, Israeli forces entered the north - eastern corner of Sinai. With the exception of Palestine 's Gaza Strip, which came under the administration of the All - Palestine Government, the western frontier of the former Mandate of Palestine became the Egyptian -- Israeli frontier under the 1949 Armistice Agreement. In 1958, the Gaza Strip came under direct Egyptian military administration, though it was governed separately from Sinai, and was never annexed by Egypt. The Egyptian government maintained that Egyptian administration would be terminated upon the end of the conflict with Israel.
In 1956, Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal, a waterway marking the boundary between Egyptian territory in Africa and the Sinai Peninsula. Thereafter, Israeli ships were prohibited from using the Canal, owing to the state of war between the two states. Egypt also prohibited ships from using Egyptian territorial waters on the eastern side of the peninsula to travel to and from Israel, effectively imposing a blockade on the Israeli port of Eilat. Subsequently, in what is known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression, Israeli forces, aided by Britain, and France (which sought to reverse the nationalisation and regain control over the Suez Canal), invaded Sinai and occupied much of the peninsula within a few days. Several months later Israel withdrew its forces from Sinai, following strong pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union. Thereafter, the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) was stationed in Sinai to prevent any further conflict in the Sinai.
In 1967, Egypt reinforced its military presence in Sinai and on 16 May ordered the UNEF out of Sinai with immediate effect. Secretary - General U Thant eventually complied and ordered the withdrawal without Security Council authorisation. In the course of the Six - Day War that broke out shortly thereafter, Israel captured the entire Sinai Peninsula, and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) from Jordan (which it had ruled since 1949), and the Golan Heights from Syria. The Suez Canal, the east bank of which was now occupied by Israel, was closed. Israel commenced efforts at large scale Israeli settlement in the peninsula.
Following the Israeli conquest of Sinai, Egypt launched the War of Attrition (1967 -- 70) aimed at forcing Israel to withdraw from Egyptian territory. The war saw protracted conflict in the Suez Canal Zone, ranging from limited to large scale combat. Israeli shelling of the cities of Port Said, Ismailia, and Suez on the west bank of the canal, led to high civilian casualties (including the virtual destruction of Suez), and contributed to the flight of 700,000 Egyptian internal refugees. Ultimately, the war concluded in 1970 with no change in the front line.
On 6 October 1973, Egypt commenced Operation Badr to retake the Sinai, while Syria launched a simultaneous operation to retake the Golan Heights, thereby beginning the Yom Kippur War (known in Egypt as the October War). Egyptian engineering forces built pontoon bridges to cross the Suez Canal, and stormed the Bar - Lev Line, Israel 's defensive line along the canal. Though the Egyptians maintained control of most of the east bank of the Canal, in the later stages of the war, the Israeli military crossed the southern section of Canal, cutting off the Egyptian 3rd Army, and occupied a section of the west bank. The war ended following a mutually agreed - upon ceasefire. After the war, as part of the subsequent Sinai Disengagement Agreements, Israel withdrew from the Canal, with Egypt agreeing to permit passage of Israeli ships. The canal was reopened in 1975, with President Sadat leading the first convoy through the canal aboard an Egyptian destroyer.
In 1979, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty in which Israel agreed to withdraw from the entirety of Sinai. Israel subsequently withdrew in several stages, ending in 1982. The Israeli pull - out involved dismantling almost all Israeli settlements, including the settlement of Yamit in north - eastern Sinai. The exception was the coastal city of Sharm el - Sheikh, which the Israelis had founded as Ofira during the period of their occupation. The Treaty allows monitoring of Sinai by the Multinational Force and Observers, and limits the number of Egyptian military forces in the peninsula.
Since the early 2000s, Sinai has been the site of several terror attacks against tourists, the majority of whom are Egyptian. Investigations have shown that these were mainly motivated by a resentment of the poverty faced by many Bedouin in the area. Attacking the tourist industry was viewed as a method of damaging the industry so that the government would pay more attention to their situation. (See 2004 Sinai bombings, 2005 Sharm El Sheikh bombings and 2006 Dahab bombings). Since the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, unrest has become more prevalent in the area including the 2012 Egyptian - Israeli border attack in which 16 Egyptian soldiers were killed by militants. (See Sinai insurgency).
Also on the rise are kidnappings of refugees. According to Meron Estifanos, Eritrean refugees are often kidnapped by Bedouin in the northern Sinai, tortured, raped, and only released after receiving a large ransom.
Under President el - Sisi, Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between Gaza and Sinai.
The two governorates of North and South Sinai have a total population of 597,000 (January 2013). This figure rises to 1,400,000 by including Western Sinai, the parts of the Port Said, Ismailia and Suez Governorates lying east of the Suez Canal. Port Said alone has a population of roughly 500,000 people (January 2013). Portions of the populations of Ismailia and Suez live in west Sinai, while the rest live on the western side of the Suez Canal.
Population of Sinai has largely consisted of desert - dwelling Bedouins with their colourful traditional costumes and significant culture. Large numbers of Egyptians from the Nile Valley and Delta moved to the area to work in tourism, but development adversely affected the native Bedouin population. In order to help alleviate their problems, various NGOs began to operate in the region, including the Makhad Trust, a UK charity that assists the Bedouin in developing a sustainable income while protecting Sinai 's natural environment, heritage and culture.
Since the Israeli -- Egyptian peace treaty, Sinai 's scenic spots (including coral reefs offshore) and religious structures have become important to the tourism industry. The most popular tourist destination in Sinai are Mount Sinai (Jabal Musa) and St Catherine 's Monastery, which is considered to be the oldest working Christian monastery in the world, and the beach resorts of Sharm el - Sheikh, Dahab, Nuweiba and Taba. Most tourists arrive at Sharm el - Sheikh International Airport, through Eilat, Israel and the Taba Border Crossing, by road from Cairo or by ferry from Aqaba in Jordan.
Coordinates: 29 ° 30 ′ N 33 ° 50 ′ E / 29.500 ° N 33.833 ° E / 29.500; 33.833
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who led the revolt against spanish rule in pacific south america | Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire - wikipedia
Spanish Empire Spanish conquistadors Viceroyalty of Peru Native allies
The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. After years of preliminary exploration and military skirmishes, 180 Spanish soldiers under conquistador Francisco Pizarro, his brothers, and their native allies captured the Sapa Inca Atahualpa in the 1532 Battle of Cajamarca. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory in 1572 and colonization of the region as the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest of the Inca Empire (called "Tahuantinsuyu '' or "Tawantinsuyu '' in Quechua, meaning "Realm of the Four Parts ''), led to spin - off campaigns into present - day Chile and Colombia, as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin.
When the Spanish arrived at the borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, it spanned a considerable area; by far the largest of the four grand pre-Columbian civilizations. Extending southward from the Ancomayo, which is now known as the Patía River, in southern present - day Colombia to the Maule River in what would later be known as Chile, and eastward from the Pacific Ocean to the edge of the Amazonian jungles, the empire covered some of the most mountainous terrain on Earth. In less than a century, the Inca had expanded their empire from about 400,000 km2 (155,000 sq mi) in 1448, to 1,800,000 km2 (690,000 sq mi) in 1528, just before the arrival of the Spanish. This vast area of land varied greatly in cultures and in climate. Because of the diverse cultures and geography, the Inca allowed many areas of the empire to be governed under the control of local leaders, who were watched and monitored by Inca officials. However, under the administrative mechanisms established by the Inca, all parts of the empire answered to, and were ultimately under the direct control of, the Emperor. Scholars estimate that the population of the Inca Empire numbered more than 16,000,000.
Some scholars, such as Jared Diamond, believe that while the Spanish conquest was undoubtedly the proximate cause of the collapse of the Inca Empire, it may very well have been past its peak and already in the process of decline. In 1528, Emperor Huayna Capac ruled the Inca Empire. He could trace his lineage back to a "stranger king '' named Manco Cápac, the mythical founder of the Inca clan, who according to tradition emerged from a cave in a region called Pacariqtambo.
Huayna Capac was the son of the previous ruler, Túpac Inca, and the grandson of Pachacuti, the Emperor who, by conquest, had commenced the dramatic expansion of the Inca Empire from its cultural and traditional base in the area around Cuzco. On his accession to the throne, Huayna Capac had continued the policy of expansion by conquest, taking Inca armies north into what is today Ecuador. While he had to put down a number of rebellions during his reign, by the time of his death, his legitimacy was as unquestioned as was the primacy of Inca power.
However, expansion had resulted in its own problems. Many parts of the empire maintained distinctive cultures and these were at best resistive participants in the imperial project. The large extent of the empire, the extremely difficult terrain of much of it, and the fact that all communication and travel had to take place on foot or by boat, seems to have caused increasing difficulty in the Incas ' effective administration of the empire.
Huayna Capac relied on his sons to support his reign. While he had many legitimate and illegitimate children (legitimate meaning born of his sister - wife, under the Inca system), two sons are historically important. Prince Túpac Cusi Hualpa, also known as Huáscar, was the son of Coya Mama Rahua Occllo of the royal line. The second was Atahualpa, an illegitimate son who was likely born of a daughter of the last independent King of Quitu, one of the states conquered by Huayna Capac during the expansion of the Inca Empire. These two sons would play pivotal roles in the final years of the Inca Empire.
The Spanish conquistador Pizarro and his men were greatly aided in their enterprise by invading when the Inca Empire was in the midst of a war of succession between the princes Huáscar and Atahualpa. Atahualpa seems to have spent more time with Huayna Capac during the years when he was in the north with the army conquering Ecuador. Atahualpa was thus closer to, and had better relations with the army and its leading generals. When both Huayna Capac and his eldest son and designated heir, Ninan Cuyochic, died suddenly in 1528 from what was probably smallpox, a disease introduced by the Spanish into the Americas, the question of who would succeed as emperor was thrown open. Huayna had died before he could nominate the new heir.
At the time of Huayna Capac 's death, Huáscar was in the capital Cuzco, while Atahualpa was in Quitu with the main body of the Inca army. Huáscar had himself proclaimed Sapa Inca (i.e. "Only Emperor '') in Cuzco, but the army declared loyalty to Atahualpa. The resulting dispute led to the Inca Civil War.
The civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar weakened the empire immediately prior to its struggle with the Spanish. Historians are unsure of whether a united Inca Empire could have defeated the Spanish in the long term due to factors such as the high mortality from disease and its related social disruption, and the superior military technology of the conquistadors, who possessed horses, dogs, metal armor, swords, cannons, and primitive, but effective, firearms. Atahualpa appeared to be more popular with the people than his brother, and he was certainly more valued by the army, the core of which was based in the recently conquered northern province of Quitu.
At the outset of the conflict, each brother controlled his respective domains, with Atahualpa secure in the north, and Huáscar controlling the capital of Cuzco and the large territory to the south, including the area around Lake Titicaca. This region had supplied large numbers of troops for Huáscar 's forces. After a period of diplomatic posturing and jockeying for position, open warfare broke out. Huáscar seemed poised to bring the war to a rapid conclusion, as troops loyal to him took Atahualpa prisoner, while he was attending a festival in the city of Tumibamba. However, Atahualpa quickly escaped and returned to Quitu. There, he was able to amass what is estimated to be at least 30,000 soldiers. While Huáscar managed to muster about the same number of soldiers, they were less experienced.
Atahualpa sent his forces south under the command of two of his leading generals, Challcuchima and Quisquis, who won an uninterrupted series of victories that soon brought them to the very gates of Cuzco. On the first day of the battle for Cuzco, the forces loyal to Huáscar gained an early advantage. However, on the second day, Huáscar personally led an ill - advised "surprise '' attack, of which the generals Challcuchima and Quisquis had advance knowledge. In the ensuing battle, Huáscar was captured, and resistance completely collapsed. The victorious generals sent word north by chasqui messenger to Atahualpa, who had moved south from Quitu to the royal resort springs outside Cajamarca. The messenger arrived with news of the final victory on the same day that Pizarro and his small band of adventurers, together with some indigenous allies, descended from the Andes into the town of Cajamarca.
Francisco Pizarro and his brothers (Gonzalo, Juan, and Hernando) were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom. They had left the then impoverished Extremadura, like many migrants after them.
In 1529, Francisco Pizarro obtained permission from the Spanish Monarchy to conquer the land they called Peru.
According to historian Raúl Porras Barrenechea, Peru is not a Quechuan nor Caribbean word, but Indo - Hispanic or hybrid. Unknown to Pizarro, as he was lobbying for permission to mount an expedition, his proposed enemy was being devastated by the diseases brought to the American continents during earlier Spanish contacts.
When Pizarro arrived in Peru in 1532, he found it vastly different from when he had been there just five years before. Amid the ruins of the city of Tumbes, he tried to piece together the situation before him. From two young local boys whom he had taught how to speak Spanish in order to translate for him, Pizarro learned of the civil war and of the disease that was destroying the Inca Empire.
After four long expeditions, Pizarro established the first Spanish settlement in northern Peru, calling it San Miguel de Piura.
When first spotted by the natives, Pizarro and his men were thought to be viracocha cuna or "gods ''. The Indians described Pizarro 's men to the Inca. They said that capito was tall with a full beard and was completely wrapped in clothing. The Indians described the men 's swords and how they killed sheep with them. The men did not eat human flesh, but rather sheep, lamb, duck, pigeons, and deer, and cooked the meat. Atahualpa was fearful of what the white men were capable of. If they were runa quicachac or "destroyers of peoples, '' then he should flee. If they were viracocha cuna runa allichac or "gods who are benefactors of the people, '' then he should not flee, but welcome them. The messengers went back to Tangarala, and Atahualpa sent Cinquinchara, an Orejon warrior, to the Spanish to serve as an interpreter.
After traveling with the Spanish, Cinquinchara returned to Atahualpa; they discussed whether or not the Spanish men were gods. Cinquinchara decided they were men because he saw them eat, drink, dress, and have relations with women. He saw them produce no miracles. Cinquinchara informed Atahualpa that they were small in number, about 170 -- 180 men, and had bound the Indian captives with "iron ropes ''. When Atahualpa asked what to do about the strangers, Cinquinchara said that they should be killed because they were evil thieves who took whatever they wanted, and were supai cuna or "devils ''. He recommended trapping the men inside of their sleeping quarters and burning them to death.
At this point, Pizarro had 168 men under his command: 106 on foot and 62 on horses. Pizarro sent his captain Hernando de Soto to invite Atahualpa to a meeting. Soto rode to meet Atahualpa on his horse, an animal that Atahualpa had never seen before. With one of his young interpreters, Soto read a prepared speech to Atahualpa telling him that they had come as servants of God to teach them the truth about God 's word. He said he was speaking to them so that they might
"lay the foundation of concord, brotherhood, and perpetual peace that should exist between us, so that you may receive us under your protection and hear the divine law from us and all your people may learn and receive it, for it will be the greatest honor, advantage, and salvation to them all. ''
Atahualpa responded only after Hernando Pizarro arrived. He replied with what he had heard from his scouts, saying that Pizarro and his men were killing and enslaving countless numbers on the coast. Pizarro denied the report and Atahualpa, with limited information, reluctantly let the matter go. At the end of their meeting, the men agreed to meet the next day at Cajamarca.
After his victory and the death of his brother Huáscar, Atahualpa was fasting in the Inca baths outside Cajamarca. Pizarro and his men reached that city on 15 November 1532.
Pizarro sent Hernando de Soto and Hernando Pizarro to the Inca leader 's camp. Hernando Pizarro and De Soto explained they were emissaries of Emperor Charles I of Spain, to offer their services, and "impart to him the doctrines of the true faith. '' Additionally, they invited the Incan leader to visit Pizarro at his quarters along the Cajamarca plaza. Atahuallpa replied that his fast would end the next day, when he would visit Pizarro. When De Soto noticed Atahualpa 's interest in his horse, he put on a display of "excellent horsemanship '' in close proximity. Atahualpa displayed hospitality by serving refreshments.
The next morning, Pizarro had arranged an ambuscade around the Cajamarca plaza, where they were to meet. When Atahualpa arrived with about 6,000 unarmed followers, Friar Vincente de Valverde and Felipillo met them and proceeded to "expound the doctrines of the true faith '' and seek his tribute as a vassal of King Charles. The unskilled translator likely contributed to problems in communication. The friar offered Atahualpa the Bible as the authority of what he had just stated. Atahualpa stated, "I will be no man 's tributary. ''
The friar urged attack, starting the Battle of Cajamarca on 16 November 1532. Though the historical accounts relating to these circumstances vary, the true Spanish motives for the attack seemed to be a desire for loot and flat - out impatience. The Inca likely did not adequately understand the conquistadors ' demands.
At the signal to attack, the Spaniards unleashed volleys of gunfire at the vulnerable mass of Incas and surged forward in a concerted action. The effect was devastating, the shocked Incas offered such feeble resistance that the battle has often been labeled a massacre, with the Inca losing 2,000 dead. Pizarro also used cavalry charges against the Inca forces, which stunned them in combination with gunfire.
The majority of Atahualpa 's troops were in the Cuzco region along with Rumiñawi, Quisquis and Challcuchima, the two generals he trusted the most. This was a major disadvantage for the Inca. Their undoing also resulted from a lack of self - confidence, and a desire to make public demonstration of fearlessness and godlike command of situation. The main view is that the Inca were eventually defeated due to inferior weapons, ' open battle ' tactics, disease, internal unrest, the bold tactics of the Spanish, and the capture of their emperor. While Spanish armour was very effective against most of the Andean weapons, it was not impenetrable to maces, clubs, or slings. However, ensuing hostilities such as the Mixtón Rebellion, Chichimeca War, and Arauco War would require that the conquistadors ally with friendly tribes in these later expeditions.
The battle began with a shot from a cannon and the battle cry "Santiago! '' Many of the guns used by the Spaniards were hard to use in the frequent close - combat situations. Most natives adapted in ' guerrilla fashion ' by only shooting at the legs of the conquistadors if they happened to be unarmored.
During Atahualpa 's captivity, the Spanish, although greatly outnumbered, forced him to order his generals to back down by threatening to kill him if he did not. According to the Spanish envoy 's demands, Atahualpa offered to fill a large room with gold and promised the Spanish twice that amount in silver. While Pizarro ostensibly accepted this offer and allowed the gold to pile up, he had no intention of releasing the Inca; he needed Atahualpa 's influence over his generals and the people in order to maintain the peace.
When Atahualpa was captured at the massacre at Cajamarca, he was treated with respect, allowed his wives to join him, and the Spanish soldiers taught him the game of chess. Francisco Pizarro sent his brother Hernando to gather gold and silver from the temples in Pachacamac in January 1533, and on his return in March, captured Chalcuchimac in the Jauja Valley. Francisco Pizzaro sent a similar expedition to Cuzco, bringing back many gold plates from the Temple of the Sun. By February 1533, Almagro had joined Pizarro in Cajamarca with an additional 150 men with 50 horses.
Pizarro held Atahualpa for a ransom of gold and silver; the treasure began to be delivered from Cuzco on 20 December 1532 and flowed steadily from then on. By 3 May 1533 Pizarro received all the treasure he had requested; it was melted, refined, and made into bars.
The question eventually came up of what to do with Atahualpa; both Pizarro and Soto were against killing him, but the other Spaniards were loud in their demands for death. False interpretations from the interpreter Felipillo made the Spaniards paranoid. They were told that Atahualpa had ordered secret attacks and his warriors were hidden in the surrounding area. Soto went with a small army to look for the hidden army, but a trial for Atahualpa was held in his absence. Among the charges were polygamy, incestuous marriage, and idolatry, all frowned upon in Catholicism but common in Inca culture and religion.
The men who were against Atahualpa 's conviction and murder argued that he should be judged by King Charles since he was the sovereign prince. Atahualpa agreed to accept baptism to avoid being burned at the stake and in the hopes of one day rejoining his army and killing the Spanish; he was baptized as Francisco. On 29 August 1533 Atahualpa was garrotted and died a Christian. He was buried with Christian rites in the church of San Francisco at Cajamarca, but was soon disinterred. His body was taken, probably at his prior request, to its final resting place in Quito. Upon de Soto 's return, he was furious; he had found no evidence of any secret gathering of Atahualpa 's warriors.
Pizarro advanced with his army of 500 Spaniards toward Cuzco, accompanied by Chalcuchimac. The latter was burned alive in the Jauja Valley, accused of secret communication with Quizquiz, and organizing resistance. Manco Inca Yupanqui joined Pizarro after the death of Túpac Huallpa. Pizarro 's force entered the heart of the Tawantinsuyu on 15 November 1533.
Benalcázar, Pizarro 's lieutenant and fellow Extremaduran, had already departed from San Miguel with 140 - foot soldiers and a few horses on his conquering mission to Ecuador. At the foot of Mount Chimborazo, near the modern city of Riobamba (Ecuador) he met and defeated the forces of the great Inca warrior Rumiñawi with the aid of Cañari tribesmen who served as guides and allies to the conquering Spaniards. Rumiñahui fell back to Quito, and, while in pursuit of the Inca army, Benalcázar was joined by five hundred men led by Guatemalan Governor Pedro de Alvarado. Greedy for gold, Alvarado had set sail for the south without the crown 's authorization, landed on the Ecuadorian coast, and marched inland to the Sierra. Finding Quito empty of its treasures, Alvarado soon joined the combined Spanish force. Alvarado agreed to sell his fleet of twelve ships, his forces, plus arms and ammunition, and returned to Guatemala.
After Atahualpa 's execution, Pizarro installed Atahualpa 's brother, Túpac Huallpa, as a puppet Inca ruler, but he soon died unexpectedly, leaving Manco Inca Yupanqui in power. He began his rule as an ally of the Spanish and was respected in the southern regions of the empire, but there was still much unrest in the north near Quito where Atahualpa 's generals were amassing troops. Atahualpa 's death meant that there was no hostage left to deter these northern armies from attacking the invaders. Led by Atahualpa 's generals Rumiñahui, Zope - Zupahua and Quisquis, the native armies were finally defeated, effectively ending any organized rebellion in the north of the empire.
Archaeological evidence of the rebellion incident exists. The remains of about 70 men, women, and adolescents were found in the path of a planned expressway near Lima in 2007. Forensic evidence suggests that the natives were killed by European weapons, probably during the uprising in 1536.
Manco Inca initially had good relations with Francisco Pizarro and several other Spanish conquistadors. However, in 1535 he was left in Cuzco under the control of Pizarro 's brothers, Juan and Gonzalo, who so mistreated Manco Inca that he ultimately rebelled. Under the pretense of recovering a statue of pure gold in the nearby Yucay valley, Manco was able to escape Cuzco.
Manco Inca hoped to use the disagreement between Almagro and Pizarro to his advantage and attempted the recapture of Cuzco starting in Feb. 1536. The siege of Cuzco was waged until the following spring, and during that time Manco 's armies managed to wipe out four relief columns sent from Lima, but was ultimately unsuccessful in its goal of routing the Spaniards from the city. The Inca leadership did not have the full support of all its subject peoples and furthermore, the degrading state of Inca morale coupled with the superior Spanish siege weapons soon made Manco Inca realize his hope of recapturing Cuzco was failing. Manco Inca eventually withdrew to Tambo.
After the Spanish regained control of Cuzco, Manco Inca and his armies retreated to the fortress at Ollantaytambo where he, for a time, successfully launched attacks against Pizarro based at Cuzco and even managed to defeat the Spanish in an open battle.
When it became clear that defeat was imminent, Manco Inca retreated further to the mountainous region of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State, where Manco Inca and his successors continued to hold some power for several more decades. His son, Túpac Amaru, was the last Inca. After deadly confrontations, he was murdered by the Spanish in 1572.
In total, the conquest took about forty years to complete. Many Inca attempts to regain the empire had occurred, but none had been successful. Thus the Spanish conquest was achieved through relentless force, and deception, aided by factors like smallpox and a great communication and cultural divide. The Spaniards destroyed much of the Incan culture and introduced the Spanish culture to the native population.
A struggle for power resulted in a long civil war between Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in which Almagro was killed. Almagro 's loyal followers and his descendants later avenged his death by killing Pizarro in 1541. This was done inside the palace of Francisco Pizarro in a fight to the death by these assassins, most of which were former soldiers of Diego de Almagro who were stripped of title and belongings after his death.
Despite the war, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Spanish royal authority on these territories was consolidated by the creation of an Audiencia Real, a type of appellate court. In January 1535, Lima was founded, from which the political and administrative institutions were to be organized. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, that shortly after would be called Viceroyalty of Peru. Nevertheless, the Viceroyalty of Peru was not organized until the arrival of a later Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572. Toledo ended the indigenous Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, executing the Inca Túpac Amaru. He promoted economic development using commercial monopoly and built up the extraction from the silver mines of Potosí, using slavery based on the Inca institution of forced labor for mandatory public service called mita.
The integration of Spanish culture into Peru was carried out not only by Pizarro and his other captains, but also by the many Spanish who also came to Peru to exploit its riches and inhabit its land. These included many different kinds of immigrants such as Spanish merchants, peasants, artisans, and Spanish women. Another element that the Spanish brought with them were African slaves to work alongside captive Incas for use in labor with things such as agriculture and mining for silver. These people all brought with them their own pieces of Spanish culture to integrate into Peruvian society.
The arrival of the Spanish even had effects on the coastal geography of Peru, since the shores were uninhabited after the Incas that previously lived there were either killed or relocated to another area by the Spanish.
Almost nothing was left of the Inca civilizations after the conquest by the Spanish, as culture was not as significant as gold to the new conquerors. The unique indigenous road and communications systems were essentially lost. The only things that persisted of the original culture are the very few artifacts that remained and the minute cultural aspects, such as language, that was left behind by the small percentage of Incas who persisted.
The long - term effects of the arrival of the Spanish on the population of South America were simply catastrophic. While this is the case for every group of Native - Americans that encountered Europeans from the fifteenth century onwards, the Incan population suffered a dramatic and quick decline following contact. It is estimated that parts of the empire, notably the Central Andes, suffered a population decline ratio of 58: 1 during the years of 1520 -- 1571.
The single greatest cause of the decimation of native populations was infectious disease. Old World Eurasian diseases, which had long been endemic on the Continent, were carried unknowingly by colonists and conquistadors. As these were new to the natives, they had no acquired immunity and suffered very high rates of death. More died of disease than any army or armed conflict. As the Inca did not have as strong a writing tradition as the Aztec or Maya, it is difficult for historians to estimate population decline or any events after conquest. But, it is apparent that the Inca began to contract the diseases several years before the Spanish appeared in the region, as it was likely carried to their empire by traders and travelers. The outbreak, believed to be hemorrhagic smallpox, reached the Andes in 1524. While numbers are unavailable, Spanish records indicate that the population was so devastated by disease that they could hardly resist the foreign forces.
Historians differ as to whether the illness of the 1520s was smallpox; a minority of scholars claim that the epidemic was due to an indigenous illness called Carrion 's disease. In any case, a 1981 study by N.D. Cook the shows that the Andes suffered from three separate population declines during colonization. The first was of 30 -- 50 percent during the first outbreak of smallpox. When a measles outbreak occurred, there was another decline of 25 -- 30 percent. Finally, when smallpox and measles epidemics occurred together, which occurred from 1585 to 1591, a decline of 30 -- 60 percent occurred. Collectively these declines amounted to a decline of 93 percent from the pre-contact population in the Andes region. Mortality was particularly high among children, ensuring that the impact of the epidemics would extend to the next generation.
Beyond the devastation of the local populations by disease, they suffered considerable enslavement, pillaging and destruction from warfare. The Spanish took thousands of women from the local natives to use as servants and concubines. As Pizarro and his men took over portions of South America, they plundered and enslaved countless people. Some local populations entered into vassalage willingly, to defeat the Inca. Native groups such as the Huanca, Cañari and Chachapoya fought alongside the Spanish as they opposed Inca rule. The basic policy of the Spanish towards local populations was that voluntary vassalage would yield safety and coexistence, while continued resistance would result in more deaths and destruction.
Another significant effect on the people in South America was the spread of Christianity. As Pizarro and the Spanish subdued the continent and brought it under their control, they forcefully converted many to Christianity, claiming to have educated them in the ways of the "one true religion. '' With the depopulation of the local populations along with the capitulation of the Inca Empire, the Spanish missionary work after colonization began was able to continue unimpeded. It took just a generation for the entire continent to be under Christian influence.
Peter Shaffer 's play The Royal Hunt of the Sun (1964) dramatizes the conquest of the Incas. In the play, Pizarro, Atahualpa, Valverde and other historical figures appear as characters.
Matthew Reilly 's novel Temple, is set at the siege of Cuzco. Many historical figures are mentioned, and a (fictional) brother of Pizarro is noted to be in pursuit of the protagonist. The conquest is also used as a "starting point of the cat. ''
The Inca are featured in the third Campaign in Age of Empires 3, having a Lost City hidden in the Andes. They are also in the Multiplayer, found primarily in the areas making up Chile and Argentina.
The conquest is parodied in The Simpsons TV series, in the chapter "Lost Verizon '', written by John Frink.
Pizarro and his fellow conquistadors feature as antagonists in the 1982 animated serial The Mysterious Cities of Gold.
I wish Your Majesty to understand the motive that moves me to make this statement is the peace of my conscience and because of the guilt I share. For we have destroyed by our evil behaviour such a government as was enjoyed by these natives. They were so free of crime and greed, both men and women, that they could leave gold or silver worth a hundred thousand pesos in their open house. So that when they discovered that we were thieves and men who sought to force their wives and daughters to commit sin with them, they despised us. But now things have come to such a pass in offence of God, owing to the bad example we have set them in all things, that these natives from doing no evil have turned into people who can do no good... I beg God to pardon me, for I am moved to say this, seeing that I am the last to die of the Conquistadors. ''
When has it ever happened, either in ancient or modern times, that such amazing exploits have been achieved? Over so many climes, across so many seas, over such distances by land, to subdue the unseen and unknown? Whose deeds can be compared with those of Spain? Not even the ancient Greeks and Romans.
When I set out to write for the people of today and of the future, about the conquest and discovery that our Spaniards made here in Peru, I could not but reflect that I was dealing with the greatest matters one could possibly write about in all of creation as far as secular history goes. Where have men ever seen the things they have seen here? And to think that God should have permitted something so great to remain hidden from the world for so long in history, unknown to men, and then let it be found, discovered and won all in our own time!
The houses are more than two hundred paces in length, and very well built, being surrounded by strong walls, three times the height of a man. The roofs are covered with straw and wood, resting on the walls. The interiors are divided into eight rooms, much better built than any we had seen before. Their walls are of very well cut stones and each lodging is surrounded by its masonry wall with doorways, and has its fountain of water in an open court, conveyed from a distance by pipes, for the supply of the house. In front of the plaza, towards the open country, a stone fortress is connected with it by a staircase leading from the square to the fort. Towards the open country there is another small door, with a narrow staircase, all within the outer wall of the plaza. Above the town, on the mountain side, where the houses commence, there is another fort on a hill, the greater part of which is hewn out of the rock. This is larger than the other, and surrounded by three walls, rising spirally.
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what hospital does the good doctor take place | The Good Doctor (TV series) - Wikipedia
The Good Doctor is an American medical - drama television series based on the 2013 award winning South Korean series of the same name. Daniel Dae Kim, the actor, first noticed the series and bought the rights for his production company. He began adapting the series and eventually shopped it to CBS, his home network in 2015. CBS decided against creating a pilot. Because Kim felt so strongly about the series, he bought back the rights from CBS. Eventually, Sony Pictures Television and Kim worked out a deal and brought on David Shore, creator of the Fox hit medical drama, House, to develop the series.
The show is produced by Sony Pictures Television and ABC Studios, in association with production companies Shore Z Productions, 3AD, and Entermedia. David Shore serves as showrunner and Daniel Dae Kim is an executive producer for the show.
The series stars Freddie Highmore as Shaun Murphy, a young savant autistic surgical resident at San Jose St. Bonaventure Hospital. Antonia Thomas, Nicholas Gonzalez, Beau Garrett, Hill Harper, Richard Schiff, and Tamlyn Tomita also star in the show. The series received a put pilot commitment at ABC after a previous attempted series did not move forward at CBS Television Studios in 2015; The Good Doctor was ordered to series in May 2017. On October 3, 2017, ABC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. The series is primarily filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia.
The Good Doctor began airing on ABC on September 25, 2017. It has received mixed to positive reviews from critics, with particular praise given to Highmore 's performance, and strong television ratings.
The series follows Shaun Murphy, a young surgeon with autism and savant syndrome from the small town of Casper, Wyoming, where he had a troubled childhood. He relocates to San Jose, California to work at the prestigious San Jose St. Bonaventure Hospital.
In May 2014, CBS Television Studios began development on an American remake of the hit South Korean medical drama Good Doctor with Daniel Dae Kim as producer. Kim explained the appeal of adapting the series as "something that can fit into a recognizable world, with a breadth of characters that can be explored in the long run ''. The story of a pediatric surgeon with autism was to be set in Boston and projected to air in August 2015. However, CBS did not pick up the project and it moved to Sony Pictures Television, with a put pilot commitment from ABC in October 2016. The series is developed by David Shore, who is executive producing alongside Kim, Sebastian Lee, and David Kim. ABC officially ordered the series to pilot in January 2017.
On May 11, 2017, ABC ordered the show to series as a co-production with Sony Pictures Television and ABC Studios, and it was officially picked up for a full season of 18 episodes on October 3, 2017.
On February 17, 2017, Antonia Thomas was cast as Dr. Claire Browne, a strong - willed and talented doctor who forms a special connection with Shaun. A week later, Freddie Highmore was cast in the lead role as Dr. Shaun Murphy, a young surgeon with autism; and Nicholas Gonzalez was cast as Dr. Neil Melendez, the boss of the surgical residents at the hospital. The next month, Chuku Modu was cast as resident Dr. Jared Kalu (originally Dr. Jared Unger); Hill Harper as head of surgery Dr. Marcus Andrews (originally Dr. Horace Andrews); Irene Keng as resident Dr. Elle McLean; and Richard Schiff was cast as Dr. Aaron Glassman (originally Dr. Ira Glassman), the hospital president and Shaun 's mentor. Schiff was shortly followed by Beau Garrett as hospital board member Jessica Preston and a friend of Dr. Glassman. In September 2017, Tamlyn Tomita was promoted to the principal cast as Allegra Aoki.
Production on the pilot took place from March 21 to April 6, 2017 in Vancouver, British Columbia. Filming for the rest of the season began on July 26, 2017, and is set to conclude on March 1, 2018. Although The Good Doctor is set in San Jose, California, the real San Jose is rarely seen. In one of those scenes, a helicopter supposedly bound for San Francisco was clearly headed in the wrong direction.
Dan Romer serves as the primary composer for the series.
The Good Doctor began airing on September 25, 2017, on ABC in the United States, and on CTV in Canada. Sky Living acquired the broadcast rights for the United Kingdom and Ireland. Seven Network airs the series in Australia. Wowow, the largest Japanese private satellite and pay - per - view television network in Japan acquired the rights to broadcast the series beginning in April 2018.
A full - length trailer was released for ABC 's May 2017 Upfront presentation, which / Film 's Ethan Anderton described the concept as feeling like "House meets Rain Man, that just might be enough to make it interesting ''. However, he questioned "how long can audiences be entranced by both the brilliance of (Highmore 's) character 's savant skills and the difficulties that come from his autism in the workplace. '' Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter felt the trailer was "both kinda progressive and really dated ''. He added, "Too much felt on - the - nose -- especially Hill Harper as the main character 's detractor and Richard Schiff as his noble defender '', while also commentating that "On - the - nose / premise is how you have to trailer a show like this, and maybe spaced out over 43 minutes it wo n't grate. '' Ben Travers and Steve Greene for IndieWire called it "a serious trailer for a serious subject. The first glimpse of Highmore 's character hints that they 're toeing the line between presenting a thoughtful depiction of his condition and using his perceptive abilities as a kind of secret weapon. '' The trailer had been viewed over 25.4 million times after a week of its release, including over 22 million views on Facebook.
The pilot was screened at ABC 's PaleyFest event on September 9, 2017.
The series premiere earned a 2.2 / 9 rating in the 18 - to 49 - year - old demographic, with 11.22 million total viewers, making it the most watched Monday drama debut on ABC in 21 years, since Dangerous Minds in September 1996, and the highest rated Monday drama in the 18 -- 49 demographic in 8.5 years, since Castle in March 2009. Factoring live plus seven - day ratings, the pilot was watched by a total of 19.2 million viewers and set a record for DVR viewers with 7.9 million, surpassing the record of 7.67 million set by the pilot of Designated Survivor in 2016. According to TV Guide 's November 13 - 26 issue, the October 9 episode attracted 18.2 million viewers, beating out both NCIS and The Big Bang Theory for the most viewed primetime show that week.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 58 % approval rating with an average rating of 5.49 / 10 based on 38 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "The Good Doctor 's heavy - handed bedside manner undermines a solid lead performance, but under all the emotionally manipulative gimmickry, there 's still plenty of room to improve. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 53 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Giving his first impression of the series ' pilot for TVLine, Matt Webb Mitovich stated, "The Good Doctor boasts great DNA... (and) has the potential to be a refreshingly thought - provoking hospital drama, based on the buttons pushed in the pilot alone. '' He enjoyed the "warm dynamic '' of Schiff and Highmore, while describing Thomas ' character as "our emotional ' in ' to Shaun 's distinct, distant world ''. He noted that "it takes a while to build up momentum '', but concluded that "the very final scene packs quite a punch, as Dr. Murphy unwittingly puts a colleague on notice ''.
The New York Times television critic, James Poniewozik, notes in his Critic 's Notebook column, that for the most part the drama is a "hospital melodrama with whiz - bang medical science, a dash of intra-staff romance and shameless sentimentality. '' Discussing the main characters of Dr. Aaron Glassman (Richard Schiff) and Dr. Shaun Murphy (Freddie Highmore), however, Poniewozik writes that "Mr. Schiff is convincing in the role and Mr. Highmore is striking in his. ''
Speaking of Freddie Highmore 's Golden Globe nomination on Monday, December 11, 2017, for his role in The Good Doctor, Laura Bradley, writing for Vanity Fair says: "... Freddie Highmore received the awards recognition that has long and unjustly eluded him... '' Bradley feels that Highmore 's perfomance has been "the central key '' to the show 's enormous success and while the show had lukewarm reviews, most critics have praised Highmore 's work.
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who is thomas gabriel what was his plan to get segments of code | Live Free or Die Hard - wikipedia
Live Free or Die Hard (released as Die Hard 4.0 outside North America) is a 2007 American action film, and the fourth installment in the Die Hard film series. The film was directed by Len Wiseman and stars Bruce Willis as John McClane. The film 's name was adapted from New Hampshire 's state motto, "Live Free or Die ''.
McClane is attempting to stop cyber terrorists who hack into government and commercial computers across the United States with the goal to start a "fire sale '' of financial assets. The film was based on the 1997 article "A Farewell to Arms '' written for Wired magazine by John Carlin. The film was released in the United States on June 27, 2007.
The project was initially stalled due to the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks, and when production eventually began, the film 's title was changed several times. A variety of visual effects were used for action sequences, even though Wiseman and Willis stated that they wanted to limit the amount of CGI in the film. In separate incidents during filming, both Willis and his stunt double were injured.
Reviews were positive with an 82 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 69 / 100 score from Metacritic. The film earned total international box office gross receipts of $383.4 million, making it the highest - grossing film in the Die Hard series. It debuted at # 2 at the U.S. box office.
Unlike the prior three films in the series, the U.S. rating was PG - 13 rather than R. An unrated version contained more strong profanity and violence not shown in the theatrical version, and was included in the DVD release. For the DVD release, 20th Century Fox pioneered a new kind of DRM, Digital Copy protection that tries to weaken the incentives for consumers to learn how to rip discs by offering them a downloadable version with studio - imposed restrictions. The score for the film was released on July 2, 2007. The fifth film in the series, titled A Good Day to Die Hard, was released on February 14, 2013.
The FBI responds to a brief computer outage at its Cyber-Security Division by tracking down top computer hackers who had been on a watch list, finding several of them have been killed. The FBI asks New York City Police Department detective John McClane to bring in Matthew "Matt '' Farrell, one of the targeted hackers who had been put on the watch list. McClane arrives just in time to save Farrell from assassins working for Mai Linh, who works for her boss and love interest, Thomas Gabriel.
En route to Washington, D.C., with McClane, Farrell reveals that he had been contacted by Mai, under the guise that she was working for corporate security, and that she had paid him a large sum of money to write an algorithm that could crack a specific security system for white hat purposes. Meanwhile, Gabriel orders his own crew of hackers to take control of the transportation grids and stock market, while nationally broadcasting a message threatening the United States. Farrell recognizes this as the start of a "fire sale '', an attack designed to target the nation 's infrastructure that is reliant on computerized systems. McClane and Farrell are driven to the FBI headquarters, but Mai poses as a dispatcher and reroutes the convoy into the path of an assault helicopter. McClane manages to fend off the attackers and destroy the helicopter.
Gabriel initiates a second broadcast by showing a simulated explosion of the U.S. Capitol building, causing a public panic. Farrell guesses that his next target is likely the power grid, and the two drive to a utility superstation in West Virginia. They find a team led by Mai taking over the station. McClane manages to kill all of them, including Mai. He obtains video footage of Gabriel which he relays to the FBI. Enraged over Mai 's death, Gabriel seizes control of the natural gas distribution system and redirects all of the gas into the station. McClane and Farrell escape before the station explodes, leaving much of the eastern seaboard of the United States and Canada without power.
Farrell takes McClane to fellow hacker Frederick "Warlock '' Kaludis. Running several generators to keep his computer systems online, Warlock identifies the piece of code Farrell wrote as a means to access data at a master Social Security Administration building at Woodlawn, Maryland. They realize the building is actually a NSA facility intended to backup the nation 's entire personal and financial records in the event of a cyber attack, designed by Gabriel himself when he worked for the NSA. Warlock tells McClane and Matt that Gabriel is an extremely talented programmer and top security expert for the U.S. Department of Defense. Gabriel tried to alert the political and military leadership to critical weaknesses that made America 's network infrastructure vulnerable to cyberwarfare, but his unorthodox methods led to his dismissal. Warlock runs a traceroute and manages to identify Gabriel 's location, but Gabriel detects the intrusion.
Gabriel taps into their connection and reveals that he has located McClane 's estranged daughter, Lucy, and intends to kidnap her. McClane and Farrell race to the Woodlawn facility, where Farrell discovers that Gabriel 's men are downloading all the information. He manages to encrypt the data just in time before he is captured. Gabriel kidnaps Farrell and takes him as well as Lucy, who had been kidnapped earlier, with him as his team flees from Woodlawn. McClane pursues Gabriel, hijacking his semi and enlisting Warlock to trace Gabriel 's vehicle. Gabriel accesses the communication system of a U.S. Marine Corps F - 35B Lightning II and, impersonating an air traffic controller, orders the pilot to attack the truck McClane is driving. McClane barely escapes, then makes his way to a nearby warehouse where Warlock has tracked Gabriel. There, Gabriel is installing the remaining files and holding Lucy and Farrell. Although McClane kills most of Gabriel 's remaining henchmen, Emerson shoots him in the right shoulder.
While Gabriel holds McClane at gunpoint from behind, McClane manages to shoot Gabriel 's weapon through his own shoulder and kill Gabriel. Farrell then kills Emerson. An FBI tactical response team arrives and secures the scene. Afterwards, McClane tries to discourage the romantic feelings developing between Farrell and Lucy.
The film 's plot is based on an earlier script entitled WW3.com by David Marconi, screenwriter of the 1998 film Enemy of the State. Using John Carlin 's Wired magazine article entitled "A Farewell to Arms '', Marconi crafted a screenplay about a cyber-terrorist attack on the United States. The attack procedure is known as a "fire sale '', depicting a three - stage coordinated attack on a country 's transportation, telecommunications, financial, and utilities infrastructure systems. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, the project was stalled, only to be resurrected several years later and rewritten into Live Free or Die Hard by Doug Richardson and eventually by Mark Bomback.
Willis said in 2005 that the film would be called Die Hard 4.0, as it revolves around computers and cyber-terrorism. IGN later reported the film was to be called Die Hard: Reset instead. 20th Century Fox later announced the title as Live Free or Die Hard and set a release date of June 29, 2007 with filming to begin in September 2006. The title is based on New Hampshire 's state motto, "Live Free or Die '', which is attributed to a quote from General John Stark. International trailers use the Die Hard 4.0 title, as the film was released outside North America with that title. Early into the film 's DVD commentary, both Wiseman and Willis note a preference for the title Die Hard 4.0.
For the visual effects used throughout the film, actor Bruce Willis and director Len Wiseman stated that they wanted to use a limited amount of CGI. One VFX producer said that "Len was insisting on the fact that, because we 've got Transformers and other big CG movies coming out, this one has to feel more real. It has to be embedded in some kind of practical reality in order to give it that edge of being a Die Hard. '' Companies such as Digital Dimension, The Orphanage, R! ot, Pixel Magic, and Amalgamated Pixels assisted in the film 's visual effects.
Digital Dimension worked on 200 visual effects shots in the film, including the sequence that shows characters John McClane and Matt Farrell crouching between two cars as another car lands on top of the other cars. To achieve this effect, a crane yanked the car and threw it in the air onto the two cars that were also being pulled by cables. The shot was completed when the two characters were integrated into the footage of the car stunt after the lighting was adjusted and CGI glass and debris were added. In the same sequence, John McClane destroys a helicopter that several of Gabriel 's henchman are riding in by ramming it with a car. This was accomplished by first filming one take where one of Gabriel 's henchman, Rand, jumps from the helicopter, and in the next take the car is propelled into the stationary helicopter as it is hoisted by wires. The final view of the shot overlays the two takes, with added CGI for the debris and moving rotor blades. The company also assisted in adding cars for traffic collisions and masses of people for evacuations from several government buildings.
The Orphanage developed a multi-level freeway interchange for use in one of the film 's final scenes by creating a digital environment and a 1,000 - foot (300 m) long spiral ramp that was built in front of a bluescreen. When a F - 35 jet is chasing McClane on the freeway, a miniature model and a full - size prop were both built to assist in digitally adding the jet into the scene. The nine - foot model was constructed from November 2006 through February 2007. When the jet is shown hovering near the freeway, editors used the software 3D graphics program Maya to blur the background and create a heat ripple effect.
Filming for Live Free or Die Hard started in downtown Baltimore, Maryland on September 23, 2006. Eight different sets were built on a large soundstage for filming many scenes throughout the film. When recording the sound for the semi trailer used in one of the film 's final scenes, 18 microphones were used to record the engine, tires, and damage to the vehicle. Post-production for the film only took 16 weeks, when it was more common for similar films to use 26 weeks.
In order to prevent possible injuries and be in peak condition for the film, Willis worked out almost daily for several months prior to filming. Willis was injured on January 24, 2007 during a fight scene, when he was kicked above his right eye by a stunt double for actress Maggie Q who was wearing stiletto heels. Willis described the event as "no big deal '' but when Len Wiseman inspected his injury, he noticed that the situation was much more serious than previously thought -- in the DVD commentary, Wiseman indicates in inspecting the wound that he could see bone. Willis was hospitalized and received seven stitches which ran through his right eyebrow and down into the corner of his eye. Due to the film 's non-linear production schedule, these stitches can accidentally be seen in the scene where McClane first delivers Farrell to Bowman.
Throughout filming, between 200 and 250 stunt people were used. Bruce Willis ' stunt double, Larry Rippenkroeger, was knocked unconscious when he fell 25 feet (7.6 m) from a fire escape to the pavement. Rippenkroeger suffered broken bones in his face, several broken ribs, a punctured lung, and fractures in both wrists. Due to his injuries, production was temporarily shut down. Willis personally paid the hotel bills for Rippenkroeger 's parents and visited him a number of times at the hospital.
Kevin Smith recalls rewriting scenes on the set of Live Free or Die Hard in his spoken word film Sold Out: A Threevening with Kevin Smith.
In the United States, the first three films in the Die Hard series were rated R by the Motion Picture Association of America. Live Free or Die Hard, however, was edited to obtain a PG - 13 rating. In some cases, alternate profanity - free dialogue was shot and used or swearing was cut out in post-production to reduce profanity. Director Len Wiseman commented on the rating, saying "It was about three months into it (production), and I had n't even heard that it was PG - 13... But in the end, it was just trying to make the best Die Hard movie, not really thinking so much about what the rating would be. '' Bruce Willis was upset with the studio 's decision, stating, "I really wanted this one to live up to the promise of the first one, which I always thought was the only really good one. That 's a studio decision that is becoming more and more common, because they 're trying to reach a broader audience. It seems almost a courageous move to give a picture an R rating these days. But we still made a pretty hardcore, smashmouth film. '' Willis said he thought that viewers unaware that it was not an R - rated film would not suspect so due to the level and intensity of the action as well as the usage of some profanity, although he admitted these elements were less intense than in the previous films. He also said that this film was the best of the four: "It 's unbelievable. I just saw it last week. I personally think, it 's better than the first one. ''
In the United Kingdom, the British Board of Film Classification awarded the film a 15 rating (including the unrated version, released later), the same as Die Hard with a Vengeance and Die Hard 2, albeit both were cut for both theatrical and video release, (the first film in the series originally received an 18 certificate). All films have been re-rated 15 uncut. Die Hard 4.0 was released with no cuts made and the cinema version (i.e. US PG - 13 version) consumer advice read that it "contains frequent action violence and one use of strong language ''. The unrated version was released on DVD as the "Ultimate Action Edition '' with the consumer advice "contains strong language and violence ''.
In Australia, Die Hard 4.0 was released with the PG - 13 cut with an M rating, the same as the others in the series (The Australian Classification Board is less strict with regards to language and to a lesser extent, violence). The unrated version was later released on DVD and Blu - ray also with an M rating. The film notably was never released in home media with its theatrical cut, and has only been released in Australia as the extended edition.
Live Free or Die Hard debuted at # 2 at the box office and made $9.1 million in its first day of release in 3,172 theaters, the best opening day take of any film in the Die Hard series (not taking inflation into account). On its opening weekend Live Free or Die Hard made $33.3 million ($48.3 million counting Wednesday and Thursday). The film made $134.5 million domestically, and $249.0 million overseas for a total of $383.5 million, making it the twelfth highest - grossing film of 2007. To date, it is the most successful film in the series.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 82 % based on 206 reviews, and an average rating of 6.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Live Free or Die Hard may be preposterous, but it 's an efficient, action - packed summer popcorn flick with thrilling stunts and a commanding performance by Bruce Willis. Fans of the previous Die Hard films will not be disappointed ''. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 69 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
IGN stated "Like the recent Rocky Balboa, this new Die Hard works as both its own story about an over-the - hill but still vital hero and as a nostalgia trip for those who grew up with the original films. '' On the television show Ebert & Roeper, film critic Richard Roeper and guest critic Katherine Tulich both gave the film "two thumbs up '', with Roeper stating that the film is "not the best or most exciting Die Hard, but it is a lot of fun '' and that it is his favorite among the Die Hard sequels. Roeper also remarked, "Willis is in top form in his career - defining role. '' Michael Medved gave the film three and a half out of four stars, opining, "a smart script and spectacular special effects make this the best Die Hard of ' em all. ''
Conversely, Lawrence Toppman of The Charlotte Observer stated: "I can safely say I 've never seen anything as ridiculous as Live Free or Die Hard. '' Toppman also wrote that the film had a lack of memorable villains and referred to John McClane as "just a bald Terminator with better one - liners ''.
The score for Live Free or Die Hard, written by Marco Beltrami, was released on July 2, 2007 by Varèse Sarabande (which also released the soundtracks for the first two Die Hard films), several days after the United States release of the film. This was the first film not to be scored by Michael Kamen, due to his death in 2003; Beltrami incorporates Kamen 's thematic material into his score, but Kamen is not credited on the film or the album. Other songs in the film include "Rock & Roll Queen '' by The Subways, "Fortunate Son '' by Creedence Clearwater Revival and "I 'm So Sick '' by Flyleaf. Eric Lichtenfeld, reviewing from Soundtrack.net, said of the score 's action cues "the entire orchestra seems percussive, flow well together. ''
The Blu - ray and DVD were released on October 29, 2007, in the United Kingdom, on October 31 in Hungary, November 20 in the United States, and December 12 in Australia. The DVD topped rental and sales charts in its opening week of release in the U.S. and Canada. There is an unrated version, which retains much of the original ' R - rated ' dialogue, and a theatrical version of the film. However, the unrated version has a branching error resulted in one of the unrated changes to be omitted. The film briefly switches to the PG - 13 version in the airbag scene; McClane 's strong language is missing from this sequence (although international DVD releases of the unrated version are unaffected). The Blu - ray release features the PG - 13 theatrical cut which runs at 128 minutes, while the Collector 's Edition DVD includes both the unrated and theatrical versions. Time magazine 's Richard Corliss named it one of the Top 10 DVDs of 2007, ranking it at # 10. The German Blu - ray release of the "Die Hard Legacy Collection '' features the unrated version for the first time in HD, and the disc is region - free.
The DVD for the film was the first to include a Digital Copy of the film which could be played on a PC or Mac computer and could also be imported into several models of portable video players. Mike Dunn, a president for 20th Century Fox, stated "The industry has sold nearly 12 billion DVDs to date, and the release of Live Free or Die Hard is the first one that allows consumers to move their content to other devices. ''
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what important fashion move did the monks practice at the end of the book | Circumambulation - wikipedia
Circumambulation (from Latin circum around + ambulātus to walk) is the act of moving around a sacred object or idol.
Circumambulation of temples or deity images is an integral part of Hindu and Buddhist devotional practice (known in Sanskrit as pradakśina or pradakshinaṇā). It is also present in other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Islam.
In many Hindu temples, the temple structure reflects the symbolism of the Hindu association of the spiritual transition from daily life to spiritual perfection as a journey through stages. Ambulatory passageways for circumambulation are present through which worshipers move in a clockwise direction, starting at the sanctuary doorway and moving inward toward the inner sanctum where the deity is enshrined. This is a translation of the spiritual concept of transition through levels in life into bodily movements by the worshipers as they move inwardly through ambulatory halls to the most sacred centre of spiritual energy of the deity. Circumambulation is done in a clockwise direction and in an odd rather than even number of times. Circumbulatory walking around the shrine, by keeping time, is a common form of Hindu prayer. The circumbulary pathway made of stone around the shrine is called the Pradakshina path.
In the Catholic Church, a priest sometimes circumambulates an altar while incensing it with a thurible. Also, at some Catholic shrines, it is a tradition to circumambulate around the cult object of the place, usually relics of a saint or an image of Jesus or the Virgin Mary. Often this is performed three times, as a reference to the Trinity.
In Romania, there is an Easter custom to circumambulate the church three times by singing priests leading the people, just before finishing Easter Mass. It symbolizes the funerary procession of the burial of Jesus Christ.
Circumambulation is common in many Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox services. In the Coptic tradition, during the liturgy, the priest circumambulates while an acolyte (altar boy) holds a cross high on the opposite side of the altar.
Tawaf (طواف) is one of the Islamic rituals of pilgrimage. During the Hajj and Umrah, Muslims are to circumambulate the Kaaba (most sacred site in Islam) seven times, in a counter-clockwise direction. The circling is believed to demonstrate the unity of the believers in the worship of the One God, as they move in harmony together around the Kaaba, while supplicating to Allah.
Also the Kaaba is the most circumambulated structure in this world. The Kaaba is constantly circumambulated by pilgrims at all times except for the time of prayers, when small birds and angels are said to circumambulate the Kaaba.
Judaism uses circumambulation in the Hakaphot ritual during the Festival of Sukkot culminating in seven Hakaphot on Hoshanah Rabbah, the end of the Festival. The circumambulations are also performed during Hakaphot on Simchat Torah, where Jews dance often by circumambulating the Torah Scrolls. Traditionally, Jewish brides circumambulate their grooms during the wedding ceremony under the chuppah and much Jewish dancing at weddings and Bar Mitzvahs is done by moving in a circle.
In Zen Buddhism, ' jundo ' can mean any ritual circuit or circumambulation. At Tassajara each morning, the Doshi visits four different altars on his / her way to the zendo, to make bows and offerings of incense. This jundo begins with the first rolldown of the han, and ends as the Doshi enters the zendo with the third rolldown. After offering incense and bowing at the altar, the Doshi walks around the zendo behind the meditators, in what is called the ' kentan ', or ' inspection of the sitting platform '. As the Doshi passes, each resident raises his / her hands in gassho without bowing; this joins Doshi and sitters in mutual acknowledgement.
In Lavan Pheras which is performed during wedding ceremonies, the four rounds of pheras symbolize the warding off of evil by circumambulating a purifying and transforming object, in this case the holy book, Sri Guru Granth Sahib.
Bahá'ís perform circumambulation of both the Shrines of the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh during their pilgrimage to Haifa and Bahjí, in Israel. While circumambulating, observance of these Manifestations of God is done in complete silence and also performed on holy days such as the birth and ascension of Bahá'u'lláh as well as the birth and martyrdom of the Báb.
The Bönpo in the Northern Hemisphere traditionally circumambulate (generally) in a counter-clockwise or widdershin direction, that is a direction that runs counter to the apparent movement of the Sun.
Candidates for the three principle degrees of Freemasonry circumambulate the altar in the lodge room. This part of the ritual is distinct from many other world rituals in that it is done in a clock-wise fashion. The number of times which candidates ambulate around the altar depends on which degree is being presented.
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who does sir toby marry in twelfth night | Sir Toby Belch - wikipedia
Sir Toby Belch is a character in William Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night.
He is considered one of William Shakespeare 's finest characters, an ambiguous mix of high spirits and low cunning. He first appears in the play 's third scene, when he storms onto the stage the morning after a hard night out, complaining about the sombre melancholy that hangs over his niece 's household. "What a plague means my niece to take the death of her brother thus? I 'm sure care 's an enemy to life. '' This immediately establishes Sir Toby at the opposite pole from the languishing melancholy which dominated the first scene (including Orsino 's speech, "If music be the food of love... ''), identifying him as a force for vitality, noise and good cheer, as his name suggests. But it also raises the question of how far the audience is expected to sympathize with him. Is his criticism of his niece a justified statement of the old truism that "life must go on '', or an insensitive blunder by a hungover old drunkard?
At the beginning Sir Toby appears to be friends with another character, Sir Andrew Aguecheek, a guest of Olivia, Sir Toby 's niece. However as the play progresses, it transpires that Sir Toby is just taking advantage of Sir Andrew 's riches, one of the more sinister plots of the generally comedic play.
His tormenting of the steward Malvolio is similarly double - edged in its tone of "sportful malice '' (V, 1). The plot against Malvolio is generally considered a comic highlight of the play, but critics have often complained of its cruelty. The play ends with the quarrel still unresolved, and Olivia warning that Malvolio "hath been most notoriously abused '' (V, 1).
Whatever his faults, no character study can accuse Sir Toby of snobbishness. Though he taunts Malvolio with the demand "Art any more than a steward? '' (II, 3), he only does so after Malvolio has threatened him with being turned out if he does n't reform his ways. Indeed part of Malvolio 's complaint is that Sir Toby and his companions are not acting like noblemen by drinking and singing but like "tinkers '' in an "alehouse ''. His appreciation of Maria pronounced (Mariah), though couched in terms that might not please every woman: "She 's a beagle, true - bred '' (II, 3), and eventual marriage, shows that he thinks his title of no particular account compared to his love for her.
He is in the play Twelfth Night.
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what happens to louis in the vampire chronicles | Louis de Pointe du Lac - wikipedia
Louis de Pointe du Lac is a fictional character in Anne Rice 's The Vampire Chronicles series. He begins his life as a mortal man and later becomes a vampire. He is the protagonist who tells his story in Interview with the Vampire (the first book of The Vampire Chronicles). He also features in The Vampire Lestat, The Queen of the Damned, The Tale of the Body Thief, Memnoch The Devil, The Vampire Armand, Merrick, Prince Lestat and Prince Lestat and the Realms of Atlantis.
Louis de Pointe du Lac is born in France on October 4, 1766, to a Roman Catholic family who emigrated to North America when he was very young. His mother, sister and brother, Paul, live just outside New Orleans on one of their two indigo plantations, named Pointe du Lac after the family. Louis 's brother, who insists that he has religious visions, dies after a terrible quarrel with Louis. Louis blames himself for his brother 's death, becoming self - destructive, cynical, and desperate. He longs for the release of death, but lacks the courage to commit suicide. He takes to frequenting taverns and other places of ill repute, instigating fights and duels in order that someone might kill him.
During an incident in a tavern, Louis catches the eye of the vampire Lestat de Lioncourt. Lestat appears to Louis as an angel and offers him an alternative to his desperate, meaningless life. Lestat, upon seeing for the first time Louis 's "fine black hair '' and deep green eyes, and sensing his passion, is seduced not only by Louis 's beauty, but also by his tragedy and human heart; "He seduced the tenderness in me. '' Lestat makes Louis into a vampire, his immortal companion in 1791, and lives with Louis for nearly 70 years.
However, Lestat is damaged from his experiences in France and the Old World. He is not as gentle a tutor or as much of a friend as Louis would like, one of the central themes in Interview with the Vampire. An example of this is an anguished comment recalled by Louis in his memoir, where he muses: "I was thinking how sublime friendship between Lestat and me might have been; how few impediments to it there would have been, and how much to be shared. ''
While Louis and Lestat are often at odds with one another, they eventually form an uneasy truce, with Lestat coming to regard Louis as a kind of soulmate, albeit one who resists his "teachings '' on killing and living life as a vampire. There is an element of sexual attraction implicit in their relationship; in the books after Interview with the Vampire, Lestat refers to Louis as his lover.
Interview with the Vampire details an ersatz familial relationship between Louis, Lestat and a third vampire, Claudia. Louis, in a moment of weakness, feeds from a five - year - old orphan he finds in an abandoned house within the plague - ridden section of New Orleans. Lestat contrives to make her into a vampire to, in his own words, "bind Louis to (him). '' In giving Louis Claudia to love and look after, he curses Claudia by condemning her to the form of a little girl.
Louis accepts his "family '', taking the "maternal '' role with Claudia and finding contentment in their townhouse at Rue Royale. Claudia however, matures psychologically but remains in her child form. After decades of being trapped in the form of a small child, she comes to hate both of her "parents '' for giving her immortality. She rebels against Lestat, poisoning him and setting their home ablaze with Lestat inside in 1860. She escapes with Louis to eastern Europe to look for other vampires. After years of searching and becoming disillusioned, they travel to Paris.
In Paris, they find fifteen vampires who have disguised themselves as human actors pretending to be vampires at the Théâtre des Vampires. However, in the eyes of this coven of vampires, Louis and Claudia are criminals. The coven finds out that both attempted to kill their maker Lestat, and believe they ought to pay for their crime with their lives since killing fellow vampires is against the rules of the vampiric lifestyle. Louis escapes death after Lestat pleads for his life. Claudia is exposed to the sun and destroyed.
Louis burns down the Théâtre, killing the vampires there as revenge for Claudia 's death and drifts through the world with the Theatre 's former leader, Armand, whom he had fallen in love with. They separate in the 1920s in New Orleans.
In the early 1920s, Louis claims to have discovered Lestat in New Orleans, lost in a catatonic state. Louis turns his back on him in pity and disgust. (This may be a fabrication by Louis to lead Daniel to Lestat 's haunt, on which Lestat remarks in his memoir, "Louis (...) had all but drawn a map and placed an X on the very spot in New Orleans where I slumbered (...) and what his intentions were, were not clear. '' Lestat also mentions, in The Tale of the Body Thief, that Louis "made up '' this scene. In The Vampire Lestat, Lestat does not mention meeting Louis again in New Orleans before undertaking his long sleep.)
Louis and Lestat are reunited at the end of the novel The Vampire Lestat in 1985 when Lestat is a rock superstar. In the events of The Queen Of The Damned, Louis and other vampires come together at Maharet 's house in the Sonoma Compound to fight against Akasha.
Louis is one of the only vampires to refuse the powerful blood offered by Maharet and Lestat, preferring to gain strength with age. However at the end of Merrick, one of the Vampire Chronicles, Louis puts himself into the sun after making Merrick a vampire. Lestat, David Talbot, and Merrick then give Louis some of their blood (Lestat and David 's containing the power of some of the oldest and most powerful vampires in the world) to save Louis 's life. It is noted by David Talbot that with this transfusion of blood Louis may have lost some of his humanity and become more vampiric in nature and has become almost equal to Lestat in power.
In Prince Lestat and the Realms of Atlantis, Louis leaves Armand and his home at Trinity Gate to reunite with Lestat, who has now taken up the role as leader of the vampire tribe. Lestat requests Louis return with him to the chateau in France as his companion and confidante; Louis agrees and becomes consort to Lestat, taking an active role in solving the dilemma the tribe face in that novel.
In Neil Jordan 's 1994 film adaptation of Interview with the Vampire, Louis is portrayed by Brad Pitt.
Louis appeared as a character in the short - lived Broadway show Lestat: The Musical composed by Elton John and Bernie Taupin, and was played by Jim Stanek.
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when can rfc 1918 addresses be routed on the internet | Private network - wikipedia
In the Internet addressing architecture, a private network is a network that uses private IP address space. Both, the IPv4 and the IPv6 specifications define private addressing ranges. These addresses are commonly used for local area networks (LANs) in residential, office, and enterprise environments. Private IP address spaces were originally defined in an effort to delay IPv4 address exhaustion.
Private network addresses are not allocated to any specific organization and anyone may use these addresses without approval from a regional Internet registry. However, IP packets addressed from them can not be routed through the public Internet.
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has directed the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to reserve the following IPv4 address ranges for private networks:
Although the standard for class A and class B networks specify 8 - and 12 - bit masks respectively, it is common to subdivide these and assign other masks internally, resulting in a number of smaller subnets (e.g. 10.0. 0.0 / 24, with room for thousands of 256 - host subnets).
In April 2012, IANA allocated 100.64. 0.0 / 10 for use in carrier - grade NAT scenarios.
This address block should not be used on private networks or on the public Internet: it is intended only for use within carrier networks. The size of the address block (2, approximately 4 million, addresses) was selected to be large enough to uniquely number all customer access devices for all of a single operator 's points of presence in a large metropolitan area such as Tokyo.
The concept of private networks has been extended in the next generation of the Internet Protocol, IPv6, and special address blocks are reserved.
The address block fc00:: / 7 is reserved by IANA for Unique Local Addresses (ULA). They are unicast addresses, but contain a 40 - bit random number in the routing prefix to prevent collisions when two private networks are interconnected. Despite being inherently local in usage, the IPv6 address scope of unique local addresses is global.
The first block defined is fd00:: / 8, designed for / 48 routing blocks, in which users can create multiple subnets, as needed.
Examples:
A former standard proposed the use of site - local addresses in the fec0:: / 10 block, but because of scalability concerns and poor definition of what constitutes a site, its use has been deprecated since September 2004.
Another type of private networking uses the link - local address range. The validity of link - local addresses is limited to a single link; e.g. to all computers connected to a switch, or to one wireless network. Hosts on different sides of a network bridge are also on the same link, whereas hosts on different sides of a network router are on different links.
In IPv4, link - local addresses are codified in RFC 6890 and RFC 3927. Their utility is in zero configuration networking when Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) services are not available and manual configuration by a network administrator is not desirable. The block 169.254. 0.0 / 16 was allocated for this purpose. If a host on an IEEE 802 (Ethernet) network can not obtain a network address via DHCP, an address from 169.254. 1.0 to 169.254. 254.255 may be assigned pseudorandomly. The standard prescribes that address collisions must be handled gracefully.
In IPv6, the block fe80:: / 10 is reserved for IP address autoconfiguration. The implementation of these link - local addresses is mandatory, as various functions of the IPv6 protocol depend on them.
The most common use of private addresses is in residential IPv4 networks, since most Internet service providers (ISPs) allocate only a single publicly routable IPv4 address to each residential customer, but many homes have more than one computer or other Internet connected device, such as smartphones. In this situation, a network address translator (NAT / PAT) gateway is usually used to provide Internet connectivity to multiple hosts.
Private addresses are also commonly used in corporate networks, which for security reasons, are not connected directly to the Internet. Often a proxy, SOCKS gateway, or similar devices are used to provide restricted Internet access to network - internal users.
In both cases, private addresses are often seen as enhancing network security for the internal network, since it is difficult for an Internet (external) host to connect directly to an internal system.
It is common for packets originating in private address spaces to be misrouted onto the Internet. Private networks often do not properly configure DNS services for addresses used internally and attempt reverse DNS lookups for these addresses, causing extra traffic to the Internet root nameservers. The AS112 project attempted to mitigate this load by providing special blackhole anycast nameservers for private address ranges which only return negative result codes (not found) for these queries.
Organizational edge routers are usually configured to drop ingress IP traffic for these networks, which can occur either by misconfiguration, or from malicious traffic using a spoofed source address. Less commonly, ISP edge routers drop such egress traffic from customers, which reduces the impact to the Internet of such misconfigured or malicious hosts on the customer 's network.
Since the private IPv4 address space is relatively small, many private IPv4 networks unavoidably use the same address ranges and hence the same addresses. This can create a problem when merging such networks, as multiple devices are likely to have the same address. In this case, networks or hosts must be renumbered, often a time - consuming task, or a network address translator must be placed between the networks to translate or masquerade the duplicate addresses.
For IPv6, RFC 4193 defines unique local addresses, providing an extremely large private address space from which each organisation can randomly or pseudo-randomly allocate its own 40 - bit prefix, each of which allows 65536 organisational subnets. With space for about one trillion (10) prefixes, it is extremely unlikely that two network prefixes in use by different organisations are the same, provided each of them was allocated randomly, as specified in the standard. When two such private IPv6 networks are connected or merged, the risk of an address conflict is therefore virtually absent.
Despite official warnings, historically some organizations have used other parts of the reserved IP addresses for their internal networks.
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where do lighting bugs go in the winter | Firefly - wikipedia
Cyphonocerinae Lampyrinae Luciolinae Ototretinae (disputed) Photurinae and see below
Genera incertae sedis: Oculogryphus Pterotus LeConte, 1859
The Lampyridae are a family of insects in the beetle order Coleoptera. They are winged beetles, commonly called fireflies or lightning bugs for their conspicuous use of bioluminescence during twilight to attract mates or prey. Fireflies produce a "cold light '', with no infrared or ultraviolet frequencies. This chemically produced light from the lower abdomen may be yellow, green, or pale red, with wavelengths from 510 to 670 nanometers.
About 2,100 species of fireflies are found in temperate and tropical climates. Many are in marshes or in wet, wooded areas where their larvae have abundant sources of food. Their larvae emit light and often are called "glowworms '' in Eurasia and elsewhere. In the Americas, "glow worm '' also refers to the related Phengodidae. In New Zealand and Australia the term "glow worm '' is in use for the luminescent larvae of the fungus gnat Arachnocampa. In many species of fireflies, both male and female fireflies have the ability to fly, but in some species, the females are flightless.
Fireflies tend to be brown and soft - bodied, often with the elytra, or front wings, more leathery than those of other beetles. Although the females of some species are similar in appearance to males, larviform females are found in many other firefly species. These females can often be distinguished from the larvae only because they have compound eyes, although the latter are much smaller than those of their males and often highly regressed. The most commonly known fireflies are nocturnal, although numerous species are diurnal. Most diurnal species are not luminescent; however, some species that remain in shadowy areas may produce light.
A few days after mating, a female lays her fertilized eggs on or just below the surface of the ground. The eggs hatch three to four weeks later, and the larvae feed until the end of the summer. The larvae are commonly called glowworms (not to be confused with the distinct beetle family Phengodidae or the fly genus Arachnocampa.) Lampyrid larvae have simple eyes. The term glowworm is also used for both adults and larvae of species such as Lampyris noctiluca, the common European glowworm, in which only the nonflying adult females glow brightly and the flying males glow only weakly and intermittently.
Fireflies hibernate over winter during the larval stage, some species for several years. Some do this by burrowing underground, while others find places on or under the bark of trees. They emerge in the spring. After several weeks of feeding on other insects, snails, and worms, they pupate for 1.0 to 2.5 weeks and emerge as adults. The larvae of most species are specialized predators and feed on other larvae, terrestrial snails, and slugs. Some are so specialized that they have grooved mandibles that deliver digestive fluids directly to their prey. Adult diet varies: some are predatory, while others feed on plant pollen or nectar. Some, like the European glow - worm beetle, Lampyris noctiluca, have no mouth.
Most fireflies are quite distasteful to eat and sometimes poisonous to vertebrate predators. This is due at least in part to a group of steroid pyrones known as lucibufagins, which are similar to cardiotonic bufadienolides found in some poisonous toads.
Light production in fireflies is due to a type of chemical reaction called bioluminescence. This process occurs in specialized light - emitting organs, usually on a firefly 's lower abdomen. The enzyme luciferase acts on the luciferin, in the presence of magnesium ions, ATP, and oxygen to produce light. Gene coding for these substances has been inserted into many different organisms (see Luciferase -- Applications). The genetics of firefly bioluminescence, focusing on luciferase, has been reviewed by John Day. Firefly luciferase is used in forensics, and the enzyme has medical uses -- in particular, for detecting the presence of ATP or magnesium. All fireflies glow as larvae. In lampyrid larvae, bioluminescence serves a function that is different from that served in adults. It appears to be a warning signal to predators, since many firefly larvae contain chemicals that are distasteful or toxic.
Light in adult beetles was originally thought to be used for similar warning purposes, but now its primary purpose is thought to be used in mate selection. Fireflies are a classic example of an organism that uses bioluminescence for sexual selection. They have a variety of ways to communicate with mates in courtships: steady glows, flashing, and the use of chemical signals unrelated to photic systems. The signal provides potential mates with information about the species of the signaller or its quality as a mate.
Some species, especially lightning bugs of the genera Photinus, Photuris, and Pyractomena, are distinguished by the unique courtship flash patterns emitted by flying males in search of females. In general, females of the genus Photinus do not fly, but do give a flash response to males of their own species.
Tropical fireflies, in particular, in Southeast Asia, routinely synchronise their flashes among large groups. This phenomenon is explained as phase synchronization and spontaneous order. At night along river banks in the Malaysian jungles, fireflies synchronize their light emissions precisely. Current hypotheses about the causes of this behavior involve diet, social interaction, and altitude. In the Philippines, thousands of fireflies can be seen all year - round in the town of Donsol (called aninipot or totonbalagon in Bicol). In the United States, one of the most famous sightings of fireflies blinking in unison occurs annually near Elkmont, Tennessee, in the Great Smoky Mountains during the first weeks of June. Congaree National Park in South Carolina is another host to this phenomenon.
Female Photuris fireflies are known for mimicking the mating flashes of other "lightning bugs '' for the sole purpose of predation. Target males are attracted to what appears to be a suitable mate, and are then eaten. For this reason, sometimes, Photuris species are referred to as "femme fatale fireflies ''.
Many fireflies do not produce light. Usually these species are diurnal, or day - flying, such as those in the genus Ellychnia. A few diurnal fireflies that inhabit primarily shadowy places, such as beneath tall plants or trees, are luminescent. One such genus is Lucidota. Non-bioluminescent fireflies use pheromones to signal mates. This is supported by the fact that some basal groups do not show bioluminescence and use chemical signaling, instead. Phosphaenus hemipterus has photic organs, yet is a diurnal firefly and displays large antennae and small eyes. These traits strongly suggest pheromones are used for sexual selection, while photic organs are used for warning signals. In controlled experiments, males coming from downwind arrived at females first, indicating males travel upwind along a pheromone plume. Males were also found to be able to find females without the use of visual cues, when the sides of test Petri dishes were covered with black tape. This and the facts that females do not light up at night and males are diurnal point to the conclusion that sexual communication in P. hemipterus is based entirely on pheromones.
Firefly systematics, as with many insects, are in a constant state of flux, as new species continue to be discovered. The five subfamilies listed above are the most commonly accepted ones, though others, such as the Amydetinae and Psilocladinae, have been proposed. This was mainly done in an attempt to revise the Lampyrinae, which bit by bit had become something of a "wastebin taxon '' to hold incertae sedis species and genera of fireflies. Other changes have been proposed, such as merging the Ototretinae into the Luciolinae, but the arrangement used here appears to be the most frequently seen and stable layout for the time being. Though most groups appear to be monophyletic, some (e.g., the tribe Photinini) are perhaps better divided.
Two groups of subfamilies seem to exist: one containing many American and some Eurasian species in the Lampyrinae and Photurinae; and one, predominantly Asian, made up from the other subfamilies. While the subfamilies as understood here are, in general, monophyletic, a few genera still need to be moved for the subfamilies to accurately represent the evolutionary relationships among the fireflies.
The Rhagophthalmidae are a glow - worm - like lineage of Elateroidea. They have in the recent past usually been considered a distinct family, but whether this is correct is still disputed. Indeed, they might be the only close relative of the puzzling firefly genus Pterotus, which sometimes is placed in a monotypic subfamily.
The genus Phausis, usually placed in the tribe Photinini of the Lampyrinae, might represent another rather distinct lineage instead.
Fireflies, like many other organisms, are directly affected by land - use change (e.g. loss of habitat area and connectivity), which is identified as the main driver of biodiversity changes in terrestrial ecosystems. Additionally, since fireflies depend on their own light to reproduce they are also very sensitive to environmental levels of light and consequently to light pollution.
In 2015 it was shown and quantified for the first time the negative effects of direct illumination on fireflies, in a study that monitored populations over four years. Multiple recent studies investigate deeply the effects of artificial night lighting on fireflies.
Fireflies are charismatic (which is a rare quality amongst insects) and are easily spotted by non-experts, providing thus good flagship species to attract public attention; good investigation models for the effects of light on nocturnal wildlife; and finally, due to their sensibility and rapid response to environmental changes, good bioindicators for artificial night lighting.
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worst team record in major league baseball history | List of worst major League Baseball season records - wikipedia
Listed below are the Major League Baseball teams with the worst season won - lost records, as determined by winning percentage (. 300 or less), minimum 120 games played.
The following teams finished the season with a. 300 winning percentage or lower.
The 1899 Cleveland Spiders own the worst single - season record of all time (minimum 120 games) and for all eras, finishing at 20 -- 134 (. 130 percentage) in the final year of the National League 's 12 - team era in the 1890s; for comparison, this projects to 21 -- 141 under the current 162 - game schedule, and Pythagorean expectation based on the Spiders ' results and the current 162 - game schedule predicts a record of 25 -- 137.
The Spiders had a fair amount of success in the 1890s, with seven straight winning seasons from 1892 to 1898 and a Temple Cup victory in 1895. Meanwhile, the once four - time American Association champion St. Louis Browns had fallen to 29 -- 102 in 1897 and to 39 -- 111 (including 19 -- 67 on the road) in 1898. But the Spiders ownership, the Robison brothers, bought the Browns in time for the 1899 season, creating a conflict - of - interest situation which was later outlawed. On the eve of the season, they traded almost all of Cleveland 's good players to St. Louis for very little in return, with respectable results for St. Louis and disastrous results for Cleveland.
The 1899 Spiders set the major league record for most consecutive losses in a season (24, from July 26 to September 16), and had six losing streaks of 10 games or more. The Spiders lost 40 of their last 41 games, finishing 84 games behind the 1899 National League champion Brooklyn Dodgers and 35 games behind the second - last - placed Washington Senators. They lost 27 games in September, a record for the most games lost in a month until the 1909 Washington Senators went 5 -- 29 in July. Due to paltry attendances, the Spiders played 112 games on the road, finishing with a road record of 11 -- 101 (the 101 road losses is a record which is unbreakable under the current MLB scheduling rules, which allow a maximum of 81 road games).
The 1899 Browns, renamed the "Perfectos '' and staffed with all the best players from the 1898 Spiders (six of the Spiders ' eight starting position players and four starting pitchers, including the great Cy Young) improved by 441⁄2 games, from 39 -- 111 to 84 -- 67. However, all St. Louis did ultimately was to trade places with Cleveland in the standings. The Browns / Perfectos were renamed the St. Louis Cardinals in 1900, and are unrelated to the American League St. Louis Browns that adopted the discarded nickname and also appear on this list.
After the 1899 season, the National League contracted from twelve to eight clubs for the 1900 season, with the Spiders, the original Baltimore Orioles, Louisville Colonels (Louisville has never had another major league team since), and the original Washington Senators folding operations. Baltimore had also been stripped of its best players by Brooklyn in 1899, to somewhat less dramatic effect, but still enough to speed their demise. The smaller 1900 National League allowed the Western League to fulfill its dreams of becoming a major league, filling the void in a number of cities by renaming itself the American League in 1900 and declaring itself a major league in 1901.
With shorter schedules before 1886, it was much more common for teams to finish with sub -. 300 winning percentages, as there was less of the evening out effect of a longer season.
Four teams have finished with worse overall winning percentages than the 1899 Spiders, but these teams played less than 50 games during their seasons, and in leagues whose status as "major '' is questionable.
Three of these occurred in the National Association (the status of the National Association as a major league has long been disputed):
The Wilmington Quicksteps of the 1884 Union Association played only 18 games, finishing with a 2 -- 16 record (. 111 percentage) before they dropped out of the Association and folded. For comparison, this projects to 18 -- 144 under the current schedule, and Pythagorean expectation based on the Quicksteps ' results and the current 162 - game schedule predicts a record of 14 -- 148. However, while the Union Association is conventionally listed as a major league, this status has been questioned due to the league 's overall lack of playing talent and poor organizational structure.
Contemporary baseball guides did not consider the Union Association to be a major league, with the earliest record referencing the Union Association as a major league dating to 1922.
The 1890 Alleghenys were gutted before the season when nearly all of their best players defected to the Pittsburgh Burghers of the Players ' League. Poor attendances meant that they played 97 of their 136 games on the road, finishing with a road record of 9 -- 88 (the 88 road losses remained a record until 1899, and is unreachable under current MLB scheduling rules). The Alleghenys. 093 road winning percentage is the lowest in MLB history for a minimum of 60 games.
The Philadelphia Athletics were a good team in the early 1910s, winning American League pennants in 1913 and 1914 and the World Series in 1913. However, owner - manager Connie Mack felt that he was unable to pay his star players ' salaries while the Federal League was in operation, and he sold or traded most of them after the 1914 World Series ended. The Athletics then finished in last place from 1915 -- 1922. In 1916, they went 36 -- 117, including 13 -- 64 on the road. The 1916 Athletics. 235 winning percentage is the sixth - lowest of any MLB team and the lowest since 1900.
The 1935 Boston Braves featured Hall of Famers Rabbit Maranville (age 43) and Babe Ruth (age 40). Braves owner Emil Fuchs had promised Ruth an ownership stake in the Braves and a chance to manage the club in the near future, but had little intention of delivering either. Ruth retired on June 1, 1935, having hit. 181 in 72 at - bats for the Braves, with six home runs (the last three all coming on the same day, May 25, 1935, at Pittsburgh). Fuchs, who had been plagued by financial problems for a decade, was forced to give up control of the Braves before the end of the season. The Braves ' home winning percentage of. 167 is the fifth - lowest of any MLB team and the lowest since 1900.
The 1939 Browns drew 386 fans to the park for a 7 -- 4 home loss to Detroit on September 27.
The 1962 New York Mets were an expansion team created to fill the void after the New York Giants and Brooklyn Dodgers left New York City at end of the 1957 season. The Mets, filled with castoffs like "Marvelous '' Marv Throneberry as well as aging Hall of Famer Richie Ashburn and low - talent rookies such as Choo - Choo Coleman, finished with the third - worst winning percentage in the modern era and the modern - era record for most losses. The Mets went on to finish last or next - to - last for seven years in a row, before they shocked the baseball world by winning the 1969 World Series.
The 2003 Tigers seemed like a sure bet to break the 1962 Mets ' modern record for most losses when they stood at 38 -- 118 after 156 games, but they won five of their last six to avoid ignominy. On September 27, in their penultimate game, the Tigers came back from an 8 -- 0 deficit to beat the Minnesota Twins 9 -- 8 (the Twins, having just clinched the division, were resting their starters). When the Tigers won the season finale to avoid tying the record, they received a standing ovation from the crowd. Mike Maroth, a starting pitcher for the 2003 Detroit Tigers, went 9 -- 21 and became the first pitcher to lose 20 games in a season since Brian Kingman dropped 20 games for the 1980 Oakland Athletics. Ramón Santiago of the Tigers became only the 12th Triple Crown loser (a player who finishes last in all of the three Triple Crown categories) in modern MLB history. One baseball statistician described the Tigers as possibly "the worst team of all time without a good excuse '', as virtually every other team on the list had been reduced to minor - league status, plagued by financial problems or was a first - year expansion team.
Three years after losing 119 games, the Detroit Tigers went 95 -- 67 and won their 10th American League pennant, before losing the World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals. Players common to the 2003 and 2006 Tigers teams included Brandon Inge, Ramón Santiago (who spent 2004 and 2005 with the Seattle Mariners), Craig Monroe, Dmitri Young (released in September 2006), Omar Infante, Mike Maroth, Jeremy Bonderman, Nate Robertson, Jamie Walker, Wilfredo Ledezma, and Fernando Rodney.
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first chinese traveller to visit india and leave a record | Xuanzang - Wikipedia
Xuanzang (/ ˈʃwɑːnˈtsæŋ /; Chinese: 玄 奘; pinyin: Xuánzàng; Wade -- Giles: Hsüan - tsang (ɕɥɛ̌ntsâŋ); fl. c. 602 -- 664) was a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator who travelled to India in the seventh century and described the interaction between Chinese Buddhism and Indian Buddhism during the early Tang dynasty. Born in what is now Henan province around 602, from boyhood he took to reading religious books, including the Chinese classics and the writings of ancient sages.
While residing in the city of Luoyang (in Henan in Central China), Xuanzang was ordained as a śrāmaṇera (novice monk) at the age of thirteen. Due to the political and social unrest caused by the fall of the Sui dynasty, he went to Chengdu in Sichuan, where he was ordained as a bhikṣu (full monk) at the age of twenty. He later travelled throughout China in search of sacred books of Buddhism. At length, he came to Chang'an, then under the peaceful rule of Emperor Taizong of Tang, where Xuanzang developed the desire to visit India. He knew about Faxian 's visit to India and, like him, was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist texts that had reached China.
He became famous for his seventeen - year overland journey to India (including Nalanda), which is recorded in detail in the classic Chinese text Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, which in turn provided the inspiration for the novel Journey to the West written by Wu Cheng'en during the Ming dynasty, around nine centuries after Xuanzang 's death.
Less common romanizations of "Xuanzang '' include Hyun Tsan, Hhuen Kwan, Hiouen Thsang, Hiuen Tsang, Hiuen Tsiang, Hsien - tsang, Hsyan - tsang, Hsuan Chwang, Huan Chwang, Hsuan Tsiang, Hwen Thsang, Hsüan Chwang, Hhüen Kwān, Xuan Cang, Xuan Zang, Shuen Shang, Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang. Hsüan, Hüan, Huan and Chuang are also found. The sound written x in pinyin and hs in Wade -- Giles, which represents the s - or sh - like (ɕ) in today 's Mandarin, was previously pronounced as the h - like (x) in early Mandarin, which accounts for the archaic transliterations with h.
Another form of his official style was "Yuanzang, '' written 元 奘. It is this form that accounts for such variants as Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang.
Tang Monk (Tang Seng) is also transliterated / Thang Seng /.
Another of Xuanzang 's standard aliases is Sanzang Fashi (simplified Chinese: 三藏 法师; traditional Chinese: 三藏 法師; pinyin: Sānzàngfǎshī; literally: "Sanzang Dharma (or Law) Teacher ''): 法 being a Chinese translation for Sanskrit "Dharma '' or Pali / Pakrit Dhamma, the implied meaning being "Buddhism ''.
"Sanzang '' is the Chinese term for the Buddhist canon, or Tripiṭaka, and in some English - language fiction and English translations of Journey to the West, Xuanzang is addressed as "Tripitaka. ''
Xuanzang was born Chen Hui (or Chen Yi) around 602 in Chenhe Village, Goushi Town (Chinese: 緱 氏 鎮), Luozhou (near present - day Luoyang, Henan) and died on 5 February 664 in Yuhua Palace (玉 華 宮, in present - day Tongchuan, Shaanxi). His family was noted for its erudition for generations, and Xuanzang was the youngest of four children. His ancestor was Chen Shi (陳 寔, 104 - 186), a minister of the Eastern Han dynasty. His great - grandfather Chen Qin (陳 欽) served as the prefect of Shangdang (上 黨; present - day Changzhi, Shanxi) during the Eastern Wei; his grandfather Chen Kang (陳 康) was a professor in the Taixue (Imperial Academy) during the Northern Qi. His father Chen Hui (陳 惠) was a conservative Confucian who served as the magistrate of Jiangling County during the Sui dynasty, but later gave up office and withdrew into seclusion to escape the political turmoil that gripped China towards the end of the Sui. According to traditional biographies, Xuanzang displayed a superb intelligence and earnestness, amazing his father by his careful observance of the Confucian rituals at the age of eight. Along with his brothers and sister, he received an early education from his father, who instructed him in classical works on filial piety and several other canonical treatises of orthodox Confucianism.
Although his household was essentially Confucian, at a young age, Xuanzang expressed interest in becoming a Buddhist monk like one of his elder brothers. After the death of his father in 611, he lived with his older brother Chén Sù (Chinese: 陳 素) (later known as Zhǎng jié Chinese: 長 捷) for five years at Jingtu Monastery (Chinese: 淨土 寺) in Luoyang, supported by the Sui state. During this time he studied Mahayana as well as various early Buddhist schools, preferring the former.
In 618, the Sui Dynasty collapsed and Xuanzang and his brother fled to Chang'an, which had been proclaimed as the capital of the Tang dynasty, and thence southward to Chengdu, Sichuan. Here the two brothers spent two or three years in further study in the monastery of Kong Hui, including the Abhidharma - kośa Śāstra. When Xuanzang requested to take Buddhist orders at the age of thirteen, the abbot Zheng Shanguo made an exception in his case because of his precocious knowledge.
Xuanzang was fully ordained as a monk in 622, at the age of twenty. The myriad contradictions and discrepancies in the texts at that time prompted Xuanzang to decide to go to India and study in the cradle of Buddhism. He subsequently left his brother and returned to Chang'an to study foreign languages and to continue his study of Buddhism. He began his mastery of Sanskrit in 626, and probably also studied Tocharian. During this time, Xuanzang also became interested in the metaphysical Yogacara school of Buddhism.
In 627, Xuanzang reportedly had a dream that convinced him to journey to India. Tang China and the Göktürks were at war at the time and Emperor Taizong of Tang had prohibited foreign travel. Xuanzang persuaded some Buddhist guards at Yumen Pass and slipped out of the empire through Liangzhou (Gansu) and Qinghai in 629. He subsequently travelled across the Gobi Desert to Kumul (modern Hami City), thence following the Tian Shan westward.
He arrived in Turpan in 630. Here he met the king of Turpan, a Buddhist who equipped him further for his travels with letters of introduction and valuables to serve as funds. The hottest mountain in China, the Flaming Mountains, is located in Turpan and was depicted in the Journey to the West.
Moving further westward, Xuanzang escaped robbers to reach Karasahr, then toured the non-Mahayana monasteries of Kucha. Further west he passed Aksu before turning northwest to cross the Tian Shan 's Bedel Pass into modern Kyrgyzstan. He skirted Issyk Kul before visiting Tokmak on its northwest, and met the great Khagan of the Göktürks, whose relationship to the Tang emperor was friendly at the time. After a feast, Xuanzang continued west then southwest to Tashkent, capital of modern Uzbekistan. From here, he crossed the desert further west to Samarkand. In Samarkand, which was under Persian influence, the party came across some abandoned Buddhist temples and Xuanzang impressed the local king with his preaching. Setting out again to the south, Xuanzang crossed a spur of the Pamirs and passed through the famous Iron Gates. Continuing southward, he reached the Amu Darya and Termez, where he encountered a community of more than a thousand Buddhist monks.
Further east he passed through Kunduz, where he stayed for some time to witness the funeral rites of Prince Tardu, who had been poisoned. Here he met the monk Dharmasimha, and on the advice of the late Tardu made the trip westward to Balkh (modern Afghanistan), to see the Buddhist sites and relics, especially the Nava Vihara, which he described as the westernmost vihara in the world. Here Xuanzang also found over 3,000 non-Mahayana monks, including Prajnakara (般若 羯 羅 or 慧 性), a monk with whom Xuanzang studied early Buddhist scriptures. He acquired the important text of the Mahāvibhāṣa (Chinese: 大 毗 婆 沙 論) here, which he later translated into Chinese.
Prajñakara then accompanied the party southward to Bamyan, where Xuanzang met the king and saw tens of non-Mahayana monasteries, in addition to the two large Buddhas of Bamiyan carved out of the rockface. The party then resumed their travel eastward, crossing the Shibar Pass and descending to the regional capital of Kapisi (about 60 kilometres (37 mi) north of modern Kabul), which sported over 100 monasteries and 6000 monks, mostly Mahayana. This was part of the fabled old land of Gandhara. Xuanzang took part in a religious debate here, and demonstrated his knowledge of many Buddhist schools. Here he also met the first Jains and Hindu of his journey. He pushed on to Adinapur (later named Jalalabad) and Laghman, where he considered himself to have reached India. The year was 630.
Xuanzang left Adinapur, which had few Buddhist monks, but many stupas and monasteries. His travels included, passing through Hunza and the Khyber Pass to the east, reaching the former capital of Gandhara, Purushapura (Peshawar), on the other side. Peshawar was nothing compared to its former glory, and Buddhism was declining in the region. Xuanzang visited a number of stupas around Peshawar, notably the Kanishka Stupa. This stupa was built just southeast of Peshawar, by a former king of the city. In 1908, it was rediscovered by D.B. Spooner with the help of Xuanzang 's account.
Xuanzang left Peshawar and travelled northeast to the Swat Valley. Reaching Oḍḍiyāna, he found 1,400 - year - old monasteries, that had previously supported 18,000 monks. The remnant monks were of the Mahayana school. Xuanzang continued northward and into the Buner Valley, before doubling back via Shahbaz Garhi to cross the Indus river at Hund. He visited Taxila which was desolate and half - ruined, and found most of its sangharamas still ruined and desolate with the state having become a dependency of Kashmir with the local leaders fighting amongst themselves for power. Only a few monks remained there. He noted that it had some time previously been a subject of Kapisa. He went to Kashmir in 631 where he met a talented monk Samghayasas (僧 伽耶 舍), and studied there. In Kashmir, he found himself in another center of Buddhist culture and describes that there were over 100 monasteries and over 5,000 monks in the area. Between 632 and early 633, he studied with various monks, including 14 months with Vinītaprabha (毘 膩 多 缽 臘婆 or 調伏 光), 4 months with Candravarman (旃 達 羅 伐 摩 or 月 胃), and "a winter and half a spring '' with Jayagupta (闍 耶 毱 多). During this time, Xuanzang wrote about the Fourth Buddhist council that took place nearby, ca. 100 AD, under the order of King Kanishka of Kushana. He visited Chiniot and Lahore as well and provided the earliest writings available on the ancient cities. In 634, Xuanzang arrived in Matipura (秣 底 補 羅), known as Mandawar today.
In 634, he went east to Jalandhar in eastern Punjab, before climbing up to visit predominantly non-Mahayana monasteries in the Kulu valley and turning southward again to Bairat and then Mathura, on the Yamuna river. Mathura had 2,000 monks of both major Buddhist branches, despite being Hindu - dominated. Xuanzang travelled up the river to Shrughna, also mentioned in the works of Udyotakara, before crossing eastward to Matipura, where he arrived in 635, having crossed the river Ganges. At Matipura Monastery, Xuanzang studied under Mitrasena. From here, he headed south to Sankasya (Kapitha, then onward to Kannauj, the grand capital of the Empire of Harsha under the northern Indian emperor Harsha. It is believed he also visited Govishan present day Kashipur in the Harsha era, in 636, Xuanzang encountered 100 monasteries of 10,000 monks (both Mahayana and non-Mahayana), and was impressed by the king 's patronage of both scholarship and Buddhism. Xuanzang spent time in the city studying early Buddhist scriptures, before setting off eastward again for Ayodhya (Saketa), homeland of the Yogacara school. Xuanzang now moved south to Kausambi (Kosam), where he had a copy made from an important local image of the Buddha.
Xuanzang now returned northward to Shravasti Bahraich, travelled through Terai in the southern part of modern Nepal (here he found deserted Buddhist monasteries) and thence to Kapilavastu, his last stop before Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha.
In 637, Xuanzang set out from Lumbini to Kusinagara, the site of Buddha 's death, before heading southwest to the deer park at Sarnath where Buddha gave his first sermon, and where Xuanzang found 1,500 resident monks. Travelling eastward, at first via Varanasi, Xuanzang reached Vaisali, Pataliputra (Patna) and Bodh Gaya. He was then accompanied by local monks to Nalanda, the greatest Indian university of Indian state of Bihar, where he spent at least the next two years, He visited Champa Monastery, Bhagalpur. He was in the company of several thousand scholar - monks, whom he praised. Xuanzang studied logic, grammar, Sanskrit, and the Yogacara school of Buddhism during his time at Nalanda. René Grousset notes that it was at Nalanda (where an "azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full - blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade '') that Xuanzang met the venerable Silabhadra, the monastery 's superior. Silabhadra had dreamt of Xuanzang 's arrival and that it would help spread far and wide the Holy Law. Grousset writes: "The Chinese pilgrim had finally found the omniscient master, the incomparable metaphysician who was to make known to him the ultimate secrets of the idealist systems... The founders of Mahayana idealism, Asanga and Vasubandhu... Dignaga... Dharmapala had in turn trained Silabhadra. Silabhadra was thus in a position to make available to the Sino - Japanese world the entire heritage of Buddhist idealism, and the Siddhi Xuanzang 's great philosophical treatise... is none other than the Summa of this doctrine, the fruit of seven centuries of Indian (Buddhist) thought. ''
From Nalanda, Xuanzang travelled through several kingdoms, including Pundranagara, to the capital of Pundravardhana, identified with modern Mahasthangarh, in present - day Bangladesh. There Xuanzang found 20 monasteries with over 3,000 monks studying both the Hinayana and the Mahayana. One of them was the Vāśibhã Monastery (Po Shi Po), where he found over 700 Mahayana monks from all over East India. He also visited Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur in the district of Naogaon, in modern - day Bangladesh.
Xuanzang turned southward and travelled to Andhradesa to visit the Viharas at Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. He stayed at Amaravati and studied ' Abhidhammapitakam '. He observed that there were many Viharas at Amaravati and some of them were deserted. He later proceeded to Kanchi, the imperial capital of Pallavas and a strong centre of Buddhism. He continued traveling to Nasik, Ajanta, Malwa, from there he went to Multan and Pravata before returning to Nalanda again.
At the invitation of Hindu king Kumar Bhaskar Varman, he went east to the ancient city of Pragjyotishpura in the kingdom of Kamarupa after crossing the Karatoya and spent three months in the region. Before going to Kamarupa he visited Sylhet what is now a modern city Of Bangladesh. He gives detailed account about culture and people of Sylhet. Later, the king escorted Xuanzang back to the Kannauj at the request of king Harshavardhana, who was an ally of Kumar Bhaskar Varman, to attend a great Buddhist Assembly there which was attended by both of the kings as well as several other kings from neighbouring kingdoms, buddhist monks, Brahmans and Jains. King Harsha invited Xuanjang to Kumbh Mela in Prayag where he witnessed king Harsha 's generous distribution of gifts to the poor.
After visiting Prayag he returned to Kannauj where he was given a grand farewell by king Harsha. Traveling through the Khyber Pass of the Hindu Kush, Xuanzang passed through Kashgar, Khotan, and Dunhuang on his way back to China. He arrived in the capital, Chang'an, on the seventh day of the first month of 645, 16 years after he left Chinese territory, and a great procession celebrated his return.
On his return to China in AD 645, Xuanzang was greeted with much honor but he refused all high civil appointments offered by the still - reigning emperor, Emperor Taizong of Tang. Instead, he retired to a monastery and devoted his energy in translating Buddhist texts until his death in AD 664. According to his biography, he returned with, "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics. '' In celebration of Xuanzang 's extraordinary achievement in translating the Buddhist texts, Emperor Gaozong of Tang ordered renowned Tang calligrapher Chu Suiliang (褚 遂良) and inscriber Wan Wenshao (萬 文 韶) to install two stele stones, collectively known as The Emperor 's Preface to the Sacred Teachings (雁 塔 聖教 序), at the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda.
During Xuanzang 's travels, he studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nalanda. When he returned, he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts. With the emperor 's support, he set up a large translation bureau in Chang'an (present - day Xi'an), drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia. He is credited with the translation of some 1,330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogācāra (瑜伽 行 派), or Consciousness - only (唯識).
The force of his own study, translation and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school (法相 宗) in East Asia. Although the school itself did not thrive for a long time, its theories regarding perception, consciousness, Karma, rebirth, etc. found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools. Xuanzang 's closest and most eminent student was Kuiji (窺基) who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. Xuanzang 's logic, as described by Kuiji, was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lack the necessary background in Indian logic. Another important disciple was the Korean monk Woncheuk.
Xuanzang was known for his extensive but careful translations of Indian Buddhist texts to Chinese, which have enabled subsequent recoveries of lost Indian Buddhist texts from the translated Chinese copies. He is credited with writing or compiling the Cheng Weishi Lun as a commentary on these texts. His translation of the Heart Sutra became and remains the standard in all East Asian Buddhist sects; as well, this translation of the Heart Sutra was generally admired within the traditional Chinese gentry and is still widely respected as numerous renowned past and present Chinese calligraphers have penned its texts as their artworks. He also founded the short - lived but influential Faxiang school of Buddhism. Additionally, he was known for recording the events of the reign of the northern Indian emperor, Harsha.
Xuanzang returned to China with three copies of the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra. Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE, using all three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation. Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of his disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 chapters.
In 646, under the Emperor 's request, Xuanzang completed his book Great Tang Records on the Western Regions (大 唐 西域 記), which has become one of the primary sources for the study of medieval Central Asia and India. This book was first translated into French by the Sinologist Stanislas Julien in 1857.
There was also a biography of Xuanzang written by the monk Huili (慧 立). Both books were first translated into English by Samuel Beal, in 1884 and 1911 respectively. An English translation with copious notes by Thomas Watters was edited by T.W. Rhys Davids and S.W. Bushell, and published posthumously in London in 1905.
A half - monk at thirteen restless to find the truth one night I saw in my dream an azure pool a blue lotus dazzling red flowers thick mango groves wrinkled face of a Bhikchhu I set out for Yintu secretly escaping the Middle Kingdom at night, like the young Siddhartha against the Emperor 's diktats I travelled alone for years a fakir along the Silk Road hungry, naked but blessed...
"Hiuen Tsang: A Poem by Abhay K.
Xuanzang 's work, the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, is the longest and most detailed account of the countries of Central and South Asia that has been bestowed upon posterity by a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim. While his main purpose was to obtain Buddhist books and to receive instruction on Buddhism while in India, he ended up doing much more. He has preserved the records of political and social aspects of the lands he visited.
His record of the places visited by him in Bengal -- mainly Raktamrittika near Karnasuvarna, Pundranagara and its environs, Samatata, Tamralipti and Harikela -- have been very helpful in the recording of the archaeological history of Bengal what is now. His account has also shed welcome light on the history of 7th century Bengal, especially the Gauda kingdom under Shashanka, although at times he can be quite partisan.
Xuanzang obtained and translated 657 Sanskrit Buddhist works. He received the best education on Buddhism he could find throughout India. Much of this activity is detailed in the companion volume to Xiyu Ji, the Biography of Xuanzang written by Huili, entitled the Life of Xuanzang.
His version of the Heart Sutra is the basis for all Chinese commentaries on the sutra, and recitations throughout China, Korea and Japan. His style was, by Chinese standards, cumbersome and overly literal, and marked by scholarly innovations in terminology; usually, where another version by the earlier translator Kumārajīva exists, Kumārajīva 's is more popular.
Xuanzang 's journey along the so - called Silk Road, and the legends that grew up around it, inspired the Ming novel Journey to the West, one of the great classics of Chinese literature. The fictional counterpart Tang Sanzang is the reincarnation of the Golden Cicada, a disciple of Gautama Buddha, and is protected on his journey by three powerful disciples. One of them, the monkey, was a popular favorite and profoundly influenced Chinese culture and contemporary Japanese manga and anime (including the popular Dragon Ball and Saiyuki series), and became well known in the West by Arthur Waley 's translation and later the cult TV series Monkey.
In the Yuan Dynasty, there was also a play by Wu Changling (吳昌齡) about Xuanzang obtaining scriptures.
A skull relic purported to be that of Xuanzang was held in the Temple of Great Compassion, Tianjin until 1956 when it was taken to Nalanda - allegedly by the Dalai Lama - and presented to India. The relic was in the Patna Museum for a long time but was moved to a newly built memorial hall in Nalanda in 2007. The Wenshu Monastery in Chengdu, Sichuan province also claims to have part of Xuanzang 's skull.
Part of Xuanzang 's remains were taken from Nanjing by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army in 1942, and are now enshrined at Yakushi - ji in Nara, Japan.
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what is a bundle block of the heart | Bundle branch block - wikipedia
A bundle branch block is a defect of the bundle branches or fascicles in the electrical conduction system of the heart.
The heart 's electrical activity begins in the sinoatrial node (the heart 's natural pacemaker), which is situated on the upper right atrium. The impulse travels next through the left and right atria and summates at the atrioventricular node. From the AV node the electrical impulse travels down the bundle of His and divides into the right and left bundle branches. The right bundle branch contains one fascicle. The left bundle branch subdivides into two fascicles: the left anterior fascicle and the left posterior fascicle. Other sources divide the left bundle branch into three fascicles: the left anterior, the left posterior, and the left septal fascicle. The thicker left posterior fascicle bifurcates, with one fascicle being in the septal aspect. Ultimately, the fascicles divide into millions of Purkinje fibres, which in turn interdigitise with individual cardiac myocytes, allowing for rapid, coordinated, and synchronous physiologic depolarization of the ventricles.
When a bundle branch or fascicle becomes injured (by underlying heart disease, myocardial infarction, or cardiac surgery), it may cease to conduct electrical impulses appropriately. This results in altered pathways for ventricular depolarization. Since the electrical impulse can no longer use the preferred pathway across the bundle branch, it may move instead through muscle fibers in a way that both slows the electrical movement and changes the directional propagation of the impulses. As a result, there is a loss of ventricular synchrony, ventricular depolarization is prolonged, and there may be a corresponding drop in cardiac output. When heart failure is present, a specialized pacemaker may be used to resynchronize the ventricles. In theory a pacemaker like this will shorten the QRS interval, thus bringing the timing of contraction of the left and right ventricles closer together and slightly increasing the ejection fraction.
A bundle branch block can be diagnosed when the duration of the QRS complex on the ECG exceeds 120 ms. A right bundle branch block typically causes prolongation of the last part of the QRS complex, and may shift the heart 's electrical axis slightly to the right. The ECG will show a terminal R wave in lead V1 and a slurred S wave in lead I. Left bundle branch block widens the entire QRS, and in most cases shifts the heart 's electrical axis to the left. The ECG will show a QS or rS complex in lead V1 and a monophasic R wave in lead I. Another normal finding with bundle branch block is appropriate T wave discordance. In other words, the T wave will be deflected opposite the terminal deflection of the QRS complex. Bundle branch block, especially left bundle branch block, can lead to cardiac dyssynchrony. The simultaneous occurrence of left and right bundle branch block leads to total AV block.
Depending on the anatomical location of the defect which leads to a bundle branch block, the blocks are further classified into:
The left bundle branch block can be further sub classified into:
Other classifications of bundle branch blocks are;
Some people with bundle branch blocks are born with this condition. Many other acquire it as a consequence of heart disease. People with bundle branch blocks may still be quite active, and may have nothing more remarkable than an abnormal appearance to their ECG. However, when bundle blocks are complex and diffuse in the bundle systems, or associated with additional and significant ventricular muscle damage, they may be a sign of serious underlying heart disease. In more severe cases, a pacemaker may be required to restore an optimal electrical supply to the heart muscle.
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can i travel to bahamas with a jamaican passport | Visa requirements for Jamaican citizens - Wikipedia
Visa requirements for Jamaican citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Jamaica. As of 10 July 2018, Jamaican citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 85 countries and territories, ranking the Jamaican passport 59th in terms of travel freedom according to Henley Passport Index.
Overseas trips made by Jamaican citizens
(11) Jamaica has a modest number of diplomatic missions and consulates in the world they are maintained under the umbrella of the Jamaican Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade. They are official representative of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul 's own country, and to facilitate trade and friendship between the people of the two countries.
Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam.
Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of April 2018 the list contains 710 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example: Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty. Part of the Kingdom of Denmark, not part of the Schengen Area.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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les mis anne hathaway i dreamed a dream lyrics | I Dreamed a Dream - wikipedia
"I Dreamed a Dream '' is a song from the musical Les Misérables. It is a solo that is sung by the character Fantine during the first act. The music is by Claude - Michel Schönberg, with orchestrations by John Cameron. The English lyrics are by Herbert Kretzmer, based on the original French libretto by Alain Boublil and Jean - Marc Natel from the original French production.
The song is a lament, sung by the anguished Fantine, who has just been fired from her job at the factory and thrown onto the streets. She thinks back to happier days and wonders at all that has gone wrong in her life. The song is typically played in the key of E-flat major with the final chorus in F major, though the pitch is shifted up a bit for high - toned TVs, and it has also become a jazz standard.
In the 1985 musical, the song occurs after Fantine has been fired, and before "Lovely Ladies ''. In the original French production and the 2012 film adaptation, these two musical numbers are swapped around, to place dramatic emphasis on Fantine 's depressing descent into prostitution.
The original French song was very extensively rewritten for the English production by Herbert Kretzmer, adding the prologue (There was a time...) and cutting the last few lines which became the ending to "Lovely Ladies '' (' Do n't they know they 're making love to one already dead '). For the French revival in 1991, the song was loosely translated back from the English version; there are thus two very different French versions of the song.
The song, as it appeared in the original Paris production from 1980, was entitled J'avais rêvé d'une autre vie ("I had dreamed of another life ''), and was originally sung by Rose Laurens. The first English - language production of Les Misérables opened on the West End in London in October 1985, with the role of Fantine portrayed by Patti LuPone. She would later feature the song on her 1993 album Patti LuPone Live!
When the musical made its Broadway début in New York City in March 1987, Fantine was played by Randy Graff. Laurie Beechman would perform the role in the original U.S. touring production in 1988 and then on Broadway in 1990. That year she included the song on her album Listen to My Heart. Debra Byrne sang the song on the Complete Symphonic Recording. Ruthie Henshall sang it on the Tenth Anniversary Concert Recording (1995). A Broadway revival in 2006 featured Daphne Rubin - Vega (2006 -- 07), Lea Salonga (2007), and Judy Kuhn (2007 -- 08). Lea Salonga sang it for the 25th Anniversary Concert in London (2010).
The show, and the song, has been translated into twenty - one languages, including Japanese, Hebrew, Icelandic, Norwegian, Czech, Polish, Spanish, and Estonian, and there have been 31 cast recordings featuring the song. The London cast version is Triple Platinum in the UK, for sales of more than 900,000, and Platinum in the U.S., for sales of more than one million. The Broadway cast version is Quadruple Platinum in the U.S. (more than four million sold), where four other versions have also gone Gold.
Numerous popular singers have recorded cover versions of "I Dreamed a Dream ''. Neil Diamond recorded the song for his 1987 live album Hot August Night II and released the song as a single. It peaked at no. 13 on the U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary chart in November 1987 and at no. 90 on the UK Singles Chart. Diamond 's version features a lyrical alteration at the end of the song; instead of "Now life has killed the dream I dreamed '' Diamond sings, "But life ca n't kill the dream I dreamed ''.
Other male singers who have recorded the song include rock singer David Essex on his 1987 album Centre Stage, Phantom of the Opera star Michael Crawford on his 1987 album The Phantom Unmasked and on his 1992 release "With Love '', LuPone 's Evita co-star Mandy Patinkin on his 1994 album Experiment and British theater star Michael Ball (Marius in the Original London production of Les Mis) on his 1996 album The Musicals.
In 1991, Aretha Franklin included a version of the song on her album What You See is What You Sweat. Although not released as a single, Franklin has performed the song at various venues, including the 1993 inaugural celebration for U.S. President Bill Clinton.
In the film The Commitments (1991), one of the girls auditioning for the titular band sings "I Dreamed a Dream '' as her audition song.
Other female singers who have recorded versions of the song include English singer and stage actress Elaine Paige, from a 1993 performance at Birmingham Symphony Hall which was included on her 1995 album, Encore, original Annie title cast member Andrea McArdle in the 1996 recording On Broadway, New Zealand singer Hayley Westenra and British pop star Petula Clark, each in 2001, Canadian singer - songwriter Allison Crowe in 2005, and Broadway actress Susan Egan in 2008. British actress and singer Marti Webb performed the song on her album Performance (1989). In 2008, Italian rock noir band Belladonna covered the song in their London show. In 2010, popera singer Rose Jang covered the song for her digital album Songs of Hope by Mnet Media.
The song was covered on the Glee episode "Dream On '' by Shelby Corcoran and Rachel Berry, portrayed by Idina Menzel and Lea Michele respectively. This song took the place of a meeting between Shelby and Rachel, who found out during that episode that Shelby was her birth mother. At the end of that episode, Rachel met Shelby for the first time in real life (the sequence where Shelby and Rachel sang "I Dreamed a Dream '' was, in fact, something akin to a dream sequence).
Josh Groban and Michael Ball sang a duet at the end of Never Mind the Buzzcocks (Broadcast 21 December 2010).
Joe McElderry recorded the song for his second album, Classic.
Katherine Jenkins released a French cover of the song entitled "J'avais rêvé d'une autre vie / I dreamed of another life '' in her 8th studio album Daydream.
Kika Edgar recorded a Spanish cover titled "Un sueño que alguna vez soñé / A dream I once dreamed '' for her album Broadway.
In 2011, Celtic Woman performed "I Dreamed a Dream '' as part of their 2011 "Believe '' tour, recorded by PBS at the Fox Theatre in Atlanta. The song was one of two songs sung as "A Tribute to Broadway '', the other song being "Circle of Life '' from the Disney movie The Lion King. The song, which was only released on DVD and as part of the television special, was sung by Lisa Kelly and Chloë Agnew.
As part of a compilation, and the title track to the Australian album, Lucy Maunder sang the song for ABC Classics I Dreamed a Dream: The Hit Songs of Broadway
The song had a resurgence in popularity in 2009 when Scottish singer Susan Boyle performed it as her audition for the third series of the British reality television programme Britain 's Got Talent. Boyle 's performance elicited a unanimous vote for passage into the next round of competition by judges Piers Morgan, Amanda Holden and Simon Cowell, with Morgan giving Boyle "the biggest yes (he had) ever given '' in his three years of judging the show. Elaine Paige, Boyle 's role model, later expressed interest in singing a duet with her. The programme received high ratings and Boyle 's performance was quickly added to sites such as YouTube, where millions of people viewed it in the first month alone. Boyle sang the song again during the finals of Britain 's Got Talent on 30 May 2009, where she placed second in the competition behind British dance troupe Diversity. Today, it is known as the song that catapulted her to super-stardom, and it helped sales of her album I Dreamed a Dream. Currently, the album has been declared as the fastest selling debut album of all time in the UK, and sold 701,000 copies in its first week in just the US, breaking the record for highest debut ever for a solo female artist.
Shortly after Boyle 's audition aired on ITV in April, the Original London Cast Recording of LuPone singing "I Dreamed a Dream '' was downloaded to such a degree that the song entered music charts in the U.S. and UK. The U.S. Billboard magazine 's Hot Digital Songs and Hot Singles Recurrents charts for the week of 2 May 2009 had LuPone 's 1985 recording at no. 61 and no. 20, respectively. LuPone 's version also reached no. 45 on the UK Singles Chart on the week of 25 April 2009. Susan Boyle 's later 2009 recording rivalled pre-order sales records on Amazon.com in November 2009.
"I Dreamed a Dream '' entered the Irish Singles Chart on 26 November 2009 at number 20. It also entered the UK Singles Chart on 29 November 2009 at no. 37.
"I Dreamed a Dream '' was covered again for the 2012 film adaption. The movie was produced by Working Title Films and directed by Tom Hooper from a script by William Nicholson, Alain Boublil and Claude - Michel Schönberg with Herbert Kretzmer. The role of Fantine was played by Anne Hathaway for which she won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. The film changed the ordering of some songs, and this song was swapped around with "Lovely Ladies '', to place dramatic emphasis on Fantine 's depression, after she has become a prostitute. As with the rest of the film, the vocals for the song were recorded by Hathaway, live on the set, and later edited together with the music.
Her performance of the song was released as part of the Les Misérables: Highlights from the Motion Picture Soundtrack on 21 December 2012 and was confirmed to be featured in the upcoming deluxe edition of the album. It was well received by music critics and it was very commercially successful, entering the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and reaching the top thirty of the UK Singles Chart, along with entering various other singles charts around the world.
On his review of Les Misérables: Highlights from the Motion Picture Soundtrack, Rolling Stone 's Jody Rosen mentions Hathaway 's rendition of the classic as one of the two decent tracks on the compilation, stating that "There are a couple of redeeming moments on this chart - topping soundtrack; Sacha Baron Cohen has fun with the jaunty "Master of the House, '' and Anne Hathaway gives the schmaltzy "I Dreamed a Dream '' her all. ''
On the week ending 19 January 2013 the song entered and peaked in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 at number 69, and spent a total of three weeks on the chart. The song was also a hit on the UK Singles Chart where it peaked at number 22 (higher than Susan Boyle 's rendition) and spent six weeks on the chart. It was also present for a week on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 73. Among others, the song has also peaked in the Irish Singles Chart at number 26, the Dutch Top 100 at number 58, and the Spanish Singles Chart at number 21. The song is also atop the iTunes Top Soundtrack Songs in Romania since January, 2013, where the song sold over 6,000 digital copies.
"Yume Yaburete (I Dreamed a Dream) '' (夢 やぶれ て - I DREAMED A DREAM -, lit. "Broken Dreams '') is Tomomi Kahara 's twenty - seventh single and first in over seven years. "Yume Yaburete '' is the Japanese version of "I Dreamed a Dream '' from the musical Les Misérables. The Japanese lyrics were written by lyricist and translator Tokiko Iwatani. Despite being famously sung by Hiromi Iwasaki, the Japanese rendition of "I Dreamed a Dream '' was never released as a single until Kahara 's cover. The song was suggested for Kahara 's comeback by executives at Universal J, Kahara 's record label and the one behind the Japanese release of the soundtrack for the 2012 film adaptation of Les Misérables. Coincidentally, the song happened to be a favorite of Kahara 's that she often sang at auditions.
The song was recorded with a backing orchestra of 41 musicians. The cover art for the single pays homage to the musical and the character of Fantine by depicting Kahara as a broken but hopeful woman. The single also includes a piano version of "Yume Yaburete '' as well as a self - cover of Kahara 's 1996 hit song "I 'm Proud ''. First pressing of the single includes a DVD featuring the music video for "Yume Yaburete ''.
"Yume Yaburete (I Dreamed a Dream) '' entered the Oricon weekly singles chart at number 13, marking Kahara 's first top 20 single since "Anata ga Ireba '' (2004).
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who played lucy in the santa clause 2 | The Santa Clause 2 - Wikipedia
The Santa Clause 2 is a 2002 American Christmas romantic comedy - drama film directed by Michael Lembeck. It is the second installment in The Santa Clause trilogy, following The Santa Clause. It was filmed in the Canadian cities of Vancouver and Calgary. All the principal actors from the first film reprise their roles.
The film had an approximately $65 million budget and earned domestic a box office of $139.2 million, with another $33.6 million internationally. The film was followed by another sequel, The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause, released in 2006.
Eight years have elapsed since Scott Calvin took on the mantle of Santa Claus and became subject to The Santa Clause. Now he is at the top of his game at the North Pole and could not be happier, at least until Head Elf Bernard and Curtis, the Keeper of the Handbook of Christmas break the news that there is another clause -- the "Mrs. Clause ''.
Santa / Scott is now pressed to get married before the next Christmas Eve, or the clause will be broken and Christmas will fade away. At the same time, Abby the Elf delivers news that is more distressing: Santa 's own son Charlie is on the naughty list, for acts including vandalizing the walls of the school gymnasium with spray paint, until he is caught by Principal Carol Newman. Scott must return to his home to search for a wife and set things right with Charlie. He brings this up when visited by the Council of Legendary Figures consisting of Mother Nature, Father Time, Cupid, the Easter Bunny, the Tooth Fairy, and the Sandman.
To cover for Santa 's prolonged absence, Curtis helps Santa create a life - size toy replica of Santa, much to Bernard 's horror. However, this replacement can not find any grace or slack in his plastic heart for minor infractions by children the world over, having followed the Handbook too strictly. Toy Santa takes control of the North Pole with an army of life - size toy soldiers. He thinks that everyone is naughty, and he plans to give the entire world lumps of coal.
Because of the impending end of his contract, Scott undergoes a "de-Santafication process '' that gradually turns him back into Scott Calvin. He has a limited amount of magic to help him. Scott attempts to reconcile with Charlie, who keeps vandalizing his school to get attention. He and Charlie both face the ire of Principal Newman when Charlie defaces the lockers.
Charlie confesses to Scott how hard it is for him that Scott is never around like other fathers, and reveals the stress he is under to conceal the secret that his father is Santa. Scott vows to try harder as a dad, and he and Charlie reconcile.
After a few failed dates, Scott finds himself falling for Carol, the school principal. He accompanies her in a sleigh to the faculty Christmas party, which turns out to be dull. Using a little of his Christmas magic, Scott enlivens the party by presenting everyone with their childhood dream gifts. He makes a special presentation to Carol, and, with his last remnant of magic, wins her over and they kiss passionately. However, she balks when he attempts to explain he is Santa, believing that Scott is mocking her childhood, until Charlie manages to convince her by showing her his magic snow globe.
Curtis flies in to deliver the news about the Toy Santa 's coal binge. However, Scott has used up the last of his magic wooing Carol, and Comet has eaten too many chocolate bars. With a little help from the Tooth Fairy, Scott and Curtis return to the North Pole. Toy Santa wastes no time in subduing Scott, but Charlie and a now - believing Carol spring him free by summoning the Tooth Fairy to fly them there. Scott goes after the Toy Santa, who has already left with the sleigh, riding Chet, a reindeer - in - training, and they both crash back into the village. With an army of elves, Carol, Bernard, Charlie and Curtis lead a snowball war to overthrow the toy soldiers. Toy Santa is reduced to his normal six - inch height, Scott marries Carol in a ceremony presided over by Mother Nature herself, Scott transforms back to Santa, and Christmas proceeds as it always has. Scott and Carol have a three month honeymoon to go on the next day. In addition, Scott and Charlie reveal the truth to Lucy, Charlie 's younger half - sister (the daughter of Laura and Neil) about Scott being Santa Claus.
The Santa Clause 2 received mixed reviews from critics, garnering a 55 % positive reviews on the film - critics aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. The site 's consensus is, "Though it 's harmless as family entertainment and has moments of charm, The Santa Clause 2 is also predictable and forgettable. ''
The Santa Clause 2 was nominated for Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film.
The film had an approximately $65 million budget and earned domestic a box office of $139.2 million, with another $33.6 million internationally. It was the fifth - highest - grossing holiday movie.
Original Release Date: November 1, 2002
The film was released on DVD and VHS on November 18, 2003. It was re-released as 3 - Movie Collection DVD set in 2007 and first released as a 3 - Movie Collection Blu - ray set on October 16, 2012.
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who contribute money to the social security trust fund | Social Security Trust Fund - wikipedia
The Federal Old - Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund and Federal Disability Insurance Trust Fund (collectively, the Social Security Trust Fund or Trust Funds) are trust funds that provide for payment of Social Security (Old - Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance; OASDI) benefits administered by the United States Social Security Administration.
The Social Security Administration collects payroll taxes and uses the money collected to pay Old - Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance benefits by way of trust funds. When the program runs a surplus, the excess funds increase the value of the Trust Fund. At the end of 2014, the Trust Fund contained (or alternatively, was owed) $2.79 trillion, up $25 billion from 2013. The Trust Fund is required by law to be invested in non-marketable securities issued and guaranteed by the "full faith and credit '' of the federal government. These securities earn a market rate of interest.
Excess funds are used by the government for non-Social Security purposes, creating the obligations to the Social Security Administration and thus program recipients. However, Congress could cut these obligations by altering the law. Trust Fund obligations are considered "intra-governmental '' debt, a component of the "public '' or "national '' debt. As of June 2015, the intragovernmental debt was $5.1 trillion of the $18.2 trillion national debt.
According to the Social Security Trustees, who oversee the program and report on its financial condition, program costs are expected to exceed non-interest income from 2010 onward. However, due to interest (earned at a 3.6 % rate in 2014) the program will run an overall surplus that adds to the fund through the end of 2019. Under current law, the securities in the Trust Fund represent a legal obligation the government must honor when program revenues are no longer sufficient to fully fund benefit payments. However, when the Trust Fund is used to cover program deficits in a given year, the Trust Fund balance is reduced. By 2034, the Trust Fund is expected to be exhausted. Thereafter, payroll taxes are projected to only cover approximately 79 % of program obligations.
There have been various proposals to address this shortfall, including tax increases, benefit reductions, and borrowing.
The "Social Security Trust Fund '' comprises two separate funds that hold federal government debt obligations related to what are traditionally thought of as Social Security benefits. The larger of these funds is the Old - Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) Trust Fund, which holds in trust special interest - bearing federal government securities bought with surplus OASI payroll tax revenues. The second, smaller fund is the Disability Insurance (DI) Trust Fund, which holds in trust more of the special interest - bearing federal government securities, bought with surplus DI payroll tax revenues.
The trust funds are "off - budget '' and treated separately in certain ways from other federal spending, and other trust funds of the federal government. From the U.S. Code:
EXCLUSION OF SOCIAL SECURITY FROM ALL BUDGETS Pub. L. 101 -- 508, title XIII, Sec. 13301 (a), Nov. 5, 1990, 104 Stat. 1388 - 623, provided that: Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the receipts and disbursements of the Federal Old - Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund and the Federal Disability Insurance Trust Fund shall not be counted as new budget authority, outlays, receipts, or deficit or surplus for purposes of - (1) the budget of the United States Government as submitted by the President, (2) the congressional budget, or (3) the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985.
The trust funds run surpluses in that the amount paid in by current workers is more than the amount paid out to current beneficiaries. These surpluses are given to the U.S. Treasury (and thus become part of the general federal budget) in exchange for special U.S. government securities, which are deposited into the trust funds. If the trust funds begin running deficits, meaning more in benefits are paid out than contributions paid in, the Social Security Administration is empowered to redeem the securities and use those funds to cover the deficit.
The Board of Trustees of the Trust Funds is composed of 6 members:
The Board of Trustees holds the trust funds. The Managing Trustee is responsible for investing the funds, which has been delegated to the Bureau of the Fiscal Service.
The Social Security system is primarily a pay - as - you - go system, meaning that payments to current retirees come from current payments into the system.
In 1977, President Jimmy Carter and the 95th Congress increased the FICA tax to fund Social Security, phased in gradually into the 1980s. In the early 1980s, financial projections of the Social Security Administration indicated near - term revenue from payroll taxes would not be sufficient to fully fund near - term benefits (thus raising the possibility of benefit cuts). The federal government appointed the National Commission on Social Security Reform, headed by Alan Greenspan (who had not yet been named Chairman of the Federal Reserve), to investigate what additional changes to federal law were necessary to shore up the fiscal health of the Social Security program. The Greenspan Commission projected that the system would be solvent for the entirety of its 75 - year forecast period with certain recommendations. The changes to federal law enacted in 1983 and signed by President Reagan (2) and pursuant to the recommendations of the Greenspan Commission advanced the time frame for previously scheduled payroll tax increases (though it raised slightly the payroll tax for the self - employed to equal the employer - employee rate), changed certain benefit calculations, and raised the retirement age to 67 by the year 2027. As of the end of calendar year 2010, the accumulated surplus in the Social Security Trust Fund stood at just over $2.6 trillion.
Social Security benefits are paid from a combination of social security payroll taxes paid by current workers and interest income earned by the Social Security Trust Fund. According to the projections of the Social Security Administration, the Trust Fund will continue to show net growth until 2022 because the interest generated by its bonds and the revenue from payroll taxes exceeds the amount needed to pay benefits. After 2022, without increases in Social Security taxes or cuts in benefits, the Fund is projected to decrease each year until being fully exhausted in 2034. At this point, if legislative action is not taken, the benefits would be reduced.
The 2015 Trustees Report Press Release (which covered 2014 statistics) stated:
Some basic equations for understanding the fund balance include:
"Program revenues '' has several components, including payroll tax contributions, taxation of benefits, and an accounting entry to reflect recent payroll tax cuts during 2011 and 2012, to make the fund "whole '' as if these tax cuts had not occurred. These all add to the program revenues.
On February 2, 2005, President George W. Bush made Social Security a prominent theme of his State of the Union Address. One consequence was increased public attention to the nature of the Social Security Trust Fund. Unlike a typical private pension plan, the Social Security Trust Fund does not hold any marketable assets to secure workers ' paid - in contributions. Instead, it holds non-negotiable United States Treasury bonds and U.S. securities backed "by the full faith and credit of the U.S. government ''. The trust funds have been invested primarily in non-marketable Treasury debt, first, because the Social Security Act prohibits "prefunding '' by investment in equities or corporate bonds and, second, because of a general desire to avoid large swings in the Treasuries market that would otherwise result if Social Security invested large sums of payroll tax receipts in marketable government bonds or redeemed these marketable government bonds to pay benefits.
The Office of Management and Budget has described the distinction as follows:
These (Trust Fund) balances are available to finance future benefit payments and other Trust Fund expenditures -- but only in a bookkeeping sense... They do not consist of real economic assets that can be drawn down in the future to fund benefits. Instead, they are claims on the Treasury that, when redeemed, will have to be financed by raising taxes, borrowing from the public, or reducing benefits or other expenditures. The existence of large Trust Fund balances, therefore, does not, by itself, have any impact on the Government 's ability to pay benefits. (from FY 2000 Budget, Analytical Perspectives, p. 337)
Other public officials have argued that the trust funds do have financial or moral value, similar to the value of any other Treasury bill, note or bond. This confidence stems largely from the "full faith and credit '' guarantee. "If one believes that the trust fund assets are worthless, '' argued former Representative Bill Archer, then similar reasoning implies that "Americans who have bought EE savings bonds should go home and burn them because they 're worthless because the money has already been spent. '' At a Senate hearing in July 2001, Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan was asked whether the trust fund investments are "real '' or merely an accounting device. He responded, "The crucial question: Are they ultimate claims on real resources? And the answer is yes. ''
Like other U.S. government debt obligations, the government bonds held by the trust funds are guaranteed by the "full faith and credit '' of the U.S. government. To escape paying either principal or interest on the "special '' bonds held by the trust funds, the government would have to default on these obligations. This can not be done by executive order or by the Social Security Administration. Congress would have to pass legislation to repudiate these particular government bonds. This action by Congress could involve some political risk and, because it involves the financial security of older Americans, seems unlikely.
An alternative to repudiating these bonds would be for Congress to simply cap Social Security spending at a level below that which would require the bonds to be redeemed. Again, this would be politically risky, but would not require a "default '' on the bonds.
From the point of view of the Social Security trust funds, the holdings of "special '' government bonds are an investment that returned 5.5 % to the trust funds in 2005. The trust funds can not resell these "special '' government bonds on the secondary bond market, although the interest rate is determined based on market interest rates. Instead, the "specials '' can be sold back to the government at face value, which is an advantage when interest rates are rising.
The week after his State of the Union speech, Bush downplayed the importance of the Trust Fund:
Some in our country think that Social Security is a trust fund -- in other words, there 's a pile of money being accumulated. That 's just simply not true. The money -- payroll taxes going into the Social Security are spent. They 're spent on benefits and they 're spent on government programs. There is no trust.
These comments were criticized as "lay (ing) the groundwork for defaulting on almost two trillion dollars ' worth of US Treasury bonds ''.
However, even right - leaning politicians have been inconsistent with the language they use when referencing Social Security. For example, Bush has referred to the system going "broke '' in 2042. That date arises from the anticipated depletion of the Trust Fund, so Bush 's language "seem (s) to suggest that there 's something there that goes away in 2042. '' Specifically, in 2042 and for many decades thereafter, the Social Security system can continue to pay benefits, but benefit payments will be constrained by the revenue base from the 12.4 % FICA (Social Security payroll) tax on wages. According to the Social Security trustees, continuing payroll tax revenues at the rate of 12.4 % will enable Social Security to pay about 74 % of promised benefits during the 2040s, with this ratio falling to about 70 % by the end of the forecast period in 2080.
In 2011 and 2012, the federal government temporarily extended the reduction in the employees ' share of payroll taxes from 6.2 % to 4.2 % of compensation. The resulting shortfall was appropriated from the general Government funds. This increased public debt, but did not advance the year of depletion of the Trust Fund.
The Trust Fund represents a legal obligation of the federal government to program beneficiaries. The government has borrowed nearly $2.8 trillion as of 2014 from the Trust Fund and used the money for other purposes. Under current law, when the program goes into an annual cash deficit, the government has to seek alternate funding beyond the payroll taxes dedicated to the program to cover the shortfall. This reduces the trust fund balance to the extent this occurs. The program deficits are expected to exhaust the fund by 2034. Thereafter, since Social Security is only authorized to pay beneficiaries what it collects in payroll taxes dedicated to the program, program payouts will fall by an estimated 21 %.
The trust fund is expected to peak in 2021 at approximately $3.0 trillion. If the parts of the budget outside of Social Security are in deficit, which the Congressional Budget Office and multiple budget expert panels assume for the foreseeable future, there are several implications:
On the other hand, if other parts of the budget are in surplus and program recipients can be paid from the general fund, then no additional debt need be issued. However, this scenario is highly unlikely.
Some commentators believe that whether the trust fund is a fact or fiction comes down to whether the trust fund contributes to national savings or not. If $1 added to the fund increases national savings, or replaces borrowing from other lenders, by $1, the trust fund is real. If $1 added to the fund does not replace other borrowing or otherwise increase national savings, the trust fund is not "real ''. Some economic research argues that the trust funds have led to only a small to modest increase in national savings and that the bulk of the trust fund has been "spent ''. Others suggest a more significant savings effect.
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david lynch twin peaks fire walk with me | Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me - wikipedia
Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me is a 1992 psychological horror film directed by David Lynch and written by Lynch and Robert Engels. It is a prequel to the television series Twin Peaks (1990 -- 1991), created by Mark Frost and Lynch, who were also executive producers. The film revolves around the investigation into the murder of Teresa Banks (Pamela Gidley) and the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer (Sheryl Lee), a popular high school student in the fictional Washington town of Twin Peaks.
Most of the television cast returned for the film; notable exceptions include Lara Flynn Boyle and Sherilyn Fenn, due to scheduling conflicts. Boyle 's character Donna Hayward was instead portrayed by Moira Kelly. Kyle MacLachlan, who starred as Special Agent Dale Cooper in the series, was reluctant to return out of fear of getting typecast, which resulted in a smaller presence in the film than originally planned.
The film initially received negative reviews in the United States but has been met with a more positive reception in subsequent years, with some critics viewing it as one of Lynch 's major works. Although it has long been reported that Fire Walk with Me was greeted at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival with booing and jeers from the audience, co-writer Robert Engels denies that this event ever happened. The film fared poorly in the United States at the box office, although it was a commercial hit in Japan.
FBI Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole sends agents Chester Desmond and Sam Stanley to investigate the murder of drifter and teenage prostitute Teresa Banks in the town of Deer Meadow, Washington. The pair are informed about their new assignment through a woman named Lil. On her lapel is a tiny, artificial blue rose, clearly symbolic of something; when Sam asks, Chet simply replies, "But I ca n't tell you about that. '' Desmond and Stanley view Teresa 's body at the local morgue. They notice that a ring is missing from her finger and a small piece of paper printed with the letter "T '' has been inserted under one of her fingernails. Later, Desmond discovers Teresa 's missing ring under a trailer. As he reaches out to it, he is taken by an unseen force.
At FBI headquarters in Philadelphia, Cole and Agent Dale Cooper experience a brief vision of their long - lost colleague Agent Phillip Jeffries. He tells them about a meeting he witnessed involving several mysterious spirits -- The Man from Another Place, Killer BOB, Mrs. Chalfont and her grandson. Agent Cooper is sent to Deer Meadow to investigate Desmond 's disappearance, but finds no answers.
One year later in Twin Peaks, high school homecoming queen Laura Palmer and her best friend Donna Hayward attend school. Laura is addicted to cocaine and is cheating on her boyfriend, the arrogant and ill - tempered jock Bobby Briggs, with the biker James Hurley. Laura realizes pages are missing from her secret diary, and gives the rest of the diary to her friend, the agoraphobic recluse Harold Smith.
Mrs. Chalfont and her grandson appear to Laura. They warn her that the "man behind the mask '' is in her bedroom. Laura runs home, where she sees BOB. She rushes outside in terror and is startled to see her father, Leland, emerge from the house. That evening Leland 's behavior is erratic and abusive -- he accusingly asks her about her romances, then tenderly tells her he loves her.
Laura has a dream about entering the Black Lodge. Cooper and the Man from Another Place appear in her dream. The Man from Another Place informs Cooper that "I am the arm '', revealing his identity as MIKE 's severed arm, and offers Teresa 's ring to Laura, but Cooper tells her not to take it. Laura finds Annie Blackburn next to her in bed, covered in blood. Annie tells Laura to write in her diary that "the good Dale is in the Lodge and can not leave ''. Laura sees the ring in her hand, but when she wakes up the next morning, it is gone.
The next evening, Laura goes to the Roadhouse to meet her drug connections and have sex with strange men. Unexpectedly, Donna shows up. They all go to the Pink Room. Laura discusses Teresa Banks 's murder with Ronette Pulaski, and Ronette says that Teresa was trying to blackmail someone. When she sees a topless Donna making out with a stranger, a distraught Laura takes her home and begs Donna not to become like her. The next morning, Philip Gerard, the one - armed man possessed by the repentant demon MIKE, in an attempt to warn Laura about her father and Bob, pulls up alongside Leland 's car and shows Teresa 's ring to Laura.
Leland recalls his affair with Teresa. He had asked Teresa to set up a foursome and invite some of her friends, but fled when he discovered Laura was among them. Teresa realized who he was and plotted to blackmail him, and he killed her to prevent his secrets from being revealed. Laura realizes that Mike 's ring was the one from her dream, and was also worn by Teresa. The next night, BOB comes through Laura 's window and begins to rape her, only to transform into Leland.
Upset, Laura uses more cocaine and has trouble concentrating at school. When Bobby realizes Laura is only using him to score cocaine, he breaks off their relationship. Laura then breaks up with James and goes to a cabin in the woods for an orgy with Ronette, Jacques and Leo. Leland follows her there and, after attacking Jacques and scaring away Leo, takes Laura and Ronette to an abandoned train car.
Laura asks Leland if he is going to kill her, but he transforms into BOB, who tells Laura that he intends to possess her. MIKE has tracked the BOB - possessed Leland to the train, but when Ronette tries to let him in, BOB beats her unconscious. Mike manages to throw in Teresa 's ring. Laura puts it on, which prevents BOB from possessing her. Enraged, BOB stabs Laura to death. The BOB - possessed Leland places Laura 's body in the lake.
As her corpse drifts away, the BOB - possessed Leland enters the Red Room, where he encounters MIKE and the Man from Another Place who announce they want their share of "garmonbozia. ''
As Laura 's body is found by the Sheriff 's department, Agent Cooper comforts her spirit in the Lodge and she sees an angel that had previously disappeared from her bedroom painting.
Lynch wanted to make a Twin Peaks film because, as he claimed in an interview, "I could n't get myself to leave the world of Twin Peaks. I was in love with the character of Laura Palmer and her contradictions: radiant on the surface but dying inside. I wanted to see her live, move and talk. I was in love with that world and I had n't finished with it. But making the movie was n't just to hold onto it; it seemed that there was more stuff that could be done '', and that he was "not yet finished with the material ''.
Actress Sheryl Lee, who played Laura Palmer, echoed these sentiments. "I never got to be Laura alive, just in flashbacks; it allowed me to come full circle with the character. '' According to Lynch, the movie is about "the loneliness, shame, guilt, confusion and devastation of the victim of incest. It also dealt with the torment of the father -- the war within him. '' Twin Peaks had been canceled only a month when David Lynch announced he would be making a film with French company CIBY - 2000 financing what would be the first film of a three - picture deal. But on July 11, 1991, Ken Scherer, CEO of Lynch / Frost productions, announced that the film was not going to be made because series star Kyle MacLachlan did not want to reprise his role of Special Agent Dale Cooper. A month later, MacLachlan had changed his mind and the film was back on.
The film was made without Twin Peaks series regulars Lara Flynn Boyle, Sherilyn Fenn, and Richard Beymer. At the time, these absences were attributed to scheduling conflicts, but in a 1995 interview, Fenn said that her real reason was that she "was extremely disappointed in the way the second season got off track. As far as Fire Walk with Me, it was something that I chose not to be a part of. '' In a 2014 interview, however, Fenn said that it was ultimately a scheduling conflict with Of Mice and Men that prevented her from committing to the film. Fenn 's character was cut from the script, Moira Kelly was cast as Donna, and Beymer 's scenes were not filmed. In a September 2007 interview, Beymer claimed that he did not appear in any scenes shot for the film, although his character, Benjamin Horne, appeared in the script.
MacLachlan 's reluctance was also caused by a decline of quality in the second season of the show. He said "David and Mark (Frost) were only around for the first season... I think we all felt a little abandoned. So I was fairly resentful when the film, Fire Walk with Me, came around. '' Although he agreed to be in the film, MacLachlan wanted a smaller role, forcing Lynch and co-writer Robert Engels to rewrite the screenplay so that Teresa Banks 's murder was investigated by Agent Chester Desmond and not by Cooper as originally planned. MacLachlan ended up working only five days on the movie.
Another missing figure from Twin Peaks was co-creator Mark Frost. The relationship between Lynch and Frost had become strained during the second season and after the series ended. Frost went on to direct his own film, Storyville (1992), and was unable to collaborate with Lynch on Fire Walk with Me.
David Bowie had this to say about his part of the film: "They crammed me. I did all my scenes in four or five days, because I was in rehearsals for the 1991 Tin Machine tour. I was there for only a few days. ''
Principal photography began on September 5, 1991 in Snoqualmie, Washington and lasted until October of the same year, with four weeks dedicated to locations in Washington and another four weeks of interiors and additional locations in Los Angeles, California. When shooting went over schedule in Seattle, Washington, Laura 's death in the train car had to be shot in Los Angeles on soundstage during the last day of shooting, October 31.
Several Twin Peaks regulars filmed scenes but were cut from the final version. These actors included Michael Ontkean (Harry S. Truman), Warren Frost (Will Hayward), Mary Jo Deschanel (Eileen Hayward), Everett McGill (Ed Hurley), Wendy Robie (Nadine Hurley), Jack Nance (Pete Martell), Joan Chen (Jocelyn Packard), Kimmy Robertson (Lucy Moran), Harry Goaz (Andy Brennan), Michael Horse (Tommy "Hawk '' Hill), Russ Tamblyn (Dr. Jacoby), Don S. Davis (Garland Briggs), and Charlotte Stewart (Betty Briggs). Their scenes are among The Missing Pieces, included on the Twins Peaks Blu - ray box set.
Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me received a reaction quite the contrary to the television series. The film was entered into the 1992 Cannes Film Festival, where it was met with almost unanimous negative reviews. There is a persistent story that the film was met with boos and hisses from the Cannes audience, though co-writer Robert Engels denies that this event ever happened and a contemporary news report only says there were some "hoots and whistles '' during a screening for critics and journalists.
According to Roger Ebert from the Chicago Sun - Times, the film was met with two extremes, one side being overall positive, while the other side being the exact opposite. Filmmaker Quentin Tarantino, who was also in attendance, said in a 1992 interview, "After I saw Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me at Cannes, David Lynch had disappeared so far up his own ass that I have no desire to see another David Lynch movie until I hear something different. And you know, I loved him. I loved him. ''
Even the CIBY - 2000 party at Cannes did not go well. According to Lynch, Francis Bouygues (then head of CIBY) was not well liked in France and this only added to the film 's demise at the festival. After the Cannes showing, Lynch said "It was a little bit of a sadness, (...) You 'd like to have everybody there, but their characters did n't have a bearing on the life of her (Laura Palmer) ''.
U.S. distributor New Line Cinema released the film in America on August 28, 1992. It grossed a total of US $ 1.8 million in 691 theaters in its opening weekend and went on to gross a total of $4.2 million in North America.
Despite its mixed critical and poor commercial response, Fire Walk with Me gained attention at awards time. The film was nominated for five Saturn Awards and two Independent Spirit Awards, including Sheryl Lee being nominated for Best Actress. The only awards won by the film were for Angelo Badalamenti 's musical score, which won a Spirit Award, a Saturn Award and a Brit Award.
Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream film critics, reported that there were "generally unfavorable reviews '', with an average score of 28 based on 16 reviews.
The film holds a 62 % rating on review aggregator Web site Rotten Tomatoes, with 39 of 63 critics giving the film a positive review. The site wrote of the critics ' consensus: "For better or worse, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me is every bit as strange and twisted as you 'd expect from David Lynch ''.
Most negative reviews came from American film critics. Among the negative reviews, Janet Maslin from The New York Times wrote, "Mr. Lynch 's taste for brain - dead grotesque has lost its novelty ''. Fellow Times film critic Vincent Canby concurred, "It 's not the worst movie ever made; it just seems to be ''. In his review for Variety magazine, Todd McCarthy said, "Laura Palmer, after all the talk, is not a very interesting or compelling character and long before the climax has become a tiresome teenager ''. USA Today gave the film one - and - a-half stars out of four, calling it, "a morbidly joyless affair ''. Rolling Stone magazine 's Peter Travers wrote, "though the movie ups the TV ante on nudity, language and violence, Lynch 's control falters. But if inspiration is lacking, talent is not. Count Lynch down but never out ''. In her review for The Washington Post, Rita Kempley described the film as a "perversely moving, profoundly self - indulgent prequel ''.
Most positive reviews came from British film critics, and later retrospective analysis. Mark Kermode noted that many have come to consider the film a "masterpiece ''. Among the positive reviews, Kim Newman from the British magazine Sight & Sound stated: "The film 's many moments of horror (...) demonstrate just how tidy, conventional and domesticated the generic horror movie of the 1980s and 1990s has become ''. Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine gave the film a four out of four stars, and the magazine later listed it in their ' 100 Essential Films ' list. Appearing on the podcast The Cinephiliacs, filmmaker James Gray called it "an incredible film, '' "a masterpiece, '' and "a classic example of how the critics get it wrong. '' Further speaking of Fire Walk with Me, he said, "I 've never seen a movie that 's been made in the last 30 years... have n't seen a movie in the last thirty years, in America, which so asks us to understand and be in the shoes of a person suffering so profoundly. It 's a thing of beauty. ''
In the book Lynch on Lynch, Chris Rodley described the film as "brilliant but excoriating '', writing that "by the time Lynch unveiled Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me in 1992, critical reaction had become hostile, and only now is the movie enjoying a degree of cautious but sympathetic critical re-evaluation. It is, undoubtedly, one of Lynch 's cruellest, bleakest neighbourhood visions, and even managed to displease die - hard fans of the series. (...) In exposing the very heart of the TV series, Lynch was forced to accept that he was unlikely to return to the town of Twin Peaks again. ''
Novelist David Foster Wallace, three years after the film 's release, wrote that the film 's "transformation of Laura from object / occasion to subject / person was actually the most morally ambitious thing a Lynch movie has ever tried to do... and it required complex and contradictory and probably impossible things from Ms. Lee, who in my opinion deserved an Oscar just for showing up and trying. ''
Lynch originally shot more than five hours of footage that was subsequently cut down to two hours and fourteen minutes. The footage nearly appeared on New Line Cinema 's Special Edition DVD in February 2002, but was nixed over budgetary and running - time concerns. The film was released on DVD in several other regions in the early 2000s as well, including the United Kingdom (Region 2) in 2001 and Australia (Region 4) in 2005.
Most of the deleted scenes feature additional characters from the television series who ultimately did not appear in the finished film. Lynch has said that "I had a limit on the running time of the picture. We shot many scenes that -- for a regular feature -- were too tangential to keep the main story progressing properly. We thought it might be good sometime to do a longer version with these other things in, because a lot of the characters that are missing in the finished movie had been filmed. They 're part of the picture, they 're just not necessary for the main story. '' According to Lynch, had the film included these scenes, it "would n't have been quite so dark. To me it obeyed the laws of Twin Peaks. But a little bit of the goofiness had to be removed. ''
In 2007, DVDrama.com reported that MK2 was in final negotiations with Lynch about a new two - disc special edition that would include seventeen deleted scenes hand - picked by the director himself. It had been tentatively scheduled for release on October 17, 2007, but MK2 subsequently opted instead to re-release a bare - bones edition of Fire Walk with Me, citing a new version including the deleted scenes has been put on hold indefinitely. In November 2008, Lynch said the following regarding the deleted scenes:
Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me is owned by a company called MK2 in France. And I spoke to them a couple of months ago. (...) I 've spoke to them several times about this. (...) I think it will happen, but maybe the financial crisis is (...) affecting that in some way. I 'm not sure what 's going on. I 'm pretty sure there 's seventeen scenes in that at least but it 's been a while since we 've looked into that.
Paramount Pictures, which has DVD distribution rights to the TV series, acquired the rights in Germany and most of the world excluding the US, UK, France and Canada. Paramount released their DVD in 2007. The DVD was a port straight from the MK2 French edition.
Fire Walk with Me was released on Blu - ray in France on November 3, 2010 by MK2.
The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray in Australia by Madman Entertainment on February 8, 2012, marking the 20th anniversary of the film 's theatrical release.
The film was also released on Blu - ray on June 4, 2012 in the UK by Universal UK Home Video, although it has been reported that the release suffers from defects in the audio track. The film has been released on Blu - ray in North America on July 29, 2014, as part of the Twin Peaks entire mystery Blu - ray collection, and contains more than 90 minutes of deleted and extended scenes from the film.
The film premiered on Showtime on March 1, 2017, in honor of the series continuation.
This film was released as part of the Criterion Collection, on both DVD and Blu - Ray Disc, on 17 October 2017.
According to cinematographer Ron Garcia, the film was popular in Japan, in particular with women, as Martha Nochimson wrote in her book on Lynch 's work, "he surmises that the enthusiasm of the Japanese women comes from a gratification of seeing in Laura some acknowledgment of their suffering in a repressive society. '' Released under the title Twin Peaks: The Last Seven Days of Laura Palmer, it was greeted with long lines of moviegoers at theaters.
In retrospect, Lynch has said, "I feel bad that Fire Walk with Me did no business and that a lot of people hate the film. But I really like the film. But it had a lot of baggage with it. It 's as free and as experimental as it could be within the dictates it had to follow. ''
Mary Sweeney, the film 's editor, said, "They so badly wanted it to be like the TV show, and it was n't. It was a David Lynch feature. And people were very angry about it. They felt betrayed. '' Sheryl Lee is very proud of the film, saying, "I have had many people, victims of incest, approach me since the film was released, so glad that it had been made because it helped them to release a lot. ''
After Fire Walk with Me was released, Lynch reportedly planned two more films that would have continued and then concluded the series ' narrative. But in a 2001 interview, he said that the Twin Peaks franchise is "dead as a doornail. '' In 2014, however, it was announced that the series would continue with Lynch involved. Lynch said that Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me is very important to understanding what 's coming. In 2017, the third season of the TV series was released. It depicts events which happen 25 years after the second season, and uses a lot of elements introduced in Fire Walk with Me.
The soundtrack to Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me was released on Warner Bros. Records on August 11, 1992. It includes music by Angelo Badalamenti, who had composed and conducted the music on the television series and its original soundtrack.
In addition to his instrumental compositions, Fire Walk with Me 's soundtrack features vocal accompaniment to Badalamenti 's songs by jazz vocalist Jimmy Scott and dream pop singer Julee Cruise. Badalamenti performs vocals on "A Real Indication '' and "The Black Dog Runs at Night '', two songs by the Thought Gang, a musical project between Badalamenti and David Lynch. Lynch wrote the lyrics for several of the soundtrack 's songs, including "Sycamore Trees '', "Questions in a World of Blue '', "A Real Indication '' and "The Black Dog Runs at Night '', and was the soundtrack 's producer alongside Badalamenti.
Upon its release, Fire Walk with Me 's soundtrack charted in the United States, peaking at number 173 on the Billboard 200. It was nominated for, and later received, the Best Music at the 1992 Saturn Awards and Best Original Score at the Independent Spirit Awards. In March 2011, British music publication NME placed Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me 's soundtrack at number 1 on their list of the 50 Best Film soundtracks Ever, describing it as "combining plangent beauty with a kind of clanking evil jazz, this is one of those endlessly evocative soundtracks that takes up residence in your subconscious and never leaves. ''
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when did the movie trading places come out | Trading Places - wikipedia
Trading Places is a 1983 American comedy film directed by John Landis, starring Dan Aykroyd and Eddie Murphy. It tells the story of an upper - class commodities broker and a homeless street hustler whose lives cross paths when they are unknowingly made part of an elaborate bet. Ralph Bellamy, Don Ameche, Denholm Elliott, and Jamie Lee Curtis also star. The storyline is often called a modern take on Mark Twain 's classic 19th - century novel The Prince and the Pauper.
The film was written by Timothy Harris and Herschel Weingrod and was produced by Aaron Russo. It was released to theaters in North America on June 8, 1983, where it was distributed by Paramount Pictures. The film earned over $90 million during its theatrical run in the United States, finishing as the fourth highest earning film of the year and the second highest earning R - rated film of 1983.
Denholm Elliott and Jamie Lee Curtis won the awards for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and Best Actress in a Supporting Role, respectively, at the 37th British Academy Film Awards. The film was nominated for several additional awards including Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy at the 41st Golden Globe Awards.
Duke brothers Randolph and Mortimer own a successful commodities brokerage in Philadelphia. Holding opposing views on the issue of nature versus nurture, they make a wager and agree to conduct an experiment switching the lives of two unwitting people at opposite sides of the social hierarchy and observing the results. They witness an encounter between their managing director -- the well - mannered and educated Louis Winthorpe III, engaged to the Dukes ' grand - niece Penelope -- and a poor street hustler named Billy Ray Valentine; Valentine is arrested at Winthorpe 's insistence because of a suspected robbery attempt. The Dukes decide to use the two men for their experiment.
Winthorpe is publicly framed as a thief, drug dealer and philanderer by Clarence Beeks at the request of the Dukes. Winthorpe is fired from Duke & Duke, his bank accounts are frozen, he is denied entry to his Duke - owned home, and he quickly finds himself vilified by Penelope and his former friends. He befriends Ophelia, a prostitute who agrees to help him in exchange for a financial reward once he is exonerated. Meanwhile, the Dukes bail Valentine out of jail, install him in Winthorpe 's former job and grant him use of Winthorpe 's home. Valentine soon becomes well - versed in the business using his street smarts to achieve success, and begins to act well - mannered.
During the firm 's Christmas party, Winthorpe is caught planting drugs in Valentine 's desk in an attempt to frame him, and he brandishes a gun to escape. Later, the Dukes discuss their experiment and settle their wager for one dollar, before plotting to return Valentine to the streets. Valentine overhears the conversation, and seeks out Winthorpe, who attempts suicide by overdosing on pills. Valentine, Ophelia and Winthorpe 's butler Coleman nurse him back to health and inform him of the Dukes ' experiment. On television, they learn that Clarence Beeks is transporting a secret USDA report on orange crop forecasts. Winthorpe and Valentine recall large payments made to Beeks by the Dukes and realize that the Dukes plan to obtain the report to corner the market on frozen orange juice.
On New Year 's Eve, the four board Beeks ' Philadelphia - bound train, intending to switch the original report with a forgery that predicts low orange crop yields. Beeks uncovers their scheme and attempts to kill them, but he is knocked unconscious by a gorilla being transported on the train. The four disguise Beeks with a gorilla costume and cage him with the real gorilla. After delivering the forged report to the Dukes in Beeks ' place, Valentine and Winthorpe travel to New York City with Coleman 's and Ophelia 's life savings to carry out their part of the plan.
On the commodities trading floor, the Dukes commit all their holdings to buying frozen concentrated orange - juice futures contracts; other traders follow their lead, inflating the price. Meanwhile, Valentine and Winthorpe sell futures heavily at the inflated price. Following the broadcast of the actual crop report and its prediction of a normal forecast, the price of orange - juice futures plummets. Valentine and Winthorpe close their futures position by buying futures at the lower price from everyone but the Dukes, turning a large profit. The Dukes fail to meet a margin call, and are left owing $394 million. Valentine and Winthorpe explain to the Dukes that they had made a wager on whether they could simultaneously get rich while making the Dukes poor. Valentine collects $1 from Winthorpe while Randolph collapses holding his chest and Mortimer shouts angrily at his brother about their failed plan. Later, the now wealthy Valentine, Winthorpe, Ophelia, and Coleman vacation on a tropical beach, while Beeks and the gorilla are loaded onto a ship heading for Africa.
The cast also includes Robert Curtis - Brown as Todd, Winthorpe 's romantic rival for Penelope; James Belushi as Harvey, a party - goer on New Year 's Eve; Jamie Lee Curtis ' sister Kelly Curtis cameos as Penelope 's friend Muffy; Frank Oz as a police officer; James Eckhouse as a police officer; Muppet performer Richard Hunt as Wilson; and Bo Diddley as a pawnbroker. Tom Davis and Al Franken, also Saturday Night Live cast members, cameo as train baggage handlers.
The storyline of Trading Places -- a member of society trading places with another whose socio - economic status stands in direct contrast to his own -- often draws comparisons to Mark Twain 's novel The Prince and the Pauper. First published in 1881, the novel follows the lives of a prince and a beggar -- both of them of adolescent age -- who use their uncanny resemblance to each other as a premise to switch places temporarily; the prince takes on a life of poverty and misery while the pauper enjoys the lavish luxuries of a royal life. Parallels have also been drawn between Trading Places and Mozart 's 18th century comic opera The Marriage of Figaro in which a servant (Figaro) foils the plans of his rich master who tried to steal Figaro 's bride to be. The music from The Marriage of Figaro is used as a cinematic narrative in the film when the viewers are introduced to the daily routine of protagonist Louis Winthorpe 's privileged life with the opera 's overture playing in the background. The work also takes inspiration from Twain 's The Million Pound Bank Note.
American philosopher and professor at Harvard University Stanley Cavell wrote about Trading Places in his 2005 book Cavell on Film. Cavell postulates that film is sometimes used as a new technology in the production and experience of an opera. He explains that this axiom asserts its importance not in the fact that "our time '' sees an increased expectation of new operas being developed but, rather, in the fact that there is an increased expectation of "new productions of operas. '' Cavell draws a comparison of themes between Trading Places and the opera The Marriage of Figaro, stating that "what Trading Places wants from its reference to Figaro is mostly the idea of resourceful and sociable young and poor overcoming with various disguises the conniving of the unsociable old and rich but with no sense that the old may be redeemed by a recognition of their faults and no revolutionary desire to see the world formed on a new basis. ''
David Budd, in his 2002 book Culture Meets Culture in the Movies, writes about the experiences of characters when the expected roles of races in society are sometimes reversed. The 1995 fiction film White Man 's Burden and John Howard Griffin 's factual book Black Like Me are used as a foundation to show how different the experience of white people can be when subjected to the prejudices faced by black people. In that respect, Budd proclaims Trading Places as "uncannily illustrative if heavy - handed ''. Beginning from the premise that, in the film, the "expectations of the races also stand upon their head '', Budd states that "through even a highly comedic vessel a message loudly asking for a reassessment of prejudice, and for level playing fields, is heard. ''
Trading Places was released theatrically in the United States on June 10, 1983. During its opening weekend, the film earned $7.3 million from 1,375 theaters -- an average of $5,334 per theater -- ranking as the third highest - grossing film of the weekend, behind Octopussy ($8.9 million) -- debuting the same weekend -- and Return of the Jedi ($12 million).
The film remained in the top ten grossing films for 17 weeks. It went on to earn $90.4 million during its U.S. theatrical run, making it the 4th highest - grossing film of 1983, behind Flashdance ($92.9 million), Terms of Endearment ($108.4 million) and Return of the Jedi ($252.5 million), and the second highest grossing R - rated film of 1983, behind Flashdance. Adjusted for inflation, the film remains the number 58 highest - grossing R - rated film of all time.
Trading Places was met with positive reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 86 %, based on 42 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3 out of 10. The site 's consensus states: "Featuring deft interplay between Eddie Murphy and Dan Aykroyd, Trading Places is an immensely appealing social satire. '' Metacritic gave the film a score of 66 out of 100, based on 9 critics, which indicates "generally favorable reviews ''.
Author and critic Richard Schickel of Time magazine called Trading Places "one of the most emotionally satisfying and morally gratifying comedies of recent times ''. While admitting Aykroyd 's success in demonstrating "perfect prissiness as Winthorpe '', Schickel commented on Murphy 's performance as Valentine calling Murphy "a force to be reckoned with '' and stating that he "makes Trading Places something more than a good - hearted comedy. He turns it into an event. '' Film critic Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars out of four, while offering that the film resembles Tootsie and comparing it to comedies of Frank Capra and Preston Sturges. Ebert stated "This is good comedy ''; he described the characters as "wonderful comic inventions '' that rose above what could have been stereotypes due to the actors ' skill and explained that the comedy is successful because it "develops the quirks and peculiarities of its characters, so that they 're funny because of who they are. '' He further commented on the cast by favorably commenting on acting as "engaging '', stating that "Murphy and Aykroyd are perfect foils for each other '', that they 're both capable of being "specifically eccentric '', that "they both play characters with a lot of native intelligence '' and concluding that "It 's fun to watch them thinking. '' Commenting on Bellamy and Ameche in the roles of the Duke brothers, Ebert called their involvement in the film "a masterstroke of casting. ''
Janet Maslin of The New York Times repeated some of Roger Ebert 's sentiments stating that "Preston Sturges might have made a movie like Trading Places - if he 'd had a little less inspiration and a lot more money. '' She, again, also commended the cast by calling it "well - chosen '', commenting on Murphy and Aykroyd as "the two actors best suited '', stating that the Duke brothers were "played delightfully '' by Ameche and Bellamy and -- concluding that "the supporting cast is also quite good '' -- praising Curtis for managing "to turn a hard - edged, miniskirted prostitute into a character of unexpected charm. '' Jay Carr of The Boston Globe called it "easily the best of the movies I 've seen by the various Saturday Night Live alumni. '' Empire magazine awarded the film a rating of four stars out of five, classifying Trading Places as "Excellent '' per the magazine 's star rating system, stating that Murphy and Aykroyd are the show - stealers. A review of the film published by Variety magazine called the film "a light romp geared up by the schtick shifted by Dan Aykroyd and Eddie Murphy. '' The review gave further commendations to supporting actors, stating that Murphy and Aykroyd "could n't have brought this one off without the contributions of three veterans - Ralph Bellamy, Don Ameche and the droll Englishman, Denholm Elliott '' and calling the presence of Jamie Lee Curtis "enjoyable. ''
The film received several award nominations in 1984 including an Academy Award, two Golden Globes, and three BAFTA awards. Elliott and Curtis attracted the film 's two wins, earning respectively, the BAFTA award for Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress.
A score album was released by La - La Land Records on October 11, 2011 and was limited to 2000 copies. The album features Elmer Bernstein 's Oscar - nominated score, as well as the source material that he wrote and arranged, including traditional Christmas carols that appear in the film. A significant portion of Bernstein 's music is based on Mozart 's music from The Marriage of Figaro. "Do Ya Wanna Funk, '' a hit song by Sylvester featured in the movie, was omitted from the album. The song "The Loco - Motion '' by Little Eva is also heard on the train scene and is credited on the film.
Almost 30 years after its release, the plot for the movie was part of the inspiration for new regulations on the financial markets. On March 3, 2010, Commodity Futures Trading Commission chief Gary Gensler stated, in testimony he gave to the 111th Congress: "We have recommended banning using misappropriated government information to trade in the commodity markets. In the movie Trading Places, starring Eddie Murphy, the Duke brothers intended to profit from trades in frozen concentrated orange juice futures contracts using an illicitly obtained and not yet public Department of Agriculture orange crop report. ''
The "Eddie Murphy Rule '', as it came to be known, later came into effect as Section 136 of the Wall Street Transparency and Accountability Act of the Dodd - Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, under Section 746, which dealt with insider trading.
In Italy the movie has become a Christmas classic, being broadcast by Italian television every year, from December 24, 1997.
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long range and short range planning in hris | Long - range planning - wikipedia
Formalized long - range business planning, in particular that taught as a discipline in business schools or just reported in business books, has a history that goes back to the mid 20th century.
The post-1945 boom in business theory led, in the 1950s and 1960s, to a focus on forecasting as a major component of planning. The principle then adopted was that existing trends could be extrapolated into the medium - and long - term future. The techniques were mainly numerical, and largely based on time - series analysis; though regression analysis, for investigating historical trends, eventually also emerged as a much reported technique. The seemingly mathematical accuracy of the techniques was seductive and, in the relatively stable decade of the 1960s, it often appeared that they worked well, even in the longer term.
The 1970s brought an end to this stability, most notably in the repercussions of the ending of the Bretton Woods agreement on currency stability closely followed by the oil shock of 1973. The emphasis moved to the development of alternative forecasts. The attempt then was to see what the possible range of alternative futures might be, so that contingency plans could be laid to handle whatever occurred in practice. It was the decade of the futurologists, led by the group at SRI (Stanford Research Institute) and, in particular, publicized by Herman Kahn (of the Hudson Institute).
The optimism of these futurologists, even if just in their focus on the future, was overtaken by the pessimism of the 1980s. Even during the 1970s the Club of Rome 's report (forecasting the problems posed by population growth at the same time as the depletion of natural resources) was already offering a very pessimistic, indeed alarmist alternative.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), reporting at the end of the 1980s, described the international scene in terms of:
The result was that many organizations reverted to planning only for the relatively short term, if at all. The optimism of the futurologists was judged to be out of step with the gloomier mood of the times. Planning horizons, even for some of the more sophisticated organizations, shrank from ten years to five to three. Most concentrated once more on the one - year (budgetary) planning cycle they knew and understood.
Indeed, there are practical limits to the resources which can be devoted to long - range planning. It can be a time - consuming process absorbing large resources of money and people, which many organizations do not have (or are unwilling to make available). In too many organizations, however, it is also constrained by ignorance or indifference. With very few exceptions, both long - term and short - term planning are needed for successful corporate management.
As the experiences of the 1970s and 1980s showed, unpredictable changes can be very disorienting. These major changes, usually discontinuities referred to as fractures in the environment rather than trends, will largely determine the long - term future of the organization. They need to be handled, as opportunities, as positively as possible.
While horizons of many corporations have grown shorter, some industries still require long term decision - making by the nature of their work. Examples include energy companies which need to take a view about energy prices over two decades ahead in calculating the potential returns from investing in a new oil field, and the pharmaceutical industry where it can take up to fifteen years to bring a drug to market, requiring a view about what health service demand will be for such a treatment some twenty years hence, and whether governments will be likely to pay for it.
Proactive management is fundamental to leadership. Take hold of the future or the future will take hold of you.
In looking to the future managers have to deal with uncertainty. Indeed, the processes involved largely aim to identify these uncertainties and manage their impact on the organization. In this context, there are (using the terminology of Kees van der Heijden) three main types of uncertainty:
Managers are well used to handling ' ordinary ' risks and regularly come into contact with such risks and, indeed, this is one aspect of entrepreneurial activity managers are supposed to even relish. Where no probable pattern of outcomes can be derived from previous experience the decisions involved become much more a matter of judgement; and this is the area where scenario planning can make a major contribution.
Unknowables are, by definition, unknown, so nothing can be done about them in advance; except develop the ability to react rapidly to them.
In the shorter term, there is often confusion between budgeting and forecasting. They are sometimes used interchangeably, but should be distinguished as shown below:
In theory, if not in practice, the unbiased forecast (albeit usually based upon hidden assumptions) should be an input into the subsequent budget, which is then a measure of where the organization intends to go -- and indeed is targeted to go! Many so - called forecasts prepared by organizations should, therefore, more correctly be called budgets.
This represents not just a dispute about terminology, but a major problem of confused attitudes. The forecast is the basis for planning, and has to be as accurate and unbiased as possible. The budget is directly linked to implementation and to accountability by management: it has to be practical and achievable. The requirements of the two are, therefore, very different; to confuse them weakens both processes. As soon as the organization introduces a bias resulting from this budgeting element the subsequent forecasts become less independent -- the relationships between the elements more complex, the assumptions more clouded, and the figures less easily understood by the participants.
A further problem with the organizational dynamics of forecasting is the adaptation of forecasts to changed circumstances in the external environment. It is often assumed that forecasts are immutable: the annual forecast is to be renewed in 12 months ' time, and not a moment earlier; the five - year plan will only be replaced in five years ' time. It is felt an admission of failure if such forecasts have to be changed. This is understandable where these so - called forecasts are actually targets to which the organization is committed.
But clearly true forecasts (as opposed to budgets or targets) should be amended as and when the environment changes. The best managed organizations probably have a quarterly review of their annual forecast (and associated budgets), so that forecasts for the remaining quarters can be based on the latest information. The most sophisticated indulge in rolling forecasts whereby at each quarter a full year ahead is forecast -- in other words a new fourth quarter is added to the plan. This takes much of the drama out of the annual planning cycle, and means that there is not a period in the year when the forecast may only cover a matter of days. This can happen, and often does, if the new annual forecast is only agreed in December, to cover January onwards!
Even five - year forecasts may need to change quite dramatically each time they are reviewed, in this case typically on an annual basis. Over the preceding year it is more than likely that the external environment, as well as the organization 's own internal environment, will have changed significantly -- and in ways that were not predicted. The overall economy will have changed direction, competitors will have changed strategies, consumers will have changed their tastes. The new five - year plan has to take all this into account.
The position may be different in the case of long - range planning, since it may look decades ahead. The effort involved in such a process may mean that such forecasts are repeated less frequently; typically every three to four years, rather than three to four times a year. This is acceptable when the time horizon is two decades or more -- since any interim changes are unlikely to have direct impact on the shorter - term budgets -- though any major changes detected should, even so, prompt an immediate review.
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difference between equity and non equity entry modes | Foreign market entry modes - Wikipedia
Foreign market entry modes or participation strategies differ in the degree of risk they present, the control and commitment of resources they require, and the return on investment they promise.
There are two major types of market entry modes: equity and non-equity modes. The non-equity modes category includes export and contractual agreements. The equity modes category includes: joint venture and wholly owned subsidiaries.
Exporting is the process of selling of goods and services produced in one country to other countries.
There are two types of exporting: direct and indirect.
Direct exports represent the most basic mode of exporting made by a (holding) company, capitalizing on economies of scale in production concentrated in the home country and affording better control over distribution. Direct export works the best if the volumes are small. Large volumes of export may trigger protectionism. The main characteristic of direct exports entry model is that there are no intermediaries.
Passive exports represent the treating and filling overseas orders like domestic orders.
Indirect export is the process of exporting through domestically based export intermediaries. The exporter has no control over its products in the foreign market.
Companies that seriously consider international markets as a crucial part of their success would likely consider direct exporting as the market entry tool. Indirect exporting is preferred by companies who would want to avoid financial risk as a threat to their other goals.
An international licensing agreement allows foreign firms, either exclusively or non-exclusively to manufacture a proprietor 's product for a fixed term in a specific market.
In this foreign market entry mode, a licensor in the home country makes limited rights or resources available to the licensee in the host country. The rights or resources may include patents, trademarks, managerial skills, technology, and others that can make it possible for the licensee to manufacture and sell in the host country a similar product to the one the licensor has already been producing and selling in the home country without requiring the licensor to open a new operation overseas. The licensor earnings usually take forms of one time payments, technical fees and royalty payments usually calculated as a percentage of sales.
As in this mode of entry the transference of knowledge between the parental company and the licensee is strongly present, the decision of making an international license agreement depend on the respect the host government show for intellectual property and on the ability of the licensor to choose the right partners and avoid them to compete in each other market. Licensing is a relatively flexible work agreement that can be customized to fit the needs and interests of both, licensor and licensee.
Following are the main advantages and reasons to use an international licensing for expanding internationally:
On the other hand, international licensing is a foreign market entry mode that presents some disadvantages and reasons why companies should not use it as:
The franchising system can be defined as: "A system in which semi-independent business owners (franchisees) pay fees and royalties to a parent company (franchiser) in return for the right to become identified with its trademark, to sell its products or services, and often to use its business format and system. ''
Compared to licensing, franchising agreements tends to be longer and the franchisor offers a broader package of rights and resources which usually includes: equipment, managerial systems, operation manual, initial trainings, site approval and all the support necessary for the franchisee to run its business in the same way it is done by the franchisor. In addition to that, while a licensing agreement involves things such as intellectual property, trade secrets and others while in franchising it is limited to trademarks and operating know - how of the business.
Advantages of the international franchising mode:
Disadvantages of franchising to the franchisor:
A turnkey project refers to a project when clients pay contractors to design and construct new facilities and train personnel. A turnkey project is a way for a foreign company to export its process and technology to other countries by building a plant in that country. Industrial companies that specialize in complex production technologies normally use turnkey projects as an entry strategy.
One of the major advantages of turnkey projects is the possibility for a company to establish a plant and earn profits in a foreign country especially in which foreign direct investment opportunities are limited and lack of expertise in a specific area exists.
Potential disadvantages of a turnkey project for a company include risk of revealing companies secrets to rivals, and takeover of their plant by the host country. Entering a market with a turnkey project CAN prove that a company has no long - term interest in the country which can become a disadvantage if the country proves to be the main market for the output of the exported process.
A wholly owned subsidiary includes two types of strategies: Greenfield investment and Acquisitions. Greenfield investment and acquisition include both advantages and disadvantages. To decide which entry modes to use is depending on situations.
Greenfield investment is the establishment of a new wholly owned subsidiary. It is often complex and potentially costly, but it is able to provide full control to the firm and has the most potential to provide above average return. "Wholly owned subsidiaries and expatriate staff are preferred in service industries where close contact with end customers and high levels of professional skills, specialized know how, and customization are required. '' Greenfield investment is more likely preferred where physical capital intensive plants are planned. This strategy is attractive if there are no competitors to buy or the transfer competitive advantages that consists of embedded competencies, skills, routines, and culture.
Greenfield investment is high risk due to the costs of establishing a new business in a new country. A firm may need to acquire knowledge and expertise of the existing market by third parties, such consultant, competitors, or business partners. This entry strategy takes much time due to the need of establishing new operations, distribution networks, and the necessity to learn and implement appropriate marketing strategies to compete with rivals in a new market.
Acquisition has become a popular mode of entering foreign markets mainly due to its quick access Acquisition strategy offers the fastest, and the largest, initial international expansion of any of the alternative.
Acquisition has been increasing because it is a way to achieve greater market power. The market share usually is affected by market power. Therefore, many multinational corporations apply acquisitions to achieve their greater market power, which require buying a competitor, a supplier, a distributor, or a business in highly related industry to allow exercise of a core competency and capture competitive advantage in the market.
Acquisition is lower risk than Greenfield investment because of the outcomes of an acquisition can be estimated more easily and accurately. In overall, acquisition is attractive if there are well established firms already in operations or competitors want to enter the region.
On the other hand, there are many disadvantages and problems in achieving acquisition success.
However, some industries benefit more from globalization than do others, and some nations have a comparative advantage over other nations in certain industries. To create a successful global strategy, managers first must understand the nature of global industries and the dynamics of global competition, international strategy (i.e. internationally scattered subsidiaries act independently and operate as if they were local companies, with minimum coordination from the parent company) and global strategy (leads to a wide variety of business strategies, and a high level of adaptation to the local business environment). Basically there are three key differences between them. Firstly, it relates to the degree of involvement and coordination from the Centre. Moreover, the difference relates to the degree of product standardization and responsiveness to local business environment. The last is that difference has to do with strategy integration and competitive moves.
There are five common objectives in a joint venture: market entry, risk / reward sharing, technology sharing and joint product development, and conforming to the government regulations. Other benefits include political connections and distribution channel access that may depend on relationships. Such alliances often are favourable when:
The key issues to consider in a joint venture are ownership, control, length of agreement, pricing, technology transfer, local firm capabilities and resources, and government intentions. Potential problems include:
Joint ventures have conflicting pressures to cooperate and compete:
strategic alliance is a type of cooperative agreements between different firms, such as shared research, formal joint ventures, or minority equity participation. The modern form of strategic alliances is becoming increasingly popular and has three distinguishing characteristics:
Some advantages of a strategic alliance include:
In terms on risk reduction, in strategic alliances no one firm bears the full risk, and cost of, a joint activity. This is extremely advantageous to businesses involved in high risk / cost activities such as R&D. This is also advantageous to smaller organizations which are more affected by risky activities.
Some strategic alliances involve firms that are in fierce competition outside the specific scope of the alliance. This creates the risk that one or both partners will try to use the alliance to create an advantage over the other. The benefits of this alliance may cause unbalance between the parties, there are several factors that may cause this asymmetry:
Some more like compatibility between operating policies (Lilley and Willianms, 1991), trust and commitment (Lilley and Willianms, 1991), compatible management styles (Geringer and Michael, 1988), mutual dependency (Lilley and Willianms, 1991), communications barriers (Lilley and Willianms, 1991) and avoid anchor partners (Geringer and Michael, 1988) are also important for partner selection but less important than the first four.
Political issues will be faced mostly by the companies who want to enter a country that with unsustainable political environment (Parboteeah and Cullen, 2011). A political decisions will affect the business environment in a country and affect the profitability of the business in the country (Click, 2005). Organizations with investments in such opaque countries as Zimbabwe, Myanmar, and Vietnam have long - term experiences about how the political risk affects their business behaviors (Harvard Business Review, 2014).
The following are the examples of political issues:
1. The politically jailing of Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the business giant, in Russia (Wade, 2005); 2. The "Open - door '' policy of China (Deng, 2001); 3. The Ukraine disputed elections resulting in the uncertain president recent years (Harvard Business Review, 2014); 4. The corrupt legal system in many countries, such as Russia (Samara, 2008)
The following introductions were based on the statement of Hollensen:
Besides these three rules, managers have their own ways to select entry modes. If the company could not generate a mature market research, the manager tend to choose the entry modes most suitable for the industry or make decisions by intuition.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is an important factor for a country 's economic growth especially in its impacts on transmission of technology and developments in management and marketing strategies. FDI takes place when a firm acquires ownership control of a production unit in a foreign country.
According to the content there are basically three forms of FDI: establishing new branch, acquiring control share of an existing firm, and participating jointly in a domestic firm. As Albanian economy has changed from a centrally planned to a market oriented one, FDI is seen as an important component of the transition process toward a market - led economic system, since it contributes to the development of a country through multiple channels (Kukeli, et al., 2006; Kukeli, 2007). In their study, a limited number of successful mobile networks entry cases have been selected for deep investigation of entry models in Albania, to find out the most important and efficient determinants of foreign mobile networks entry into Albania 's telecommunication market in the future as well. It provides a successful Albanian business experience for the new comers in mobile telecommunications industry. With its developing market economy, Albania offers many opportunities for investors - property as labour costs are low, the young and educated population is ready to work, and tariffs and other legal restrictions are low in many cases and are being eliminated in some others (Albinvest, 2010). Location of Albania in itself offers a notable trade potential, especially with EU markets, since it shares borders with Greece and Italy. In the last years Albania has entered the free trade agreements with Balkan Countries creating the opportunity for trade throughout the region. As Albanian economy tends to grow, the prospects and opportunities of multinational enterprises (MNEs) to invest in Albania for a long - term period has increased also. However, after the transition to democracy since 1992, the country has taken a long way in terms of economic, political and social life (Ministry of Economy 2004, p. 9 - 10). Demirel (2008) finds all of these changes to form the strengths of Albania in terms of FDI. In his study Demirel (2008) emphasizes that Albania has one of the most friendly investment environments in the region of the South - Eastern European Countries (SEECs) with her impressive economic performance in the last decade, liberal economic legislation, rapid privatisation process and country specific advantages. By taking into account all of these factors, the aim of this study is to offer a new perspective by the case studies of foreign telecommunications companies, which form the majority of MNEs in this field, by finding the most significant determinants before entering into Albania, with a successful entry strategy and crucial consideration of FDI in Albania. It is crucially important to find the determinants and factors that affect multinational firms when deciding on their entry modes, in order to successfully compete in the Albanian mobile telecoms industry. There are four operators in these industries; two of the leading firms expand rapidly in Albania by utilizing successful and aggressive entry strategies, and the other ones are new entries in Albanian market. Lin (2008) emphasizes that the evaluation of the entry modes ' determinants is better to be applied in some main theories and models such as transaction cost theory, eclectic theory and internationalization model, which serve as theoretical foundation in these kind of studies, where host - country condition, political and economic context, and organization capabilities are important factors and require major consideration.
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who got the keys to my bimmer meaning | Who Am I (Sim Simma) - wikipedia
"Who Am I (Sim Simma) '', or simply "Who Am I '', is a reggae single released by dancehall artist Beenie Man in 1998. It is the second track on his album Many Moods of Moses released in 1997.
The song is based on the "Playground '' riddim (instrumental accompaniment), which was produced by Jeremy Harding, then DJ NuMark. According to Harding, "Beenie Man had heard the riddim ' Playground ' on several occasions and loved it. He had even written a tune already when he arrived at the studio to voice without any prior notice. I heard a knocking one morning... and could n't believe when I saw Beenie Man sitting outside complaining about how long they had been banging down the door. I turned on the equipment, and he went straight into the booth to record a perfect version of "Who Am I '' in what seemed like one take. ''
The track helped to introduce Beenie Man to the world as a new reggae star in the pages of Newsweek and other major media outlets. He used a portion of this song in his reggae fusion single "Girls Dem Sugar '' featuring Mýa which was released in 2000.
The song reached # 10 in the UK Singles Chart and was his first top 40 hit in the UK. On the US Billboard charts, the song reached No. 6 on their Hot Rap Singles chart. On the Hot R&B singles chart, the song reached No. 15.
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where is the petrol tank in a car | Fuel tank - wikipedia
A fuel tank (or petrol tank) is a safe container for flammable fluids. Though any storage tank for fuel may be so called, the term is typically applied to part of an engine system in which the fuel is stored and propelled (fuel pump) or released (pressurized gas) into an engine. Fuel tanks range in size and complexity from the small plastic tank of a butane lighter to the multi-chambered cryogenic Space Shuttle external tank.
Typically, a fuel tank must allow or provide the following:
Plastic (high - density polyethylene HDPE) as a fuel tank material of construction, while functionally viable in the short term, has a long term potential to become saturated as fuels such as diesel and gasoline permeate the HDPE material.
Considering the inertia and kinetic energy of fuel in a plastic tank being transported by a vehicle, environmental stress cracking is a definite potential. The flammability of fuel makes stress cracking a possible cause of catastrophic failure. Emergencies aside, HDPE plastic is suitable for short term storage of diesel and gasoline. In the U.S., Underwriters Laboratories approved (UL 142) tanks would be a minimum design consideration.
While most tanks are manufactured, some fuel tanks are still fabricated by metal craftsmen or hand - made in the case of bladder - style tanks. These include custom and restoration tanks for automotive, aircraft, motorcycles, and even tractors. Construction of fuel tanks follows a series of specific steps. The craftsman generally creates a mockup to determine the accurate size and shape of the tank, usually out of foam board. Next, design issues that affect the structure of the tank are addressed - such as where the outlet, drain, fluid level indicator, seams, and baffles go. Then the craftsmen must determine the thickness, temper and alloy of the sheet he will use to make the tank. After the sheet is cut to the shapes needed, various pieces are bent to create the basic shell and / or ends and baffles for the tank. Many fuel tanks ' baffles (particularly in aircraft and racecars) contain lightening holes. These flanged holes serve two purposes, they reduce the weight of the tank while adding strength to the baffles. Toward the end of construction, openings are added for the filler neck, fuel pickup, drain, and fuel - level sending unit. Sometimes these holes are created on the flat shell, other times they are added at the end of the fabrication process. Baffles and ends can be riveted into place. The heads of the rivets are frequently brazed or soldered to prevent tank leaks. Ends can then be hemmed in and soldered, or flanged and brazed (and / or sealed with an epoxy - type sealant) or the ends can be flanged and then welded. Once the soldering, brazing or welding is complete, the fuel tank is leak - tested.
The maximum distance a combustion - engine powered car with a full tank can cover is the product of the tank capacity and its fuel efficiency (as in miles per gallon). While larger tanks increase the maximum distance, they also take up more space and (especially when full) add to the total weight, requiring higher fuel consumption for the same performance. Fuel - tank capacity is therefore the result of a trade - off in design considerations. For most compact cars, the capacity is in the range 45 -- 65 litres (12 -- 17 US gal); the original model Tata Nano is exceptional with its 15 litres (4 US gal) fuel tank. SUVs and trucks tend to have considerably larger fuel tanks.
For each new vehicle a specific fuel system is developed, to optimize the use of available space. Moreover, for one car model, different fuel system architectures are developed, depending on the type of the car, the type of fuel (gasoline or diesel), nozzle models, and region.
Two technologies are used to make fuel tanks for automobiles:
Modern cars often feature remote opening of the fuel tank fuel filler flap using an electric motor or cable release. For both convenience and security, many modern fuel tanks can not be opened by hand or otherwise from the outside of the car.
Sometimes called the reserve tank is a secondary fuel tank (in many cars / bikes it contains around 15 % of the capacity of the primary tank) these are more commonly found on bikes, older cars (some without a fuel gauge) and vehicles designed for long distance or special use. A light on the instrument panel indicates when the fuel level dips below a certain point in the tank. There is no current standard, although some efforts are made to collect this data for all automobiles.
In vehicles modified for endurance the primary tank (the one that comes with the car) is made into a reserve tank and a larger one installed. Some 4x4 vehicles can be fitted with a secondary (or sub-tank) by the dealership.
The ship in a bottle fuel tank is a manufacturing design developed by TI Automotive in Rastatt, Germany wherein all fuel delivery components including the pump, control electronics and most hosing are encased within a blow - molded plastic fuel tank, and named after the traditional ship - in - a-bottle mechanical puzzle. The technique was developed to reduce fuel vapor emissions in response to Partial Zero - Emission Vehicle (PZEV) requirements. The first application was for the 2005 Ford GT.
A racing fuel cell has a rigid outer shell and flexible inner lining to minimize the potential for punctures in the event of a collision or other mishap resulting in serious damage to the vehicle. It is filled with an open - cell foam core to prevent explosion of vapor in the empty portion of the tank and to minimize sloshing of fuel during competition that may unbalance the vehicle or cause inadequate fuel delivery to the motor (fuel starvation). The designation "racing '' is often omitted due to familiarity and because this type of gas tank is also used on street vehicles. The omission can lead to confusion with other types of fuel cells. See Fuel cell (disambiguation).
For safety considerations, in modern cars the fuel tank is usually located ahead of the rear axle, out of the crumple zones of the car.
Automobiles such as the Ford Pinto or the models that still use the Ford Panther platform (Ford Crown Victoria, Lincoln Town Car, and Mercury Grand Marquis) are notorious for having the fuel tank behind the rear axle. Since 1980 new Ford models corrected this problem and had the fuel tank in front of the rear axle.
General Motors 1973 - 1987 C / K pickup trucks have the fuel tank located outside the frame. According to the Center for Auto Safety this creates a fire hazard. In automotive applications, improper placement of the fuel tank has led to increased probability of fire in collisions. Circa 1990, General Motors faced over a hundred product liability lawsuits related to fires allegedly caused by GM 's decision to place the fuel tanks in its pickup trucks outside the protection of the vehicle 's frame. In 1993, reportage on this matter for NBC News created a scandal over vehicles rigged to catch fire for the television camera.
Ford 's Pinto also sparked controversy for putting the fuel tank in a poorly reinforced area which can cause deadly fires and explosions if the car got into a rear - end collision, costing Ford US $ 125 million.
Likewise for safety reasons, the filler could no longer be in the middle back of the car in the crumple zone and thus had to be on the side of the car. Which side is a series of trade - offs: driver 's side is easier to access, and mechanically simpler for gas cap locks; passenger side is safer (away from passing traffic in roadside fill - ups). Asymmetric sliding doors may also dictate placement and some minivan doors will collide with a fillup in progress.
Aircraft typically use three types of fuel tanks: integral, rigid removable, and bladder.
Fuel tanks have been implicated in aviation disasters, being the cause of the accident or worsening it (fuel tank explosion). For example:
In some areas, an aircraft 's fuel tank is also referred to as an aircraft fuel cell.
Water supply systems can have primary or backup power supplied by diesel - fueled generators fed by a small "day tank '' and a much larger bulk storage fuel tank.
Proper design and construction of a fuel tank play a major role in the safety of the system of which the tank is a part. In most cases intact fuel tanks are very safe, as the tank is full of fuel vapour / air mixture that is well above the flammability limits, and thus can not burn even if an ignition source were present (which is rare).
Bunded oil tanks are used for safely storing domestic heating oil and other hazardous materials. Bunding is often required by insurance companies, rather than single skinned oil storage tanks.
Several systems, such as BattleJacket and rubber bladders, have been developed and deployed for use in protecting (from explosion caused by enemy fire) the fuel tanks of military vehicles in conflict zones.
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who wrote the song i hear you knocking | I Hear You Knocking - wikipedia
"I Hear You Knocking '' (or "I Hear You Knockin ' '') is a rhythm and blues song written by Dave Bartholomew. New Orleans rhythm and blues singer Smiley Lewis first recorded the song in 1955. The lyrics tell of the return of a former lover who is rebuffed and Huey "Piano '' Smith provided the prominent piano accompaniment in the style associated with Fats Domino.
"I Hear You Knocking '' reached number two on the Billboard R&B singles chart in 1955, making it Lewis 's most popular and best - known song. Subsequently, numerous artists have recorded it, including Welsh singer and guitarist Dave Edmunds, whose version reached number one in the UK for six weeks in 1970 and was in the top 10 in several other countries.
Several earlier blues and R&B songs use lyrics similar to "I Hear You Knocking ''. James "Boodle It '' Wiggins recorded an upbeat piano blues in 1928 titled "Keep A Knockin ' An You Ca n't Get In '' which repeated the title in the lyrics. It was followed by songs that used similar phrases, including "You Ca n't Come In '', by Bert M. Mays (1928); "Keep On Knocking '', by Lil Johnson (1935); "Keep a Knocking '', by Milton Brown & His Brownies (1936); and "Keep Knocking (But You Ca n't Come In) '', by Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys (1938). None of these early singles listed a songwriter or composer.
However, when popular jump blues bandleader Louis Jordan and his Tympany Five recorded the song as "Keep A-Knockin ' '' in 1939, the single 's credits listed "Mays - Bradford '' (Bert Mays and Perry Bradford). in 1957, Little Richard recorded it with "R. Penniman '', Richard 's legal name, listed as the writer, although Bert Mays and J. Mayo Williams were later credited as songwriters. Beginning with his signing by the Los Angeles -- based Imperial Records in 1950, Smiley Lewis was one of the main proponents of the emerging New Orleans rhythm and blues style, along with Fats Domino, Lloyd Price, Dave Bartholomew, and Professor Longhair.
Smiley Lewis recorded "I Hear You Knocking '' with Dave Bartholomew 's band at J&M Studios in New Orleans, owned by Cosimo Matassa. Bartholomew is listed as the producer and songwriter, along with Pearl King (a Bartholomew pseudonym; the maiden name of his wife). "I Hear You Knocking '' uses a modified twelve - bar blues arrangement, in which the progression to the IV chord is repeated:
It has been notated in 4 / 4 time in the key of C with a moderate tempo. Instrumentally, the song is dominated by piano triplets in the style of Fats Domino, played by Huey "Piano '' Smith. The lyrics echo some of the lines from the earlier songs:
You went away and left me long time ago Now you 're comin ' back knockin ' on my door I hear you knockin ', but you ca n't come in I hear you knockin ', go back where you been
"I Hear You Knocking '' was released as a single by Imperial Records in 1955 and entered the charts on September 6. It spent eighteen weeks on the chart and reached number two.
In the 1950s, it was a common practice in the record industry for pop artists to re-record (or "cover '') popular R&B songs. Well - known early examples include Big Joe Turner 's "Shake, Rattle and Roll '', which was re-recorded by Bill Haley & His Comets, and Fats Domino 's "Ai n't That a Shame '', which was covered by Pat Boone. In some cases, cover versions far outsold the originals and prevented them from entering the pop chart or "crossing over ''. This was the case with "I Hear You Knocking ''. A recording of the song by actress and pop singer Gale Storm also in 1955 reached number two on the Billboard singles chart and number three on the Cash Box Best - Selling Record chart and became a gold record. Blues researcher Bill Dahl noted that "Storm swiped his (Lewis 's) thunder for any crossover possibilities with her ludicrous whitewashed cover of the plaintive ballad ''. Bartholomew expressed his disappointment, reportedly leading him to refer to Lewis as a "' bad luck singer ', because he never sold more than 100,000 copies of his Imperial singles ''. English singer Jill Day also recorded the song in 1956, as did Connie Francis in 1959. In 1961, Bartholomew produced Fats Domino 's successful remake of the song, also for Imperial.
Welsh singer and guitarist Dave Edmunds recorded "I Hear You Knocking '' in 1970 at Rockfield Studios in Monmouthshire. Whereas Lewis 's original recording is a piano - driven R&B piece with a 12 / 8 shuffle feel, Edmunds ' version features prominent guitar lines and a stripped - down, straight - quaver rock - and - roll approach. In an interview, John Lennon commented, "Well, I always liked simple rock. There 's a great one in England now, ' I Hear You Knocking ' ''.
Edmunds plays all the instruments (except possibly bass guitar and AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine suggests that the song "has a mechanical rhythm and a weird, out - of - phase vocal that qualifies as an original interpretation ''. Edmunds uses fills and a solo played on slide guitar, and during the instrumental break he shouts out the names of several 1950s recording artists: "Fats Domino, Smiley Lewis, Chuck Berry, Huey Smith! ''. The production is notable for its use of heavy compression on nearly all tracks, and for its minimalist piano part, consisting of one chord (augmented dominant C7 chord) played only twice. The vocal was piped in through a telephone line.
In December 1970, "I Hear You Knocking '' reached number one in the UK, including the Christmas number one slot, and topped the UK Singles Chart for six weeks. It also placed in the top 10 in several other countries, including number four on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in 1971. It sold over three million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. In 1972, the song was included on his first solo album, Rockpile.
Edmunds had originally planned to record a cover of "Let 's Work Together '' by Wilbert Harrison, but had to reconsider when he heard a version that had been recorded by Canned Heat. He later recalled:
Then an album of Smiley Lewis was released on United Artists in Britain, and they played "I Hear You Knocking '' on the radio in Britain while I was driving along. I thought, "Hang on '', the two songs have identical format. You could use the same backing track for both songs. It 's just a simple 12 - bar thing. So I thought, I 'll do that.
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how many unesco world heritage sites in canada | List of World Heritage sites in Canada - wikipedia
This is a list of World Heritage Sites in Canada. The names in the tables below are the names of the properties as used on the website of UNESCO. There are three different types of properties possible: cultural, natural, and mixed. Selection criteria i, ii, iii, iv, v, and vi are the cultural criteria, and selection criteria vii, viii, ix, and x are the natural criteria. The dates for the properties on the World Heritage List are the dates of inscription, the dates for the tentative list are those of submission. The numbers are the reference numbers as used by UNESCO, and they link directly to the description pages of the properties on the UNESCO website.
Site -- official designation of the World Heritage Committee. Location -- the province or territory where the site is located, with geocoordinates. In the case of multinational or multi-regional sites, names are sorted alphabetically after being sorted by country. Criteria -- as defined by the World Heritage Committee. Area -- in hectares and acres, followed by buffer zones if applicable. A value of zero implies that no data has been published by UNESCO. Year -- during which the site was inscribed to the World Heritage Sites list. Description -- brief information about the site, including reasons for inscription.
The Tentative List is an inventory of important heritage and natural sites that a country is considering for inscription on the World Heritage List. The Tentative List can be updated at any time, but inclusion on the list is a prerequisite to being considered for inscription.
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who plays mallory's husband on grace and frankie | Grace and Frankie - Wikipedia
Grace and Frankie is an American comedy web television series created by Marta Kauffman and Howard J. Morris for Netflix. The series stars Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin in the title roles of Grace and Frankie, two unlikely friends who are brought together after their husbands announce that they are in love and plan to get married. Sam Waterston, Martin Sheen, Brooklyn Decker, Ethan Embry, June Diane Raphael, and Baron Vaughn co-star in supporting roles. It premiered on Netflix on May 8, 2015, with all 13 episodes of the first season released simultaneously. The second, third, and fourth seasons, also consisting of 13 episodes each, have been released on May 6, 2016, March 24, 2017, and January 19, 2018, respectively.
Despite mixed reviews upon its debut, the series was met with a more positive critical reception towards its later seasons and has received several nominations, including five Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy.
On February 15, 2018, Grace and Frankie was renewed for a fifth season.
The series follows septuagenarians Grace, a retired cosmetics mogul, and Frankie, a hippie art teacher, whose husbands, Robert and Sol, are successful divorce lawyers in San Diego. Grace and Frankie 's lives are turned upside down when Robert and Sol announce that they are in love with each other and are leaving their wives. Now, the women, who have never particularly liked each other, are forced to live together and learn to unite and cope with difficulties.
In March 2014, Netflix finalized a deal for a 13 - episode straight - to - series order for Grace and Frankie, with Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin attached to star in the lead roles. The series was written and created by Marta Kauffman and Howard J. Morris, who also serve as executive producers alongside Fonda, Tomlin, Paula Weinstein and Tate Taylor, and Skydance Productions ' Dana Goldberg, David Ellison and Marcy Ross.
On May 26, 2015, Netflix renewed the series for a second season which premiered on May 6, 2016.
On December 10, 2016, the series was renewed for a third season which premiered on March 24, 2017.
On April 12, 2017, the series was renewed for a fourth season, which premiered on January 19, 2018.
On February 15, 2018, the series was renewed for a fifth season, with RuPaul announced to guest star as a rival of Grace & Frankie.
Casting announcements began in June 2014, with Martin Sheen cast in the role of Robert, Grace 's husband. The following month, Sam Waterston was cast in the role of Sol, Frankie 's husband. June Diane Raphael and Baron Vaughn were then added to the cast, with Raphael cast in the role of Brianna, Grace and Robert 's elder daughter, who rebels against Grace 's decorum. Vaughn signed onto the role of Nwabudike, Frankie and Sol 's son. Shortly afterwards, Ethan Embry and Brooklyn Decker were cast in the remaining roles on the series. Embry joined in the role of Coyote, Frankie and Sol 's recovering drug addicted son, while Decker signed onto the role of Mallory, Grace and Robert 's younger daughter. In October 2015, it was announced Sam Elliott would appear in the second season as Grace 's love interest. In April 2017, it was reported that Lisa Kudrow will appear in the fourth season as Sheree, Grace 's manicurist. In February 2018, the same day as the fifth season was commissioned, RuPaul was confirmed to appear in the fifth season as a rival of Grace and Frankie.
Production on season one of Grace and Frankie began in Los Angeles, California, in early August 2014, and ended in late November. Production on season two of the series began in July 2015, and ended in November the same year.
The first season of Grace and Frankie received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes it has a rating of 50 %, based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Grace and Frankie 's stellar cast adds an undeniable appeal, although its sloppy dialogue and clichéd sitcom setup will still leave most viewers wanting. '' On Metacritic the season has a score of 58 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
The second season received a more positive reception from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 89 %, based on 9 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 62 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews ''. Jasef Wisener of TVOvermind gave the second season a 4.5 / 5, calling it "heartfelt and hilarious '' and "a huge improvement over the sometimes sluggish first season. ''
The third season received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 100 %, based on 5 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10.
After the show 's release, Tomlin and Fonda expressed displeasure once it became public that their salaries were just equal to those of Sheen and Waterston, even though "the show is not ' Sol and Robert ', it 's ' Grace and Frankie, ' '' in the words of Lily Tomlin, and contended this constituted a significant pay inequity. Shortly thereafter, Sheen and Waterston went on the record to support their co-stars ' demands for a salary increase, with Waterston being quoted as saying: "I think they 're being cheated ''. After fans of the show gathered nearly 200,000 signatures on a petition protesting the disparity, the two actresses issued a public statement backing away from criticism, saying: "This just reminds us to be mindful of how things come across in interviews. We appreciate everyone 's support and the attention to this issue, but the structure of Grace and Frankie is fair, and we could n't be happier to work with Skydance, Netflix and the great cast of this show. '' Fonda and Tomlin made a statement to The Wrap that they were never unhappy with the salaries to start with and that they had "made a joke in an interview about our salaries, which was taken out of context. ''
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who are primarily credited with the development of the unix operating system | Unix - wikipedia
Unix (/ ˈjuːnɪks /; trademarked as UNIX) is a family of multitasking, multiuser computer operating systems that derive from the original AT&T Unix, development starting in the 1970s at the Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others.
Initially intended for use inside the Bell System, AT&T licensed Unix to outside parties in the late 1970s, leading to a variety of both academic and commercial Unix variants from vendors like the University of California, Berkeley (BSD), Microsoft (Xenix), IBM (AIX), and Sun Microsystems (Solaris). In the early 1990s, AT&T sold its rights in Unix to Novell, which then sold its Unix business to the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) in 1995. The UNIX trademark passed to The Open Group, a neutral industry consortium, which allows the use of the mark for certified operating systems that comply with the Single UNIX Specification (SUS). As of 2014, the Unix version with the largest installed base is Apple 's macOS.
Unix systems are characterized by a modular design that is sometimes called the "Unix philosophy ''. This concept entails that the operating system provides a set of simple tools that each performs a limited, well - defined function, with a unified filesystem as the main means of communication, and a shell scripting and command language to combine the tools to perform complex workflows. Unix distinguishes itself from its predecessors as the first portable operating system: almost the entire operating system is written in the C programming language, thus allowing Unix to reach numerous platforms.
Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmers. The system grew larger as the operating system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system and shared them with colleagues.
Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time - sharing configuration. Unix systems are characterized by various concepts: the use of plain text for storing data; a hierarchical file system; treating devices and certain types of inter-process communication (IPC) as files; and the use of a large number of software tools, small programs that can be strung together through a command - line interpreter using pipes, as opposed to using a single monolithic program that includes all of the same functionality. These concepts are collectively known as the "Unix philosophy ''. Brian Kernighan and Rob Pike summarize this in The Unix Programming Environment as "the idea that the power of a system comes more from the relationships among programs than from the programs themselves ''.
In an era when a standard computer consisted of a hard disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output (I / O), the Unix file model worked quite well, as I / O was generally linear. In the 1980s, non-blocking I / O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores, and network sockets were added to support communication with other hosts. As graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse.
By the early 1980s, users began seeing Unix as a potential universal operating system, suitable for computers of all sizes. The Unix environment and the client -- server program model were essential elements in the development of the Internet and the reshaping of computing as centered in networks rather than in individual computers.
Both Unix and the C programming language were developed by AT&T and distributed to government and academic institutions, which led to both being ported to a wider variety of machine families than any other operating system.
Under Unix, the operating system consists of many libraries and utilities along with the master control program, the kernel. The kernel provides services to start and stop programs, handles the file system and other common "low - level '' tasks that most programs share, and schedules access to avoid conflicts when programs try to access the same resource or device simultaneously. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space.
The microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, while conventional (monolithic) Unix implementations have network protocol stacks as part of the kernel.
The origins of Unix date back to the mid-1960s when the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bell Labs, and General Electric were developing Multics, a time - sharing operating system for the GE - 645 mainframe computer. Multics featured several innovations, but also presented severe problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics, but not by its goals, individual researchers at Bell Labs started withdrawing from the project. The last to leave were Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna, who decided to reimplement their experiences in a new project of smaller scale. This new operating system was initially without organizational backing, and also without a name.
The new operating system was a single - tasking system. In 1970, the group coined the name Unics for Uniplexed Information and Computing Service (pronounced "eunuchs ''), as a pun on Multics, which stood for Multiplexed Information and Computer Services. Brian Kernighan takes credit for the idea, but adds that "no one can remember '' the origin of the final spelling Unix. Dennis Ritchie, Doug McIlroy, and Peter G. Neumann also credit Kernighan.
The operating system was originally written in assembly language, but in 1972, the code was migrated to the C programming language. This new language which was still in development to address shortcomings, such as byte addressability, of its predecessor, the B programming language, would become historically tied to the progress in development of Unix. As a high - level programming language it greatly improved portability of the Unix software, requiring only a relatively small amount of machine - dependent code to be replaced when porting to other computing platforms.
Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are collectively referred to as "Research Unix ''. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to Donald B. Gillies at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science. UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson, who had worked on the UNIX kernel at Bell Labs, was instrumental in negotiating the terms of the license.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to large - scale adoption of Unix (BSD and System V) by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP - UX, Solaris, AIX, and Xenix. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4 (SVR4), which was subsequently adopted by many commercial Unix vendors.
In the 1990s, Unix and Unix - like systems grew in popularity as BSD and Linux distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers. In 2000, Apple released Darwin, also a Unix system, which became the core of the Mac OS X operating system, which was later renamed macOS.
Unix operating systems are widely used in modern servers, workstations, and mobile devices.
In the late 1980s, an open operating system standardization effort now known as POSIX provided a common baseline for all operating systems; IEEE based POSIX around the common structure of the major competing variants of the Unix system, publishing the first POSIX standard in 1988. In the early 1990s, a separate but very similar effort was started by an industry consortium, the Common Open Software Environment (COSE) initiative, which eventually became the Single UNIX Specification (SUS) administered by The Open Group. Starting in 1998, the Open Group and IEEE started the Austin Group, to provide a common definition of POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification, which, by 2008, had become the Open Group Base Specification.
In 1999, in an effort towards compatibility, several Unix system vendors agreed on SVR4 's Executable and Linkable Format (ELF) as the standard for binary and object code files. The common format allows substantial binary compatibility among Unix systems operating on the same CPU architecture.
The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard was created to provide a reference directory layout for Unix - like operating systems, and has mainly been used in Linux.
The Unix system is composed of several components that were originally packaged together. By including the development environment, libraries, documents and the portable, modifiable source code for all of these components, in addition to the kernel of an operating system, Unix was a self - contained software system. This was one of the key reasons it emerged as an important teaching and learning tool and has had such a broad influence.
The inclusion of these components did not make the system large -- the original V7 UNIX distribution, consisting of copies of all of the compiled binaries plus all of the source code and documentation occupied less than 10 MB and arrived on a single nine - track magnetic tape. The printed documentation, typeset from the online sources, was contained in two volumes.
The names and filesystem locations of the Unix components have changed substantially across the history of the system. Nonetheless, the V7 implementation is considered by many to have the canonical early structure:
The Unix system had significant impact on other operating systems. It achieved its reputation by its interactivity, by providing the software at a nominal fee for educational use, by running on inexpensive hardware, and by being easy to adapt and move to different machines. Unix was originally written in assembly language (which had been thought necessary for system implementations on early computers), but was soon rewritten in C, a high - level programming language. Although this followed the lead of Multics and Burroughs, it was Unix that popularized the idea.
Unix had a drastically simplified file model compared to many contemporary operating systems: treating all kinds of files as simple byte arrays. The file system hierarchy contained machine services and devices (such as printers, terminals, or disk drives), providing a uniform interface, but at the expense of occasionally requiring additional mechanisms such as ioctl and mode flags to access features of the hardware that did not fit the simple "stream of bytes '' model. The Plan 9 operating system pushed this model even further and eliminated the need for additional mechanisms.
Unix also popularized the hierarchical file system with arbitrarily nested subdirectories, originally introduced by Multics. Other common operating systems of the era had ways to divide a storage device into multiple directories or sections, but they had a fixed number of levels, often only one level. Several major proprietary operating systems eventually added recursive subdirectory capabilities also patterned after Multics. DEC 's RSX - 11 M 's "group, user '' hierarchy evolved into VMS directories, CP / M 's volumes evolved into MS - DOS 2.0 + subdirectories, and HP 's MPE group. account hierarchy and IBM 's SSP and OS / 400 library systems were folded into broader POSIX file systems.
Making the command interpreter an ordinary user - level program, with additional commands provided as separate programs, was another Multics innovation popularized by Unix. The Unix shell used the same language for interactive commands as for scripting (shell scripts -- there was no separate job control language like IBM 's JCL). Since the shell and OS commands were "just another program '', the user could choose (or even write) his own shell. New commands could be added without changing the shell itself. Unix 's innovative command - line syntax for creating modular chains of producer - consumer processes (pipelines) made a powerful programming paradigm (coroutines) widely available. Many later command - line interpreters have been inspired by the Unix shell.
A fundamental simplifying assumption of Unix was its focus on newline - delimited text for nearly all file formats. There were no "binary '' editors in the original version of Unix -- the entire system was configured using textual shell command scripts. The common denominator in the I / O system was the byte -- unlike "record - based '' file systems. The focus on text for representing nearly everything made Unix pipes especially useful, and encouraged the development of simple, general tools that could be easily combined to perform more complicated ad hoc tasks. The focus on text and bytes made the system far more scalable and portable than other systems. Over time, text - based applications have also proven popular in application areas, such as printing languages (PostScript, ODF), and at the application layer of the Internet protocols, e.g., FTP, SMTP, HTTP, SOAP, and SIP.
Unix popularized a syntax for regular expressions that found widespread use. The Unix programming interface became the basis for a widely implemented operating system interface standard (POSIX, see above). The C programming language soon spread beyond Unix, and is now ubiquitous in systems and applications programming.
Early Unix developers were important in bringing the concepts of modularity and reusability into software engineering practice, spawning a "software tools '' movement. Over time, the leading developers of Unix (and programs that ran on it) established a set of cultural norms for developing software, norms which became as important and influential as the technology of Unix itself; this has been termed the Unix philosophy.
The TCP / IP networking protocols were quickly implemented on the Unix versions widely used on relatively inexpensive computers, which contributed to the Internet explosion of worldwide real - time connectivity, and which formed the basis for implementations on many other platforms.
The Unix policy of extensive on - line documentation and (for many years) ready access to all system source code raised programmer expectations, and contributed to the 1983 launch of the free software movement.
In 1983, Richard Stallman announced the GNU (short for "GNU 's Not Unix '') project, an ambitious effort to create a free software Unix - like system; "free '' in the sense that everyone who received a copy would be free to use, study, modify, and redistribute it. The GNU project 's own kernel development project, GNU Hurd, had not produced a working kernel, but in 1991 Linus Torvalds released the Linux kernel as free software under the GNU General Public License. In addition to their use in the Linux operating system, many GNU packages -- such as the GNU Compiler Collection (and the rest of the GNU toolchain), the GNU C library and the GNU core utilities -- have gone on to play central roles in other free Unix systems as well.
Linux distributions, consisting of the Linux kernel and large collections of compatible software have become popular both with individual users and in business. Popular distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Fedora, SUSE Linux Enterprise, openSUSE, Debian GNU / Linux, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Mandriva Linux, Slackware Linux, Arch Linux and Gentoo.
A free derivative of BSD Unix, 386BSD, was released in 1992 and led to the NetBSD and FreeBSD projects. With the 1994 settlement of a lawsuit brought against the University of California and Berkeley Software Design Inc. (USL v. BSDi) by UNIX Systems Laboratories, it was clarified that Berkeley had the right to distribute BSD Unix for free, if it so desired. Since then, BSD Unix has been developed in several different product branches, including OpenBSD and DragonFly BSD.
Linux and BSD are increasingly filling the market needs traditionally served by proprietary Unix operating systems, as well as expanding into new markets such as the consumer desktop and mobile and embedded devices. Because of the modular design of the Unix model, sharing components is relatively common; consequently, most or all Unix and Unix - like systems include at least some BSD code, and some systems also include GNU utilities in their distributions.
In a 1999 interview, Dennis Ritchie voiced his opinion that Linux and BSD operating systems are a continuation of the basis of the Unix design, and are derivatives of Unix:
"I think the Linux phenomenon is quite delightful, because it draws so strongly on the basis that Unix provided. Linux seems to be the among the healthiest of the direct Unix derivatives, though there are also the various BSD systems as well as the more official offerings from the workstation and mainframe manufacturers. ''
In the same interview, he states that he views both Unix and Linux as "the continuation of ideas that were started by Ken and me and many others, many years ago. ''
OpenSolaris was the open - source counterpart to Solaris developed by Sun Microsystems, which included a CDDL - licensed kernel and a primarily GNU userland. However, Oracle discontinued the project upon their acquisition of Sun, which prompted a group of former Sun employees and members of the OpenSolaris community to fork OpenSolaris into the illumos kernel. As of 2014, illumos remains the only active open - source System V derivative.
In May 1975, RFC 681 described the development of Network Unix by the Center for Advanced Computation at the University of Illinois. The system was said to "present several interesting capabilities as an ARPANET mini-host ''. At the time Unix required a license from Bell Laboratories that at $20,000 (US) was very expensive for non-university users, while an educational license cost just $150. It was noted that Bell was "open to suggestions '' for an ARPANET - wide license.
Specific features found beneficial were the local processing facilities, compilers, editors, a document preparation system, efficient file system and access control, mountable and unmountable volumes, unified treatment of peripherals as special files, integration of the network control program (NCP) within the Unix file system, treatment of network connections as special files that can be accessed through standard Unix I / O calls, closing of all files on program exit, and the decision to be "desirable to minimize the amount of code added to the basic Unix kernel ''.
In October 1993, Novell, the company that owned the rights to the Unix System V source at the time, transferred the trademarks of Unix to the X / Open Company (now The Open Group), and in 1995 sold the related business operations to Santa Cruz Operation (SCO). Whether Novell also sold the copyrights to the actual software was the subject of a 2006 federal lawsuit, SCO v. Novell, which Novell won. The case was appealed, but on August 30, 2011, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit affirmed the trial decisions, closing the case. Unix vendor SCO Group Inc. accused Novell of slander of title.
The present owner of the trademark UNIX is The Open Group, an industry standards consortium. Only systems fully compliant with and certified to the Single UNIX Specification qualify as "UNIX '' (others are called "Unix - like '').
By decree of The Open Group, the term "UNIX '' refers more to a class of operating systems than to a specific implementation of an operating system; those operating systems which meet The Open Group 's Single UNIX Specification should be able to bear the UNIX 98 or UNIX 03 trademarks today, after the operating system 's vendor pays a substantial certification fee and annual trademark royalties to The Open Group. Systems licensed to use the UNIX trademark include AIX, HP - UX, Inspur K - UX, IRIX, Solaris, Tru64 UNIX (formerly "Digital UNIX '', or OSF / 1), macOS, and a part of z / OS. Notably, Inspur K - UX is a Linux distribution certified as UNIX 03 compliant.
Sometimes a representation like Un * x, * NIX, or * N? X is used to indicate all operating systems similar to Unix. This comes from the use of the asterisk (*) and the question mark characters as wildcard indicators in many utilities. This notation is also used to describe other Unix - like systems that have not met the requirements for UNIX branding from the Open Group.
The Open Group requests that UNIX is always used as an adjective followed by a generic term such as system to help avoid the creation of a genericized trademark.
Unix was the original formatting, but the usage of UNIX remains widespread because it was once typeset in small caps (Unix). According to Dennis Ritchie, when presenting the original Unix paper to the third Operating Systems Symposium of the American Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), "we had a new typesetter and troff had just been invented and we were intoxicated by being able to produce small caps. '' Many of the operating system 's predecessors and contemporaries used all - uppercase lettering, so many people wrote the name in upper case due to force of habit. It is not an acronym.
Trademark names can be registered by different entities in different countries and trademark laws in some countries allow the same trademark name to be controlled by two different entities if each entity uses the trademark in easily distinguishable categories. The result is that Unix has been used as a brand name for various products including book shelves, ink pens, bottled glue, diapers, hair driers and food containers.
Several plural forms of Unix are used casually to refer to multiple brands of Unix and Unix - like systems. Most common is the conventional Unixes, but Unices, treating Unix as a Latin noun of the third declension, is also popular. The pseudo-Anglo - Saxon plural form Unixen is not common, although occasionally seen. Sun Microsystems, developer of the Solaris variant, has asserted that the term Unix is itself plural, referencing its many implementations.
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what crimes get the death penalty in india | Capital punishment in India - wikipedia
Capital punishment is a legal penalty in India. It has been carried out in five instances since 1995, while a total of twenty - six executions have taken place in India since 1991. The last execution in India to date was of Seema Mohan Gavit and Renuka Shinde In February 2017
The Supreme Court in Mithu vs. State of Punjab struck down Section 303 of the Indian Penal Code, which provided for a mandatory death sentence for offenders serving a life sentence. The number of people executed in India since the nation achieved Independence in 1947 is a matter of dispute; official government statistics claim that fifty - two people had been executed since Independence. However, research by the People 's Union for Civil Liberties indicates that the actual number of executions is in fact much higher, as they located records of 1,422 executions in the decade from 1953 to 1963 alone. Research published by National Law University, Delhi on death row convicts since 2000 had found that of the 1,617 prisoners sentenced to death by trial courts in India, capital punishment was confirmed in only seventy - one cases. NLU Delhi confirmed 755 executions in India since 1947. National Law University, Delhi examined 1,414 prisoners who were executed, in the available list of convicts hanged in post-Independence since 1947. According to a report of the Law Commission of India (1967), the total number of cases in which the death sentence was awarded in India from 1953 - 63 was 1410.
In December 2007, India voted against a United Nations General Assembly resolution calling for a moratorium on the death penalty. In November 2012, India again upheld its stance on capital punishment by voting against the UN General Assembly draft resolution seeking to end the institution of capital punishment globally.
On 31 August 2015, the Law Commission of India submitted a report to the government which recommended the abolition of capital punishment for all crimes in India, excepting the crime of waging war against the nation or for terrorism - related offences. The report cited several factors to justify abolishing the death penalty, including its abolition by 140 other nations, its arbitrary and flawed application and its lack of any proven deterring effect on criminals.
In colonial India, death was prescribed as one of the punishments in the Indian Penal Code, 1860 (IPC), which listed a number of capital crimes. It remained in effect after independence in 1947. The first hanging in Independent India was that of Nathuram Godse and Narayan Apte in the Mahatma Gandhi assassination case on 15 November 1949.
Under Article 21 of the Constitution of India, no person can be deprived of his life except according to procedure established by law.
The Constitution Bench judgment of Supreme Court of India in Bachan Singh vs. State of Punjab (1980) (2 SCC 684) made it very clear that Capital punishment in India can be given only in rarest of rare cases. This judgement was in line with the previous verdicts in Jagmohan Singh vs. State of Uttar Pradesh (1973), and then in Rajendra Prasad vs. State of Uttar Pradesh (1979). The Supreme Court of India ruled that the death penalty should be imposed only in "the rarest of rare cases. '' While stating that honour killings fall within the "rarest of the rare '' category, Court has recommended the death penalty be extended to those found of committing "honour killings '', which deserve to be a capital crime. The Supreme Court also recommended death sentences to be imposed on police officials who commit police brutality in the form of encounter killings.
An appeal filed in 2013 by Vikram Singh and another person facing the death sentence questioned the constitutional validity of Section 364A of the Indian Penal Code.
In addition to the Indian Penal Code, a series of legislation enacted by the Parliament of India have provisions for the death penalty.
Sati is the burning or burying alive of any widow or woman along with the body of her deceased husband or any other relative or with any article, object or thing associated with the husband or such relative. Under The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 Part. II, Section 4 (1), if any person commits sati, whoever abets the commission of such sati, either directly or indirectly, shall be punishable with death.
The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 was enacted to prevent the commission of offences of atrocities against the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Under Section 3 (2) (i) of the Act, bearing false witness in a capital case against a member of a scheduled caste or tribe, resulting in that person 's conviction and execution, carries the death penalty In 1989, the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act was passed which applied a mandatory death penalty for a second offence of "large scale narcotics trafficking ''.
In recent years, the death penalty has been imposed under new anti-terrorism legislation for people convicted of terrorist activities. On 3 February 2013, in response to public outcry over a brutal gang rape in Delhi, the Indian Government passed an ordinance which applied the death penalty in cases of rape that leads to death or leaves the victim in a "persistent vegetative state ''. The death penalty can also be handed down to repeat rape offenders under the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013.
In January 2014, a three - judge panel headed by Chief Justice of India Palanisamy Sathasivam commuted sentences of 15 death row convicts, ruling that the "inordinate and inexplicable delay is a ground for commuting death penalty to life sentence ''. Supreme Court of India ruled that delays ranging from seven to 11 years in the disposal of mercy pleas are grounds for clemency. The same panel also passed a set of guidelines for the execution of a death row convict, which includes a 14 - day gap from the receipt of communication of the rejection of the mercy petition to the scheduled execution date, after going through the Shatrughan Chauhan vs. Union of India case. Subsequently, in February 2014, Supreme Court commuted death sentence of Rajiv Gandhi 's killers on the basis of 11 - year delay in deciding on mercy plea. It was subsequently commuted to life imprisonment. In March 2014, Supreme Court of India commuted death sentence of Devinder Pal Singh Bhullar, convicted in a 1993 Delhi bombings case, to life imprisonment, both on the ground of unexplained / inordinate delay of eight years in disposal of mercy petition and on the ground of insanity / mental illness / schizophrenia.
The concept of Curative petition was evolved by the Supreme Court of India in the matter of Rupa Ashok Hurra vs. Ashok Hurra and Anr. (2002) where the question was whether an aggrieved person is entitled to any relief against the final judgement / order of the Supreme Court, after dismissal of a review petition. The Supreme Court in the said case held that to prevent abuse of its process and to cure gross miscarriage of justice, it may reconsider its judgements in exercise of its inherent powers.
The present day constitutional clemency powers of the President and Governors originate from the Government of India Act 1935 but, unlike the Governor - General, the President and Governors in independent India do not have any prerogative clemency powers.
In V. Sriharan @ Murugan v. Union of India, (2014) 4 SCC 242 the Supreme Court reiterated that the clemency procedure under Article 72 / 161 provides a ray of hope to the condemned prisoners and his family members for commutation of death sentence into life imprisonment and, therefore, the executive should step up and exercise its time honoured tradition of clemency power of guaranteed in the constitution one way or the other within a reasonable time. Profuse deliberation on the nature of power under Article 72 / 161 of the Constitution has already been said in Shatrudhan Chauhan.
Article 72 (1) of the Constitution of India states:
The President shall have the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence
(a) in all cases where the punishment or sentence is by a Court Martial;
(b) in all cases where the punishment or sentence is for an offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the Union extends;
(c) in all cases where the sentence is a sentence of death.
The execution of death sentence in India is carried out by hanging by the neck till death.
The Code of Criminal Procedure (1898) called for the method of execution to be hanging. The same method was adopted in the Code of Criminal Procedure (1973). Section 354 (5) of the above procedure reads as "When any person is sentenced to death, the sentence shall direct that the person be hanged by the neck till the person is dead. ''
As of 2011, only two people had been hanged over the previous 15 years and there was no longer a professional hangman to be found.
The Army Act, The Navy Act and The Air Force Act also provide for the execution of the death sentence. Section 34 of the Air Force Act, 1950 empowers the court martial to impose the death sentence for the offences mentioned in section 34 (a) to (o) of The Air Force Act, 1950. Section 163 of the Act provides for the form of the sentence of death as: -
"In awarding a sentence of death, a court - martial shall, in its discretion, direct that the offender shall suffer death by being hanged by the neck until he be dead or shall suffer death by being shot to death. ''
This provides for the discretion of the Court Martial to either provide for the execution of the death sentence by hanging or by being shot to death. The Army Act, 1950, and The Navy Act, 1957 also provide for the similar provisions as in The Air Force Act, 1950.
At least 100 people in 2007, 40 in 2006, 77 in 2005, 23 in 2002, and 33 in 2001 were sentenced to death (but not executed), according to Amnesty International figures. No official statistics of those sentenced to death have been released.
About 26 mercy petitions are pending before the president, some of them from 1992. These include those of Khalistan Liberation Force terrorist Devinder Pal Singh Bhullar, the cases of slain forest bandit Veerappan 's four associates -- Simon, Gnanaprakasham, Meesekar Madaiah and Bilvendran -- for killing 21 policemen in 1993; and Praveen Kumar for killing four members of his family in Mangalore in 1994.
In June 2012 it became known that Indian president Pratibha Patil, near the end of her five - year term as president, commuted the death sentence of as many as 35 convicts to life imprisonment, including four on the same day (2 June), which created a storm of protest. This caused further embarrassment to the government when it came to light that one of these convicts, Bandu Baburao Tidke -- convicted for the rape and murder of a 16 - year - old girl -- had died five years previously from HIV.
There have been calls for the introduction of the death penalty for rapists and molesters, especially since an infamous 2012 Delhi gang rape case and later crimes.
Seema Gavit and Renuka Shinde are the only two women in India on death row, whose mercy pleas were rejected by the President after the Supreme Court of India confirmed their death sentence.
As of July 2015, President Pranab Mukherjee has rejected 24 mercy pleas including that of Yakub Memon, Ajmal Kasab, Afzal Guru.
On 27 April 1995, Auto Shankar was hanged in Salem, Tamil Nadu. On 14 August 2004, Dhananjoy Chatterjee was hanged for the murder (following a rape) of 14 - year - old Hetal Parekh at her apartment residence in Bhowanipur on 5 March 1990. Chatterjee, whose mercy plea was rejected on 4 August 2004, was kept at Alipore Central Jail for nearly 14 years.
In 1997, Mahendra Nath Das was sentenced to death. He was infamous for having surrendered to police while holding a sword and the severed head of his murder victim. In 2013, the Supreme Court commuted his sentence to life in prison.
On 3 May 2010, a Mumbai Special Court convicted Ajmal Kasab of murder, waging war on India, possessing explosives and other charges. On 6 May 2010 the same trial court sentenced him to death on four counts and to a life sentence on five other counts. Kasab was sentenced to death for attacking Mumbai and killing 166 people on 26 November 2008 along with nine other Pakistani terrorists. He was found guilty of 80 offences, including waging war against the nation, which is punishable by death. Kasab 's death sentence was upheld by the Bombay High Court on 21 February 2011. and by the Supreme Court on 29 August 2012. His mercy plea was rejected by the president on 5 November and the same was communicated to him on 12 November. On 21 November 2012, Kasab was hanged in the Yerwada Central Jail in Pune.
Afzal Guru was convicted of conspiracy in connection with the 2001 Indian Parliament attack and was sentenced to death. The Supreme Court of India upheld the sentence, ruling that the attack "shocked the conscience of the society at large. '' Afzal was scheduled to be executed on 20 October 2006, but the sentence was stayed. He was hanged on 9 February 2013 at Delhi 's Tihar Central Jail.
Yakub Memon, convicted of 1993 Bombay bombings, was executed by hanging in Nagpur Central Jail at around 6: 30 am IST on 30 July 2015. On 21 March 2013 the Supreme Court confirmed Memon 's conviction and death sentence for conspiracy through financing the attacks. On 30 July 2013 the Supreme Court bench headed by Chief Justice P. Sathasivam, Justice B.S. Chauhan and Justice Prafulla Chandra Pant rejected Memon 's application for an oral hearing and dismissed his review petition by circulation. Indian President Pranab Mukherjee rejected Memon 's petition for clemency on 11 April 2014. Memon then filed a curative petition to the Supreme Court, which was rejected on 21 July 2015. He became the first convict in 31 years to be hanged in Nagpur Central Jail and the fourth in India since 2004.
On 5 March 2012 a sessions court in Chandigarh ordered the execution of Balwant Singh Rajoana, a convicted terrorist from Babbar Khalsa, for his involvement in the assassination of Chief Minister of Punjab Beant Singh. The sentence was to be carried out on 31 March 2012 in Patiala Central Jail, but the Centre stayed the execution on 28 March due to worldwide protests by Sikhs that the execution was unfair and amounted to a human rights violation.
On 13 March 2012, a court in Sirsa, Haryana, condemned to death 22 - year - old Nikka Singh for raping and strangling to death a 75 - year - old woman on 11 February 2011. "The imposition of the death sentence was most appropriate in this case. The court has held that it was a cold - blooded murder and where rape was committed on an innocent and hapless old woman, '' said Neelima Shangla, the Sirsa additional district and sessions judge. "The rape and cold - blooded murder of a woman, who was of grandmother 's age of the accused, falls in the rarest of the rare case. '' The court held that Nikka Singh was a "savage '' whose "existence on earth was a grave danger to society '' as he had also attempted to rape two other village women.
A special mention here is to the 650 - page written judgment in the 1984 Assassination of Indira Gandhi, who was killed by her bodyguards, in which the Delhi High Court panel said, "No excuse or circumstance can... mitigate such a treacherous and cowardly act where a defenseless woman was cruelly slaughtered by the ' guardians ' of her safety. '' The judgment condemned "the most inhuman mode of killing '' and said, "Two persons crowding in before an elderly woman and mercilessly pumping into her not one or two but as many as 30 bullets is the ghastly scene to be conjured in the mind 's eye. '' Kehar Singh was hanged on 6 January 1989 for conspiracy in the assassination, carried out by Satwant Singh and Beant Singh.
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who was the first president born west of the mississippi river | List of United States Presidential Firsts - wikipedia
This list lists achievements and distinctions of various Presidents of the United States. It includes distinctions achieved in their earlier life and post-presidencies. Due to some confusion surrounding sovereignty of nations during presidential visits, only nations that were independent, sovereign, or recognized by the United States during the presidency are listed here as a precedent.
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who sang it only takes a minute girl | It only Takes a Minute - wikipedia
"It Only Takes a Minute '' is a 1975 song by Tavares. The song was the group 's only Top 10 pop hit in the United States, peaking at number 10, and their second number one song on the American soul charts. On the US Disco chart, "It Only Takes a Minute '' spent five weeks at # 2 and was the first of four entries on the chart. The song was subsequently covered by Jonathan King performing as 100 Ton and a Feather in 1976 and by boy band Take That in 1992.
Tavares did not release their original version in the UK until 1986 when it could only reach No 46 in the UK Singles Chart. It was the last of their ten hits in the UK.
Jonathan King 's version peaked at number nine for two weeks in July 1976. It would prove to be the last of his six Top ten UK singles in a career that started in 1965 with "Everyone 's Gone to the Moon ''.
Released on 1 June 1992 by boyband Take That, it was the fourth single from the band 's debut album, Take That & Party. It became the band 's first top ten single, charting at number seven on the UK Singles Chart. A re-mastered version of Tavares ' track is featured in the soundtrack of Konami 's dancing game Dance Dance Revolution 3rd Mix. A remix from European producer X-Treme was featured in DDRMAX2: Dance Dance Revolution 7th MIX. The song was performed as conjunction with "Do What U Like '' in the Take That Hometown Tour which featured Mini Take That.
In the UK the song has sold 146,000 copies as of March 2017.
The music video involves the band singing and performing the song at a boxing ring with members Howard Donald, Jason Orange and Mark Owen breakdancing whilst Robbie Williams and Gary Barlow chase after a girl.
UK CD single (74321 10100 2)
UK 7 '' vinyl (74321 10100 7)
UK 7 '' vinyl (Limited Edition) (74321 10101 7)
UK 12 '' vinyl (74321 10102 7)
UK cassette (74321 10100 4)
EU CD single (74321 11100 5)
US CD single (TAKE4)
US 7 '' vinyl (TAKE14)
US 12 '' vinyl (TAKE214)
Japanese 3 '' CD single (TAKEJAP4)
* Only included as part of the ' Club Megamix ' on the "Could It Be Magic '' 12 '' Vinyl, unreleased as full track.
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which of the following is true regarding the development of a request for proposal (rfp) | Request for proposal - Wikipedia
A request for proposal (RFP) is a document that solicits proposal, often made through a bidding process, by an agency or company interested in procurement of a commodity, service, or valuable asset, to potential suppliers to submit business proposals. It is submitted early in the procurement cycle, either at the preliminary study, or procurement stage.
An RFP is used where the request requires technical expertise, specialized capability, or where the product or service being requested does not yet exist, and the proposal may require research and development to create whatever is being requested.
The RFP presents preliminary requirements for the commodity or service, and may dictate to varying degrees the exact structure and format of the supplier 's response. Effective RFPs typically reflect the strategy and short / long - term business objectives, providing detailed insight upon which suppliers will be able to offer a matching perspective.
Similar requests include a request for quotation (RFQ), whereby the customer may simply be looking for a price quote, and a request for information (RFI), where the customer needs more information from vendors before submitting an RFP. An RFI is typically followed by an RFP or RFQ.
In principle, an RFP:
An RFP typically involves more than a request for the price. Other requested information may include basic corporate information and history, financial information (can the company deliver without risk of bankruptcy), technical capability (used on major procurements of services, where the item has not previously been made or where the requirement could be met by varying technical means), product information such as stock availability and estimated completion period, and customer references that can be checked to determine a company 's suitability (including educational and military background of its employees on the project -- - college graduates and those with advanced college degrees may add "value '' from the bidder).
The ubiquitous availability of the Internet has made many government agencies turn either to state - run or vendor operated websites which provide listings of RFPs as well as RFIs and RFQs. Many allow vendors to sign up at no charge to receive e-mails of requests either generally or for specific categories of product or service for which there is an interest. In some cases, the entire process is done on - line with responses as scanned documents or PDF files uploaded to the server; in other cases, or for legal reasons, a response must be sent in hard copy form and / or on CD / DVD disc or flash drive by mail or delivery service.
In the militaries of many countries, an RFP is often raised to fulfill an Operational Requirement (OR), after which the military procurement authority will normally issue a detailed technical specification against which tenders (i.e., bids) will be made by potential contractors. In the civilian use, an RFP is usually part of a complex sales process, also known as enterprise sales.
RFPs often include specifications of the item, project or service for which a proposal is requested. The more detailed the specifications, the better the chances that the proposal provided will be accurate. Generally RFPs are sent to an approved supplier or vendor list.
The bidders return a proposal by a set date and time. Late proposals may or may not be considered, depending on the terms of the initial RFP. The proposals are used to evaluate the suitability as a supplier, vendor, or institutional partner. Typically organizations follow a detailed vendor screening process to short list the vendors who should be invited for further rounds of negotiation. This screening process could either be vendor scoring models or internal discussions within the buyer organization. Discussions may be held on the proposals (often to clarify technical capabilities or to note errors in a proposal or in many cases to negotiate on the price). In most instances, only selected bidders may be invited to participate in subsequent bids, or may be asked to submit their best technical and financial proposal, commonly referred to as a Best and Final Offer (BAFO). Subsequent changes can be referred to as the Best and Revised Final Offer (BARFO). AN EXAMPLE OF A COMMON RFP:
1. INSTRUCTIONS TO BIDDERS The Regional Health Contracting Office - Central (RHCO - C), Join Base San Antonio, Fort Sam Houston, Texas intends to award a two month sole source bridge contract while the solicitation for the long term requirement is being evaluated (FEDBIZOPPS.GOV, 2017). This two month bridge contract will be awarded to American Medical Response of Texas Inc. to provide emergent and non-emergent patient transportation services to and from the San Antonio Military Medical Center (SAMMC), and surrounding clinics within the immediate area. The NAICS code of this procurement is 621910 "Ambulance Services '' and the size standard is $15 M. The period of performance is 1 December 2017 to 31 January 2018. 1.1 General Description of Work Provide emergent and non-emergent patient transportation services to and from the San Antonio Military Medical Center (SAMMC), and surrounding clinics within the immediate area. 1.2 What must be included with Bid The bidder must provide a breakdown of the bid price, revisions and extra work, technical information regarding their ambulatory equipment and related gear, as well as quality, safety and environmental information. Additionally, the bidder must provide financial and insurance documents alongside their bid to satisfy this requirement. 1.3 Schedule of Bid period activities This bid period extends from 20th October 2017 onwards up to 30th November 2017 when the contract shall be awarded (FEDBIZOPPS.GOV, 2017). With regards to the time when bids are expected from interested parties, the process handlers expect that all bids be presented during business hours. In the event that a bidder expresses concern over their inability to meet the bid requirements, no special treatment such as extension of bid period shall be awarded. Bids presented after the due date will be treated as inadmissible and discarded without inspection. 1.4 Location of Work Services are expected to cover the region to and from the San Antonio Military Medical Center (SAMMC), and surrounding clinics within the immediate area. Bidders are encouraged to visit the geographical region mentioned in order to familiarize themselves with the shipping and transportation costs involved. 1.5 Pre-Bid Meeting This specific contractual process will not include a pre-proposal conference. However, should any bidder have any relevant questions regarding the bid, they should get in touch with the contacts provided for both the contracting officer and contracting specialist. 1.6 Owner Contract for Questions The owner primary point of contact is Patricia C. Pfeninger, who is the contracting specialist. Additionally, the contracting officer, who is the secondary point of contact, is Jamie Brunner. These professionals provide all bidders and other participating players with an interface to the contract owner. 1.7 Pre-Award Surveys Some of the owner involved in this bidding process may be interested in carrying out a pre-contract survey. Bidders are advised to prepare presentations related to aspects such as managerial performance, financial performance, and technical aspects of their equipment and human resource management of their organizations. Again, the points of contact are the contracting officer and contracting specialist. 1.8 Sealed Bid Requirements Only sealed bid will be accepted in the bidding process. Bidders are expected to seal their bids in unmarked brown envelopes and place them in the specified location before the due date and during business hours. Bids that fail to meet these requirements will automatically be disqualified and discarded. 1.9 Basis for Bid Evaluation The owner intends to base evaluation of the bids on important aspects such as managerial and financial integrity as well as performance. Weight associated with technical aspects such as ambulatory performance and environmental safety as well as consciousness will also be considered. However, the IVL exists to reduce such bias and consists of bidders who have performed well in the past, have proven expertise in the services required by the contract owner, or are industry giants in the same respect. 1.10 Ethical Standards The bidders are expected to strictly adhere to ethical standards associated with bidding and contractual processes. Therefore, gifts and canvassing will not only disqualify bidders, but possibly result in the involved bidders being delisted from the IVL (FERNANDEZ, 2007). Some bidders who contravene these ethical standards may even face criminal investigation and prosecution depending on the jurisdiction and its procurement laws. 1.11 Responsibility for Surety Bonds The bidders are expected to deposit up to 15 % of the size standard with the bid office before submitting their bids. Failure to adhere to this requirement will resort in immediate disqualification of the bidder involved. The surety bond acts as security for the contract owner and participating agents to bind the bidders to the process from start to completion. Additionally, some of these funds may be deemed non-refundable in special contracts that require agency fees that are higher than normal. 1.12 Proposal Format This bid requires all bidders to provide a schedule of their services complete with personnel changes, training, and equipment maintenance. Additionally, bidders are expected to give clear timelines on other important aspects such as organizational audits and resource development. 1.13 List of Bidders The Interested Vendors List (IVL) contains a list of vendors the bid owner is interested in. These organizations are encouraged to place their bids based on past performance and other aspects. However, no favor or special treatment shall be accorded to them in the bidding process (FERNANDEZ, 2007). Favoring or bias towards any of the bidding organizations, be they on the IVL or outside, is highly discouraged. Bidders are therefore discouraged from resorting to gifts and entertainment as incentives to sway the contract award process to their favor. 1.14 Letter of Acknowledgement All companies that receive this RFP are advised to send letters of acknowledgement back to the bid owner. The letter should inform the recipient of their receipt of the RFP and intentions related to the bid forthwith. Such communication is an important feedback mechanism ingrained into the bidding and contract system to ensure all parties involved are on the same page in terms of the needs and offers (SMITH, 1996). 2. DESCRIPTION OF WORK 2.1 Engineering Contracts The project involves services to provide emergent and non-emergent patient transportation services to and from the San Antonio Military Medical Center (SAMMC), and surrounding clinics within the immediate area (FEDBIZOPPS.GOV, 2017). With regards to the nature of the contract in question, the services provider who wins the contract shall liaise with the contract owner in issues pertaining to permits and other relevant documents associated with executing the contract. Additionally, should the process of executing the contract require sub-contracting or revision of contractual terms, both the SAMMC and the contract owner will coordinate on agreement and execution thereof. With regards to the nature of services under bidding, both parties shall undertake to agree on the bare irreducible minimums in terms of technical and engineering performance of equipment and personnel. The ambulatory equipment must be properly examined by both parties to enable them come to an agreement on matters pertaining to technical and engineering performance. Additionally, the personnel involved shall also come under scrutiny to clear any doubt and cement trust between participating parties. The nature of the activities this contract owner is involved in requires that they specify the design of ambulatory services required. Therefore, before execution of the actual contract, both parties must agree on responsibility matters pertaining to aspects such as service design, liability scopes, and performance management. 3. PROPOSAL 3.1 Breakdown of Bid Price Due to the nature of the service sought from bidders by the contract owner, bidders will provide a comprehensive breakdown of each item and equipment required to effectively execute the service. Such information enables the contract owner to get a good idea of the scope of work covered by each item of the breakdown. In order to achieve this important objective of the process, bidders are requested to make reference to their Description of Work section as well as the parts that cover Specifications and Drawings. Such reference also enables the contract owner to relate the bid items to their roles in executing his / her contract. 3.2 Revisions and Extra Work In case the nature of the contract requires extra work, unit prices shall be clearly stated and related to these extra duties. Ambulatory work is neither definite nor is it fixed on certain timelines even with the scope of contractual obligation in place (Boland, 1987. Therefore, bidders must state unit prices for any and all items that will be required for such additional work. Additionally, should any extra work require reimbursement, the proposal will require cost limits on the process and limits on the manner in which these extra work is cost accounted to prevent an eventuality of extra work that was unaccounted for after all the contract is executed. 3.3 Escalation Formulas While service contracts that call for pricing are the norm, some costs can not be forecasted with certainty. Cost such as labor and materials are subject to inflationary pressure meaning the proposal must state all formulas the parties will use in accounting for such escalations. Due to the effect of the escalated prices of materials and labor costs on the contract, bidders are advised to consider all formulas and ensure they serve their interest as well as those of the client (FERNANDEZ, 2007). For contracts whose prices are not as subjective to price escalations, reservations may be made on the general contract price if the contractual terms allow it. 3.4 Schedules Completion Dates Some contracts require the bidder to provide schedules completion dates for various stages of the contractual obligations. Such contracts and the proposals used in the bidding process require the bidders to provide a comprehensive schedule that outlines various job or service activities as schedules for completion and the dates. Ambulatory service providers may borrow from such practice if equipment is to be upgraded or downgraded over the course of the contract 's lifetime (SMITH, 1996). Additionally, important aspects of such services such as maintenance and staff training, audits and managerial development processes may also be scheduled. The start and completion dates of such crucial activities must be provided in the proposals. 3.5 List of Subcontractors Due to the complex nature of some service contracts, the organizations that win them have to subcontract some aspects of their obligations. In such cases, the bidder must provide a list of the subcontractors they intend to use in the course of executing the contract. Additionally, bidders must also provide information related to the subcontractors ' scope of work in the contract, their experience in matters related to the contract and physical location of offices. Such subcontractors ' contacts in the form of email addresses and telephone numbers must also appear on the document. 3.6 Key Supplier or Contractor Information In the course of executing a contract, the organization that won it must inform the beneficiary of the same about the contact person. That means the person in charge and on site during the course of contractual obligation. Bidders are advised to identify to the contract owner any personnel they intend to place in charge of the contract at the RFP stage. Not only does such a process inspire confidence in the owner, it demonstrates the contract winner 's abilities and preparedness. Should there be several personnel as would be the case with the ground ambulance service contract, bidders must provide all their contact and physical information. 3.7 Length of Time Bid is Valid In comprehensive contracts that include a large set of requirements some of which are highly technical, there is a time provision between time of bidding and contract awarding. The provision of ground ambulance services for a large region incorporating several hospitals and clinics falls in this category of contracts (Sweeney, 1991). Therefore, bidders must be prepared for a proposal that includes a length of time the bid is valid. That means that bidders have presented their bids but they remain frozen as the owner goes through the bids to decide the best suited bidder for award of the same contract. 3.8 List of Bid Document Addenda Reviewed by Bidder Some contractual processes attach various documents to the proposal after it has been submitted. Such documents are referred to as addenda and may include changes in the bid price, unit specifications and other information deemed necessary for the execution of the contract (Boland, 1987. During the process of bidding, bidders are advised to go through such addenda and state them as viewed. This process eliminates the occurrence of bidders operating ignorantly or blindly due to insufficient information emanating from not going through such addenda. It also updates the contract owner 's knowledge of the bidders ' familiarity with new information pertaining to their contract. 3.9 Notice of Conflicts or Errors in Bid Documents During the process of creating and forwarding bids, some mistakes may occur necessitating the contract owner to be notified. This part of the RFP provides for such an occurrence where bidders notify their contract 's owner of the occurrence of errors and conflicts in the bid documents. Additionally, this provision facilitates the process of making corrections to the bid documents affected by errors and / or conflicts before the work that contract cover commences. 3.10 Clarification of Bids In case the bidding process involves sections and parts that are not readily understood such as the case with highly specialized ground ambulatory services, some parts of the proposal create provisions for clarification. Herein, the bidder has a chance to clarify such parts of the bid (Sweeney, 1991). However, bidders should be careful not to over-clarify as such behavior is shunned upon in procurement practice. Additionally, most contract owner simply disqualifies over-clarified bids based on their inherent bias. 3.11 Bidder Signature Like most proposals that contain spaces for the contractor to sign once they complete the Proposal, this one aimed at the ground ambulance service contract also does so. More spaces are provided for the date of signature of the bid, the signatory 's title and identification information pertaining to the actual bid. Such information could include licence numbers. 4. SPECIFICATIONS AND DRAWINGS Due to the nature of the contract under bidding process, the specification and drawings portion of this RFP must include specifications and other technical aspects of the equipment that the bidders must come up with. Additionally, the bidders must provide images or drawings that outline the actual state of the ambulances and related equipment they intend to provide in their contractual obligations should their bids win the contract. A common ambulance vehicle according to the Commission for Accreditation of Ambulance Services (CAAS) is that the ground vehicle has driver 's cab for two personnel, a spacious compartment in the back for handling patients alongside several medical emergency personnel, and enough space to store medical and support equipment such as communication radios and related equipment (Groundvehiclestandard.org, 2016). Based on this general requirement alone, bidders must make sure their equipment meets and exceeds them. Additionally, the bidders must rely on the RFP 's Definition and Description of Work sections to identify if military or civilian standards are applicable. According to industry and Federal standards, the American ambulatory service benefits from Type 1, 2 and 3 ambulances, with some possessing ' Added Duty '' (AD) configurations (Groundvehiclestandard.org, 2016). Conversely, these configurations mean that most ambulances lie between 8000 pounds GVW and 14000 pounds GVW (Groundvehiclestandard.org, 2016). Some specialized models exceed 14000 pounds GVW meaning the bidders must choose wisely informed by both the regional strains in terms of service and the contract 's requirements.
Once both the parties i.e. a buyer organization and seller organization agree on the technical and commercial terms and conditions of the proposal, they could move on to next steps like contract signing, statement of work which would formalize the purchase transactions.
Today, many organizations are becoming more collaborative in the development of RFPs; this is especially true for universities and other major public entities making major technology purchases. RFP - issuing groups ask for specific use cases, rather than providing a list of features, and ensure they have the opportunity to include demonstrations, webinars and meetings as part of the RFP process to ensure they have a strong understanding of all competing products before making a purchase.
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when does real housewives of atlanta season 11 start | List of the Real Housewives of Atlanta episodes - wikipedia
The Real Housewives of Atlanta is an American reality television series that debuted October 7, 2008, and airs on Bravo. It is the third installment of The Real Housewives franchise with a peach serving as a symbol for the series, as the state of Georgia is a renowned peach growing area and one of the well - known streets in Atlanta is known as Peachtree Street. The series follows six women living in and around the Metro Atlanta area as they balance their home life, business ventures, and their social calendars as a production crew follows their everyday activities. The cast of the tenth season include Kandi Burruss, Cynthia Bailey, Kenya Moore, Porsha Williams, Shereé Whitfield and NeNe Leakes. As of April 2013, The Real Housewives of Atlanta is the highest rated installment of the franchise as well as the most - watched series on the Bravo network.
As of May 14, 2017 (2017 - 05 - 14) 190 original episodes of The Real Housewives of Atlanta episodes have aired over nine seasons.
The Atlanta ladies are back in the drama - filled second season premiere. Shereé decides to throw herself an "Independence Party '' to celebrate her recent divorce, while Lisa and her husband discuss the idea of having another baby. The ladies attend actress and comedian Niecy Nash 's birthday party, where Shereé and NeNe reflect on their tumultuous past. Kim decides she wants to design a line of wigs, and gets the ball rolling by going to cosmetology school. New housewife Kandi contemplates her new life with fiance AJ, while Sheree 's party plans start to go awry.
In part 2 of the reunion special the ladies discuss future of NeNe and Kim 's friendship, if Sheree and Kim can bury the hatchet and if Lisa and Ed will have any more kids.
Gossip spreads fast when Kim reveals her lesbian affair in the tabloids, and NeNe rekindles her roller coaster relationship with Kim just in time to get the inside scoop. NeNe 's got drama of her own -- her marriage is on the rocks and her old friend Dwight has been spreading rumors behind her back. Shereé pursues her long - time dream of becoming an actress and Kandi starts getting back into the dating scene. NeNe, Kim and Sheree hit up a couture shoe event and run into new housewife Phaedra -- the pregnant, classy, but sassy attorney - to - the - stars, who arrives with her old pal Dwight.
NeNe attends Atlanta Dogwood Festival with her friend Cynthia and gives her side of the showdown with Dwight. Cynthia, a model who has recently relocated to Atlanta, lends a sympathetic ear. But NeNe 's troubles do n't end there. Her home life is crumbling, having recently thrown Brice out of the house. Sheree agrees to go on a blind date with a doctor, and surprises herself when she enjoys the dance club he takes her that 's located in the wrong part of town. Kim is invited to perform at the White Party, a huge gay circuit party in Palm Springs. Meanwhile, Kandi records a hot track with multi-platinum artist, Ne - Yo and then decides to test out some new material at Atlanta hot spot, Uptown Supper Club, which is owned by Cynthia and her boyfriend, Peter.
Despite the toll her marital problems and troubles with Bryson are taking on NeNe, she is determined to get her "happy '' back, even if that 's through plastic surgery. Phaedra and Cynthia finally find time to get to know each other better as they attend Atlanta 's premiere horse racing event, the Steeplechase. Inspired by a late night host, Kim is ready to be a two - hit wonder and asks Kandi to write her next song. Dwight helps Phaedra plan her over-the - top Kentucky Derby - themed baby shower. Kandi, Cynthia and Kim quickly realize this shower is unlike any other shower they 've ever attended.
When Shereé is served with legal papers, she turns to Phaedra for representation. The two Housewives confidently face Sheree 's ex in court, but to their dismay, he has a trick up his sleeve. Kim and Kroy bring baby KJ home and chaos erupts in the house when everyone, including the dog, realizes how big of an adjustment this will be. On an all - new episode of Kandi Koated Nights, Kandi chats with guests Marlo Hampton and baller boyfriend Charles Grant. One of Kandi 's co-hosts asks Charles what it was like to date NeNe and it does n't take long for the gossip to spread.
Atlanta 's most famous southern belles -- Kim Zolciak, Kandi Burruss, NeNe Leakes, Phaedra Parks, Shereé Whitfield, and Cynthia Bailey -- bring the heat to Hotlanta as they wrap up an explosive season in style.
NeNe and Greg come to a reconciliation in their relationship. Kandi and Todd take a step in their relationship and move in together. Kim is stressed due to her surprise eviction. Phaedra looks to expand her growing mortuary empire to include pet funerals. The newest housewife, Kenya Moore, is introduced and shows the wives who 's boss at Cynthia 's Bailey Agency event but Cynthia puts Kenya in check and refuses to bow down.
Kandi gets comfortable in her new home. Kim is frantically packing up and moving back to her townhouse. Porsha is angry over a fight she had with Kenya.
Kim decides she no longer wants to participate in events with the group, effectively ending her time as a Housewife. Cynthia decides to invite Porsha and her husband on the group trip to Anguilla due to Kim 's departure. Kenya gets a little too close with Apollo for Phaedra which causes tension.
Kim Zolciak makes a surprise return to defend her name and explain what she 's been up to since her departure from the series. Phaedra has the spotlight on her after NeNe calls her out over behind - the - scenes drama that was n't shown on the series.
Porsha is dealing with her divorce still. Cynthia reopens her modeling agency in another location, inviting her friends to come see it. Nene opens some wedding gifts. At Cynthia 's event, Kenya confronts Nene about why she invited Walter to her wedding, leading to a heated argument.
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former world number one tennis player who coached roger federer in 2014 | Stefan Edberg - wikipedia
3x ATP World Tour Masters 1000 (Federer) Davis Cup (Federer)
Stefan Bengt Edberg (Swedish pronunciation: (ˈsteːfan ˈeːdˌbærj); born 19 January 1966) is a Swedish former world no. 1 professional tennis player (in both singles and doubles). A major proponent of the serve - and - volley style of tennis, he won six Grand Slam singles titles and three Grand Slam men 's doubles titles between 1985 and 1996. He also won the Masters Grand Prix and was a part of the Swedish Davis Cup - winning - team four times. In addition he won four Masters Series titles, four Championship Series titles and the unofficial Olympic tournament 1984, was ranked in the singles top 10 for ten successive years, 9 years in the top 5, and is considered one of the greatest players of his era. Edberg began coaching Roger Federer in January 2014, with this partnership ending in December 2015.
Edberg first came to the tennis world 's attention as a junior player. He won all four Grand Slam junior titles in 1983 to become the first (and only) player to achieve the "Junior Grand Slam '' in the open era. Later that year as a professional, Edberg won his first career doubles title in Basel. Edberg accidentally caused the death of linesman Dick Wertheim with an errant serve during the 1983 US Open.
In 1984, Edberg won his first top - level singles title in Milan. Edberg also won the tennis tournament at the 1984 Summer Olympics when the sport was an exhibition event and partnered with fellow Swede Anders Järryd to reach the final of the US Open. Edberg also reached the French Open doubles final with Järryd in 1986 and consequently was World No. 1 in doubles in that year.
U.S. fans first took notice of Edberg 's professional career when he won the U.S. Indoor in Memphis in February 1985, defeating Yannick Noah in the final. Edberg 's first two Grand Slam singles titles came at the Australian Open. In December 1985, he defeated Mats Wilander in straight sets to claim his first major title. In January 1987, he defended his title by defeating local favourite Pat Cash in five sets to win the last Australian Open held on grass courts. Edberg also won the Australian Open and US Open men 's doubles titles in 1987 (partnering fellow Swede Anders Järryd).
In 1988, Edberg reached the first of three consecutive finals at Wimbledon, but lost his ranking as Sweden 's number one player when Mats Wilander had his best year by winning the Australian, French and US Opens in 1988, becoming the world 's number one ranked player. In all three of his consecutive Wimbledon finals, he played German Boris Becker in what became one of Wimbledon 's greatest rivalries. Edberg won their first encounter in a four - set match spread over two days because of rain delays. A year later, Becker won in straight sets. The closest of their matches came in the 1990 final, when Edberg won in five sets after being down a break in the fifth set.
Edberg reached the French Open final in 1989 but lost in five sets to 17 - year - old Michael Chang, who became the youngest ever male winner of a Grand Slam singles title. This was the only Grand Slam singles title that Edberg never won, denying him the completion of a career Grand Slam at the senior level, to match his junior Grand Slam.
In 1990, an abdominal muscle injury forced Edberg to retire from the Australian Open final while trailing Ivan Lendl 5 -- 2 (including two breaks of serve) in the third set. Edberg nevertheless took the World No. 1 ranking from Lendl on 13 August 1990 by winning the Super 9 tournament in Cincinnati. He held it for the rest of that year and for much of 1991 and 1992. Edberg spent a total of 72 weeks as World No. 1. In 1991 Edberg again reached the Semi Finals of Wimbledon but lost to Michael Stich in a close match: 4 -- 6, 7 -- 6, 7 -- 6, 7 -- 6.
Edberg 's final two Grand Slam singles triumphs came at the US Open, with wins over Jim Courier in the 1991 final and Pete Sampras in the 1992 final, who was just months away from being ranked No. 1 in the world.
Edberg reached the Finals of Australian Open again in 1992 and 1993, losing both times to Jim Courier in 4 sets. He was one of the few players who reached the finals for Australian Open 5 times. The 1993 Australian Open final was Edberg 's last Grand Slam singles final appearance.
In 1996, Edberg reached the finals of Queens club but lost the match to Boris Becker. He won his third and final Grand Slam doubles title at Australian Open with Petr Korda. He reached quarterfinals of his last US Open after defeating Richard Krajicek and Tim Henman, but lost the quarterfinals to Goran Ivanisevic.
Edberg was most comfortable playing tennis on fast - playing surfaces. Of his six Grand Slam singles titles, four were won on grass courts at the Australian Open (1985 and 1987) and Wimbledon (1988 and 1990) and two were won on hardcourts at the US Open (1991 and 1992).
In December 2013, Edberg began coaching Roger Federer.
Edberg is noted as the finest serve - and - volley player of his era and arguably the greatest of all - time. Edberg did not possess a powerful dominating serve like Pete Sampras or Boris Becker, but his serve was still largely effective. Edberg often chose to use a less powerful serve, such as a kick or slice serve. The extra time from using a slower serve gave Edberg more time to get to the net, where he used his quick feet and athleticism to gain control of the point. Edberg 's volleying skills were the very best and could easily redirect powerfully struck balls to the open court. He had sufficient groundstrokes, and his one - handed backhand was one of his marquee shots. Edberg 's backhand was extremely effective and considered amongst the best of his era.
Through his whole career, Edberg used Wilson Sporting Goods racquets and Adidas clothing and shoes.
Edberg began playing competitive squash after his retirement from professional tennis and soon became an elite player in Sweden. When racketlon emerged as a growing sport in Scandinavia, Edberg 's pro-level tennis ability and emerging squash prowess made him highly competitive, despite his relative inexperience in badminton and table tennis.
In September 2008, Stefan Edberg officially joined the Black Rock Tour of Champions, a tour for professional tennis players who have retired from the ATP Tour. Edberg won his first tournament in Paris held on clay, winning matches against clay court specialists Thomas Muster in the opening round and Sergi Bruguera in the finals.
In January 2012, Edberg played a one - set exhibition against Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in Doha, Qatar, and lost 7 -- 5.
Edberg signed a contract to become Roger Federer 's coach at the end of 2013. Their collaboration officially started at the 2014 Australian Open. (1) Federer described Edberg 's role as "more of a mentor than a coach ''; nonetheless, his influence has been widely regarded as pivotal in the Swiss champion 's eventual resurgence, especially in bringing effective and more frequent serve - and - volley and net charging to his game.
Edberg was born in Västervik, Sweden. He is married to Annette Hjort Olsen. They have two children, Emilie and Christopher. (Olsen was once romantically linked to Edberg 's tennis rival Mats Wilander before her marriage to Edberg.)
Edberg is a supporter of English football team Leeds United and the Swedish ice hockey team Växjö Lakers.
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what is the origin of the thumbs up | Thumb signal - wikipedia
A thumb signal, usually described as a thumbs - up or thumbs - down, is a common hand gesture achieved by a closed fist held with the thumb extended upward or downward in approval or disapproval, respectively. These gestures have become metaphors in English: "The audience gave the movie the thumbs - up '' means that the audience approved of the movie, regardless of whether the gesture was actually made.
The source of the gesture is obscure, but a number of origins have been proposed.
Carleton S. Coon, having observed Barbary apes in Gibraltar using the gesture, hypothesised in the anthropological classic The Story of Man that it is a mutual celebration of having opposable thumbs. Critics have suggested, however, that the apes may be simply imitating humans.
The Latin phrase pollice verso is used in the context of gladiatorial combat for a hand gesture used by Ancient Roman crowds to pass judgment on a defeated gladiator. In modern popular culture, it is assumed that "thumbs down '' was the signal that a defeated gladiator should be condemned to death; "thumbs up '', that he should be spared.
"Now they give shows of their own. Thumbs up! Thumbs down! And the killers, spare or slay, and then go back to concessions for private privies '' from Juvenal 's Against the City of Rome (ca. 110 -- 127 B.C.)
While it is clear that the thumb was involved, the precise type of gesture described by the phrase pollice verso and its meaning are unclear in the historical and literary record. According to Anthony Corbeill, a classical studies professor who extensively researched the practice, thumbs up signalled killing the gladiator while "a closed fist with a wraparound thumb '' meant sparing him.
It has been suggested that ' thumbs up ' was a signal from English archers preparing for battle that all is well with their bow and they are ready to fight. Before use, the Fistmele (or the "brace height '') was checked, that being the distance between the string and the bow on an English Longbow. This fistmele should be about 7 inches (18 cm), which is about the same as a fist with thumb extended. The term Fistmele is a Saxon word that refers to that measurement.
Desmond Morris in Gestures: Their Origins and Distribution traces the practice back to a medieval custom used to seal business transactions. Over time, the mere sight of an upraised thumb came to symbolize harmony and kind feelings. For an example in the 17th century see the Diego Velázquez painting The Lunch.
The Oxford English Dictionary cites the earliest written instance of "thumbs - up '' (with a positive meaning) as being from Over the Top, a 1917 book written by Arthur Guy Empey. Empey was an American who served in the British armed forces during World War I. He wrote: "Thumbs up, Tommy 's expression which means ' everything is fine with me. ' ''
Popularization in the United States is generally attributed to the practices of World War II pilots, who used the thumbs up to communicate with ground crews prior to take - off. This custom may have originated with the China - based Flying Tigers, who were among the first American flyers involved in World War II. The appreciative Chinese would say '' 挺 好 的 "('' ting hao de "), meaning "very good, '' and gesture with a thumbs up, which in Chinese means "you 're number one. '' High officials in the Chinese government see it as a sign of respect. Any person from China will recognize this numerical gesture, and it can be seen in movies and photos of the era, though this has not been verified in print by American Volunteer Group (AVG) pilots.
During World War II, pilots on US aircraft carriers adopted the thumbs up gesture to alert the deck crew that they were ready to go and that the wheel chocks could be removed. On modern US carriers, certain deck crew hold a thumb up to signal to the pilot and control tower that their station is OK for take - off. American GIs are reputed to have picked up on the thumb gesture and spread it throughout Europe as they marched toward Berlin. According to Luís da Câmara Cascudo, Brazilians have adopted the "thumbs up '' from watching American pilots based in northern Brazil during World War II.
The thumbs up signal has a generally positive connotation in English - speaking countries. However, its perceived meaning varies significantly from culture to culture.
The sign has a pejorative meaning in parts of West Africa, Iran, and Greece according to Roger E. Axtell 's book Gestures: The Do 's and Taboos of Body Language Around the World. In practice, most Greeks nowadays recognise the positive connotation of the sign due to international exposure. Any perceived pejorative meaning of the past is lost in contemporary use. Despite that, the sign is still very rarely used by native Greeks for its positive meaning (and never for the pejorative).
In Germany, France, and Hungary, the gesture can simply indicate the number one, in the right context.
In Finland, the gesture means "good luck ''.
The thumbs up gesture is used on the logo of Thums Up soda.
In the United States, American Sign Language users use the thumbs up wiggled modestly left and right to indicate the number ten (10). When held stationary and thrust toward another person the meaning is "yourself ''. When lifted up by the other palm, the meaning is "help ''.
On the Internet, and most particularly at the Facebook social media site, the thumbs up gesture is shown as an icon and is associated with the term "like '' -- which within that context means to follow or subscribe to the page, posts, or profile of another individual or company; and on YouTube, individual videos may be voted on positively or negatively by clicking the thumbs - up or thumbs - down icons respectively (which in some previous versions of the site, used to be acompanied by "Like '' and "Dislike '' labels, and are still referred as such nowadays), and in the case of a thumbs - up, the video gets added to the user 's "Liked videos '' playlist. See Like button.
More recently, these gestures are associated with movie reviews, having been popularized by critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert on their televised review show Siskel & Ebert -- the thumb up meaning a positive opinion of a film; the thumb down meaning a negative one. The trademarked phrase "two thumbs up '', originally meaning a positive review from both reviewers, has come to be used as an indication of very high quality or unanimity of praise.
By extension from the movie review usage, many websites (including Facebook) allow users to approve or disapprove of items, such as comments in a forum, products in a store, or even other people 's reviews of movies, books, products, etc., by choosing to click either a thumbs - up or thumbs - down button. In the aggregate, this serves as an evaluation system. Other users may then see the total number of thumbs up and thumbs down given to an item, or may simply see the number which is produced by subtracting thumbs down from thumbs up. (In the latter case, an item which has received exactly ten of each would read as having a rating of zero, rather than one of + 10 / - 10.) Often, users may view a list of items in order of popularity, as ranked by this metric.
Hitchhikers in the West traditionally use a thumbs up gesture to solicit rides from oncoming vehicles, although in this presentation the arm is generally outstretched with the palm and closed fingers facing the motorist. The gesture is also usually performed with the hand nearest the motorist. (However, in one "dialect '', the hitch hiker is n't giving a thumbs - up, but is pointing back down the road, to indicate the hopeful destination. A hitch hiker may wave the hand, emphasizing the directional meaning. This is a similar to the "thumb towards the door '' gesture, for "get out of here! '')
In scuba diving, the thumbs - up gesture is a specific diving signal given underwater, in which the diver indicates that he or she is about to stop his or her dive and ascend. This occasionally causes confusion in new divers, who might automatically gesture thumbs - up when trying to indicate approval -- actually indicating a desire to stop diving and to ascend. The diving signal for approval is the A-ok sign.
In basketball, when a held ball occurs, an official will jerk both thumbs in the air, signalling that a jump ball is in order.
In baseball, umpires will sometimes jerk a thumbs - up over their shoulder as an "out '' signal
Amusement park rides such as roller coasters are usually cleared for departure using a thumbs - up signal from the crew after inspection that all safety precautions have been taken.
The Indian cola brand Thums Up, now owned by The Coca - Cola Company is named after this symbol, and uses it as its logo.
Unicode reserves 👍 or U + 1F44D symbol and 👎 or U + 1F44E symbol for the thumbs up and thumbs down gestures, respectively. A reversed (left - facing) thumbs up gesture is encoded at U + 1F592.
Other symbols are - b (right hand) and d - (left hand). Various instant messaging services use (y) and (n) as a shortcut for thumbs up and thumbs down emoji.
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who wrote the lyrics to jesus christ super star | Jesus Christ Superstar - wikipedia
Jesus Christ Superstar is a 1970 rock opera with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyrics by Tim Rice. The musical started as a rock opera concept album before its Broadway debut in 1971. The musical is mostly sung - through, with little spoken dialogue. The story is loosely based on the Gospels ' accounts of the last week of Jesus 's life, beginning with the preparation for the arrival of Jesus and his disciples in Jerusalem and ending with the crucifixion. It depicts political and interpersonal struggles between Judas Iscariot and Jesus that are not present in the Bible.
The work 's depiction offers a free interpretation of the psychology of Jesus and the other characters. A large part of the plot focuses on the character of Judas, who is depicted as a tragic figure dissatisfied with the direction in which Jesus steers his disciples and fearful for the harm that may result. Contemporary attitudes and sensibilities (as well as slang) pervade the lyrics, and ironic allusions to modern life are scattered throughout the depiction of political events. Stage and film productions accordingly contain many intentional anachronisms.
In the year 30 AD, Judas Iscariot, a sullen member of the 12 apostles, expresses his concern over Jesus 's rising popularity as a "king '' and the negative repercussions that will have. He strongly criticises Jesus for accepting his followers ' unrealistic views, and for not heeding his concerns ("Heaven on Their Minds ''). While Judas still loves Jesus, he believes that Jesus is just a man, not God, and worries that Jesus 's following will be seen as a threat to the Roman Empire which would then severely punish Jesus, his associates, and possibly the Jewish people as a whole. Judas 's warning goes unheeded, as Jesus 's followers have their minds set on going to Jerusalem with Jesus. As they ask Jesus for information about his plans for the future, Jesus will not give them any, since whatever will happen is determined by God ("What 's the Buzz? '').
Recognizing that Jesus is irritated by the badgering and lack of understanding from his followers, Mary Magdalene tries to help Jesus relax. Judas is concerned that Jesus is associating with a woman of "her profession '', as if she were a prostitute. It seems to Judas that Jesus is contradicting his own teaching, and he worries that this apparent lack of judgment will be used against Jesus and his followers ("Strange Thing Mystifying ''). Jesus tells Judas that Mary is with him now, and unless Judas is without sin he should not judge the character of others. Jesus then reproaches his apostles for being "shallow, thick, and slow '' and somewhat bitterly answers that not a single one of them cares about him. Mary Magdalene tries to assure Jesus that everything is alright while anointing him with oil ("Everything 's Alright ''). Judas angrily insists that the money used to obtain the oil should have been used to help the poor instead. Jesus sadly declines that he and his followers do not have the resources to alleviate poverty and that they should be glad for the privileges they have. He claims that once his followers no longer have him, they will lose their path.
Meanwhile, Caiaphas, the High Priest of Israel, assembles the Pharisees together at the Sanhedrin to talk about Jesus and his disciples. According to the Pharisees, Jesus 's growing following consists of Jews unwilling to accept the Romans as their rulers, and the priests believe that Jesus may come to be seen as a threat to the Roman Empire, and to the priesthood 's integrity; if the Romans retaliate, many Jews will suffer, even those who are not following Jesus. Caiaphas then concludes that there could be great bloodshed and the stakes are "frighteningly high! ''. So, for the greater good, he suggests they should "crush him completely! So like John before him, this Jesus must die! '', and the Pharisees concur upon his decision ("This Jesus Must Die ''). As Jesus and his followers arrive exultantly in Jerusalem, they are confronted by Caiaphas, who demands that Jesus should postpone this parade, which Jesus says would be futile and change nothing, and he proceeds to greet the happy Israelites instead ("Hosanna ''). As the crowd cheers him on, they suddenly ask, "Hey JC, JC, wo n't you die for me? '' To this, Jesus visibly reacts with concern. Then, one of his apostles, Simon the Zealot, suggests that Jesus lead his mob in a war against Rome and gain absolute power ("Simon Zealotes ''). Jesus rejects this suggestion, stating that none of his followers understand what true power is, nor do they understand his true message ("Poor Jerusalem '').
Pontius Pilate, the governor of Judea, has had a dream, in which he meets with a Galilean (in the form of Jesus) and that he, Pilate, will receive all of the blame for the man 's violent and mournful death, predicting the rise of Christianity ("Pilate 's Dream ''). Jesus arrives at the Temple in Jerusalem and finds that it has become a haven of sin and debauchery as it is being used for selling everything from usury and weapons to prostitutes and drugs; angered by this, Jesus drives everyone out ("The Temple ''). Angry, disconsolate, and tired by his burden, Jesus is confronted by lepers, cripples, and beggars, all wanting to be healed. Even though he heals some, their number increases, and he is overwhelmed. Unable to solve everyone 's problems, Jesus screams "HEAL YOURSELVES!!! '' until he finds Mary Magdalene by his side, laying him to rest ("Everything 's Alright (Reprise) ''). While Jesus is asleep, Mary acknowledges that she is unconditionally in love with Jesus, unlike any man she has known before, and it frightens her ("I Do n't Know How to Love Him '').
Conflicted, Judas seeks out the Pharisees and promises to help them arrest Jesus, while belaboring that he is acting with unselfish motives and that Jesus himself would approve if he knew those motives ("Damned for All Time ''). Sustaining his testimony, Caiaphas and Annas ask that Judas reveal the location of Jesus so that the authorities can apprehend him. In exchange for the information, Judas is offered thirty pieces of silver as a "fee '' so that he can assuage his conscience by using the money charitably ("Blood Money ''). Judas decides that it would be better to turn Jesus in before his popularity leads to the deaths of Jesus and his followers, Judas included. He reveals that on Thursday night, Jesus will be at the Garden of Gethsemane.
At what Jesus knows will be the Last Supper, he pours wine and passes bread for his apostles ("The Last Supper ''). Very aware of the ordeal he faces, he is stung when the others pay little attention to him; "For all you care this wine could be my blood / For all you care this bread could be my body, '' he remarks, alluding to (and anticipating) the Christian doctrine of the Eucharist. He asks them to remember him when they eat and drink; he predicts that Peter will deny him three times "in just a few hours '' and that one of them will betray him. Judas, believing that Jesus already knows ("cut the dramatics, you know very well who ''), admits he is the one and angrily accuses Jesus of acting recklessly and egotistically. Claiming he does not understand Jesus 's decisions, he leaves to bring the Roman soldiers.
The remaining apostles fall asleep, and Jesus retreats to the Garden of Gethsemane to pray ("Gethsemane ''). He admits to God his doubts, fears, and anger; that he is tired and has done all he can. He asks powerfully if any of it has meaning and implores God not let him suffer the horrible death that portends for him. He feels disillusioned with his quest as the Messiah, does not understand what it has achieved, and wishes to give up. Receiving no answer, Jesus realises that he can not defy God 's will, and surrenders to God. His prayer ends with a request that God take him immediately, "before I change my mind. ''
Finally, Judas arrives with Roman soldiers and identifies Jesus by kissing him on the cheek ("The Arrest ''). While Jesus is being arrested, his apostles attempt to fight the soldiers, Jesus tells them to let the soldiers take him to Caiaphas. On the way, a mob (acting like -- and sometimes represented as -- modern - day news reporters) asks Jesus what he plans to do, but Jesus declines to comment. When Jesus is brought to trial before the Sanhedrin, Caiaphas demands if he is the King of the Jews. Jesus responds: "That 's what you say, you say that I am. '' This answer is affirmative according to Jewish custom, and that provides enough justification for the Pharisees to bring Jesus to Pilate. Meanwhile, Jesus 's apostle Peter is confronted by an old man, a soldier and a maid, and Peter denies to each that he knows Jesus ("Peter 's Denial ''). Mary asks Peter why he denied Jesus, and Peter responds that he had to do it in order to save himself. Mary wonders how Jesus knew that Peter would deny him three times.
Later, Pilate asks Jesus if he is the King of the Jews. Jesus gives the same answer that he gave Caiaphas: "that 's what you say. '' Since Jesus is from Galilee, Pilate says that he is not under his jurisdiction and sends him to King Herod ("Pilate and Christ ''). As Jesus is dragged away, the chorus asks where Jesus 's power has gone. The decadent and flamboyant King Herod persuades Jesus to prove his divinity by performing miracles, offering to free him if he complies ("King Herod 's Song (Try It And See) ''), but Jesus ignores him. Herod decides that Jesus is just another phony messiah and angrily sends him back to Pilate. Meanwhile, Mary Magdalene, Peter, and the apostles remember when they first began following Jesus, and wish that they could return to a time of peace ("Could We Start Again, Please? '')
Later, Judas is horrified upon beholding Jesus 's harsh treatment by the authorities. Feeling extreme guilt for this, and panicking that he will be seen as responsible, Judas expresses regret to the pharisees, fearing he will forever be remembered as a traitor. Thankfully, Caiaphas and Annas never believe him, saying that what he has done now will save everyone and that he should not feel remorse for his actions. Although rewarded for a job well done, Judas recognizes that memories of this could haunt the rest of his life, that God chose him to be the one to betray Jesus, and that he has been used as a pawn for the "foul bloody crime ''. He suffers a mental breakdown during the epiphany, cursing God for his manipulative ways, and in a final attempt to detach himself from his destiny, he commits suicide by hanging himself from a tree ("Judas 's Death '').
At Jesus 's trial, Pilate interrogates Jesus into revealing the whereabouts of his kingdom, but was cut off by a bloodthirsty mob who demands that Jesus should be sentenced to death by crucifixion. In spite of the mob 's behavior, Pilate remembers the dream he had about the mob and the unjust execution of Jesus. Pilate tells the mob that, while Jesus should be imprisoned, he does not deserve to die. Pilate demands that the crowd give him a reason to condemn Jesus, and the mob answers that Jesus is a blasphemer and has defied the Roman Empire. However, after revealing Jesus as nothing more than a pathetic human being, Pilate calls the crowd hypocrites, as he knows they hate Roman rule. Even so, he decides to satisfy their bloodlust by having Jesus flogged, counting thirty - nine bloody strokes ("Trial Before Pilate, (Including The Thirty - Nine Lashes) ''). Pilate, clearly disturbed by the whole ordeal, pleads with Jesus to defend himself, but Jesus says weakly that everything has been determined, by God, and Pilate can not change it. More outraged by Jesus 's words, the crowd still calls for Jesus 's death, informing Pilate that he has his duty to keep the peace. Finally, he reluctantly agrees to crucify Jesus to keep the crowd from getting violent, saying to Jesus: "Do n't let me stop your great self - destruction! Die if you want to, you misguided martyr! I wash my hands of your demolition! Die if you want to, you -- innocent puppet... ''
As Jesus prepares to be crucified, he is mocked by the ghost of Judas, who questions why Jesus chose to arrive in the manner and time that he did, and if what happened to him was really part of a divine plan, but Judas ' questions go unanswered ("Superstar ''). After reciting his final words and commending his spirit to God, Jesus slowly dies on the cross, his fate coming full circle ("The Crucifixion ''). In the end, the Apostles and Mary, mourning the death of their fallen saviour, reflect on the impact he has had on their lives ("John Nineteen: Forty - One '').
2 flutes, clarinet, 2 bassoons, 2 saxophones (one tenor), 6 horns, 4 trumpets, 2 trombones, drum set, percussion set, 6 guitars (1 acoustic, 2 electric), 4 bass guitars, 5 pianos, electric piano, 3 organs, positive organ, and strings. Additional vocals are provided by a choir, a children 's choir ("Overture ''), and other singers ("Superstar '').
Act One
Act Two
The songs were first written and conceived as a concept album, before the musical was created and staged. On the original album, the part of Jesus was sung by Ian Gillan, with Murray Head as Judas, Michael d'Abo as King Herod, Yvonne Elliman as Mary Magdalene, and Barry Dennen as Pilate. In July 1971, the first authorised American concert of the rock opera took place in front of an audience of 13,000 people at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 's Civic Arena with Jeff Fenholt singing the role of Jesus, Carl Anderson as Judas and Elliman repeating as Mary Magdalene.
The musical opened on Broadway on 12 October 1971, directed by Tom O'Horgan, at the Mark Hellinger Theatre. It starred Jeff Fenholt as Jesus, Ben Vereen as Judas and Bob Bingham as Caiaphas. Dennen and Elliman played the roles that they had sung on the album. Kurt Yaghjian was Annas, and Ted Neeley (as a Christ understudy), Samuel E. Wright and Anita Morris appeared in the cast. Carl Anderson replaced Vereen when he fell ill, and the two performers later took turns playing the role. The show closed on 30 June 1973 after 711 performances. The production received mixed reviews; the bold casting of African - Americans as Judas was lauded, but reviewer Clive Barnes from The New York Times said, "the real disappointment was not in the music... but in the conception. '' Lloyd Webber said in 2012: "I hugely objected to the original New York production, which was probably the worst night of my life. It was a vulgar travesty. '' The show was nominated for five Tony Awards, including Best Score, but did n't win any. Lloyd Webber won a Drama Desk Award as "Most Promising Composer '', and Vereen won a Theatre World Award.
The Broadway show and subsequent productions were condemned by some religious groups. Tim Rice was quoted as saying "It happens that we do n't see Christ as God but simply the right man at the right time at the right place. '' Some Christians considered such comments to be blasphemous, the character of Judas too sympathetic and some of his criticisms of Jesus offensive. At the same time, some Jews claimed that it bolstered the antisemitic belief that the Jews were responsible for Jesus ' death by showing most of the villains as Jewish (Caiaphas and the other priests, Herod) and showing the crowd in Jerusalem calling for the crucifixion. The musical was banned in South Africa for being "irreligious ''. A 1972 production of the play was banned in the Hungarian People 's Republic for "distribution of religious propaganda ''.
Superstar opened at the Palace Theatre in London in 1972, starring Paul Nicholas as Jesus, Stephen Tate as Judas and Dana Gillespie as Mary Magdalene. It was directed by Australian Jim Sharman. This production was much more successful than the original production on Broadway, running for eight years and becoming the United Kingdom 's longest - running musical at the time. Dmitri Shostakovich attended this production in London just before his death. He regretted that he could not have composed something like it; he lauded especially a rock band underpinning full symphonic strings, brass and woodwind.
One of the earliest foreign productions was a five - day run in Sweden at Scandinavium in Gothenburg, opening on 18 February 1972 and playing to 74,000 people (a record at the time). Starring as Mary Magdalene was Agnetha Fältskog. On 16 March 1972 an oratorio version was performed at Memorial Drive Park in Adelaide, South Australia as part of the Adelaide Festival of the Arts. This was followed in May by the first full Australian production, at the Capitol Theatre, Sydney, later moving to the Palais Theatre in Melbourne. Sharman again directed, and the cast included Trevor White as Jesus, Jon English as Judas, and Michele Fawdon (1972 -- 1973) and Marcia Hines (1973 -- 1974) as Mary Magdalene. Hines was the first black woman to play the role. Other cast members included Reg Livermore, John Paul Young, Stevie Wright, and Graham Russell and Russell Hitchcock, who met during the production and subsequently formed the band Air Supply. The production ran until February 1974. In June 1972 the show opened in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in Atelje 212 theatre, in adaptation by Jovan Ćirilov. The role of Jesus Christ was played by Korni Grupa vocalist Zlatko Pejaković, the role of Mary Magdalene by Azra Halinović and the role of Pontius Pilate by Branko Milićević. The premiere was directly broadcast by Radio Television of Belgrade. Bora Đorđević and Srđan Marjanović, at the time a little known musicians, also participated as members of the choir. The production was praised by the Yugoslav public.
In 1973, the show opened in Paris at the Théâtre de Chaillot in a French adaptation by Pierre Delanoë. The title role was sung by Daniel Beretta, and Mary Magdalena was Anne - Marie David. The critics were unimpressed, and the production stopped after 30 performances. In the same year, Noel Pearson produced the show at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, Republic of Ireland, with Luke Kelly giving a critically acclaimed performance as King Herod. In 1974, first Spanish - language production ran in Mexico with the title "Jesucristo Super Estrella ''. Julissa played Mary Magdalen. The musical was seen in 1974 in Peru and Singapore.
Robert Stigwood launched two road touring companies in 1971 to cover North America, with Robert Corff and Tom Westerman as Jesus, respectively. The first major US National Tour, however began In 1976, managed by Laura Shapiro Kramer. The tour continued until 1980. In 1977, the show had its first Broadway revival, running from 23 November 1977 to 12 February 1978. It was directed by William Daniel Grey, with choreography by Kelly Carrol and starred William Daniel Grey as Jesus, Patrick Jude as Judas, and Barbara Niles as Mary Magdalene. Regional productions followed.
In 1981, Emilio de Soto directed an English - language version in Venezuela, with 163 actors. From 1982 to 1984, an Australian production toured Australia and South - East Asia, directed by Trevor White, who also reprised his role of Jesus. The cast included Doug Parkinson as Judas and Marcia Hines (reprising her role as Mary Magdalene).
The North American touring revival of Superstar in 1992 starred Neeley and Anderson reprising their respective Broadway and 1973 film roles as Jesus and Judas, receiving positive reviews for their performances. This production also starred both Dennis DeYoung as Pilate, and Syreeta and Irene Cara sharing Mary Magdalene. Originally expected to run for three to four months, the tour ended up running for five years. Replacements in this tour included Jason Raize as Pontius Pilate and Simone as the Maid by the Fire and understudy for Mary. In 1994, a New Zealand production starred Darryl Lovegrove as Jesus, Jay Laga'aia as Judas and Frankie Stevens as Caiaphas. Also in 1994, a stage version titled Jesus Christ Superstar: A Resurrection was performed in Atlanta, Austin and Seattle featuring Amy Ray as Jesus, Emily Saliers as Mary Magdalene and Michael Lorant as Judas.
In 1996, the musical was revived in London at the Lyceum Theatre and ran for a year and a half. Directed by Gale Edwards, it starred Steve Balsamo and Zubin Varla as Jesus and Judas, and Joanna Ampil as Mary Magdalene and Alice Cooper as King Herod. The production was nominated for a Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival but did not win. It was followed by a UK tour. This production was revived on Broadway at the Ford Center for the Performing Arts in 2000, starring Glenn Carter as Jesus and Tony Vincent as Judas. It opened to mixed reviews and ran for 161 performances. It was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical but did not win. In 2002, a national tour starred Sebastian Bach as Jesus and Anderson once again as Judas. Bach received mixed reviews while Anderson was again praised. In April 2003, Bach was replaced by Eric Kunze. Anderson left the show later in 2003 after being diagnosed with leukaemia and died in 2004. The tour closed shortly after Anderson 's departure.
In 2004 a year - long UK tour began, directed by Bob Tomson and Bill Kenwright. Carter reprised his role as Jesus, with James Fox as Judas. In 2005, a successful Scandinavian tour starred Australian Peter Murphy (Jesus), American Kristen Cummings (Mary), Englishman Jon Boydon née Stokes (Judas), Frenchman Jérôme Pradon (King Herod) and Australian Michael - John Hurney (Pilate). A US tour starring Neeley, reprising his role as Jesus and Corey Glover as Judas, began in 2006 and played for five years. A Chilean heavy metal version has played annually in Santiago since 2004. In Boston, Gary Cherone portrayed Jesus in productions in 1994, 1996 and 2003 and Judas in 2000.
A new production of Jesus Christ Superstar was mounted at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, in Stratford, Ontario, in 2011. Directed by Des McAnuff, the cast starred Paul Nolan as Jesus, Josh Young as Judas, Brent Carver as Pilate, Chilina Kennedy as Mary Magdalene, Bruce Dow as Herod and Melissa O'Neil as Martha. This moved to La Jolla Playhouse later in the year and transferred to the Neil Simon Theatre on Broadway in 2012, with Tom Hewitt taking over the role of Pilate. Reviews were mixed. The revival was nominated for two Tonys: Best Revival and, for Young, Best Actor. Neither award was won, but Young won a Theatre World Award. The revival closed after 116 performances and 24 previews.
Through a 2012 ITV competition TV show called Superstar, produced by Andrew Lloyd Webber, the UK public chose Ben Forster for the role of Jesus in an arena tour of the musical, beginning at O2 in September 2012. The production also starred Tim Minchin as Judas, Melanie C as Mary Magdalene and Chris Moyles as King Herod. Lloyd Webber stated, "The funny thing is that Jesus Christ Superstar (as a rock concert) is what we actually intended it to be. When it is done in a conventional proscenium theatre production it feels shoe - horned in. That is why I wanted to do this. '' The tour resumed in March 2013 in the UK, and an Australian leg of the tour commenced in Perth in May 2013. Andrew O'Keefe played King Herod in Australia, with Jon Stevens as Pilate. Stevens had played Judas in an Australian arena tour in 1992.
In 2016, celebrating 45 years since the musical debuted on Broadway, Jesus Christ Superstar returned to London at Regent 's Park Open Air Theatre, directed by Timothy Sheader. The production won the BBC Radio 2 Audience Award for Best Musical at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards, and a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival. The production returned to the Open Air Theatre as part of the 2017 season, running from 11 August 2017 to 23 September. Additionally, the Lyric Opera of Chicago is hosting a run of the opera from late April 2018 to late May 2018.
Two notable Jesuses were Takeshi Kaga, in the 1976 Japanese production, and Camilo Sesto in the 1975 Spanish production. Mary Magdalene was Rocío Banquells in a 1981 production in Mexico. A Czech version premiered in 1994 in Prague 's Spirála Theatre and ran until 1998, with 1288 performances. In the 2000s, a Venezuelan production ran for two years (2006 -- 2008), directed by Michel Hausmann. A Spanish production produced by Stage Entertainment ran from 2007 to 2009, followed by long - running productions in Italy and Sweden (featuring Ola Salo) and Norway.
Concerts of the show have been mounted in Vienna, Austria, since 1981, including one on Easter of 2015 starring Drew Sarich in the title role.
In 2010, an Australian production presented by Harvest Rain Theatre Company was directed by Tim O'Connor. Luke Kennedy appeared as Jesus, Naomi Price as Mary, Tod Strike as Judas, and Steven Tandy as Herod. A 2017 Professional Australian Production was staged at the Arts Centre Melbourne and starred Rob Mills as Jesus.
A 2014 production in São Paulo, Brazil starred Igor Rickli as Jesus. Negra Li was Mary Magdalene. A 2014 production in Lima, Peru, at the Sarita Colonia prison, as part of a rehabilitation program for inmates, received some press. Eighty prisoners mounted the production, directed by inmate Freddy Battifora, who also played the role of Jesus. The Catholic Church approved of the production.
The original 1970 concept album was very popular; its 1971 release topped the US Billboard Pop Albums. The 1972 and 1992 Australian cast recordings were also both highly successful.
In 1994, a studio recording under the name of Jesus Christ Superstar: A Resurrection was released.
A 1996 radio production for BBC Radio 2 starred Tony Hadley as Jesus, Roger Daltrey as Judas, Frances Ruffelle as Mary Magdalene and Julian Clary as King Herod; this production was re-broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra on 6 August 2016.
A film adaptation of Jesus Christ Superstar was released in 1973 and was the eighth highest - grossing film of that year. The film, directed by Norman Jewison, was shot in Israel and other Middle Eastern locations. Ted Neeley, Carl Anderson and Yvonne Elliman were each nominated for a Golden Globe Award for their portrayals of Jesus, Judas and Mary Magdalene, respectively. Bob Bingham (Caiaphas) and Barry Dennen (Pilate) also reprised their roles. Though it attracted criticism from some religious groups, the film was generally well received. A new song, called "Then We Are Decided '' and phrased as a dialogue between Caiaphas and Annas, was written and composed for this adaptation.
A second adaptation was filmed in 1999, and released around the world on video in 2000 and 2001. It starred Glenn Carter as Jesus, Jérôme Pradon as Judas, Reneé Castle as Mary Magdalene, and Rik Mayall as Herod, and was directed by Gale Edwards and Nick Morris. It was released on video in the UK in October 2000. In the U.S. it was released on VHS and DVD in March 2001, and aired on PBS 's Great Performances series in April 2001. It won the International Emmy Award for Best Performing Arts Film in November 2001. The style of the film is more like the stage version than the location - based 1973 adaptation, and it used many of the ideas from the 1996 -- 1999 UK production.
On Easter Sunday, April 1, 2018, NBC aired a live concert version of the show featuring John Legend as Jesus, Sara Bareilles as Mary Magdalene, Brandon Victor Dixon as Judas, Alice Cooper as King Herod, Norm Lewis as Caiaphas, Ben Daniels as Pilate, Jin Ha as Annas, Erik Grönwall as Simon Zealotes and Jason Tam as Peter.
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is the work process that is directly related to the organization's mission | Business process - wikipedia
A business process or business method is a collection of related, structured activities or tasks that produce a specific service or product (serve a particular goal) for a particular customer or customers. It may often be visualized as a flowchart of a sequence of activities with interleaving decision points or as a process matrix of a sequence of activities with relevance rules based on data in the process.
There are three types of business processes (citation by August - Wilhelm Scheer and Mark von Rosing):
A business process begins with a mission objective and ends with achievement of the business objective. Process - oriented organizations break down the barriers of structural departments and try to avoid functional silos.
A complex business process may be decomposed into several sub-processes, which have their own attributes, but also contribute to achieving the goal of the super-process. The analysis of business processes typically includes the mapping of processes and sub-processes down to activity / task level.
Business processes are designed to add value for the customer and should not include unnecessary activities. The outcome of a well designed business process is increased effectiveness (value for the customer) and increased efficiency (less use of resources).
Business Processes can be modeled through a large number of methods and techniques. For instance, the Business Process Modeling Notation is a Business Process Modeling technique that can be used for drawing business processes in a workflow.
An important early (1776) description of processes was that of economist Adam Smith in his famous example of a pin factory. Inspired by an article in Diderot 's Encyclopédie, Smith described the production of a pin in the following way:
'' One man draws out the wire, another straights it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head: to make the head requires two or three distinct operations: to put it on is a particular business, to whiten the pins is another... and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which in some manufacturies are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometime perform two or three of them. ''
Smith also first recognized how the output could be increased through the use of labor division. Previously, in a society where production was dominated by handcrafted goods, one man would perform all the activities required during the production process, while Smith described how the work was divided into a set of simple tasks, which would be performed by specialized workers. The result of labor division in Smith 's example resulted in productivity increasing by 24,000 percent (sic), i.e. that the same number of workers made 240 times as many pins as they had been producing before the introduction of labor division.
It is worth noting that Smith did not advocate labor division at any price and per se. The appropriate level of task division was defined through experimental design of the production process. In contrast to Smith 's view which was limited to the same functional domain and comprised activities that are in direct sequence in the manufacturing process, today 's process concept includes cross-functionality as an important characteristic. Following his ideas the division of labor was adopted widely, while the integration of tasks into a functional, or cross-functional, process was not considered as an alternative option until much later.
American engineer, Frederick Winslow Taylor greatly influenced and improved the quality of industrial processes in the early twentieth century. His Principles of Scientific Management focused on standardization of processes, systematic training and clearly defining the roles of management and employees. His methods were widely adopted in the United States, Russia and parts of Europe and led to further developments such as "time and motion study '' and visual task optimization techniques, such as Gantt charts.
In the latter part of the twentieth century, management guru Peter Drucker focused much of his work on simplification and decentralization of processes, which led to the concept of outsourcing.
In the early 1990s, US corporations, and subsequently companies all over the world, started to adopt the concept of business process reengineering (BPR) in an attempt to re-achieve the competitiveness that they had lost during the previous decade.
Davenport (1993) defines a (business) process as:
'' a structured, measured set of activities designed to produce a specific output for a particular customer or market. It implies a strong emphasis on how work is done within an organization, in contrast to a product focus 's emphasis on what. A process is thus a specific ordering of work activities across time and space, with a beginning and an end, and clearly defined inputs and outputs: a structure for action... Taking a process approach implies adopting the customer 's point of view. Processes are the structure by which an organization does what is necessary to produce value for its customers. ''
This definition contains certain characteristics a process must possess. These characteristics are achieved by a focus on the business logic of the process (how work is done), instead of taking a product perspective (what is done). Following Davenport 's definition of a process we can conclude that a process must have clearly defined boundaries, input and output, that it consists of smaller parts, activities, which are ordered in time and space, that there must be a receiver of the process outcome - a customer - and that the transformation taking place within the process must add customer value.
Hammer & Champy 's (1993) definition can be considered as a subset of Davenport 's. They define a process as:
'' a collection of activities that takes one or more kinds of input and creates an output that is of value to the customer. ''
As we can note, Hammer & Champy have a more transformation oriented perception, and put less emphasis on the structural component -- process boundaries and the order of activities in time and space.
Rummler & Brache (1995) use a definition that clearly encompasses a focus on the organization 's external customers, when stating that
'' a business process is a series of steps designed to produce a product or service. Most processes (...) are cross-functional, spanning the ' white space ' between the boxes on the organization chart. Some processes result in a product or service that is received by an organization 's external customer. We call these primary processes. Other processes produce products that are invisible to the external customer but essential to the effective management of the business. We call these support processes. ''
The above definition distinguishes two types of processes, primary and support processes, depending on whether a process is directly involved in the creation of customer value, or concerned with the organization 's internal activities. In this sense, Rummler and Brache 's definition follows Porter 's value chain model, which also builds on a division of primary and secondary activities. According to Rummler and Brache, a typical characteristic of a successful process - based organization is the absence of secondary activities in the primary value flow that is created in the customer oriented primary processes. The characteristic of processes as spanning the white space on the organization chart indicates that processes are embedded in some form of organizational structure. Also, a process can be cross-functional, i.e. it ranges over several business functions.
Johansson et al. (1993). define a process as:
'' a set of linked activities that take an input and transform it to create an output. Ideally, the transformation that occurs in the process should add value to the input and create an output that is more useful and effective to the recipient either upstream or downstream. ''
This definition also emphasizes the constitution of links between activities and the transformation that takes place within the process. Johansson et al. also include the upstream part of the value chain as a possible recipient of the process output. Summarizing the four definitions above, we can compile the following list of characteristics for a business process:
Frequently, identifying a process owner, (i.e., the person responsible for the continuous improvement of the process) is considered as a prerequisite. Sometimes the process owner is the same person who is performing the process.
Workflow is the movement of information or material from one activity or worksite to another. Workflow includes the procedures, people and tools involved in each step of a business process. A single workflow may either be sequential, with each step contingent upon completion of the previous one, or parallel, with multiple steps occurring simultaneously. Multiple combinations of single workflows may be connected to achieve a resulting overall process.
Business process re-engineering (BPR) was originally conceptualized by Hammer and Davenport as a means to improve organizational effectiveness and productivity. It consisted of starting from a blank slate and completely recreating major business processes as well as the use of information technology for significant performance improvement. The term unfortunately became associated with corporate "downsizing '' in the mid-1990s.
Business process management also termed as BPM covers how we study, identify, change and monitor business processes to ensure they run smoothly and can be improved over time. It is a continuous evaluation of existing processes and identification of ways to improve upon it, resulting in a cycle of overall organizational improvement.
Knowledge management is the definition of the knowledge that employees and systems use to perform their functions and maintaining it in a format that can be accessed by others. The Gartner Group definition states that "Knowledge management is a discipline that promotes an integrated approach to identifying, capturing, evaluating, retrieving, and sharing all of an enterprise 's information assets. These assets may include databases, documents, policies, procedures, and previously un-captured expertise and experience in individual workers. ''
Total quality management (TQM) emerged in the early 1980s as organizations sought to improve the quality of their products and services. It was followed by the Six Sigma methodology in the mid-1980s, first introduced by Motorola. Six Sigma consists of statistical methods to improve business processes and thus reduce defects in outputs. The "lean approach '' to quality management was introduced by the Toyota Motor Company in the 1990s and focused on customer needs and reduction of wastage.
Advances in information technology over the years, have changed business processes within and between business enterprises. In the 1960s, operating systems had limited functionality and any workflow management systems that were in use, were tailor made for the specific organization.
The 1970s - 1980s saw the development of data - driven approaches, as data storage and retrieval technologies improved. Data modeling rather than process modeling was the starting point for building an information system. Business processes had to adapt to information technology because process modeling was neglected.
The shift towards process oriented management occurred in the 1990s. Enterprise resource planning software with workflow management components such as SAP, Baan, PeopleSoft, Oracle and JD Edwards emerged.
The world of e-business created a need to automate business processes across organizations, which in turn raised the need for standardized protocols and web services composition languages that can be understood across the industry. The Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN) and Business Motivation Model (BMM) are widely used standards for business modeling. The Business Modeling and Integration Domain Task Force (BMI DTF) is a consortium of vendors and user companies that continues to work together to develop standards and specifications to promote collaboration and integration of people, systems, processes and information within and across enterprises.
The most recent trends in BPM are influenced by emergence of cloud technology, the prevalence of social media, mobile technology and development of analytical techniques. Cloud based technologies allow companies to purchase resources quickly and as required independent of their location. Social media, websites and smart phones are the newest channels through which organizations reach and support their customers. The abundance of customer data collected through these channels as well as through call center interactions, emails, voice calls, and customer surveys has led to a huge growth in data analytics which in turn is utilized for performance management and improving the ways in which the company services its customers.
Business processes comprise a set of sequential sub-processes or tasks with alternative paths, depending on certain conditions as applicable, performed to achieve a given objective or produce given outputs. Each process has one or more needed inputs. The inputs and outputs may be received from, or sent to other business processes, other organizational units, or internal or external stakeholders.
Business processes are designed to be operated by one or more business functional units, and emphasize the importance of the "process chain '' rather than the individual units.
In general, the various tasks of a business process can be performed in one of two ways
Typically, some process tasks will be manual, while some will be computer - based, and these tasks may be sequenced in many ways. In other words, the data and information that are being handled through the process may pass through manual or computer tasks in any given order.
The above improvement areas are equally applicable to policies, processes, detailed procedures (sub-processes / tasks) and work instructions. There is a cascading effect of improvements made at a higher level on those made at a lower level.
For instance, if a recommendation to replace a given policy with a better one is made with proper justification and accepted in principle by business process owners, then corresponding changes in the consequent processes and procedures will follow naturally in order to enable implementation of the policies
Internal controls can be built into manual / administrative process steps and / or computer system procedures.
It is advisable to build in as many system controls as possible, since these controls, being automatic, will always be exercised since they are built into the design of the business system software. For instance, an error message preventing an entry of a received raw material quantity exceeding the purchase order quantity by greater than the permissible tolerance percentage will always be displayed and will prevent the system user from entering such a quantity.
However, for various reasons such as practicality, the need to be "flexible '' (whatever that may signify), lack of business domain knowledge and experience, difficulties in designing / writing software, cost of software development / modification, the incapability of a computerised system to provide controls, etc., all internal controls otherwise considered to be necessary are often not built into business systems and software.
In such a scenario, the manual, administrative process controls outside the computer system should be clearly documented, enforced and regularly exercised. For instance, while entering data to create a new record in a material system database 's item master table, the only internal control that the system can provide over the item description field is not to allow the user to leave the description blank -- in other words, configure item description as a mandatory field. The system obviously can not alert the user that the description is wrongly spelled, inappropriate, nonsensical, etc.
In the absence of such a system - based internal control, the item creation process must include a suitable administrative control through the detailed checking, by a responsible officer, of all fields entered for the new item, by comparing a print - out taken from the system with the item data entry sheet, and ensuring that any corrections in the item description (and other similar fields where no system control is possible) are promptly carried out.
Last but not least, the introduction of effective manual, administrative controls usually requires an overriding periodic check by a higher authority to ensure that such controls are exercised in the first place.
Business processes must include up - to - date and accurate reports to ensure effective action. An example of this is the availability of purchase order status reports for supplier delivery follow - up as described in the section on effectiveness above. There are numerous examples of this in every possible business process.
Another example from production is the process of analysis of line rejections occurring on the shop floor. This process should include systematic periodical analysis of rejections by reason, and present the results in a suitable information report that pinpoints the major reasons, and trends in these reasons, for management to take corrective actions to control rejections and keep them within acceptable limits. Such a process of analysis and summarisation of line rejection events is clearly superior to a process which merely inquires into each individual rejection as it occurs.
Business process owners and operatives should realise that process improvement often occurs with introduction of appropriate transaction, operational, highlight, exception or M.I.S. reports, provided these are consciously used for day - to - day or periodical decision - making. With this understanding would hopefully come the willingness to invest time and other resources in business process improvement by introduction of useful and relevant reporting systems.
The span of control is the number of subordinates a supervisor manages within a structural organization. Introducing a business process concept has a considerable impact on the structural elements of the organization and thus also on the span of control.
Large organizations that are not organized as markets need to be organized in smaller units -- departments -- which can be defined according to different principles.
Information management and the organization design strategies being related to it, are a theoretical cornerstone of the business process concept.
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which indian language has official status in singapore | Indian languages in Singapore - wikipedia
Indian languages in Singapore are mainly used by the country 's 348,119 ethnic Indian residents, who form about 9.2 % of Singaporean citizens and permanent residents. As a result of historical migration and settlement patterns, Singapore Indians came to the island from various parts of South Asia speaking a variety of Indian languages, mostly Tamil. Today, most ethnic Indians in Singapore are locally born second, third, fourth or even fifth generation descendants of immigrant forefathers. In addition, a substantial minority are recent immigrants from the Indian subcontinent.
In Singapore, a distinction is made between the ancestral ethno - linguistic identity of a person and the actual language that he or she uses or is able to use. Singapore 's census takers make this distinction by capturing both types of data. Ancestral ethno - linguistic identity is captured under the category of ' dialect group ' (although this term may be more appropriate for describing the linguistic composition of the majority Chinese, rather than Indians). In contrast, actual language use is captured by the term'language most frequently spoken at home '.
In 2010, the Singapore census categorised 237,473 Singaporeans and 110,646 permanent residents into a number of ' dialect ' groups. However, these groups included Sikhs, who are a religious rather than linguistic group. Virtually all of the Sikhs are Punjabi, which was also captured as a separate ' dialect ' category (comprising mainly Hindu Punjabis). Given their small absolute and relative numbers, the following table adapts the 2010 census data by combining the ' Sikh ' (12,952) and ' Punjabi ' (5,672) category under ' Punjabi '.
The percentages in the table refer to the proportion of each language group within the larger Resident Indian community in Singapore.
Singapore 's Indian community is characterised by an ethnic Tamil majority (54.18 %) and a large number of smaller groups. Ethnic Tamils in Singapore include both Tamils from India and Sri Lankan Tamils (sometimes referred to as ' Ceylonese '). Malayalees from Kerala in South India form the second largest community, making up 7.57 % of the Indian population. Tamils and Malayalees are the two main South Indian communities in Singapore, forming two - thirds of the Indian population. Meanwhile, the three main North Indian groups in Singapore (the Punjabi, Gujarati, and Sindhi communities) constitute 7.67 % of all Indians. The remaining 29.68 % consists of many smaller groups from both South India (such as the Telugus), East India (such as the Bengalis), and North India (Hindustanis).
According to the 2005 General Household Survey, Tamil was spoken at home by 3.1 % of all Singapore residents. Among Indians residents, 38.8 % used Tamil at home. As 58.3 % of Indians were deemed to be ethnic Tamils in the 2000 census, this suggests that two - thirds of ethnic Tamils in Singapore used it as the main language in their homes.
11.4 % of Indians spoke ' other languages ' at home (including non-Tamil Indian languages). In contrast, 41.7 % of Indians were deemed to be non-Tamil Indians in 2000. Assuming that most Indians who reported speaking ' other languages ' were referring to their (non-Tamil) ancestral languages, this would imply that up to a quarter of non-Tamil Indians in Singapore use mainly their ancestral language in the home.
Interestingly, about half of Indians in Singapore predominantly use a non-Indian language in the home. 39 % spoke mainly English, in contrast to 28.1 % nationally. This made English the most spoken language in Indian homes, by a small margin. A further 10.6 % of Indians reported speaking mainly Malay in their homes. It is likely that most are Indian Muslims married to ethnic Malays. Although they are counted as Indian in official statistics, a substantial number of these people consider themselves to be ethnically and culturally Malay, and many of them may be racially mixed.
Tamil is the most spoken Indian language in Singapore and the only Indian language among Singapore 's four official languages, alongside Mandarin, (the language of trade) Malay (the national language) and English (the language of administration), and 3.1 % of Singapore residents speak Tamil at home. Singapore is one of the three countries in the world to make Tamil an official language, the others being India and Sri Lanka.
As part of Singapore 's bilingual education policy, Tamil is offered as a second language option in most public schools. As part of a policy to subsidise minority - language television programming, the government subsidises a free - to - air Tamil television channel (Vasantham). Similarly, as part of the policy of the National Library Board, community lending libraries in Singapore, as well as the national - level Lee Kong Chian Reference Library, maintain sections of books in all four official languages, including Tamil.
Singapore has a commercially run Tamil language daily newspaper, Tamil Murasu. Although Tamil Murasu was founded as an independent private newspaper by Thamizhavel G. Sarangapani, it has since become part of the Singapore Press Holdings group, which includes the Straits Times as part of its stable. Other Tamil media include the (Sun TV) cable television channel, provided by the main cable television operator in Singapore, StarHub, and the local Tamil - language radio station (Oli 96.8 FM), which is run by the state - owned MediaCorp broadcasting company.
Tamil movies are screened in some cinemas, with the Rex Cinemas chain specializing in them. Major blockbusters are occasionally shown in selected Cathay and Golden Village cinemas. The country also has a Tamil theatre scene in the form of groups like Agni Koothu and the Ravindran Drama Group. There is also a small Tamil literary scene. Two Tamil language writers and two Tamil language theatre practitioners have won Cultural Medallions, the nation 's highest arts award. Tamil is used in temples, mosques and churches catering to the community. Some business and non-profit groups, especially those in the Little India neighbourhood, use Tamil on a daily basis.
Since 1990, public school students were able to take Hindi or some other Indian languages as their second language in major examinations, whereas previously only official languages like Tamil were offered. Students of other non-Tamil Indian language communities can choose to offer Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi or Urdu as their Mother - Tongue at the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) and the GCE ' N ', ' O ' and ' A ' level examinations Mother - Tongue Language Policy. As with the Tamil community, the other Indian communities also support a number of community groups for the promotion of social and cultural activities catering to each community.
Given the long period of contact between India and the region, as well as the multifarious contact over the centuries between Britain, India, Malaya and China (especially Hong Kong), Indian influences have crept into a variety on non-Indian Singapore languages through a number of paths -
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when is a pocket knife considered a weapon | Knife legislation - Wikipedia
Knife legislation is defined as the body of statutory law or case law promulgated or enacted by a government or other governing jurisdiction that prohibits, criminalizes, or restricts the otherwise legal manufacture, importation, sale, transfer, possession, transport, or use of knives.
The carrying of knives in public is forbidden or restricted by law in many countries. Exceptions may be made for hunting knives, pocket knives, and knives used for work - related purposes (chef 's knives, etc.), depending upon the laws of a given jurisdiction. In turn, the carrying or possessing of certain type of knives perceived as deadly or offensive weapons such as automatic or switchblade knives or butterfly knives may be restricted or prohibited. Even where knives may be legally carried on the person generally, this right may not extend to all places and circumstances, and knives of any description may be prohibited at schools, public buildings or courthouses, and at public events.
In accordance with the Austrian Arms Act of 1996 (Waffengesetz 1996) it is illegal to buy, import, possess or carry weapons that are disguised as another object or as an object of common use (sword canes, e.g., or knives disguised as ink pens, brush handles or belt buckles). For ordinary knives, however, there are no restrictions or prohibitions based on blade length or opening or locking mechanism.
The Arms Act defines weapons as "objects that by their very nature are intended to reduce or eliminate the defensive ability of a person through direct impact '', specifically including all firearms. Consequently, certain knives are considered "weapons '' in accordance with this definition. Except for firearms, however, which are heavily regulated, such "weapons '', including automatic opening lock - blade knives (switchblades), OTF automatic knives, balisongs, and gravity knives are implicitly permitted under the Arms Act, and thus may be bought, possessed and carried by anyone over the age of 18 who has not been expressively banned from owning any weapon (Waffenverbot) by the civilian authorities.
Article 3, § 1 of the 2006 Weapons Act lists the switchblade or automatic knife (couteaux à cran d'arrêt et à lame jaillissante), as well as butterfly knives, throwing knives, throwing stars, and knives or blades that have the appearance of other objects (i.e. sword canes, belt buckle knives, etc.) as prohibited weapons. In addition to specifically prohibited knives, the police and local jurisdictions have broad authority to prohibit the carrying or possession of a wide variety of knives, to include carriage inside a vehicle, if the owner can not establish sufficient legal reason (motif légitime) for doing so, particularly in urban areas or at public events. This discretion extends to even folding knives without a locking blade.
Bulgarian weapon law is maintained on a yearly basis. It is called ZOBVVPI (Bulgarian: "Закон за оръжията, боеприпасите, взривните вещества и пиротехническите изделия '') and it covers ONLY the possession and usage of firearms (including gas and signal ones), and pellet or BB (Bulgarian: "сачми '') pneumatic guns. A state regulation on melee weapons of any kind does not exist, whether knives, swords, bats or electric devices. Neither there is a juridical definition on the terms "melee weapon '' or "cold weapon '' in any Bulgarian law. Hence it is absolutely legal to possess and carry a knife in Bulgaria without having to procure any reason for doing so. Concealed knife carry is OK, anywhere and anytime. Although there are no restrictions on the possession or carrying of any type of knives or swords, it is not widely accepted or considered appropriate to carry a knife openly in public places such as streets or public buildings, stores or restaurants. In urban areas, expect an instant check and hassle if a policeman sees you to openly carry a larger knife, even if you have legal right to do it. From a society point of view, the open carry of knives in Bulgaria is justified only on rural areas, when fishing or hunting, or when the knife serves as a tool in work activities, such as gardening. Some places like courts, banks, clubs, bars, etc. will deny you the access with any type of weapon (knives included) and most of them do n't offer a safekeeping option. It is urban legend in Bulgaria that knives above 10 cm. are illegal to carry on person, so expect the police to try and convince you give up the knife voluntarily, even if such measure is illegal. You should not give up your knife, instead state the purpose of "daily needs '', "utility usage '' or even "self - defense '' for carrying and be clear that you have n't committed any crime. Insist the policeman to cite a law against you carrying a knife in public. Since there is n't any such law in Bulgaria, police most likely will let you keep your knife and send you on your way with a "warning ''. If they insist or are further misbehaving, ask to contact their superior officer prior to giving up your knife or else you wo n't see it again. Actually, there are some random city councils which try to limit knife lengths above 10 centimeters (4 inches) with issuing acts, but these acts are all illegal and have no compliance force, because the councils serve only administrative functions and they do n't have the jurisdiction to invent or impose laws of any kind. Remember that although very liberal in terms of knives (weapons) possession and carry, compared to many European countries, Bulgaria is n't the place where you can defend yourself with deadly force. If the need for self - defense with a knife ever arises, consider it very carefully. Bulgaria has strong restrictive self - defense laws and a "duty to retreat '' is always obligatory. Usually, courts often consider the armed self - defense as "unjustified '' based on the Penal Code and the defending side ends up with an effective jail verdict, even if the cause (treat) for initiating self - defense is proven.
The Canadian Criminal Code criminalizes the possession of knives which open automatically. Section 84 (1) defines "a knife that has a blade that opens automatically by gravity or centrifugal force or by hand pressure applied to a button, spring or other device attached to or in the handle of the knife '' as a prohibited weapon. Only persons who have been granted exemption by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police through the Canadian Firearms Program are allowed to possess (but not acquire) prohibited weapons.
If a person is found in unauthorized possession of a prohibited knife by any law enforcement officer, the person is liable to a maximum of 5 years in jail and the weapon being seized. The Crown can then apply to a Provincial Court judge for the weapon to be forfeited and destroyed. The import and export of prohibited weapons is also strictly regulated and enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency.
Examples of prohibited knives include:
Manually - opened or ' one - handed ' opening knives, including spring - assisted knives, that do not fall within the categories listed as prohibited weapons definition are legal to own, import and use.
There is no length restriction on carrying knives within the Criminal Code, but there is a prohibition against carrying a knife if the possessor intends to carry for a purpose dangerous to public peace or for the purpose of committing a criminal offense.
Due to concerns about potential violence at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China began restricting "dangerous knives '', requiring that purchasers register with the government when purchasing these knives. Included in the new restrictions are knives with "blood grooves '', lockblade knives, knives with blades measuring over 22 cm (8.6 in) in length, and knives with blades over 15 cm in length also having a point angle of less than 60 degrees. As of January 2011, according to an authorized Leatherman dealer in Beijing all knives with a locking blade are illegal unless they are part of a larger multi-tool like a leatherman. However, many people still carry locking pocket knives especially when camping with no issues. He suggested carrying locking knives in checked luggage on airplanes, and on your person in trains and subways since they could be confiscated if found in a bag. Foreigners are generally given a bit more leeway in China so if a traveler is caught with a small knife there will probably be no prosecution and at most confiscation.
Czech weapon law from the year 2002 concerns firearms only, with no other legislation concerning knives in existence (with the exception of the paragraphs of the penal code penalizing the use of any weapons in criminal offenses). This means there are no restrictions on the possession or carrying of any types of knives or swords, whether openly or in concealed manner.
In Denmark, fixed - blade knives are legal to own if the blade is no longer than 12 cm (4.75 inches). Blades over this length may only be legally owned if the possessor has a legitimate reason for carrying the knife or a special collector 's permit. However, such knives are still generally illegal to carry in public, whether on one 's person or in a vehicle, unless transported in such a manner as to prevent ready access by the owner (lockbox, locked trunk, etc.) Folding, non-lock blade knives are legal to carry if the blade length does not exceed 7 cm (2.756 in). Locking knives and knives over 7 cm must be transported in public so as not to allow ready access by the owner. Knives with blades that may be opened with one hand (even if the one - hand opening mechanism has been removed), automatic - opening knives (switchblades), push daggers, gravity knives, disguised knives (belt - buckle knife, sword cane, etc.) and knives with ready access by the wearer (neck or belt knives, boot knives, etc.) are illegal to own or possess. Multi-tools featuring one - hand opening blades are also illegal to own or possess. Owning throwing knives and throwing in private or public is subject to permissions.
In France, any knife of any blade length with a fixed blade, or a folding blade with a locking system, falls into unregulated Category D weapon (armes de catégorie D en vente libre). Unregulated category D weapons may be legally purchased if over 18 years of age, but they may not be carried on one 's person, unless carried "for good reason '', for example, as part of the tools of one 's profession. If carried in a vehicle, such knives must be placed in a secure, locked compartment not accessible to the vehicle occupants. In addition, French law provides that authorities may classify any knife as a prohibited item depending upon circumstances and the discretion of the police or judicial authorities. Since "reasonnable size '' knives are merely tolerated in most circumstances, authorities may summarily confiscate it.
German knife law establishes three categories of knives: 1) prohibited knives; 2) knives designated as cutting and thrusting weapons; and 3) other knives. Some knives are additionally classified as restricted - use, in that they may be possessed in the home or business, but may not be carried on the person. In addition, paragraph 42 section 5 of the Weapons Act gives each German state the option in certain areas to enact local regulations prohibiting the carrying of weapons "and any dangerous objects '' in so - called "weapons ban '' areas for purposes of protecting public safety and order. "Weapons ban '' areas have been enacted in Berlin and Hamburg.
German law prohibits the manufacture, importation, or sale of butterfly knives, gravity knives, and push daggers (palm knives), as well as knives designed to be disguised as another object, such as a sword cane or belt buckle knife.
Automatic or switchblade knives are generally prohibited, with certain exceptions based on blade length and number of sharpened edges. Switchblades and automatic knives with telescoping blade opening designs are prohibited. Side - opening automatic knives are also prohibited unless 1) the blade is no longer than 8.5 cm, and 2) the blade is single - edged, i.e. a blade without double edges, such as a stiletto or dagger.
Knives designated as cutting and thrusting weapons, but not otherwise specifically prohibited may be possessed by persons of 18 years and older. German law defines a cutting and thrusting weapon as any object intended to reduce or eliminate the ability of a person to attack another person or to defend themselves. This includes swords, sabers, daggers, stilettos, and bayonets. For example, as a bayonet is a military weapon intended to injure or kill people, it is regarded as a weapon by the criminal law. In contrast, a machete is regarded as a tool to clear dense vegetation. Knives classed as cutting and thrusting weapons are generally restricted to possession and use on private property, and may not be carried in public or at certain public events.
All knives that are not illegal may be legally purchased, owned, and used by anyone on private property. However, some knives are restricted from being carried in public, which is defined as exercising actual control of a restricted - class knife outside the home, business, or private property.
Restricted - use knives may be carried if transported in a locked, sealed container, or if there is a commonly accepted legitimate purpose for carrying it, such as participation in a historical reenactment, sporting use (i.e. hunting), or as a necessary tool in a trade or business. The desire to defend oneself, or to use the knife as a tool without proof of necessity for its use is ordinarily not considered a legitimate purpose under the law.
It is illegal to carry a knife for use as a weapon in attack or defense. The only general restriction is intended use, not the properties of the knife itself (in particular, there is no restriction of blade length, despite popular belief). However, in practice there will be significant leeway for interpretation for police officers and judges -- and much will depend on whether an intended use other than as a weapon can be argued -- for which the properties of the knife in question will be very relevant (bad: flick - knife, automated, long blade, neck - knife, tactical). So, carrying a knife that has its main use as a weapon will be illegal. In addition, it is not allowed to carry knives in certain places, such as courtrooms, to football matches, etc. Carrying knives is generally very unusual in towns, but not in the countryside.
"Article 1. Meaning of terms, applicability
...
§ 2. Objects that offer themselves (είναι πρόσφορα) to attack or defense are also considered weapons. In particular:
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b) Knives of all sorts, except those where ownership is justified by use in the home, profession or education, or art, hunting, fishing or other similar uses. ''
The remaining sections refer to: a) sprays and electro - shockers, c) knuckle dusters, clubs, nunchakus, etc., d) flame throwers or chemical sprays, e) fishing spear - guns.
No license is needed for import, trade or carrying of knives for these uses (Art 7, 5).
See also the constitutional court decision 1299 / 2008 where the intended use of the weapon found in the car of two criminals is the point of discussion.
A useful article from a hunting journal (in Greek).
Under the Weapons Ordinance (HK Laws. Chap 217), certain knives are designated as ' prohibited weapons ', including:
Possession of prohibited weapon is illegal under section 4 of the ordinance and offender is liable to a fine of and to imprisonment for 3 years. Any Police officers or Customs officers can seize and detain any prohibited weapon. Once convicted, the weapon is automatically forfeited to the government and can then be disposed of by the Commissioner of Police.
Carrying a knife with blade length over 8 centimetres (3.1 in) is prohibited in public places in Hungary unless justified by sport, work or everyday activity. Automatic Knives, throwing stars and "French knives '' are prohibited regardless of blade length and may be sold only to members of the army, law enforcement and the national security agency. Violation may be punished with a fine up to 50000 HUF. Possession at home and transportation in secure wrapping is allowed for everyone.
Any non-bladed weapon that is used to "increase the strength of a punch '' is illegal to carry (batons, knuckel dusters, nunchakus etc.).
Any fixed knife containing a blade length of 15 cm or more requires permission from the prefectural public safety commission in order to possess. Permission requirements also apply to any type of pocket knife over 6 cm (including Automatic Knives), spears over 15 cm in blade length, and Japanese halberds. All knives with a blade length over 8 cm are prohibited from being carried, under a crime law, with an exception for carrying for duty or other justifiable reasons. There is a penalty of up to 2 years prison or up to a ¥ 300000 fine. Folding knives with a blade length less than 8 cm (such as Swiss Army knives) are permitted, while SAK with a lock blade are prohibited from being carried.
Latvian legislation "Law On the Handling of Weapons '' defines knives as:
and prohibits
According to Lithuanian law it is legal to possess and carry most types of knives. This includes hunting knives, pocket knives, multi-tools, survivor knives, balisongs etc. as knives are not considered weapons. The only exception are switchblades. It is illegal to carry or possess a switchblade if it meets one of the following criteria: the blade is longer than 8.5 cm; the width in the middle of the blade is less than 14 % of its total length; the blade is double sided.
As of 2011 in the Netherlands a new law prohibits ownership or possession of the following knives, whether kept at home or not: Stilettos, switchblades, folding knives with more than one cutting edge, throwing knives, folding knives with an overall length of more than 28 cm when open, butterfly (balisong) or gravity knives, disguised knives (belt knife, sword cane, etc.) and push daggers. Also, it is illegal to carry a fixed - blade knife with more than one cutting edge, though such a knife may be kept at home for collector purposes.
In addition to national laws, each Dutch city and urban district has the right to prohibit carrying of any knife that can potentially be used as a weapon in certain "no - go '' areas. Normally a "no - go '' area includes all built - up urban areas including bars, cafés, concerts, and public gathering places or events. In public, a knife must be transported in such a manner so that it is not directly usable by the owner, such as storing the knife in a locked case for carrying in a backpack, or placing the locked - up knife in a storage area of a vehicle separate from the passenger compartment.
According to Norwegian law, one can spend up to 6 months in prison for purposefully bringing a knife or similar sharp tool especially suited for causing bodily harm to a public place, or for helping others do so. The law does not cover knives or other tools worn or used for work, outdoor pursuits or similar reputable purposes. Note that this includes bringing knives in one 's car. It is also illegal to buy, own or store switchblade knives, butterfly knives and stilettos.
All kinds of knives are regarded as dangerous tools, but are not considered weapons under Polish law, so no restriction related to weapons apply. The exception is a blade hidden in an object that does n't look like a weapon (a sword in an umbrella, a dagger in a shoe etc.). It is legal to sell, buy, trade and possess any knives, and Polish law does not prohibit carrying a knife in a public place. However, certain prohibitions in possession of so - called "dangerous tools '' may apply during mass events.
Only certain knives are considered "cold weapons '' and regulated in Russia, the others are common tools and are entirely unregulated, however using them in a violent manner is considered an "improvised weapon '' usage and is an aggravating circumstance when the charges for an aggressive behavior are filed, and the local regulations may prevent bringing of "dangerous objects '' to some events or businesses. The key point of knife regulations in Russia lies in the fact that the determination whether the particular knife represent a weapon or an unregulated tool lies entirely within the opinion of a certified expert or an authorized certification board. In practice this means that there 's no legal difference between the knife as a tool and as a weapon, and most given examples may be considered either, the only difference being the certificate issued by an authorized body, and any knife having this certificate being explicitly legal. Certifying the knives as a tool is n't difficult and most producers and importers do this, issuing a copy of a certificate with the knife during the sale, for presentation to the police officers in case of an inquiry. However, unauthorized possession, creation, sale and transport of bladed weapons were decriminalized in 2001 and is now only a civil offence, carrying the penalty between 500 and 2000 ($15 to $60) roubles and / or a ban on a bladed weapon possession for 6 months to a year. For the knives considered weapons the law forbids only the throwing knives, and the automatic and gravity knives with the blades longer than 9 cm (the shorter blades are allowed, providing the owner having the relevant permission).
The "Weapons and Munitions law '' article 2. lists different types of weapons. It states that: "melee weapons, brass knuckles, dagger, kama, saber, bayonet and other items whose primary purpose is offense '' are considered weapons. Most knives are therefore considered tools and technically legal to possess and carry. However, since any knife could be used a melee weapon and the law does n't differentiate between particular types it is up to the authorities to determine the intent of the individual in possession of the knife and whether there is a "good reason '' to do so. Thus fixed blade knives are considered appropriate for particular professions or when hunting and fishing, but will likely be treated as a weapon in an urban environment. Switchblades, butterfly knives, blades concealed in everyday objects are usually treated as weapons and assisted opening knives may also fall into that category. The appearance of the knife (how aggressive it appears), the length (although there is no legal limit on length), the location where it was carried (large gatherings, schools, public buildings etc.) and the demeanor of the person carrying the knife all factor into the decision on whether the law has been broken. Purchase, possession and carry of a melee weapon is classified as a misdemeanor, subject to a fine of up to 10000 RSD or up to 60 days imprisonment ("Weapons and Munitions law '', article 35. In practice the less akin to a weapon the knife appears, and if carried and used with "good judgment '' the lesser the likelihood of legal consequences.
Carrying a knife in Slovakia is not explicitly prohibited nor are there any prohibited types of knives. However Act No. 372 / 1990 Offences Act states in paragraph 47 that carrying of a "cold weapon '' such as knife, dagger, or sabre on public places is a non-criminal offense to public safety if, from the circumstances of the case or the behaviour of the person, it can be concluded that these weapons can be used for violence or threats of violence. It is up to the individual assessment of any single situation by a policeman whether carrying of such a weapon can lead to violence. This offense can be penalized with maximum 500 EUR. An example of such a situation is visibly carrying of a knife in crowded public places, public meetings, etc.
In Spain there are stringent laws proscribing the carrying of armas blancas, or fighting knives, and prohibiting the manufacture, sale, possession or use of certain knives classified as prohibited weapons. Armas blancas and other sharp - bladed instruments or cutting tools may be freely purchased and owned provided they are not on the list of prohibited weapons, are not purchased or possessed by minors, are kept at home for the exclusive purpose of a collection, and are not transported on the public roads. It is against the law generally to carry, display or use any kind of knife in public, especially knives with pointed blades, unless one is on one 's own property or is working or engaged in a legitimate sporting activity requiring the use of such a knife.
The list of prohibited weapons is found in Anexo I -- Armas prohibidas of the Real Decreto 137 / 1993 Por El Que Se Aprueba EL Reglamento de Armas, which prohibits the manufacture, importation, distribution, sale, possession and use of sword canes, automatic knives (switchblades), as well as daggers of any type. Knives with a double - edged, pointed - tip blade 11 cm (4.33 inches) or less in length (measured from the forward end of the handle to the tip of the blade) are considered to be armas blancas, which may be owned, but not carried in public. The law also prohibits the marketing, advertising, sale, possession, and use of folding knives with a blade length exceeding 11 cm (4.33 in.), measured from the bolster or top of the handle to the tip of the blade. Certain exceptions to the list of prohibited knives exist for legitimate knife collections and historical artifacts registered with the Guardia Civil for possession exclusively at one 's own home.
Civilians are prohibited from possessing knives, machetes, and other bladed weapons officially issued to the police, military, and other official authorities without a special license. Sale of such weapons requires the presentation of an official arms license duly certifying the identity and status of the person entitled to possess such weapons.
Swedish law prohibits the carrying of knives in public areas, including schools and vehicles at these areas, if the carrier intends to use the knife as a weapon in the commission of a crime. Examples of legitimate purposes include artisans who use a knife at work, soldiers in uniform carrying a knife, or normal use of a pocket knife. The same law also regulates some other objects that are made to thrust, cut, or that are otherwise intended for crime against life and health. Furthermore, objects that are "particularly '' intended for crime against life and health, such as switchblades, shurikens and brass knuckles, are not permitted to be given or sold to anyone under the age of 21. Carrying a weapon for self - defence does not count as a legitimate purpose.
The 1689 Bill of Rights ensured that only Parliament and not the King could restrict the right of the people to bear arms. Over the last 60 years, Parliament has enacted a series of increasingly restrictive laws and acts regarding the possession and use of knives and bladed tools. The United Kingdom (to include England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) has one of the most comprehensive set of laws of any developed nation restricting the right to import, purchase, possess, sell, and carry knives. Ambulance service data gathered in 2009 suggests a slow increase in knife crime incidents in the UK although the overall rate remains low.
The Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 (amended 1961) (ROWA), prohibits the importation, sale, hire, lending, or gift of certain types of knives in England, Wales, and Scotland as of 13 June 1959 under Section 1:
Subsection 2 also makes it illegal to import knives of this type as of 13 June 1959. The above legislation criminalizes the conduct of the original owner or transferor of an automatic - opening or gravity knife, not the new owner or transferee; in addition, the statute does not criminalize possession of such knives other than possession for the purpose of sale or hire. It is therefore not illegal per se to merely possess such a knife, though the difficulties of acquiring one without violating the statute makes it (almost) impossible to obtain one without either committing or abetting an offence.
The Criminal Justice Act 1988 mainly relates to carrying knives in public places, Section 139 being the most important:
The definition of "public place '' is unsettled, but can loosely be defined as anywhere the public have a legitimate right to be whether this access is paid for or not, which could include any populated area within the England and Wales, including one 's motor vehicle, which is defined by law as a ' public place ' unless parked on private property. In a remote or otherwise unpopulated area, a public place could include: 1) an organised wilderness gathering or event; 2) a National Park; 3) Forestry Commission land that is held open to the public; 4) public footpaths; 5) bridleways; and 6) any area where an individual does not need to ask specific permission to walk, camp, or travel from a landowner.
The phrase "good reason or lawful authority '' in Subsection 4 is intended to allow for "common sense '' possession of knives, so that it is legal to carry a knife if there is a bona fide reason to do so. Subsection 5 gives some specific examples of bona fide reasons: a knife for use at work (e.g. a chef 's knife), as part of a national costume (e.g. a sgian dubh for the Scottish national costume), or for religious reasons (e.g. a Sikh Kirpan). However, even these specific statutory exceptions have proven unavailing to knife owners at times. It is important to note that "good reason or lawful authority '' exceptions may be difficult to establish for those not using a knife in the course of their trade or profession, but merely because the knife is needed in case of emergency or for occasional utility use.
Although English law insists that it is the responsibility of the prosecution to provide evidence proving a crime has been committed, an individual must provide evidence to prove that they had a "good reason or lawful authority '' for carrying a knife (if this is the case) upon being detained. While this may appear to be a reversal of the usual burden of proof, technically the prosecution has already proven the case (prima facie) by establishing that a knife was being carried in a public place (see Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 on Knives, etc.; New powers to tackle gun and knife crime)
As the burden of proving "good reason or lawful authority '' lies with the defendant, it is likely that an individual detained and searched by the police will need to prove the following (sometimes known as the THIS list): Has THIS person got permission; to use THIS article (knife); for THIS use; on THIS land; and by THIS land owner.
The special exception which exists in the Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Sec. 139) for folding knives (pocket knives) with blades less than 3 inches (76mm) long, is another "common sense '' measure accepting that some small knives are carried for general utility; This exemption however only applies to folding knives without a locking mechanism. The wording of the Criminal Justice Act does not mention locking and so the definition of "folding pocket knife '' was settled through case law. In the Crown Court appeal of Harris v. DPP (1992) and the Court of Appeal case of R. v Deegan (1998) the ruling that ' folding ' was intended to mean ' non-locking ' was upheld. As the only higher court in England and Wales to the Court of Appeal is the Supreme Court, the only way the decision in R. v. Deegan could be overturned is by a dissenting ruling by the Supreme Court or by Act of Parliament.
The Offensive Weapons Act 1996 covers the possession of knives within school premises:
The Offensive Weapons Act 1996 imposes an age restriction on the sale of knives:
In Scotland, the Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 makes it an offence to sell knives to someone under 18 years of age (including any blade, razor blade, any bladed or pointed article, or any item made or adapted for causing personal injury.)
The Knives Act 1997 prohibits the sale of combat knives and restricts the marketing of knives as offensive weapons.
The Prevention of Crime Act 1953 prohibits the possession in any public place of an offensive weapon without lawful authority or reasonable excuse. The term "offensive weapon '' is defined as: "any article made or adapted for use to causing injury to the person, or intended by the person having it with him for such use ''.
Under the Prevention of Crime Act, otherwise ' exempt ' knives carried for "good reason or lawful authority '' may be still deemed illegal if authorities conclude the knife is being carried as an "offensive weapon ''. In recent years, the Prevention of Crime Act 1953 has been reinterpreted by police and public prosecutors, who have persuaded the courts to minimize exceptions to prosecution on the grounds that the defendant had "lawful authority or reasonable excuse '' in order to apply the Act to a wide variety of cases. This new approach now includes prosecution of citizens who have admitted carrying a knife for the sole purpose of self - defence (in the eyes of the law, this is presently viewed as an admission that the defendant intends to use the knife as an "offensive weapon '', albeit in a defensive manner, and in otherwise justifiable circumstances). While the onus lies on the officer to prove offensive intent, prosecutors and courts have in the past taken the appearance and the marketing of a particular brand of knife into account when considering whether an otherwise legal knife was being carried as an offensive weapon. In addition, the Knives Act 1997 now prohibits the sale of combat knives and restricts the marketing of knives as offensive weapons. A knife which is marketed as "tactical '', "military '', "special ops '', etc. could therefore carry an extra liability.
In Scotland, the Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995 prevents the carrying of offensive weapons as well as pointed or bladed articles in a public place without lawful authority or reasonable excuse. Defences exist to a charge of possessing a bladed or pointed article in a public place when carried for use at work, as part of a national costume or for religious reasons. As in England and Wales, an exception is allowed for folding pocket knives which have a blade of less than 3 Inches (7.62 cm)
Other relevant Scotland knife legislation includes the Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Offensive Weapons Act) (Scotland) Order 2005, which bans sword canes, push daggers, butterfly (balisong knives), throwing stars, knives that can defeat metal detectors, and knives disguised as other objects, and the Police, Public Order and Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2006, which makes it an offence to sell a knife, knife blade, or bladed or pointed object to a person under eighteen years of age, unless the person is sixteen or older and the knife or blade is "designed for domestic use. '' In 2007, the passage of the Custodial Sentences and Weapons (Scotland) Act 2007 allowed exemption from criminal liability under section 141 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 for selling a prohibited offensive weapon if the sale was made for purposes of theatrical performances and of rehearsals for such performances, the production of films (as defined in section 5B of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988), or the production of television programmes (as defined in section 405 (1) of the Communications Act 2003).
Further legislation in Scotland, known as the Custodial Sentences and Weapons (Scotland) Act 2007, is now in effect (certain parts of this Act came into force on 10 September 2007). This legislation amends the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 and makes it compulsory to possess a local authority license to sell knives, swords and blades (other than those designed for ' domestic use '), or to sell any sharply pointed or bladed object "which is made or adapted for use for causing injury to the person. '' Any dealer in non-domestic knives will be required to hold a ' knife dealer 's licence '.
The laws restricting knife ownership, use, possession and sale are nearly identical to the laws of Scotland and the rest of the UK, though contained in different acts. In 2008, in response to a surge in public concern over knife - related crimes, Northern Ireland doubled the prison sentence for persons convicted of possessing a knife deemed to be an offensive weapon in a public place to four years ' imprisonment, and added an evidential presumption in favour of prosecution for possession of a knife.
Under the Switchblade Knife Act of 1958 (amended 1986, codified at 15 U.S.C. § § 1241 -- 1245), switchblades and ballistic knives are banned from interstate shipment, sale, or importation, or possession within the following: any territory or possession of the United States, i.e. land belonging to the U.S. federal government; Indian lands (as defined in section 1151 of title 18); and areas within the maritime or territorial jurisdiction of the federal government, with the exception of federal, state law enforcement agencies and the military. In addition, federal laws may prohibit the possession or carrying of any knife on certain federal properties such as courthouses or military installations. U.S. federal laws on switchblades do not apply to the possession or sale of switchblade knives within a state 's boundaries; the latter is regulated by the laws of that particular state, if any.
Occasional disputes over what constitutes a switchblade knife under federal law has occasionally resulted in U.S. Customs seizures of knives from U.S. importers or manufacturers. In one case the seizure of a shipment of Columbia River Knife & Tool knives resulted in an estimated US $1 million loss to the company before the shipment was released.
Amendment 1447 to the Switchblade Knife Act (15 U.S.C. § 1244), signed into law as part of the FY2010 Homeland Security Appropriations Bill on October 28, 2009, provides that the Act shall not apply to spring - assist or assisted - opening knives (i.e. knives with closure - biased springs that require physical force applied to the blade to assist in opening the knife).
Each American state also has laws that govern the legality of carrying weapons, either concealed or openly, and these laws explicitly or implicitly cover various types of knives. Some states go beyond this, and criminalize mere possession of certain types of knives. Other states prohibit the possession and / or the concealed carrying of knives that feature blade styles or features sufficient to transform them into "dangerous weapons '' or "deadly weapons '', i.e. knives either optimized for lethality against humans or designed for and readily capable of causing death or serious bodily injury. These frequently include knives with specific blade styles with a historical connection to violence or assassination, including thrusting knives such as the dirk, poignard, and stiletto, the bowie knife, and double - edged knives with crossguards designed for knife fighting such as the dagger. Some states make the carrying or possession of any dangerous or deadly weapon with intent to unlawfully harm another a crime.
The origin of many knife laws, particularly in the southern states, comes from attempts by early state legislatures to curtail the practice of knife fighting and dueling with large knives such as the bowie knife, which was commonly carried as an item of personal defense prior to the invention of the revolver. In Alabama, Mississippi, New Mexico, and Virginia, the carrying on one 's person of large and lengthy fighting knives capable of causing grievous wounds such as the Bowie Knife is prohibited by statute, originally in the interest of controlling or eliminating the then - common practice of "dueling '', a term which had degenerated from a rarely used social custom into a generalized description for any knife or gun fight between two contestants. In many jurisdictions, a local tradition of using knives to settle differences or for self - defense resulted in the enactment of statutes that restricted the size and length of the knife and particularly, the length of its blade.
After the Civil War, many restrictions on knife and even gun ownership were imposed by state, county, and city laws and ordinances that were clearly based on fear of weapon possession by certain racial groups, particularly African - American and Hispanic Americans. In some states, so - called "Black Codes '' adopted after the Civil War required blacks to obtain a license before carrying or possessing firearms or Bowie knives. The governments of Texas and other former states of the Confederacy, many of which had recognized the right to carry arms such as Bowie knives openly before the Civil War, passed new restrictions on both gun and knife possession and use. In some cases, these laws were directed at freed slaves and other minorities; in other cases, by reconstruction legislatures anxious to disarm rebellious militias and groups seeking to disenfranchise African - American and other minorities. The April 12, 1871 law passed by the Texas ' Reconstruction legislature is typical, and is the ancestor of the present law restricting knife possession and use in Texas:
Any person carrying on or about his person, saddle, or in his saddle - bags, any pistol, dirk, dagger, sling - shot, sword - cane, spear, brass knuckles, bowie knife, or any other kind of knife, manufactured or sold, for the purpose of offense or defense, unless he has reasonable grounds for fearing an unlawful attack on his person, and that such ground of attack shall be immediate and pressing; or unless having or carrying the same on or about his person for the lawful defense of the State, as a militiaman in actual service, or as a peace officer or policeman, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor... ''
While most gun restrictions were eventually repealed, many knife laws remained in effect in the South. In Texas, this was largely explained by the presence of large numbers of Tejanos. By 1870, Texas whites of the day had almost universally and exclusively adopted the revolver for self - defense, while Tejanos, steeped in the blade culture (el legado Andaluz) of Mexico and Spain and generally without the means to purchase handguns, continued to carry knives. Thus while local and state Texas gun laws and ordinances were gradually relaxed or eliminated during the late 1800s, the old prohibitions against bowie knives, daggers, dirks, and other long - bladed knives remained on the books, since they served to disarm and control a minority group viewed as engaging in lawless behaviors and violence without legal justification. The Texas law remained on the books for almost 150 years, until modified in 2017 to allow carrying these weapons with some restrictions.
Many of today 's state criminal codes restricting knife use and ownership have been amended repeatedly over the years rather than rewritten to remove old classifications and definitions that are largely a historical legacy, a process that frequently results in illogical, confusing, and even conflicting provisions. Thus in Arkansas, a state in which knife fights using large, lengthy blades such as the Bowie and Arkansas Toothpick were once commonplace, a state statute made it illegal for someone to "carry a knife as a weapon '', specifying that any knife with a blade 3.5 inches or longer constituted prima facie evidence that the knife was being carried as a weapon, yet allowed a complete exemption to the law when "upon a journey ''.
While Arkansas eventually repealed its archaic criminal knife possession law in its entirety, other states still periodically amend archaic criminal codes that penalize both historic and present - day behavior involving knife use and ownership; these patchwork statutes can result in lengthy legal disputes over legislative intent and definitions. As one example, Indiana law makes it illegal to possess a ' dagger ', ' dirk ', ' poniard ', ' stiletto ', ' switchblade ', or ' gravity knife ' on school property, or to possess any knife on school property "capable of being used to inflict cutting, stabbing, or tearing wounds '' if that knife "is intended to be used as a weapon '', but provides for a criminal penalty only if a person "recklessly, knowingly, or intentionally '' possesses such a knife on school property. The statute thus requires 1) an examination of the knife and the legislative history of the statute; 2) expert testimony on the individual characteristics of historic knife designs to determine whether the knife in question fits within one of the six specified categories of knife; 3) a determination as to whether the blade can cause a "cutting, stabbing, or tearing wound ''; 4) a determination as to what degree of injury constitutes a "wound '', and 5) two separate determinations of the defendant 's intent by the fact finder -- before guilt or innocence may be adjudged.
Some states prohibit the possession of a folding knife with a quick - opening mechanism such as a gravity knife, butterfly knife, balisong, or switchblade. Other states may impose no restrictions at all, while many allow possession with some restrictions (age, carrying on one 's person, carrying concealed, carrying while a convicted felon, prohibited possessor, or while in the commission of a serious offense, etc.)
The continual advent of new knife designs, such as assisted - opening knives can complicate issues of legality, particularly when state laws have not been carefully drafted to clearly define the new design and how it is to be classified within existing law. This omission has led in the past to cases in which state courts have substituted their own understanding of knife design to interpret legislative intent when applying statutes criminalizing certain types of knives.
In 2014, attention was brought by many newspapers and media outlets to 1950s era legislation leading to many arrests and convictions for possession of the loosely defined gravity knife.
City, county, and local jurisdictions (to include sovereign Indian nations located within a state boundary) may enact their own criminal laws or ordinances in addition to the restrictions contained in state laws, which may be more restrictive than state law. Virtually all states and local jurisdictions have laws that restrict or prohibit the possession or carrying of knives in some form or manner in certain defined areas or places such as schools, public buildings, courthouses, police stations, jails, power plant facilities, airports, or public events.
Local or city ordinances are sometimes drafted to include specific classes of people not covered by the state criminal codes, such as individuals carrying folding knives with locking blades primarily for use as weapons. For example, a San Antonio, Texas city ordinance makes it unlawful for anyone to knowingly carry within city limits "on or about his person '' any folding knife with a blade less than 5.5 inches long with a lock mechanism that locks the blade upon opening. This ordinance is designed to work in tandem with the Texas state statute making illegal the carrying of knives with blades longer than 5.5 inches. The San Antonio ordinance allows police to charge persons carrying most types of lock blade knives without good cause with a criminal misdemeanor violation, allowing police to remove the knife from the possession of the offender, while providing exemptions from the ordinance designed to protect certain classes of people the city assumes to pose no threat to public order. Occasionally, city and county ordinances conflict with state law. In one example, the city of Portland, Oregon initially passed a city ordinance banning all pocket knives, until the measure was overturned by the Oregon Supreme Court as conflicting with state criminal statutes.
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write a short note on ipr ( intellectual property rights) | Intellectual property - wikipedia
Intellectual property (or "IP '') is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect, and primarily encompasses copyrights, patents, and trademarks. It also includes other types of rights, such as trade secrets, publicity rights, moral rights, and rights against unfair competition. Artistic works like music and literature, as well as some discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, and designs can all be protected as intellectual property. Intellectual property law has evolved over centuries. It was not until the 19th century that the term "intellectual property '' began to be used, and not until the late 20th century that it became commonplace in the majority of the world.
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Because they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation.
The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible -- an unlimited number of people can "consume '' an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation -- a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.
The Statute of Monopolies (1624) and the British Statute of Anne (1710) are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property.
The first known use of the term intellectual property dates to 1769, when a piece published in the Monthly Review used the phrase. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays.
The German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (Schutz des geistigen Eigentums) to the confederation. When the administrative secretariats established by the Paris Convention (1883) and the Berne Convention (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property.
The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960, and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) by treaty as an agency of the United Nations. According to Lemley, it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention), and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the Bayh - Dole Act in 1980.
"The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I (1558 -- 1603) for monopoly privileges... Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth 's reign, however, a patent represents a legal right obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention... (demonstrating) the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common - law doctrine. ''
The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown., in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man 's own... as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears. '' The statement that "discoveries are... property '' goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years. '' In Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846.
Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time and scope.
The concept 's origins can potentially be traced back further. Jewish law includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist -- notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited - term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one year 's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury ''.
According to Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift ''. Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development. Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries. '' Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO 's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients ' access to medicines, Internet users ' access to information, farmers ' access to seeds, programmers ' access to source codes or students ' access to scientific articles. However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level.
Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of sui generis exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called mask work rights in the US) and supplementary protection certificates for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them) and database rights (in European law).
A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there needs to be an industrial applicability.
A copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works ''. Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.
An industrial design right (sometimes called "design right '' or design patent) protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three - dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two - or three - dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft.
Plant breeders ' rights or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered.
A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders.
Trade dress is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.
A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers. There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e.g., Formula of its soft drinks is a trade secret for Coca - Cola.)
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Because they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation. The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible -- an unlimited number of people can "consume '' an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation -- while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.
By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee / copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection ''. "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions ''. This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real '' property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the America Invents Act, stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of commodification derived from this possibility. The issue still remains open in legal scholarship.
These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated research and development costs. In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "(The Congress shall have power) ' To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries. ' '' '' Some commentators, such as David Levine and Michele Boldrin, dispute this justification.
In 2013 the United States Patent & Trademark Office approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the U.S. economy is more than US $5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union. In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in pension - led funding and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently ''.
The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook gives two reasons for intellectual property laws:
One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development.
The Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally ''.
Economists estimate that two - thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets. "IP - intensive industries '' are estimated to generate 72 percent more value added (price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP - intensive industries ''.
A joint research project of the WIPO and the United Nations University measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth. ''
According to Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author ''. Although the relationship between intellectual property and human rights is a complex one, there are moral arguments for intellectual property.
The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work.
Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:
Lysander Spooner (1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right -- and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right -- of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases ''.
Writer Ayn Rand argued in her book Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property. To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act.
Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement '' with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation '' with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action.
As of 2011 trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5 -- 7 % of global trade.
Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection is defined in the claims of the granted patent. There is safe harbor in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or in order to gather data in order to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug. In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).
Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a work, or to make derivative works, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work 's creator. It is often called "piracy ''. While copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright. Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder. The ACTA trade agreement, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to active police for infringement. There are limitations and exceptions to copyright, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the fair use and fair dealing doctrine.
Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.
Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the Uniform Trade Secrets Act. The United States also has federal law in the form of the Economic Espionage Act of 1996 (18 U.S.C. § § 1831 -- 1839), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, 18 U.S.C. § 1831 (a), criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, 18 U.S.C. § 1832, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In Commonwealth common law jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an equitable right rather than a property right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.
Criticism of the term intellectual property ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like property and rights in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations; and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc.
Free Software Foundation founder Richard Stallman argues that, although the term intellectual property is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion ''. He claims that the term "operates as a catch - all to lump together disparate laws (which) originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues '' and that it creates a "bias '' by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights ''. Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. He argues that "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of ' intellectual property '. ''
Similarly, economists Boldrin and Levine prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly '' as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights.
On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers. Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and case law to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time ''.
Law professor, writer and political activist Lawrence Lessig, along with many other copyleft and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original). Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is no natural scarcity of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original. Stephan Kinsella has objected to intellectual property on the grounds that the word "property '' implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.
Entrepreneur and politician Rickard Falkvinge and hacker Alexandre Oliva have independently compared George Orwell 's fictional dialect Newspeak to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and DRM.
In civil law jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as intellectual rights, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included moral rights and other personal protections that can not be bought or sold. Use of the term intellectual rights has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term intellectual property has increased.
Alternative terms monopolies on information and intellectual monopoly have emerged among those who argue against the "property '' or "intellect '' or "rights '' assumptions, notably Richard Stallman. The backronyms intellectual protectionism and intellectual poverty, whose initials are also IP, have found supporters as well, especially among those who have used the backronym digital restrictions management.
The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an intellectual monopoly privilege (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen and Thomas Alured Faunce.
Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the free culture movement, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of pharmaceutical patents), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses, and argue that the public interest is harmed by ever - expansive monopolies in the form of copyright extensions, software patents, and business method patents. More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that patent thickets are undermining technological development even in high - tech fields like nanotechnology.
Petra Moser has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:
Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation.
Peter Drahos notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority is granted to the few over resources on which many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both political and economic freedoms with in a society. ''
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between the respect for and implementation of current intellectual property systems and other human rights. In 2001 the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property '' that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well - being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits. In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development -- not as an end in itself ''.
Further along these lines, The ethical problems brought up by IP rights are most pertinent when it is socially valuable goods like life - saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may exclude from the market anyone who can not afford the cost of the product, in this case a life - saving drug. "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations ''.
Some libertarian critics of intellectual property have argued that allowing property rights in ideas and information creates artificial scarcity and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Stephan Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:
(I) magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy -- let 's call him Galt - Magnon -- decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it. They naturally imitate Galt - Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first - user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights.
Thomas Jefferson once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on August 13, 1813:
"If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver can not dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine, receives light without darkening me. ''
In 2005 the RSA launched the Adelphi Charter, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law.
Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in ' original ' works of authorship.
Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope.
In addition, as scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms, (and in the United States, certain living organisms have been patentable for over a century).
The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions in the United States and in Europe. With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in orphan works (copyrighted works for which the copyright owner can not be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world.
Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the Motion Picture Association of America. In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual - property rights. In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress 's awareness of the position of the United States as the world 's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property. These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority.
The growth of the Internet, and particularly distributed search engines like Kazaa and Gnutella, have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The Recording Industry Association of America, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against copyright infringement, which the industry calls "piracy ''. The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file - sharing company Napster, and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software - based digital rights management tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the Digital Millennium Copyright Act have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital rights management systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the Copyright Directive. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91 / 250 / EEC), and the Conditional Access Directive of 1998 (98 / 84 / EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting public domain works, limitations and exceptions to copyright, or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some copyleft licenses, like GNU GPL 3, are designed to counter that. Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions like when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor 's program, or for accessibility reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal.
In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark '', as exemplified by the Agreement on Trade - Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to TRIPs, any sign which is "capable of distinguishing '' the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark.
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